this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 170 human resources in education: training and work motivation on teacher performance zulfina adriani 1* and nurul hikmah 2 abstract it seems unquestionable that education matters for human and economic development and the roles of teachers in classroom are very important for producing good human resources in terms of student achievement. this study aimed to determine the effect of training and work motivation on teacher performance in one junior high school in jambi, indonesia. the respondents in this study were 13 employees. in collecting the data, questionnaires were used with a likert scale. the data analysis technique in this study used an analytical tool, namely spss version 25. the results indicated that (1) partially training had a significant positive effect on teacher performance, (2) partially work motivation had a significant positive effect on teacher performance, and (3) simultaneously training and work motivation had a significant effect on teacher performance. implications of findings are discussed. keywords teacher work, teacher performance, training, work motivation article history received 03 march 2022 accepted 30 juni 2022 how to cite adriani, z., & hikmah, n. (2022).human resources in education: training and work motivation on teacher performance. indonesian research journal in education |irje|, 6(1), 170 182. https://doi.org/ 10.22437/irje.v6i1.17390 1*unversitas jambi, jambi, indonesia; corresponding author: zulfina.adriani@unja.ac.id 2universitas jambi, jambi, indonesia. mailto:zulfina.adriani@unja.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 171 introduction in education, teachers have an essential role in teaching and learning activities because teachers are educational staffs who are directly related to students. thus, teachers have a crucial role in managing classroom conditions to achieve the goals. learning activities and learning outcomes are determined by the school management, curriculum, learning facilities, infrastructure, and teachers. therefore, student achievement depends on the teachers' performance (yamin & maisah, 2010). employee performance (work achievement) is the results of work in quality and quantity achieved by an employee in carrying out the duties by the given responsibilities. therefore, the conclusion is that teacher performance is the results achieved by the teachers in carrying out the tasks or work assigned to them (mangkunegara, 2010), so student achievement depends on the teachers' performance (yamin & maisah, 2010). teacher performance measurement is based on competency criteria that teachers must possess. in teacher performance, there are several competencies, such as pedagogic competence, personal competence, social competence, and professional competence (nasrah, 2017). furthermore, in developing learning materials, not all teachers develop material optimally. it is because the teachers only develop standardized material. after all, if it is too broad, the students will not master the essence of the material presented by the teacher. besides, it is also due to the lack of learning resources such as literature and references and the lack of teacher ability to develop materials. initial interviews were conducted with teachers at the research site for observations related to several factors that affected teacher performance. first, it showed that the education level did not meet the standards and the compatibility between the education possessed by a teacher and the subjects taught. information obtained was that the teachers said they rarely participated in the training program because they were busy with activities at school. in this observation, sometimes, the teacher did not come to the class on time, so the teaching and learning hours were reduced. in addition, during the teaching and learning process, the teacher ignored the students who made a fuss because the teacher felt annoyed to reprimand the students most of the time. based on the results of initial observations, it was suspected that the cause of the less optimal teacher performance was education, training, and teacher work motivation. according to mulyasa (2009), people with higher education generally will have broader insights, especially appreciative of the importance of productivity. this study aimed to determine the effect of training and work motivation on teacher performance in one junior high school in jambi, indonesia. to achieve the purposes of the study, three research questions were sought: (1) are there any effects of training on teacher performance? (2). are there any effects of teacher work motivation on teacher performance? (3) are there any effects of training and teacher work motivation on teacher performance? additionally, the following hypotheses were tested empirically. (1) h1: there is a partial level of achievement, motivation, and performance, (2) h2: there is a significant effect of work motivation on teacher performance, (3) h3: there is a significant effect of training variables on work motivation and teacher performance simultaneously on the teachers' performance. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 172 literature review teacher performance a systematic assessment process carried out by appraisers on the work targets of employees and the work behaviour of civil servants is according to government regulation number 46 of 2011. teacher performance is the result/achievement of the tasks or work (mangkunegara, 2010). performance comes from the word job performance or actual performance (job achievement by someone). performance (work achievement) is the work result in quality and quantity achieved by an employee in carrying out the duties by the given responsibilities (mangkunegara, 2010). it is a successful level of a person or group in carrying out the duties, responsibilities, and abilities to achieve the goals and standards set. performance is an expression of progress based on knowledge, attitudes, and motivation in producing a job (ondi & aris, 2010). mulyasa (2009) defined performance as work achievement, implementation, and results. according to mangkunegara (2010), performance or work achievement is the work result in quality and quantity achieved by an employee in carrying out the duties by the responsibilities given. law number 14 of 2005 concerning teachers stated that teachers are professional educators with the main task of educating, teaching, guiding, directing, training, assessing, and evaluating students in early childhood education, formal education, primary education, and secondary education. teacher performance is the ability of teachers to show their skills or competencies in the real world of work. the real world of teacher work is student learning in classroom learning activities. teachers are educators, who become figures, role models, and identification for students and their environment. teachers must also be able to make decisions independently, especially in various matters relating to learning and competency formation, and act under the conditions of students and the environment (mulyasa, 2009). a teacher is a human figure who occupies a position and plays an essential role in education. a teacher is also a dominant and primary factor in formal education because, for students, teachers often become role models and even self-identification figures (ondi & aris, 2010). the productivity of a school is not only to get as much as possible but also to the performance quality. individual productivity can be assessed by what the individual does in his work, which is how he does his job. in this case, the school productivity can also be seen from its level with their respective benchmark from the teacher performance (mulyasa, 2009). teacher performance results from the teacher's efforts in delivering the learning process to achieve educational goals, including all activities related to his duties as a teacher. the teachers' professional duties include educating, teaching, guiding, directing, training, assessing, and evaluating students. thus, the conclusion is that teacher performance is the result of work achieved by a teacher in carrying out the task of educating, teaching, guiding, directing, training, assessing, and evaluating students. the teacher's performance can be seen from the achievements obtained, how a teacher carries out the learning process and evaluates learning outcomes, and provides follow-up on the learning evaluation and the work result by a teacher. the performance of the teaching staff is related to all activities shown by irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 173 the teaching staff in their responsibilities as people who develop a mandate and responsibility to educate, teach, guide, and direct students to lead the students' development towards mental and spiritual health, maturity, and physical-biological. teacher performance is a behaviour or response that the results refer to what the teacher does when facing a task. therefore, the performance of teaching staff concerns all activities or behaviour experienced by teachers is the answers of what they have made to provide results or goals. training, work motivation, and previous studies training is a short-term educational process that uses systematic and organized procedures in which non-managerial employees learn technical knowledge and skills for a limited purpose (mangkunegara, 2010). training is a short-term educational process that uses systematic and organized procedures in which non-managerial employees learn technical knowledge and skills for a limited purpose (mangkunegara, 2010). in addition, hamalik (2007) stated that training is a process that includes a series of actions (efforts) carried out intentionally in assisting the workforce by training professionals in a unit of time aimed at increasing the workability of participants in the definite work field to increase effectiveness and productivity within an organization. stimuli created by organizations are to improve someone's enthusiasm for a job (mcclelland, 1984). according to malayu (2010), motivation is a driving force that creates enthusiasm for people to work together, work effectively, and become integrated with all their efforts to achieve organizational satisfaction. if someone has these characteristics, this person has strong enough motivation. the motivation characteristics will be essential in teaching and learning activities because teaching and learning activities will work well if the teacher is diligent in working and solving problems and obstacles independently. productive teachers will not get stuck in something routine. in addition, you must also have the courage to defend your opinion if you are sure and rational, even sensitive and responsive to various problems and think about how to solve them. there are several studies related to this research which used as a reference. first, regarding the effect of training on performance, previous research conducted by hidayat and agustina (2020) found that training has a partial effect on performance. meanwhile, sudrajat (2020) showed that training and career development simultaneously affect performance. alhusaini, kristiawan, and eddy (2020) have also researched the effect of motivation on performance. it showed that there is a significant effect of work motivation on performance. the same results were also obtained by susanto (2019), malka, mus, and lamo (2020) and priska, rahmawati, and utomo (2020). they found that work motivation had a positive and significant effect. meanwhile, research by adha, qomariah, and hafidzi (2019) showed that work motivation did not affect employee performance. wicaksono, suyatin, sunarsi, affandi, and herling (2021) and khasanah, muttaqien, research the effect of training and motivation on performance and barlian (2019). they found the same result that only training affected performance. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 174 methodology research design, site, and respondents this type of research is a quantitative research using multiple regression analysis. it aimed to determine the effect of training and work motivation on teacher performance in one junior high school in jambi, indonesia. this research chose all 13 employees with civil servants and honorary status. the data used in this research were primary data obtained through the distribution of questionnaires in the research site. employee performance is an achievement or work (output) in quality and quantity achieved by employees for carrying out their duties by the given responsibilities. the teacher performance measurement used the scale of government regulation, number 46 of 2011 consisted of 17 questions. each item was anchored on a 5-point scale. training is not a goal. it is a tool of management to achieve organizational goals, which is the effort and responsibility of the highest leadership towards teachers who are responsible for adapting according to the development of knowledge. the research instrument grid used as the basis for the variable questionnaire preparation consisted of 24 questions. each item was anchored on a 5-point scale. motivation is the encouragement given by the company to employees to be more enthusiastic at work and to achieve the company's organizational goals. measurement of motivation used a scale developed (mcclelland, 1984) consisting of 15 question items. each item was anchored on a 5-point scale. all question items for the three research variables were measured using a 5-point likert scale, which: point 1 = strongly disagree (sd) point 2 = disagree (d) point 3 = neutral (n) point 4 = agree (a) point 5 = strongly agree (sa) data collection and analysis descriptive analysis is a part of statistics that studies how data are collected and presented, making it easy to understand. descriptive statistics describe or provide information about data and phenomena. for example, descriptive data display the general characteristics of respondents' answers to questions or statements contained in the questionnaire and respondents' responses. in the research, the researchers used the likert scale score. the higher the score obtained from a respondent indicates that the respondent has a more positive attitude towards the object that the researcher wants to observe. this purpose is to direct respondents to answer questions that describe the respondent's condition. a validity test is a test to determine whether a questionnaire is valid or not as a research measuring tool (ghozali, 2005). a questionnaire can be valid if the statements or questions reveal something that will be measured. in addition, the indicators on each variable can be valid if the correlation value with the total score is significant. in this research, the researcher used spss version 25. if the significance value (sig.) < 0.05, the results showed irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 175 that all statements were valid. reliability is a test of the accuracy and precision degree intended by the measuring instrument. generally, a valid instrument is reliable, but a reliable one is not necessarily valid. therefore, it is necessary to test the reliability of the research instrument. besides testing for validity, an instrument also needs to be tested for reliability. a reliability test measures the consistency of respondents in answering question items on the instrument showing the accuracy, accuracy, and questionnaire consistency in measuring variables. a questionnaire is reliable if a person's answer to a question is consistent or stable over time. reliability testing is carried out only on construct indicators that have passed validity. as stated by sugiyono (2013) that data can be said to be reliable if the data are consistent and stable. it means if two or more researchers in the same object produce the same data or the same researcher produces data at different times. the same or a group of data is more divided into two, showing data that are not different. the results of the reliability calculations that have been carried out showed that the rtable value for the item was higher than cronbach's alpha > 0.6 (kuncoro, 2013). a normality test is used to determine whether or not the score for each variable has a normal distribution. djarwanto (2003) suggested that this normality test uses the kolmogorov-smirnov formula. to determine whether or not the frequency distribution of each variable is expected can be carried out by comparing the probability and significance. the data are typically distributed if the calculated result probability is higher than 0.05. meanwhile, if it is less than 0.05, it shows the data are not normally distributed. the multicollinearity test is one of the requirements for multiple regression analysis. testing the presence or absence of multicollinearity between independent variables is conducted by investigating the number of intercorrelations between independent variables. multicollinearity is the existence of a perfect or definite relationship between or all variables that explain the regression model. a heteroscedasticity test determines whether the regression model experienced variance discomfort from the residuals in one observation. if the variance is different, it is called heteroscedasticity. one way to determine whether there is heteroscedasticity is by looking at the scatterplot graph, or the predicted value of the dependent variable, namely sresid, with a residual error is zperid. if there is no definite pattern or it does not spread above or below zero on the y-axis, it can be concluded that there is no heteroscedasticity (ghozali, 2016). the linearity test is used to determine whether or not each independent variable (x) and dependent variable (y) has a linear relationship (sutrisno, 2004). furthermore, the obtained f value is consulted with f. if f is less than or equal to the predictor, it has a linear relationship. on the other hand, if f is higher than f, the relationship between the criteria and the predictor has a non-linear relationship. multiple linear regression analysis, the analysis in this research used multiple regression to determine whether there is an effect between the independent variable on the dependent variable. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 176 hypothesis test the t-test is used to test the significance of the relationship between variables x and y, whether the x variable affects the y variable separately or partially (ghozali, 2016). the basis for decision-making is by using a significant probability number, which is:  if the probability (significance) is higher than 0.05, the independent variable individually does not affect the dependent variable.  if the probability (significance) is less than 0.05, the independent variable individually affects the dependent variable. thus, the formulation of the hypothesis can be described as follows: ho: β = 0 training has no significant effect on teacher performance. ha: β = 0 t raining and work motivation significantly affect teacher performance. decision-making: if the value of sig. > probability value of 0,05 then ho is accepted, and ha is rejected, if the value of sig. < probability value 0.05 then ha is accepted, and ho is rejected f test (simultaneous), simultaneous hypothesis testing determines whether the independent variables affect the dependent variable (ghozali, 2016). the steps for testing the hypothesis are as follows:  determine the calculated f based on the results of the regression analysis output  a significance level of 0.05 or 5% the coefficient of determination indicates how much variation is described in the model. based on the r2 value, the significance level or the suitability of the relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable in linear regression can be known. findings an instrumented test determines whether the questionnaire is valid and reliable. in this research, validity and reliability tests were carried out by a tool which is the spss version 25 program. validity and reliability tests a validity test tests the extent to which the accuracy of the measuring instrument can reveal the concept of the symptom or measured event. questionnaire items can be said valid if the r count > r table values. if the correlation number obtained is higher than the number of the r-table, then the instrument can be said to be valid. this research consisted of 36 samples (n = 36-2) with a significance level of 0.05; the obtained r table value was 0.329. the calculated r-value in this test can be seen in table 1. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 177 table 1. validity test results variables item r-count r-table conclusion training 1 0,746 0,553 valid 2 0,845 0,553 valid 3 0,812 0,553 valid 4 0,679 0,553 valid 5 0,918 0,553 valid 6 0,849 0,553 valid 7 0,882 0,553 valid 8 0,722 0,553 valid 9 0,851 0,553 valid work motivation 1 0,734 0,553 valid 2 0,853 0,553 valid 3 0,850 0,553 valid 4 0,724 0,553 valid 5 0,707 0,553 valid 6 0,617 0,553 valid 7 0,786 0,553 valid 8 0,791 0,553 valid 9 0,879 0,553 valid 10 0,902 0,553 valid 11 0,763 0,553 valid 12 0,853 0,553 valid 13 0,860 0,553 valid 14 0,774 0,553 valid 15 0,902 0,553 valid employee performance 1 0,871 0,553 valid 2 0,737 0,553 valid 3 0,658 0,553 valid 4 0,724 0,553 valid 5 0,660 0,553 valid 6 0,700 0,553 valid 7 0,670 0,553 valid 8 0,602 0,553 valid 9 0,797 0,553 valid 10 0,834 0,553 valid 11 0,583 0,553 valid 12 0,755 0,553 valid 13 0,917 0,553 valid 14 0,741 0,553 valid 15 0,650 0,553 valid 16 0,863 0,553 valid source: spss version 25 output results (september 2021) irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 178 based on table 1.1 above, the r-value for each question item is higher than the r table, which is 0.553. it can be concluded that the questionnaire in this research is valid. a reliability test determines how far the measuring instrument can produce more or less the same when applied to the sample. a variable is reliable if it has a cronbach alpha value > 0.60. the cronbach alpha value in this research questionnaire can be seen in table 2. table 2. reliability test results variables number of items cronbach's alpha provision conclusion teacher performance 16 0,938 >0,60 reliable training 9 0,928 >0,60 reliable work motivation 15 0,958 >0,60 reliable source: spss version 25 output results (september 2021) based on table 1.2 above, each variable has a cronbach's alpha value of more than 0.60. it means that the questionnaire in this research is reliable. hypothesis test t-count test (partial test) aims to see partially whether or not the effect of each independent variable (x) on the dependent variable (y) is significant. afterwards, the beta number or standardised coefficient is used to know the magnitude of the effect. table 3. regression test results model unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t sig. b std. error beta 1 (constant) 5.440 4.495 1.210 .254 training .513 .224 .323 2.291 .045 teacher work motivation .665 .137 .682 4.839 .001 source: spss version 25 output results (september 2021) based on table 1.3 above, training and work motivation partially have a positive and significant effect on teacher performance. f test (simultaneous test) this test was conducted to determine whether there is a significant effect on the two independent variables (work motivation and organizational commitment) on the dependent variable (employee performance). the f test is by comparing the fcount values and ftables. simultaneous test results in this research can be seen in table 4. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 179 table 4. fcount test results (simultaneous test) model unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t sig. b s td. error beta 1 (constant) 5.440 4.495 1.210 .254 training .513 .224 .323 2.291 .045 teacher work motivation .665 .137 .682 4.839 .001 source: primary data processing results (september 2021) table 4 above shows that the variables of training and work motivation (simultaneously) affect teacher performance. coefficient of determination the coefficient of determination is carried out to see how much employee performance is affected by training and work motivation. the results of the coefficient of determination in this research can be seen in table 5. table 5. determination coefficient value model r r square adjusted r square std. error of the estimate 1 .976a .953 .944 2.216 source: spss version 25 output results (september 2021 table 5 above shows that the adjusted value of r square is 0.944 = 94.4%. it means that the independent variable (training and work motivation) affects the dependent variable (teacher performance) by 94.4 and 5.6% is affected by other variables which are not included in the research variables. discussion based on the research results, the training positively and significantly affected teacher performance. the results of this research were in line with wardana (2008), which stated that training significantly influences teacher performance and implies that the more often a teacher participates in relevant training, the better the teacher's performance will be. likewise, the results of jahangir, saheen and kazmi (2012) said that there was a significant increase in teachers after training in both the knowledge and skills categories to improve teacher performance. the results of this research were also in line with hidayat and agustina (2020) that stated training partially affected performance. meanwhile, sudrajat (2020) showed that training and career development simultaneously affect performance. based on the research results, work motivation positively and significantly affected teacher performance. it was in line with wardana's (2008) research that work motivation is closely related to teacher performance. in addition, it was similar to alhusaini et al. (2020), irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 180 susanto (2019), malka et al. (2020), and priska et al. (2020) found that work motivation had a positive and significant effect on employee performance. however, the results of this research were different from the results of research conducted by adha et al. (2019). it showed different results that work motivation did not affect employee performance. it implied that motivation was essential to mobilizing one's creativity and ability to do a job and always be enthusiastic in carrying out the work. however, motivation might not affect employees' performance at work considering other factors. based on the research results, training and work motivation positively and significantly affected teacher performance. work motivation is the drive or desire in every individual that gives strength and guides their actions to carry out their duties and responsibilities at work. if work motivation can run well, employee performance will increase. according to septiana, ngadiman, and elvia (2013), high and low student achievement can be affected by teacher performance. to improve performance, a teacher must have sufficient training in teaching skills. in addition, the willingness to improve performance can also be supported by high motivation. teachers who have high work motivation will achieve high performance as well. conversely, teachers who have low motivation will also have poor performance. therefore, it can be concluded that training and work motivation play a role in shaping the teachers' performance in carrying out their duties as educators. conclusion the research results showed that training and work motivation partially had a positive and significant effect on teacher performance. simultaneously, training and work motivation positively and significantly affected teacher performance. to the employees, the researchers suggest they can take part in the training, apply the knowledge gained in teaching activities well, and increase motivation for achievement. disclosure statement the authors reported no potential conflict of interest. references adha, r. n., qomariah, n., & hafidzi, a. h. 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(2011). teori motivasi dan pengukurannya: analisis di bidang pendidikan [the theory of motivation and its measurement: analysis in the field of education].jakarta : bumi aksara. wardana, l. w. (2008). analisis pengaruh motivasi kerja, disiplin kerja, pendidikan dan pelatihan terhadap kinerja guru sekolah dasar negeri di kecamatan gayungan kota surabaya [analysis of the influence of work motivation, work discipline, education and training on the performance of state elementary school teachers in gayungan district, surabaya city]. jurnal ekonomi dan bisnis (emas), 11(1), 15-25. wicaksono, w., suyatin, s., sunarsi, d., affandi, a., & herling, h. (2021). pengaruh pelatihan, motivasi dan budaya organisasi terhadap kinerja karyawan pada pt bank mandiri, tbk di jakarta [the effect of training, motivation and organizational culture on employee performance at pt bank mandiri, tbk in jakarta]. jenius (jurnal ilmiah manajemen sumber daya manusia), 5(1), 220-237. yamin, m., & maisah. (2010). standarisasi kinerja guru [teacher performance standard]. jakarta: gp press. biographical notes zulfina adriani is working at the unversitas jambi, jambi, indonesia. nurul hikmah was a graduate student at the unversitas jambi, jambi indonesia. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje | vol.3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 2 indonesian research journal in education (irje) | vol. 3 | no. 1|year 2019 the mission of the indonesian research journal in education (irje) is to serve as a vital and international forum for a different group of scholars and researchers who are of interest in exchanging ideas in order to enrich the theory, policy, and practice of education in indonesia and around the world and who can grasp a noteworthy voice in discussions and decision-making around issues of education. irje is a free, twice-yearly, open access, peer-reviewed, international, and e-journal, published in indonesia, which accepts unpublished, high quality, and original research manuscripts in english, resulting primarily from quantitative, qualitative, and mixed research methodology related to or associated with education. all research articles appearing in irje have undergone a thoroughly peer-review. editorial team lead editor amirul mukminin, jambi university, indonesia managing editors akhmad habibi, jambi university, indonesia dairabi kamil, state islamic university of kerinci, indonesia muhaimin, jambi university, indonesia mukhlash abrar, jambi university, indonesia assistant editors ferdiaz saudagar, jambi university, indonesia masbirorotni, jambi university, indonesia siti rahma sari, jambi university, indonesia failasofah, jambi university, indonesia nunung fajaryani, jambi university, indonesia international editorial board jeffrey ayala milligan, the florida state university, usa thomas f. luschei, claremont graduate university, usa shen chen, university of newcastle, australia abdul jalil bin othman, university of malaya, malaysia tiago neves, university of porto, portugal saedah siraj, university of malaya, malaysia judit navracsics, university of pannonia, hungary irina golubeva, university of miskolc, hungary pedro sanchez escobedo, universidad autónoma de yucatán (uady), mexico https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=-jksvt8aaaaj&hl=en https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=ip8-bosaaaaj&hl=en https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=4lk2yumaaaaj&hl=en https://www.researchgate.net/profile/failasofah_failasofah https://www.researchgate.net/profile/nunung_fajaryani https://umexpert.um.edu.my/jalil https://umexpert.um.edu.my/saedah irje | vol.3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 3 muhammad kamarul kabilan, university of science, malaysia jennifer elsden-clifton, griffith university, australia farrah dina binti yusof, university of malaya, malaysia dina belluigi, queen's university belfast, north ireland, uk. florante p. ibarra, central luzon state university, the philippines abang ismail bin abang julhi, teacher education institute of malaysia yunisrina qismullah yusuf, syiah kuala university, indonesia rafiza binti abdul razak, university of malaya, malaysia lourdes villardon, university of deusto, spain nor azmi mostafa, sultan idris education university, malaysia mohd rashid bin mohd saad, university of malaya, malaysia hadiyanto, jambi university, indonesia muazza, jambi university, indonesia anton widyanto, ar-raniry state islamic university, indonesia eddy haryanto, jambi university, indonesia mohd faiz mohd yaakob,universiti utara malaysia, malaysia layout editors robin pratama, jambi university robi hendra, jambi university focus and scope the indonesian research journal in education (irje) accepts unpublished, high quality, and original research manuscripts in english, resulting primarily from quantitative, qualitative, or mixed research methodology related to or associated with education. these issues include, but not limited to, practices, policies, and research in education from early childhood education to higher education which cover the areas of instruction, learning, teaching, curriculum development, educational policy, language education and policy, bilingual education, multicultural education, art education, teacher education, educational technology, educational developments, educational psychology, and international education in indonesia and other parts of the world. publication frequency irje is published 2 times per year (june and december) by jambi university, the graduate school, doctoral program in education. publisher indonesian research journal in education the graduate school, doctoral program in education jambi university, jl. raden mattaher no.16, jambi, indonesia 36113 issn 2580-5711-e-mail: irje@unja.ac.id https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=k5skd70aaaaj&hl=en https://umexpert.um.edu.my/rafiza https://umexpert.um.edu.my/msaadmr https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=ohvkfocaaaaj&hl=en mailto:irje@unja.ac.id irje | vol.3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 4 content 5 editorial 6 alignment of classroom instruction with indonesian national standards rumtini suwarno, e. vance randall, and julie m. hite 29 ict-pedagogy integration in elementary classrooms: unpacking the pre-service teachers’ tpack mark gill m. mercado, florante p ibarra 57 looking at the link between study habits and academic achievement: the case of indonesian efl student teachers lenny marzulina, dian erlina, nova lingga pitaloka, florensia anggarde paramika 77 the comparison between native speakers of indonesian and bipa learners in producing email requests andika eko prasetiyo 91 the power of questioning: teacher’s questioning strategies in the efl classrooms anissa astrid, rizqy dwi amrina, deta desvitasari, uci fitriani, aisyah shahab 107 the kindergarten teachers’ pedagogical competences: a case study muhamad taridi, amrin dono 120 making a rhombicosidodecahedron: mathematical thinking revisited özlem çeziktürk, sinem i̇nce, gülay yalim, kübra karadeniz, zülal kenar 141 indonesia’s local content curriculum (lcc) initiative: decentralization and perspectives from high school classrooms in banten michael sean young 168 vocational education in indonesia facing asean economic community kasim yahiji, choirul mahfud, muhammad arfan mu'ammar 177 perceived effectiveness on the use of english language in teaching mathematics and science husarida, rolando dollete 199 the inclusive education program in jambi: voices from insiders rosmiati, abdoel ghafar, tabroni, aditya rahman irje | vol.3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 5 editorial in this volume (3 and issue 1), the indonesian research journal in education (irje) provides readers with eleven articles that explore various themes on education in indonesia and other countries. this volume commences with the article “alignment of classroom instruction with indonesian national standards” by rumtini suwarno, e. vance randall, and julie m. hite. this study examines the degree of alignment between classroom instruction and national curriculum standards involving 501 junior secondary school teachers from three western provinces in indonesia (lampung, jakarta, and east java). for the second article, mark gill m. mercado and florante p ibarra concentrates on “ict-pedagogy integration in elementary classrooms: unpacking the pre-service teachers’ tpack.” this study aimed to investigate the technological pedagogical content knowledge (tpack) self-efficacy and ict integration skills of elementary pre-service teachers in elementary classrooms. another thought-provoking article offered by lenny marzulina, dian erlina, nova lingga pitaloka, florensia anggarde paramika, is entitled “looking at the link between study habits and academic achievement: the case of indonesian efl student teachers.” the other attention-grabbing article, “the comparison between native speakers of indonesian and bipa learners in producing email requests” is authored by andika eko prasetiyo. one eye-catching article is from anissa astrid, rizqy dwi amrina, deta desvitasari, uci fitriani, aisyah shahab, “the power of questioning: teacher’s questioning strategies in the efl classrooms.” the sixth article is “the kindergarten teachers’ pedagogical competences: a case study” authored by muhamad taridi and amrin dono. one interesting article, “making a rhombicosidodecahedron: mathematical thinking revisited” is from turkey and authored by özlem çeziktürk, sinem i̇nce, gülay yalim, kübra karadeniz, zülal kenar. in this volume, irje publishes article on local content curriculum which is written by michael sean young, “indonesia’s local content curriculum (lcc) initiative: decentralization and perspectives from high school classrooms in banten.” in this volume, kasim yahiji, choirul mahfud, muhammad arfan mu'ammar contritube an article to irje, “vocational education in indonesia facing asean economic community.” the tenth article is from central luzon state university, the philippines, “perceived effectiveness on the use of english language in teaching mathematics and science,” authored by husarida, rolando dollete. the last article, “the inclusive education program in jambi: voices from insiders,” is authored by rosmiati, abdoel ghafar, tabroni, aditya rahman. their study was aimed at exploring the inclusive education programs developed by the government including inclusion-education curriculum, special mentor recruitment, and infrastructure facilities in the schools. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 168 vocational education in indonesia and asean economic community kasim yahiji 1 , choirul mahfud 2 , and muhammad arfan mu'ammar 3 abstract nowadays, vocational education and the asean economic community (aec) are an interesting topic to discuss for contributing to the asean future. this article explores the vocational education in indonesia facing asean economic community. vocational education is clearly significant not only to help the government but also to determine the future direction of the people and the nation. this article describes the condition of vocational education in facing asean economic community. also, this article explores the strategic roles in the development of vocational education in the asean economic community (aec) era for the benefit of the nation which is expected by all, especially for society, nation, and the world through reviewing references and literature books, news, journals and opinions in mass media and various related publications and sources. the article discusses the contributions from all stakeholders of education from civil society organizations in indonesia that are very significant for facing aec. implications for educational policies on vocational education are also presented. keywords asean economic, civil society community, vocational education 1. lecturer at iain sultan amai gorontalo, indonesia; kasimyahiji@iaingorontalo.ac.id 2. lecturer at institut teknologi sepuluh nopember (its), surabaya, indonesia;choirul.mahfud@its.ac.id 3. lecturer at muhammadiyah university of surabaya, indonesia; arfan.slan@gmail.com mailto:kasimyahiji@iaingorontalo.ac.id mailto:choirul.mahfud@its.ac.id mailto:arfan.slan@gmail.com irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 169 introduction “the west” will be left behind as the southeast asia countries (naisbitt & aburdene, 1990). in connection with the issue of studying vocational education in facing the asean economic community (aec) era, it is part of an interesting topic to be discussed more seriously for understanding future’s asean in the world as the aec has begun since 2015. the 10 asean countries, namely indonesia, thailand, myanmar, laos, vietnam, cambodia, brunei darussalam, malaysia, philippines, and singapore have significant roles each other. asean economic community can be called as one sign as well as a symbol of the phenomenon of the world that looks flat, like a country without distance from each other. it is not surprising that friedman (2005) concludes that the world is now flat without “something”. for more watching the global dynamics in the asean region, of course, it requires a systematic and synergistic study. winantyo, arifin, djaafara, and budiman (2008) explain the importance of synergy to face a competition not only at asean level but also at the world level. moreover, as one region is so close, the nation's problems should be solved together with a mutual understanding and keeping for independence and progress of all the nations (winantyo, arifin, djaafara, & budiman, 2008). the asean economic community certainly has new opportunities and challenges. in the book "toward asean economic community 2015" issued by the ministry of trade of the republic of indonesia (2009), there are 7 opportunities for future indonesia including 1) economic benefits of integration, 2) world potential market, 3) exporting country, 4) destination state of investor, 5) competitiveness, 6) open service sector, and 7) capital flow. additionally, winantyo, arifin, djaafara, and budiman (2008) discuss that at least 9 challenges faced by indonesia, including the rate of export and import improvement internally and externally, inflation rate, negative impacts of more free capital flows, product similarity, and competitiveness of priority integration sector, competitiveness of human resources (hr), a level of economic development, national interest, and state sovereignty. another challenge for indonesia is how to optimize the opportunities. if indonesia does not make significant and well-preparations, of course, indonesia will become “object” or a marketing destination for other asean countries (winantyo, arifin, djaafara, & budiman, 2008). in this context, the success or failure of the future asean economic community program depends on the seriousness of the implementation of policies in each country, including the policies in the regions of each asean member country. inayati (2000) noted that several aspects of asean's success and failure have been largely determined by the participation, competition, and synergy of all stakeholders. the general objectives of the study are to find out the relationship between vocational education and the asean economic community and the response of stakeholders of vocational education in indonesia to the asean economic community. particularly, this article focuses on how the relationships between vocational education and the asean economic community exist through reviewing references and literature books, news, journals and opinions in mass media and various related publications and sources. irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 170 vocational education and the asean economic community (aec) understanding vocational education and the asean economic community (aec) cannot be separated from the discussion of state policies. as dye (1972) discloses in the book "understanding public policy" that public policy is whatever the government choose to do or not to do which means that whatever the government does or does not as a public policy. lasswell (1936) in his famous book on “politics: who gets what, when, how”, explains that policy is the political product of a country. the existence of a vocational education policy in the context of the era of asean economic community such as state policymaking, in general, is also not something without a plan. wahab (1997) sees the interconnection between one policy and another policy are inevitable in making a policy. the principles of all these policies should not be forgotten and deviate far from the interests and needs of the people of a country (anderson, 1998). here, it can be said that asean policy is a planned agenda agreed by all asean members. certainly it is not made for the unilateral interest, but for the common interest and vision. the discussion of the aec since december 2015 is like two sides of the coin. on the one hand, there are opportunities, and the other hand there are challenges that need to be considered along with all elements of region and nation. both are equally important for the advancement and change towards a better life for the nation to the world free market era in 2020. there responds positively and negatively to the aec. the pros and cons of the aec are an early stage that needs to be understood, but still, needs to be considered together. the reason is like a school exam, agree or disagree, we will do the test. when we understand from gramsci’s hegemony theory (1971 as cited in heywood 1994), all countries in the era of asean economic community, like or dislike, of course, we will make efforts to hegemony in the sense of power to influence. according to gramsci (1971 as cited in heywood 1994) that hegemony is a dominant worldview and way of thinking, in which a concept of reality is disseminated in society both institutional and individual levels that dictate all tastes, moral habits, religious principles and politics, and all social relations (patria & arief, 1999). of course, state policy depends on its leaders to do the hegemony. in understanding the practice of hegemony in the era of asean economic community practiced in the formulation, implementation and evaluation of policies can be seen from two important stages. the reason, hegemony in gramsci’s (1971 as cited in heywood 1994) optics is indeed working with two main stages; firstly, the stage of domination, and secondly, the stage of direction/ leadership. usually, the most frequent stage of domination by states through power institutions such as schools, universities, capital, media, and other state institutions (patria & arief, 1999). it can be understood that the aec is an opportunity as well as a challenge for all elements and stakeholders of the indonesian to share solutions as well as competition towards the good and progress of the nation at the asean level. nugroho (2003) in his book, “the excellence in education policy”, sees that the advancement of a society is strongly influenced by policies made or even not made. in this case, the government playing a larger role is also influenced by the policies made to respond and capture the opportunities of the asean economic community (nugroho, 2003). irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 171 vocational education is a policy that is anticipative and contributive to indonesia in facing globalization, especially in the era of asean economic community. the aec is one stage of globalization at the regional level (starting from 2015) which ends at the point of globalization at the global level in the world (2020). in this context, beside the government, of course, the elements of civil society (csos) in indonesia are also playing a significant role that could be the key to a successful change in life. vocational education is about working together for the best future. there is an interesting lesson related to the efforts to respond to global economic business problems, namely the flow of domestic and foreign trade is thought ideally, but it is understood as a whole. this can be seen also in the case of indonesia which is facing the free market in the asean region and the world (anderson, 1998). vocational education is also part of an effort to create a prosperous society. the prosperous society is a concept whereby a country participates in economic, social and other activities that support the creation of prosperity for its citizens. the concept of welfare is a tangible example of idealism that embodies a prosperous society that should be emulated by other regions. the prosperous society is a mirror of the welfare state. the more the region and the people are prosperous; it can be assured that the country is more prosperous. the task of the state whose government guarantees the implementation of the people's welfare is expected to always run continuously throughout the life of the country. theoretically, in realizing the welfare of its people, it should be based on the five pillars of the state, namely: democracy, law enforcement, protection of human rights, social justice and anti-discrimination. in addition, the state also needs to continue to actively pursue prosperity, a fair action that can be felt throughout the community equally and balanced, not the welfare of certain groups but all the people. furthermore, the welfare state is closely related to social policy which in many areas includes the strategy and efforts of the government in improving the welfare of its citizens, especially through social protection covering social security (in the form of social assistance and insurance social), as well as social safety nets. mainstreaming vocational education in facing aec the mainstreaming of vocational education is actually a necessity (tushar, 2013). the need of education to prepare ready-made workers for the job is something that cannot be denied. in other words, changing the flow of education to the vocation is only to follow the needs of the industry. there are advantages of this change, including in the industry that will get a good impact, because it simplifies the process of receiving employees. the world of industry can also cooperate with higher education vocations in their respective areas to ensure the availability of experts that they need which link-and-match program can be realized. this situation will make future work acceptance focus more on certification than undergraduate degrees. additionally, the national agency for professional certification can certainly play a big role here. each graduate of polytechnics and academy automatically has a professional certification according to his or her level of expertise. this certificate, of course, can be accounted for and used to apply for jobs in accordance with the field of expertise. the local governments can contribute even more by supporting vocational education that irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 172 can advance the local area directly. for example, a rich region in marine products can support vocational education funding of fishing lanes. strengthening vocational education is actually not something strange. vocational education in singapore, which initially holds the same prejudice about vocational education, has gone beyond the flow of academic education. in 2016, there are 18,126 high school graduates were accepted at universities in singapore, while 24,251 were accepted at polytechnics and 14,173 were accepted in ite (vocational training). the number of students in 2016 also showed the same trend: 64,303 college students, 76,865 in polytechnic and 29,295 in ite. similarly, the statistic numbers of universities in indonesia show the number of universities and colleges exceed the number of polytechnics and academies: 2,435 high schools and 557 universities versus only 254 polytechnics and 1,102 academies. this figure can be reversed by converting some colleges and colleges into polytechnics and academies. this is actually not too difficult given that almost all majors in college can actually be converted into vocational education channels, without changing the system as vocational education may be part of the good solutions for future education problems in the world of industry. in this context, the role of youth always attracts the attention of all the nations of the world, including in facing aec. today and the future, the youth always will be the best asset and foundation of all nations. the challenges and opportunities for national resurgence can be reactivated as the changes are made. in 2015, the momentum of the aec began with the entry into force of the aec, the flow of trade in goods, services, investment, skilled labor, and increasingly free capital. asean will be an area with a single production base and market with a competitive regional economy. therefore, at this time it can be a turning point for the economic revival of society in the era of asean free market as well as later also it welcomes the era of free market in 2020. aec and the response of the educational stakeholders in indonesia the response of educational stakeholders in indonesia about vocational education and the asean economics community is generally positive. nugroho (2003) and mahfud (2016a, 2016b) argue that the important issue of the indonesian nation is not only on economic and political issues but also on education issues, including vocational education, which can provide solutions and anticipate today’s problems including from muslims in this country. education is the most valuable value for the way of life in the future. the role of indonesian islamic civil society on vocational education and today’s asean economic community is very significant because the number of muslims in this country is many who play a major role from pre-independence era until today. also, the main role of islamic organizations in indonesia, of course, leads to two aspects: first, the aspect of competing in goodness (fastabiqu al-khairat). this aspect is clearly necessary for muslims and islamic organizations in indonesia to be always ready to face the era of asean economic community; and secondly, the aspect of working together in kindness (wa ta'awanu ala al birri), although they are ready to compete, muslim society in indonesia must also be ready to cooperate in goodness (mu’ammar, 2013). by working together, the goal of goodness is irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 173 more quickly achieved and successful. here, those are the two things that need to be the focuse of muslims and islamic organizations in facing the challenges as well as the opportunities of aec. all understand that in the republic of indonesia, in the aspect of quantity there is about 85 percent of the population who have embraced islam. this country belongs to the largest muslim population in the world. islamic leaders also participated in fighting for independence in the country. now, to strengthen the role of muslims in the life of nation-state, recently the indonesian ulema council has initiated the indonesian islamic congress vi in yogyakarta. the indonesian islamic ulema (mui) congress discussed the strengthening of the political, economic and socio-cultural roles for a just and civilized indonesia. from the congress, it is intended for muslims in indonesia not to be carried away by the unfavorable currents and directing the purpose of the nation and state. the chairman of mui amidhan said that the congress was held to answer the problems of the people in the present and future as well as the evaluation of the previous program. from this context, the congressional material focuses on three crucial issues that challenge muslims, namely the islamic political strategy, the strengthening of the islamic economy, and the landscape of islamic civilization including spatial and spiritual philosophy. the role of civil society organizations (csos) in facing the asian free trade area (afta), the asean economic community (aec) and other challenges in this era of globalization is very important. according to the rector of muhammadiyah university jakarta, syaiful bakhri in a discussion entitled, "regional youth in facing the asean economic community" held at uin syarif hidayatullah, muhammadiyah's charitable efforts covering health, education and social service are the largest in the world. on the muhammadiyah’s journey of caring from the past and present, the activity of filling the republic is not so simple. nu (nahdatul ulama) and muhammadiyah have united to draft our constitution. furthermore in the present, according to syaiful, young people of indonesia should be able to compete in the face of competition globally and locally mahfud, 2016a). meanwhile, din syamsuddin said that muhammadiyah’s achievement in the midst of society by contributing to filling the social field is very good. however, muhammadiyah always tries to provide a wider role in solving the problems of the nation and state. din added that part of the role is about da’wah of the nationality role. muhammadiyah began to enter this da'wah by doing a judicial review against various laws that harm people and nation. in addition, muhammadiyah has also conducted a judicial review of oil-and-gas law which is full of cartel and oil and gas mafia, and also has issued a fatwa or religious thought about water resources in indonesia (mahfud, 2016b). din also reminds that muhammadiyah will continue to share the best solutions to the nation for such problems of water (mahfud, 2016b). these are the series of muhammadiyah's ijtihad in upholding the national jihad to achieve the ideals of indonesia's proclamation. in the era of the asean economic community, the challenge of the islamic community is not small, but we could be an optimist to solve and to contribute as a problem solver. the fact of da'wah is a never ending process that necessarily gives us an awareness of the importance of optimizing all missions in all situations of life. muslims in indonesia should have prepared all the tools that lead us to succeed. when talking about what technical roles we can do in order to succeed in our mission in aec. at least, there are three important agendas that can be done. first, irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 174 promoting islamic finance, islamic finance is considered to be a world economic solution. so it does not matter if large countries like the us and uk, are now beginning to set up specialized institutions that study the islamic finance system. in here, we should understand that islamic finance itself is a very wide coverage. the agenda we can do at aec is including a) pushing and optimizing the role of islamic banking institutions, b) encouraging the growth of the role of “zakat, infaq, and shodaqoh institutions.” the two institutions (nahdatul ulama and muhammadiyah) will make the property better. this is the best way when we have not been able to cope with the problems of the indonesian economy which is caused by the individual moral damages (asean, 2009). second, encouraging the entrepreneurship, welcoming the asean economic community can only be prepared by improving the quality of indonesian society first. it can be done through the entrepreneurship education and vocational education involving all stakeholders. third, making indonesia as the halal center in asean countries, the asean community is predominantly muslim. moreover, indonesia is known as the country with the largest muslim population in the world. by understanding the two of the global problems, maybe focus on two global issues, namely 1) food security and 2) energy security. this is not a utopian thing because of many islamic organizations (such as nu, muhammadiyah, persis, and the council of ulema in indonesia) who act as a pressure group on all government policies. the three agenda have touched three main factors determining the success of the mission of our da'wah in the economic aspect. the agenda of promoting islamic finance at the system level is a conceptual framework sector. encouraging entrepreneurship in the stage of improving the quality of human resources is the subject sector. while improving the quality of goods (especially food), is a sector of objects that are traded on the aec. if we design the aec in this way of thinking, aec will no longer be perceived as a threat, but it can be a great opportunity for all of us. moreover, in facing aec, we could think that pesantren is also expected to contribute by equipping students through the entrepreneurship programs. pesantren could prepare with various programs. the goal should be oriented to strengthening the independence of pesantren through the development of entrepreneurship programs including on the development of vocational education that can be the focus of pesantren education institutions (rahmawati, yahiji, mahfud, alfin, & koiri, 2018). in this context, vocational education in the era of asean economic community is needed by all. therefore, the response and the stakeholders of education in indonesia facing the asean economic community is clearly significant not only to help the government but also to determine the future direction of the people and the nation. the strategic roles in the development of vocational education are for the benefit for society, nation, and the world. conclusions and implications vocational education in indonesia and asean economic community are important. all stakeholders should face them through working together. the key to working together is creativity, innovation, and synergy for contributing to the better nation and the world as vocation education in indonesia is not only influenced by the government but also by all stakeholders. vocational education is indeed currently needed to answer market and irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 175 community needs. the expertise produced through vocational channels is one of the answers in facing the current era of competition. in the asean economic community competition, especially in certain occupational fields, the government must continue to improve it and one of them is by strengthening vocational education. in this case, vocational education is a form of preparing or capitalizing the demographic bonus that indonesia has. therefore, this vocational education will be right to be used to answer the opportunities and challenges of the demographic bonus. at present, there are three things that have become the government's focus, namely deregulation, infrastructure, and human resources. the element of human resource development can be directed at education development. that is, the development of vocational education has several main principles, namely cooperation between the government and industry. where, the government and industry are responsible for developing and designing vocational education and training frameworks. the government needs to organize a training development framework and regulations needed for the implementation of vocational training within a framework. control of the course of training delegated from the government to an institution called related to industry and trade. in practice, the qualifications of vocational education workers must master and understand vocational pedagogical concepts. pedagogics is not only a concept that is owned by the world of education, but the industrial world is also always using and developing this concept. more than that, the government should also support various studies on vocational education and career consulting research involving the government, economic actors (in this case the business and industry), and other social elements. the result is to continue to encourage vocational education to find out what is developing in the industrial world, and so that the needs of the industrial world or business world for the competence of graduates of vocational education can be identified early. acknowledgments we would like to thank the irje journal editors and anonymous reviewers for their help in improving our manuscript. references anderson, j. e. (1998). public policy making: an introduction. boston: houghton mifflin company. asean. (2009). a roadmap for an asean community 2009-2015. jakarta: asean secretariat. dye, r. t. (1972). understanding public policy. new jersey: prentice-hall. friedman, t. l. (2005). the world is flat: a brief history of the twenty-first century. new york: farar, straus and giroux. gramsci, a. (1971). selections from the prison notebooks of antonio gramsci. new york: international publishers. heywood, a. (1994). political ideas and concepts: an introduction. london: macmillan. inayati, r. s. (2000). 33 tahun asean, keberhasilan dan kegagalan di dalam menuju asean vision 2020: tantangan dan inisiatif. jakarta: puslitbang politik dan kewilayahan lipi. lasswell, h. (1936). politics: who gets what, when, how. new york: mcgraw-hill. irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 176 mahfud, c. (2016a). politik pendidikan islam di indonesia. yogyakarta: pustaka pelajar. mahfud, c. (2016b). the global and local challenges of islamic education in contemporary indonesia. scientific journal of ppi-ukm. mu’ammar, m. a. (2013). internalisasi konsep ta’dîb al-attas dalam pengembangan karakter peserta didik. jurnal tsaqafah, 9(2), 357-370. naisbitt, j., & aburdene, p. (1990). megatrends 2000. new york: william morrow & co. nugroho, r. d. (2003). kebijakan publik: formulasi, implementasi, dan evaluasi. jakarta: pt. elex media komputindo. patria, n., & arief, a. (1999). antonio gramsci negara & hegemoni. yogyakarta: pustaka pelajar. rahmawati, k yahiji, c mahfud, j alfin, m koiri. (2018). chinese ways of being good muslim: from the cheng hoo mosque to islamic education and media literacy. indonesian journal of islam and muslim societies, 8(2), 225-252. tushar, a. (2013). vocational education and training program (vet): an asian perspective. asia–pacific journal of cooperative education, 14(1), 15-26. wahab, s. a. (1997). analisis kebijaksanaan, dari formulasi keimplementasi kebijaksanaan negara. jakarta: pt bumi aksara. winantyo, r., arifin, s., djaafara, r. a., & budiman, a. s. (2008). masyarakat ekonomi asean (mea), 2015: memperkuat sinergi asean di tengah kompetisi global. jakarta: elex media komputindo. biographical note kasim yahiji is an associate professor and former of rector at state institute for islamic studies (iain) sultan amai gorontalo, indonesia. he is currently a director of postgraduate program at iain gorontalo. choirul mahfud is the chairman of research group on religion studies and society at institut teknologi sepuluh nopember (its), surabaya, indonesia. he was a visiting scholar at university of california riverside, usa (2018) and dalian university of technology and beijing institute of technology at china (2018). m. arfan mu'ammar is a vice director of postgraduate at muhammadiyah university of surabaya, indonesia. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 199 the inclusive education program in jambi: voices from insiders rosmiati 1 , abdoel ghafar 2 , tabroni 3 , and aditya rahman 4 abstract this study was aimed at exploring the inclusive education programs developed by the government including inclusion-education curriculum, special mentor recruitment, and infrastructure facilities in the schools. the study used a qualitative method with a case-study tradition. the data were collected through interviews with 8 informants, 5 classroom observations, and documents at one elementary school. the interview data were analyzed using within-case and cross-case analyses among informants. the observational data were recorded and presented in accordance with the themes of the interview results and document data were used as the comparison. the results revealed that there were no new student admission preparation, and lack of government attention on infrastructure. the presentation of the data also included the challenges faced in implementing inclusive education. suggestions and implications for schools in the implementation of inclusive education and the government are discussed. keywords educational policy, elementary school, inclusive education 1. faculty of education, jambi university, indonesia; rosmiyati.fkip@unja.ac.id 2. faculty of education, batanghari university, indonesia; gafar3r@yahoo.co.id 3. universitas islam negeri sulthan thaha saifuddin, jambi, indonesia. 4. curriculum and instruction department, faculty education, university of malaya, malaysia. mailto:rosmiyati.fkip@unja.ac.id mailto:gafar3r@yahoo.co.id irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 200 introduction countries around the world recommend that every child has the opportunity to go to public school, but in reality many children, especially children with disabilities, are denied this opportunity (unicef 2013). this is especially true in developing countries. for example, in 2005 it was estimated that less than 10% of children with disabilities had access to all forms of education in southeast asian countries (ainscow, 2005; chapman & sarvi, 2017). this situation can be attributed to a variety of reasons, such as the involvement of several ministries and non-government stakeholders in supporting persons with disabilities, limited efforts are made to ensure the existence of cultural aspects of the recognition of persons with disabilities (mittler, 2012; sharma & ng, 2014). even so, countries in southeast asia continue to advance by developing educational programs or inclusive schools. evaluation analysis is very important. lastuti and jaedun (2014) state that evaluation of programs is very crucial because groups or individuals want to know about a progress or effectiveness program. the principal of one jambi elementary school said that even though the school was directly appointed by the regional government as an inclusive school, in reality the school did not receive special attention from the government regarding its appointment as an inclusive school. in addition, the school also does not hold a decree on its designation to implement inclusive education in accordance with the ability of the school. the following is an excerpt from the initial interview with the principal, "the implementation of inclusive education policies continues even though the schools have not implemented inclusive education according to the standards set by the government, namely the curriculum, qualified teachers, and facilities”. the lack evaluation on inclusive educational policy leads us to conduct this study with three research questions: 1) how the policy of inclusive education is related to the curriculum, 2) how is the policy for the teacher recruitment, and 3) how is the policy affected by the school infrastructure. literature review inclusive education is if all students, regardless of any factors they face, are put together in similar educational institutions within their neighborhood schools to receive high quality teaching and education enabling them to meet success in the core curriculum (alquraini & gut, 2012; bui, quirk, almazan, & valenti, 2010). the school focuses on the premise that students with special needs are as competent as students without disabilities. therefore, all students can be full participants in their classrooms. much of the movement is in relation to the legislation that students receive their education in the least restrictive condition (alquraini & gut, 2012; bui et al., 2010; dupuis, barclay, holms, platt, shaha, & lewis, 2006; ferguson, 2008). successful inclusive education was conducted primarily through accepting and understanding student differences, which can contain cognitive, academic, social, and emotional characteristics. in addition, the students never need to use their time for regular education classes, because in many occasions, they do for a very particular purpose, for irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 201 example, for speech therapy (petrie, devcich, & fitzgerald, 2018). but the purpose is this should be the exception. the principle is to have all students feel comfortable, welcomed, challenged, as well as supported in their efforts. it‟s also important the adults are supported, too (hardy & woodcock, 2015; hornby, 2015). in indonesia, inclusive education is formally defined as an education service system that includes children with special needs learning together with their peers in regular schools closest to where they live. david (2009) argued that the word inclusion comes from english, which is inclusion, the latest term used to describe the unification of children with disabilities in school programs. in asia, the implementation of inclusive education requires schools to adjust both in terms of curriculum, infrastructure as well as teaching staff tailored to the needs of students (kuyini & desai, 2007; wu-tien, ashman, & yong-wook, 2008). in particular, one of the education policies issued by the government through the ministry of national education of the republic of indonesia, in ministerial regulation (permendiknas) no. 70 (2009) is the inclusive education. inclusion is education for students who have abnormalities and have potential intelligence or special talents; through inclusion education, a student is educated together with other children (normal) to optimize their potential. inclusion education as an educational service system requires that all children with disabilities be served in the closest schools, in regular classes together with their friends (winter, 2006). the policy popularized by anderson (2015) who is an american educational policy expert and professor at the university of miami, oxford, ohio. the concept of this policy will be related to inclusive education in accordance with research topics and the concept of inclusive education that researchers take from various sources that relate to inclusive education, especially those related to the curriculum, teaching staff, and infrastructure. there are many shortcomings in the implementation of educational policy in indonesia, including in jambi city (sofwan & habibi, 2016). in jambi city, inclusion education began in 2006 (isabella, emosda, & suratno, 2012). over time, many of the shortcomings are seen in its implementation relate to the successful components of inclusive education policies. the lack of attention from the government making schools to carry out inclusive education using their own ways. methodology the method used in this study is a qualitative method with a case study approach. johnson and christensen (2008) stated that qualitative research methods are methods that prioritize meaning and understanding process; therefore the product of qualitative research is richly described. we used interviews, observations, and documents as data collection techniques as well as the demographic questionnaire to record their background. in this study, samples and informants included some job positions involved in the policy implementation. the informant data in this study are presented in table 1. the credibility of the data or the validity of the data in qualitative research is very important so that there is no bias with the entry of the data (creswell, 2007; johnson & christensen, 2008). in this study, to maintain the credibility of the data, we conducted irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 202 interviews with various parties involved in this study between 30 to 45 minutes and if necessary we extended the time of the interviews. data triangulation was done through the comparison of the observation, interviews, and documents data. in this study, member checking was also conducted. interview data that had been transcribed were validated by participants. table 1. participants’ profiles code occupation p1 principal p2 class teacher p3 subject teacher p4 a parent p5 a parent p6 students with special needs p7 students with special needs p8 students with special needs in the analysis phase, all collected data were entered into a computer database in a file format for the access data. data from the interviews were analyzed by transcribing individually and coding (to divide the data into themes). likewise, the document data were described for each document by following the pattern of data analysis of the interview results. demographic data from the participants were described and presented individually. the themes of the analysis followed by significant statements from the participants were used to narrate the results. findings and discussion the results of this study were divided into several themes to facilitate the description, namely the inclusive education curriculum, teacher recruitment, and infrastructure. students who need special education services must obtain additional learning support within the context of the regular curriculum, not a different curriculum. in permendiknas number 70 of 2009 concerning learning planning in inclusive schools, teachers must develop learning tools (syllabus and lesson plans) by considering individual differences. article 8, learning in inclusive education considers the principles of learning that are tailored to the learning characteristics of students. presentations of material content in learning are by utilizing various learning resources and teacher assistance readiness as well as applying flexibility in learning time and in the learning process in collaboration with related parties such as parents / guardians, communities, resource persons, teachers, paramedics, therapists, and business world (winter, 2006). inclusive education curriculum: “there is no special attention from the local government to the specific curriculum for the inclusive school.” irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 203 based on observations, all students with special needs learn by using the 2013 curriculum. however, sometimes adjustments are made to accommodate the needs of all students with special needs. the same was revealed from the following two interview quotations. "this school currently uses the 2013 curriculum and from 2006 has accepted students with disability or become inclusive schools. in learning activities related to the curriculum, the government gave it entirely to the school; curriculum and activities development in accordance with their interests and talents and schools submit to classroom teachers to adjust learning methods so that learning activities can run smoothly. there is no special attention from the local government to the specific curriculum for the inclusive school "(p1). "in this school, the 2013 curriculum is valid used for students with disability or special need; learning materials are also reliable and valid" (p7). in the guidebook for organizing inclusive education, the curriculum used in the implementation of inclusive education basically adapts a regular curriculum that applies to public schools. in the implementation of the regular curriculum, it is necessary to modify it in such a way that it fits the needs of students because obstacles experienced by students with special needs vary greatly, ranging from the beginner, and moderate to severe. "in school learning activities involving inclusion student curriculum still follows the principles of schooling, namely, it is only in the classroom that it is left entirely to the class teacher who adjusts the learning method with the students so that they can participate" (p2). all factors related to curriculum adjustment are also things that must be considered in the implementation of inclusive schools in indonesia. as suggested by one of the participants, "there is no special curriculum from the government and school. so, the school continues to use the current curriculum applied in our school in teaching students with special needs. in addition, the provision of material must be simplified so that the students can learn” (p2). teacher recruitment: “there are no special [needs] teachers who are employed as permanent teachers in our school...” educators and education personnel in education units that administer inclusive education must have learning competencies for students in general and those with special needs. every education unit providing inclusive education is required to have a special supervisor. according to the general guidebook for implementing inclusive education, educators should be professional who have the main task of educating, teaching, guiding, irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 204 directing, training, and evaluating students in schools that are assigned to implement inclusive education programs. educators include: class teachers and subject teachers. inclusive education standards according to government regulation number 23 of 2013 concerning national education standards, article 1 paragraph 5-7 is the national standard of education includes content standards, process standards, graduate competency standards, educator and education standards, facilities and infrastructure standards, management standards, financing standards, and educational assessment standards. based on the results of observations, there is no special readiness in accepting students with special needs at the school. the same thing was agreed to by one participant, "there are no special teachers who are employed as permanent teachers in our school to educate the students [with special needs]. we went as far as the classroom teacher and at the same time became the teacher for the students. the school and government never have plans to recruit teachers especially for the students"(p 4). infrastructure: “there is no difference and there is no special room for the students with special needs.” infrastructure contained in the education unit administering inclusive education are supporting facilities that already exist in the school concerned and added accessibility and learning media for students with special needs. besides using infrastructure such as those used by regular students, students with special need should be served with special education services; it is also necessary to use special infrastructure and equipment in accordance with the types of disorders and needs of the students. according to the guidebook for the implementation of inclusive education, inclusive education facilities and infrastructure are hardware and software used to support the successful implementation of inclusive education in certain educational units. all in all, all educational facilities and infrastructure in a particular education unit can be used in the implementation of inclusive education aimed to optimize learning process. the school needs to be equipped with accessibility for the smooth mobilization of children with special needs, as well as learning media appropriate to the needs of the students. infrastructure in the school did not meet the standards set by the government for inclusive schools as seen when we observed the school. this was also approved by two informants in the interview, "all rooms in this school can be used by all students. there is no difference and there is no special room for the students with special needs. there are no special facilities for them according to their specific needs. students with special needs should get facilities and infrastructure that can facilitate them to attend the teaching and learning process in classes and activities outside the classroom” (p1). schools should also have special spaces for the students or those who need assistance such as counseling rooms; however, this has not been prepared by the school. this led to a long journey for the school to become good and quality inclusion schools. fowler (2014) and irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 205 anderson (2015) stated that the main requirement for an education problem to be overcome is that the issue must be an important agenda for policy makers. the fact obtained from the field contradicts the statement above. the indonesian government as a policymaker does not provide a clear direction for inclusive education in jambi. therefore, the school still implements the policy of inclusive education in schools according to the ability of the school in terms of the curriculum. in an another word, no special treatment for students with special needs, “in this school, there are no available facilities in the form of tools to help student with special needs learns that are different from other students in terms of classroom learning because the school has no money to buy the tools. in addition, there is no government assistance; however, the students can still attend the class"(p5). the findings of this research are almost the same as that of isabella, emosda, and suratno, (2012) that concluded that the implementation of inclusive education aimed at meeting the needs of students. in terms of good criteria, with 68.35% of the sub-indicators of the implementation of inclusive education in schools benefiting, there are some parts that support programs that are not yet in line with the standards. in this study, it was found that several things support the implementation of inclusive education policies did not meet the standards. the results of the irenawati and aman‟s (2007) study informed that the implementation of inclusive education depends on the willingness of the school. inclusive education can be organized if the school is ready for the infrastructure and human resources. this is the same as the findings that we discovered in this study where the implementation of inclusive education can be done because of the willingness to accept students with special needs without coercion from the government because the government has never forced a school to carry out the policy inclusive education. fuadi‟s research (2011) reported that first, inclusive education held in indonesian capital city (jakarta) tends to describe the unification of children with special needs the school program. although the students with intelligence and / or special talents are also included in one of the inclusive education students, their existence is not much an issue in the implementation of inclusive education. second, the implementation of inclusive education does not use the model as found in the literature and general provisions of inclusive education. the model is only part of the strategy that the teacher needs to know and implement. viewed from the perspectives of educational policy, the results of this study revealed that schools accepting students with special needs have not had any preparation to make special curricula, recruit teachers for the students and provide quality infrastructures facilities that are not yet in line with government standards for inclusive schools where the first step in implementing a policy is the agenda setting (anderson, 2015; fowler, 2014). this can be seen from the results of interviews regarding the inclusive education curriculum for students with special needs. the government, the education office, fully recommends the school to have their own policy. schools applying the 2013 curriculum must be ready to accept students with special needs. freedom to use the curriculum for students with special needs gives the impression that the school does not prepare the school irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 206 to become an implemented place of inclusive education which is expected to meet the standard. p1 revealed that the curriculum in the school was the 2013 curriculum that force schools to accept students with special needs; no established policy to be a host school for students with special needs. fulfilling the needs for special teachers for students with special needs is not easy. as a school with a policy of accepting students with special needs, the school had no special teachers. this happened because the absence of formulation regarding recruitment policies. judging from inclusion education policy theory, schools should pay attention to adjusting the number of the teachers in inclusive schools. the school should also have a counselor as a teacher who can help other teachers regarding the treatment for the students and in developing their potential. counselor teachers can be the information center needed by the teachers or parents for their betterment. this is very important in making quality inclusive education schools according to government‟s standards. data from the interview show that the programs to improve teachers‟ ability in schools have not become an important agenda for the school. conclusion and implications based on the analysis and discussion of the research data presented, it was concluded that in the implementation of inclusive education policy in the school where this study was conducted, there was no special preparation by the school to become an inclusive school in accepting students with special needs. the school only prepares teachers to have willingness in teaching students with special needs and schools implement inclusive education policies that are running as they are (not yet according to government standards), so as to have an impact on the curriculum used for the students. in this case the government gives full freedom for the school to self-modify the existing curriculum so that it can be adapted by the students. the school used the 2013 curriculum to be a guideline in providing learning materials to all students including students with special needs. there is no special curriculum or modified curriculum according to the special needs of the students in the school. in terms of special teachers‟ recruitment, the school has never done any recruitment process because the school does not have funding to finance the salary of the teachers. the government did not provide financial assistance to inclusive schools to pay the teachers. in addition, in terms of facilities and infrastructure, there is no specific difference between regular students and students with special needs in the teaching and learning process in classes and activities outside the classrooms. to deal with three major issues (inclusion-education curriculum, special mentor recruitment, and infrastructure) found in this study, the central and local governments should formulate sound policies regarding the needs of students with special needs. particularly, there should be differentiated between what students with special needs and regular students need in terms of inclusion-education curriculum, special mentor recruitment, and infrastructure. the central and local governments should not let schools with students with special needs struggle alone dealing with the needs of students with special needs. for researchers, research on the issues of inclusive education remains limited. therefore, the central and local governments should work together with universities to find sound solutions for dealing with students with special needs through collaborative research across the country. irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 207 references ainscow, m. 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(2008). education reforms in special education. in c. forlin & m.g. j. lian (eds), reform, inclusion & teacher education: towards a new era of special education in the asia-pacific region. abingdon: routledge. biographical note rosmiati, dr. is a faculty member at faculty of education, jambi university, indonesia. she is interested in doing research on education, educational management and administration, and economics education. abdoel ghafar is a faculty member at faculty of education, batanghari university, indonesia. tabroni is a faculty member at universitas islam negeri sulthan thaha saifuddin, jambi, indonesia. aditya rahman is a graduate student at curriculum and instruction department, faculty education, university of malaya, malaysia. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 575 augmented reality trends in teaching english tenses: the case of non-english education students yelia 1* , dony efriza 2 , and santi hendrayani 3 abstract the purpose of this study was to examine a classroom action research about using augmented reality media to improve non-english students’ tenses mastery. the study was carried out in two cycles and each cycle consists of four stages, including plan, action, observation, and reflection. the participants of the study were a class of students of economic education study program, faculty of teacher training and education at a public university in jambi who were taking english subject. the data of the study were taken from a test and observations in collecting the data. the results of the data analysis indicated that there was an increase from the first cycle to the second cycle. moreover, the research results showed that: 1) augmented reality created a good atmosphere in the teaching and learning activities; 2) augmented reality made the students understand the use of tenses easily; and 3) the students became more active and attractive in the teaching and learning activities. it can be concluded that the use of augmented reality can improve students' tenses mastery. keywords augmented reality, media, tenses mastery 1 senior lecturer at the english education department of the faculty of education and teacher training, universitas jambi, indonesia; correponding email: davizayelia@gmail.com 2 lecturer at the english education department of the faculty of education and teacher training, universitas jambi, indonesia 3 senior lecturer at university of nurdin hamzah, jambi, indonesia. mailto:davizayelia@gmail.com irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 576 introduction it is undeniable that, as a global language, english is used as a tool of communication in the world of trade and commerce. accordingly, having good knowledge of english is very important to make communication in business become more effective and to get success in any career as well. in line with the importance of english, it becomes one of the compulsory subjects at economic study program at universities. in order to be able to communicate effectively, and to get a good career after finishing their study, all students of economic program should master english including the use of english tenses. the mastery of english tenses is very important to make communication become more effective since they are the most important parts of english language. when people want to say or speak something, or to write a sentence clearly to other people, they need to use the appropriate form of tenses. the use of appropriate forms of tenses will help others to be able to get the clear idea of the speakers or the writers. tense is a verb form that indicates the time when an action, event, or state takes place (swan, 2005). english language has three main time divisionspast, present and future expressed by the tenses. each tense is subdivided to express other aspects within its general time. for example, adding -ed to the verb “talk”, to form “talked”, indicates that the event showed by the verb took place before the present time. another example, using the -ing form indicates that an action is completed or still ongoing, as in “we are discussing an interesting topic of business.” however, english typically uses the “-ing” form of verbs to indicate ongoing processes, as in “they are building an office.” however, the researchers found that most students in a class of economic education study program at the research site were not able to use the appropriate tenses when undertaking spoken or written communication. for example, a student wrote “i will going to the market.” he used the wrong verb to show the action that he will do in the future time. another example, a student wrote “i do not send you my report yesterday.” he actually had to use did rather than do in that sentence. for that condition, it was important to improve students’ mastery of english tenses by implementing a classroom action research (car). it is a scientific and systematic approach to investigation that enables teachers or lecturers to find effective solutions to problems they confront in everyday life (stringer, 2007). students’ mastery of english tenses can be supported by using teaching media in the process of teaching and learning. teaching media will help teachers to deliver learning materials to students to reach certain learning goals and help students to understand learning materials easily. arif (2003) says that media are an intermediary tool or delivery of messages from the sender to the receiver of the message. in other words, learning media is a tool used to deliver teaching materials from the teachers to the learners. in order to solve the problem, our research team decided to use technology media, namely augmented reality. recently, the development of information and technology enables people to obtain information easily. augmented reality is one way that can be used to send information to others in an interesting way by utilizing the development of science and technology and it is one of the newest movements that appears as a result of the dominance of technology particularly mobile application, in the last few year. augmented reality (ar) is a technology that combines two-dimensional and or three-dimensional virtual objects into a real irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 577 three-dimensional environment. so it can be concluded that augmented reality (ar) is the emergence of holographic characters that are one with the real world. with augmented aspects and features, it can enhance learning abilities like problem – solving, collaboration, and creation to better prepare students for the future. therefore, ar provides students with opportunities to deepen their knowledge within several areas, including reading, working with numbers, spatial concepts, playing, content creation, real life environments and scenarios. the purpose of this study was to examine a classroom action research about using augmented reality media to improve non-english students’ tenses mastery. this study was expected to give some benefits to english teachers as it can be references for them when teaching english to non-english students. overall, this study was conducted to explore the following research question: how do augmented reality media improve students’ tenses mastery? literature review basic tenses in english doing communication is very important in everyday life, at work, and nearly any time people interact with each other. people need to communicate to know and understand other people, to build relationship, and to share information. communication is built by using sentences. an effective communication is indicated by sentences with appropriate tenses and elements. there are three basic tenses in english; they are simple present tense, simple past tense, and simple future tense. while there are two elements of a sentence, they are phrases and clauses. phrases ware two or more words that function as a group while clause is a part of a sentence which contains a subject and a verb usually joined to the rest of a sentence by using conjunction (swan, 2005). phrase is a grammatical unit that is needed to build a clause. there are 5 types of phrases: verb phrase, noun phrase, adjective phrase, adverb phrase, and prepositional phrase. verb phrase is a phrase that functions as a predicate, e.g. have come, had thought, was left, will be climbing. noun phrase is a phrase that functions as an object or noun, e.g. a good flight, his crew. in the example, the noun phrase is a noun and is preceded by a determiner or adjective. noun phrases can also be pronoun. adjective phrase is a phrase that functions as an adjective, e.g. so busy, very late. adjective phrase is a phrase that contains adjectives and can also be described with levels such as very and so. adverb phrase is a phrase that serves as a description, e.g. very quickly, almost certainly. the adverb can also be preceded by a description of the level, for example, almost. prepositional phrases are a phrase that functions as a preposition, e.g. after lunch, on the aircraft. clause is a syntactic unit that is above the unit of phrase and below the unit of sentence, in the series of predictive words. this means that in the construct there are components in the form of words or phrases that function as predicates, and the others function as subjects, objects and so on (chaer, 2009). the following are the examples of clauses. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 578 she looked up the answer s v o we are discussing an interesting topic in the office s v o adv notes: s = subject v = verb o = object adv = adverb sentence is a group of words that expresses a statement, command, question, or exclamation. it consists of one or more clauses and usually has at least one subject and one verb. in writing form, a sentence is begun with capital letter and ended with a full stop (.), question mark (?), or exclamation mark (!). types of sentence are simple sentence, compound sentence, complex sentence, sentences with relative clause and compound complex sentence. simple sentence is a sentence that is built by a clause, for example: the little boy laughed. compound sentence or a combined sentence is a sentence that is built from two clauses put together with a conjunction such as for, and, nor, but, or, yet and so, for example: jane put the glass vase on the table and her mother picked it up. complex sentence or compound sentence is a sentence consisting of main clauses and derivative clauses, for example: harry was only of teen when his mother sent him away to school. sentence with relative clause is a sentence with derivative clauses that add information to the noun phrase, for example: i brought the cookies that are on the plate.compound complex sentence is the combination of compound and complex sentences. this sentence has at least two main clauses and one derivative clause, for example: i'll leave a message for the plumber (main clause) but i'm not sure (main clause) that he'll get it (dep. clause). based on the use of function of the predicate, sentences are divided into two, namely verbal sentences and nominal sentences. verbal sentence is a sentence which predicate is a verb, for example: she is sleeping. verbal sentence can be divided into positive verbal sentence the so called affirmative sentence, negative verbal sentence, and interrogative verbal sentence. while nominal sentence is a sentence that is predicated not by a verb, but of a noun, an adjective, a number, a pronoun, or an adverb, for example: i am a doctor. like verbal sentence, nominal sentence is also divided into positive nominal sentence, negative nominal sentence, and interrogative nominal sentence. augmented reality media in language learning in consequence to the development of technologies and the immensity of smartphones, mobile-assisted language learning has been developing fast. much research was conducted, including rosell-aguilar (2017), zhang and pérez-paredes (2021). they promoted the use of mobile tools in english language education, like wechatinstant messaging applications (wu, 2017, 2018) and self-developed learning software (wang et al., irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 579 2009). as various existing augmented reality software relies on the use of mobile technology, it is considered one type of mobile learning (greenwood & wang, 2018). to be more specific, augmented reality in english language education can be grouped into the scope of mobile-assisted language learning, which enables the continuity or spontaneity of access and interaction across various language teaching and learning contexts (kukulska-hulme & shield, 2008). other than conventional classroom learning, augmented reality can combine the real scene perceived by the learner with the virtual scene which is generated by mobile devices, so as to build a semi-realistic world and to intensify students’ motivation to learn a foreign language (liu & tsai, 2013). augmented reality is a term used to describe the form of real objects produced in a computer. it is “a combination of technologies that superimposes computer-generated content over a real word environment” (wang et al. 2018, p. 1391), which interactively connects the real and the virtual worlds and appears at three dimensions (azuma, 1997). an augmented reality application can contain various functions, both for interaction or display (bacca et al., 2014). one example of the augmented reality is when we are in a museum that uses the application contained in the museum, we can scan the barcode at the base of the statue and the application will show images of the statue with fully interactive descriptions. ward (2012) states that augmented reality can also be used to display museum maps that show different works, this allows us to follow maps of these locations. augmented reality is a system that combines the real world and computer graphics. husni and rokhmat (2008) and amin and govilkar (2015) say that the purpose of augmented reality is to add real-world understanding and information where the augmented reality system takes the real world as a basis and combines several technologies by adding contextual data so that one's understanding becomes clearer. meanwhile, augmented reality is a technology that can be exploited in current developments so that the information contained can be well absorbed. methodology this research was conducted to solve students’ problems in using english tenses and was carried out in accordance with the stages of the cycles in the classroom action research (car). car is a method of finding out what works best in teachers’ own classroom so that they can improve the quality of the process of learning and students’ achievement as well. the function of car as a tool is to solve the problem in the classroom and as in service training. doing a car allows teachers know a great deal about good teaching in general (e.g., ab aziz et al., 2012; ajipramuditya, 2013; mckeachie, 1990; chickering & gamson, 1987; 1996). this study began from lecturer’s reflection of the learning process and students’ learning achievements and the result of the reflection were used as the basic data to plan the research. the process of reflection takes with a cycle to follow the steps such as teach, self-cases the effect of our teaching, learning, consider new ways of teaching that can improve the quality of learning practice. the lecturers and the researchers, then, set some plans of the study and they continued to the next stages: acting, observing, and reflecting irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 580 stages. the stages above were carried out repeatedly and continuously until a certain quality of success can be achieved (wibawa, 2004). this study was conducted at the economic education study program, faculty of teacher training and education at a public university in jambi. the students learnt english as a compulsory subject at their program conducted in the the first semester. they were fresh graduates from senior and vocational high schools. in the learning process, they had different abilities in learning the materials. in conducting the study, the lecturer and researchers collaborated in a team work. in this way, it was hoped that the validity of the data collected could be reached. this study needed collaboration since it had the capability for exchanging ideas across disciplines learning new skills, access to finding higher quality of result, benefit, and personal factors such as fun and pleasure. collaborative research can be defined as researchers indulge themselves toward coordination between researchers, institution, organizations, and communities. there were two types of data taken in this study, including students’ achievements in learning english tenses and the description of the situation, condition and process of learning activities during the study conducted. students’ achievement is the measurement of the amount of academic content a student learn in a given time schedule. each instruction level has specific standards or goals that educators must teach their students properly, students’ levels of self – efficacy, self-control, motivation, and impact levels of achievement. the data were collected through participant observation. there were two techniques used in this study, namely qualitative analysis and quantitative analysis. quantitative analysis was used to analyze the data of students’ achievement, while qualitative analysis was used to analyze the data collected from observations. data analysis was carried out through the following stages: 1) classifying the data to make it systematic; 2) reducing and omitting irrelevant and unnecessary data; 3) comparing data that had been classified; and 4) interpreting the data. to avoid subjectivity, researchers utilized triangulation. the preand post-test can be a valuable diagnostic tool for more effective teaching. the function of preand post-test can be the following ways to identify the best student in the classroom, topics which the students already know, topics which the students don’t know and have not learned. findings and discussion based on the results of observation and field notes of four-week implementation of the action, it could be concluded that the use of augmented reality can motivate students to focus on teaching materials. this is because the use of augmented reality in teaching english is still a new issue. in other words, by using the media of augmented reality, students' attention can be more focused on the materials learned and become an effort to increase their understandings of lecture material, and through practicing it also increases their ability to use tenses properly and correctly. even so, the research team found that the results achieved were good. therefore, further efforts should be made in the use of media. oral exercises in the form of language games are very useful to motivate students. the term of “language games “refers to the models of a primitive language that invents to clarify the working of language in general. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 581 hadfield (2004) defines a game as an activity with rules, a goal and an element, not only for the language practice they provide, but also for the therapeutic effect they have. according to richard-amato (1998) games are divided into non-verbal games, board advancing games, wordfocus games, treasure hunts, and guessing games. they can be used at any stages of a class to provide an amusing and challenging respite from other classroom activity about their english class. in oral exercises, some activities were given, including jigsaw, role play, information gap, simulation and contact assignment. however, the implementation was not really like what had been formulated in the planning stage. at the planning stage, oral exercises were set for each topic given in the form of language games. structured writing exercises as an online homework were given in the form of assignments and the students had to fill in the blank in the specified time. this exercise could also motivate students to use online technology to communicate in writing. therefore, it was also determined that in the second cycle, this kind of training was also continued. to be similar with the first cycle, the second cycle also took place over 4 weeks and also went through four stages consisting of planning, action, observation, and reflection. after completing the second cycle, in the following week, the english post-test on tenses took place to figure out the progress achieved. the post-test results showed the average score was 90. the research team again discussed all actions observed in this round with several parties involved in the economic education study program environment. from the results of the discussion, it could be concluded that there was an increase in students’ learning motivation and this indicates an increase in understanding and using english tenses correctly both in oral and written forms. the result of the post-test significantly increased. thus, it can be concluded that the use of augmented reality media as well as of oral exercises and structured writing exercises were able to motivate students to pay attention to lectures. it also increased students’ understanding and ability in using tenses correctly, both oral and written forms. the results of the pre-test looking at the ability of students were very unsatisfactory. the pre-test mean score showed that the average of the pre-test score was 35. also, there was an increase of motivation to paying attention to lessons, understanding, and using tenses correctly, both oral and written forms. it turned out that the observations showed an increase in motivation and understanding, and this was supported by the results of the post-test which showed a significant increase in ability. the average score of the test in the first cycle was 68 and 90 in the second cycle. the average score of this post-test showed an increase of 22 points, a very sharp increase. the post-test data of cycle 1 and 2 can be seen in the table below: irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 582 table 1. students’ average value in cycle 1 and cycle 2 id test ii test iii id test ii test ii s1 60 88 s16 60 87 s2 76 92 s17 60 88 s3 68 90 s18 65 91 s4 65 88 s19 72 90 s5 72 94 s20 88 97 s6 81 97 s21 63 88 s7 60 85 s22 66 90 s8 90 99 s23 72 90 s9 60 84 s24 63 89 s10 64 88 s25 72 90 s11 60 87 s12 66 90 s13 64 88 s14 68 90 s15 65 90 total ( x ) = 1700 and 2250 mean ( x ) = 68 and 90 the increase of the students’ ability to use the correct tenses can be seen from the pre-test answers. most students were less aware of the use of the 2nd tense verbs in the past tense form. from the data of post-test answers, students’ mistakes have been considerably reduced. in connection with the use of augmented reality media and led/in-focus tv, this activity had become very interesting. besides, it also saved time so that lecturers spent plenty of time to pay attention to and interact with students. the lecturers were able to control the class better; choose transparency/impressions; stop when someone asked or continued with the explanation; arrange the order of transparency or replay what needs to be among those previously shown; and observe student reactions. based on the results of the study, the use of augmented reality media among students was effective enough to improve students’ tenses mastery. before and after using augmented reality media in learning tenses, the students’ accuracy and mastery were significantly different. in addition, through verbal exercises using language games and structured writing exercises, tenses exercises emphasized more on consciousness-raising rather than practices. this type of classroom activity, according to fotos and ellis (1991), is more effective in improving grammar skills, including tenses. this is supported by the acquisition of the language being studied because grammar teaching is equipped with situational tasks so that grammar knowledge not only become mere knowledge, but also enable students to be able to use it properly, both in oral and written forms. students can participate interactively and interact with knowledge more authentically. they can also become active learners and are able to interact with their learning environment. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 583 conclusion the conclusion of the study can be drawn as regards to describe how the use of augmented reality media improves students’ tenses mastery. english is important in the world of trade and commerce. so it becomes one of the compulsory subjects at the research site. some problems occur in english learning including students’ mastery of tenses. this study showed that students’ tenses mastery can be improved by teachers through a classroom action research by using augmented reality media. for the students’ achievement, the result of data analysis showed that the mean score in the first cycle was 68 and increased to 90 in the second cycle. moreover, the results showed that: 1) augmented reality created good a atmosphere in the teaching and learning activities, 2) augmented reality made the students understand the use of tenses easily, and 3) the students became more active and attractive in the teaching and learning activities. disclosure statement no potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors. references ab aziz, k., ab aziz, n. a., yusof, a. m., & paul, a. 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(2020). design and implementation of augmented reality for english language education. in: vladimir geroimenko, augmented reality in education: a new technology for teaching and learning (pp. 217-234). springer irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 585 biographical notes dr. yelia, m.pd is a senior lecturer at the english education department of the faculty of education and teacher training, universitas jambi, indonesia. dony efriza, m.pd is a junior lecturer at the english education department of the faculty of education and teacher training, universitas jambi, indonesia. santi hendrayani, m.pd. is a senior lecturer at university of nurdin hamzah, jambi, indonesia. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 58 the design of adaptive learning model to support the application of blended learning riswan * abstract the adaptive e-learning model is a learning model that developed in blended learning in the information systems project management (ispm) course. the development was to improve the quality of the school teachers of informatics and computer management (stmik) nurdin hamzah. the initial study results on the instructors by using the question lattice instrument were in four categories. they were (1) learning organizing strategies, (2) learning delivery strategies, (3) learning management strategies, and (4) learning evaluation in conventional teaching. these showed that the teaching position was in enough category. it needs to increase the teachers’ category by developing a teaching model based on adaptive e-learning to create sustainable learning. this model was expected to increase the teachers’ category and the students’ ability to understand the ispm course. a study on this model used a descriptive methodology to get students’ responses to the developed adaptive e-learning model. the implementation of this model showed that the students’ responses were very good, and the teachers’ category had also changed from enough to good. it is expected educational institutions can develop this model as a solution during the pandemic. keywords adaptive learning, blended learning, e-learning article history received: 13 october 2020 accepted: 1 april 2022 how to cite riswan. (2022). the design of adaptive learning model to support the application of blended learning. indonesian research journal in education |irje|, 6(1), 58–70. https://doi.org/ 10.22437/irje.v6i1.10677 * lecturer, universitas nurdin hamzah, indonesia; ris_wone@yahoo.com irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 59 introduction the development of adaptive e-learning model is one of the solutions offered to students with different regional backgrounds and different absorption abilities in receiving material by lecturers. this model can ensure the teaching and learning sustainability process that will run like it used to be, so the students can access the material based on their level of understanding and ability in communicating and discussing with their lecturers and friends wherever and whenever. somehow, those who have lack understanding regarding the material during the implementation of adaptive e-learning might face the lecturers and discuss with their friends. moreover, this model could encourage lecturers to intensify their creativity in preparing teaching materials. these will be in line with the assessment enhancement through the lecturers’ performance as categorized good based on four assessment factors that have been fulfilled. furthermore, as a blended learning model, the adaptive e-learning model can be a solution for the implementation of education during this covid-19 pandemic. that is why collaborating face-to-face learning with information and communication technology (ict) is an appropriate part of the limitations of educational facilities. at this point, the advances of information and communication technology (ict) have encouraged several universities to take advantage of ict in the teaching process, either in or as complementary. this implementation is influenced by the respective state universities, infrastructure, available human resources, students from different regions, and varied capabilities become the spotted part of an adaptive e-learning model implementation. this limitation encourages the researchers to consider the model of web-centric course adoption, which combines e-learning with face-to-face. in addition, this model is one of three models proposed by haughey, anderson, and anderson (1998). there are three forms of learning systems through the internet, considered a basis for a learning system development by utilizing internet items, such as web course, web-centric course, and web-enhanced course (haughey et al., 1998). furthermore, the model designed in this website considers various needs of the students in the field of the material and content that will be discussed and shared with their friends and lecturers. the availability of this content will optimize the teaching activity since the web is designed regarding the students’ needs. surjono (2015) noted that the adaptive e-learning model had been proven effective in increasing the students’ learning outcomes in the education department of electronics engineering ft uny. the design of the adaptive e-learning model based on the students’ needs will change the conventional teaching model applied. it has also become part of the slogan of stmik nurdin hamzah. the balance between vision and mission and the motto of the activities done are implemented as it is in the college statutes. in addition, the students’ need for e-learning as a lectures medium is supported by early studies of the needs analysis of the project management information systems (mpsi) course. according to riswan (2014), the teaching position needs to be in enough category with the mean value is from 35.41 to 44.42, and 39.91 to 4-dimensional data distribution of the lattice instruments processed. as a future lecturer, the researcher wants this category increased to be better. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 60 literature review e-learning e-learning has been used as a complementary by some lecturers for conventional teaching in the classroom. nowadays, distance learning has made full use of e-learning or has combined the e-learning model with the face-to-face class known as the blended learning model. in this study, the researchers used the blended learning model in teaching the mpsi course. the component was designed in the form of adaptive e-learning and chosen based on the diversity of respondents from different abilities. to understand the presented material, all respondents need different approaches. the description of e-learning, blended learning and adaptive e-learning can provide readers with an understanding of the function of each of these components. according to shute and towle (2003), e-learning is learning done using a computer connected to the internet. adaptive e-learning is generally perceived from the instruction point of view and comprises cbles that can interact with a student to provide the most appropriate instruction. thus, it means that the instructions provided by the system adapt and not the students’ learning. adaptive e-learning is currently applied to improve the instructions given to heterogeneous student groups (brusilovsky, karagiannidis & sampson, 2004; van seters, ossevoort, tramper & goedhart, 2012). moreover, according to groenendijk and markus (2010), e-learning is a learning process created by interaction with digitally delivered content, network-based services, and tutoring support. this definition focuses on the revolutionary impact of network-enabled technology. in addition, e-learning is some technologically mediated learning using computers, whether from a distance or in a face-to-face classroom setting (computer-assisted learning). it is a shift from traditional education or training to ict-based personalized, flexible, individual, self-organized, collaborative e-learning based on a community of learners, teachers, facilitators, experts. therefore, e-learning indicates learning done using digital media with a computer connected to the network internet. somehow, not all the material can be in e-learning. sinofsky (2014) stated that as the number of tools and options for e-learning expands, companies now realize that online learning is not for everything and everyone. it is the same as e-commerce which does not replace the needs for bricks and mortar retail stores, so e-learning does not replace the need for instructor-led training, coaching, expert support, labs, and collaborative experiences. blended learning and adaptive e-learning garrison and vaughan (2008) state that blended learning is the combining ideas from the experience of face-to-face learning and online learning. the basic principle is direct face-to-face communication and online written communication. this model seems simple, but actually, the implementation is more complex. the primary assumption of the blended learning design is a thought to combine face-to-face and online learning, the fundamental irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 61 thinking about the course design to optimize student engagement, restructure and reorganize the traditional lecture. in addition, watson (2008) defined blended learning as the integration of face-to-face and online learning to improve the learning experience in the classroom and expand the knowledge through information and communication technology. this strategy will increase student engagement in learning through activities online and the effectiveness and efficiency of college. he also defined blended learning as learning that combines online and face-to-face. the content delivered online usually uses discussions, online and face-to-face meetings. “the sloan consortium” defined the blended program carried out between 30 per cent and 79 per cent of the content delivered online, the rest of the learning content by teachers or lecturers through face-to-face or a method based non-web, such as textbooks. it can be achieved through the resources “blended” the virtual and the physical source. adaptive e-learning has been investigated by multiple disciplines, including educational psychology and computer science, and each uses its terminology to label similar concepts (van seters et al., 2012). it consists of multiple components that enable instruction adjusted to the students’ needs. according to the terms in educational psychology, the names of the components are the content models (domain models), the learner models (manual models), the instruction models (interface models), and the adaptive engine (brusilovsky, 2001; shute & towle, 2003). methodology research design, site, and participants this study was quantitative research on students who took ispm/mpsi courses as the respondents. it needs an analysis of the student’s needs for the adaptive e-learning model. in designing this learning, the researcher is guided by the waterfall model with some stages, such as problem identification, system design, implementation, testing, and spreading the system to the object of the study. at the problem identification stage, the researcher saw that the stmik nurdin hamzah institution as an it-based high school had not implemented digital-based learning yet as an alternative or support for face-to-face learning by lecturers. the researcher also found that student assessments of lecturers in ispm/mpsi courses were in enough category. hence, it needs some efforts from the institution or lecturers to provide alternative online learning models to support offline learning. from this identification, the researcher tried to design an adaptive blended learning system using a website-based programming application. this design used a data flow diagram, depicted context diagrams, zero diagrams, and detailed diagrams of the system built, involving all components, both students, lecturers, bau, and baak. these components were interconnected with each other. there were several designs such as input, output, process, and connecting facilities that can be used by lecturers and students as well as face-to-face lectures. after the design stage has completed, the researcher proceeded to the system implementation stage. this stage is the stage of translating into a programming language. the researcher used php, mysql, and several tools. then testing was carried out at the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 62 student level and the lecturer level. the results of this test were to determine how this application will be ready to use by users whether there is still an error that is then corrected so that later it can be disseminated to users. the data of this study were from students who took the information system project management (ispm/mpsi) course. so far, lectures are carried out manually in the class. meanwhile, stmik nurdin hamzah, as a technology-based university, of course, needs to develop e-learning based learning media, so that students can attend lectures anytime and anywhere. e-learning media developed by an adaptive model according to student conditions. in general, students of stmik nurdin hamzah come from various regions in jambi province, with different high school education backgrounds, both public and private. these diverse backgrounds will affect the lecturers in the teaching and learning process. it is impossible to do it with the same approach because it will affect the absorption capacity of each student. the lecturers need to take various approaches in the teaching process to make the students understand the material. adaptive e-learning applications designed for mpsi courses can help lecturers meet the students’ needs in understanding material with systematic concepts. this application is a supporting part of lecturers in the carried out face-to-face teaching process. the students’ sustainability in the learning process continues from what they have learned on the campus. they can repeat to learn at home, and vice versa doubts about the understanding they have learned on the website. they can discuss adaptive e-learning during offline lecture meetings. there will be interactive communication in understanding the lecture material taught for both lecturers and students. there are tiered solutions that students will go through and experience with teaching materials, starting from pre-lecture content, where students can understand the materials uploaded by the lecturer on the application before it starts. all materials in the pre-lecture will be studied independently and can be communicated through discussion facilities by students. furthermore, the researchers have designed discussion facilities in this application, both communication between students and lecturers. the discussion will later be resumed offline in class with lecturers and friends so that you can understand the material properly. this process is the researchers’ goal for a sustainable learning process experienced by students. evaluation of the course material understanding designed structured through a semester learning plan (rps), in the form of quizzes, midterm exams, and semester exams in the form of various and graded questions by the prepared rps to achieve the predetermined syllabus. the evaluation was carried out in two forms. they were offline, conducted during lecture meetings in class, and online. the results were given to students. furthermore, at the next meeting, the evaluation questions were discussed so that students understood their answers to the discussion. data collection and analysis project management information systems (ispm/mpsi) was the object under study. these objects were students in the fifth semester at the stmik nurdin hamzah. the teaching of this course is manually done face to face in class. the evaluation of the lecturer irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 63 toward this object was a sufficiency rating. as a teaching staff, of course, they are motivated to increase the assessment evaluation to be good or very good. the efforts made by the teacher to change this assessment are by developing the manual teaching model to a model based on e-learning. the development also supports the higher education’s motto as truly it school. in developing this e-learning model, 12 questions had to be answered by 70 students who were taking the mpsi course. the results of the spss processing on this questionnaire illustrated the analysis of students’ needs for the e-learning model. it needs analysis data used as a guide for the researcher to develop an adaptive e-learning model. afterward, the researchers used the waterfall-type system development life cycle (sdlc) model to develop an e-learning model. in addition, five stages must be passed in the waterfall, consisting of planning, analysis, design, implementation, and maintenance. the resulting e-learning application was tested on students to determine their response toward this application and assessment from the teacher. this adaptive e-learning application is very beneficial for lecturers and students in the learning process. so far, lecturers have other alternatives besides the model they have applied in the teaching process. these models look separate from each other but connected in a unified system. this system will divide the percentage of lecture meetings between offline and online. this lecture meeting percentage distribution must be reflected in the semester learning plan (rps). it is very beneficial for lecturers in preparing teaching materials to achieve the desired output. ethical considerations this study was conducted on mpsi course students at stmik nurdin hamzah. the head of the study program allowed the researcher to conduct a study toward mpsi teaching to change the position of the lecturer in teaching to be a good or better category. the changes category of student assessment toward lecturers from enough to good or better in the teaching process can provide lecturer’s satisfaction. it will influence the teaching process and the students in understanding the teaching materials. this change, of course, must be fundamental from changes in teaching materials developed by lecturers. the teaching process is carried out conditionally where students cannot continue learning if they have not been able to understand the learning. this understanding was done by testing students through a list of questions tested on the lecture material. findings this study found a needed analysis for e-learning design and website design for adaptive e-learning systems. it involved 70 students who were taking the ispm/mpsi course. the results showed the following ten questions. below are the results of the processed data on the e-learning needs analysis. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 64 table 1. list of questions and answers no questions answer yes no 1 do you agree if stmik nurdin hamzah provides an e-learning website? 64 6 2 do you agree if there are courses in the information systems department using e-learning? 67 3 3 do you have any experience with e-learning? 16 54 4 would you be happy to learn only to use textbooks and modules to understand the subjects? 18 52 5 is the internet connection on your campus good?? 23 47 6 do you have a computer? 61 9 7 is your computer quality adequate for learning via e-learning? 50 20 8 do you follow learning training through e-learning? 67 3 9 do you agree if the lecture on f2f is partially replaced with e-learning? 51 19 10 do you need guidance to use an e-learning class? 68 2 table 1 shows that students strongly agree that stmik nurdin hamzah provides an e-learning website to complement the manual learning carried out by lecturers. it certainly supports the university motto as a university with the truly it school concept. the students also strongly agree that the information systems study program at stmik nurdin hamzah uses the e-learning model. the students’ desire to be able to undergo lectures through e-learning is based on their strong desire to experience this e-learning. it can be seen from the students’ low experience in the e-learning process. students should have had this experience because they studied at an it-based university. their disapproval with questions on learning based on textbooks and modules is also high because they cannot understand them well. in this case, there is an operational problem encountered to develop e-learning, such as the slow internet connection on campus. they must be immediately addressed by the institution so that their strong desire for the existence of a campus website and e-learning can be realized. in terms of computers ownership, there are no high obstacles for students because generally, they have computers that can be connected to the internet. of course, it is an advantage for the campus to use the students’ computers without creating a laboratory. with the computers they have, they can study everywhere and everytime since they do not have to be on campus. lecturers are also greatly helped by the owner of the computer. they may soon be able to upload lecture materials that students can later access. the students’ computers to support e-learning are also very supportive. almost all students have high enough computer specifications to support e-learning. the success of e-learning implementation is to complete the manual learning expected by students and training on the use of the created system. the students’ interest to participate in this training is very high because they have never participated in e-learning training. it helps students participate in e-learning in effectiveness and efficiency later. their desire to change the teaching from manual to online is very high. it must be responded to lecturers or institutions to provide facilities and infrastructure and facilitate lecturers to gain skills to irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 65 develop online learning content. in general, students also need a companion in online learning. it contradicts the principle of online learning itself, which is whenever and wherever. it shows that the independence of students for independent learning is still low. it is the biggest challenge for lecturers and institutions to motivate students to be able to learn more independently. from table 1, the graph of the analysis of e-learning needs for students on mpsi lecture is as follows: figure 1. e-learning needs analysis note: “ya” means “yes” and “tidak” means “no” figure 2. main course irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 66 the dashboard of the e-learning website application designed shows the availability of homepage facilities, the mpsi materials submenu that contains materials for the students and can be downloaded, and a class-enhancing material submenu that consists of materials for the students to improve their understanding. this sub-menu contains student notes on lecture material that have not been understood yet, and this becomes the basis for lecturers to discuss the material in face-to-face meetings. the main menu is illustrated with a pre-class materials sub-menu containing material that will be discussed later in online lectures. students can learn more about this material before entering the online class. this e-learning application can also be accessed using an e-mobile/cellphone owned by students. the advantage of this application is students can access lectures whenever and wherever. to maintain the application sustainability, so it can always be accessed, it is necessary to have an admin role in maintaining and managing the website content, as shown in figure 3. the responsibility of this website is really in the hands of an admin. in its operation, the admin has a username and password to access rights to the website. only the admin can access the application to update information and lecture materials. the same applies to users of this application which is students who take mpsi courses, as shown in figure 3. students will get usernames and passwords to access rights to enter the application. it is also part of the protection from students who do not take the courses to access it. if the username and password are wrong, the students cannot enter the system. then, if they can enter the system, they will be approved in advance by the course lecturer. if the course lecturer does not approve it, the student cannot follow the lecture. figure 3. admin, student, and content menu irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 67 figure 3 also shows the management that an admin will carry out. the task section of the back end is responsible for filling out the content materials. if it is not managed properly, it will result in invalid data obtained by the user. therefore, a website will be frequently visited and used by users if the content on the website can provide the latest information. an admin does not have to be a lecturer. the most important thing is that he can operate a computer and understand the system. an admin is very crucial in a website. he becomes an essential person in the success of a website. an admin must always maintain the stability of a website, and it is his responsibility. furthermore, he should not ignore even the slightest of the website is his responsibility. figure 4. interactive test menu (sample) in figure 4, there is a submenu containing test content on the material taught by lecturers. if the students cannot answer the test, they cannot follow the following material. it is part of controlling the lecture material taught. the course lecturer will evaluate the students’ results. the evaluation can be in answering questions by lecturers, both in essays and multiple choices. test results of adaptive e-learning web practicalities this learning website has been tested on students who took the mpsi course in a class. this test produces students’ perceptions through the use of the e-learning website of the lecture, and the result of this perception data processed shown in table 2 and figure 5 as follows. table 2. students’ practicalities value irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 68 figure 5. the frequency distribution test data of responded practicalities this trial shows that the response of the students to the adaptive e-learning can be seen through the degree of achievement as follows: ∑ ∑ dp = (3449) / (4200) x 100 = 82.1% where: dp = degrees achievement; σx = total score measurement results; π = number of samples / respondents; σitem = number of items instrument discussion the graph of e-learning needs analysis above showed students desperately needed a model of e-learning as part of the conventional lectures conducted. the researcher in this study showed multiple design views as part of the design of the adaptive e-learning model. the learning model was tested on the students who took the mpsi course during the class. this test produced students’ perceptions of e-learning websites in the lecture. the value of the practicalities and the testing distribution frequency showed this adaptive e-learning on the mpsi course obtained 137 as the highest value and 89 as the lowest value, with an average of 114.97. finally, it showed a mean value of 114.97, a median of 116.50, a standard deviation of 11.288, a minimum value of 89, a maximum value of 137, and the average value of 114.97, with the achievement of respondents to the implementation of blended learning model web-centric on the mpsi course is 82.1% and categorized as good. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 69 the adaptive e-learning application in the mpsi course as complementary to teaching is part of the blended learning model application. the results showed a significant change in students’ responses to lecturers in the mpsi course. students’ assessment of lecturers in mpsi lectures done manually in the moderate category changes to good category. of course, it could impact changes to another course. in addition, it showed a significant change from the face-to-face learning model that was carried out before by the lecturers. it is better if the positive response by the students to the adaptive e-learning teaching model developed must be socialized to other lecturers. academics must be the facilitators of this change, so the vision and mission of the stmik nurdin hamzah institution to become a university with the motto truly it school can be realized well. conclusion and recommendations/implications to improve the quality of the learning process, it has produced a web of adaptive e-learning for the mpsi course, with the domain name bl-stmiknh.com. e-learning application designed to use applications, such as php, html, mysql, wondershare quiz creator. meanwhile, the e-learning web is a learning model expected by students. as shown in the needs analysis, 91.4% agreed that the institutions provide e-learning websites for the lecture. institutions are expected to provide adequate internet facilities to support the implementation of digital-based learning. providing this large bandwidth capacity is the main thing in implementing e-learning. if the system is developed for all courses connected to the academic system, it will require high bandwidth. other lecturers are also very responsive to what the researcher has done to mpsi lectures with this adaptive e-learning. they also want this application applied to the courses they teach. the application of this adaptive e-learning model can also become a project in the blended learning model development. this model can be a solution to the problems of the world of education today regarding the impact of the covid-19 pandemic on the learning process from elementary school to university. the primary basis for this model application is the facilities and infrastructure, both the tools used and the adequate internet network facilities, as illustrated by the stmik nurdin hamzah, which is less supportive in terms of bandwidth. now, it has been resolved. during this pandemic, the institution has undergone online-based lectures. moreover, the students feel the practicality of the adaptive e-learning model designed that has met the expectations of students in the learning process. this model's success is due to carefully considering what has been suggested by some experts. the result of the achievement degree of the practicalities test showed the number ranged from 82,1%. it meant that blwcc models had been able to meet the expectations of students towards mpsi learning, both in terms of constructivism, interactivity, problem-based learning, and learning styles in a good category. the results of this study had been submitted to the academic manager of stmik nurdin hamzah before. this institution now has changed to nurdin hamzah university. this name is a merger of two institutions under the dewi nurdin hamzah foundation (ydnh), namely stmik nurdin hamzah and stisip nurdin hamzah. this merger occurred at the end of 2020 when stmik nurdin hamzah became the faculty of computer science (filkom) with three study programs, namely information systems, computer engineering, and information technology. meanwhile, stisip nurdin irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 70 hamzah became the faculty of social and political sciences (fisipol) with two study programs, namely the government science study program and the government communication study program. the results of this study have been conveyed to the academic side. furthermore, the concept of this study has been adopted by nurdin hamzah university in developing online-based lectures to overcome the problems that happened during the covid-19 pandemic. the adoption of the study concept has resulted in a learning media website that all lecturers can use. this application is now in its second year during the covid-19 pandemic. disclosure statement no potential conflict of interest was reported by the author. references brusilovsky, p. (2001). adaptive hypermedia. user modeling and user-adapted interaction, 11(1), 87-110. brusilovsky, p., karagiannidis, c., & sampson, d. (2004). layered evaluation of adaptive learning systems. international journal of continuing engineering education and life long learning, 14(4-5), 402-421. arrison, d. r., & vaughan, n. d. (2008). blended learning in higher education: framework, principles, and guidelines. san fransisco: john wiley & sons. groenendijk, e. m. c., & markus, b. (2010). enhancing surveying education through e-learning. copenhagen, denmark: the international federation of surveyors (fig). haughey, m., anderson, t., & anderson, t. (1998). networked learning: the pedagogy of the internet. montreal: mcgraw-hill. riswan. (2014). recommendations to improve the quality of learning for information systems project management (mpsi) course at stmik nurdin hamzah). journal of academika,12, 35-42. shute, v., & towle, b. (2003). adaptive e-learning. educational psychologist, 38(2), 105-114. sinofsky, s. (2014). the four stages of disruption. andreessen horowitz. surjono, h. d. (2015). adaptive and engaging e-learning: innovation in the use of information technology in distance education. doctoral dissertation, universitas negeri yogyakarta, yogyakarta. van seters, j. r., ossevoort, m. a., tramper, j., & goedhart, m. j. (2012). the influence of student characteristics on the use of adaptive e-learning material. computers & education, 58(3), 942-952. watson, j. (2008). blended learning: the convergence of online and face-to-face education. nevada: north american council for online learning. biographical note dr. riswan is a lecturer at the universitas nurdin hamzah, jambi, indonesia. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 300 anagram based l2 activation zsófia lengyel 1 the aim of the present study is to investigate the hungarian-english word recognition among sixty of 15 years old, hungarian, secondary school students, who learn english as the first foreign language. moreover to ascertain how english and hungarian languages become activated in a paper based word recognition test including anagrams. based on the literature, i suppose that instructed english language learners recognize the first language (hungarian) input more successfully. on the top of all that i am eager to see the various factors that affect word recognition. the results show that word frequency effect is a key factor irrespective of the language proficiency. keywords anagram, l2 activation, language processing, word frequency word recognition 1. multilingual doctoral school, university of pannonia, veszprém, hungary; lengyelzsofia83@gmail.com mailto:lengyelzsofia83@gmail.com irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 301 introduction the question of is it good or not for language learners to start the acquisition of the written forms of their l1 and l2 at the same time has become a critical issue in language teaching in the xxi century. many teachers believe that children are not capable of learning two writing systems at a time, and they claim that learners will be confused and delayed in their learning processes. it is generally accepted that children first should learn how to read and write in their l1, and so learning a second language should only be started some years later. however, literature so far has found that exposure to two similar writing systems at a time may even accelerate the acquisition process of the written language (bialystok, 2004). as a practicing teacher, i can wholeheartedly say that only the exposure counts, no matter how early or late you start, and not the simultaneity is the key concept. a weak student can reach good results too in language learning, if he or she deals with the given point continually. as opposed to natural bilinguals, who are exposed to both of the languages in their everyday lives, instructed bilinguals mainly use their l2 only in education, in the language classroom. in the xxi st century, exposure to a second language, especially to english, next to school instruction, is at disposal with the wide access to information technology devices such as mobile phones, computers, laptops, tablets etc. written foreign language enters kids’ life in a way and at a time when they are not aware of it, and this contributes to the development of their metalinguistic, cognitive, and phonological awareness. they start to use games and programs on these devices naturally and this procedure is not learning but acquisition, as they are surrounded by ict constantly. this feature is a huge treasure for language teachers, and as i think they should draw profit from this to have better results in second language teaching. there is a considerable amount of literature on the investigation of written and spoken bilingual processing with its positive and negative aspects. later in this paper i focus only on written language processing. my two research questions are: (i) is it always the l1 that gets activated sooner and better? and (ii) what language gets activated when interlingual homographs appear? my hypothesis is that in anagram solving the possible combination of letters activates the dominant language, which is hungarian, in our case. therefore, i carried out a bilingual written word recognition test with anagrams. this paper is a preliminary attempt to see how the two languages become activated and what the influencing factors of this activation are. literature review pros and cons on bilingualism few researchers have addressed the problem of significant factors that justify the bilingual advantage (ba). bilingual advantage is the experience of using two or more languages. the bilingual brain is more resistant to alzheimer disease and it is structurally irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 302 different from the monolingual brain. bilingual students, on average, outperform monolinguals and bilingual adults have social and personal advantages, such as more and better career opportunities and higher salaries. in general terms among the bilingual advantages we want to emphasize creativity, logic and flexibility in thinking and greater metalinguistic awareness. bilinguals are better learners of new languages (bialystok, 2004). for children the bilingual advantage provides facilitation in verbal memory and for adults it confirms delayed onset of dementia (alladi et al., 2013). in specific terms, bilinguals have better executive functions as supported by simon tests, flanker tests and go/no go tests. on the other hand, bilingualism may have disadvantages as well, because bilinguals are slower in lexical decisions, semantic fluency and worse at solving simple mathematical problems. in the bilingual brain there are two languages that are constantly active and involved in additional processing cost. their verbal skills are generally weaker than monolingual speakers’ (bialystok, 2004). bilingual speakers know fewer words of semantic categories in either of their languages, in comparison to monolinguals. their vocabularies are smaller and they cope with more 'tip of the tongue' features than monolinguals (bialystok, 2004). word recognition word recognition is the most important constituent process of language comprehension. in a narrow sense, recognition refers to the moment a match occurs between a printed word and one of the orthographic word forms stored in the lexicon (de groot, 2011). it is impossible to understand reading and writing without word recognition and identification. it is the basis of teaching reading and writing in l1 and l2, so the relevance of this topic must not be neglected. word recognition is the basis of semantic and grammatical comprehension processes. the complete knowledge of a word’s meaning involves its referential meaning and intentional meaning as well (de groot, 2011). word recognition and morphological processing are connected, as it is shown in word recognition, lexical decision and naming tests (pléh & lukács, 2014). the orthographic depth indicates the degree to which a written language deviates from simple letter-phoneme correspondence. it depends on how easy it is to predict the pronunciation of a word based on its spelling: shallow orthographies are easy to pronounce based on the written word, and deep orthographies are difficult to pronounce based on how they are written. the influencing factors of word recognition are varied: word frequency, familiarity, word superiority effect, context, quality of stimulus, word length (lengyel, 1997). in the scientific literature more linguistic and non-linguistic factors are mentioned, which can also have significant effects on word recognition as a process: cv structure, motivation, vocabulary size, metalinguistic awareness, visual representation of a word, language attitude, linguistic typology, time of exposure, educational level, language, writing system, age and experiences in reading. irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 303 bilingual written language processing bilingual written language processing is much more complex than monolingual. the activation levels of the two languages may cause delays, accelerations or have no effect at all. the acquisition of the written forms of languages is influenced by the types of the writing systems. the acquisition of two similar writing systems results in acceleration, while that of two different systems have no effect on each other (bialystok, 2004). how the two languages are activated at the word level, i.e. how visual processing or word recognition takes place in the bilingual mind has been a question for a while. there have been different models constructed so far that describe the proposed bottom-up or top-down processing. the bottom-up models suppose that information processing is modular, from lower levels to higher (features, letters, graphemes, syllables, morphemes, lexical entries). connectionist models, on the contrary, propose that activation and processing is going on with the involvement of different levels at the same time, and these levels are in interaction. bia+ model (dijkstra & van heuven, 2002) is an illustration for an interactive model of how bilingual visual word recognition is going on. according to this model, there are two subsystems: the word identification subsystem and the task/decision subsystem. the study on word identification subsystem resulted in that visual representation of a word influences word processing (integrated lexicon), both potential word choices are activated (nonselective access), bilinguals’ language proficiency is lower in l2 than in l1 and the activation of l2 lexical representations will be delayed. task/decision subsystem concluded in, that there is no significant influence on activation of word identification (dijkstra & van heuven, 2002). figure 1. testing linguistic creativity and language activation with anagrams semantic s language nodes lexical phonology lexical ortography sublexical ortography lublexical phonology irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 304 in literature anagram’ is defined” as a word or phrase that is made by arranging the letters of another word or phrase in a different order.” for example an anagram of “elvis” is ”lives”. creativity in making up words from letters seems to be a key factor. anagrams have a significant role in speech science, specifically in investigating aphasia. the northwestern anagram test (nat) is a specific type of anagram solving, measuring sentence production in primary progressive aphasia so it has scientific significance. mayer (1983) found that the influencing factors of anagram solution for 5 letter long anagrams were word frequency and frequency of specific letter combinations (train, enjoy). cases with less movement of letters are easier, whereas wordlike anagrams are more difficult to change. if you have experiences in problem solving it is easier to recognize anagrams if the words are in one semantic field (mayer, 1983). the present study intended to explore the word creating creativity of hungarian learners of english, i.e. the hungarian-english bilingual lexicon. i undertook this research to see how the two languages (hungarian and english) get activated in a specific word recognition test in hungarian learners of english. as opposed to natural bilinguals, who are exposed to both of their languages in their everyday life, instructed bilinguals use their l2 mostly in education. the difference due to the amount and manner of exposure for natural and instructed bilinguals may cause differences in the activation processes. these factors may have an influential role on the phonological, orthographic and semantic awareness as well. based on what the literature suggests, i suppose that for the instructed learners their l1 will be more successfully processed. i am also eager to see whether word creating creativity does play any role in word processing. first of all, i would like to highlight that hungarian is a non indo european language, which uses the latin alphabet. moreover hungarian is an agglutinating language, in which we modify the meaning of the words by suffixes and endings. there are specific properties of the language, which may have effects on word recognition, as we have 9 diagraphs and 7 pairs of long and short vowels. at the beginning of words, letter transitional probability is not allowed/accepted. on the contrary, in english it is frequent, and there are no diacritics on vowels. most of these factors are based on the grapheme phoneme identification. methodology participants sixty participants (55 males, 5 females, mean age: 15 years, attending the same secondary school in hungary) completed and returned the questionnaire. the number of males is pretty high, because in the school the taught trades are mainly for men, such as engineering, car mechanic, painter, body mechanic and turner. out of the sixty participants 10 had corrected to normal eyesight. i had a written agreement from the parents and from the school. taking the test was voluntary in the school and was carried out in a stress free irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 305 condition. there was no time limit for the participants of the test, which took place on a school day afternoon after the regular classes. all the participants come from monolingual hungarian families. some of the parents speak and use foreign languages but they claim they are monolingual. 72% of the parents have secondary school certificate. the participants go to the same secondary school, but they differ in terms of exposure to english: 72% of them have four and 28% have two english lessons per week. according to their competence all the participants are hungarian dominant bilinguals, use hungarian as their mother tongue, while l2 is english, which they use at school and sometimes at home. 85%, so most of them is early and 15% is late bilingual (11 years was defined as border line in terms of the onset of sla). ”… early acquisition of one language recruits expected temporal regions involved in perceptual processing, whereas early acquisition of two languages increases the engagement of prefrontal regions involved in working memory to process l2 speech sounds. furthermore, the results suggest that bilingualism can serve to counteract the negative effects of low socioeducational environments on cognition and that late bilinguals may be using more selective attention (posterior areas) than early bilinguals to process l2 speech sounds. therefore, aoa appears to play an important role in l2 speech processing that is tied to ses and proficiency level in the second language” (archila-suerte et al., 2015). procedure and materials a socio-economic, a language attitude, an ict, a language aptitude and a motivation questionnaire were provided first for the participants, and after the completion of the questionnaires, there was an anagram solution test. this method was chosen because this is one of the most rapid ways to get answers form teenagers. with respect to the visual representation of the test, it was printed and photocopied; text was 12, times new roman. the questionnaire on the socio-economic status contained 20 questions, such as the educational level of the parents, the parents’ jobs, whether the participants have their own room, their own tv set and mobile phone; whether they go to private language lessons, whether they travel abroad, go to the cinema and/or theater, etc. 30 questions were related to the participants’ linguistic repertoire: their l1, l2, their parents’ mother tongue and second language, which language is easier for them, which one is the preferred language, what is their proficiency level, their reason of learning english, reading habits, manner of language acquisition, their opinion about the advantage/disadvantage of bilingualism, etc. 40 questions made up the info-communication technology test. i was interested in the participants’ habits, such as, which is the most frequently used function on your mobile phone? how old were you when you got a mobile?” in order to get a more detailed picture of my participants, i applied the llama language aptitude test, as the ability for foreign language seems to be crucial in the present study. attitude motivation test battery was also used to deepen the knowledge about the irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 306 students’ background. this factor is significant in scientific literature. gardner and lalonde defined motivation in 1985 as a desire to reach the aim of language learning. anagram test a specific anagram based word recognition test was administered, with 30 letter strings consisting of 3-4 letters. when creating these letter strings, i used the students’ books as a source of knowledge and information. from the given 3-4 letters both english and hungarian meaningful content words were possible to create, but participants had to write only one word, which came first to their minds. it is essential to emphasize that some of these words were hungarian–english interlexical homographs: (e. g., tan) which means two orthographically identical words that not necessarily sound the same and that have different meanings and origins. all the words were checked for familiarity and word frequency in the two corpora. as a source of english, coca (corpus of contemporary american english) was used, while the basis for the hungarian language was the hnc (hungarian national corpus). all the possible creations of words are in the first 60.000 in both corpora. the anagram task was formulated in both of the languages to avoid effects of the language of the instruction. the task was as follows: in what language can you make a word from these anagrams? write the first word you recognize in the column of the appropriate language. participants had to indicate their answers by writing the meaningful word they recognized first in the appropriate column of the language. chart 1. sample of the anagram test hungarian word anagram english word 1. amla 2. dda 3. ickk 4. enm 5. emes findings i examined the factors which were relevant in the literature too, to explore the participants’ socio-economic status and linguistic repertoire. the parents’ educational level is an important factor, as bialystok (2004) determined it; in my study, the mothers’ and fathers’ educational levels were similar: the majority had secondary school certificates. most of the parents have job as factory workers. focusing on the students, it was clear that most of them have their own room in their home, some of them with an own tv set. they own mobile phones, but on the contrary, only a few of them can afford to travel abroad or go on a irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 307 holiday. based on these, we can say that they come from lower middle class families. this factor may be an answer to their poor results in specific tests. in 2013, lipina et al. found that individuals who come from higher ses backgrounds are better in fluid processing, attention control and working memory than those individuals who come from lower ses (archila-suerte et al., 2015). considering the results of the language attitude test it is important to maintain that the parents’ first language is hungarian, and the second language (if they speak a second language at all) is german. figure 2. participants’ proficiency level of english, according to their self-evaluation most of the students answered that they are at an intermediate level of english (figure 2), probably based on their school results. some of them have a b2 level language exam in english as well. only a few of them evaluated themselves as good language users. probably these are the students who are the most successful in the english lessons. figure 3. participants’ reading habits regarding languages they do not use english as frequently as hungarian in their everyday life, out of school. when they read books, they use their mother tongue (figure 3). if english is used, it happens during playing computer games or they chat in this foreign language on their computers, using chat programmes. to sum up, they used english during free time activities with ict devices out of school. 27 55 18 weak intermediate good 90 7 3 hungarian english both irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 308 figure 4. frequency of english usage among participants participants use english on a regular basis at school and sometimes out of it (figure 4). at school, the number of english lessons are different (varies from 2 to 4 a week), out of school some of them use it for basic communication but only through an ict device. if they are abroad they use it only when they are addressed. there are no other options for foreign language usage. figure 5. some example answers considering the reason of learning foreign languages and the manner of acquisition, participants are aware of the importance of speaking a foreign language and they learn it always often sometimes rarely never 5 35 47 12 1 irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 309 instructionally. most of the students find english language easier than hungarian, and they prefer english, as it is more modern to use nowadays. they think bilingualism is really useful and it has no disadvantages (figure 5). it is only a slight problem that they have to learn a lot to be good language users. in the info communication technology test i tried to focus on the usage of mobile phones, because this is a status symbol for secondary school students. all of them have got a mobile and they use it in various spheres of life. the time of usage is increasing in an unbelievable way. figure 6. age of having an own mobile this figure had one of the most striking effects. most of the students got their first mobile phone at the age of ten, but there is someone who got it at the age of 3. at that time children are not able to use this instrument independently. as it is not clear what is it good for at that time i think it was only a status symbol. figure 7. answers for the question of helping function of mobiles in learning 1 2 4 4 20 12 8 5 3 1 3 6 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 70% 30% yes no irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 310 this question was necessary in my interpretation. in hungary, nowadays mobile phones are strictly forbidden in education. students are not allowed to use their phones during school lessons irrespective of the usefulness of it. on their phones kids would be able to search for information, listen to right pronunciation of words in foreign languages, listen to their favorite songs and their lyrics just to mention some of facilitating effects of motivation for language learning. participants answered in 70 % that they do use mobile phones when they learn outstanding number. in secondary education the usage of mobile phones should be retraced. at the age of 14-15 children are able to use this instrument with the sense of responsibility. figure 8. most frequently used function of mobiles the repertoires of functions are varied. messenger, youtube, and the internet browser are the most popular functions. this data must be considered in education and as teachers we should draw profit from this phenomenon in the 21st century. if we accommodate to the ict needs of our students, it will be easier to raise their interest and motivation. 5 8 1 7 1 1 3 15 2 2 1 9 5 irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 311 figure 9. activities without a mobile phone without their mobile phone, they would do some kind of sport activity, or they would use other ict devices. figure 10. handwriting 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 sleep no answer friends sport eat cook use other tools read nothing 2 8 8 20 1 1 14 3 3 0 5 10 15 20 25 no answer homework lesson drafts recipe text to do list 9 23 23 2 2 1 irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 312 figure 11. writing by phone having seen figure 10 and 11 it is absolutely clear that children totally got accustomed to mobiles. they mostly communicate by text messages on their phones. handwriting is vanishing among secondary school students, as they practice it only in school context. figure 12. results of the llama test the language aptitude test had the following results: out of the 60 participants, 15 students had poor results, 27 average results, 18 good results and 0 excellent results. 2 1 1 56 no answer best wishes everything messages irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 313 figure 13. some results of the amtb test the most remarkable answers are: that 43% of the participants strongly disagree with the statement: “i do not pay much attention to the feedback i receive in my english class.” 47% strongly agree with: „i look forward to going to class because my english teacher is so good.” all in all we can say that students are aware of the importance of language knowledge and they would like to speak more foreign languages perfectly. teacher has a highly important role in the language learning procedure and in motivation as well. 28% the english teacher is better than the other teachers, and most of the students would spend more time on english lessons than on other lessons, as they enjoy english classes’ activities more than other lessons’. 28% of the participants acknowledge that foreign language is important for their career, but only 11% is able to neglect the disturbing factors during language learning. findings of the anagram test in some cases, participants created the words that were well known and frequent. the most frequent words came first in their dominant language. however, the most striking result to emerge from the data is that they recognized some homographs sooner not in their mother tongue, but in their second language. my particular interest is based on the reason behind this. from the several possibilities there were some cases in which students did not recognize all the words they could have, such as in the case of anagram ’arb’. this test revealed that there was no occurrence of recognized words like bra, or ate. past forms of verbs were exceptionally rare, anyway. irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 314 chart 2. example answers in the anagram test hungarian word anagram english word rab 13. arb bar; bra tea 22. aet eat; tea; ate tar 26. atr rat; art from the three letters ’arb’ it was possible to create rab in hungarian (’prisoner’ in english). in english two words were possible; bar and bra. however, bra did not appear at all. bar appeared in 100% of cases in the english answers. checking the word frequencies of the related words in the corpora of the two languages, i could find that in coca, bar is 15,7 times more frequent than bra, which supports the result. from the letters ’atr’ it was possible to create 3 words: tar in hungarian (’bald’ in english) and art or rat in english. the two english words came up in a nearly similar percentage. this result contradicts the results of frequency in coca, as art is twice as frequent as rat. in our data, they are represented in nearly 50-50%. figure 14. english words from ’atr’ figure 15. hungarian words from ’tlo’ hungarian answers illustrate that in some cases the answers came up in the same percentage. all in all, in hungarian tol (’push’ in english) came out in 50% as it happened with olt (’extinguish’). lot appeared in the same percentage as an english word. regarding the frequency of these words, there is a huge difference: tol is 1.9 times more frequent than olt, but among the hungarian answers these words appeared in the same proportion (figure 15). parts of speech occurrences regarding parts of speech (figure 16), nouns were most frequently used (76%), then came verbs (15%) and adjectives (5%). three percentage of the answers were adverbs and one – attributes. rat 53% art 47% olt 50% tol 50% irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 315 figure 16. parts of speech in the answers many more words were recognised in hungarian (l1) than in english (l2) (figure 17). nearly twice as many hungarian words were created by the end of the test. figure 17. total number of anagrams in hungarian and english in the test discussion there were surprising results regarding homographs (see figure 18 and 19). despite the participants’ linguistic background these words were recognised as english in an unexpectedly high proportion. tan is a homograph, as it is a meaningful content word both in the hungarian (’a kind of doctrine’) and english (denoting a skin colour) languages. ant (which is not a homograph) was possible to create too. these data are in harmony with the results of the frequency rate in both languages. tan is much more frequent in hungarian than tan in english and this result is the same in the test. figure 18. answers for anagram “atn” attribute adverb adjective verb noun 20 57 82 275 1366 hungarian english 1102 698 48 30 22 hungarian english ant tan irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 316 figure 19. answers for anagram “ingr” figure 20. answers for anagram “aet” ’ingr’ triggered unexpected answers. a homograph ring can be made from the letter string, having different meanings in both languages, and the word is more frequent in hungarian than in english as it has two meanings (it is a noun and a verb). however, it was recognised as an english word in 73%. homograph tea appeared in both languages in a nearly similar percentage (figure 20), but the anagram was recognized as verb eat in a higher number. this was unexpected as nouns are more frequent on the average than verbs. ’top’ was the most significant signal of word frequency effect. it is 1,45 times more frequent in english than in hungarian according to the data of the two corpora. in my own test, the result was 4, 53 times more frequent in english than in hungarian. conclusion and implications for further implementation my work has led me to conclude that word frequency effect is more determining, than language proficiency level in bilingual visual word recognition. my two research questions were: (i) is it always the l1 that gets activated sooner and better; and (ii) what language gets activated when interlingual homographs appear? for the first question the answer is no. having the example ring we can see that for the participants it was an english word in73 and a hungarian word in 28%. in case of homographs the results are in line with 27 73 hungarian english ring 8 10 82 hungarian english eat tea irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 317 the previous ones, so not hungarian language was always the dominant. taking my hypothesis into consideration (in anagram solving the possible combination of letters activate the dominant language, which is hungarian, in our case) we can determine that sometimes l2 (english language) becomes dominant in anagram solving activities. the most striking result to emerge from the data is that despite of the instructed foreign language learner state of the participants, some of the interlexical homographs were recognized not in the mother tongue but in the foreign language. this is unexpected, as the english language proficiency of the participants is much lower than the hungarian one. in the cases where more options were possible to create from a letter string, the more frequent words came first. these are significant factors and prove that word frequency is more important in word recognition than language proficiency. in the future, i would like to expand this test for further incoming 15 year old students in the original school. moreover i plan to investigate the results of other students from different types of schools and linguistic backgrounds to have control groups. references alladi, s., bak t. h., duggirala, v., surampudi, b., shailaja, m., shukla, a. k., chaudhuri, j. r., & kaul, s. 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(1985). the role of attitudes and motivation in second language learning: correlational and experimental considerations. wiley online library, 35(2), 207-227. lipina, s., segretin, s., hermida, j., prats, l., fracchia, c., camelo, j. l., & colombo, j. (2013) linking childhood poverty and cognition: environmental mediators of non-verbal executive control in an argentine sample. developmental science, 1-11. lengyel, zs. (1997). bevezetés a pszicholingvisztikába. veszprém: veszprémi egyetemi kiadó. mayer, r. e. (1983) thinking, problem solving and cognition. san francisco: w. h. freeman. navracsics, j., & molnár, c. (2017). multilingualism, teaching, and learning foreign languages in present-day hungary. indonesian research journal in education |irje|, 1(1), 29-42. pléh, cs. & lukács, á. (2014). pszicholingvvisztika 1-2. budapest akadémiai kiadó. irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 318 biographical notes zsófia lengyel has been teaching english as a foreign language for 12 years in a local secondary school in her home town siófok, hungary. her students are hungarian learners of english. in her everyday practice she has become more and more interested in the foreign language learning procedures. being a fourth year phd student at university of pannonia, her research topic is language processing and word activation. recently she has been working on word activation processes based on anagram solution and word fragment completion tests. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 171 in search of commonly used language learning strategies by efl students masbirorotni 1 and nunung fajaryani 2 abstract language learning strategy is one of the factors that can contribute to the success in learning a foreign language including for indonesian students. the purpose of this current study was to examine the learning strategies of english as foreign language students in one state university in jambi province. this current study used a survey approach to deal with the issue of the learning strategies of english as foreign language students. data were collected through using the language learning strategy questionnaire (llsq). the participants of this study consisted of 129 students. overall, the findings revealed that cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies were most commonly used by students in speaking, reading, and writing skills. however, cognitive and social strategies were the most frequently used by students for listening skill. suggestions and future studies are also discussed. keywords foreign language, language skills, language learning strategies, learning english 1 english education study program, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, jambi, indonesia; eka_rotni@unja.ac.id 2 english education study program, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, jambi, indonesia; nfajaryani81@gmail.com mailto:eka_rotni@unja.ac.id mailto:nfajaryani81@gmail.com irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 172 introduction english is one of the foreign languages used as a compulsory subject for students to study in high schools in indonesia. as a foreign language, english certainly has vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation and other language components that are not the same as indonesian. they can cause constraints and obstacles for students to learn english. constraints faced by college students, also certainly vary and they possibly can cause frustration and stress between them which of course will also indirectly affect the learning outcomes (mukminin et al, 2018). in teaching and learning process, there are always learners who succeed well and there are also learners who are less successful. these are caused by various factors; one of them is the way of learning of people who learn it. as naiman, frohlich, stem, and todesco (1978, p. 1) stated that "all forms of language teaching can be well developed if we have sufficient knowledge about learners and about the teaching and learning process itself." sharp (2004) also said that in the process of learning a foreign language, there are several factors that influence the success or failure of a person in learning, including age, sex, motivation, intelligence, learning strategies and learning styles that affect student academic achievement. based on the statement from naiman et al. (1978) and sharp (2004), it can be inferred that the learning strategy is one of the most important factors in determining the success or failure of a student in learning a foreign language. many factors could influence the success or failure of a learner in learning english as foreign language. those factors can be external and internal. the external factors are the factors that come from the outside of the learner, such as school location, availability of the textbook, and quality of lecturers (mukminin, muazza., hustarna., & sari, 2015; mukminin et al., 2015). whereas, the internal factors are the factors which lay within the learners themselves, such as motivation, interest in learning the language, and learners’ strategies in learning the language. since the learning strategies are also one factor which has a big contribution on the success in learning foreign language, so the lecturers or teachers should know what kinds of learning strategies that the learners have as learning strategies are very crucial for learners to make them active and confident in learning processes. oxford (1990) states that learning strategies are the tools of active and self-directed involvement that is very important for developing communicative competence. so, if learners could apply the appropriate strategies in learning, it could result in the improvement of learners’ proficiency and greater confidence. eventhough the studies related with language learning strategies have become the topic of many researchers around the world, (e.g., oxford, 1990; skehan, 1989), but in indonesian contexts, this topic is still understudied (e.g., mukminin et al., 2018) especially in jambi province. to fill the gap, this study attempted to contribute to the knowledge base by examining the learning strategies of english as foreign language students in one state university in jambi province. to achieve the purpose of the study, the following research questions guided the study: (1) what types of language learning strategies do english as foreign irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 173 language students use? (2) how is the language learning strategy choice of english as foreign language students in learning english as a foreign language in their university? literature review learning strategies are very crucial for the learners of a foreign language in order to make them more active and more confident during learning processes which will result in the success or failure in learning the foreign language. this is in line with the statements uttered by oxford (1990) that learning strategies are the learners’ steps in order to enhance their own learning. crawford (1999. p. 9) also stated, “the learning strategies as the ways used by learners to improve their own learning.” it can be stated that learning strategies are the conscious activities done by learners that intend to achieve the learning goals. if a learner consciously applies appropriate learning strategies, he/she can increase not only his or her proficiency and but also his or her confidence in learning a foreign language. additionally, language learning strategies create learners to be a competent learner. another reason why the strategies in learning language are important is because they are the tools of active and self-directed, involvement, which is crucial to improve and develop communicative competence (oxford, 1990). there are numerous classifications of language learning strategies proposed by many studies. the studies have proposed different learning strategies and different ways of grouping similar learning strategies (setiyadi, 2016). o’malley and chamot (1990), cohen (1990), and oxford 1990 classify language learning strategies into four strategies, they are cognitive, meta-cognitive, effective, and social strategies. cognitive strategy relates with learner’s thinking skill in processing learning materials. meta-cognitive strategy refers to the way of the learner to do the learning materials while the effective strategy refers to learners’ behavior and feeling toward the learning processes. the social strategy is the strategy used among learners during the process of teaching and learning in order to achieve the learning goals. a quite old reference from naiman et al. in 1978, which is based on stern’s (1975) study, classifies more specific learning strategies consisting of 10 learning strategies including plan, active, emphatic, formal, experimental, semantic, drill, communicative, observe, and understanding. eventhough these strategies cover many activities but they still need a modification and confirmation. another language learning strategies which are proposed by oxford (1990) are direct and indirect strategies. direct strategies are the language-learning strategies that directly involve the target language, such as performing at the stage play, working with the language itself in a variety of specific tasks. while indirect strategies are the language –learning strategies that do not directly involve the target language. even though there are many classifications of language learning strategies, this study focused on three basic classification schemes proposed by setiyadi (2016) which are used to identify language learning strategies implemented by efl students. they are meta-cognitive, cognitive, and social strategies. meta-cognitive strategy allows learners to control their own congition – that is, to coordinate the learning processes by using functions such as centering, arranging, planning, and evaluating. cognitive strategies such as summarizing or reasoning deductively, enabling irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 174 learners to understand and produce a new language by many different means. social strategy helps learners learn through interactions with others. methodology research design, participants, and locale of the study this study used a survey approach. to obtain data on learning strategies used by participants, we distributed closed-ended questionnaires. this research was carried out at the one english language study program, in one state university in jambi province. one of the reasons to take the site was mainly the access and permission that we got from the study site authorities. this study took 6 months from april to september 2019. we invited all students at the study site; however, the participants involved in this study were 129 students who were willing to fill out the questionnaire. data collection and analysis the instrument used in this study was the adoption of a questionnaire created by oxford (1990) namely language learning strategy questionnaire (llsq). furthermore, in 2016 this questionnaire was adapted by setiyadi (2016) and it was created to measure the learning strategy of tertiary level students especially for indonesian students who learn english as a foreign language. this is one of the researcher’s considerations to adopt this questionnaire as it has been revised for several times by the former researcher to gain its reliability and validity. since this questionnaire was reliable and it was also piloted to indonesian students at tertiary level, so it was not necessary anymore for the researchers to find its reliability anymore since the participants of this study were also the tertiary level students of english study program. the questionnaire measures the students’ learning strategy of the four language skills (listening, reading, speaking, and reading) in one sheet of questionnaire. it consists of 80 questions of learning strategies for the four language skills. each skill consists of 20 questions and in each skill consists of three groups of learning strategies, namely; cognitive strategies, meta-cognitive strategies, and social strategies. for the speaking category, the statements of the number 1-10 are grouped into cognitive learning strategies, the statements of the number 11-15 are included in the meta-cognitive learning strategies, and the statements of the number 16-20 are included in the social learning strategies. for the category of listening and reading learning strategies, cognitive strategies are grouped into the statements of the numbers 1-11, meta-cognitive strategies are grouped into the statements of the numbers 12-17 and social strategies are grouped into the statements of the no. 18-20. then, for learning strategies in writing, cognitive learning strategies are measured with the statements of the number 1-13, meta-cognitive strategies in the statements of the number 14-17 and social strategies with the statements of the no. 18-20. so, overall there are 80 statements for the four skills. questionnaire data were collected by distributing questionnaires to all students of the study site through using the google.doc form. after being filled in by participants, there were 129 participants who filled out and submitted questionnaires. the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 175 questionnaire was analyzed statistically by looking for the frequency of each statement for each learning strategy, namely cognitive strategy, meta-cognitive strategy, and social strategy. ethical considerations to deal with the ethics of research, particularly, to keep our participants’ identities and study site, we masked the names of the participants and research site. also, participation in this study was totally voluntary and participants were allowed to resign anytime they wanted. all participants were given an informed consent form. findings the purpose of this current study was to examine the learning strategies of english as foreign language students in one state university in jambi province. we divided our findings into four sub-headings, namely (1) the language learning strategies in speaking skill, (2) the language learning strategies in listening skill, (3) the language learning strategies in reading skill, (4) the language learning strategies in writing skill. language learning strategies in speaking skill cognitive strategy, table 1 shows the three highest percentages of statements about learning strategies in the terms of cognitive strategies, especially for speaking skill, the statement," i try to remember new english words by pronouncing them" was a strategy that was always used by students (27%), and also most often was 49%. sometimes students (50%) also used the statement, "i use rhymes to remember new english words" strategy. meanwhile, the learning strategy that was most rarely used by students was "i tape the sentences i produce" which was 42% . table 1. percentage of language learning strategies for speaking skills for cognitive strategies statements choices participants percentage (%) i use rhymes to remember new english word never 12 9 rarely 30 23 sometimes 65 50 often 19 15 always 3 2 i try to remember new english word by pronouncing them never 0 rarely 2 2 sometimes 29 22 often 63 49 always 35 27 i try to remember new english word by pronouncing them never 19 15 rarely 54 42 sometimes 43 33 often 12 9 always 1 1 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 176 metacognitive strategies are all learners’ behaviors related to the tactics or ways of learners to deal with and manage teaching and learning materials. for this strategy, especially in speaking skill, 45% of efl students always used "i try to speak with myself to improve my speaking" strategy. in other words they always practiced using english by speaking to themselves. with the same percentage of 45% of students often used the strategy "i notice my english mistakes, and use that information to help me do better". it means that they learned from mistakes. for detailed percentage results for each statement in table 2 below: table 2. percentage of language learning strategies for speaking skills for meta-cognitive strategies statements choices participants percentage (%) i try to correct my mistakes that i produce orally never 0 rarely 2 2 sometimes 34 26 often 62 48 always 31 24 i try to speak with myself to improve my speaking never 0 rarely 9 7 sometimes 21 16 often 41 32 always 58 45 i notice my english mistakes, and use that information to help me do better never 2 1 rarely 3 2 sometimes 30 23 often 58 45 always 36 28 i prepare a topic or grammatical rules in speaking practice never 2 2 rarely 17 13 sometimes 59 13 often 37 29 always 14 11 all students’ behaviors related to student work with peers in achieving learning goals are social strategies. there were five statements in this strategy. the highest percentage of choices often used by students (26%) for speaking skill was the statement of "i ask somebody to correct me when i talk" strategy. namely they asked for help from others to correct the mistakes that they said. then, overall, for the total choice always, often, and sometimes, the strategy with the highest percentage was “i ask questions in english." they asked in english as much as 89%. see table 3 for the detailed results: irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 177 table 3. percentage of language learning strategies for speaking skills for social strategies statements choices participants percentage (%) i ask somebody to correct me when i talk never 4 3 rarely 19 15 sometimes 32 25 often 40 31 always 34 26 i ask questions in english never 1 1 rarely 14 11 sometimes 75 58 often 38 29 always 2 2 if i can not think during a conversation in english, i use gestures never 5 4 rarely 20 16 sometimes 41 32 often 48 37 always 15 12 language learning strategies in listening skill cognitive strategy, for listening skill, especially for cognitive strategies in learning english, of the eleven strategies, the one that was always and often used by participants (87%) was that they learned by listening to english songs. sometimes they learnt to listen in english by guessing what the speaker said from the materials that they were listening to (57%). the percentage of details for each listening learning strategy is in the following table. table 4. percentage of listening skills learning strategies for cognitive strategy statements choices participants percentage (%) i try to guess what somebody is saying by using grammatical rules. never 3 2 rarely 27 21 sometimes 73 57 often 18 14 always 8 6 i learn english by listening to english song or other listening scripts. never 1 1 rarely 2 2 sometimes 14 11 often 54 42 always 58 45 i concentrate on the grammar rather than on the communication. never 7 5 rarely 49 38 sometimes 58 45 often 13 10 always 2 2 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 178 for meta-cognitive strategies in listening skill, the highest percentage (95%) used was the statement," after a listening practice, i check and recheck my understanding.” almost all participants double-checked their understanding of the materials that they were listening to while 21% of participants rarely and never even prepared themselves as presented in the following table. table 5. percentage of listening skills learning strategies for meta-cognitive strategies statements choices participants percentage (%) i listen to what i say to practice my listening skill never 3 2 rarely 23 18 sometimes 58 45 often 35 27 always 10 8 before practicing my listening skill, i prepare a topic, pronunciation or grammatical rules which give me the greatest trouble. never 4 3 rarely 23 18 sometimes 60 47 often 30 23 always 12 9 after a listening practice, i check and recheck my understanding. never 1 1 rarely 5 4 sometimes 32 25 often 65 50 always 26 20 i correct the mistakes that i produce orally. never 1 1 rarely 11 9 sometimes 42 33 often 48 37 always 27 21 i try to be aware of which sound give the greatest trouble. in this way i can pay special attention to them while i listen and practice. never 0 rarely 13 10 sometimes 56 43 often 46 36 always 14 11 from the results of data analysis, it was found that almost all students (98%) stated that using listening strategy by listening to other people’s speaking in english was the way they used “mostly.” only 2% of participants did not use this strategy as presented in the following table. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 179 table 6. percentage of listening skills learning strategies for social strategy statements choices participants percentage (%) if i cannot understand what somebody is saying, i ask him/her to slow down or say it again never 1 1 rarely 4 3 sometimes 37 29 often 54 42 always 33 26 listening to what somebody is saying improves my listening skill never 1 1 rarely 1 1 sometimes 28 22 often 51 40 always 48 37 in a group discussion, my listening skill is improved never 0 rarely 15 12 sometimes 46 36 often 46 36 always 22 17 language learning strategies in reading skill for the cognitive strategy, there were two strategies that were not used by most students, especially in learning reading skills. the highest percentage was that 40% of participants almost never and never read the text in a loud voice (i read the passage aloud) which was followed by 36% of participants never translated words to understand the text being read (i try to translate words for word). however, there were two strategies in understanding texts in reading skills that obtained the same percentage where almost all participants (98%) chose the strategy "i try to understand the passage by using my general knowledge and experience" and "i use the key words to understand the whole ideas” as presented in the following table. table 7. percentage of learning skills for reading skills cognitive strategy statements choices participants percentage (%) i try to translate word for word never 8 6 rarely 39 30 sometimes 41 32 often 24 19 always 17 13 i try to understand the passage by using my general knowledge and experience never 0 rarely 2 2 sometimes 52 40 often 59 46 always 16 12 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 180 table 7. continued… i use the key words to understand the whole ideas never 0 rarely 2 2 sometimes 35 27 often 56 43 always 36 28 i read the passage aloud never 14 11 rarely 37 29 sometimes 56 43 often 19 15 always 3 2 i read a text more for ideas than words never 14 11 rarely 37 29 sometimes 56 43 often 19 15 always 3 2 for the meta-cognitive strategy, there were 4 statements starting from number 12 to 15. of the four statements, statement number 12 had the highest percentage (98%) (a combination of sometimes, often, and always) such as “i correct my mistakes by rereading the text." the majority of students corrected their mistakes in understanding english-language text by re-reading the text given by the lecturers. in addition, the second strategy was the most commonly used by students (96%) was "if i cannot understand a reading passage, i try to analyze what difficulty i actually have". they re-analyzed what difficulties they faced in understanding the texts given by the lecturers. table 8. percentage of reading skills learning strategies for meta-cognitive strategies statements choices participants percentage (%) i correct my mistakes by rereading the text never 0 rarely 3 2 sometimes 40 31 often 57 44 always 29 22 if i cannot understand a reading passage, i try to analyze what difficulty i actually have never 0 rarely 5 4 sometimes 42 33 often 50 39 always 32 25 i try to be aware of which words or grammar rules give me the greatest trouble. in this way i can pay special attention to them while i read and practice never 1 1 rarely 14 11 sometimes 62 48 often 37 29 always 15 12 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 181 for the social strategies, three strategies were used by participants for the reading skills. from the results of data analysis, 90% of the participants used the strategy by asking for help from their friends or lecturers if there was something that they did not understand from the reading that they read. then, 84% of them discussed their reading materials with their friends. the last strategy that they used was that they read english messages sent by their friends. this strategy only gained 62%. table 9. percentage of learning skills for reading skills social strategy statements choices participants percentage (%) i discuss reading passages with my friends never 1 1 rarely 19 15 sometimes 61 47 often 33 26 always 15 12 if i do not understand the content of a reading passage, i ask my friends or my teachers for help never 0 rarely 13 10 sometimes 35 27 often 53 41 always 28 22 i improve my reading skill by reading letters from my friends never 14 11 rarely 35 27 sometimes 49 38 often 21 16 always 10 8 language learning strategies in writing skills for the cognitive strategy in writing skills, out of thirteen (13) cognitive strategies, the strategy mostly used by students (98%) was by writing down whatever on their minds (i write what i am thinking about). meanwhile, more than half of participants (58%) almost never and never used the strategy "i keep a diary". it showed that the use of writing diary had been replaced by making a statement on social media because commonly the students generally used social media instead of diary, but not by using english. table 10. percentage of writing skills learning strategies for cognitive strategy statements choices participants percentage (%) if i do not know how to express my ideas in english while writing, i keep writing using certain rules that i know. never 0 rarely 6 5 sometimes 47 36 often 57 44 always 19 15 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 182 table 10. continued… i write what i am thinking about never 0 rarely 3 2 sometimes 35 27 often 53 41 always 38 29 i consult a dictionary to find out the meanings of words. never 0 rarely 7 5 sometimes 36 28 often 44 34 always 42 33 i write out new material over and over. never 2 2 rarely 21 16 sometimes 67 52 often 30 23 always 9 7 there were two strategies used by students in writing skills, especially in learning english, which got the highest percentage of 95% each. the strategy was "i choose a topic to improve my writing skills " and " i read my writing and correct the mistakes." the next strategy was "i try to be aware of which words or grammar rules give the greatest trouble, this way i can pay special attention to them while i write and practice" as much as 94% and the last strategy was " i rewrite my composition by correcting the mistakes that i notice” with 92% of participants used it. table 11. percentage of writing skills learning strategies for meta-cognitive strategies statements choices participants percentage (%) i choose a topic to improve my writing skill never 0 rarely 7 5 sometimes 59 46 often 49 38 always 14 11 i read my writing and correct the mistakes never 0 rarely 6 5 sometimes 27 21 often 61 47 always 35 27 for writing strategies in terms of the social strategy, there was one strategy that got the highest percentage with more than half of the participants (52%) writing letters to their friends using english. however, almost all participants (91%) chose a strategy of asking friends or lecturers irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 183 to correct their writing, followed by 82% of participants sent messages either by sms or wa application using english to their friends. this showed that students rarely used letters in communication. table 12. percentage of writing skills learning strategies for social strategy statements choices participants percentage (%) i write a message to my friends in english for practice. never 6 5 rarely 17 13 sometimes 62 48 often 33 26 always 11 9 i write letters in english to my friends. never 30 23 rarely 37 29 sometimes 37 29 often 20 16 always 5 4 i ask my friends or my teachers to correct my writing. never 3 2 rarely 8 6 sometimes 45 35 often 45 35 always 28 22 discussion the purpose of this current study was to examine the learning strategies of english as foreign language students in one state university in jambi province, particularly (1) what types of language learning strategies do english as foreign language students use? (2) how is the language learning strategy choice of english as foreign language students in learning english as a foreign language in their university? based on the findings of the questionnaire results regarding student language learning strategies in learning english as a foreign language, there were several things that we interpreted based on the four language skills (speaking, listening, reading, and writing). first, for speaking skill, the strategy mostly used in cognitive strategies by students was to pronounce the new vocabulary they got so they could remind the word. while for the meta-cognitive strategies, participants immediately corrected the words they said when they realized if what they said was wrong. finally, for the social strategy, in speaking skills, students asked more questions in english. the findings of this study indicated that participants used the strategies that worked for them as tuncer (2009) claimed that learners had a benefit such as utilizing cognitive and metacognitive skills while learning a language while the findings of mukminin’s et al. (2018) study indicated that social strategies were among the least preferred strategies used in learning a foreign language. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 184 second, in listening skills, almost all participants used songs and other english-language materials that they listened to improve their listening skills in cognitive domains which are in line with the findings of mukminin’s et al. (2018) study showed that cognitive strategies were among the most preferred strategies in learning a foreign language. then, for the meta-cognitive domains, they used the strategy by re-examining the assignments given by the lecturers. they did this to find out their understanding of what they heard. meanwhile, for the social strategy, they listened to someone else to speak that could improve their listening skills. third, for reading skills, there were two learning strategies with the same percentage, namely 98 percent used by students in improving their understanding of the reading materials provided by lecturers for the cognitive domain. the first learning strategy was to understand the texts provided by using the experience and knowledge they had before. the second was using keywords to understand the overall ideas of the reading given. then, for learning strategies in the meta-cognitive domain, students used the method of repeating the reading materials given to correct the mistakes they made. finally, for learning strategies in the social strategy domains, students usually asked for help from friends or lecturers if they did not understand the materials provided by the lecturers. fourth, the writing skills, the strategy that was mostly used by students in the realm of cognitive strategies in improving their writing skills, especially using english was by writing whatever was in their minds by pouring into written forms. for the meta-cognitive strategies, most students used how to choose the topics they wanted and read while correcting mistakes made specifically on the grammatical side and vocabulary selection got the most percentage at 95%. meanwhile, for the social strategies, students asked for help from friends or lecturers to correct their writing. concerning the social strategies, oxford (1990) explicated that the school arrangement might disappoint social strategies such as cooperating with other students because of competitive accomplishments that boost individual accomplishment. however, the findings of this current study showed participants helped each other in learning english by asking help from their friends if they got difficulties in specific language skills, for example, in writing and reading skills. conclusion and implications based the results obtained, it can be concluded that for speaking skills , reading skills and writing strategies, cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies were most often used by students. then for listening skills, cognitive strategies and social strategies were most often used by students. this study provides a classification of foreign language learning strategies consisting of three categories namely cognitive, meta-cognitive, and social strategies. this classification is actually not final, it still needs further studies to enrich the findings related to foreign language learning strategies so that findings will be obtained more consistently and can be used in any community. this study is also very important to be conducted for learners at any levels. in addition, lecturers also need to be given training on their language teaching strategies so that they will be more familiar with effective learning strategies for students to use. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 185 disclosure statement there is no conflict of interest reported by the authors. acknowledgments we would like to thank all participants who participated in this study. also we would like to thank irje and reviewers for accepting our article. references cohen, a. 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[çiftdillilik politikası ve endonezyalı öğrencilerin öğrenme stratejileri] elementary education online, 17(2), 1204-1223. naiman, n., frohlich, m., stem, hh, and todesco, a. (1978). the good language learner. toronto: the ontario institute for studies in education. o’malley, j . m., & chamot, a. u. (1990). learning strategies in second language acquisition. uk: cambridge university press. oxford, r. (1990). language learning strategies: what every teacher should know. new york: newbury house. setiyadi.b. (2016). language learning strategy questionnaire (llsq): a measurement to identify students’ learning strategies and prepare the success of learning english in the indonesian context (empirical evidence). yogyakarta: graha ilmu publisher. sharp, a. (2004). language learning and awareness of personality types in chinese settings. retrieved from http://www.asian-efl-journal.com skehan, p. (1989). individual differences in second language learning. london: edward arnold. tuncer, u. (2009). how do monolingual and bilingual language learners differ in use of learning strategies while learning a foreign language? evidences from mersin university. procedia social and behavioural sciences, 1, 852-856. https://translate.google.com/translate?hl=en&prev=_t&sl=auto&tl=en&u=http://www.asian-efl-journal.com irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 186 biographical notes dr. masbirorotni works as a lecturer at english education study program, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, jambi, indonesia; eka_rotni@unja.ac.id dr (cand.) nunung fajaryani works as a lecturer at english education study program, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, jambi, indonesia; nfajaryani81@gmail.com mailto:eka_rotni@unja.ac.id mailto:nfajaryani81@gmail.com this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 402 pre-service efl teachers’ digital literacy and factors affecting digital literacy development eryansyah 1 , ismail petrus 2 , sri indrawati 3 , and ernalida 4 abstract this study was intended to investigate pre-service efl teachers’ digital literacy skills and factors affecting them in developing their digital literacy skills. respondents participating in this research were the english education study program students of a university in south sumatra province. they were in the fourth-year of study. research data were collected through questionnaires. research findings revealed that pre-service efl teachers’ digital literacy was categorized above acceptable level. the main factors inhibiting them from developing digital literacy competence were a limited number of computers with online access on campus, no ict training provided by the university for them, less practice of digital technology in teaching and learning activities, lack of budget to access the internet outside campus. sustainable availability of digital resources at the campus, regular training of ict on campus, and persistent integration of digital technologies in language learning seemed to be important develop their digital literacy skills. keywords digital literacy, digital immigrants, digital natives, pre-service efl teachers 1. assistant professor, faculty of teacher training and education, sriwijaya university, indonesia; eryansyah@unsri.ac.id 2. assistant professor, faculty of teacher training and education, sriwijaya university, indonesia; ismailpetrus15@gmail.com 3. associate professor, faculty of teacher training and education, sriwijaya university, indonesia; sriindra_unsri@yahoo.com 4. associate professor, faculty of teacher training and education, sriwijaya university indonesia; ernalida.fkip@unsri.ac.id mailto:eryansyah@unsri.ac.id mailto:ismailpetrus15@gmail.com mailto:sriindra_unsri@yahoo.com mailto:ernalida.fkip@unsri.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 403 introduction the 21 st century is signaled by the blast of information where access to information is opened to all global citizens. the millennial generations, generations y and z, are benefited from this era where they are already accustomed to using digital technologies in their daily lives. they are the digital natives of this era. the education sector has been affected by digital technology too. teaching and learning activities are not permanently performed face-to-face in the classroom; many of them are performed online. the covid-19 pandemic, indeed, has forced most daily activities including teaching and learning to be done online. this condition forces governments in many countries to prepare highly competent teachers to meet the demands. the question arising is “how to prepare highly qualified teachers in the 21 st century” (zhu & zeichner, 2013, p. v). the skills of the 21 st century as explained by trilling and fadel (2009) are classified into three, i.e. learning skills, life skills, and literacy skills. literacy skills covering information, media, and technology seem to have a vital role in the 21 st century as this era is strongly related to digital technology. being digitally literate is deemed necessary in order to survive in this era (eshet-alkalai & amichai–hamburger, 2004). as a part of the global citizens, indonesian people need to be well prepared in coping with digital literacy, especially in relation to the education field. specifically, indonesian education must oblige digital literacy in its education policy so that indonesian citizens can compete properly in this globalized world. as specified in the indonesian 1945 constitution, one of the goals of indonesian independence is to increase the standard of education for indonesian citizens equally and reasonably. the development of national education, referring to this goal, is based on the paradigm of developing the whole indonesian people who have the ability to optimally actualize human potentials in the 21 st century. one important factor in determining qualified education is the teacher. therefore, preparing efl teachers with digital literacy’s knowledge and skills to respond to challenges of the 21 st century education is considered very important. in responding to the demand of providing qualified efl teachers who are digitally literate, some serious efforts need to be taken by educational institutions, for example, identifying current pre-service teachers’ digital literacy competence and manage ways to improve their digital literacy level. the central research questions in this study were “what are the current levels of indonesian pre-service efl teachers’ digital literacy skills?” and “what are the factors affecting indonesian pre-service efl teachers in developing their digital literacy during their study at university?”. therefore, the writing of this article was aimed at exploring indonesian pre-service efl teachers’ current digital literacy skills and the factors affecting them in improving their digital literacy skills during their university studies. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 404 literature review the 21st century skills the second decade of the 21st century is ending soon, so it seems to be the time to take a closer look at what is commonly called as 21st-century skills since teaching and learning are directly influenced by these skills. teachers in schools need to be familiar with and incorporate these skills into the curriculum. s a l p e te r ( 2 0 0 3 ) points out that learning i n the 21 st century “articulates a vision of how schools can best prepare students to succeed in the 21 st century” (p.1). its emphasis is “ what students can do with knowledge, rather than what units of knowledge they have” (silva, 2009, p. 2). the question that arises is what skills the students need that enable them to do with knowledge. three skills, most needed in the 21st century, are defined by trilling and fadel (2009) and stauffer (2020). they include skills in learning and creativity, information, media, and technology, and life and career. figure 1. the 21 st century most demanded skills (trilling & fadel, 2009, p. 48) from trilling and fadel’s (2009) and stauffer’s (2020) points above, it can be inferred that digital technology is one of the important components of 21 st -century skills. this condition is made more clearly by chu, reynolds, tavares, notari, and lee (2017) who stress that one of the characteristics of 21 st -century education is the proliferative use of technology. digital literacy defined digital literacy has been defined differently by many authors. gilster (1997) is the one who firstly defined digital literacy as an “ability to understand information and--more important--to evaluate and integrate information in multiple formats that a computer can deliver” (as quoted by pool, 1997, p. 6). trilling and fadel (2009) identify digital literacy as an ability to correctly and efficiently access, analyze, apply, handle data and data sources covering knowledge, media, and information and communication technology (ict) literacy. meanwhile, the american library association's digital-literacy task force as cited in heitin (2016) defines it as “the ability to use information and communication technologies to find, evaluate, create, and communicate information, requiring both cognitive and technical skills" http://connect.ala.org/node/181197 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 405 (p. 5). based on the three definitions above, it can be concluded that digital literacy refers to an ability to traverse and understand, presume, and interact via various digital platforms. digital literacy skills from the definition made by trilling and fadel (2009) above, it is obvious that the skills covered by digital literacy are being literate in information, media, information, and communication technology (ict). likewise, chetty et al. (2018) formulate digital literacy skills more specific, that is, literacies in information, computer, media, communication, and technology. all those skills are related to the use of technology. as proposed by hatlevik and christophersen (2013), digital literacy skills comprise the skills in using technology, applying technology to obtain, process, evaluate, produce, communicate information. in reality, those skills are not owned by most people in this millennial era, especially those who are digital immigrants. but there is no guarantee that the digital natives who are generally tech-savvy are digitally literate. they need to keep upgrading their knowledge and skills of the new development of digital technology. regarding digital literacy skills, chetty et al. (2018) further explain information literacy as the skill to “search, retrieve, manipulate, evaluate, synthesize and create digital content” (p. 9); computer or ict literacy as the skill “to operate digital hardware and software” (p. 9); media literacy as the skill to “interact with textual, sound, images, videos, and social media” (p. 10); communication literacy as the skill “to communicate in traditional and innovative medium” (p. 10); and technology literacy as the skill “to adopt various technologies to a particular life situation” (p.10). importance of being digitally literate being digitally literate is important for most of the people in the world regardless they are digital immigrants or digital natives. in this digital era, the borders between/among countries are borderless and long-distance communication across countries and continents has been so simple because of the advancement of digital technology. nowadays, almost every profession insists on skills of digital literacy at some point. the current development of the covid-19 pandemic has drastically affected schooling and working, changing the face-to-face meeting to be online meetings. this condition enforces many people to equip themselves with digital literacy skills in order to utilize technology to interact with others and/or among themselves (spires et al., 2018). importance of being digitally literate for pre-service efl teachers teachers’ digital literacy is also important in this era. the roles of teachers have changed “from being an instructor to becoming a constructor, facilitator, coach, and creator of learning environments” (amin, 2016, p. 41). in other words, they encourage the growth of knowledge and skills of their students (eryansyah, erlina, fiftinova, & nurweni, 2019). to perform their current roles properly, they must increase their digital literacy. once they are already digitally literate, they can guide students to use search engine optimally, guide students to be ideal digital citizens, minimize the digital divide among their students, motivate maximum use of digital media, and for themselves, they can choose appropriate irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 406 applications or tools for teaching and improve their standards of teaching (ghosh, 2020). in brief, the use of digital technology in teaching has led to “improved students’ learning and better teaching methods” (ciroma, 2014, p. 99). there are two evidences that support the importance of being digitally literate for pre-service teachers. firstly, a study done by liza and andriyanti (2020) found that many efl teachers as well as pre-service efl teachers were still digitally illiterate. they were not prepared to integrate digital technology in their english class. secondly, some studies (dashtestani, 2014; fitriah, 2017; hedayati & marandi, 2014 as cited in liza & andriyanti, 2020) found that most teachers’ digital literacy skills are only limited to technical skills, operating the digital tools. they have low knowledge and skills in how to use digital technologies properly in teaching. another fact supporting pre-service efl teachers’ digital literacy development is due to a high number of students today accessing the internet with their own gadgets. therefore, as claimed by maher (2020), the ways students devour and deliver information for their individual and educational uses are changing and the change needs to be supported by developing efl teachers’ digital literacies including the pre-service efl teachers as the prospective teachers in this digital era. this study was carried out to explore the readiness of efl pre-service teachers to incorporate digital technology into their teaching by analyzing their current digital literacy competence and the factors that influence them to improve their digital literacy during their undergraduate study at the university. methodology research design, respondents, and sampling procedure this survey study involved a group of pre-service efl teachers from a public university in south sumatra province, indonesia. the research participants were the fourthyear students of english education study program, an education program under the faculty of teacher training and education. their participation in this study was achieved through a convenience sampling method. fraenkel and wallen (2006) define convenience sample as “a group of individuals who (conveniently) are available for study” (p. 99). they were convenient for this study since they were in their fourth year of study, which was the last year of study at an undergraduate program. they had fewer subjects to take compared to those in the third or second year of study. therefore, they had more leisure time that they could spend by participating as respondents in this study. 74 participants participated in this study. the majority of them were female students. the composition of their genders is described in the table below. table 1. research participants’ gender participant gender male percentage female percentage 17 22.98% 57 77.02% irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 407 data collection and analysis in this study, the research data were collected by means of ready-made questionnaires that were adopted from ravitz (2014). the questionnaires were used to gather data related to pre-service efl teachers’ current levels of digital literacy and factors influencing their digital literacy improvement during their undergraduate study at the university. the questionnaires were distributed to 74 (seventy-four) pre-service efl teachers who were the respondents of this study through convenient sampling approach. they were given access to complete the questionnaire via google form from 1 to 30 june 2020. there were six sections in the questionnaire. the first section asked pre-service efl teachers’ frequency of using digital devices where they were to choose one of the available options (all of the time, often, sometimes, rarely, never); the second section asked pre-service efl teachers’ frequency of using digital devices during studies where they were to choose one of the available options (almost daily, 1-3 times a week, 1-3 time a month, a few times a semester, and almost never); the third section asked about pre-service efl teachers’ frequency of using a computer and/or web applications during their studies where they were to choose one of the available options (very frequently, frequently, occasionally, rarely, very rarely, and never); the next section, section four, was about pre-service efl teachers’ self-rating of their current digital literacy competence where they were to choose one of the available options (very good, good, acceptable, poor, very poor, and do not know); the following section was about pre-service efl teachers’ attitude toward the use of digital technology in education where they were to rate their agreement from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree), and the final section of the questionnaire was about pre-service efl teachers’ self-awareness of factors affecting their use of ict in their studies at university where they were to choose any available factors affecting their digital literacy development during their study at university. data collected from questionnaires were assessed using google form focusing on high frequencies and percentages of responses made by the respondents. from the six sections of data gained from the questionnaires, only two sections of data findings were presented in this study to answer the two research questions stated under the introduction section. they were section 4 (pre-service efl teachers’ self-rating of their current digital literacy competence) to answer the first research questions and section 6 (factors affecting their digital literacy development) to answer the second research questions. ethical consideration as the participants in this study were from a public university in south sumatra province, ethical concerns (access to research participants, informed consent, and confidentiality) were considered. to obtain access to the research participants, we, as the researchers in this study, received a written approval from the dean of faculty of teacher training and education of the public university to conduct this study. when we met with the research participants online via zoom application to gather data, they were advised about the research goals and methods used benefits of their participation in the study, the signed agreement of their participation in the study, confidentiality of their participation in the study, and their rights to withdraw from the study. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 408 findings pre-service efl teachers’ current digital literacy skills to answer the first research question (pre-service efl teachers’ current digital literacy competence), data from section 4 were analyzed where the participants rated their digital literacy competence themselves by choosing one of the options, i.e. very good, good, acceptable, poor, very poor, or do not know. the findings as seen in table 2 below were presented in the forms of frequency and percentage from very good, good, acceptable, and poor categories only. if the frequencies and/or percentages of very good were high, the participants were categorized as having an excellent level of digital literacy skills; if the frequencies and/or percentages of good were high, they were considered having a good level of digital literacy skills; if the frequencies and/or percentages of acceptable were high, they were considered having an acceptable level of digital literacy skills; and if the frequencies and/or percentages of poor were high, they were considered having a low level of digital literacy skills. table 2. pre-service efl teachers’ current digital literacy skills statements very good good acceptable poor freq % freq % freq % freq % microsoft word 34 45.9 34 45.9 6 8.1 0 0.1 microsoft excel 11 14.9 29 39.2 26 35.1 8 10.8 microsoft access 19 25.7 12 16.2 22 29.7 21 28.4 microsoft powerpoint 29 39.2 29 39.2 16 21.6 0 0 communication applications (e.g., zoom, whatsapp, google meeting, skype) 45 60.8 24 32.4 5 6.8 0 0 learning management systems (e.g., moodle, canvas, edu-sharing) 9 12.2 20 27 27 36.5 18 24.3 social networking services (e.g., facebook, instagram, whatsapp, goodreads) 54 73 17 23 3 4 0 0 blogs 5 6.8 14 18.9 28 37.8 27 36.5 podcasts 2 2.7 14 18.9 16 21.6 42 56.8 online file sharing applications (e.g., dropbox, google drive) 21 28.4 33 44.6 18 24.3 2 2.7 online photo sharing application (e.g., picasa, flickr, google photos) 10 13.7 20 27.4 26 35.6 18 23.3 online video sharing sites (e.g., youtube, youku, younow, tune) 27 37 31 42.5 14 19.2 2 1.3 online web design applications (e.g., dreamweaver, figma, invision studio) 1 1.4 9 12.2 19 25.7 45 60.7 search engines (e.g., google, yahoo, bing) 44 59.5 22 29.7 7 9.5 1 1.3 online dictionary apps (e.g., dictionary.com, u-dictionary, meriam webster's) 30 40.5 32 43.2 11 14.9 1 1.4 mean 30.8% 30.7% 22% 16.5% irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 409 factors affecting pre-service efl teachers’ digital literacy development factors affecting pre-service efl teachers’ digital literacy skill development can be seen in table 3 below. these data were intended to answer the second research question (factors affecting pre-service efl teachers in developing their digital literacy during their study at university). table 3. factors affecting pre-service efl teachers’ digital literacy development statement frequency percentage students’ time constraints 34 47.3 teachers’ lack of knowledge 30 40.5 teachers’ lack of expertise 37 50 teachers’ lack of interest 24 32.4 students’ lack of training 44 59.5 lack of supporting resources 49 66.2 students’ lack of budget 57 77 students’ lack of knowledge 39 52.7 students’ lack of skills 35 47.3 students’ lack of interest 35 47.3 lack of learning materials 30 40.5 unavailability of facilities 68 91.9 based on the information in table 3 above, it could be seen that the biggest majority or 91.9% of the pre-service efl teachers considered that lack of facilities of digital devices available on campus was the main important factor affecting their digital literacy skills development. the second important factor affecting their digital literacy skill development was students’ lack of budget as claimed by 77% of them. lack of supporting resources was considered the next factor as claimed by 66.2% of them. more than half or 59.5% of them considered a lack of training on digital literacy technology was the next factor affecting their digital literacy development. about half of them (52.7%) considered a lack of knowledge and another half (50%) considered teachers’ lack of skills are the other factors affecting them from developing their digital literacy skills. meanwhile, less than half of them considered their lack of interest in digital technology (47.3%), their lack of knowledge (47.3%), their lack of time (47.3%) and, teachers’ lack of knowledge (40.5%), and lack of learning materials (40.5%) as the other factors affecting their digital literacy skill development. discussion based on the information described in table 2 above, it could be seen that in general, the majority of the pre-service efl teachers involved in this study were in excellent and good levels of their digital literacy skills. most of them were excellent in using social networking services (73%), communication applications (60.8%), web search engines (59.5%). there were less than half (45.9%) of them who were excellent in using word irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 410 processor application. also, data from the table above revealed that less than half (45.9%) of the pre-service efl teachers were in a good level of using word processor, 44.6% of them were in good level of using online file sharing applications, 42.5% of them were good in using video sharing online. in contrast, data from the table above showed that more than half (60.7%) of the pre-service efl teachers were in a poor level of using web design applications, less than half (56.8%) of them were poor in using podcasts. based on the description of the findings above, it could be concluded that pre-service efl teachers’ current digital literacy skills were between good and excellent categories. this fact could be seen from the mean of percentages at each level (see the last line of the table) where 30.8% of the pre-service efl teachers’ current digital literacy skill level was in the excellent category and 30.7% of them was in a good category. as the percentage of those in excellent category and those in good category were almost the same, the total combination of those two percentages were 61.5%, in general, indicated that more than half of the respondents were categorized above acceptable level of digital literacy. from the data obtained from table 3 above, it was apparent that many crucial factors were affecting pre-service efl teachers’ digital literacy skill development. those factors could be grouped into three. they were from the pre-service efl teachers themselves, their lecturers, and the campus. three important factors from campus were unavailability of digital devices on campus that could be assessed by the students for free, their literacy of digital technology did not develop properly as there were no supporting resources, either. in addition, the campus did not provide any training related to the use of digital technology. these three factors hindered the students from developing their digital literacy skills on campus. from the pre-service efl teachers themselves, five factors were affecting them from developing their digital literacy skills properly. those factors were students’ lack of budget, knowledge, skills, interest, and time. three important factors from the lecturers’ side were lecturers’ lack of knowledge, skills, and interest. among the three groups of factors, the pre-service efl teachers considered those from the university side were the most important factors. conclusions the study narrated in this article was focused on the investigation of pre-service efl teachers’ current digital literacy level to keep up with the needs of 21 st century education. to meet the demands, their current levels of digital literacy and factors affecting them from developing their digital literacy skill properly were investigated. research findings showed that the majority of them were above the acceptable level. more than 30% of them were at an excellent level and another 30% were at a good level of digital literacy skills. the main factors affecting their digital literacy development were the unavailability of digital devices free to access for them and no supporting resources and lack of training in using digital devices for study. this condition became worse because the majority of them were lack of budget to buy digital devices and subscribe to broadband and their lecturers were lack of knowledge and interest in digital technology. all these factors seem to explain why there were only a small percentage of the total pre-service efl teachers involved as respondents in this study were at excellent level of their digital literacy. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 411 this study is aware of certain limitations, i.e. small number of samples, time restrictions, less diverse instruments used, and non-generalizable research findings. however, its findings have also given useful information. the authors, therefore, suggest further analysis of the research topic with more samples, different research methods, and a longer duration of time to carry out the study. as a result, a more generalized inference can be reached on pre-service efl teachers’ digital literacy to keep up with the demands of 21 st century education. disclosure statement the authors declare that there is no conflict of interest in relation to the publication of this article. references amin, j. n. 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(2013). preparing teachers for the 21st century (vol. 21). new york, ny: springer. biographical notes eryansyah is an assistant professor at language and arts education department, faculty of teacher training and education, sriwijaya university in palembang, indonesia. he obtained his ph.d. degree in applied linguistics at waikato university in hamilton, new zealand. his research interest includes the use of technology in language learning. email: eryansyah@unsri.ac.id ismail petrus is an assistant professor at language and arts education department, faculty of teacher training and education, sriwijaya university in palembang, indonesia. he obtained his doctoral degree in english education at universitas pendidikan indonesia in bandung, indonesia. email: ismailpetrus15@gmail.com sri indrawati is an associate professor at language and arts education department, faculty of teacher training and education, sriwijaya university in palembang, indonesia. she obtained his ph.d. degree in discourse study at universiti pendidikan sultan idris in tanjung malim, perak, malaysia. email: sriindra_unsri@yahoo.com ernalida is an associate professor at language and arts education department, faculty of teacher training and education, sriwijaya university in palembang, indonesia. she obtained her ph.d. degree in discourse study at universiti pendidikan sultan idris in tanjung malim, perak, malaysia. she is currently the head of indonesian education study program, faculty of teacher. training and education, sriwijaya university. email: ernalida.fkip.@unsri.ac.id https://www.aeseducation.com/blog/what-are-21st-century-skills mailto:eryansyah@unsri.ac.id mailto:ismailpetrus15@gmail.com mailto:sriindra_unsri@yahoo.com mailto:ernalida.fkip.@unsri.ac.id this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 104 e-module based on blended learning for islamic religious education learning muhammad sulaiman* abstract islamic religious education is teaching, guidance, and care for students, who are expected to understand, appreciate, and practice the teachings of islam and make it a way of life for individuals and society. the covid-19 pandemic changed the teaching patterns in class, giving birth to distance learning patterns facilitated by digital technology-based online learning media to deliver learning. one of the digital technology-based learning media that can make learning more meaningful is blended learning-based e-modules. this research aimed to develop e-modules based on blended learning that can be used in islamic religious education learning and accessed through devices. the method used in this research was the research and development method with the addie approach, which includes five stages, namely the needs analysis stage, the design stage, the development stage, the implementation stage and the evaluation stage. this e-module is written in a communicative language accompanied by pictures and videos. the e-module contains learning activities following the blended learning syntax. this research was to test the feasibility of the e-module. the validation test assessment was a likert scale questionnaire with expert respondents (material and media) and trials with teacher and student respondents. the results of this research were blended learning-based e-modules, which were validated and tested. based on the preliminary research results, the developed e-module was expected to be suitable as a meaningful learning medium for students. keywords addie, blended learning, e-module article history received 20 february 2023 accepted 25 may 2023 how to cite sulaiman, m. (2023). e-module based on blended learning for islamic religious education learning. indonesian research journal in education |irje|, 7(1), 104 – 120. https://doi.org/10.22437/irje .v7i1.23885 * universitas terbuka, indonesia; corresponding author: muhammad.sulaiman@ecampus.ut.ac.id https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v7i1.23885 https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v7i1.23885 mailto:muhammad.sulaiman@ecampus.ut.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 105 introduction the subject of islamic religious education is a conscious and planned effort to prepare students to believe, understand, live, and practice islamic teachings through guidance, teaching, and training activities. government regulation stated that religious education is education that provides knowledge, forms attitudes, personality, and skills of students in practicing their religious teachings, which is carried out at least through subjects/lectures in all pathways, levels, and types of education (ministry of religious affairs, mora, 2010). islamic religious education in public schools aims to increase students' faith, understanding, appreciation, and practice of islamic religious teachings so that they become muslim people who fear allah and have a noble character in personal, social, national, and state life. al-qur'an hadith is a cluster of islamic religious education subjects given to students to understand the al-qur'an and hadith as a source of islamic religious teachings and practice their views as a guide and foundation in everyday life. thus, islamic religious education has a paramount role in shaping the nation's next generation whose noble character, character, and willingness to apply their knowledge for the good and progress of the person, society, nation, and state (adzim & anam, 2020). for the goals of islamic religious education to be achieved, it is necessary to have effective learning where appropriate learning strategies are used in learning, determine the steps for activities to be carried out and the facilities infrastructure to be used, as well as the media to be used, the material to be delivered, as well as the methodology used in carrying out learning activities ). the development of information and (jalaluddin, 2016 communication technology is very influential in learning. when the covid-19 pandemic hit the world, learning switched to distance learning. distance learning activities rely heavily on information and communication technology that bridges interaction, communication, and collaboration between teachers and students who are separated by distance. the use of information and communication technology during distance learning during the covid-19 pandemic will encourage an increase in technological literacy, resulting in new habits in the learning process increasing information and communication (dziuban et al., 2018). technology literacy impacts the development of various learning media and provides easy access for students as a source of independent learning materials. one of the independent teaching materials is the module. the existence of technology in learning does not only affect teachers and students but also affects the value of the subject. the knowledge and skills of students related to technology will provide benefits to students in the learning process in the classroom. they can also contribute to solving daily life problems in the future (cronje, 2020). the use of blended learning is an alternative to learning activities. blended learning embodies learning methods that eliminate the barriers of place, situation, and time and allows for high-quality interactions between teachers and students while implementing distance education practices emphasizing the flexibility of time, place, and learners' learning speed (fatmianeri et al., 2021). creating effective and interactive learning in learning islamic religious education, which is considered a boring, uninteresting, and monotonous lesson, irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 106 makes learning ineffective and decreases student learning outcomes as learning evaluation material. for this reason, it is necessary to have the effort to explore, stimulate, and attract the attention and interest of students in learning so that motivation and learning outcomes are created by learning objectives (abroto et al., 2021). in addition, riswan (2022) declared the students feel the practicality of the adaptive e-learning model designed that has met the expectations of students in the learning process. this model's success is due to carefully considering what has been suggested by some experts. the result of the achievement degree of the practicalities test showed the number ranged from 82, 1%. it meant that blended learning model web centric course (blwcc) models had been able to meet the expectations of students towards project management information systems (ipms) learning, both in terms of constructivism, interactivity, problem-based learning, and learning styles in a good category. the purpose of this research was to develop digital-based teaching materials that can be used in a variety of circumstances and situations. one of the digital-based teaching materials that will be developed is the e-module. literature review module and electronic module the module is a type of independent learning material that is a program package arranged in the form of a definite unit and designed in such a way for students' learning interests. one module package usually has a teacher guide component, student activity sheets, student worksheets, and worksheet keys, test sheets, and test sheet keys. modules are proven to be able to help students in the independent learning process. the module as a teaching material plays a vital role in the learning process, which can improve the quality of learning; with teaching materials such as modules, the teacher's role shifts to that of a facilitator. it is because modules as learning resources designed according to learning needs will make students active and independent learners. the learning process through modules requires students to try to understand the material's content, find sources of information, and solve problems independently. they are also invited to take more initiative in carrying out learning activities. even though it carries independent learning, the module allows students to study and discuss with friends. the learning modules used in the learning process must be adapted to the goals and problems the teacher faces, whether printed or electronic. it has been mentioned above that there are two types of modules: print and electronic. electronic modules, better known as e-modules, are necessary, especially in the era of the covid-19 pandemic, where access to learning media has shifted from print to electronic, which can be accessed through devices. the existence of electronic modules that utilize (ict) information and communication technology is expected to make students become independent learners. e-modules can be used as electronic teaching materials at every level of education and every subject. in making the e-module, several things must be considered, namely, whether the e-module is self-instructional, self-contained, standalone, adaptive, and user-friendly. e-module can be made following the components of the learning model so the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 107 development is more meaningful. e-modules based on differentiated instruction for blended learning, for example, have increased students' interest in learning and helped them to access learning resources through devices during the distance learning process. blended learning stated that blended learning is the combination of bonk and graham (2006) instruction from two historically separate models of teaching and learning: traditional learning systems and distributed learning systems. it emphasizes the central role of computer-based technologies in blended learning. blended learning combines two learning models: traditional learning (face-to-face) and technology-based learning. learning using blended learning is considered more effective when compared to learning that only uses conventional methods and vice versa. research by stacey and gerbic (2009) stated the differences between online and face-to-face discussions indicate three primary areas of difference, which result in strengths and weaknesses which may appeal to different learning needs and course goals:  the presence or absence of phatic (visual/aural) cues which provide (a) a rich nonverbal communication environment, with high levels of monitoring and feedback, where the conversation is competitive and requires confidence, especially to disagree, and it is easier to build rapport and trust or (b) a more impersonal medium with reduced phatic, and social cues, where messages are more difficult to understand, where there is less social cohesion or less responsibility for the conversation, but also more free communication for some participants.  synchronous and asynchronous timing provide either (a) rapid spontaneous and free-flowing dialogue, generally on one subject, at a particular time and place, or (b) space to reflect and think at one’s own pace, on multiple subjects, but often taking more time.  speech and text-based communication where (a) the emphasis is on listening and talking, communication is quick and easy for confident speakers of the language and ephemeral, and (b) the emphasis is on reading and writing, so there is a record, so messages are often carefully thought out and written, although participation takes time and can result in information overload.  blended learning is a learning facility that combines various ways of delivery, teaching models, and learning styles, using several dialogue media between the facilitator and the person receiving the teaching. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 108 figure 1. the concept of blended learning the advantages of using blended learning as a combination of face -to-face and online teaching, but more than that as an element of social interaction, are:  there is an interaction between the teacher (teaching) and the students  teaching can be done face-to-face or online  blended learning = combining instructional modalities (or delivery media),  blended learning = combining instructional methods according to , there are five keys to carrying out learning with blended carman (2002), learning, namely:  live events (face to face), direct or face-to-face learning is still the main pattern of educators in teaching. this face-to-face learning can be done directly or synchronously simultaneously but in different places.  self-paced learning, in learning that allows students to learn anytime and anywhere online. learning content needs to be specially designed for both text and multimedia.  collaboration, it combines collaboration between teachers and cooperation between students. collaboration can be packaged in communication tools such as forums, chatrooms, e-mail, websites, etc.  assessment (assessment of learning outcomes), it is an essential step in the implementation of the learning process. the assessment is carried out to know how far students have mastered competencies. assessment is also a reference for teachers to follow up in implementing learning. teachers must also be able to mix a combination of online and offline assessments, both tests and non-tests.  performance support materials, teaching materials become an essential component in the learning process. learning with blended learning should be packaged in digital and printed form so students can easily access it. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 109 figure 2. flow on the addie model irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 110 table 1. variable operational definitions no. variables operational definition measuring method data scale 1. electronic module (e-module) independent teaching materials that are presented are ict-based and can be accessed through devices that can load pictures and videos media expert validation questionnaire with aspects graphics presentation design language and writing likert scale of 1-5 2. blended learning blended learning is a learning facility that combines various ways of delivery, teaching models, and learning styles, using multiple dialogue media between the facilitator and the person receiving the teaching. blended learning can also be said to be a combination of direct and online teaching. learning expert validation questionnaire with aspects module components design language and writing graphics contextual evaluation instrument likert scale of 1-5 material expert validation questionnaire with aspects module components module content accuracy presentation likert scale of 1-5 3. e-module based on blended learning in pai learning the e-modules that have been developed are guided by the principles of blended learning and are then tested in the field field trial questionnaire with aspects module components graphics presentation design language and writing likert scale of 1-5 methodology this research was research and development (research and development). the research design used was mixed (mixed method). the product of this development research was in the form of blended learning-based e-module teaching materials for class x students of sma muhammadiyah 1 palembang for the 2022-2023 academic year. the development design that will be used in this research is addie (branch, 2010). below are the addie design stages. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 111 figure 3. addie design the following is an explanation of the addie research phase that researchers will conduct: analysis phase (analyze) the analysis stage is where the researcher analyzes the need for developing teaching materials and the feasibility and requirements for development. the author's stages of analysis cover three things: need analysis, curriculum analysis, and student analysis. the steps of analysis carried out by the author are as follows. needs analysis, students' lack of interest and motivation to understand and study the lessons of the qur'an and hadith is often an obstacle. qur'an hadith education in the islamic religious education class is synonymous with boring lessons with teachers who tend to be elderly, so they only use classical or lecture learning methods. based on a survey conducted by the author and students, there were 74% of students considered learning the qur'an hadith to be difficult and tedious in studying the qur'an hadith, especially material about obedience to irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 112 worship and trustworthy khalifatullah from textbooks that tend to be thick. for this reason, it is necessary to have a companion module as a means of independent learning to collaborate face-to-face and remote learning, especially during the covid-19 pandemic or during the new normal as it is today. curriculum analysis is carried out to determine the material to be discussed in the e-module. five basic competencies must be achieved by class x sma muhammadiyah 1 palembang student, namely: first, living islamic teachings about the role of humans as abdullah and khalifah fil 'ard, second, behaving obediently and responsibly as a reflection of the meaning of abdullah and khalifatullah fil ardh, third, reading qs. al baqarah: 30, qs. adz dzariyat: 56, an nahl: 78 regarding human status as abdullah and khalifah fil 'ardh and related hadiths, fourth demonstrating memorizing qs. al baqarah: 30, and or qs. adz dzariyat: 56, and an nahl: 78 regarding the human situation as abdullah and khalifah fil 'ardh and related hadiths, fifth presenting the relationship of qs. al baqarah: 30, qs. adz dzariyat: 56, and an nahl: 78 regarding human status as abdullah and khalifah fil 'ardh and related hadiths. characteristics of students, this analysis was carried out to see students' interest in the qur'an hadith education lesson so that the development carried out was by the character of students at sma muhammadiyah 1 palembang design stage the second stage of the addie model is designed. this stage starts with designing e-modules that will be developed according to the results of the analysis carried out previously. furthermore, the design stage is carried out by determining the elements needed in the e-module. the e-module design that will be made includes the following:  the opening section contains the cover with the editorial sentence of the e-module. qur'an hadith education "obeying worship and trustworthy khalifah" class x sma muhammadiyah 1 palembang.  the contents of the e-module section include core competency (ki), basic competency (kd), learning objectives, concept maps, learning materials, assignments, evaluation, and habituation.  the concluding section includes reflections and references. at this stage, the researcher also compiled instruments that would be used to assess the developed e-module. the instrument was prepared by considering aspects of the e-module assessment, namely aspects of content feasibility, language feasibility, presentation feasibility, and suitability with the blended learning approach. development stage (develop) e-modules are created using the flipbook maker application; the first created is a module using microsoft word 2010 with a simple and interactive design, then converted into an e-module with the flipbook maker application to make it easier for students to access the e-module. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 113 implementation stage (implementation) the e-module has been tested on a small scale containing 10 class x students at sma muhammadiyah 1 palembang, then stretched on a large scale, namely one class at sma muhammadiyah 1 palembang, with fascinating criteria. evaluation stage (evaluation) after the interest test was carried out, the next step was effectiveness, as shown by the pretest and post-test on 20 students at sma muhammadiyah 1 palembang, as a measure of the effectiveness of the e-module being developed. there are 15 items, and the value entered will be calculated by the formula. ∑ figure 4. addie development model research design, site, and participants the subjects of this research were students of class x.10 sma muhammadiyah 1 palembang, while the object of this research was e-modules, based on blended learning for students of class x sma muhammadiyah. data collection and analysis in this research, the instruments used are e-module assessment sheet and response questionnaire. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 114  e-module assessment sheet by material experts, the e-module assessment sheet by the material expert is given to a lecturer with specific expertise in the material being developed. this instrument aims to determine the validity value of the e-module, which was developed based on aspects of competence, content, and conformity with islamic religious education. this e-module assessment sheet is structured with five (5) answers, namely: absolutely inappropriate (ai), inappropriate (i), slightly appropriate (sa), appropriate (a), and absolutely appropriate (aa).  e-module assessment sheet by media experts, the e-module assessment sheet by the material expert is given to a lecturer with specifications in the media field. this instrument aims to determine the validity value of e-modules developed based on aspects of language, presentation, and graphics. similar to the assessment by material experts, the evaluation by media experts was also prepared with five (5) answers, namely: absolutely inappropriate (ai), inappropriate (i), slightly appropriate (sa), appropriate (a), and absolutely appropriate (aa).  student response questionnaire which were given to students at the end of the study after the e-module had been tried out. the instrument aims to determine students' responses and responses to the e-module that has been developed. findings and discussion the module is one of several effective and efficient media and prioritizes student independence in learning material. stated that a module is a package istuningsih et al. (2018) that contains teaching material concepts. according to , a module is a istuningsih et al. (2018) learning package that includes an image from teaching materials. in the era of digital technology, many technologies can provide various information. technology grows with the times. with the rapid development of technology that is increasingly sophisticated and flexible, and accessible at an affordable price, the modules that have so far been printed have also changed. the current module is presented in digital form, which is also called an e-module. by definition, a module is a self-learning package that includes a series of planned learning experiences. modules are systematically designed to help students achieve learning objectives. modules are specific learning materials arranged in an operational, systematic, and directed manner accompanied by guidelines of using so that students can use them to study independently. modules have high adaptive power in developing science, then collaborating with technology. adaptive here can be turned off, and modules can quickly and flexibly adjust according to developments in science and technology. through modules, students can study independently, not depend on others, and the material can be fully explored. this development research produced a product, namely an e-module based on blended learning on the al-qur'an hadith education material "obedient worship and a trustworthy caliph" for class x sma muhammadiyah, after carrying out several stages of developing the addie model. the e-module is created through the flip builder application and published on an html page with the link: https://online.flipbuilder.com/stafd/keag/ https://online.flipbuilder.com/stafd/keag/ irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 115 figure 5. cover page of e-module with flip builder this e-module contains material about obedience to worship and a trustworthy caliph, intended for students as a companion to independent teaching materials that can be used during face-to-face and distance learning. figure 6. concept map of the obedience of worship and faithful khalifah e-module irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 116 based on the analysis of response data from users of this e-module, an average response of 80% was obtained as a positive answer. this data was obtained by distributing questionnaires to 10 class x students as a research sample in e-module development. response questionnaires were given to students when the e-module went through expert tests (material and media experts). the validation results of media experts show satisfactory results, and this e-module is feasible to use with a little revision; the revision here is in terms of appearance because the appearance of this e-module is considered somewhat less attractive to media experts. the graph for testing the validity of this e-module is in the table below. figure 7. graph of media expert responses based on the graph above, 55% strongly agree that this e-module is very interesting. in comparison, the other 45% agree that this e-module is exciting and easy to help students understand the material of obedience to worship and a trustworthy caliph. while the material expert validation showed very satisfactory results, this e-module is suitable for use as teaching material on obedient worship and trustworthy khalifah material because it is in the curriculum of islamic religious education in muhammadiyah schools. the graph for testing the validity of this e-module is in the table below. figure 8. graph of material expert responses 0 50 100 sts ks c s ss m e d i a e x p e r t v a l i d a t i o n 20 40 60 80 100 0 50 100 sts ks c s ss 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 15 0 0 0 0 0 85 m a t e r i a l s 20 40 60 80 100 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 117 based on the graph above, 85% strongly agree that this e-module is easy to use. in comparison, the other 15% agree that this e-module can quickly help students understand the material of obedience to worship and a trustworthy caliph. still, technically, e-module this module uses internet data, so an adequate data package must support its use. it can be circumvented when learning is carried out remotely; students who cannot yet access it can join friends whose homes are nearby and have internet access. based on the questionnaire distributed to students, the results are as follows. figure 9. questionnaire analysis results based on the data that has been analyzed, the data shows that 10% of respondents think it is pretty good, 50% of respondents agree that the e-module material is easy to use, and the remaining 40% strongly agree that the module material is easy to use. as well as the evaluation presented in the e-module is by the discussion presented in the e-module material content. discussion research on blended learning has become increasingly popular after the pandemic because the need for distance learning has become a necessity. nevertheless, of course, some things need attention. the research conducted by (ambusaidi & al abri, 2023) explained that there are the factors that stimulate students to learn in a distance-learning environment, first, intrinsic motivation for teachers and second, the availability of digital content in distance-learning environments. so, providing digital content is one of many things that guarantee successful learning. based on the meaningful online learning model, teachers in this research at least had an awareness of some of the strategies (exploration, discussion, scaffolding, and role-playing). in contrast, collaboration, reflection, and articulation of strategies needed to be included among teachers. it is recommended that this research expands the survey of teachers to a larger sample of teachers. sts, 0 ks, 0 c, 10 s, 50 ss, 40 sts ks c s ss sales irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 118 the research by also demonstrated that blended learning yajie and jumaat (2023) can improve english-language proficiency because blended learning, which replaces the traditional classroom with a more flexible and creative one that is not constrained by time or place, is becoming increasingly important for educational institutions. batista-toledo and demonstrated that a positive experience with blended learning contributes gavilan (2023) positively to student satisfaction and affective commitment. these results are broadly in line with what has been suggested by the previous literature. specifically, the different dimensions of experience influence satisfaction, with cognitive–affective and social– behavioral experiences having the most significant effect. although he also noted that there needs to be a great effort to foster socialization among students. the research conducted by also stated that blended learning is suitable for vocational learning. basori et al. (2023) teaching in undergraduate dental education also helps strengthen the possibility of blended learning being used and welcomed positively by students. not all studies on the effectiveness of digital learning, particularly blended learning, have been praised. although the research by reveals photopoulos and triantis (2022) excellent results for online learning, it also has several drawbacks. concerns about the pupils' mental health and a strong preference for face-to-face interactions with teachers and classmates are evident here. international organizations were frightened by these findings, which delayed the immediate restructuring of education. conclusion based on the results of research on the development of e-modules based on blended learning, on hadith material about obedience to worship and trustworthy caliphs in the subject of al-qur'an hadith education class x sma muhammadiyah, it can be concluded as follows. first, this development research produces an e-module product based on blended learning with the addie (analyze, design, development, implementation, evaluation) development stages. second, this e-module pays attention to the benefits and needs of students in understanding the concept of obedience to worship and a trustworthy caliph at the x-grade senior high school level. they are studied in learning. fourth, this e-module is made using the flip building application, with an interactive design, simple and easy to apply, and is accompanied by exercises and evaluations that are appropriate to the material. fifth, the validation results from material and media experts and questionnaires on students show that this e-module is suitable for use in the learning process, which requires face-to-face and distance learning processes. this research also has the limitation of not being able to test a broader range of respondents. the next suggestion for this research is to have better collaboration in mastering visual communication design to optimize the creation of graphic e-module designs. declaration of conflicting interests the author declares no potential conflicts of interest. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 119 references abroto, a., maemonah, m., & ayu, n. p. (2021). pengaruh metode blended learning dalam meningkatkan motivasi dan hasil belajar siswa sekolah dasar (the influence of the blended learning method in improving the motivation and learning outcomes of elementary school students). edukatif: jurnal ilmu pendidikan, 3(5), 1993–2000. adzim, a., & anam, f. k. (2020). persepsi dan respon guru pendidikan agama islam terhadap kebijakan pendidikan keagamaan di masa pandemi covid-19 (perception and response of islamic religious education teachers to religious education policy during the covid-19 pandemic). al murabbi: jurnal pendidikan agama islam, 6(1), 1–10. ambusaidi, a., & al abri, m. h. (2023). exploring teaching experience in distance learning during covid-19: a qualitative case study. international journal of information and education technology, 13(2), 335–343. basori, b., sajidan, s., akhyar, m., & wiranto, w. (2023). blended learning model towards vocational students’ learning outcomes: a scoping review. international journal of evaluation and research in education, 12(1), 205–215. batista-toledo, s., & gavilan, d. (2023). student experience, satisfaction and commitment in blended learning: a structural equation modelling approach. mathematics, 11(3), 749. bonk, c. j., & graham, c. r. (2006). the handbook of blended learning, global perspective, local designs. pfeiffer, a wiley imprint. branch, r. m. (2010). instructional design: the addie approach. new york: springer. carman, j. m. (2002). blended learning design:: five keys ingredients.. knowledgenet. cronje, j. c. (2020). towards a new definition of blended learning. electronic journal of e-learning, 18(2), 114–135. dziuban, c., graham, c. r., moskal, p. d., norberg, a., & sicilia, n. (2018). blended learning: the new normal and emerging technologies. international journal of educational technology in higher education, 15(1), 1-16. fatmianeri, y., hidayanto, e., & susanto, h. (2021). pengembangan modul elektronik berbasis differentiated instruction untuk pembelajaran blended learning (development of differentiated instruction-based electronic modules for blended learning.). jipm (jurnal ilmiah pendidikan matematika), 10(1), 50-62. istuningsih, w., baedhowi, b., & sangka, k. b. (2018). the effectiveness of scientific approach using e-module based on learning cycle 7e to improve students’ learning outcome. international journal of educational research review, 3(3), 75-85. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 120 jalaluddin. (2016). pendidikan islam, pendekatan sistem dan proses (islamic education, system and process approach). raja grafindo persada. ministry of religious affairs, mora. (2010). peraturan menteri agama republik indonesia nomor 16 tahun 2010 tentang pengelolaan pendidikan agama pada sekolah (regulation of the minister of religion of the republic of indonesia number 16 of 2010 concerning the management of religious education in schools). jakarta: kementerian agama. photopoulos, p., & triantis, d. (2022). "think twice: first for tech, then for ed”. sn computer science, 4(2), 123. riswan. (2022). the design of adaptive learning model to support the application of blended learning how to cite. irje |indonesian research journal in education, 6(1), 58-70. stacey, e., & gerbic, p. (2009). effective blended learning practices: evidence-based perspectives in ict-facilitated education. igi global. yajie, c., & jumaat, n. f. b. (2023). blended learning design of english language course in higher education: a systematic review. in international journal of information and education technology, 13(2), 364-372. biographical note muhammad sulaiman is working at universitas terbuka, indonesia this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 77 parental and children language politeness strategies as a form of education in family hastari mayrita 1* , putri sukma balkist 2 , andina muchti 3 , and yeni ernawati 4 abstract the research aimed to explore the forms of language politeness principles for parents and young children in the family environment and to describe how parents instill politeness in early childhood in the family environment. a research method is a qualitative case study. researchers used observation, note-taking, and recording techniques in data collection. data analysis was carried out chronologically and categorically. the findings of this research were six forms of politeness principles, namely the maxim of tact, generosity, acceptance, humility, agreement, and sympathy from various interactions. based on the findings of politeness maxims, it is necessary to apply politeness patterns to children in the family. it is to foster children's language behavior under the expectations and upbringing of parents because language behavior in the family influences their language behavior. keywords education, family, language politeness article history received 11 february 2023 accepted 12 april 2023 how to cite mayrita, h., balkist, p.s., muchti, a., & ernawati, y (2023). parental and children language politeness strategies as a form of education in family. indonesian research journal in education |irje|, 7(1), 77 – 92. https://doi.org/10.22437/irje .v7i1.23798 1*universitas bina darma, palembang, south sumatra, indonesia; corresponding author: hastari_mayrita@binadarma.ac.id 2,3,4 universitas bina darma, palembang, south sumatra, indonesia https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v7i1.23798 https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v7i1.23798 mailto:hastari_mayrita@binadarma.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 78 introduction according to , a language is a group of people who often use random chaer (2010) sound symbols to communicate with each other. however, masinambouw (1998) emphasized that a language is a tool for communicating with others. kridalaksana (2013) stated language is an arbitrary sound-symbol system that is used by a group of people to work together, communicate, and identify themselves. the conclusion from the three opinions before is that language is a set of arbitrary sound symbols that people use to communicate with each other by expressing ideas, opinions, thoughts, or feelings. the function of language is divided into three functions, namely ideational is a tool for conveying messages, interpersonal is a tool for expressing attitudes by speakers to their interlocutors, and textual is a tool for composing an implied message (halliday & webster, 2003). according to yusuf (2021), communication is a process of creating meaning conveyed by two or more people. based on the explanation above, communication is a way to convey information carried out by several people, such as ideas and opinions for other parties, including one party or group. additionally, stated pragmatics is a leech (1993) science that studies meaning and how it relates to situations when speaking. meanwhile, according to pragmatics is a study that relates to branches of linguistics and yule (2006), language forms. based on the two explanations presented by the two experts above, pragmatics is a branch of linguistics related to communication between speakers and interlocutors. these speakers use language effectively when speaking. stated a chaer (2010) speech act is an utterance given by a speaker to convey a message implied through a situation that has been experienced by the speaker. therefore, a speech act is an utterance that is expressed by a speaker and an interlocutor to convey a message and a situation that has been experienced by the speaker. according to fraser (1990), language politeness is a quality associated with communication. in this case, the interlocutor believes that the speaker does not exceed his rights or refuses to carry out his obligations. based on the explanation above, politeness is utterance or good behavior by the speaker in interacting with the interlocutor. it is this manner of speaking that stands out as seen from the quality of the personality of the person speaking because the better and more polite the person speaking is considered a person who has good ethics or personality and vice versa. politeness is not only seen in speech and behavior when speaking but also seen from intonation when speaking. language politeness has an essential role in a person's personality development, especially in early childhood when the child is still in the process of self-development, attitudes, and character. in everyday life, humans who use polite language are often referred to as humans who have high ethics by using smooth and polite language when speaking, low intonation when speaking, and good behavior when speaking both as a speaker and as a speech partner. vice versa, if the speaker uses language that is rude or not good, uses high intonation, and his behavior when speaking is not good, the speaker can be called someone with an impolite personality. therefore, language politeness is essential for life in society, as well as in the family environment. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 79 according to a family is a household that is related by blood or lestari (2012), marriage which provides the implementation of instrumental functions as well as expressive functions of the family for its members who are in one network. based on the explanation above, the role of the family is the implementation of rights and obligations in a household that contains fathers, mothers, and children who have their respective duties. in general, polite language is good for communication because it can reflect the speaker’s personality when spoken. language politeness should be taught from an early age through the family environment and in the surrounding. the family has an essential role because this family is the first benchmark for children to get early teaching from their parents so that a polite personality can be formed. conversely, if the teaching from parents is not good in speech or attitude, the child will imitate it. based on the results of the observations, researchers feel interested in choosing the topic the “phenomenon of language behavior of parents and children: cases of politeness in language as a form of education in the family”, because researchers find problems that researchers will solve thoroughly. initial data on the principle of language politeness that researchers have obtained from conversations between parents and early childhood in the family environment, namely:  sister: mom, sister put on a new hair clip.  mother: wow, you look very pretty when you wear this new clip. the speech between a child and her mother includes the principle of politeness in the maxim of generosity because, for this reason, the maxim of generosity has the principle of maximizing respect for others and minimizing disrespect for others, leech (1993). the language politeness that will be studied by researchers is a conversation between a parent and four years old child, with the initial 'z' in the family of the father with the initial 'i', and the mother with the initial 'n' in the family environment. this research used leech’s (1993) theory because this theory is considered the most established, the most relevant, the most complete, and the most perfect of the other theories. therefore, researchers feel interested in using a theory to complete this research. the principle of politeness, in leech (1993) consists of the maxim of wisdom, acceptance, generosity, humility, compatibility, and sympathy. based on the background described above, the formulation of the research problem is: (1) how do the principles of language politeness form between parents and early childhood in the family environment i and n? and (2) how do parents instill language politeness to early childhood in the family environment i and n? the purposes of this research are: (1) to describe the form of politeness principles between parents and young children in the family environment i and n, and (2) to describe how parents instill language politeness in early childhood in the family environment i and n. the novelty in this research is the maxim of politeness obtained through speech between parents and children in a family environment as a form of education in the family. methodology research design, site, and participants this research method is descriptive qualitative with a case study because it will focus on a case (creswell, 2016). the data in this research were primary data. this research is like observation or prior observation of phenomena in the i and n family environment that irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 80 would be observed. after the observation, the researcher records the conversations between parents and early childhood and records the results of the recorded conversations related to the formulation of the research problem so that researchers get a speech that contains the principles of language politeness, and the way parents instill language politeness in early childhood in the i and n family environment. data sources and time of research in collecting data, first, the researcher made observations for a few days. after the observation, the researcher started recording a conversation between parents and early childhood when they were interacting, whether they were playing, drawing, singing, or counting. then, the researcher recorded the speech in the recorded conversation, which contained the form of politeness principles (leech, 1993) and how parents instill language politeness in these early childhoods. the object of this research is the speech between parents and four years old children. the child's initial is z. table 1. research data sources speech from code mother n father i child z data collection techniques this research is qualitative with a case study approach . for data (creswell, 2016) collection, the researchers used observation, recording, and note-taking techniques. the observations are to determine the speech between parents and early childhood in the family environment. furthermore, the researchers recorded a speech between parents and early childhood when they were carrying out interactions related to forms of politeness principles, as well as how parents instill politeness in early childhood. the final step is the note-taking technique. in this technique, the researchers recorded the results of the recordings. this technique is to make the researchers easier to determine the recording results that contain the form of politeness principles and how parents instill language politeness. data analysis techniques according to (creswell, 2016), the data analysis techniques in this research will be arranged chronologically and categorically based on the data collection. the steps for qualitative data analysis are in the form of an identification stage by collecting data or information in advance related to the problem discussed. the second step of classification is grouping the problem. it will be thoroughly discussed in the research. the third step of interpretation is reinterpreting the data that has been obtained by researchers related to the form of language politeness principles and how parents instill language politeness in early irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 81 childhood. the last step is reporting. at this stage, the researcher writes down the results of the data analysis that has been obtained by the researcher relating to the form of politeness principles and the way parents instill language politeness. findings the research results were presented based on observations, records, and notes that had been carried out by researchers in the family environment i and n to a four-year-old child with the initial z. it did not change the data obtained from the research object at all. this research was presented using a qualitative method with the theory of leech (1993). when it is compared with previous research by apriliani (2019), the difference is that previous research examined the form of children's language politeness based on learning interactions in paud and wants to know the teacher's language politeness based on language politeness in learning interactions in paud. hamzah et al. (2011) stated that language politeness is essential for the school environment and family. ningrum et al. (2019) explained politeness in language can be studied using politeness principles to see the level of politeness in language with the politeness principles in student discussion activities. figure 1. mother’s interaction with her child principles of politeness in language the following describes the speech between parents and early childhood related to the form of language politeness principles (leech, 1993) consisting of six forms of language politeness principles, such as the maxim of wisdom, generosity, acceptance, humility, agreement, and sympathy . furthermore, widodo et al. (2022) also put (hermawan, 2018) irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 82 forward the six principles of language politeness. the findings obtained in this research are as follows: the maxim of wisdom the maxim of wisdom is a maxim that maximizes benefits for others and minimizes losses for others. pradnyani et al. (2019), in their research, studied politeness in language with politeness maxims. the findings in this research are that families i and n have a form of language politeness principles related to tact maxims, which are spoken by parents to early childhood with the initial z as follows, n: "little brother, don't run, you'll fall!" z: “yes, mother” n: “yeah, just walk.” the conversation above was said by n to z in the afternoon, the utterance belongs to the maxim of wisdom, because n adds an advantage to z, so that z does not run around which results in injury (norhidayah, 2018) in the utterance "sister, don't run, you will fall !” n: "little brother, what are you eating?" z: "eat cotton candy mother." n: "don't eat this often, sis, your teeth will hurt." z: "the cotton candy is not hard." n: "even though it's not hard sis, there's sugar in it that can make cavities later. just this one time, okay?” z: "yes mother." the conversation above was spoken by n and z while eating cotton candy. this utterance belongs to the maxim of wisdom because n maximizes the benefits of z not eating cotton candy too often because cotton candy can cause cavities, the utterance "don't eat cotton candy too often" eat this often, sis, later the teeth will hurt and even though it's not hard sis, there's sugar that can make cavities later. just this one time, okay?” z: "father, you can pick it up." i: "heavy but sis." z: “just a little yeah.” i: "later your body will get dirty." the conversation above was spoken by i and z when i was working. this utterance belongs to the maxim of wisdom because i add an advantage to z not helping him at work. after all, later z's body will get dirty in the utterance "later your body will get dirty." n: "why are you crying, son?" z: “want to play there, mother.” irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 83 n: "don't cry anymore, play there but don't go far okay..." the conversation above was spoken by n and z in the afternoon. this utterance belongs to the maxim of wisdom, with the reason that because n maximizes profits for z, to go to another alley to play, in the utterance "don't cry anymore, play there but don't go far okay..." n: "sister, what are you playing?" z: “play lato-lato.” n: "don't be so loud, play the lato-lato, you'll get hit in the head." z: "yes." the conversation above was spoken by n and z in the afternoon when z was playing. this utterance belongs to the maxim of wisdom because n maximizes profits for z, so he does not play the lato-lato loudly in an utterance "don't be loud, play the lato-lato, you'll get hit in the head." acceptance maxim the maxim of acceptance is a maxim that maximizes losses for oneself and minimizes gains for oneself. in families i and n, there are forms of language politeness principles related to acceptance, which is spoken by parents to early childhood with the initials z, as follows, z: "mother, want to carry." n: "come here, mother, carry it. this mother's child is very heavy." as spoken by n, when z wants to ask to be carried in the afternoon, this utterance belongs to the maxim of acceptance because n maximizes the loss for himself and minimizes the benefit for himself in the utterance "come here, mother, carry it. this mother's child is very heavy." z: "mother, you want the red ones." n: "which one, sis?" z: “that one mother.” n: "yes, take it later mother will buy it." spoken by n and z when they want to shop at the warung. this utterance belongs to the acceptance maxim because n obeys z's wish to buy snacks in the utterance "yes, take it later mother will buy it." z: "father, want to buy lato-lato ." i: "can you play it?" z: "yes." i: "yes, what color do you want?" irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 84 spoken by i and z when they were in the shop. this utterance belongs to the maxim of acceptance because i is maximizing losses for himself by complying with z's wish to buy lato-lato, in an utterance "yes, what color do you want to choose?" z: "mum, want ice cream." n: "what do you want to taste? just choose, later you will buy it, right?” spoken by n and z, in the afternoon when they were at the shop. this utterance belongs to the maxim of acceptance because n maximizes losses for himself by complying with z’s wish to buy ice cream in an utterance "what do you want to taste? just choose, later mother will buy it." z: "mother, want to play with dolls." n: "can you play it?" z: "yes." n: "come on, let's play, don't forget to wear sandals, ok?" spoken by n and z in the afternoon when z wants to play with claw dolls. this utterance belongs to the maxim of acceptance because n obeyed z's wish to play claw dolls, and n paid for the game in an utterance "let's play, don't forget to wear sandals okay..." generosity maxim the generosity maxim is a maxim that maximizes respect for others and minimizes disrespect for others. this speech is considered polite when a speaker throws a good speech to the interlocutor and does not offend other people. in families i and n, there is a form of politeness principle related to the maxim of generosity, which is spoken to early childhood with the initials z, as follows, i: "sister, do you remember not praying for food?" z: “still father.” i: "which try, i want to hear." z: "bismillahirahmannnirahhim, allahumma baarik lanaa fiimaa razaqtana wa qina 'adzaa bannaar.” i: "wow, you're so smart, father's son." z: "thanks, father." i: “you're welcome.” spoken by i and z when they want to eat. this utterance belongs to the maxim of generosity because i maximizes politeness to z by praising z's intelligence for reading the prayer before eating in the utterance "wow, you're so smart, father's son." n: "what are the colors of the rainbow, sis?" z: “red, green, yellow, blue.” irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 85 n: "wow, your child is very smart and can already name the colors of the rainbow." spoken by n and z after taking a bath in the afternoon. this utterance belongs to the maxim of generosity because n maximizes respect for z by praising z's intelligence for mentioning the colors of the rainbow in the utterance "wow, your mother's child is so smart you can mention the colors of the rainbow". figure 2. mother’s interaction with her child z: "adek, can you burn this sausage." i: "this father's son is very smart, but i'll help you, okay?" spoken by i and z at night. this utterance belongs to the maxim of generosity because i maximizes respect for z by praising z's intelligence in an utterance "this father's son is very smart, but please help me..." i: "little sister, what was that given to you by aunt putri?" z: “snack.” i: "what do you say when you have given it?" z: "thanks, aunt." i: "very smart, carry it here first." said by i and z when given snacks in the afternoon. this speech belongs to the maxim of generosity because i maximizes respect for z by praising z's intelligence in an utterance "very smart, carry it here first". z: "mother, you can sing pok ambe-ambe." n: "try to sing, mother wants to hear it." z: "pok ambe-ambe, butterfly grasshopper, eat rice during the day, drink milk at night.” irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 86 n: “wow, smart. brother's voice is very good.” spoken by n and z while singing in the afternoon. this utterance belongs to the maxim of generosity because n maximizes respect for z by praising z's intelligence for being good at singing and having a good voice when singing in the utterance "wow, smart. your voice is great." modesty maxim the humility maxim is a maxim that maximizes self-respect and minimizes self-respect. in this modesty maxim, an utterance is considered polite when a speaker does not favor himself when he speaks to his interlocutor. the speaker can be said to be a person who is not arrogant and praises others. n: "little brother, let's go to the birthday party." z: "come on, mother." n: “you are so beautiful.” z: “mother is also beautiful.” n: "but mother's child is more beautiful, please!" spoken by n and z when they want to go to a birthday party. this utterance belongs to the maxim of modesty. the reason that n did not excel himself and praised z more was in the speech "but mother's child is more beautiful please." z: "that's great for you to draw." n: "thanks, your picture is also better." spoken by n and z while drawing. this speech belongs to the maxim of humility because n does not excel himself and praises z's description more in an utterance "thank you, your sister's picture is also better." z: "smart mother." n: "thanks, dear, but smarter mother's child." spoken by n and z while drawing. this utterance belongs to the maxim of humility because that n does not excel himself and praises z's description more in an utterance "thanks, dear but smarter, mother's child." i: "sister, it smells so good.” z: “father, also smells good." i: "but it still smells good, little brother." irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 87 spoken by i and z after taking a bath. this utterance belongs to the maxim of humility because i does not excel himself and praises z more, in an utterance "but still smells good, brother please." n: "what a melodious voice sister." z: "thanks, mother.. mother's voice is also melodious." n: "your child's voice is more melodious." z: "father just bought new shoes." i: "who wants to buy shoes?" z: "little brother yeah." i: “wow, thanks.” z: "you're welcome, father." spoken by i and z in the morning. the utterance belongs to the maxim of consensus because the speech between i and z maximizes the agreement between them to buy new shoes in the speech "who wants to buy shoes?" maxim of consensus the consensus maxim is a maxim that maximizes the sense of agreement between the speaker and the interlocutor when communicating and minimizes the feeling of disapproval between the speaker and the interlocutor. in this consensus maxim, a speaker and interlocutor must have a sense of agreement or agreement between them, according to their respective opinions. i: "you eat a lot, so you are fat." z: “yes, feed it.” i: "here, father feed." spoken by i and z when they want to eat. the utterance belongs to the consensus maxim because i and z agree with each other's wishes. z: "father, it is not sweet enough." i: "do you want to add more sugar?” z: “yes, a little more.” i: "yes, father added." spoken by i and z while cooking. the utterance belongs to the consensus maxim because i and z agree with each other's opinions. z: "mother, want to go to uncle's house." n: "same mother yes." z: “mother just stays at home.” n: "yes, mother waits. be careful on the way, ok." irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 88 spoken by n and z in the afternoon. the utterance belongs to the consensus maxim because n and z agree with each other's opinions. n: "can you draw a rainbow?" z: "yes mother." n: "try to draw, mother wants to see." z: "this mother, it is colorful." spoken by n and z while drawing. the utterance belongs to the consensus maxim because n and z agree with each other's wishes. z: "father just bought new shoes." i: "who wants to buy shoes?" z: "little brother yeah." i: "wow, thanks." z: "you're welcome, father." spoken by i and z in the afternoon. the utterance belongs to the consensus maxim because i and z agree with each other's opinions. sympathy maxim the sympathy maxim is a maxim that maximizes sympathy for the addressee and minimizes anticipation toward the addressee. in this sympathy maxim, this utterance is considered polite when a speaker has a sense of care for others and minimizes indifference to others. z: "mother, it hurts." n: "why does it hurt, sis?” z: “bumped into it.” n: "i'm so sorry, mother's child." spoken by n and z in the afternoon when z hits the table. the utterance belongs to the maxim of sympathy because n maximized his sympathy for z with the speech "i'm so sorry, mother's child". irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 89 figure 3. father’s interaction with his child z: "father, brother fell." i: "why can you fall?" z: “running in the field.” i: "i'm sorry, tomorrow we will buy medicine." z: “yes.” spoken by i and z at night. the utterance belongs to the sympathy maxim because i maximizes sympathy for z in the utterance "i'm sorry, we'll buy medicine tomorrow, okay?" z: "mother, it is very spicy." n: "i'm so sorry, mother. wait a minute, son." z: "yes." n: "finish the drink." spoken by n and z while eating. this utterance belongs to the sympathy maxim because n maximizes sympathy for z in an utterance "i'm sorry for your daughter, please wait a moment, son, and finish the drink.” z: "father, earlier you were bitten by a mosquito." i: "use a couch, okay, so you will not be bitten by mosquitoes again. i will use it later." irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 90 spoken by i and z when they want to sleep. this utterance belongs to the sympathy maxim because i maximizes sympathy for z by wanting to put a sofa on z in an utterance "use a sofa, so you don't get bitten by mosquitoes again. i'll use it later". n: "little brother, hold on to father, okay." z: “yes, mother.” n: "be careful on the road." spoken by n and z when they want to leave. the utterance belongs to the sympathy maxim because n maximizes his sympathy for z to hold on to i in an utterance "sister, hold on to your father and be careful on the road". discussion the way for parents to instill politeness in this language to young children in families i and n is to direct the child, speak words with soft intonation, and apply the words “thank you, please, and sorry” according to the situation. in families i and n, parents set a good example for their children so that children imitate the teachings and examples of parents to children, so they become good personalities and have high politeness ethics. furthermore, the parents in the i and n families provide an understanding related to language politeness. similar to anggraini et al. (2019) and hartini and ar (2017), politeness has principles, forms of obedience, and violations of politeness, wulansafitri and syaifudin (2020) also described that politeness has forms of compliance and violations of politeness and implicatures that arise in utterances. the novelty in this research is the maxim of politeness obtained through speech between parents and children in a family environment. these findings can be used as reference material for language politeness material, as well as techniques or methods in educating children through politeness maxims used by the informants of this research. children must be directed to become good personalities according to the teachings of their parents. however, children must also be given an understanding related to language politeness, and good speech when speaking. it is because language politeness behavior in the family environment will also affect children's language behavior. researchers have limitations in conducting research, which are limited to the number of utterances that are the source of research data, so the research results have been able to represent the findings of the principle of language politeness in the family environment. it is because this research checks the validity of the data obtained. check the validity of the data by a credibility test with a member check, transferability test, and confirmability test by re-checking the data that has been obtained from the source. conclusion the form of politeness principles used by researchers in this research is leech's theory (leech, 1993), which consists of six forms of politeness principles, namely the maxim of wisdom, generosity, acceptance, modesty, agreement, and sympathy, with each having five irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 91 utterances in every form of politeness principle. in this research, there are forms of language politeness principles between parents and early childhood from various interactions, whether playing, drawing, singing, or counting, which fulfill the six forms of language politeness principles. the application of language politeness must be applied to children as early as possible. children must be directed to become good personalities according to the teachings of their parents. however, children must also be given an understanding related to language politeness and good speech when speaking. it is because language politeness behavior in the family environment will also affect children's language behavior. declaration of conflicting interests the authors declared no potential conflicts of interest. acknowledgments thanks to universitas bina darma, drpm of universitas bina darma, social and humaniora faculty, and indonesian language of education study program that have helped in conducting research and compiling this scientific article. references anggraini, n., rahayu, n., & djunaidi, b. (2019). kesantunan berbahasa indonesia dalam pembelajaran di kelas x man 1 model kota bengkulu (indonesian politeness in learning in class x man 1 bengkulu city). jurnal ilmiah korpus, 3(1), 42-54. apriliani, e. i. (2019). kesantunan bahasa anak di paud mekar sari gondoriyo kecamatan jambu. indonesian journal of early childhood: jurnal dunia anak usia dini, 1(2), 62-70. chaer, a. (2010). kesantunan berbahasa (language politeness). jakarta: rineka cipta. creswell, j. w. (2016). qualitative, quantitative and mixed method approach. yogyakarta: student literature. fraser, b. (1990). perspectives on politeness. journal of pragmatics, 14(2), 219-236. halliday, m. a. k., & webster, j. j. (2003). on language and linguistics: volume 3. a&c black. hamzah, z. a. z., hassan, a. f. m., & adama, m. n. h. m. (2011). kesantunan bahasa dalam kalangan remaja sekolah menengah (language politeness among high school adolescents). jurnal bahasa, 12(2), 321-328. hartini, h. i., & ar, h. f. (2017). kesantunan berbahasa dalam komentar caption instagram (language politeness in instagram caption comments). jurnal online mahasiswa (jom) bidang keguruan dan ilmu pendidikan, 4(2), 1-14. hermawan, d. (2018). kesantunan berbahasa pada anak usia 11 tahun (studi kasus terhadap anak usia 11 tahun) (language politeness in children aged 11 years (case study of children aged 11 years)). metamorfosis| jurnal bahasa, sastra indonesia dan pengajarannya, 11(1), 1-9. kridalaksana, h. (2013). kamus linguistik (linguistics dictionary). gramedia pustaka utama. lestari, s. (2012). psikologi keluarga: penanaman nilai dan penanganan konflik dalam keluarga (family psychology: instilling values and handling conflicts in the family). jakarta: kencana. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 92 masinambouw, e.k.m. (1998). hubungan timbal balik antara bahasa dan budaya (reciprocity between language and culture). yogyakarta: universitas gadjah mada. ningrum, i. w., andayani, a., & mulyono, s. (2017). analisis prinsip kesantunan berbahasa pada kegiatan diskusi kelas siswa sma negeri 7 surakarta (analysis of politeness principles in class discussion activities of sma negeri 7 surakarta students). basastra, 5(1), 127-143. norhidayah, s. (2015). kesantunan berbahasa di lingkungan keluarga masyarakat banjar di kecamatan banjar selatan (speech politeness in banjarese family in south banjar district). jurnal bahasa, sastra dan pembelajarannya, 5(1), 45-61. pradnyani, n. l. p. b., laksana, i. k. d., & aryawibawa, i. n. (2019). kesantunan berbahasa guru dan siswa dalam pembelajaran bahasa indonesia pada kelas vii smp negeri 1 kuta utara (teacher and student language politeness in learning bahasa in class vii smp negeri 1 kuta utara). jurnal ilmu sosial dan humaniora, 8(2), 91-96. widodo, w., santoso, a., & putra, y. r. (2022). kesantunan berbahasa terhadap anak usia dini dalam meningkatkan komunikasi di media social (language politeness towards early childhood in improving communication on social media). jurnal citra dimensi, 1(1), 34-43. wulansafitri, i., & syaifudin, a. (2020). kesantunan berbahasa dalam tuturan film my stupid boss 1 (politeness in the film my stupid boss 1). jurnal sastra indonesia, 9(1), 21-27. yule, g. (2006). pragmatik (pragmatics). yogyakarta: pustaka pelajar. yusuf, m. f. (2021). pengantar ilmu komunikasi (introduction to communication science). yogyakarta: pustaka ilmu. biographical notes dr. hastari mayrita is working at universitas bina darma, palembang, south sumatra, indonesia putri sukma balkist is working at universitas bina darma, palembang, south sumatra, indonesia andina muchti is working at universitas bina darma, palembang, south sumatra, indonesia yeni ernawati is working at universitas bina darma, palembang, south sumatra, indonesia this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 265 developing an indonesian reading proficiency test for bipa learners andika eko prasetiyo 1 abstract the use of indonesian proficiency tests for non-native speakers of bahasa indonesia is still equated with tests for native speakers. this has become a point of debate for many teachers and experts of indonesian for foreigners (bahasa indonesia untuk penutur asing bipa). the crux of the debate focuses on whether the same proficiency test should be used for both native speakers (ns) and non-native speakers (nns) alike, or whether separate tests should be developed. in accordance with the peculiarities of bahasa indonesia, indonesian proficiency tests for ns and nns should be differentiated. the underdevelopment of specialized proficiency tests for nns can be explained by the fact that bahasa indonesia is not one of the dominant languages learned in the world today. this research aims to develop materials for an indonesian proficiency test for nns. the development of the test focuses on reading comprehension. to advance development of the test, discussions of the processes for defining the theoretical construct as well as empirical analysis of students' result were combined. the method used in this study involved expert review, text readability analysis, and item analysis. the findings show that the test items developed can be used to test students’ proficiency, particularly in reading comprehension. keywords bipa, foreign language, indonesian, language testing, reading 1 a fulltime graduate student at the university of melbourne, melbourne, australia; andikaekop@gmail.com mailto:andikaekop@gmail.com irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 266 introduction a proficiency test developed for indonesian language learners is called uji kemahiran berbahasa indonesia (ukbi) is used as an indonesian language proficiency test for both foreign speakers and native speakers. however, the assessment instruments used to test native speakers (ns) and non-native speakers (nns) should be differentiated since the test objectives and test-takers are distinct. based on this issue, we sought to conduct research into the development of indonesian language tests that are used to measure the indonesian reading ability of nns. therefore, the product resulting from this study is a proficiency test that was developed for indonesian language learners. furthermore, the test developed can form a recommendation and an alternative for the language center as a measurement tool in addition to ukbi. the test focuses on the reading comprehension aspect of testing. this test material will refer to the cefr curriculum in which, at the advanced level, speakers must be able to read and comprehend of all forms of written language including structurally and linguistically complex texts such as abstracts, manuals, scientific articles, and literary works. a pilot study has also been included to ensure that the developed test has reliability and readability. the test was then administered to the students at the university of melbourne, semester 2 2018, in the subject indonesian 3. the objectives of this study, three main questions will be explored. (1) based on the content validity, does the test reflect the course objectives? (2) what is the level of difficulty, index of discrimination, and distracters of each item? (3) what revisions are to be made of test items based on the test analysis? literature review reading comprehension the skill of reading comprehension is one of the most critical aspects of learning a language. for this reason, reading tests are now a crucial part of most major foreign language assessment protocols including toefl, ielts, and toeic. in the last decade, many studies have investigated reading comprehension tests for foreign languages (e.g., bernhardt, 1983; gorsuch & taguchi, 2008; gorsuch & taguchi, 2010; keenan, betjemann, & olson, 2008; rahmiati & emaliana, 2017; taguchi, gorsuch, takayasu-maass, & snipp, 2012; taguchi, takayasu-maass, & gorsuch, 2004). tests of reading comprehension have become some of the most important instruments with which to measure a learner’s proficiency in a foreign language acquisition. this is because reading tests have demanding characteristics in terms of cognition, requiring the synchronisation of memory, attention, as well as comprehension (sellers, 2000). in addition, reading comprehension tests can also involve both low order and higher orders of thinking (rahmiati & emaliana, 2017). this can be seen from the variety of texts irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 267 presented in reading comprehension tests, including expositions, news, and literature. reading comprehension tests also require several key characteristics in order to be considered sound and reliable. firstly, the test must have validity and a relevant construct (hughes, 2003). secondly, the items included in a reading test should have reliable and consistent characteristics in terms of producing results (brown, 2004). thirdly, the reading test should be able to distinguish the level attained by the learner, such as whether the learner has achieved a primary, intermediate, or advanced level of language proficiency (heaton, 1989). finally, in terms of practicality, reading tests should also be effective and efficient to administer (weir, 1990). question types in reading test there has also been some discussion about the types of the questions that should be included in such reading tests. in his study, pyrczak (1975) found that there was no significant difference in results between students who read the passage before answering, and students who did not read the passage when completing a multiple choice reading test. in addition, jones (1977) argues that a proper foreign language reading test should utilise model translation. however, he stated that it would be difficult to assess since it might be more focused on grammatical aspects rather than meaning. meanwhile, cranney (1972) suggests that the method of cloze reading is an excellent way to test reading skills. he also said that cloze reading is easy to produce and to score. shohamy (1981), however, found that students have a negative perspective towards cloze reading. she found that students often felt that cloze tests were tough and frustrating. on the other hand, there is a study which supports the use of the multiple-choice method in reading test. gorjian (2013) argues that tests with large numbers of participants are more suitable to the multiple choice question type. based on this final theory, we have chosen to use a multiple-choice type format in developing a reading comprehension test for bahasa indonesia as a foreign language. empirical studies on foreign language test in reading regarding published research on the development of foreign language tests, several studies have investigated the area of testing for reading comprehension (e.g., nindyaningrum, 2018; rahmiati & emaliana, 2017; saifudin, suwandi, & setiawan, 2014). however, studies specifically exploring reading comprehension of bahasa indonesia as a foreign language are limited. saifudin et al., (2014) developed an instrument that can be used as a measure of the proficiency of nns in bahasa indonesia. in the development of this instrument, they adopted the international standardized test model, ielts. however, they focused on all of the skills of language acquisition and proficiency, not simply reading ability and comprehension. rahmiati and emaliana, (2017) also developed a reading comprehension test, but only for english as a irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 268 foreign language. the development of the reading test in her study focuses on both higher and lower order thinking of the students. moreover, the type questions which were developed in her study were multiple choice format. nindyaningrum (2018) conducted a study on the development of reading comprehension test instruments for nns. the instrument that she developed can be used to measure the reading proficiency of indonesian learners. this piece of research will mirror the study by nindyaningrum (2018). it should be noted however, that nindyaningrum (2018) did not perform a test item analysis including, for example, descriptive statistics, facilitation value, discrimination index, nor distractor analysis in her study. to try and address this issue, this study will therefore also develop a reading test analysis that tries to include such items. descriptive statistics, item analysis, item facility, item discrimination descriptive statistics in developing reading proficiency test are beneficial to examine the students' score distributions in the test. the aim of the proficiency test is to distinguish the level of learners' competencies in comprehending the reading. therefore, the score distribution may indicate the level of the students' competencies, which are low, medium, and advanced. on the other hand, the score distribution can also indicate the level of the difficulty of the questions (brown & hudson, 2002). to examine the score distribution in the reading test, brown and hudson (2002) suggest using the measures of central tendency, i.e. mean, mode and median which is part of the descriptive statistics. item analysis includes item facility and item discrimination. these two types of analysis are used to determine which items of the questions can be chosen and which items of questions need to be changed. the level of difficulty or the measurement of whether the test item is easy or difficult can be identified by calculating the value of item facilities, also known as item difficulty. in terms of measuring the item facility in proficiency reading tests, there are two methods for calculation. the first way to identify the item difficulty is by measuring the number of correct items answered by test takers and then divide by the total number of test-takers (bachman, 2004; farhady, 2012). in addition, an alternative method is proposed by bachman (2004, p.122) who suggests calculating “the proportion of test takers who chose the different distractors” in order to measure the difficulty level of items. item discrimination in proficiency tests refers to the ability of the item to distinguish the level of test takers' proficiencies, such as that of basic, intermediate, and advanced learners. in order to determine the item discrimination value, the number of test takers who give the correct answer to each test item is calculated and these numbers are used in a formula for discrimination index (bachman, 2004). the value range of item discrimination is between -1 and +1. a higher value of item discrimination is better. higher item discrimination indicates that the item is very effective for identifying the proficiency level of test takers (farhady, 2012). irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 269 methodology to strengthen the development of the test, the processes of theoretical construct definition are discussed along with empirical analysis of students’ test results. the method used in this study involved several steps, such as the expert judgment, analysis of text readability, and analysis of test items. the outline of test specifications was designed before creating the test items. there are several steps in developing the test: 1) developing outline of test specifications 2) writing the blue print of the test; 3) writing the test items; 4) validating the test by an expert; 5) administering the test; 6) analyzing the test result; and 7) revising the test. the test was developed to measure the comprehension of learners in the reading of different kinds of text genres. each item of the test relates to readings in bahasa indonesia of various types, such as exposition text, news, and literature in the form of short stories. each text has a length of about 136 295 words adapted from various sources. topics and the features of bahasa indonesia are carefully transcribed into text, questions, and multiple choice alternatives. the micro skills tested include understanding topics, main ideas, supporting details, implied details, word meaning, as well as drawing conclusions from texts. moreover, the expert consulted, a university of melbourne lecturer, stated that the test developed is feasible and ready to be used for testing. based on this evidence, we conclude that the content and item of the reading test is valid. participants this study was conducted at the university of melbourne involving 32 students between the ages of 18 and 27. each subject was taken from one of either two different classes, but still in the same subject, indonesian 3 which is a bahasa indonesia class considered to be at intermediate level. the students consist of 16 males and 16 females. all were nns of bahasa indonesia originating from 7 different countries, namely australia (n = 24), malaysia (n = 1), brunei darussalam (n = 1), england (n = 1), usa (n = 1), singapore (n = 1), and indonesia (n = 1). it should be noted that the one student from indonesia has lived for a long time in australia and uses english as their everyday language. furthermore, when asked to self-rate their level of proficiency, 3 students were rated as advanced learners, 19 as intermediate, and 10 below intermediate. regarding the duration of learning bahasa indonesia, 14 students had been studying the language for less than 1 year, 7 students studying about 2 5 years, and 11 students studying for 6 years and above. also, in terms of the level of reading intensity in bahasa indonesia, for example through magazines, books, and newspapers, 31% of students stated that they never do such reading, 44% said rarely, and 25% said do some reading but not extensive. irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 270 procedures and test item writing and piloting test in terms of the procedures of the test development, there were two main methodologies that were utilized, which were test development (test item writing and piloting test) and test administration. i developed test items based on an example of a bahasa indonesia proficiency test instrument. however, they are designed to meet the purpose of the test which is to measure the proficiency of nns of bahasa indonesia in reading. furthermore, the questions are based on three different types of authentic text, which are exposition, news, and literature texts. initially, we developed a test with a variety of topics and different types of texts, including a personal letter, news, and literature. the first text is a personal letter (constructed by the researcher). the second text is news about a museum fire that occurred in jakarta written by nurito (2018). the last text is a literature text, which is a short story entitled “anak kebanggan” by navis (2018). the story was edited to be of an appropriate length and readability. no other significant changes were made to each of the three texts, other than length and readability. regarding the number of questions, there are 20 question, with 5, 7, 8 questions for texts 1, 2, and 3, respectively. also, each item has one correct answer and 3 distractors. all the items were aimed to measure learners of bahasa indonesia in their reading comprehension. then, we designed 20 multiple-choice questions based on three short texts, a letter text, a news text, and a short story. the length of time allotted to do the test was 20 minutes. furthermore, to measure test readability, we conducted a pilot test pilot with 3 nns students to ensure that the test developed were feasible. in addition, we also consulted both via email and direct discussion with the lecturer of indonesian 3. this was with a view to gaining more input and feedback regarding the test. based on the test pilot, the lecturer gave a positive response to the test. however, some of the questions in text 1 (letters) are too easy, and most students answered them correctly. in addition, the teacher also gave input in our discussion that the comprehension of the letter text did not match the construct of relevance to real life. therefore, we revised the first text by transforming it into an exposition text. in addition, we also adjusted the layout by providing row numbers on the left side of the text. administration of the test the test was conducted twice in two different sessions of the same subject, indonesian 3. the tests were administered on 21 and 22 may 2018 with time duration of 45 minutes in each class. before conducting the test, we were assisted by the teacher explaining to the students about the purpose of the research. teachers also helped by explaining that the tests might help them to prepare for final exams or improve their proficiency in bahasa indonesia, especially in reading. participants were given 25 minutes to complete 20 reading questions. before working on the questions, students filled out a list of background questionnaires, including names, irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 271 personal information, country of origin, previous experiences while learning bahasa indonesia, and self-assessment. this data was collected in addition to test score results to help identify other variables that may contribute to the variability of the test results. findings descriptive statistics of the test results table 1 shows the reading comprehension level of indonesian as a foreign language in this study had a mean of 11.7 out of 20 and (sd = 3.6). this means that 58% of the test items were able to be answered correctly by students. furthermore, the results also show that the lowest value is 20% (n=1), while the highest score is 100% (n=1). to determine the learners’ level, we adopted the toefl level rubric, which describes elementary level (0% 50%), low intermediate (51% 75%) high intermediate (76% 85%), advanced (86% 100%). based on this scale, it can be reported that 11 students were at the elementary level, 17 students were at low intermediate, 1 student was at high intermediate level, and 3 were at advanced level. these results indicate that the test developed was appropriate and not too easy or too difficult for nns of bahasa indonesia. table 1. descriptive statistics of the test id score / 20 level id score / 20 level 1 12 low intermediate 17 13 low intermediate 2 10 elementary 18 16 high intermediate 3 9 elementary 19 7 elementary 4 6 elementary 20 15 low intermediate 5 9 elementary 21 14 low intermediate 6 7 elementary 22 15 low intermediate 7 11 low intermediate 23 13 low intermediate 8 8 elementary 24 13 low intermediate 9 11 low intermediate 25 20 advanced 10 11 low intermediate 26 4 elementary 11 13 low intermediate 27 14 low intermediate 12 13 low intermediate 28 11 low intermediate 13 14 low intermediate 29 18 advanced 14 9 elementary 30 11 low intermediate 15 7 elementary 31 9 elementary 16 13 low intermediate 32 18 advanced irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 272 the difficulty level of each item in the test the item difficulty for each item was analyzed by using ms excel (if and point-biserials.xlsx). each item has a range of 0.00 to 1.00. the interpretation of that number is the higher the value, the easier the test item. furthermore, based on djiwandono (1996), the indicators of item difficulty are as follows, easy (0.7 – 1), moderate (0.3 – 0.7), difficult (0 – 0.3). table 2 below presents the facility value of each item. table 2. the facility value of each item item no. item facility value interpretation 1 0.91 easy 2 0.91 easy 3 0.81 easy 4 0.28 difficult 5 0.69 moderate 6 0.03 too difficult 7 0.78 easy 8 0.66 moderate 9 0.81 easy 10 0.47 moderate 11 0.88 easy 12 1 too easy 13 0.63 moderate 14 0.41 moderate 15 0.88 easy 16 0.47 moderate 17 0.22 difficult 18 0.19 difficult 19 0.25 difficult 20 0.44 moderate the data in table 2 show that the item facility value is varied. a total of 8 (40%) items are categorized as easy items, 7 (35%) as moderate, and 5 (25%) as difficult items. based on this analysis, the distribution of the proportion of item difficulty, such as easy, moderate, and difficult was balanced and appropriate, because the test developed is a proficiency test. however, there is one item that was too difficult with if 0.03 (item number 6), and one item was too easy with if 1 (item number 12). thus, these two items will be revised to make the facility value in each item more appropriate. irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 273 the discrimination index of each item in test to see how well an item can differentiate between higher and lower level learners, the discrimination index values can be examined. the higher the discrimination index value, the better the item distinguishes between the higher and lower level test takers (farhady, 2012). furthermore, if the discrimination index value equals 0, it indicates that low and high learners show the same performance, whereas a negative discrimination index value of indicates that lower students perform better than the higher students. d value 0 and suggests that the item needs to be deleted or revised. the analysis of discrimination index values in this study was conducted using spss. table 3. the discrimination index value item no. di value interpretation 1 .161 enough 2 .161 enough 3 .376 good 4 .205 enough 5 .292 enough 6 .371 good 7 .267 enough 8 .372 good 9 .210 enough 10 .459 very good 11 .414 very good 12 0 no discrimination 13 .217 enough 14 .603 very good 15 .220 enough 16 .440 very good 17 .458 very good 18 .492 very good 19 .569 very good 20 .621 very good based on table 3, most values indicate good items (n = 11, d > 0.3). however, a total of 8 test items indicate as an adequate test (0.11 0.29), while one item indicates the item should be revised because the item shows that the number of discrimination index value is 0 or no discrimination. irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 274 item distracters another way to investigate the item difficulty is by calculating “the proportion of test takers who chose the different distractors” (bachman, 2004, p.122). the performance of each distractor can be seen from the analysis of item distracters. the test item which has distracters that are never chosen are useless and need revision. however, distractors that attract a large number of test-takers might not be clear and need to be reviewed. table 4. item distracters no % of a's % of b's % of c's % of d's no % of a's % of b's % of c's % of d's 1 0 90.6 6.25 3.13 11 3.13 87.5 3.13 0 2 0 90.6 9.38 0 12 0 0 100 0 3 9.38 81.3 3.13 0 13 12.5 15.6 9.38 62.5 4 25 28.1 40.6 6.25 14 18.8 40.6 21.9 12.5 5 0 6.25 68.8 18.8 15 6.25 0 87.5 0 6 56.3 15.6 25 3.13 16 12.5 15.6 15.6 46.9 7 78.1 15.6 3.13 0 17 15.6 25 21.9 25 8 12.5 65.6 9.38 12.5 18 9.38 37.5 18.8 18.8 9 6.25 81.3 9.38 0 19 25 3.13 40.6 21.9 10 0 50 46.9 0 20 43.8 18.8 6.25 15.6 the table above indicates that the question items have several types of distractors. firstly, there are 9 items which have one or two distractors that were never chosen by test takers, such as the item number 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 9, 10, 11, and 15. secondly, there is one item (the item number 6) which has a distracter and was chosen by many test takers (option a, 56.3%). lastly, all distractors in the item question number 12 were never selected by test takers since the question item is arguably quite easy. revision of test items based on analysis of the question items, the cronbach's alpha (α) of the tests is 0.79; it can be concluded that the test items are reliable. however, after analyzing the facility value and discrimination index of each item, we have decided to revise two items, which are most difficult item and the easiest one (the items which do not have a discrimination index value). the revised items occurred in the item number 6 and 12. item number 6 has facility value of 0.03, which indicates that it is quite difficult. as a result, we have revised the multiple-choice options only. meanwhile, for item number 12, we have revised the question element of the test item since the item facility value is too easy (if = 1). the revisions made are as follows. irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 275 revision 1 (multiple choice) 6. mengapa museum bahari masih ditutup pasca kebakaran? (why was the museum of bahari still closed after the fire?) (a) karena hanya akan ada kegiatan bersih-bersih (because there will only be clean-up activities) (b) karena di bagian dalam masih terpasang garis polisi (because the area inside is still applied the police line) (c) karena akan ada investigasi lanjutan dari pihak kepolisian (because there will be further investigation from the police) (d) karena untuk kepentingan penyelidikan dan pengamanan dari warga (for the purposes of the investigation and security from people) (the correct answer is d, but the most chosen answer is a, 56.3%) the item number 6 is considered as very difficult item (if = 0.03). moreover, based on the result of distractors item analysis, most test takers have chosen the option a as the answer which is incorrect. after reviewing the item, we can conclude that the item difficulty is due to misidentification of the location in the paragraph where the correct answer lies. thus, we modified option a. below is the revision of the answer in item number 6. (a) untuk mencegah warga masuk ke area kebakaran (to prevent people from entering the area of the fire) revision 2 (whole item) 12. kapan rencana museum bahari akan dibuka kembali? (when will the museum bahari plan be reopened?) (a) 16 januari mendatang (b) 17 januari mendatang (c) 19 januari mendatang (d) 20 januari mendatang item number 12 is considered as a very easy item (if=1), and has no discrimination value, nor any distraction item. after reviewing the item, this is caused by the information of the answer being obvious in the text. therefore, we made a total revision in the question. here is the total revision for item number 12. 12. area mana saja yang akan dibuka pada jumat 19 januari mendatang? (which areas will be open on friday 19 january?) (a) gedung yang terbakar (the burnt building only) (b) gedung yang tidak terbakar irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 276 (unburnt building only) (c) semua area, khususnya gedung yang tidak terbakar (all areas, especially unburnt buildings) (d) semua area, kecuali gedung yang terbakar (all areas, except the burned building) (the answer is c) discussion in terms of validity of the content, it can be concluded that the content of the test is valid and appropriate because it contains three different types of authentic indonesian texts, such as exposition, news, and literature texts. in addition, the descriptive analysis indicates that the score of students' distributions are equally at beginner, intermediate, and advanced levels. although students are in the same class, indonesian 3, the students’ background experience in learning indonesian is varied, such as less than 1 year, 2 to 5 years, and more than 6 years. the item facility value analysis shows that the test items developed already have a balanced difficulty: easy, moderate, and difficult. however, there is one item considered very easy, and one very difficult. in addition, we also found a good discrimination index value in the test items that we have designed. however, there is one item that did not appear in spss, because it has 0 value of discrimination index. based on the analysis of item facility and discrimination index values, we have revised to the two question items, item number 6 and 12. the item that contributes to the students’ failure can be considered as quite a difficult item for the test takers. it could be argued that question 6 assesses the test takers' ability to make an inference from the text, provided that the answer is not explicitly mentioned in the text. however, in the distractors, there is one option (option a) that has a close relationship to the question. hence, students may think that the answer is the aforementioned distractor. meanwhile, question 12 contains an obvious answer which requires test takers to choose the date of an event. this is very easy since the answer option mentioning the event date is clearly matched with that written in the text. furthermore, the findings in this study also have implications for the discussion of the format of reading tests. the study refutes the pyrczak’s (1975) argument which states that the use of multiple-choice type questions leads to a lack of dependence on reading the passage on the part of test takers. in fact, in this test material, students need to read the passage to find answers that match with the information and context. moreover, the study also supports the findings of baghaei and ravand (2015) which suggest that multiple choice formats can trigger cognitive processes and learners’ comprehension to choose the most appropriate answer. furthermore, regarding its characteristics, the reading test designed is also in line with the development theory of tests by hughes (2003) and brown (2004), which describes standardized stages. in addition, this study also supports the findings of boyaci and guner (2018) which states that the use of authentic materials has an impact on students' reading comprehension irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 277 and also has positive responses from students. this test provided authentic material by way of three different types of text. furthermore, with varying levels of test difficulty, this test also supports the argument of wilson (2007) suggesting that the text of reading should be challenging so that students can feel achievement in answering the test. regarding bipa teachers, this test also complements the finding of kamgar and jadidi (2016), related to the contributions for foreign language teachers when developing evaluation tests. to evaluate their students, teachers of bahasa indonesia can prepare questions items that refer to the standards contained in the instruments developed in this study. conclusion the development of tests to measure proficiency in bahasa indonesia for nns is necessary. this research focuses only on the aspect of reading comprehension with multiple choice formats because the characteristics of this type of test are commonly used for the large-scale testing. in this study several steps have been undertaken, such as designing tests, piloting, administering tests, analyzing test items, and revision based on the results of analysis. this test can be used by institutions to measure the level of proficiency in reading of nns of bahasa indonesia. in addition, this test is also likely to be used by teachers and universities to determine student class placement in a class for university. development of reading tests with a greater number of questions, for example, 40 items would also appear warranted. in this study, a set of test items for indonesian language proficiency was developed through a piloting process. the content validity shows that the questions are valid and reliable. however, no statistical procedures have been undertaken to measure the validity of the items during the piloting process. as a result, we have found that some items need to be revised after we administered the test. based on calculations of facility value, one question contributed to the test takers' failure. in addition, one question was considered as a very easy question and which all test takers could answer correctly. thus, to create a more reliable test, it is recommended that during piloting the item not only be evaluated by seeking feedback from experts but also by undertaking statistical measurement. references bachman, l. f. (2004). statistical analyses for language assessment. cambridge: cambridge university press. baghaei, p., & ravand, h. (2015). a cognitive processing model of reading comprehension in english as a foreign language using the linear logistic test model. learning and individual differences, 43, 100-105. belet boyaci, s. d., & güner, m. (2018). the impact of authentic material use on development of the reading comprehension, writing skills and motivation in language course. international journal of instruction, 11(2), 351-368. bernhardt, e. (1983). testing foreign language reading comprehension: the immediate recall protocol. die unterrichtspraxis / teaching german, 16(1), 27-33. irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 278 brown, j. d., & hudson, t. (2002). criterion-referenced language testing. cambridge: cambridge university press. brown, j. d. (2004). language assessment: principles and classroom practices. white plains: pearson education, inc. cranney, a. g. (1972). the construction of two types of cloze reading tests for college students. journal of reading behavior, 5(1), 60-64. farhady, h. (2012). principles of language assessment. new york: longman inc. gorjian, b. (2013). the effect of passage content on multiple-choice reading comprehension test. procedia-social and behavioral sciences, 84, 160-164. gorsuch, g., & taguchi, e. (2008). repeated reading for developing reading fluency and reading comprehension: the case of efl learners in vietnam. system, 36(2), 253-278. gorsuch, g., & taguchi, e. (2010). developing reading fluency and comprehension using repeated reading: evidence from longitudinal student reports. language teaching research, 14(1), 27-59. heaton, j. b. (1988). writing english language tests. new york: longman inc. hughes, a. (2003). testing for language teachers. cambridge: cambridge university press. jones, r. l. (1977). testing: a vital connection. the language connection: from the classroom to the world. actfl foreign language education series, 9. kamgar, n., & jadidi, e. (2016). exploring the relationship of iranian efl learners’ critical thinking and self-regulation with their reading comprehension ability. procedia-social and behavioral sciences, 232, 776-783. keenan, j. m., betjemann, r. s., & olson, r. k. (2008). reading comprehension tests vary in the skills they assess: differential dependence on decoding and oral comprehension. scientific studies of reading, 12(3), 281-300. nindyaningrum, f. w. (2018). pengembangan instrumen asesmen uji kemahiran membaca bagi penutur asing. thesis, master program, universitas malang. pyrczak, f. (1975). passage-dependence of reading comprehension questions: examples. journal of reading, 18(4), 308-311. rahmiati, i. i., & emaliana, i. (2017). developing reading test using lower to higher order of thinking for esp students. language in india, 17(11). 124-144. saifudin, m. f., suwandi, s., & setiawan, b. (2014). pengembangan model tes kompetensi berbahasa indonesia. thesis, universitas muhammadiyah surakarta. sellers, v. d. (2000). anxiety and reading comprehension in spanish as a foreign language. foreign language annals, 33(5), 512-520. shohamy, e. g. (1981). the cloze procedure and its applicability for testing hebrew as a foreign language. stanford university / university of california, berkeley, 101-114 taguchi, e., gorsuch, g., takayasu-maass, m., & snipp, k. (2012). assisted repeated reading with an advanced-level japanese efl reader: a longitudinal diary study. reading in a foreign language, 24(1), 30-55. irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 279 taguchi, e., takayasu-maass, m., & gorsuch, g. j. (2004). developing reading fluency in efl: how assisted repeated reading and extensive reading affect fluency development. reading in a foreign language, 16(2), 70-96. weir, c. j. (1990). communicative language testing. new york: prentice hall. wilson, k. (2016). critical reading, critical thinking: delicate scaffolding in english for academic purposes (eap). thinking skills and creativity 22, 256-265. biographical notes andika eko prasetiyo is a fulltime student at melbourne university, master of applied linguistics program. he holds a bachelor of education, concentration indonesian language and literature education at universitas negeri semarang, indonesia. his research interest includes indonesian education, language testing, and educational technology. email: andikaekop@gmail.com mailto:andikaekop@gmail.com this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 556 the role of clinical supervision: teaching basic obstetric ultrasound for undergraduate medical students herlambang, 1 amelia dwi fitri,* 2 nyimas natasha ayu shafira, 3 anggelia puspasari, 4 and susan tarawifa 5 abstract this study aimed to find the impact of clinical supervision on the achievement of medical student competence in basic obstetric ultrasound examination skills by using dops as the assessment method. students‟ knowledge related to basic obstetric ultrasound examination in the beginning and in the end of their 10 weeks clinical rotation in department of obstetrics and gynecology were assessed by using pre-test and post-test questionnaire. by employing mixed methods, one group pre and post-test design was positioned to assess student knowledge, one group post-test design to assess student‟s skills achievement and qualitative study to explore student perception about the new learning method we offered. the collected data were analyzed with computer program; means and standard deviation were calculated as descriptive parameters. parametric test were used to test the hypothesis. the pre-post results were compared by using wilcoxon test. the results showed a significant difference in the score of pre-test and post-test. qualitative data showed positive perception. clinical supervision as teaching method together with learning media in the form of module and ultrasound video gave positive result to improve achievement of student‟s competence in basic obstetric ultrasound examination skills. keywords clinical supervision, teaching ultrasound, undergraduate medical education 1 the department of obstetric and gynecology, faculty of medicine and health sciences, universitas jambi, indonesia; herlambang07@yahoo.co.id 2 *corresponding author, the department of medical education, faculty of medicine and health sciences, universitas jambi, indonesia; amelia_dwi@unja.ac.id 3 the department of medical education, faculty of medicine and health sciences, universitas jambi. 4 faculty of medicine and health sciences, universitas jambi, indonesia. 5 the department of biochemistry, faculty of medicine and health sciences, universitas jambi, indonesia. mailto:herlambang07@yahoo.co.id mailto:amelia_dwi@unja.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 557 introduction ultrasound is one of the most often used imaging tools in clinical practice. unlike computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging, the technique is portable and quick. ultrasound can be used to guide anamnestic findings, clinical examination and imaging tool in a short period of time (heinzow et al., 2013; herlambang et al., 2020). ultrasound has been utilized for decades by specialist (radiologist, cardiologist, and obstetric-gynecologist). this is a clinically useful tool with relevant application across most specialists (bahner et al., 2012). the use of ultrasound in obstetrics and gynecology has many advantages such as the patient experiences no discomfort, nor does she feel any sensation. the patient can be examined without moving from her bed. unlike x-ray, there is no danger of exposing the fetus and the mother to adverse effects of radiation (akhter, 1976). advances in scanning techniques and the quality of ultrasound have enabled clinicians to accurately interpret findings in the context of both normal and high-risk pregnancies. ultrasound is now widely used in routine antenatal care for pregnancy dating and location, screening for aneuploidy, fetal anomaly screening, determining chronicity in multiple pregnancy, and placental localization. the use of ultrasound is well established in assessing fetal growth and wellbeing, amniotic fluid volume, and cervical length (coroyannakis & thilaganathan, 2015; herlambang et al., 2020). the indonesian medical doctor‟s standard of competence places the mastery of basic obstetric ultrasound examination in 4 th level of competence. it means that graduates should be able to independently perform this skill in primary health care. clinical skills need to be trained from the beginning to the end of continuing medical education. in carrying out the practice, graduates should master the clinical skills to diagnose and manage comprehensive health problems (konsil kedokteran indonesia, 2015). hence, ultrasound has only been incorporated in to undergraduate medical student curricula only to a limited degree and has not been systematically implemented as a curricular to be learned by every student in undergraduate medical education. lately, numerous study groups have described their efforts to integrate ultrasound into a medical curriculum demonstrating the increased awareness of the relevance in undergraduate medical education (heinzow et al., 2013). there are many challenges to integrating basic obstetric ultrasound into medical education curricula. these include identifying appropriate clinical teacher, accessing to adequate resources, funding, and appropriate integration into existing medical education curricula. other issues in teaching basic obstetric ultrasound lie in locating at the time, and clinical teacher should provide time and energy to give the supervision along their roles in medical services. however, faculty should concern in these issues and determine at which level is integrating basic obstetric ultrasound within the curricula and learning method most appropriate. the curricula should ensure the student to experience learning process and lead them to achieved the 4 th level of competence related to basic obstetric ultrasound skills specialist (bahner et al., 2012). the european federation of societies for ultrasound in medicine and biology (efsumb) recommends that ultrasound should be used irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 558 systematically as an easy accessible and instructive educational tool in the curriculum of modern medical schools. medical students should acquire theoretical knowledge of the modality and hands-on training should be implemented and adhere to evidence-based principles (heinzow et al., 2013). several models of ultrasound education were developed. one offers graduated level of exposure and images experience for medical students during third-year clerkships (harvard medical school, boston, usa). the second model is more compact, organized as a dedicated 3-days program (thomas jefferson university hospital, philadelphia, usa). with the current wide variability in clinical clerkship requirements, it is conceivable that a student could complete a medical school curriculum without ever directly scanning a patient with ultrasound. although not optimal, ultrasound imaging is largely skill based and requires hands-on training to achieve competency. to achieve this goal, blended learning method are considered in a busy clinical setting, these concept have a positive and supporting effect on ultrasound education. the students need to be thought the technical knowledge about basic obstetric ultrasound by using module and video, and the inclusion of the clinical supervision with „hands-on‟ to the real patient develop their skill acquisition. there is abroad agreement that medical educators should prepare students for further ultrasound education. lately, numerous study groups have described their effort to integrated ultrasound into medical curriculum demonstrating the increased awareness of the relevance in undergraduate medical education (heinzow et al., 2013). this study aimed to find the impact of clinical supervision on the achievement of medical student competence in basic obstetric ultrasound examination skills by using dops as assessment method. literature review clinical supervision is the commonest form of supervision in most medical setting. it consists of the day-to-day discussion of clinical cases and their management, and any issues arising of clinical case. it may take a variety of forms from very brief discussion on ward rounds or in the clinic, to more extended and reflective discussion of complex cases or option for clinical management (launer, 2011). clinical teacher in clinical setting plays a significant role to facilitate students to mastery this skill. supervision with constructive feedback has shown positive impact on the achievement of student‟s competence. dreyfus and dreyfus advance a model of five stages of skill acquisition; novice, advance beginner, competent, proficient and expert, and applied into the acquisition of competence in medicine (dreyfus & dreyfus, 1986; ludmere, 2017). since clinical supervision has become recognized as a distinct professional practice, competency based supervision has gained considerable traction internationally. competency-based supervision enhances accountability and is compatible with evidence-based approaches. competency-based supervision is defined by supervisor and supervisee collaboratively and explicitly to identifying the knowledge, skills and attitudes, comprising each clinical competency, determining specific learning strategies, and monitoring and evaluating the development of those. recommendations for supervision practice are irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 559 described based on the growing evidence base for practice and responsive to emerging ethical and legal issues (falender, 2014). kolb's learning theory can be used as one of method to training students skills, it sets out four distinct learning styles (or preferences) based on a four-stages of learning cycle interpreted as a 'training cycle'. kolb includes this 'learning cycle' as a central principle of his experiential learning theory, typically expressed as four-stages of learning cycle in which immediate or concrete experiences to provide a basis for observations and reflections. these observations and reflections are assimilated and distilled into abstract concepts producing new implications for action which can be actively tested in turn creating new experiences. kolb says that ideally, this process represents a learning cycle or spiral where the learner 'touches all the bases', for instance a cycle of experiencing, reflecting, thinking, and acting (amin & eng, 2006). conceptually, skills belong to the psychomotor domain in bloom‟s classification. in reality required to perform, procedures are complex and involve knowledge, attitude as well as psychomotor skills. in clinical medicine, knowledge is absolute prerequisite to performing procedure in a safe and effective manner. attitude and behavior are key components of skills as well. these affective components primarily involve communicating with the patient about the nature, needs and potential risk of the procedures, and understanding of and empathy to patients‟ problem (amin & eng, 2006). whatever its form or context, good supervision depends on identical skill. these include affirmation, emotional attunement, awareness of external requirements and standards, and ability to question and challenge people appropriately (launer, 2011). there is a theory which states that there are three variables affected the effectiveness of learning in outpatient facilities; input variables, process variables and output variables. the input variables studied were room facilities available for the students to conduct the examination, the number of students involved in a clinical rotation in a certain section and the quality of organizing the implementation of the activity, and the variables of the process studied were the variation of patients in the number and type of disease and adequate supervision, while the output variable is the effectiveness of the rotation at the outpatient clinic (dolmans, 2002). however, assessment drives learning and every learning process should assess to determine student achievement. in miller‟s framework for assessing clinical competence, the lowest level of the pyramid is knowledge (knows), followed by competence (knows how), performance (shows how), and action (does) (4). „action‟ focuses on what occurs in practice rather than what happens in an artificial testing situation. workplace based methods of assessment targets the highest level of the pyramid and collect information about doctors' performance in their everyday practice. direct observation of procedural skill (dops) is one of the most commonly used methods of workplace-based assessments. these method can promote active, learner-centered learning and facilitate provision of developmental verbal feedback to the trainee immediately afterwards (liu, 2012; norcini & burch, 2007). dops is designed to provide feedback on procedural skills essential to the provision of good clinical care. trainees are asked to undertake practical procedures with a different observer for each encounter. each dops should represent a different procedure and will http://www.businessballs.com/self-awareness/experiential-learning-2029 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 560 normally be completed opportunistically during every day work. the trainee chooses the timing, procedure and the observer, which may be experienced registrars, consultants or appropriate nursing staff who are competent in the procedure assessed. the assessment involves an assessor observing the trainee perform a practical procedure within the workplace, and a structured checklist is designed to give guidance for the assessors. most procedures take no longer than 15-20 minutes. feedback would normally take about 5 minutes (liu, 2012; norcini & burch, 2007). the following are the main advantages of dops as a valid assessment tool:  the trainee is assessed during every day work performing procedures on real patients.  not only the technical ability is observed, but also interaction with patients, colleagues and professional behaviors can be assessed.  a range of skills, from simple to very complex procedures can be assessed.  many trainees will need further development, so after receiving feedback, the strengths and weaknesses can be highlighted and the trainee can work on them and be assessed at a later date.  there is a need to check that doctors‟ procedural skills have been retained and are used appropriately within the context of everyday practice. dops is a suitable assessment tool for this purpose (liu, 2012; norcini & burch, 2007). methodology medical faculty in universitas jambi has been applied competence based curriculum with problem-based learning approach. there are two phases that should be undertaken by the student, four years preclinical phase and two years clinical phase. in clinical phase, they have to go through 13 department in teaching hospital. one of the departments is obstetrics and gynecology; they have to undertake clinical rotation here for ten weeks. students experience several teaching method during their rotation in department that is obstetrics and gynecology, such as bed site teaching, meet the expert, case report session and clinical science session, but students have not had the opportunity to learn about basic obstetric ultrasound either through lectures, lab skills or hands on with real patients. in the earlier of this study, we have developed learning media in the form of modules and videos about basic obstetric ultrasound, the development of this learning media refers to the basic obstetric ultrasound principles for general practitioners prepared by the indonesian association of obstetric and gynecologist. this is in accordance with the theory described earlier that knowledge is absolute prerequisite to performing skill procedures in a safe and effective manner. as 21 students began their rotation in department of obstetric and gynecology, we provided both of those learning media to help them learning about basic obstetric ultrasound, for the next 10 weeks, we scheduled three-times structured clinical supervision by clinical teacher who have fetomaternal consultant background, this learning process involves outpatients in ambulatory care who were pregnant in the first trimester, irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 561 second trimester and third trimester and undergo antenatal care in teaching hospital. inclusion criteria are patients with single and normal pregnancy and willing to be the subject of the study (informed consent provided). students were given the opportunity to actively study independently with a clinical teacher outside the scheduled we provided. therefore, this activity was proven by filling out the log book signed by the clinical teacher who gave them chance to hands on with obstetric ultrasound to patients. this was mixed method research by using one group pre and posttest design to assess student knowledge, one group post-test design to asses students‟ skill achievement and qualitative study to explore student perception on the new learning method we offered. in order to identify student‟s prior knowledge on basic obstetric ultrasound, we handed pre-test questionnaire consisted of 10 questions related basic obstetric ultrasound principal, then we provided modules and videos for them to learn during the rotation and for the preparation in undergoing clinical supervision with the real patient, then second ultrasound was used in this process. during the clinical supervision, clinical teacher gave the students concrete experience with the real patient, explained and demonstrated how to do the obstetric ultrasound in pregnant patient, determined the main targets to look for such as gestational age, the presence of yolk sac or gestational sac, the number of fetuses, the estimated fetal weight, the fetal position, the location of the head, the amount of amniotic fluid and anything else according to the patient's gestational age. the students observe and reflect on the experience to understand the meaning to develop some concept. as the final step, the student apply the concept, they were then given the opportunity trying to conduct their own obstetric ultrasound examination under supervision with the patient's consent. basically, the kolb‟s learning cycle principal was used by clinical teacher. in the last 2 weeks of the rotation period, we schedule and performed dops to assess students' achievement in basic obstetric ultrasound examination. they also reassessed the knowledge of basic obstetric ultrasound by using the same previous questions we used in pretest questionnaire and adding open questions to know their perception of the new learning method they had undergone during rotation in department of obstetrics and gynecology. the collected data were analyzed with computer program; means and standard deviation were calculated as descriptive parameters. parametric test were used to test the hypotheses. the pre post results were compared using wilcoxon test. ethical considerations in this study, all data of participants were concealed. all participants were also knowledgeable that their data would be kept privately by researchers. findings the results showed significant differences in the score of pre-test and post-test. there was an increase in the average score of pre-test and post-test students after obtaining teaching media and clinical supervision. in the pre-test, we found the mean value of 25.24; minimum value of 10; and a maximum value of 50. in the post-test, we found the mean irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 562 value of 76.67, a minimum value of 50, and a maximum value of 90, as showed in the table as follows. the values of all individuals were also increased. table 1. results of the pre-post questionnaire descriptive statistical value pre-test mean 25.24 95% confidence interval for mean lower bound upper bound 20.33 30.14 median 30.00 variance 116.190 std. deviation 10.779 minimum 10 maximum 50 range 40 post-test mean 76.67 95% confidence interval for mean lower bound upper bound 70.85 82.48 median 80.00 variance 163.333 std. deviation 12.780 minimum 50 maximum 90 range 40 the result from the normality test for the pre and post-test data showed abnormal data distribution. according to this result, we used wilcoxon test as selected statistical analysis test shown in the following table. table 2. normality test normality test kolmogorov-smirnov shapiro-wilk statistic df sig statistic df sig pre-test .194 21 .037 .907 21 .048 post-test .270 21 .000 .851 21 .004 the result of wilcoxon statistical analysis test showed significant differences (asymp sig 2-tailed 0.000) between the value of pre-test and post-test. it meant that there was irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 563 improvement on student‟s knowledge of basic obstetric examination skill before and after giving of module, video and clinical supervision. furthermore, at the end of the rotation, each student was given a final assessment by using dops as assessment method (the dops form attached), there were two components in the dops form not observed, for instance „appropriate analgesia or safe sedation‟ and „seeking help when appropriate.‟ basically, dops has been evaluated to be a reliable and valid formative and summative assessment. the results of the dops showed that from 21 students had been assessed, two students reached „above the expectation‟ level demonstrated understanding of indication, relevant anatomy, procedure technique, technical ability and overall ability to performed procedure area; two students reached “borderline” level and the rest reached “meet the expectation” level in the same area. all the 21 students reached “meet the expectation” in obtain informed consent, demonstrated appropriate preparation pre-procedure, aseptic technique, post procedure management, communication skills , and consideration of patient/ professionalism. this result was quite encouraging because most students were able to perform basic obstetric ultrasound well in real patient. table 3. dops results based on the number of students who reached each level of the assessment area area being assessed below the expectation borderline meet the expectation above the expectation demonstrate understanding of indication, relevant anatomy, technique of procedure 2 17 2 obtain informed consent 21 demonstrate appropriate preparation pre-procedure 21 technical ability 2 17 2 aseptic technique 21 post procedure management 21 communication skills 21 consideration of patient/ professionalism 21 overall ability to perform procedure 2 17 2 based on dops results, we conducted interviews with two students, each representing student who had overall ability on the “borderline level” and “above the expectation level”, there were four major questions as references in the interview: do you know in what level of competence basic obstetric ultrasound examination places in the indonesian medical doctor‟s standard of competence and what is it mean?, how do you think about the learning method we use in this study? , how do you prepare for dops?, and does this learning method need to be incorporated and integrated into the clinical rotation irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 564 curriculum? for the first question both students knew that the indonesian medical doctor‟s standard of competence places the mastery of basic obstetric ultrasound examination in 4 th level of competence. it means that they should able to perform this skill when they become doctors in primary health care. in the second question, students with “above expectation” achievement stated that ultrasound learning was very interesting because they got some learning resources that is module, video and special guidance from the experts, in addition they got a chance to tried directly practice it to the real patient. they expressed, "... this activity provides new experiences and skills that are very important to look for, we were fortunate to be part of this research activity, it is very nice experience to try it in to real patient…" "... this activity is very good because the doctor not only teach us the theoretical aspects but also the direct affinity, the ultrasound guide video provided is also very helpful to direct us how to do basic obstetric ultrasound and the important things that should be found and delivered to the patient .." while a student with “borderline level” stated that this activity was interesting, but it should be carried out more often with fewer students. they conveyed, "…i was very interested in this learning activity, but i was still difficult to understand because our numbers were too much at the time of clinical supervision were given, the room is too small, but modules and videos help to repeat the learning after that ..." in the third question, students with “above expectation” level stated that she prepared herself for dops by re-reading the module and reviewing the given video; she also got a chance to try again this skill in the pregnant patient outside the scheduled clinical supervision we provided (this activity was proven by filling out the log book signed by the clinical teacher who gave her chance to hands on with obstetric ultrasound to patients.). additionally, due to the rotation in department of obstetrics and gynecology obligated, they should stay overnight at the hospital, they have the opportunity to gather and learned together before undergone dops. while students with “borderline levels” said that he was quite nervous about dops and realized that he had not learned enough how to perform this ultrasound examination, besides the burden of activities in the clinical rotation was enough to drain his time and energy so that his learning time for dops was still lack. for the last question, both of them agreed to answer that it was necessary to put this learning method into clinical rotation, but it needs several improvement in the process, such as the frequency of guidance, the opportunity to practice as much as possible, the ratio between clinical teacher and students at the time clinical supervision conducted and also the duration of each clinical supervision. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 565 discussion the topic of this study occurred because the perceived gap between the competencies that are expected to be achieved by the students related to basic obstetric ultrasound examination with the learning method they got during their study. the current curriculum in medical faculty university of jambi had not been able to encourage students to master this skill up to the 4 th level of competence (herlambang et al., 2020). in the preclinical phase curriculum, basic obstetric ultrasound examination was taught only in the form of a face-to-face lecture activity during two times meetings on the the reproductive system block in the second year of the preclinical phase. there was no clinical skills have been performed for obstetric ultrasound examination. it means that the curriculum only facilitated the student to achieve the lowest level competence of miller‟s pyramid, the “knows” level. one of the difficulties faced was the unavailability of ultrasound facilities in basic skills laboratories and mannequins that could support this skill activity (heinzow et al., 2013). at the clinical stage, basic obstetric ultrasound learning were also not specially prepared in the curriculum on clinical rotation in the department of obstetrics and gynecology, students only occasionally got a chance to practice basic obstetric ultrasound in pregnant women when there was a clinical teacher who provides the opportunity. therefore, we were interested in trying to develop a learning method related to basic obstetrics ultrasound, one of consideration was that ultrasound was available in the department of obstetrics and gynecology ward and students could directly learn with real patient under supervision. in order to support this approach, we had also developed basic obstetrics ultrasound module and video guidance for general practitioners with reference to indonesian association of obstetrics and gynecologist, both of these learning resources were structured in such a way by using valid literature and competent expert to produce a systematic guide for basic usage steps, important matters to be identified in accordance with the competence of general practitioners (heinzow et al., 2013). in this study, we found that there was a significant difference in improving students' knowledge related to basic obstetrics ultrasound examination after the giving of module, video and three times clinical supervision. the findings proved that the learning method applied (blended method) together could improve students understanding about basic obstetric ultrasound examination. as the consequence, it is enough to prove their psychomotor skill. therefore, it is necessary to conduct an assessment to assess their skills by dops method. this was consistent with the theory already described, that in clinical medicine, knowledge is absolute prerequisite to performing procedure in a safe and effective manner. so to development method in teaching basic obstetric ultrasound or any other skills activity, some learning media that can provide knowledge as a prerequisite before they get into clinical skills are needed (dreyfus & dreyfus, 1986; ludmere, 2017). this learning method in this study has been applied for medical students during third-year clerkships in harvard medical school, boston, usa). the european federation of societies for ultrasound in medicine and biology (efsumb) recommends that ultrasound should be irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 566 used systematically as an easy accessible and instructive educational tool in the curriculum of modern medical schools. medical students should acquire theoretical knowledge of the modality and hands-on training should be implemented and adhered to evidence-based principles. the results of the dops showed that the students were able to performed basic obstetric ultrasound examination well enough, although there were 2 students still at the “borderline level”. dops can be considered as an instrument to assess skill competence at the „does‟ level consistent with the indonesian medical doctor‟s standard of competence which places the mastery of basic obstetric ultrasound examination in 4 th level of competence . dops also not only contains the assessment of psychomotor ability, but also assesses the attitude, behavior and communication. this was consistent with the theory already described that learning attitude and behavior are key components of skills as well. these affective components primarily involve communicating with the patient about the nature, needs and potential risk of the procedures, and understanding of and empathy to patient problem. hence, the assessment method should be able to embrace all these aspect together. however, this study is only the first step in building a learning system to ensure students to be able to achieve basic obstetric ultrasound examination competence in accordance with the indonesian medical doctor‟s standard of competence. it still needs further study to get a pattern that is really ideal, valid, visible and reliable for learning basic obstetric ultrasound examination in clinical phase. based on the experience of this study, this clinical supervision activity is quite draining the time and energy of the clinical teacher, among other obligations in medical service and research. this study also use the ultrasound which is also used for the medical service in ambulatory care, we suggest that it should be available ultrasound which is used only for learning, but of course funding support is needed. based on the results of interviews with students with borderline level, it should be considered that there is the availability of adequate room in accordance with the number of existing students. the comparative factors between the lecturers and the students ultimately still have to be a concern when conducting clinical supervision activities in learning of the clinical rotation. a theory which states that there are three variables that influence the effectiveness of learning in outpatient facilities input variables, process variables and output variables exists. the input variables studied were room facilities available for the students to conduct the examination, and the number of students involved in a clinical rotation in a certain section and the quality of organizing the implementation of the activity. the variables of the process studied were the variation of patients in the number and type of disease and adequate supervision, while the output variable is the effectiveness of the rotation at the outpatient clinic. room facilities were available positively or directly proportional to patient variations found by students. the better the provision of room facilities, the greater the opportunity for students to interact with patient in comfort will be. this room facility also affected the supervision variable. it will be easier for the clinical teacher to provide supervision when the room is available. the number of students involved in certain parts of the rotation will be inversely proportional to the variation of patients encountered by irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 567 students. in this case, the more students involved eating, the less chance each student has to interact with the patient in terms of interviewing, physical examination or procedural skill. conclusion and implications in this study , clinical supervision as teaching method together with learning media in the form of module and ultrasound video transferred positive results to improve achievement of student‟s competence in basic obstetric ultrasound examination skill. dops can be considered as suitable assessment method to assess the skill competence as a formative and summative assessment. the assessment system has to be implemented in regards to achieved targeted competencies at the time of graduation. the faculty should ensure the consistent summative assessment implemented for students at every stage of their education in the preclinical phase and in all departments in clinical phase. the emphasis is not only on the results or summative assessment, but also formative assessment which provides constructive feedback. we believe that assessment is a very important part of learning process where the student can realize where they stand and whether they are in the right direction to become a competent doctor. however, the integration of basic obstetrics ultrasound learning along with ideal assessment method in clinical rotation needs to be established to ensure that graduates can achieve the desired competencies. therefore, the existence of exit exam called ukmppd which is become a national level examination focusing on the achievement of final stage medical student in keeping with indonesia medical doctor‟s standard of competence. in addition to the demands of the 4 th level of competence 4 for basic obstetric ultrasound, we considered basic obstetric ultrasound skill as one of the materials needs to be assessed in osce ukmppd. disclosure statement no conflict of interest was reported by the authors. acknowledgments we would like to thank all participants who participated in this study. also we would like to thank irje and reviewers for accepting our article. the authors thank to dr. asro hayani harahap and dr. hernina oktaviani for their great help and support in this study. references akhter, m.s. (1976). the use of ultrasound in obstetric and gynecology. pubmed journal, 26(3), 64-67. amin, z., & eng, k. h. (2006). teaching and learning concept. singapore: world scientific publishing. bahner, d. p., adkins, e. j., hughes, d., barrie, m., boulger, c.t., royall, n. a. (2012). integrated medical school ultrasound: development of an ultrasound vertical curriculum. critical ultrasound journal, 5(6), 1-9. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 568 coroyannakis, c., & thilaganathan, b. (2015). the use of ultrasound in obstetric: old tools, new uses. obstetric, gyneacology and reproductive medicine, 25(12), 356-361. dolmans, d. h . j. m., wolfhagen, h. a. p., esseed, g. g. m., scherpbiers, a. j. j. a., & van der vleuten. (2002). student‟s perception of relationships between some educational variables in the out-patient setting. medical education, 36, 735-741. dreyfus, h.l., & dreyfus, s. e. (1986). five steps from novice to expert. new york: the free press. falender, c.a. (2014). clinical supervison in a competency-based era. south african journal of psychology, 44(1), 6-17. heinzow, h.s., friederichs, h., lenz, p., schmedt, a., becker, j.c., hengst (2013). teaching ultrasound in a curricular course according to certified efsumb standards during undergraduate medical education: a prospective study. bmc medical education, 13(84), 1-8. herlambang, fitri, a. d., shafira, n. n. a., elfiani, puspasari, a. ., & tarawifa, s. . (2020). the development of the basic obstetric ultrasound learning media for undergraduate medical students. | irje |indonesian research journal in education|, 4(1), 263-272. https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v4i1.9423 konsil kedokteran indonesia. (2012). standar kompetensi dokter indonesia. jakarta: konsil kedokteran indonesia. launer, j. (2011). supervision, mentoring and coaching. in understanding medical education, t. swanwick (ed.). https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118472361.ch8 ludmere, k. m. (2017). four fundamental educational principles. journal of graduate medical education, 14-17. liu, c. (2012). an introduction to workplace-based assessment. gastroenterol hepatol bed bench, 5(1), 24-28. norcini, j., & burch, v. (2007. workplace-based assessment as an educational tool: amee guide no. 31. medical teacher, 29(9), 855-871. biographical notes dr. herlambang works at the department of obstetric and gynecology, faculty of medicine and health sciences, universitas jambi, indonesia; email: herlambang07@yahoo.co.id dr. amelia dwi fitri works at the department of medical education, faculty of medicine and health sciences, universitas jambi, indonesia; email: amelia_dwi@unja.ac.id dr. nyimas natasha ayu shafira works at the department of medical education, faculty of medicine and health sciences, universitas jambi, indonesia. dr. anggelia puspasari works at the department of biochemistry, faculty of medicine and health sciences, universitas jambi, indonesia. dr. susan tarawifa works at the faculty of medicine and health sciences, universitas jambi, indonesia. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118472361.ch8 mailto:herlambang07@yahoo.co.id mailto:amelia_dwi@unja.ac.id this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 407 experts’ agreement of the personalized m-learning curriculum model based on fuzzy delphi method moganadass ramalingam 1 , siti hajar binti halili 2 , and saedah binti siraj 3 abstract the purpose of this study was to identify the experts‟ agreement on the suitability of the personalized m-learning curriculum model. a total of 25 experts were selected to evaluate the model. a fuzzy delphi method was used to identify suitability of the elements in personalized m-learning model. based on the overall findings, all the items have met the requirements needed in the triangular fuzzy number and meet the deffuzification process (more than the alpha α cut value of 0.5). this revealed that all the experts consensually agreed with all questionnaire items. hence, the proposed personalized m-learning curriculum implementation model is suitable to serve as a guideline for the instructor in implementing personalized m-learning. the new personalized m-learning elements for another course or programme could be determined based on the experts‟ opinions. this will enable the development of personalized m-learning model that could be implemented for any course or programme. keywords curriculum, experts, fuzzy delphi method, model, personalized m-learning 1. faculty of education, university of malaya, kuala lumpur, malaysia; moganmmu@yahoo.com 2. faculty of education, university of malaya, kuala lumpur, malaysia; siti_hajar@um.edu.my 3. faculty of education, university of malaya, kuala lumpur, malaysia; saedah@um.edu.my mailto:moganmmu@yahoo.com mailto:siti_hajar@um.edu.my mailto:saedah@um.edu.my irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 408 introduction over the years, the technology used to support m-learning has evolved. learning content that made available was not able to cater to a variety of mobile devices and many types of learners‟ need. aspects like content reusability and content adaptation become more and more critical. learning platforms or learning environment should better support variety of mobile devices and many needs of the learners will motivate the learners to have a better understanding of the content and acquire the knowledge required (firas, noraidah, & tengku, 2019). m-learning attained more importance in supporting and complementing the formal and informal learning, especially among the young generation today. extraordinary flexibility regarding time and location is the main characteristic of mobile devices which allow the learners to learn anywhere at any time without the restriction of time and space. loidl-reisinger and paramythis (2003) describe m-learning setting as "anywhere, anytime, any data and any device", such as learning content can be retrieved, viewed or repeated via an arbitrary device from an arbitrary place. in order for a learner to access any data on any device, content adaptation and customization plays a major part. these adaptation and customization are needed for a learner with different devices and different preferences. the first step is the process of adaptation and customization is by making the learning content reusable, interoperable, more easily accessible and more durable (svensson, 2001). the evaluation by the experts is based on the question: “what is the experts‟ agreement on the suitability of the personalized m-learning curriculum implementation model in the teaching and learning of food and beverage service course in the hospitality programme?” literature review m-learning is not just about learning using portable devices but learning across contexts (joorabchi, mesbah, & kruchten, 2013). so, any device m-learning is what we are looking at and moving towards. beside mobile device, the content adaptation also will be based on the learners‟ preferences and learners‟ surroundings. with this, personalisation is added to mobile learning. to utilize the full potential of personalized m-learning, the application designers face many challenges and one of the major challenges is on how should content be converted and adapted for delivering to mobile devices with limited hardware, software, and communication capabilities without changing the actual content of the material and on top of that based on learners‟ preferences (franz & holger, 2002). many technological challenges, such as small display size, low resolution, less memory power, low bandwidth, and input technology also become an obstacle in creating effective learning in a mobile environment. personalized learning happens both in school and out of school. while personalized classroom learning dictates by the teacher's choice of new tech tools, the learner has their personal tech tools when they are out of school. mobile devices are the popular choice for irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 409 out of classroom learning because mobile devices are very personal to the learner and almost every learner carry minimum one of these devices (issham, siti, & thenmolli, 2016). personalized m-learning is teaching a learner where they are (regardless of location), what they need in order to understand (preferences) and with the device of their choice. traditional classroom learning to personalized learning is a shift on what the learners do and their attitudes towards the learning process. most learning system usually ignores personalization feature, such as learning styles, learner's ability (knowledge level), learner's current need and learner's learning environment (network). they tend to deliver the same learning content to every learner. delivering personalized content to the learner's need (learner's specific domain) is the main purpose of this study. learners learn best when they are engaged with the content. in order to do that, learning content must be delivered according to their needs and preferences. the personalized content gives the learners the "right" content. by doing this, learning becomes flexible because they believe that they can manipulate the content. personalized m-learning help learning becomes alive and real in time when learners exchange ideas with their peers and instructor (kok, 2013). the ultimate goal of this personalized m-learning approach is to create a similar situation on how would learners respond to a one-to-one session with their peers and teacher/professional educator. this is likely a strategy to achieve learning goals for all type of learners (knowles, 1984). every learner is different. they have a different ability in learning a particular subject. given the same content, some learners may easily understand it by reading but some learners may need illustration or example to understand it. on top of that, every learner has their own preferences in learning such as learning at a quiet environment, learning by playing games, learning by communicating or cooperating with other people, and others. when the learners carry out the learning process with their own preferences, they will understand the content easily and may extend or apply the knowledge they have learned (quinn, 2011). hence, content that is personalized to learners is needed to enhance the learning efficiency and effectiveness of the learners. mobile phones or cell phones, or just mobiles for short, facilitate voice conversations as well as text messaging. today's mobile devices are work like multi-functional but tiny computer capable of hosting a broad range of applications for both business and consumer use. the ever-growing category of mobile devices with vast capabilities allow the users to access the internet for e-mail, instant messaging, text messaging and web browsing, as well as work documents, contact list and more. for students, mobile devices are often seen as an extension of their desktop, even laptop computers. for them, work can be done anywhere and at any time even though there are away from the classroom that later can be synchronized with their desktop computers. with mobile technology changing almost daily, the users have various options to select their personal mobile devices based on their requirement (keskín & metcalf, 2011). with the correct choice, the users can have a productive day while being away from the classroom. a smart mobile technology choice enables the learners to carry around their classroom with them. mobile device blends the functionality of a desktop computer, cell-phone, email access and web browser into one device. irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 410 chen, lee and tsai (2011) presented ontology in mobile phone domain for the construction of a knowledge base. the concept of a mobile phone is divided into seven parts: model, hardware, software, standard, brand, shape and color. there are different elements that can be considered in m-learning domain. zhang (2003) proposed a generic model for delivering personalized content to mobile users based on user profiles. al-hmouz (2012) proposed personalized model for mobile learners was based on three aspects which are context-based, content-based, and learner-based. methodology the study was focused on identifying the suitability of personalized m-learning curriculum implementation model to a specific course, food and beverage service, for diploma students in a private higher education institution in malaysia. the fuzzy delphi technique is used in this study to evaluate the model. these methods are primarily based on experts‟ opinion. hence, the outcome of the study, which is the curriculum implementation model, was solely depending on the experts‟ selection and their opinion. the delphi method is a forecasting process framework based on the results of multiple rounds of questionnaires sent to a panel of experts. this method was originally developed as a systematic, interactive forecasting method which relies on a panel of experts. this method was introduced by dalkey and helmer (1963). it is a survey method with three features: anonymous response, iteration and controlled feedback and finally statistical group response (hsu, lee, & kreng, 2010). an expert is a person with extensive knowledge or ability based on research, experience, or occupation and in a particular area of study and as in the context of this study, mobile learning field. it is based on four „expertise‟ requirements: 1) knowledge and experience with the issue under investigation; 2) capacity and willingness to participate; 3) sufficient time to participate in the study; and, 4) effective communication skills in both written and in expressing priorities through voting procedure (adler & ziglio, 1996). this is to ensure the model is suitable to guide in the implementation of personalized m-learning as learning support for student enroll in this course. this model will serve as a guide in the effective incorporation of personalized m-learning in formal education. a group of specifically selected experts are used to evaluate the model. experts were asked to look into the suitability of the elements in personalized m-learning, the relationship among these elements, the classification of these elements and the suitability of the model in the teaching and learning of a hospitality programme. the evaluation by the experts is based on the question: “what is the experts‟ agreement on the suitability of the personalized m-learning curriculum implementation model in the teaching and learning of food and beverage service course in the hospitality programme?” research design-fuzzy delphi method the delphi panel consisted of experts from different geographic regions of the world. kaufmann and gupta (1988) introduced the fuzzy delphi method. it consists of irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 411 fuzzy set theory and delphi techniques (murray, pipino, & van gigch, 1985). this is an analytical method used in decision-making process which incorporates fuzzy theory in the traditional delphi method. the delphi technique is a method for the systematic solicitation and collection of judgments on a particular topic through a set of carefully designed sequential questionnaires interspersed with summarized information and feedback of opinions derived from earlier responses (delbecq, van de ven, & gustafson, 1975). it is a timeand cost-efficient method to obtain opinions from experts without physically bringing them together for a face-to-face meeting. one of the major advantages of the delphi technique is anonymity which removes common biases occurring in face-to-face group settings (listone & turoff, 1975). this delphi study method is able to overcome implicit weaknesses in group communication, such as confrontation, argumentation, or dominance by a few individuals. the experts, who are anonymous and independent, are free to express their own ideas without direct communication with each other. according to linstone and turoff (2002), the delphi method involves several rounds of questionnaire surveys to elicit experts‟ opinion on an issue being investigated. this method is also known as consensus approach or inner-opinions consensus of a group of selected experts or delphi polls of experts. rand corporation ("research and development") or just rand is an american non-profit global policy think tank created in 1948 by douglas aircraft company to offer research and analysis to the united states armed forces. according to its report in 1953, the delphi technique was originally intended to solve the problems of the military (dalkey & helmer, 1963). later it has evolved into a variety of disciplines that can be found on various articles and journals. just to name a few, this method has been used in the field of education by baggio (2008), in management area by schmiedel and brocke (2013), in sports by eberman and cleary (2011) and in a banking sector by bradley and stewart (2002). the delphi technique is an expert opinion survey method with the following features:  anonymous response: experts has no knowledge of the identity of the other experts involved in the panel. according to armstrong (1985), the relationship among samples does not exist and their opinions are classified but their ideas are integrated in the analysis of data. the advantage of this anonymity is that the experts would not face any pressure or influence in responding to their questionnaire.  controlled feedback: experts would be given the main ideas constructed from the group in the subsequent rounds of a questionnaire which allows the exports to re-evaluate their judgment and submit their responses again to the group.  statistical: the experts‟ feedbacks are analyzed statistically which result in a splines graph. the top part of the graph indicates the experts' consensus opinion (50% of experts), which represent the overall exports' consensus opinion.  convergence: the result will be determined as a result that converges after multiple rounds of feedback from the experts. through this, the delphi method archive its aim to make a decision based on consensus on a particular study. the method allows the integration of opinions that is gained independently irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 412 from each expert through multiple cycles of questionnaires for prediction outcomes. however, there are also weaknesses in this method where the process become more costly and the repetition of the research cycle is time-consuming as it needs repetitive surveys to allow forecasting values to converge (hwang & lin, 1987; ishikawa, amagasa, shiga, tomizawa, tatsuta, & mieno, 1993). besides this, since people use linguistic terms such as „good‟ or „very good‟ to reflect their preferences (hsu et al., 2010), the experts‟ judgments cannot be properly reflected in quantitative terms. ambiguity might happen due to the differences in the meanings and interpretations of the expert‟s opinions. this can be overcome by combining fuzzy set theory and delphi, which was proposed by murray, pipino, and gigch (1985) and was named the fuzzy delphi method (fdm). participants in this phase, a panel of experts selected through purposive sampling to evaluate the model as described in the modified fmd above. in delphi method, selection of experts is the most important step because it affects the quality of the result of the study (jacobs, 1996). the technique of selecting the appropriate sample in the fdm is not a non-probability sampling (hasson, keeney and mckenna, 2000). this is because the samples were not selected randomly since they were chosen based on their knowledge and experience in the field of the study. a lecturer who has experience of more than five years is classified as an expert since they have experience in teaching and managing an ongoing basis (berliner, 2004). according to akbari and yazdanmehr (2014), the term expert in the field of education refers to an individual who has more than five years based on their specific experience. in order for the study to reach its specific objectives, linstone and turoff (2002) suggested the panel of experts is from 5 to 10. okoli and pawlowski (2004) suggested from 10 to 18 experts to validate the model. according to gordon (2009), the usual numbers of experts selected are between 15 to 35 experts to guarantee for comprehensive and reliable research findings. after considering the related factors, the number of experts selected to evaluate and validate the model was set to 25. data collection and analysis the instrument used was a set of evaluation survey questionnaire which consisted of 28 questions. this questionnaire divided into three parts: 1) experts‟ personal details; and 2) experts‟ use of technologies; and 3) experts' views of the model. the first part of the questionnaire was to elicit the experts' background information. the second part was to elicit the experts' use of mobile technologies. the third part was to elicit experts‟ view on the usability of the model using a 5-point linguistic scale as follows: 1 – strongly disagree, 2 – disagree, 3 – neutral, 4 – agree, and 5 – strongly disagree. as the study employed fdm to evaluate the model, the procedures for this phase are as follow: irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 413 selection of experts to evaluate the model; based on the experts' selection criteria explained in the previous section, a total of 25 experts were selected to evaluate the model. all the communication with the experts was done via email. determine the linguistic scale based on triangular fuzzy; in order to address the issue of fuzziness among the experts‟ opinion, a linguistic scale was used to frame the experts' feedback. this linguistic scale is very much alike to the likert scale with an additional of fuzzy numbers given to the scale of responses based on a triangular fuzzy number. for every response, there are three fuzzy values given to consider the fuzziness of the experts‟ opinions. the three values (figure 1) consist of three levels of fuzzy value: minimum value (m1), most plausible value (m2), and maximum value (m3). figure 1. three fuzzy values figure 1. three fuzzy values the linguistic scale is used to change the linguistic variable to fuzzy numbers. the level of agreement scale should be in odd numbers, usually in 3, 5 or 7 points of linguistic scale. a higher scale would indicate that the response analysis is more accurate. table 1 shows an example of a 5-point linguistic scale. table 1. sample of linguistic scale 5 point linguistic scale fuzzy scale strongly agree 0.60 0.80 1.00 agree 0.40 0.60 0.80 moderately agree/neutral 0.20 0.40 0.60 disagree 0.10 0.20 0.40 strongly disagree 0.00 0.10 0.20 based on the example scale above, we could observe that the fuzzy numbers are in a range of 0 to 1. in this study, this 5-point linguistic scale was used as the fuzzy numbers for the responses. calculating the average for fuzzy responses of experts; responses from the experts for each questionnaire item on their view of the model and their correspondent fuzzy number scales irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 414 were then inserted into an excel spreadsheet. the purpose of this is to get the average for m1, m2 and m3. this procedure is known as identifying the average responses for each fuzzy number (benitez, martín, & román, 2007). they were calculated using the following formula: identify the threshold value; in the next step, the difference between the experts‟ evaluation data and the average value of each item were calculated to determine the threshold value, „d‟. the formula was used to calculate the threshold value: in reference to the formula above, m₁, m₂ and m₃ are the average values for all the experts‟ opinions while n₁, n₂ and n₃ are fuzzy values for all three values for every user. the threshold value is essential in determining the consensus level among the experts. cheng and lin (2002) stated that all the experts are considered to have reached a consensus when the threshold value is less than or equal to 0.2. the overall group consensus should exceed 75% and any value less than this required a second round of fuzzy delphi. determine the percentage agreement; the overall consensus for all the items was determined based on the threshold value for each item. murray et al. (1985) highlighted that the percentage agreement of all experts must be equal to or greater than 75%. defuzzification process; defuzzification process is the final step in the evaluation phase. the data were analyzed using the average of fuzzy numbers. the defuzzification value, also known as fuzzy scores, (a) for each questionnaire item, was calculated using the following formula: a = 1/3 * (m₁ + m₂ + m₃). the calculation of defuzzification was used to identify which questionnaire items were agreed upon in evaluating the personalized m-learning curriculum implementation model. the data were later analyzed using a template microsoft excel. findings the evaluation questionnaire divided into three parts. thus, the findings of this evaluation phase will be presented in three parts. the first part of the survey questionnaire is about the experts' background information. the experts' background information is used to validate their expertise in evaluating the model. the second part presents the experts‟ use of mobile technologies in their daily life. this part will reveal how good they are with mobile technologies and how they use these technologies. the third part presents the experts‟ views on the suitability of the personalized m-learning curriculum implementation model. their views and opinions will be used as a guideline for the instructor in implementing personalized m-learning to support formal classroom learning. irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 415 background information of the experts a total of 25 experts were selected for this evaluation phase to evaluate the model, which was developed in phase 2 of the study. table 2 shows the findings of the experts‟ background information. table 2. experts’ background information item frequency percentage gender male 14 56.0 female 11 44.0 teaching/working experiences below 5 years 0 0.0 5 10 years 12 48.0 11 20 years 10 40.0 above 20 years 3 12.0 highest qualification phd 8 32.0 master 11 44.0 degree 6 24 diploma/certificate 0 0.0 field of work/expertise education (m-learning/online learning) 13 52.0 education (science and engineering) 6 24.0 mobile technologies and interface design 4 16.0 information system/technology 2 8 table 2 reveals the background information of the 25 experts involved in this survey questionnaire. based on the table, a total number of male and female experts who participate in this study represents 56% and 44% respectively. the findings show that the majority of the experts have teaching and working experience between 5 to 10 years (48%, n = 12). very close to this number are experts from 11 to 20 years of experience (40%, n = 10). there are also experts with more than 20 years of experience (12%, n = 3). in terms of their academic qualification, majority of the experts (44%, n = 11) possessed masters as their highest qualification, 32% (n = 8) with phd, and balance 24% (n = 6) with a basic degree (table 2). in terms of field of expertise, out of the four major categories given, majority of the experts were from the field of education with a specialized area in m-learning and online learning (52%, n = 13) and (24%, n = 6) are specialized in science and engineering. whereas, (16%, n = 4) experts were expertise in mobile technologies and interface design. the rest of the experts were from the information system and/or technology field. use of mobile technologies this part will reveal how good the experts are with mobile technologies and their technical skills with mobile devices. table 3 shows the findings in the aspect of experts‟ irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 416 mobile device related skills. the findings reveal that 64% (n = 16) of the experts claimed that they were moderate in terms of their mobile device-related skills and 36% (n = 9) of them claimed that they were skillful. table 3. experts’ mobile device-related skills items frequency percentage skillful (develop and managing website or/and blogs, content creation for an online system) 9 36.0 moderate (able to communicate through social networks like facebook, twitter, instagram, etc.) 16 64.0 low skilled (browse and search for information on the internet; use of office tools such as spreadsheets, words, powerpoint; receive and sending emails) 0 0.0 none 0 0.0 total 25 100.0 table 4 shows the findings in terms of experts‟ mobile device technical skill level. the findings indicate that majority of the experts (60%, n = 15) claimed that they were highly skilled, whereas the remaining 40% (n = 10) of the experts indicates that they have average technical skill with mobile devices. table 4. experts’ mobile device technical skill level items frequency percentage high 15 60.0 average 10 40.0 low 0 0.0 total 25 100.0 based on the analysis results from all the three tables above (table 2, table 3 and table 4), the selected survey questionnaire participants fit the description as experts in evaluating the model in this phase. according to pawlowski, suzanne, and okoli (2004), experts selected for a specific delphi study should have some background or experience in the related field of study, to be able to contribute their opinions to the needs of the study, and willing to revise their initial judgment to reach consensus among other experts in the team. in terms of experts' background experience and academic qualification in the related study field, the findings showed that majority of the participants specialize either from m-learning or online learning in the field of education. this indicates that these selected experts were suitable to evaluate the personalized m-learning curriculum model of the study. besides this, the experts also have some mobile device-related skills and the majority of them claimed that they have high technical skill with mobile devices. these criteria are an added advantage in evaluating the model. thus, based on the findings in this part, the selected respondents were qualified as experts in this phase. irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 417 experts’ views on the suitability of the personalized m-learning curriculum implementation model the responses of the participants (experts) to the evaluation survey questionnaire were based on the five-point linguistic scale. based on the responses collected from participants, the threshold value „d‟ was calculated for all the questionnaire items. this is to determine the level of consensus among experts for each item in the questionnaire. the process of calculating the threshold value „d‟ was based on this formula: the overall threshold value „d‟, was calculated as: [475 (total experts‟ responses) – 48 (total responses more than 0.2) ÷ 960] x 100%= 89.89%. this indicates that the threshold value „d‟, has exceeded 75%. this means that the experts have reached the required consensus in their views for all questionnaire items of the evaluation survey questionnaire in evaluating the personalized m-learning curriculum implementation model for food and beverage course in the hospitality program. discussion the analysis of questionnaire findings for fdm is based on the requirements contained in the triangular fuzzy number and deffuzification process. the triangular fuzzy number take into consideration of the threshold value „d‟ and the percentage of the experts‟ consensus for each item. the threshold value „d‟ for each item measured must be less than or equal to 0.2 to indicate the expert's consensus with other experts for a particular item in the survey questionnaire. whereas, the percentage of agreement of the experts must be more than or equal to 75%. as for the deffuzification process, there is only one condition which is the fuzzy score (a) must be greater than or equal to the α-cut value of 0.5. based on the overall findings, all the items have met the requirements needed in the triangular fuzzy number (less or equal to 0.2 for threshold value, d, and more than 75% for the percentage of experts' consensus) and deffuzification process (more than the alpha α cut value of 0.5). this revealed that all the experts consensually agreed with all questionnaire items. hence, according to the experts, the proposed personalized m-learning curriculum implementation model is suitable to serve as a guideline for the instructor in implementing personalized m-learning to support formal classroom learning. the experts were consensually agreed that the model shows a clear guide on how personalized m-learning could be conducted in complementing the conventional face-to-face classroom learning. the experts also consensually agreed to the model that shows clearly on the elements that need to be considered before designing a curriculum to implement a personalized learning for mobile devices in order to provide personalized learning experience. the model also shows clearly on how elements from different domain could merge to offer a holistic learning experience for the students. the experts also consensually irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 418 agreed to the model, which clearly personalized m-learning elements are connected to each other in aiding the learners in achieving the course's learning objectives. findings also revealed that the model could be used to assist planning of course unit lessons by the lecturer in facilitating students‟ in personalized m-learning, and the model could be used as an example to develop other curriculum implementation models for other courses. based on the threshold value 'd' and the defuzzification values, the findings conclusively suggest that the experts have consensually agreed to all the items in the evaluation aspects of the model. this concluded that the experts consensually agreed that the proposed personalized m-learning model is suitable to be used as a guide for the lecturers to implement personalized m-learning as learning support in teaching and learning process. conclusion and recommendations the study was focused on designing personalized m-learning curriculum model to a specific course, food and beverage service, for diploma students in a private higher education institution in malaysia. but the study through the development of the model and the result of this study will also be able to contribute to the implementation of personalized m-learning for other courses as well. this pedagogical model can also be used to support formal classroom teaching and learning. through this learning method of personalized m-learning, the students can explore the new way of learning which gives them control over the learning materials that they want to receive. this will bring excitement to the students and they will be able to keep their attention focused on their own adopted materials. the new personalized m-learning elements for another course or programme could be determined, if any, based on the opinions from selected panel of experts. this will enable the development of personalized m-learning 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(2003). delivery of personalized and adaptive content to mobile devices: a framework and enabling technology, communications of the association for information systems, 12(1), 13. biographical notes moganadass ramalingam is a postgraduate student in faculty of education, university of malaya, kuala lumpur, malaysia. his research interest is in personalised m-learning curriculum and tvet education. siti hajar binti halili is a senior lecturer in faculty of education, university of malaya, kuala lumpur, malaysia. her research interest is in flipped learning, instructional design and technology and education 4.0. saedah binti siraj is a professor in faculty of education, university of malaya, kuala lumpur, malaysia. her research interest is in future studies, curriculum development and instructional design and technology. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 530 managing young human resource behaviors through character education asad 1 and fridiyanto* 2 abstract the purpose of this research was to explore what efforts were being made by the madrasah tsanawiyah bungo regency in order to foster and embed character education in their students, in particular; how to plan, implement, supervise, and evaluate character education for students in one state madrasah tsanawiyah bungo regency. this research was a qualitative research with a case study approach. in collecting the data, the researcher used a demographic background and an in-depth interview with 9 participants. the participants in this research were one principal, two vice principals, three teachers, and three students. based on the findings of the research, it concluded the design of this education plan had been carried out periodically from the beginning of the year by perfecting the plan of the previous year and continued by making a plan for the following year which was carried out by a deliberation meeting with the teacher assembly and entered into the education calendar. the finding related to the implementation of character education was carried out by integrating character education into daily activities at the madrasah and building communication between schools with parents of students. furthermore, the finding of supervision showed that each party in the school such as the principal, vice-principals and teachers played an active role in supervising both directly and indirectly. the teacher was the party that had an active role because the teacher in addition to overseeing student actions, teacher also taught about how to inculcate character education in the classroom so that it can improve student behaviors by giving a warning. in terms of evaluation, it showed that the learning process of character education had been going quite well and in accordance with what was expected even though there were still shortcomings such as there were teachers who still did not understand the materials well, so the learning process was still less interesting and satisfying, especially in religious learning. . keywords behaviors, character education, madrasah 1. uin sulthan thaha saifuddin jambi, indonesia; e-mail: asadisma@uinjambi.ac.id 2. *uin sulthan thaha saifuddin jambi, indonesia; corresponding author : fridiyanto@uinjambi.ac.id mailto:asadisma@uinjambi.ac.id mailto:fridiyanto@uinjambi.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 531 introduction the goal of the national education in general has not yet been fully achieved. this causes the quality of education to not fully reflect the character expected by the national goal, where education at present tends to be pragmatic, secular, materialistic, hedonistic, rationalistic, that is, people who are intellectually and physically intelligent but are dry from spiritual and lack of emotional intelligence (britton, 2014; kamil & mukminin, 2015; lickona, 1999; muazza et al., 2018; muazza et al., 2019; mukminin et al., 2019). schools should not only be obliged to increase academic achievement, but also be responsible for the formation of good character which is two integral missions that should receive the attention of the school (nieto & bode, 2008). however, the economic and political demands of education cause the emphasis on academic achievement to defeat the ideality of the role of schools in character building. to achieve this goal, good handling and guidance are needed and require skillful and experienced personnel, and have a good education britton, 2014; lickona, 1999; muazza et al., 2019). so, the goal can be achieved in accordance with what is expected. therefore, resources owned by educational institutions must be able to compete and have extensive and renew the knowledge that exists and is needed in society. madrasah or islamic schools have a general objective as well as specific instructional objectives. in reality, in madrasah there are still many problems found from the attitude of students who are not appropriate, frequent brawls between students and students, as well as drinking and gambling behaviors (habibi et al., 2018; kamil et al., 2018; muazza et al., 2018; muazza et al., 2019). all of these negative behaviors clearly show a fairly severe degradation of character, one of which is caused by the suboptimal development of character education in educational institutions in addition to environmental conditions that are not supportive. this alarming condition is a big challenge for the government, educational institutions including teachers, and parents to further enhance character education for students, both character education that is developed in the family, school, and community environment (kamil & mukminin, 2015; kamil et al., 2018; muazza et al., 2018; muazza et al., 2019; . so the problem of character degradation has become a sharp focus of society. the highlight is contained in various writings in print media, interviews, dialogues, and speech titles in electronic media. the implementation of character education is not yet optimal, because character education in various madrasah or islamic school is able to implement it well. this is caused by two things, first, the education strategy has so far been more input oriented, meaning that the paradigm adopted by educational institution leaders is too reliant on the assumption that when all educational inputs have been met, it will produce quality outputs. secondly, the management of education has been more macro-oriented, governed by the bureaucracy at the central level, as a result of many factors. in addition, the multidimensional crisis that has plagued the country of indonesia today when looking for roots of the problem is stemmed from weak nation and character building and mental). therefore, character values must be included in the education program, because only by having strong character will be able to face various development challenges. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 532 the purpose of this research was to explore what efforts were being made by the madrasah tsanawiyah bungo regency in order to foster and embed character education in their students, in particular, (1) making plan related to character education for students in one state madrasah tsanawiyah bungo regency, (2) implementing character education for students in one state madrasah tsanawiyah bungo regency, (3) supervising activity in character education for students in one state madrasah tsanawiyah bungo regency, and (4) evaluating character education for students in one state madrasah tsanawiyah bungo regency. this study was guided by one major research question: how are the planning, implementation, supervision, and evaluation of the character education for students in one state madrasah tsanawiyah bungo regency? methodology research design, site, and participants this research was a qualitative design with a case study approach. this design was to investigate the extent of one madrasah tsanawiyah of the bungo regency state in fostering and instilling character education in their students. according to merriam (1998), a qualitative case study is an intensive and holistic description, explanation, and analysis of "a bounded system" (p. 27) or phenomena such as people, programs, institutions, institutions, processes, social units, groups or a policy. the site of this research was one state madrasah tsanawiyah bungo regency. the choice of setting of this research was based on the situation in which there are substantive and theoretical issues and is open to research that deserves to be chosen as a research site. at the one state madrasah tsanawiyah bungo regency, there are substantive and theoretical issues regarding managerial behaviors. as for the subjects of this research were the principal, vice principal, teachers, and students. then, to get the access to this research site, the researcher used a variety of sources. first, the researcher got the permission from the head of educational management program at the research site. then, in conducting the research, the researcher confirmed the school’s affairs to get permission for asking the participants, to contribute in this research. finally, the researcher asked the participants to participate in this research through the invitation letter. data collection and analysis the sampling procedure of this research was purposive sampling. purposive sampling is a technique widely used in qualitative research for the identification and selection of information – rich cases for the most effective use of limited resources (patton, 2002). this involves identifying and selecting individuals that are especially knowledgeable about or experienced with the issue of interest (creswell, 1998). the participants in this research were the principal consisting of one person, the vice principal consisted of 2 people; the teachers consisted of 3 people and 3 students. in conducting this research, the researchers used two kinds of techniques to collect the data. they were demographic background information and an in-depth interview. both were given to the participants in this research. in demographic background, there were some questions which used to get more detail information from the participants such as about: name, gender, age, profession, occupation, educational qualifications. this demographic irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 533 background was also used to help the researcher found the right criteria of the participants for this research. then, after using demographic background, the researchers used the in-depth interview. in conducting the interview, the researchers had some steps. first, the researchers sent a permission letter to the school affairs to get permission for conducting the research. second, the researchers met headmaster and discussed to find the participants for the research. third, the researchers made an appointment with the principal, the vice principals, the teachers and some students who had chosen as participants of the research about the time for interviews. fourth, after getting the time, the researchers did interview with the participants. interviews were conducted guided by an interview protocol compiled based on literature review and regulation of the minister of education and culture of the republic of indonesia number 20 of 2018 concerning strengthening character education in formal education units and presidential regulation of the republic of indonesia number 87 of 2017 concerning strengthening character education. both of these regulations focus on strengthening character education with the consideration that in order to create a nation that is cultured through strengthening religious values, honesty, tolerance, discipline, hard-working, creative, independent, democratic, curiosity, national spirit, love of the motherland, appreciating achievement, communicative, peace-loving, fond of reading, caring for the environment, caring socially, and being responsible, the government sees the need to strengthen character education. for qualitative data, all interview data were recorded by audio record, transcribed and analyzed and categorized according to the research questions. this data analysis technique helped researcher to group interview data. marshall and rossman (1999), say, "data analysis is process of bringing order, structure, and interpretation to the mass of collected data. it can be a messy, ambiguous, time consuming, creative, and fascinating process" (p. 150) and creswell (1997) say, "undoubtedly, no consensus exists for the analysis of the forms of qualitative data "(p.140). there were some steps in analyzing the data of this research. first step, the data from demographic profile were described and analyzed descriptively by the researcher. second, for the interviews, the process of data analysis was started by doing transcription of the interviews. the data from in-depth interview session were transcription by the researcher. after that, the researcher used coding and analyzed to identify how themes and sub-themes help me to explain my research questions. ethical considerations referring to the ethical considerations, an irb authorization process was not used in this study as in indonesia it is not a must. however, we masked all the names of our participants and their participation was voluntary. findings and discussion demographic background was used by the researcher to get more detail data of the teachers who had chosen as participants. in addition, this demographic background was also used by the researcher to find the participants, whether yes or not the participant precise to give the data about this topic. in this demographic background, there were some points that irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 534 answered by the participants in this research. they included the name (pseudonym), age, profession, occupation, educational qualifications. further, the use of this information was used to profile the participants in this research. there were 9 voluntary participants of one state madrasah tsanawiyah bungo regency as participants involved in this research. all the participants came from different backgrounds. furthermore, the participants were both male and female. thus, the researcher replaced the names of these participants by pseudonym as participant a, participant b, participant c, participant d, participant e, participant f, participant g, participant h, participant i so that the data were kept confidentially. planning for character education making a plan is the initial stage needed in starting an activity. of course this planning must be in accordance with what goals are achieved, just as it is about the planning of character education for students. character education is what you want to be introduced to students and how. based on the results of interviews with the principal in one of madrasah tsanawiyah: "the management of character education that we mean and actualize in this madrasa is the character education set by the government. in this context there are 18 character education intended by the indonesian ministry of education and culture (kemendikud). however, the focus of the management of character education that is internalized to each student is religious character, discipline and responsibility. …..discipline and character of responsibility in each student's identity. thus, all students are able to demonstrate the values of religious character that is carried out with full discipline and responsibility in their daily activities”. [participant a] based on the interview above, it showed that the character education implemented is character education that is determined directly by the indonesian ministry of education and culture (kemendikud). students are taught on how to have a religious, disciplined and responsible character and also character education is of course adapted to the vision and mission at school. the second participant added, "well, for this character education planning activity in the academy, it actually started from the beginning of the year meeting of the madrasa head with a teacher assembly to discuss the agenda for the new school year and all madrasa programs, including a plan for character education activities oriented to the madrasah vision: the realization of people of faith, piety, charity, pious, competent, confident, skilled, useful for religion, society, homeland and the nation that basically rahmatan li al-'lamīn, after that i as the head of the madrasa held a meeting with the madrasa committee, and teachers. the agenda for discussing character education is continuous, that is perfecting the character education program the previous year and then planning the next year character education program which is then planned in the annual education calendar and the work program of the madrasah head." irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 535 based on the interview above, it showed that the arrangement of the character education program in this madrasah integrated in school program planning in every year together with other school stakeholders such as teachers and administers and parents. this statement is also supported by participant d, "the planning of the character education program was made with the council of teachers in the annual work meeting to determine the person in charge through a decree from the madrasa head. based on the decree, only then we compile further teaching plans that are scheduled in the madrasa education calendar. this is done to later be introduced to students' parents in order to manage the teaching process which is fun and conducive." [participant d] the interview data showed that a meeting was held with the teacher council for annual deliberations related to teaching planning and the person in charge as added by participant a and f, "yes, of course, we are in creating a character education program that is integrated with the madrasa program aimed at realizing our madrasa vision and mission and in accordance with national education goals. so the types of activities chosen refer to the vision and mission of the madrasa.” [participant a] “basically the character education planning process specifically related to the counseling guidance program is based on the madrasa's vision and mission. this vision and mission must be aligned with the character values planned by the madrasa. we then formulated in the teaching implementation plan and was endorsed by the madrasa headmaster. this is done as a sign that the lesson plan can be implemented in class." [participant f] our data indicated that the planning which is the design of the implementation of character education so far has been running in accordance with the vision and mission of the school and in accordance with the rules about 18 characters made by the ministry of education and culture (kemendikbud). this character education aims to create a religious character that is carried out with full discipline and responsibility in each of students’ daily activities that is in accordance with the vision of the madrasa, namely the realization of people who have faith, piety, pious deeds, morality, competence, skills, and who are useful for religion, society, homeland and nation. the implementation of character education based on the interviews with participants, the implementation of character education in the research site was carried out in synergy between formal activities in madrasas and outside madrassas with a comprehensive approach and also the design of this irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 536 implementation was carried out in accordance with the design and meetings with stakeholders. "in the implementation of character education in madrasas we carried out in synergy between formal activities in madrasas and outside madrassas with a comprehensive approach. first, integrating the planned character education content into all subjects. second, integrating character education into daily activities at the madrasa, integrating character education into activities that are already programmed or planned. fourth, building communication communication between schools and parents of students." [participant a] our data showed that cooperation between the two parties or stakeholders in schools is needed to facilitate the socialization of character education and also to facilitate the implementation of character education. before being socialized to students, character education was previously discussed at an annual meeting, to make a character education design that will be disseminated to students. "there are many ways that are carried out in socializing character education in our madrasa, including the headmaster of madrasas through teacher deliberations at the beginning of the school year, based on the results of the deliberations then compiled work programs, then through the homeroom teacher, character education programs are socialized to students." [participant b] then character education carried out in school must be based on what is in the curriculum such as vision, mission, goals, structure, curriculum content, educational calendar, syllabus, and lesson plan so that it helps to make character education easier to understand and apply with accompanied examples in accordance with what is in everyday life. the supervision of character education supervision of character education in school is needed because there are many students who have not applied what has been socialized with character education. "the implementation of character education that we have planned with all madrassas, cooperation with students' parents in accordance with input and deliberated plans is outlined in the form of a program which is then outlined in the work of the madrasa head, basically the character education activities are synergized with the madrasa program which is a distinctive value madrasa.” [participant a] the interview above showed that character education should be implemented with the help of the parents in accordance with inputs and deliberated plans which synergized with the madrasa programs. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 537 "in our madrasa, we make agreed rules based on the decision of a joint meeting at the beginning of each year. this ruling is binding for each student indiscriminately. this rule then becomes the benchmark in making decisions that occur to students during the learning process.” [participant c] the result of the interview above showed that, of course in this supervision several rules have been made that will serve as a benchmark for how students should behave in accordance with what is embedded in character education and also in making these rules before; they have been deliberated with the family of students. "to instill students' character values requires cooperation between all parties in the school, and all parties must jointly think about and try to instill character values in students. so that students can really be well directed and experience changes in their character for the better." [participant a] the result showed that, all parties involved in the school were a supervisory team that would oversee every action taken by students in the school area which of course would be adjusted according to any character rules that must be instilled in accordance with character education. supervision was usually carried out by schools such as school principals, vice principals and teachers. in addition to the principal who acted as a supervisor in the implementation of character education, the teachers also played an active role as a supervisor in the character education at school because teachers spent a lot of their time with students such as in the classroom and the teacher also played an active role to start teaching and applying several matters relating to character education in the classroom such as noble character, discipline, responsibility and respect for fellow friends and teachers. if there are students who break rules that have been embedded in character education during the teacher's supervision period, the teacher will give a direct warning to the students. the result showed that the principal would supervise both directly and indirectly in supervising everything that was done and how students behave during the school environment, not only the principal but also the teachers with the help of the principal. "punishment and advice to us has been done by each teacher, especially the teacher who taught, so if my friends, especially men, also do not experience changes in character, then every violation will be reported to the homeroom teacher, then the homeroom teacher reports to the guidance counselor teacher issues a letter for parents to come to school." [participant h] the result showed that the teachers were actively involved in doing supervision even inside the class as added by participant g. “i see that all teachers have tried and cooperated, rebuked, gave advice, but my friend, especially men, did not change and improve his temperament.” irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 538 supervision was carried out at all times both in the classroom and outside the classroom and all parties were concerned such as school principals, vice principals and teachers. the evaluation of character education evaluation is an activity to assess and review what has been implemented and if there are inappropriate or other obstacles during implementation, so that it can be corrected and updated. "there must be supervision and evaluation of the implementation of character education in our madrasa. evaluation of the success of character education can be done at the time of sharing learning outcomes, where at the time of taking report cards parents of students and teachers can discuss about the development of children's character. good religious value, example, care for the environment, love cleanliness, honesty, discipline, communicative, and responsibility. we also remind that religious values, discipline and responsibility are our main focus in madrasas, without competing with other exemplary values. thus, parents of students can freely convey the development of children, and the teachers also have no difficulty in fostering the character of children. they can share with parents, so hopefully the best solution for children is expected. whereas supervision is carried out in the daily activities of children in the classroom". [participant b] "for now, we always call every student's parents to the madrasa at the beginning of every school, and every time they take a passport. then we provide input and direction on the whereabouts of students in madrasas. we also tell the extent to which the function of each element in fulfilling their respective obligations. "[participant b] this evaluation process is very important to be carried out in order to achieve the objectives of the application of character education. the evaluation of character education is usually done routinely every year for example in giving report cards where teachers can meet directly with students' parents to discuss how the characters that have been embedded in their children whether they are in accordance with the rules of character education or not, and together find a solution if there is a discrepancy. the results of the interview were also supported by the results of interviews with other participants who stated that the evaluation activities were carried out routinely every year with the involvement of parents who also acted as student supervisors in the development of character education. "every year at the madrasa an evaluation of the implementation of character education activities is carried out, to find out which are less successful, so that in the coming year the development of character values that have not been successful will be the main focus to be improved, while supervision is carried out by monitoring student activities for example yasinan activities every friday morning, parents of students are also involved in supervision because parents of students must sign, all irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 539 events that occur that are carried out by children related to the values of character education set by the madrasa." [participant e] in evaluating, of course there are stages or indicators that must be assessed and evaluated. "to measure the level of success in implementing character education in our madrasa, it is carried out in four stages. first, develop indicators of established and agreed values. second, develop an assessment instrument. third, record the achievement of indicators. fourth, conduct analysis and evaluation on the coach / teacher." [participant c] the result above showed that there were few indicators to measure the level of success in implementing character education. furthermore, "the learning and teaching process goes well, because the teaching methods used are in accordance with the material taught, the teacher teaches the discipline of time and the schedule set, but the teacher who teaches religion lacks mastered the subject matter taught, so we have difficulty understanding the subject matter, the teacher will be angry if we make a fuss and disturb friends, we ask if there is material that is not understood, and we think the example and example of a teacher will greatly affect our attitudes and character as students, for example how to dress, speak and so on so we feel the teacher's behavior is character education which is indirectly provided by the teacher to us but we can immediately get his knowledge." [participant i] the purpose of this research was to explore what efforts were being made by the madrasah tsanawiyah bungo regency in order to foster and embed character education in their students, in particular; how to plan, implement, supervise, and evaluate character education for students in one state madrasah tsanawiyah bungo regency. in the first research question, discussion and finding related to the results of interviews with participants that the planning which is the design of the implementation of character education so far had been running in accordance with the vision and mission of the school and in accordance with the rules about 18 characters made by the ministry of education and culture (kemendikbud). this character education was aimed to creating a religious character that was carried out with full discipline and responsibility in students’ daily activities that was in accordance with the vision of the madrasa, namely the realization of people who have faith, piety, pious deeds, morality, competence, skills, and who are useful for religion, society, homeland and nation. furthermore, the findings were also in accordance with the constitution no. 20 of 2003 (article 3 of the national education system law), which states that national education functions to develop and shape the dignified character and civilization of the nation in the context of intellectual life of the nation. the aim is to develop the potential of students to become human beings who believe and devote to god almighty, have good character, be healthy, knowledgeable, capable, creative, independent, and become democratic and responsible citizens. the design of this education plan had been carried out periodically from the beginning of the year by perfecting the plan the previous year and continued by making a irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 540 plan for the following year which was carried out by a deliberation meeting with the teacher assembly. in the second research question the finding related to the implementation of character education in one state madrasah tsanawiyah bungo regency was carried out in accordance with management functions which include planning, organizing, leadership and supervision (robbins 1995), namely by teaching or socializing to students about some of the characters that were not only used in madrasah but also applied to the environment in which decision making and implementation there were several stakeholders, who take over such as teachers and parents and according to the decisions of the principal. of course this involvement of others is in line with the understanding of management made by terry (1956) in which the implementation of management is an action to get others to do something while responsibility remains in the hands of the governing. character education in this area was also carried out by integrating character education into daily activities at the madrasa and building communication communication between schools with parents of students. kamil and mukminin (2015) and kamil et al. (2018) argue that the purpose of education including character education in school settings is to establish harmonious connections with families and communities in playing the role of shared character. furthermore, in terms of supervision, our findings indicated that each party in the school such as the principal, vice-principal and teachers play an active role in supervision both directly and indirectly. teacher was the party that had an active role because the teacher in addition to overseeing student actions, the teacher also taught about how to inculcate character education in the classroom so that it can improve student behavior by giving a warning and reward. this finding was in accordance with the results of research from habibi et al. (2018), kamil et al. (2018), muazza et al. (2018), and muazza et al. (2019) who found that besides teaching, teachers must also focus on students' morals and behavior in order to maintain the future of students and also teachers need to control student behavior by giving punishments and judgments and rewards. the finding related to evaluation show that the learning process of character education in one state madrasah tsanawiyah had been going quite well and in accordance with what was expected even though there were still shortcomings such as there were teachers who still did not understand the material well, so the learning process was still less interesting and satisfying, especially in religious learning. this finding was in accordance with the findings of sudarni (2009), who found the same results that in one of the schools he studied, there were still deficiencies in the learning process, such as the creation of an active, creative and enjoyable learning process. conclusions based on the analysis of the discussion of the findings about the management of character education in one state madrasah tsanawiyah bungo regency, some conclusions can be drawn as follows. the management process of character education for students in the regency of madrasah tsanawiyah bungo regency is trying to meet the regulation of the minister of education and culture of the republic of indonesia number 20 of 2018 concerning strengthening character education in formal education units and presidential regulation of the republic of indonesia number 87 of 2017 concerning strengthening irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 541 character education. in the research site, religious values developed are awareness values. the development of excellent academic values and religious awareness rests on the principle of integrating moral knowing, moral feeling and moral action through the exemplary approach and the system approach. character education carried out in the school was based on what is in the curriculum such as vision, mission, goals, structure, curriculum content, education calendar, syllabus, and lesson plans that help to make character education easier to understand and apply with appropriate examples with what is in everyday life. the supervisor will oversee every action taken by students in the school which of course will later be adjusted to whatever character rules that must be instilled in accordance with character education. supervision is usually carried out by the school, especially the principal, vice principal of school, teachers and students. character education supervision is carried out with a strict control and evaluation of the attitudes and behaviors of students regularly and continuously by developing indicators of character values that are determined, using assessment instruments in the form of observation sheets, attitude scales, portfolios and check lists; supervision using internal control management through rules and attitude books, and external control through collaborative control with parents of students through home visits, taking notes on achievement, conduct analysis and follow up as needed. evaluation of character education is usually carried out routinely every year, for example at every report card giving, where teachers can meet directly with students' parents, to discuss how the characters that have been embedded in their children, they are in accordance with the rules of character education or not. disclosure statement no potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors. references britton, n.j. 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(2019). caring the silenced voices from an islamic boarding school-pesantren: stories of volunteer teachers and policy implications. dirasat: human and social sciences, 46(3), 270-279. muazza, m., mukminin, a., habibi, a., hidayat, m., & abidin, a. (2018). education in indonesian islamic boarding schools: voices on curriculum and radicalism, teacher, and facilities. islamic quarterly, 62(4), 507-536. mukminin, a., habibi, a., prasojo, l. d., idi, a., & hamidah, a. (2019). curriculum reform in indonesia: moving from an exclusive to inclusive curriculum. [kurikularna prenova v indoneziji: prehod od izključujočega k vključujočemu kurikulum] center for educational policy studies journal, 9(2), 53-72. doi:10.26529/cepsj.543 mukminin, a., fridiyanto., hidayat, m., habibi, a., haryanto, e., harto, k., makmur., muazza., masbirorotni. (2019). the reform of national final exam policy in indonesia: jurisdiction, policy alternatives, and policy feasibility. library philosophy and practice, 3110. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libphilprac/3110/ nieto, s., & bode, p. (2008). affirming diversity: the socio-political context of multicultural education (5th ed.). boston: pearson and ab longman. patton, m. q. (2002). qualitative research and evaluation methods (3 rd ed.). thousand oaks, ca: sage. robbins, s. p. (1996). teori organisasi, struktur desain dan aplikasi [organizational theory, design structure and applications]. jakarta : arcan. sudarni, a. (2009). manajemen pembelajaran pendidikan agama islam dalam kurikulum tingkat satuan pendidikan di smp negeri 1 wawotobi kabupaten konawe [management of learning islamic religious education in the education unit level curriculum at smp negeri 1 wawotobi, konawe regency]. master thesis, universitas negeri yogyakarta, indonesia. terry, r. g. (1956). principles of management. homewood, illinois: inwin. biographical notes dr. asad is an associate professor at uin sulthan thaha saifuddin jambi, indonesia; e-mail: asadisma@uinjambi.ac.id dr. fridiyanto is an assistant professor at uin sulthan thaha saifuddin jambi, indonesia; e-mail: fridiyanto@uinjambi.ac.id https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libphilprac/3110/ http://eprints.uny.ac.id/53150/ http://eprints.uny.ac.id/53150/ http://eprints.uny.ac.id/53150/ mailto:asadisma@uinjambi.ac.id mailto:fridiyanto@uinjambi.ac.id this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 496 the effect of education and gender on language proficiency: a study of multilingual hungarian young adults’ verbal fluency noémi szabó 1 and failasofah 2 abstract recent developments in the field of multilingual processing have led to a renewed interest in exploring the effect of verbal fluency tasks from a new perspective (shishkin & ecke, 2018). this hungarian case study intends to investigate the effect of verbal fluency tasks on multilingual participants‟ language proficiency with special attention to gender differences and educational background. six participants were recruited to take part in the study: three males and three females. respondents‟ first language (l1) was hungarian while their two foreign languages include english (l2/ l3) and german (l2/ l3). data for this study were collected by using verbal fluency tasks, namely phonological and semantic fluency tests. data management and analysis were performed using spss 22. the results suggest that students outperformed their graduate peers. the majority of the participants obtained better scores in english in terms of semantic fluency meanwhile most of the subjects achieved greater results in german as for the phonemic category. female participants outperformed males both in the majority of phonemic and semantic tasks. keywords multilingual processing, verbal fluency, verbal fluency tasks 1. phd student at multilingualism doctoral school, the university of pannonia, hungary; sznojcsi@gmail.com 2. alumni of phd at multilingualism doctoral school, the university of pannonia, hungary and faculty member at faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, jambi, indonesia; failasofah@unja.ac.id mailto:sznojcsi@gmail.com mailto:failasofah@unja.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 497 introduction verbal fluency is a major area of interest in the field of neuropsychology. studies have been mainly focused on the relationship between verbal fluency and the cognitive status so far (troyer & moscowitch, 2006). research based on verbal fluency tests especially phonological and semantic fluencyhas been studied by many researchers in order to investigate the effect of verbal fluency tasks before or after the decline of the mental status and cognitive processes (shao, janse, visser, & meyer, 2014). these tests are mostly implemented either to find out probably more diagnosis on mental health disease like dementia, or alzheimer disease or to examine the relationship between verbal fluency tests and the decline of mental status in patients (weakley, & schmitter-edgecombe, 2014; mueller, koscik, larue, clark, hermann, johnson, & sager, 2015). demographic characteristics of the subjects can also play an integrative role in the semantic and phonological fluency. according to the pisa report (2003) socio-economic status (ses) is interconnected with the motivation and language proficiency (kormos & kiddle, 2013). moreover, verbal fluency tests are applied to assess creativity and strategical thinking based on gender differences (scheuringer, wittig, & pletzer, 2017; rena li, 2014; hyde & marcia, 1988). relevant and fresh case studies have been appeared in the scene to provide new insight into the effect of verbal fluency tasks on gender, maturity or language dominance (nshiwi & failasofah, 2019; alkrisheh & de bot, 2018). recently, one study has been written about the multilingual context of indonesia where the researcher investigated three different languages with the help of verbal fluency tasks (aziez et al., 2020). based on the latest statistical data, learning foreign languages and speaking more than one language can still be counted as a peculiarity in hungary. however, far too little attention has been paid to the effect of language fluency task amongst university students (olkonnen, 2017). the sample consists of undergraduate and graduate students who were asked to take part in the research. this case study seeks to examine the language proficiency in three different languages based on verbal fluency tasks in the case of six hungarian young adults. in reviewing the literature, definitions of first language, mother tongue and second/additional language are given in order to provide the theoretical framework of the current study. moreover, gender differences and the effect of educational background will be scrutinized based on the literature. dialect is out of consideration in the current paper. whilst some research has been carried out on the difference of monovs. bilinguals, there have been few empirical investigations into the role of verbal fluency tasks on third language acquisition and on gender differences (huang et al., 2020). moreover, a considerable amount of literature has been published on the effect of verbal fluency tasks. so far, however, there has been little discussion about the role of educational background in verbal fluency tasks. there is also a further issue that should be touched upon. gender differences are a highly controversial topic so this research study investigates the role of sex in different fluency tasks. the aim of the current study is to concentrate on multilingual processing using verbal fluency test amongst graduate and undergraduate university students. this research seeks to examine the role of multilingual proficiency, gender and education on verbal fluency. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 498 literature review we need to define language from a sociolinguistic approach. sociolinguistics considers language as a behaviour which has regional and social situations. language is not only used for communication but it also has the power to form one‟s identity (van coetsem, 1992). language can be characterized by different factors such as language use, function, and status. vernacular variety of the language is the one which is spoken by common speech and by a particular region in the country. the opposite side of vernacular language is considered to be the taught and written variety of the language. vernacular languages are usually underestimated ones comparing to the standard variety of the languages. the standardization process involves grammar, pronunciation, vocabulary and orthography. the role of the standard variety can be quite diversified: it is applied to the education, administration, and to the media (stavans & hoffmann, 2015). this can be briefly illustrated by the hungarian language. the standard variety of hungarian is the language what we use at the office, on media platforms or in the educational context. the vernacular version of hungarian involves a lot of expressions (like slang words) or different grammatical forms of the language that is not obliged to use officially. the definition of mother tongue and first language (l1) need to be clarified as literature offers contradictory findings about one‟s mother tongue that can be identical with someone‟s „native‟, „home‟ or primary language. according to stavans and hoffman (2015), “the notion mother tongue refers to the first language acquired, possibly the one that one knows best and quite likely the language that defines the group identity” (p. 41). the collins online dictionary defines first language differently as mother tongue: “someone's first language is the language that they learned first and speak best; used especially when someone speaks more than one language.” 1 hungarian language is the ultimate mother tongue of the participants as the state language of the country is exclusively hungarian besides the 13 minority languages (kenesei, 2010). the question of minority languages is neglected in this case study. a vivid interest has aroused in multilingualism research over the past decade. multilingualism is a natural trend to human speakers and it is an integral part of the human language faculty. linguists working in the field of biand multilingualism are more popular in our modern society due to globalization, mobility and fast communication (hammarberg, 2018). research on third language acquisition (tla) is very limited and it is still in its infancy, although this particular field has got more attention over the last decade. the intense activity of the emerging field started approximately 20 years ago therefore multilingualism has received much attention only in the past two decades. nowadays being monolingual means the exception and commanding two or more languages is not counted as peculiarity like in the former century (herdina & jessner, 2002). many people can acquire a third or fourth language and multilingualism or third language acquisition is a natural phenomenon in many parts of the world. however, tla is more common in multilingual 1 https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/first-language https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/first-language irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 499 settings like in africa or asia; people can acquire second/third or additional languages in monolingual settings (cenoz, 2013). with the increased interest in third language acquisition, several authors (de angelis, 2007; hammarberg, 2010) felt the need to investigate whether there are differences between multilingualism and tla and to what extent (hammarberg, 2014) a second language (l2) refers to any language at an individual‟s disposal other than his/her mother tongue. one can acquire more languages after the second language; it can be named additional languages. grosjean (2001) points out that bilinguals are those who use two or more languages in their every-day life so the focus is on the regular use and not on fluency. jessner (2008) talks about inconsistency in terminology because focusing on more than two languages can be problematic from a traditional monolingual perspective. multilingualism research concentrates on more than two languages which may occur a terminological confusion with regard to the traditional monolingual norms. as already mentioned, the study of sla applies to the learning of second language/ languages according to some researchers (cook & singleton, 2014). sla scholars believe that the development and processing of an l2 includes the same mechanisms which one needs in order to acquire a third language. as distinct from this, a growing number of researchers believe that sla is different from tla in many aspects (see cenoz, hufeisen, & jessner, 2001, 2003). for cenoz (2013), tla refers to “the acquisition of a language that is different from the first and second and is acquired after them.” (p.71). tla is often used as a synonym for multilingualism but third languages acquisition means the acquisition of an l3. multilingualism covers a broader field than language acquisition as it refers to the proficiency in 2 or more languages. multilingualism research with particular reference to language learning and speech development are usually in short supply but some significant developments have been made recently (de angelis, 2007). learners of two or more languages should cope with the challenges of building strategies and skills in order to achieve the language learning tasks. multilingual speakers can reflect on their own learning process and they are more successful in explaining the usefulness of prior linguistic knowledge. moreover, cenoz (2013) examined the difference between mono-and multilingual learners and the diversity of learning can be a noticeable feature. learning a second language can have various routes in case of even a second language. the l2 status plays an important role in the language learning process. another distinction between 2 nd and 3 rd language acquisition refers to the contextual and linguistic elements that are called third language competence and performance. in corresponding to language proficiency, several studies have dealt with the issues on gender differences with regard to verbal fluency tasks (hyde & marcia, 1988; scheuringer, wittig, & pletzer, 2017). sex differences in verbal fluency performance are a much debated topic. a female advantage has been more often observed in case of phonemic fluency (weiss et al., 2006). despite this, very few studies showed that women tend to outperform men in semantic fluency tasks (capitani et al. 1999, 2005) while mathuranath et al. (2003) conducted a study to examine the effects of age, education and gender on verbal fluency. a full discussion of the issue is beyond the scope of the current research. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 500 methodology research design, site, and participants the study employs quantitative method in order to answer the research questions. this study was conducted in the form of filling in a verbal fluency test, with data being gathered via verbal fluency tests (vft) including semantic fluency (sf) task and phonemic fluency (pf) task. the verbal fluency test is a short test which measures verbal and cognitive functioning (e.g., lezak et al., 2012). the vft typically involves two tasks: category fluency (or it is called semantic fluency benton, 1968) and letter fluency (newcombe, 1969 phonemic fluency). in the standard versions of the tasks, participants are given 60 seconds (1 min.) to make up as many words as possible within a semantic category (category fluency) or starting with a given letter (letter fluency). semantic category labels as category fluency and letter fluency are called phonological category, as well. the terminology will be used according to this naming. the participant‟s score is the number of correct words related to each task. the test was constructed on an online surface using the application of quizlet.com. the questions were designed to focus on one semantic category (jobs) and on one phonological category (words starting with letter s) (shao, janse, visser, & meyer, 2014). a small sample was chosen because of the expected challenge of recruiting voluntary participants due to the tight time frame as this study was part of a phd course at university of pannonia (2018, may). six university students (n=6) were involved in this study from the university of pannonia. gender differences can be detected in the project as three women and three men took part in the study. they are young adults between the age of 19 and 26. they started to acquire second and third languages at primary school. all the students were participants from the university of pannonia, veszprém although fictional names were used in this study. it is important to mention that three of them accomplished their teacher training ma studies: one of the three studied only german at the university whereas the other two participants finished their studies as english-german teacher. it is a vital factor that the three students are studying in the teacher training programme of english and or german. one of them was first year student while the other two participants were second year students. as far as the languages are concerned, the mother tongue of the participants is hungarian and they acquire english and german languages as foreign languages (l2/l3). data collection and analysis participants were given two tasks from the verbal fluency test. (vft) they needed to fill in the online format of the tests and they had got 1 minute for accomplishing each task. participants were asked to overtly generate as many hungarian words as possible in one minute according to the given examples. first, letter fluency was assessed in the case of one trial: participants were asked to create words starting with letter „s‟. after that, category fluency was measured with the help of one trial: individuals were asked to name jobs in hungarian language. when the minute passes, the participants move directly to next irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 501 category. subjects had to accomplish the subparts of the same test in english and german, as well. data management and analysis were performed using spss (2013). the quantitative data from the test was analysed by using spss 22 program and the findings were presented in tables. ethical considerations the present study was implemented with the help of the participants who studied at the university of pannonia, veszprém. they were informed about the process of investigation and it was highlighted that participation was voluntary. subjects had the right to withdraw from the research but 6 out of the 6 participants could successfully fulfil the tasks. the case study was self-funded. information and data on participants have been kept confidentially. findings abbreviations will be used to describe the variables which are important at the stage of the data analysis. hung(s) is phonemic category in hungarian, eng(s) stands for phonemic category in english and ger(s) illustrates phonemic category in german. the same labels were used in the case of the semantic category i.e. hung (jobs) stands for the semantic category in the hungarian language, eng(jobs) is semantic category in english meanwhile ger(jobs) describes the semantic category in the german language. table 1 illustrates the results of the verbal fluency test. inserting this chart is needed in order to exemplify individual differences compared to the total data. hungarian is the mother tongue for all the participants so focusing on foreign language proficiency represents interesting data. it is highly important to mention that participants‟ educational background and career are known factors. three participants are teachers but only two of them use the foreign languages on a daily basis. the first participant is working at a primary school and her major is german. she acquired the english language (l3) not as part of her university studies but she accomplished a language certificate in english (b2). her results indicate that her scores are significantly higher in german (25; 12) than in english (4;5). participant 2 is nowadays working as an assistant at a customer service and she does not use english and german languages that frequently. she accomplished her studies as english-german teacher but her results are unanticipated as she could not produce as many words as expected based on her language proficiency (e.g..: german: 7; 9 and english: 5; 14.) comparing the two results (a. g. and a. sch.) shows that the order of language acquisition and the years of language learning are not always straightly proportional with the proficiency. participant 1 and 2 achieved quite similar results in english although only one of them accomplished her studies as an english teacher. the scores of the third participant (lóránt) serve as a positive outcome because he obtained quite similar scores related to his english and german in letter and semantic fluency. (e: 10, 11; g: 10, 11) he works as a teacher and he also frequently uses foreign languages in his everyday life. the other three participants were students at the university of pannonia: one of them is a female while the other two participants are male subjects. they irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 502 gained higher results both in semantic fluency and letter fluency with regard to hungarian. students had got a more extensive vocabulary because they encountered more words and phrases during their studies. analysing the test scores and the status of l2 could give an unanticipated finding: the performance does not always in line with the order of the language acquisition. the most striking result to emerge from the data is the leading role of the german language as the majority of the students produced more words in german than in english in the semantic category. table 1. the results of verbal fluency test: students and graduate participants name hung(s) eng(s) germ(s) hung (jobs) eng (jobs) germ(jobs) 1.andrea g. 14 4 25 15 5 12 2.adrea sch. 21 5 7 19 14 9 3. erika 17 15 25 23 20 14 4. lóránt 12 10 11 9 10 11 5. gábor 17 8 4 16 7 3 6. bence 15 11 10 14 6 4 simple statistical analysis was used to investigate the relationship between level of education and phonemic fluency. students achieved greater results in english and in hungarian than graduates which eventuated from the more frequent encounters of the foreign languages at the university. table 2 indicated that students merely outperformed graduate participants namely in english (m=11, 33) and in hungarian (m=16, 33) phonemic tasks. despite of this, graduates achieved greater results in german (m=14, 33) phonemic fluency task. table 2. phonemic fluency and educational background education hung(s) eng (s) germ(s) graduate mean 15,67 6,33 14,33 n 3 3 3 std. deviation 4,726 3,215 9,452 student mean 16,33 11,33 13,00 n 3 3 3 std. deviation 1,155 3,512 10,817 the role of educational level was also examined by analysing the semantic category with the help of descriptive statistics. as can be seen from the table, students achieved greater results in two categories namely in hungarian jobs (m=14, 33) and in english jobs (m=11, 00) than their graduate peers. however, graduates outperformed undergraduates only in the german language (m=10, 67). irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 503 table 3. semantic fluency and educational background education hung(jobs) eng(jobs) germ(jobs) graduate mean 14,33 9,67 10,67 n 3 3 3 std. deviation 5,033 4,509 1,528 student mean 17,67 11,00 7,00 n 3 3 3 std. deviation 4,726 7,810 6,083 table 4 indicates that the results of letter fluency are very similar to the highest scores by the participants were for hungarian, which is their native language. the descriptive statistics of the phonemic fluency shows that a normal distribution can be seen due to the standard deviations. the standard deviation of hungarian is the lowest one as opposed to the other values like in the case of english and german. table 4. phonemic fluency n range minimum maximum mean std. deviation eng (s) 6 11 4 15 8,83 4,070 hung(s) 6 9 12 21 16,00 3,098 germ(s) 6 21 4 25 13,67 9,114 table 5 provides the descriptive statistics for the semantic category. it is unsurprisingly true that participants produced the most hungarian words related to jobs because the average scores of hungarian jobs was the highest (m=16). what is not an astonishing fact is that english language (m=10, 33) outperformed the german one (m=8,83). the reason behind this is that the leading role of english can motivate people to acquire the language. as far as the standard deviation of the mean is concerned, there is normal distribution related to the semantic category. table 5. semantic category n range minimum maximum mean std. deviation eng(jobs) 6 15 5 20 10,33 5,750 hung(jobs) 6 14 9 23 16,00 4,733 germ(jobs) 6 11 3 14 8,83 4,446 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 504 table 6 indicates the total number of words that all the 6 participants could perform in the different categories (phonemic and semantic) and in the different languages (hungarian, english, and german). the findings suggest that participants obtain the greatest result in hung (s) and in hung (jobs) and same amount of words (sum= 96) were produced in both categories. with respect to foreign languages, the majority of the students achieved higher scores in german phonemic fluency task (sum=82) than in english. by contrast, english language (sum=62) outperformed german in semantic category. table 6. word production by categories n sum mean std. deviation eng (s) 6 53 8,83 4,070 hung(s) 6 96 16,00 3,098 germ(s) 6 82 13,67 9,114 hung(jobs) 6 96 16,00 4,733 eng(jobs) 6 62 10,33 5,750 germ(jobs) 6 53 8,83 4,446 viewing the correlations between words starting with s in all the three languages, no significant difference can be explored since none of the correlation coefficients were significant at 5% level. negative correlations could be viewed between hungarian and english (p=-, 174) and between german and english (p=-283). the reason can be the factor that participants produced words in three different languages and the sample size was too small (table 7). table 7. correlation: phonological fluency eng (s) germ(s) eng (s) pearson correlation ,203 sig. (2-tailed) ,700 n 6 hung(s) pearson correlation -,174 -,283 sig. (2-tailed) ,741 ,586 n 6 6 table 8 presents the summary statistics about the correlations of the semantic category in all the three languages. no significant differences can be detected from the view of three languages (english, german and hungarian). according to the pearson correlation coefficient, positive correlation can be detected between english and german jobs. one unanticipated finding was that a very positive correlation could be seen between the results of hungarian and english jobs. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 505 table 8. correlation: semantic fluency hung(jobs) germ(jobs) eng(jobs) pearson correlation ,698 ,574 sig. (2-tailed) ,123 ,234 hung(jobs) pearson correlation ,266 sig. (2-tailed) ,610 the table below illustrates the correlation between the three languages in the case of the semantic and phonemic categories. paired samples t-test was used to explore whether there is a significant difference between the 2 categories or not. table 8 shows that a strong and positive correlation can be detected in hungarian and german letter and semantic fluency. the correlation between ger(s) and ger(jobs) is interesting because english has gained a more prominent role as world language. german categories have got a significant difference due to the results. table 9. paired samples t-test: languages n correlation sig. pair 1 hung(s) & hung(jobs) 6 ,736 ,095 pair 2 eng (s) & eng(jobs) 6 ,550 ,258 pair 3 germ(s) & germ(jobs) 6 ,798 ,057 the chart (table 10) below presents the relationship between gender and phonemic fluency. female participants tend to achieve greater results in german (m=19, 00) and hungarian (m=17,33) phonemic fluency test. despite of this, male participants outperformed females in the english version (m=9, 67) of the phonemic fluency test. table 10. gender and semantic fluency gender eng (s) hung(s) germ(s) male mean 9,67 14,67 8,33 n 3 3 3 std. deviation 1,528 2,517 3,786 female mean 8,00 17,33 19,00 n 3 3 3 std. deviation 6,083 3,512 10,392 what is surprising is that females outperformed males in case of semantic fluency tests. the mean values of the semantic part showed that women reached higher results than men in the english and german semantic fluency tests. however, we need to take into account that the small sample size could influence the outcome of the test results. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 506 table 11. gender and semantic fluency gender hung(jobs) eng(jobs) germ(jobs) male mean 13,00 7,67 6,00 n 3 3 3 std. deviation 3,606 2,082 4,359 female mean 19,00 13,00 11,67 n 3 3 3 std. deviation 4,000 7,550 2,517 discussion the involvement of three different languages (hungarian, english and german) was a more demanding task and little evidence has been found to use as a reference. however, limited options were available to analyse the relationships between languages or categories but a great variety of data analysis and interpretation could be implemented. the most striking observation to emerge from the data comparison was that the tests were accomplished in the hungarian language (l1) with the highest means in the phonemic and semantic categories. this finding contradicts with the study of aziez et el. (2020) who found lower level of fluency in the participants‟ l1 than in l2 or l3. the results showed that students accomplished verbal fluency tasks better than the graduate students. one possible interpretation could be that students obtained a higher intensity of language input and their vocabulary repertoire was more colourful and wider. all of the students reported that their language proficiency was becoming better due to the everyday habits and language use in the foreign language classroom. respondents‟ foreign language proficiency supports the dynamic systems theory of herdina and jessner (2002) as language systems are dynamic and fluent systems. as far as the two foreign languages are concerned, most of the students obtained greater results related to the english language in the semantic category meanwhile the majority of the students performed better in the german language in the phonemic category. the german language has got more words and phrases starting with s since we could think about the words with “sch”, as well. the reason could be straightforward behind the superior role of english in case of jobs as the name of professions are international and it can be related more to the english language (e.g., businessman, policeman, doctor). the most surprising aspect of the data was that language order does not always in line with the proficiency. the discovery agreed to jessner‟s (2006) view who supports the idea of the emergent qualitative changes in case of three languages “apart from all the individual and social factors affecting second language acquisition, the process of learning and the product of having learnt a second language can potentially exert influence on the acquisition of an l3 and this involves a quality change in language learning and processing” (p.14). taken together, the results showed that a positive correlation was found in the semantic or phonemic categories related to hungarian, english and german. however, the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 507 data suggests that significant difference cannot be seen either in phonemic or in semantic categories. insignificant differences can be detected within the phonemic or semantic categories based on the three languages. this result contradicts with nshiwi and failasofah‟s study (2019) in which significant difference can be found in both categories (semantic and phonemic). female participants gained higher scores in the semantic and in the phonemic categories than males. females‟ superiority has played an integrative role in the work of former researchers (maccoby & jacklin 1974; maccoby, 1966). finally, the conclusion gives a brief summary and critique of the findings. conclusion the study was carried out at the university of pannonia and six participants were asked to take part in the research in 2018. individuals were given the verbal fluency test in three languages and they filled in the test using an online platform. the aim of the research was to examine the effect of verbal fluency task on proficiency, gender and education amongst university students. the findings showed that undergraduate students accomplished verbal fluency tasks better than the graduate students. additionally, a strong positive correlation was found in the semantic or phonemic categories related to english, hungarian and german. with regard to gender differences, females obtained higher scores in the semantic and in the phonemic categories than males at least in two languages. this present article serves as a base for future studies as it is considered as a pioneer work in the hungarian context. it was not possible to investigate the significant difference between languages or categories because the sample size was too small. our findings cannot be generalized due to the low number of the subjects so a larger study is planned to carry out. as for future implications, more participants should be involved and six more individuals are planned to take part in the future research. more detailed background (socio-economic status) of the participants can promote a more insightful research study. references alkhrisheh, h., & de bot, k. 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(2014). analysis of verbal fluency ability in alzheimer‟s disease: the role of clustering, switching and semantic proximities. archives of clinical neuropsychology, 29(3), 256–268. weiss, e.m., ragland, j.d., brensinger, c.m., bilker, w.b., deisenhammer, e.a., & delazer, m. (2006). sex differences in clustering and switching in verbal fluency tasks. j int neuropsychol soc. 12(4), 502-509. biographical notes noémi szabó is a phd student at multilingualism doctoral school, the university of pannonia, hungary; sznojcsi@gmail.com failasofah is an alumni of phd at multilingualism doctoral school, the university of pannonia, hungary and faculty member at faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, jambi, indonesia; failasofah@unja.ac.id mailto:sznojcsi@gmail.com mailto:failasofah@unja.ac.id this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 510 observing the efl students’ 21 st century skill performance through learning activities of research on the elt course hadiyanto* abstract students’ 21 st -century skills; soft skills, and hard skills were developed through student-centered e-learning (scel) activities in research on the elt course. the current study was conducted to improve teachers’ instructional strategies in e-learning to enhance students’ 21 st -century skills through their learning activities. data were gained by observing and assessing 24 students’ performance in practicing 21 st -century skills through scel activities. teachers have successfully improved instruction techniques and encourage students to learn in a group, independently, using online resources, discussion, and video presentations, as the result, the students’ 21 st -century skills could be improved from cycle to cycle. each scel activity developed certain soft skills and hard skills components differently. in conclusion, the teacher successfully applied scel activities to engage and enhance students’ 21 st -century skills. the findings implicated that teachers should be more creative and innovative in using e-learning for teaching and learning to create an active online learning environment and enhance students’ 21ts century skills. further research is expected to apply an experimental research design to search for the most effective method and measure the level of effectiveness of e-learning usage for the students’ 21 st -century skills development. keywords english language teaching, e-learning, hard skills, higher education soft skills, student-centered *associate professor and faculty member, universitas jambi, jambi, indonesia; hadiyanto@unja.ac.id mailto:hadiyanto@unja.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 511 introduction e-learning has been integrated into the teaching and learning of higher education worldwide for at least 15 years. some teachers revealed that the students fail to catch up with their class match, deliver course content, and engage students in various learning activities. in other ways, teachers wonder that the students learning activities, skills, and knowledge cannot be enhanced through e-learning (hadyanto, 2019). on the contrary, the current researcher wonders about teachers’ ability to optimize e-learning features in their courses. e-learning futures are mostly designed to support students centered learning (scl) approach. in present studies, scl teaching and learning implementation is designed into e-learning activities called student-centered e-learning (scel). teachers seem to be not competent enough to operate e-learning features and combine supported applications in the teaching and learning process. they just posted material to be learned by the students without utilizing appropriate e-learning features and organizing students’ activities in e-learning (hadiyanto, 2019). teachers can embed students’ scl activities thus typically conducted in the classroom into e-learning activities. engaging students through e-learning needs teachers’ experience, digital skills, initiations, and creativity. however, the significant challenges in using e-learning are teacher creativity and developing instructional strategies. it affects fewer students’ activities, interaction, communication, discussion, and work in a team in the learning process (schober et al., 2008). on the contrary, it is vital to support the teaching and learning process creatively and productively. good learning quality, creative and productive learning will be accomplished if supported by designing systematic and innovative learning activities to develop the students’ 21 st -century skills and the students’ ways in the learning process through appropriate learning activities. developing student 21 st -century skills is not only done in the classroom learning strategies yet more interestingly can be done through e-learning activities. the current study was conducted to improve teachers’ instructional strategies in e-learning to enhance students’ 21 st -century skills through their learning activities. the teaching and learning process was designed and revised from cycle to cycle to allow the students to practice and enhance their 21 st -century skills. observation and assessment on students’ practice of 21 st -century skills were conducted to know students’ improvement of 21 st -century skills practices through scel activities. this study was sought to look at the result of students’ practices and improvement of the 21 st -century skills during scel activities in research on the elt subject. literature review the 21st-century skills the 21 st -century skills in this study are the integration of soft and hard skills to be practiced by the students in learning activities. soft skills are defined as generating communication skills, it skills, numeracy skills, learning how to learn skills, problem-solving irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 512 skills, and teamwork in learning activities and working (hadiyanto et al., 2021). keywords of soft skills practices are synthesized from the following resources: hadiyanto et al. (2018), balcar et al. (2018), chiu et al. (2016), emmanuel and frank (2020), gibb (2014), hadiyanto et al. (2017b), md-ali (2016), patacsil and tablatin (2017), pazil and razak (2019), salleh et al. (2017), and the keywords are used to indicate students practices of soft skills (table 1). table 1. indicators of soft skills soft skills indicators communication 1. presenting, 2. applying writing formats, 3. using different words, expressions, and body language, 4. summarizing key points, 5. giving feedback, 6. communicating across ideas, 7. writing a report. it skills 1. selecting relevant information, 2. presenting using ppt and video, 3. using digital resources, 4. completing the assignment in text, image, chart, 5. using some illustrations in powerpoint, 6. using some applications and features, 7. structuring presentation systematically. numeracy 1. reading tables, charts, graphs with numbers, 2. measuring learning activities outcome, 3. labeling tables, charts, and graphs, 5. timing for working on an assignment, 6. identifying information sources. 7. using simple calculation or math. learning skills 1. improving learning strategy, 2. assessing learning effectiveness, 3. reflecting on learning outcomes, 4. targeting and planning, 5. learning independently, 6. the identifying best strategy, 7. evaluating what and how to learn 8. consulting to teachers, 9. adapting learning strategy, 10. identifying best resources to learn. problem solving skills 1. identifying learning problems, 2. solving problems inappropriate ways, 3. applying methods to analyze a problem, 4. suggesting mutual understanding, 5. searching resources to solve a problem, 6. presenting the best approach to solve a problem. teamwork 1. learning in a group, 2. interacting across techniques and religions, 3. working in a project team, 4. resolving conflicts in group work, 5. giving feedback in teamwork, 6. keeping self and members motivated 7. respecting diverse perspectives, 8. offering ideas to group work. the 21 st -century skills in terms of hard skills refer to specific knowledge and technical skills toward one’s major. in this study, hard skills relate to the research and elt knowledge acquired and practiced through e-learning activities. hard skills are divided into components; specific knowledge of a subject and specific skills. the soft skills and hard skills indicators, as presented in table 2, were synthesized from the following resources (chiu et al., 2016; cimatti 2016; hadiyanto et al., 2018, hadiyanto et al., 2017; patacsil & tablatin 2017; purwanto et al., 2021). irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 513 table 2. indicators of hard skills hard skills indicators specific knowledge of the subject 1. demonstrating specific knowledge,2. discussing ideas specific knowledge, 3. relating prior knowledge and topic of discussion, 4. describing content in oral and writing, 5. answering questions proposed. specific skills of subject 1. improving technical skills, 2. developing specific skills, 3. presenting specific skills. 4. interpreting subject content into technical practices, 5. applying subject technical skills. student-centered learning to e-learning, students-centered e-learning (scel) is derived from ’‘students' centered learning’ (scl). the student-centered learning (scl) approach is a learning model that places students at the center of the learning process. in applying the concept of scl, students are expected to be active and independent participants in their learning process, who are responsible and initiative to recognize their learning strategies, find sources, question, answer, discuss, build, present and practice their knowledge based on their needs and sources found it (glowa & goodell, 2016; delialioğlu, 2012). scl is usually applied in the classroom, laboratory, and outdoor classroom. in the current study, scel is designed based on student-centered and applied in students’ e-learning activities. students’ centered e-learning is characterized as follows:  students are primarily engaged in e-learning activities  students dominantly use e-learning space for learning activities.  students were given more chances to interact with other members than with the teacher.  students acquire knowledge and skills of subject content on their own.  students’ do more rather than teacher  students learn from real activities, field and library studies  students explain and discuss what they have learned with others.  students learn much from class/group/pair members in e-learning.  students search-relevant resources online on their own  through teachers’ guidance, instruction, and facilitation, students obtain their learning goals. developing students’ 21st century skills through scl, opportunities for students to develop their 21-century skills occur in selecting delivery methods and designing scl activities. the selection of scl methods and activities explicitly focuses on developing soft skills, thus providing students with opportunities to gain and develop their hard skills. the development of 21 st -century skills will be promoted where there is the opportunity for students to practice it within learning activities in the classroom, outside the classroom, and currently in online learning (singh & singh, 2017; witherspoon, 2011). irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 514 some studies have confirmed that learning most effectively when the students have the opportunity and comfortable situation to interact with other students. interaction among students typically leads to communication, teamwork, and problem-solving (glowa & goodell, 2016). when students are unable to meet together, appropriate interactive technology such as online learning, social media, e-learning, group of whatsapp, skype, and some selected current applications can be used to hold their learning activities. various learning activities and assignments where students work together typically conducted in physical classrooms can now be held through online or web-based learning. they can report their assignment or present them to the e-learning class as a whole, and it will encourage student-to-student interaction and reflect on what they are learning. the teacher could ensure clear directions and realistic goals for individual and group activities or projects in an e-learning class. many researchers still doubt the effectiveness of promoting students’ 21 st -century skills due to time constraints, difficulties of a big class, lack of flexibility, and students’ fearfulness. on the other hand, e-learning offers are free from those constraints. e-learning is defined as a learning process involving set computer devices with learning applications to create, foster, deliver, assess, and facilitate a learning process with scel activities. previously, e-learning (electronic learning) was defined as internet technology to deliver learning materials. the essential criteria of e-learning are: network, delivery of learning materials to users via computer with standard internet technology, and focus on broad learning (vázquez et al., 2019; shulamit & yossi, 2017). edmodo platform was used to generate scel activities in this study. edmodo is one of the relevant platforms with the current study definition of e-learning. it has an interface very intuitive and allows for easy navigation. it also allows the integration of vast and varied resources and links to genuine resources. edmodo’s features support generating scel activities to allow students to discuss, work cooperatively and collaboratively (hadiyanto, 2019; singh & singh, 2017). other web-based exercises apply to be integrated into edmodo platforms, for instance, web-based exercise in hot potato application and other applications. integration of video from youtube, animations are either a more accessible instructive media or an interactive game or learning tool that engages the student and encourages motivation to work on their assignment. teachers can also store e-book in e-library and share them with the class in edmodo, including any text-based or html-formatted documents and multimedia resources such as graphics, video, or audio. on the other hand, edmodo also supports interaction between teacher and students, student and student, and supports other learning activities that allow a wide range of 21 st -century skills practice (kara, 2016; witherspoon, 2011). in relation to 21st-century development, students learn most effectively when they engage, interact, and work with other students and do real activities that refer to scel activities. applying scel activities typically leads the students to practice soft skills such as communication, teamwork, problem-solving, and learning e-learning and at the same time acquire their hard skills. e-learning offers opportunities for the students to continue their learning activities on learning at any time and any place without any burden like they are in the classroom (senthil & rajamanoharane, 2016). singh and singh (2017) also argue that e-learning allows students to work together and then report back or present to the class as a irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 515 whole, encouraging student-to-student interaction. and the teacher can ensure clear directions and realistic goals for the group and individual assignments. teachers’ roles are designing scel activities, giving direction and instruction to let students acquire 21 st -century skills through scel activities. students are encouraged to work together, discuss, present, interact and learn through learning activities to gain hard skills of the courses (hadiyanto, 2019), and (shulamit & yossi, 2017). methodology the study’s design was classroom action research (car) which aims to improve teachers’ instruction strategy and technique to enhance students’ 21 st -century skills. scel activities were designed in six activities; group discussions, group projects, individual reports, e-resources sharing, free topic discussion, and group video presentation. one cycle was conducted in three weeks, a whole nine weeks for three cycles. however, this study did not report the teachers’ planning, action, and reflection. it reports observation and reflection results from the students’ side. the observation was conducted using a list of indicators of 21st-century skills as displayed in tables 1 and 2, while reflection and evaluation used authentic assessment. the authentic assessment described the standard or benchmark of 21 st -century skills to measure the students’ performance of 21 st -century skills. it is described based on soft and hard skills component indicators. likert scale interval from 1 (very poor) to 5 (very poor) was applied. the assessment was carried out in every cycle by two teachers. data were collected by observing 24 students in scel activities. the result of the assessment is shown in table 3. two teachers facilitated, observed, and assessed students’ 21st skills practices through scel activities. the observation was searched on indicators of 21st-century skills practiced by the students during scel activities, while the assessment was conducted by assessing the level of students’ 21 st -century skills practices from cycle to cycle. due to the current study being a car, the qualitative finding is dominantly reported and discussed in this article, while quantitative findings report the overall score of 21st-century skills in each component and sub-components. findings students’ 21st century skills performance from cycle to cycle table 3 displays students’ 21st-century skills in cycles one, two, and three. the findings revealed that students’ 21 st -century skills were increased from cycle to cycle. the overall mean score of students’ 21 stcentury skills increases from cycle to cycle. the findings implied that scel activities applied by the teachers in the subject of research on elt could enhance students’ 21 st -century skills. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 516 table 3. average of students’ 21 st -century skills-based two ratters’ assessments soft skills cycle 1 cycle 2 cycle 3 mean st.d mean std mean std. communication 3,39 ,48 3,77 ,55 4,00 ,57 it skills 3,50 ,41 4,02 ,10 4,85 ,34 numeracy 3,29 ,56 3,85 ,45 4,39 ,73 learning skills 3,41 ,58 3,83 ,45 4,12 ,55 problem solving skills 3,18 ,56 3,66 ,50 3,72 ,55 teamwork 3,58 ,52 4,04 ,32 4,14 ,45 overall soft skills 3,39 ,31 3,86 ,30 4,20 ,36 specific knowledge of research on the elt course 3,29 ,56 3,95 ,52 4,45 ,72 specific skill of research on elt course 3,25 ,67 3,85 ,40 4,18 ,63 hard skills (research on elt) 3,27 ,53 3,90 ,44 4,32 ,64 21st century skills 3,36 ,33 3,87 ,32 4,23 ,39 students’ 21st century skills practices from cycle to cycle based on indicators table 4 shows the result of the teachers’ observation checklist of 21st-century indicators that were frequently practiced by students in scel activities in cycle 1, cycle 2, and cycle 3. the improvements of students’ practices on the 21 st -century skills indicators in each component from cycle to cycle emerges (table 4). the improvement was indicated by more indicators of soft skills and hard skills practiced by the students from cycle 1 to cycle 2 and 3. this means that teachers’ efforts to develop students learning activities to promote 21 st -century skills in the classroom were successful. table 4. improvement of the practices of 21 st century skills form cycle to cycle soft skills cycle 1 cycle 2 cycle 3 1. communication questioning and answering; using varieties words in explaining; summarizing key issues; presenting material video; using different formats; using varieties words in explaining; questioning and answering; summarizing key issues. presenting materials; using different formats; using varieties words in explaining; questioning and answering; summarizing key issues; communicating ideas writing a report; irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 517 table 4. improvement of the practices… (continued) 2. it skills selecting relevant information; presenting using some illustrations in powerpoint; sharing e-resources online. developing the structure of the presentation; selecting relevant information; using ppt and video for presentation; sharing e-resources online; developing assignments in the form of text, image, chart, etc. presenting using some illustrations in powerpoint; developing the structure of the presentation; selecting relevant information; using ppt and video for presentation; sharing e-resources online; developing assignments in the form of text, image, chart, etc.; presenting using some illustrations in powerpoint; using application, software or application features; developing the structure of the presentation; 3. numeracy reading tables, charts, graphs, and numbers; presenting based on points but calculable; identifying the relevant information sources; reading tables, charts, graphs, and numbers; presenting based on points but calculable; labeling tables, charts and graphs; identifying the relevant information sources; using simple math. reading tables, charts, graphs, and numbers; presenting based on points but calculable; labeling tables, charts and graphs; managing time for working on an assignment; identifying the relevant information sources; 4. learning skills improving academic performance; setting realistic targets and plans; learning independently and being responsible; consulting with teachers; comparing information from various resources; improving academic performance; assessing the effectiveness and efficiency; setting realistic targets and plans; learning independently and being responsible; consulting with teachers; comparing information from various resources; improving academic performance; assessing the effectiveness and efficiency; identifying factors impacted on learning outcomes; setting realistic targets and plans; learning independently and being responsible; reviewing what and how to learn; consulting with teachers; comparing information from various resources; irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 518 table 4. improvement of the practices… (continued) 5. problem solving skills identifying a problem; accommodating diverse perspectives; solving problems by resources provided; identifying a problem. solving problems with several ways; accommodating diverse perspectives; solving problems by resources provided; identifying a problem. solving problems with several ways; accommodating diverse perspectives; solving problems by resources provided; presenting an approach to solve a problem; 6. teamwork learning activities in a group; having conversations with different races in learning; working in a team. keeping self and others motivated; respecting diverse perspectives; thinking and offering ideas to a group work; learning activities in a group; having conversations with different races in learning; working in a team; giving feedback to improve teamwork; keeping self and others motivated; respecting diverse perspectives; thinking and offering ideas to a group work; learning activities in a group; having conversations with different races in learning. working in a team; giving feedback to improve teamwork; keeping self and others motivated; respecting diverse perspectives; thinking and offering ideas to a group work; specific knowledge of subject discussing ideas specific knowledge of a topic; connecting prior knowledge with the topic of discussion; answering technical questions proposed; discussing ideas specific knowledge of a topic; connecting prior knowledge with the topic of discussion; answering technical questions proposed; transfering knowledge to other people in oral and writing; demonstrating specific knowledge of a subject; discussing ideas specific knowledge of a subject; connecting prior knowledge with the topic of discussion; transfering knowledge to other people in oral and writing; 5. answering technical questions proposed. specific skills of subject interpreting subject content into technical practices; transferring knowledge based on into practices; transferring knowledge based on into practices. interpreting subject content into technical practices; developing specific competence; enhancing technical skills; transferring knowledge based on into practices; interpreting subject-content into technical practices; developing specific competence; irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 519 students’ 21st century skills practices based on scel activities table 5 displays soft skills were practiced by the students through scel activities. the result was taken from observation and agreement of judgment between teacher one and teacher two. both teachers agreed that the students promoted communication and teamwork skills through group discussion activities. furthermore, highly promoted it and problem-solving skills were there while learning and numeracy skills were averagely promoted in group discussion activities. looking at group project activities, students practiced teamwork and it skills at a highly promoted level, communication, and learning skills at highly promoted levels. however, numeracy skills and problem-solving were promoted at an average level. unlike individual report activities, students’ learning and problem-solving skills were highly promoted. individual report activities promoted students’ it and numeracy skills at a high level, while communication and teamwork skills were also promoted averagely. discussion activities highly promoted students’ communication, learning, problem-solving, and it skills. unlikely, numeracy and teamwork skills were promoted averagely. e-resources sharing promoted their communication and problem-solving skills at a very high level, it and learning skills at a high level, while learning and numeracy skills at an average level. in group video presentation activities, it and communication skills were promoted at a very high level, problem and teamwork skills at a high level while learning and numeracy skills at an average level. in conclusion, each scel activity promoted the 21 st -century skills components differently. table 5. softs skills’ indicators practiced by the students through scel activities scel activities soft skills promoted based on its’ level very highly promoted highly promoted average promoted group discussion communication skills teamwork it prob. solving learning numeracy group project teamwork it communication learning numeracy prob. solving individual report learning prob. solving it numeracy communication teamwork individual discussion communication learning prob. solving it numeracy teamwork e-resources sharing communication prob. solving it learning teamwork numeracy group video presentation it communication prob. solving teamwork learning numeracy table 5 shows that scel activities let the students practice hard skills of research on elt subject. hard skills were separated into two skills; specific knowledge and skills of research on elt subject. group discussion activities promoted three of five indicators of specific knowledge and one of five indicators of specific skills of research on elt subject. students practiced four indicators of specific knowledge and two indicators of specific skills through group project activities. at the individual report activities, the students practiced all five irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 520 specific research knowledge and skills indicators. in contrast, in free discussion activities, students practiced three indicators of specific knowledge and two indicators of specific skills of research on elt subject. students practiced three specific knowledge and two specific skills in e-resources sharing activities. furthermore, students practiced all the indicators specific knowledge and skills of research on elt subject in group video presentation activities. table 6. students’ hard skills indicators practiced through scel activities scel activities indicators of hard skills (research on elt) promoted specific knowledge of the subject specific skills of subject group discussion discussing ideas specific knowledge; connecting prior knowledge with the topic of discussion; answering technical questions proposed; interpreting subject content into technical practices; group project answering technical questions proposed; discussing ideas specific knowledge; connecting prior knowledge with topic of discussion; transferring knowledge to other people in oral and writing; developing specific skills; representing specific skills; individual report discussing ideas specific knowledge; connecting prior knowledge with the topic of discussion; interpreting subject content into technical practices; developing specific competence; transferring knowledge to other people in oral and writing; developing specific skills; enhancing technical skills; representing specific skills; interpreting subject content into technical practices; practicing subject-content knowledge; free discussion discussing ideas specific knowledge; connecting prior knowledge with the topic of discussion; answering technical questions proposed; developing specific skills; representing specific skills; e-resources sharing discussing ideas specific knowledge; interpreting subject content into technical practices; developing specific competence; representing specific skills. interpreting subject-content into technical practices; group video presentation demonstrating specific knowledge of a subject discussing ideas specific knowledge of a subject; connecting prior knowledge with the topic of discussion; transferring knowledge to other people in oral and writing; answering technical questions proposed; developing specific skills; enhancing technical skills; representing specific skills; interpreting subject-content into technical practices; practicing subject-content knowledge; irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 521 discussion this study applied the scl approach in e-learning activities called student-centered e-learning (scel). the teacher was able to implement and develop the students’ 21st-century skills in the context of research on elt subjects through six scel activities; group discussions, group projects, individual reports, e-resources sharing, free discussion, and group video presentation. scel activities were designed, applied, and developed in three cycles or nine weeks. scel activities were experienced by the students dynamically and encouragingly. teachers’ reflections and previous evaluation cycles lead the students to be more active and engaged in learning activities. the practices of students their 21st-century skills are improving intensely from cycle to cycle. it is supported by the result of the assessment on students’ 21st-century skills that shows there was an increase in students’ scores toward their performance of 21st-century skills from cycle to cycle. this is also in line with the concept of scl, and students have wide chances to interact, communicate, and discuss among them to acquire knowledge and skills (fischer & hanze, 2019). scel activities in this study had been designed and implemented to engage students in developing their 21st-century skills in the context of research on elt subjects. as a result, the students performed 21st-century skills in each component of soft skills; communication, it, numeracy, learning, problem-solving skills, and teamwork skills become better and better from cycle to cycle. in terms of hard skills, students also built and enhanced their specific knowledge and skills of research on elt subject. they could interpret and apply their knowledge and skills into small research and write into their report. this study implicates that the students’ 21st-century skills can be developed through classroom learning and scel activities. it depends on how the teacher learning designs are and how they implement in scel activities. the present study also implied that scel activities gave wide flexibility for the students to think critically, contribute, and share ideas on the subject topic of discussion. on the teachers’ side, scel activities yielded wide possibilities for teachers to develop students’ 21st-century skills, soft skills, and hard skills outside the isolated classroom (hadiyanto, 2019; singh & singh, 2017). on the other hand, students engaged in scel activities encouraged their group members and developed their soft and hard skills. moreover, e-learning can encourage more students to participate in learning activities. senthil and rajamanoharane (2016) argue that e-learning supplements and supports students in gaining more knowledge, soft skills, and developing their positive learning attitude. this result of the study became a scientific reason to conduct more research to search on the effectiveness of using scel compared scl in teaching and learning english for education specifically. this study was conducted in one class only, and it is incomparable with another class, such as in experimental research. this study also did not measure students’ level of 21st skills through certain test. however, the students’ 21st-century skills performance was assessed through scel activities, and it could not accurately measure specific levels of students’ 21st-century skills. moreover, the analysis of the study did not search inferential statistical impact of e-learning activities on students’ skills achievement; as a result, the findings could not be claimed that all e-learning activities will give a similar result. however, irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 522 this limitation would inspire further researchers to seek the impact and the effectiveness of scel to develop students’ knowledge and skills. conclusion the teacher had successfully engaged the students in e-learning activities in scel activities to improve students’ 21 st -century skill activities. six activities were applied; group discussions, group projects, individual reports, e-resources sharing, free discussion, and group videos. these learning activities lead to students’ 21 st -century skills improvement. the use of e-learning to develop students’ knowledge and skills is recommended as a space and place for effective and future learning. other applications to support e-learning activities can be ebbed with the e-learning, depending on teacher imitative. teachers should be more creative and innovative in planning and applying scel activities to develop 21 st -century skills. all components of 21 st -century skills investigated in the study were promoted through scel activities. each scel activity promoted dominantly one or two components of soft and hard skills. scel activities designed and improved by the teachers provided lead students to practice and develop their soft skills and hard skills performance differently. moreover, the study opens the door of new avenues for further research in this regard. for instance, future research is expected to explore the effect of scel activities on students’ 21 st -century skills through experimental research. references balcar, j., šimek, m., & filipová, l. 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(2017). development of e-learning environments combining learning skills and science and technology content for junior high school. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 11, 175-179. vázquez, j. p. g., vargas, m., a. a., ezkauriatza, m. g., juarros, v., i., m., & doolan, m. a. (2018). instructional strategies and information technologies used for supporting the undergraduate mathematics teaching process: scoping review protocol. international journal of educational research, 90, 27-31. purwanto, a., santoso, p. b., siswanto, e., hartuti, h., setiana, y. n., sudargini, y., & fahmi, k. (2021). effect of hard skills, soft skills, organizational learning and innovation capability on islamic university lecturers’ performance. international journal of social and management studies, 2(1), 14–40. witherspoon, a. (2011). edmodo…a learning management system. available: http://www.plugintotechnology.com/2011/01/edmodoa-learning-management system.html biographical notes hadiyanto is a faculty member at universitas jambi, indonesia. he holds an m.ed. in tesl and a phd in adult and professional development education from the national university of malaysia. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 123 extensive reading online while writing academic articles: an embedded mixed methods study henny rahmawaty 1 and dzulfikri 2 abstract writing an academic article is a must for scholars to fulfil their academic demands. departed from the input hypothesis proposed by krashen (2011) saying that input knowledge very matters in language learning and so as in writing an academic article, reading has undoubtedly been agreed to gain language inputs. the pandemic covid-19 outbreak, recently, forces a face-to-face meeting to the fully virtual mode of learning. hence, the lecturers are getting another challenge to find another way to cope with online learning. to fill this gap, this study, then, aimed to investigate whether the er-central, an online extensive reading platform by which the students can acquire the input knowledge, can positively contribute to writing scholarly articles in terms of the students’ attitudes towards reading per se. the participants were sophomores of a private university in indonesia consisting of twenty-seven students taking a required writing course in eight meetings conducted fully virtually, at the end of which a scholarly article must be an outcome for each student. the method used in this study was a mixed-method, the participants were divided into two groups, experimental and control group—seventeen and ten respectively. the data gathered were then both qualitatively and quantitatively analysed to gain the most appropriate information. the result showed that the use of er-central did not significantly affect, though it’s very helpful in improving the students’ attitudes towards reading when writing academic articles. reflecting on this study, to attain better results the lecturers and future researchers as well should focus more on how the students enjoy reading and on how to promote purposeful reading that is reading for writing an academic article. keywords academic article, er-central, extensive reading, significant effect article history received 24 january 2022 accepted 30 june 2022 how to cite rahmawati, h. & dzulfikri (2022). extensive reading online while writing academic article: an embedded mixed method study. indonesian research journal in education |irje|, 6(1), 123–137. https://doi.org/10.22437/irj e.v6i1.17028 1faculty of teacher training and education, universitas islam malang, malang, indonesia; corresponding author: hennyrahma@unisma.ac.id 2 faculty of teacher training and education, universitas islam malang, malang, indonesia. mailto:hennyrahma@unisma.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 124 introduction the potentials of extensive reading approach towards language learning have been widely justified empirically. the previous empirical studies show that er benefits to some aspects in english language learning like positively improving reading rate, reading attitude, reading comprehension, vocabulary (nakanishi, 2015) and (jeon & day, 2015) improving fluency in speaking (stoller, 2015) and (beglar & hunt, 2014), improving accuracy in both writing and speaking (khansir & dehghani, 2015), improving all-subskills in the eap writing in particular (park, 2016) and so forth. recently, the world was hit by the pandemic covid-19 which shifted the process of learning, from fully face-to-face to fully virtual learning. these fully virtual classes practically have remained a challenge to some er practitioners in the case of how to conduct er online and monitor the students as well so that er can run as successfully as in a face-to-face teaching and learning process. a study conducted by syahrin (2020) showed that er online in a given pandemic situation can still be conducted by utilizing a website voice of america (voa) learning english. syahrin (2020) also found out that there was a positive outcome on students' post-test scores indicating the more the students read, the significantly higher the scores they got. on the other side, long before the pandemic, there were some studies conducting er using an online platform like m-reader (milliner & cote, 2015; rajabpour, 2020), xreading (walker, 2019), wattpad (permatasari, wijayanto, & kristina, 2020), e-book application ‘let’s read’ (ermerawati, 2019), etc. which resulted more on positive stories. this indicates that er has been an approach, flexible to be implemented either in fully face-to-face, hybrid or fully virtual learning. on the other hand, writing english in an efl context is considered a challenging activity for a single student, especially, majoring in english. this is an account for some challenges faced by all efl students like a differing language from their mother tongue, first language interferences due to the different structures, lacking the appropriate structures and vocabulary as well and many more. considering the above constraints, from a lecturer’s point of view, the way of teaching such materials have already been discussed among practitioners. a good strategy and approach as well resulted in good output. in looking for a way out, we are concerned one fundamental underpinning which is famously known as good writing goes hand in hand with good reading. to build a good reading habit, er approach is a promising answer (asraf, 2003; porkaew & fongpaiboon, 2018; rodrigo, greenberg, & segal, 2014). the successful stories of er towards the process of writing performance have been of heightened interest amid practitioners. hadiyanto (2019), in this case, underlined that er can promote students’ creativity and imagination in writing. besides (yılmaz, atay, & mustafa, 2020) pointed out that er can positively affect the students’ writing and reading performance as well as their foreign language self concept (flsc). furthermore, a study conducted by (aida & widiyati, 2020) proposed that er had significantly improved the eleventh graders' ability to write an explanation text. the above previous studies positively justified the benefits of er towards reading performance. however, talking about er towards scholarly article writing has, let’s say, inadequately been discussed though few research studies had arrived at that point (macalister, 2008) within which he found that the students in the english for academic purpose(eap) program irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 125 responded positively in a 12-week immersion class with er (macalister, 2008). in addition, (savaş, 2009) justified the successful story in the implementation of er towards the academic literacy of the tertiary level students. another cornerstone of this recent study pictured how er can be an input for academic vocabulary across multiple secondary school subjects including english language learning (creswell & poth, 2018; green, 2020). as in the above elaboration saying that on account of the pandemic situation recently hit indonesia, the government have mandated that all academia in all educational levels in this country must work and learn as well from home (kementerian pendidikan dan kebudayaan republik indonesia, 2020). in teaching er from home, an application named er-central can be a way out. this platform consists of plenty of online materials both fiction and non-fiction materials. this was preferably chosen since besides the numerous of readings in it, it can also be accessed freely by both instructors and students as long as they connect to the internet. the students can choose themselves the books they are interested in to promote er in a virtual learning mode. in this recent study, therefore, we tried to figure out the implementation of er-central and its impact on the students' reading attitudes when writing an academic article. we tried to find out the connecting line between the er online using er-central when writing an academic article toward the students’ attitude; this is supposed to be the gap of this recent research. therefore, some emerging research problems, then, were formulated like ‘how er-central can be implemented during the process of scholarly article writing?' and 'is there any significant impact of er online towards the students' reading attitudes when writing academic articles?' based on the above problems revealed, some issues that will be unearthed in this study were 1) the implementation of er-central within the process of scholarly article writing, and 2) the effect of er online on the students' reading attitudes when writing academic articles. the results of this study are addressed to both practical and theoretical significances. those are respectively nourishing the previous studies with another perspective of the impact of er-central towards students’ reading attitudes and giving some implication to the nature of teaching academic writing through reading as another practical solution to solve the problems faced by the students. methodology research design, site, and participants considering the research problems revealed in the above statement, the mixed method was the appropriate method for this study in explaining the ‘how-to’ phenomenon and finding the connecting line between variables (creswell, 2022). using this method, mixing between qualitative and quantitative, enables the researchers to figure out the step-by-step implementation of er-central while writing academic articles and see how far the effectiveness of this approach towards the students' reading attitude respectively. this particular method is specifically identified as the embedded mixed method design (see figure 1 and figure 2). in this study, first we divided the participants into two groups, experimental and control group. the former received a treatment, er-central, while the latter did not. the populations was all students, the sophomores, taking a required writing course in a private irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 126 university in indonesia and the sample were twenty-seven students, randomly divided into seventeen in experimental and the others in the control group. the participants were chosen, for in this class they are taught to make an academic article as an output submitted at the end of the semester. due to the study of the pandemic era hit by covid-19, we conducted this study in a fully virtual class for the entire semester via a learning management system (lms) namely e-learning through which the students can access both asynchronously all materials given by the lecturers. while all consultation sessions in which students consulted their manuscript were done synchronously via zoom meeting application. one of the instruments used in this study was a reading attitude questionnaire consisting of twenty-six questions adopted from yamashita (2013) asking about the students’ attitude towards reading. this instrument did not need to be validated since it has been taken from the previous study which was believed as a valid and a reliable instrument as well. this questionnaire was given for both groups at the beginning and at the end of the course to see whether there are some changes of attitudes. besides the usual class activities, we gave a treatment, er-central, for the experimental group for about eight meetings. while the control group did the usual class activities without any specific treatment. the er online platform, the so-called er-central, can be accessed online via er-central.com, through which the participants can read extensively and can test their comprehension of the materials read as well. in this platform, the students can choose themselves the books they are interested in within their difficulty level. all activities done by students in this platform were recorded in detail including when, how many books, and how long they read. this detailed information was used to control the reading activities during the treatment. furthermore, the lecturers were at the same time as researchers, the other instrument of this certain study. data collection and analysis the procedures of data compilation are depicted clearly as 1) distributing an online questionnaire as a pre-test via an online platform, forms.google.com consisting of twenty-six questions about reading attitude to both classes—experimental and control group; 2) giving a treatment—the er-central—to the experimental group; 4) distributing the same questionnaire at the end of the class period as a post-test; 5) compiling the data during the study; 6) describing the phenomenon and identifying the step-by-step implementation for qualitative data; 7) analysing the data using spss v.21 for quantitative analysis; 8) drawing some conclusions and stating some suggestions for the future researchers. the data were analysed both descriptively and quantitatively as well. in the descriptive analysis, we described the phenomenon during the learning process and identified the implementation of er-central while writing academic articles. then, it was followed by a quantitative analysis using spss v.21 in determining whether the effect of one variable towards the other is significant. the former data analysis or the so-called supplementary data enriching the primary data analysis. after analysing the data, we interpreted the data gathered, drew some conclusions and determined some practical ways which can be done to improve the learning process. the figure below depicts clearly the method conducted in this recent study. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 127 figure 1. the embedded mixed method design (creswell, 2013) the above figure can be broken down into some steps stated in figure 2. in the following, we clearly mentioned some steps to which those belong to and led the two data analyses to the final step, which is interpretation. table 1. the procedure of data analyses adopted from creswell (2022) quantitative data analysis qualitative data analysis dividing class into experimental and control group giving pretest to both groups with the same instrument giving treatment to the experimental group for eight meetings and no treatment for the control group giving posttest to both groups analyzing the data gathered using spss v.21 determining the efficiency of the approach interpreting the data gathered in the form of descriptive data identifying the ‘how-to’ phenomenon figuring out the potential biases of the study ethical consideration to protect the participants' safety, privacy and confidentiality, we did not mention any specific names of the participants, the class and the higher education, in which the participants were pursuing their study. qualitative data collection & analysis quantitative data collection & analysis (before, during, or after) interpretation the data got from both data analyses were interpreted—compared and contrasted—to draw some conclusion. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 128 findings in these findings, the data gathered can be classified into experimental and control group, within which they were pre-, whilstand post-activities. the data-compiled respectively showed the result of the questionnaire for both groups before conducting the study and the preparedness as well, the implementation of the er-central in addition to usual activities for experimental and the usual virtual classroom activities for the control group, and the result of the questionnaire from both groups after the study. to ease the readers, we classified the above data into two categories, the control and the experimental group. furthermore, the result of the questionnaire distributed before and after the treatment was put in one table, a more easily readable and analysed data as well. control group in pre-activities, the control group filled out a questionnaire functioning as a pre-test asking about reading attitudes. there were ten participants filling out the questionnaire. the same questionnaire was distributed to the students after eight meetings to those ten students as a post-test. the result of the questionnaire was stated in the following table. table 2. the result of questionnaire for control group adapted from yamashita (2013) no. statements a1 (10 students) b1 (10 students) 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 i can become more sophisticated if i read english. 0 0 9 1 0 2 8 0 2. i can get various forms of information if i read english. 0 0 9 1 0 0 8 2 3. reading english is troublesome. 0 6 4 0 1 4 3 2 4. reading english is useful for my future career. 0 0 7 3 0 0 5 5 5. i feel anxious if i don’t know all the words. 0 2 6 2 0 2 6 2 6. i can acquire vocabulary if i read english. 0 0 4 6 0 0 5 5 7. reading english is useful to get a good grade in class. 0 1 7 2 0 1 5 4 8. i can acquire broad knowledge if i read english. 0 1 6 3 0 0 6 4 9. i feel relaxed if i read english. 0 2 8 0 0 2 6 2 10. when i read english, i sometimes feel anxious that i may not understand it. 0 0 8 2 0 3 5 2 11. i can develop my reading ability if i read english. 0 0 7 3 0 0 7 3 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 129 table 2. continued… 12. reading english is useful to get credit for class. 0 3 7 0 0 1 7 2 13. when i read english, it satisfies my intellectual curiosity. 0 2 5 3 0 1 8 1 14. i feel pressure when i read english. 0 6 4 0 1 7 2 0 15. reading english is dull. 1 6 3 0 2 6 2 0 16. i get to know about new ways of thinking if i read english. 0 0 10 0 0 0 8 2 17. i can improve my sensitivity to the english language if i read english. 0 1 8 1 0 1 8 1 18. i feel tired if i read english. 1 5 3 1 8 1 1 0 19. i feel anxious when i’m not sure whether i understood the book content. 0 1 7 2 0 2 7 1 20. i feel refreshed and rested if i read english. 1 0 8 1 1 3 6 0 21. reading english is useful for getting a job. 0 0 8 2 0 0 7 3 22. i can learn to express myself better when i read english. 0 2 6 2 0 1 7 2 23. i don’t mind even if i turkish online journal of distance education the book content entirely. 0 5 3 2 0 7 2 1 24. encountering unfamiliar expressions in english improves my english. 0 0 9 1 0 0 7 3 25. reading english is enjoyable. 0 0 8 2 0 2 8 0 26. i get to know about different value if i read english 0 0 10 0 0 0 8 2 notes: a1: the result of questionnaire given in the first meeting b1: the result of the questionnaire given in the last meeting 1: strongly disagree 2: disagree 3: agree 4: strongly agree irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 130 based on the above table, we all can see that for control group in which there was no treatment given, the result shows that there are some responses changes from the result found in the first meeting to that in the last meeting; from this point forward, we call those as a1 and b1 respectively. for each point of the questionnaire, the responses either increasingly, decreasingly change or both. increasing responses means the more participants chose the higher rate of the likert scale. for the decreasing responses, within one question some participants changed from higher scale to the lower. both means in one question some participants changed from the higher scale to the lower and some others the other way around. in same numbers, however, the responses tended to be unmoving, the same responses between a1 and b1. those with increasing responses are 1) getting various forms of information; 2) useful for future careers; 3) useful to get a good grade in class; 4) acquiring broad knowledge; 5) feeling relaxed; 6) satisfying intellectual curiosity; 7) a dull activity; 8) knowing new ways of thinking; 9) useful for getting a job; 10) learning to express better; 11) improving english; 12) enjoyable activity; and 13) knowing different value. while those with decreasing responses are 1) becoming more sophisticated; 2) acquiring vocabulary; 3) sometimes feeling anxious; 4) feeling tired; 5) feeling anxious when not understanding the book content; and 6) feeling refreshed and rested. in addition, those with both increasing and decreasing rate of changes are 1) troublesome activity; 2) useful to get credit for class; 3) feeling pressure; and 4) feeling okay when not understanding the book content entirely. at last, those with stagnant responses are 1) feeling anxious when not knowing the all the words with the highest portion in scale 'agree'; 2) developing reading ability with the highest rate in 'agree'; and 3) improving sensitivity to the english language with the highest percentage in scale ‘agree.’ the detailed changes can be scrutinized in the above table. during this research study, the control group did a usual class activities including reading academic articles weekly published by accredited journals, varied from one to four articles in each week, doing a presentation, watching video explanations explaining the materials shared by the facilitator, writing their own articles, doing article consultation and revision, now and then. no special treatment was given to this group. the materials and assignments as well were given mostly asynchronously using an lms named e-learning through which they can learn independently. in each meeting, they must read some academic articles; it can be only one to four articles per week. after reading they wrote the detail of the article read and a summary in a reading log; such log has empirically been proven beneficial for students in scholarly article writing (rahmawati, 2019). table 3. reading log for scholarly article writing adapted from rahmawati (2019) no. date title/author/ urls problem(s) method conclusion suggestion a brief summary 1. 2. in reading academic articles, the students can choose themselves the topic they are interested in by which they develop their own articles; the topic must be the same during the semester. besides they also got some materials and activities talking about what scholarly articles are irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 131 and how to make those articles. all activities including reading the materials shared, online discussion, writing draft etc. done by the students in each meeting were showcased in e-learning. after eight meetings, they were asked to fill a questionnaire, the same as previous, as in the above mentioned to see the differences between before and after eight-week class activities. experimental group in the first meeting, the facilitator distributed an online questionnaire to all participants in this group asking about their attitude towards reading. twelve students were participating in online questionnaire distributed before treatment. while the students participating in filling a questionnaire distributed after treatment were seventeen. the results of the questionnaire before and after treatment are concisely put in table 4. during the treatment, the experimental group did an additional activity, which was an online er activity featured by er-central, in addition to the usual class activities like those in the control group. they read some, from one to four e-books they are interested in er-central, in each week based on their difficulty level they were themselves rated by which in the very beginning they exposed to the platform and did the exercises accordingly. all their activities and the students’ scores as well were clearly written-recorded in the platform that can be accessed by the facilitator to control their reading activities. in er-central, all the students' activities recorded finely include text level, date in which they are reading, the words length and read, time-allotment, word per minute (wpm), the scores and even whether they cheated when doing the quiz, from which we can learn how they are reading during the implementation of er online and can monitor the students' reading activities. after getting treatment for eight meetings, the students were asked to fill a questionnaire, the same as distributed before treatment, to see whether we could see some changes in terms of their attitudes towards reading. table 4. reading attitude questionnaire for experimental group adapted from yamashita (2013) no. statements a2 (12 students) b2 (17 students) 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1. i can become more sophisticated if i read english. 0 2 7 3 0 1 12 4 2. i can get various forms of information if i read english. 0 1 8 3 0 3 10 4 3. reading english is troublesome. 0 7 4 1 0 11 5 1 4. reading english is useful for my future career. 0 0 9 3 0 0 11 6 5. i feel anxious if i don’t know all the words. 0 2 8 2 0 1 13 3 6. i can acquire vocabulary if i read english. 2 0 7 5 0 0 10 7 7. reading english is useful to get a good grade in class. 0 1 7 4 0 1 11 5 8. i can acquire broad knowledge if i read english. 0 3 4 5 0 1 14 2 9. i feel relaxed if i read english. 1 5 6 0 0 5 12 0 10. when i read english, i sometimes feel anxious that i may not understand it. 0 0 10 2 0 2 15 0 11. i can develop my reading ability if i read english. 0 0 9 3 0 1 15 1 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 132 table 4. continued… 12. reading english is useful to get credit for class. 0 1 9 2 0 1 11 5 13. when i read english, it satisfies my intellectual curiosity. 0 1 10 1 0 3 12 2 14. i feel pressure when i read english. 0 8 4 0 0 7 9 1 15. reading english is dull. 0 5 5 2 0 13 4 0 16. i get to know about new ways of thinking if i read english. 0 0 8 4 0 2 14 1 17. i can improve my sensitivity to the english language if i read english. 0 0 11 1 0 1 15 2 18. i feel tired if i read english. 0 7 5 0 0 6 11 0 19. i feel anxious when i’m not sure whether i understood the book content. 0 0 11 1 0 4 12 1 20. i feel refreshed and rested if i read english. 0 6 6 0 0 8 9 0 21. reading english is useful for getting a job. 0 1 6 5 0 1 15 1 22. i can learn to express myself better when i read english. 0 3 9 0 0 4 11 2 23. i don’t mind even if i cannot understand the book content entirely. 0 5 6 1 0 8 9 0 24. encountering unfamiliar expressions in english improves my english. 0 0 10 2 0 3 11 3 25. reading english is enjoyable. 0 3 9 0 0 3 14 0 26. i get to know about different values if i read english 0 1 9 2 0 0 14 3 notes: a2: the result of questionnaire given in the first meeting as pre-test b2: the result of the questionnaire given in the last meeting as post-test 1: strongly disagree 2: disagree 3: agree 4: strongly agree based on the above table, there were some changes in attitudes after the eight-week treatment. for the statement ‘i become more sophisticated if i read english,’ the first, the second and the third highest percentage are still the same between two groups, agree, strongly agree and disagree respectively; some respondents in the experimental groups tended to move to the higher level. responding to a statement ‘i feel relaxed if i read english,’ the more respondents chose ‘agree’ and none of those chose either ‘disagree’ or ‘strongly agree.’ some students responded ‘disagree’ in the post-test while in the pre-test none of those responded the same towards a statement ‘when i read english, i sometimes feel anxious that i may not understand it.’ to a statement ‘when i read english, it satisfies my intellectual curiosity,’ the winner is likely the same. in terms of pressure, more participants answered ‘agree’ after the treatment. to a statement ‘reading is dull,’ no one responded ‘extremely agree’ after treatment. some respondents moved to ‘disagree,’ but the highest percentage is still the same ‘agree’ towards a statement ‘i get to know about new ways of thinking if i read english.’ for a statement ‘i can improve my sensitivity to the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 133 english language if i read english,’ a responded moved to ‘disagree’ after treatment. the responses ‘agree’ becomes the first winner after the treatment which was in the runner-up position before treatment towards a statement ‘i feel tired if i read english.’ after the treatment, more respondents move to the higher level in responding to a statement ‘i can learn to express myself better when i read english.’ after the eight-meeting treatment applying er-central, another online questionnaire was distributed to the students containing about their perceptions towards the use of er-central, in the form of a binary question some subjective questions. there were only fifteen students from the experimental group who participated in this questionnaire. a binary question asking about whether er-central benefitted to them when writing academic article. seventy three percent of the participants responded, ‘yes’ and the remaining twenty seven percent responded differently, ‘no.’ there are two subjective questions, respectively asking about the benefits and the weaknesses of er-central towards the process of writing academic article. responding to these objective questions, more than one answer was appreciated. almost all the participants confirmed the benefits of er-central in writing academic article; two participants said, ‘no help.’ the benefits, on the other hand, lied on some aspects classified into three categories 1) increasing vocabularies and ability to write in the correct structures (60%); 2) improving knowledge about context-based writing (46%), and 3) becoming a better autonomous reader (three percent). towards the second subjective questions regarded the weaknesses of er-central, the participants responded 1) no weakness (33%); 2) er-central is not related to academic realm (13%); 3) the bad signal when accessing the platform (27%); 4) the platform is not yet familiar to them (13%); 5) the readings are not interesting, old-fashioned ones (7%); and 5) no time reading (7%). besides the above description, we also quantitatively analysed the data gathered using spss v.21. the following table clearly depicts the data analysis of spss v.21; the calculation is firstly talking descriptive statistics then followed by normality test and independent t-test using mann-whitney test as well. in descriptive statistics, the data got from questionnaire was put in a such a way that we can get the mean of each score that was then used to determine whether the data were normally distributed. after knowing that the data were not normally distributed for the results showed that the sig. in the test was mostly <0.05 in the test of normality. because the data did not normally distribute, we use mann-whitney test with the following result. table 5. mann-whitney test result mann-whitney u 1261.000 wilcoxon w 2639.000 z -.593 asymp. sig. (2-tailed) .553 a. grouping variable: class based on the above table, the asymp. sig (2-tailed) is more than .05 which means that the hypothesis, the er-central affects greatly the students’ attitudes toward reading when writing academic article, is rejected. referring to the research questions stated in the very irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 134 beginning, the findings gathered from the study can partly answer those problems though it still need some discussion regarding the biases might disturb while the study was conducted. the findings were summed up as 1) the implementation of er-central in this study was while writing their manuscripts, the students are asked to read some articles in the er-central platform in which they can choose the book they are interested in as a stimulus for them to write their articles; 2) the use of er-central while writing academic was very helpful though based on the result of the questionnaire it is not significant. discussion based on the above findings, some issues need to discuss. the result put in the above explanation shows that there were some changes after treatment within both control and experimental groups. extensive reading as famously known as the ‘one-fits-all’ solution to english language deficiency including writing (renandya, 2020). in the case of writing, the more reading the better writing skill will be. however, not all the results of the er implementation gave us happy ending story, for many biases might hinder the supreme achievement. as researchers, these biases must be our concern to conduct the next study for attaining the better result. in this study, for both the control and the experimental group, there are some ups and down attitudes like for example many respondents were still getting tired and feeling pressured in reading and they did not enjoy the reading activities etc. though they in some cases got lots of benefits in these activities like getting new ways of thinking, improving english, learning to express better etc. those up and downs attitudes after using er-central compared to the students in the control class in which no additional activities given did not significantly change. this implies that the use of er-central to build the students’ attitudes towards reading when writing academic article may give a little help but not a lot. this is in line with a study done by (rahmawati & mazhabi, 2020); in her study she investigated the students’ literacy with and without er by which she found that the students’ literacy improves though in some cases not a great deal for the same constraints within its implementation. the reasons may lay on some constraints faced by both the instructors and the students for the virtual er using er-central was still the first experience needing more practices in the field. this confirmed a postulate proposed by (clandinin, 2016) in which the experiences really matter in language learning. besides the type of texts read really matters (webb & macalister, 2013); when the students only read the fictions, but not the non-fictions, they still cannot enjoy the reading activities for the output of the activities must be in the form of academic writing passages. these rationales, however, still need to prove empirically by the future researchers to investigate. from the implementation of er-central, some biases might happen during the study. because of the virtual learning activities, the instructions coming from the facilitator to use the er-central platform may not as clearly as when those were announced in a face-to-face class. also, the role of the facilitator as a model in reading cannot be adequately visualised in virtual learning so that the motivation to read cannot be easily transferred to the students. the pile of assignment coming from virtual learning can demotivate the students to read for irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 135 they have very limited leisure time. again, these biases were addressed to the future researchers to minimise in order to gain the better results. besides the er-central might be one solution for the stakeholder to provide a stimulus for reading when writing academic article to build reading habit and to set some policies which can ease the students during virtual learning. as a proverb said, ‘nobody’s perfect,’ this er online using er-central has some weaknesses as the other side of the coin. the weaknesses can presumably be minimized by maximizing the teachers’ role in guiding the students in choosing materials in er-central, in giving feedback and in challenging them with fun activities after reading and in concerning the biases during the study (yung, 2020). conclusion and recommendations/implications related to the first research question, in conducting er using er-central the students are asked to read in er-central platform at least two articles per week and answering the comprehension question while they are doing usual class activities, writing a manuscript and then consulting it to the facilitator. besides we can know that the use of er-central within the process of writing academic article was helpful though not in significant way in shaping some positive attitudes when writing academic article like 1) increasing vocabularies and ability to write in the correct structures (60%); 2) improving knowledge about context-based writing (46%), and 3) becoming a better autonomous reader (three percent). however, in some cases based on the result of the questionnaire given to the participants, some attitudes like feeling pressure and tired when reading english were higher than those before treatment. this is account for the activities of reading are not merely based on the participants’ will. for the future researchers, we suggest concerning more on how the students enjoy reading so that the benefits will greater than they are forced to read though the materials are interesting. besides they must ensure that the students must read purposefully, meaning that if the output expected is an academic article the materials that must be tackled more are about non-fiction materials because text types really matter. disclosure statement the authors reported no potential conflict of interest. references aida, s. n., & widiyati, e. 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(2020). becoming a teacher educator through being a student teacher: an autoethnography in the practicum. journal of education for teaching, 46(2), 248–250. biographical notes henny rahmawati is working at the english education department, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas islam malang, malang, indonesia, e-mail: hennyrahma@unisma.ac.id dzulfikri is working at the english education department, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas islam malang, malang, indonesia, e-mail: dzulfikri@unisma.ac.id this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 171 the impacts of the stem-based inquiry learning models on critical thinking and concept mastery evi yupani 1 and i wayan widana 2* abstract this research aimed to determine differences in critical thinking skills and mastery of science concepts between students who followed the stem-based inquiry learning model and students who follow expository learning. the population in this research was 209 students in a total sample of 81 students determined through a random sampling technique. critical thinking data were collected by tests, while the concept mastery data were collected by multiple-choice tests. data were analyzed using manova. the results of the data analysis showed that the value of f was 26.848 with a significance value of 0.000 which was less than 0.05. therefore, there are differences in critical thinking skills and mastery of concepts between students who study stem-based inquiry learning models and students who study expository learning models. keywords concepts mastery, critical thinking skills, learning models, stem-based inquiry article history received 13 march 2023 accepted 10 june 2023 how to cite yupani, e. & widana, i. w. (2023). the impacts of the stem-based inquiry learning models on critical thinking ability and concept mastery. indonesian research journal in education |irje|, 7(1), 171 – 184. https://doi.org/10.22437/irje .v7i1.24227 1 teacher at sdn 3 pujungan, bali, indonesia 2* lecturer at pgri mahadewa indonesia university, bali, indonesia, corresponding email: iwayanwidana@mahadewa.ac.id https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v7i1.24227 https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v7i1.24227 mailto:iwayanwidana@mahadewa.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 172 introduction education is one of the paramount needs in human life that has an immense role in the welfare of human life itself. through the experience and education gained, humans can solve problems, have the readiness to face various challenges in the future, and the growing progress of science and technology (hidayat et al., 2021; mukminin et al., 2022; sofwan et . in the 21 st century, students are required to be able to understand sciences, master al., 2021) metacognitive skills, innovate, be able to communicate and collaborate and think critically (mirayani et al., 2021). critical thinking is the ability to think logically, reflectively, systematically, and productively which is applied in making judgments and decisions (hidayah et al., 2017). critical thinking is also interpreted as activating the ability to analyze and evaluate evidence, identify various questions, and build logical conclusions (facione, 2015). a critical thinker must have the standard elements in solving problems, which is abbreviated as frisco, namely focus, reason, inference, situation, and clarity, to solve a problem which is a list of reasonable critical thinking (ennis, 2015). in addition to critical thinking skills, some aspects are no less important in achieving quality learning, namely concept mastery. concept mastery is the ability of students to understand various concepts and theories as well as scientific meanings to solve problems and understand a new concept (dahar, 2011). concept mastery can also be interpreted as one of the intellectual abilities related to a student's cognitive abilities, that the intellectual abilities referred to are related to someone's mastery of the environment through ideas (maknun, 2015). students who have a good mastery of concepts can develop this ability to apply facts, scientific concepts, principles, laws, and theories used by scientists to explain and predict observations from nature or provide interpretations and be able to apply them in solving a problem (knaggs & schneider, 2012). currently, critical thinking skills and mastery of concepts are seen as very important to be trained and developed for students (lestari et al., 2021). it aims to make students accustomed to having critical and deep thinking. students are also able to apply concepts to various things, be innovative, full of new ideas, be creative, and be sensitive to all opportunities to produce people who have high competitiveness in facing the era of the industrial revolution 4.0 (susmariani et al., 2018). stem (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) based inquiry learning model can be an alternative to achieving the expected quality of learning. the stem-based inquiry learning model has the potential to provide meaningful learning. learning with this model can train students’ ability to solve problems by finding their concepts, facts, or principles that are integrated with one or several other scientific fields, such as science, engineering, and technology. in addition, the stem-based inquiry learning model can certainly increase collaboration, train critical thinking skills and creativity, and provide students with the experience that science is of real benefit to life and those around them. all of the above will certainly impact satisfactory student learning outcomes. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 173 literature review in the era of the industrial revolution 4.0, critical thinking skills and mastery of concepts are seen as very important to be trained and developed for students. with the ability to think critically and master concepts well, students will get used to having critical thinking, the ability to apply concepts, be innovative, and be sensitive to all opportunities that exist to produce people with high competitiveness in facing the era of the industrial revolution 4.0. (habibi, sofyan, & mukminin, 2023; habibi et al., 2022; mukminin et al., 2023; velasco, ibarra, & mukminin, 2022; rakimahwati et al., 2022; susanti, hadiyanto, & mukminin, 2022). the factual condition of education today is not under what is the primary goal. the results of a survey conducted by pisa (program for international student assessment) in 2018 showed that for the science performance category, indonesia was ranked 9th from the bottom (71) with an average score of 396 (tohir, 2019). likewise, the achievement of educational goals in schools, especially in science learning, is still far from what was expected. as was the result of observations made in several elementary schools in the pupuan district, in learning science, students tend to memorize information and not develop their ability to think critically and systematically. the ability to think critically and master students' concepts are still relatively low because the science learning components used in several elementary schools still use a direct approach which is dominated by lecture methods and assignments, so students experience difficulties in developing their abilities according to 21st-century solutions. science learning in elementary schools should teach students to hone critical thinking skills, form scientific attitudes and have the desire to solve problems. concerning the description above, the stem (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) based inquiry learning model can be an alternative to achieving the expected quality of learning (widana et al., 2021). the inquiry learning model emphasizes how to search and find answers to questions that are questioned own self through a critical and analytical thinking process (wibawa, 2020). inquiry means a series of student learning activities in finding and investigating various problems so that students can formulate their findings confidently and involve all students' abilities systematically, logically, critically, and analytically (kodir, 2018). the syntax of inquiry, in general, is a) orientation, b) determining or formulating problems, c) formulating temporary conjectures that need to be proven true (hypotheses), d) conducting experiments, e) conducting analysis, f) making conclusions (kurniasih & sani, 2015). stem (sciences, technology, engineering, and mathematics) is a learning approach that combines four main areas in education, namely science, technology, mathematics, and engineering that requires students to become confident innovators, problem solvers, and inventors (azura & octarya, 2020). national research council (2014) defined each of the four stem disciplines as (1) science is a collection of knowledge that has been accumulated over time by a process of scientific inquiry that produces new knowledge, (2) technology is a whole system of people, organizations, knowledge, processes and devices which then create technology to meet their needs or desires, most of the modern technology is a product of science and engineering, (3) engineering is a collection of knowledge about the design and irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 174 creation of objects man-made and a process for solving problems. techniques utilize concepts in science, mathematics, and technological tools, (4) mathematics is the science of patterns and relationships between numbers, numbers, and space. mathematics is used in science, engineering, and technology. stem is an integration of technology and techniques applied in science/mathematics learning content that can make students have a different mindset and develop critical power or critical thinking skills (sandi, 2021). the stem-based inquiry learning model can train students’ ability to solve problems. students will discover concepts, facts, or principles for themselves that are integrated with one or several other scientific fields, such as science, engineering, and technology. with the stem-based inquiry learning model, students will be trained to develop their critical thinking skills, provide meaningful learning, can increase collaboration, and be creative. several research results related to the above have been done before, finding that stem-based inquiry can improve students’ critical thinking skills (islamyah et al., 2018). likewise, research by soros et al. (2018) showed that the application of stem improves students’ critical thinking skills and problem-solving (soros et al., 2018). meanwhile, the results of research by anggareni et al. (2013) showed that inquiry learning is proven can improve conceptual understanding and foster students’ critical thinking skills so that it is good to apply in further learning. methodology this type of research is quasi-experimental. the population used in this research was all fifth-grade elementary school students in cluster ii and iv pupuan district, tabanan regency, consisting of 10 classes with total students of 209. to determine whether yes or not the abilities of fifth-grade students at each elementary school were equivalent, an equivalence test was carried out with one-way anova assisted by spss 26.0 for windows, where the calculation results obtained an f count of 0.544 with a significance of 0.841. therefore, all classes in this research were declared to have equal abilities. the sampling technique used in this research is random sampling, where samples are taken randomly from the population through the drawing stage (widana & muliani, 2020). the random sample is class. of the ten classes in gugus ii and iv pupuan district, a draw was carried out to take two classes for research subjects. after drawing lots, sdn 1 pujungan and sdn 6 pujungan were chosen as research samples for a total of 81 students. the two classes were drawn again to determine the experimental and control class. from the drawing of the two classes, sdn 6 pujungan was chosen as the experimental class, while sdn 1 pujungan was the control class. the instrument used for critical thinking skills is a description test, and the type of instrument for mastering concepts is in the form of multiple-choice tests. before the questions were used, the test was first tested. the test results were then analyzed for validity, reliability, internal consistency of item difficulty level, and discriminatory power. for the critical thinking ability instrument, the results of the content validity test showed that the critical thinking ability test used was very high, and the internal test results for item consistency showed that the ten items tested were valid, with the reliability of the critical irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 175 thinking ability test was relatively high. likewise, in the concept mastery instrument, where the number of respondents was 36 students, 30 valid test items were obtained. the tests tested included very high-reliability criteria, the test results for the difficulty level of test items from 25 test items. there were 22 test items including medium criteria, and 3 test items easy. then the results of the discriminatory power of the 25 test items were 20 test items including sufficient and five test items were good criteria. the data collected were tabulated with the mean and standard deviation related to critical thinking skills and mastery of concepts. to test the hypotheses that have been formulated, data analysis was first carried out in the description, prerequisite testing, and hypothesis testing. descriptive analysis was carried out by finding the mean (m), mode (m0), median (md), and standard deviation (sd) values of each variable studied. the assumption test performed includes the normality test of data distribution and the homogeneity of variance test. test the normality of data distribution for each group using the kolmogorov-smirnov formula at a significance of 0.05 with the help of spss-26.00 for windows. homogeneity testing was carried out by testing the similarity of the covariance variants using spss-26.00 for windows through the box's m test for homogeneity tests together and levene's test for homogeneity tests separately. to test the first hypothesis using one-way analysis of variance anova through statistical variance (f) with the help of spss 26 for windows, hypothesis ii testing uses a one-way analysis of variance anova through statistical variance using the spss 26 for windows program. to test hypothesis iii, research data will be processed using multivariate analysis of variance (manova), with a significance level of α = 0.05. tests between subjects were carried out on the significant number of the pillai's trace f statistic, wilks' lambda, hotelling's trace, and roy's largest root. testing will be carried out using the spss 26 for windows program. findings and discussion the data obtained in this research were data on critical thinking skills and mastery of science concepts from a group of students who took the stem-based inquiry learning model (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) and a group of students who took the expository learning model. the average score of students' critical thinking ability data who took part in learning with the stem-based inquiry learning model was 50.53 at intervals of 50.42 < x ≤ 52.25 and included in the "high" category. the results of the data analysis on mastery of the concept with the stem-based inquiry learning model for 41 students obtained an average score of 21.51 at intervals of 20.92 < x ≤ 22.08. overall, the experimental class is included in the "medium" category. furthermore, an analysis of data on students' critical thinking skills using expository learning obtained an average score of 44.87 at an interval of 43.25 < x ≤ 45.75 included in the "medium" category. the results of the data analysis of students' conceptual mastery following expository learning obtained an average score of 20.27 at intervals of 19.33 < x ≤ 20.67, so the students' conceptual mastery following the expository learning model is included in the "medium" category. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 176 data distribution normality test the results of the kolmogorov-smirnov test obtained the calculated value of each variable, namely 0.182; 0.164; 0.194; 0.085. all kolmogorov-smirnov statistical variables are more than 0.05. thus, all data distribution is normally distributed. variance homogeneity test homogeneity testing was carried out by testing the similarity of the covariance variants using box's m test to test the homogeneity with levene's test to test the homogeneity separately with spss-26.00 for windows. with the criteria, if the significance value is more than 0.05, the data group is declared homogeneous. conversely, the data group is non-homogeneous if the significance value produced in levene's and box's m test is less than 0.05. the results of the box's m test analysis obtained sig. 0.535, and levene's test results obtained critical thinking skills of 0.173 and mastery of concepts of 0.572. based on the test results, the resulting significant figures together and individually are more than 0.05. thus, it means that the variance-covariance matrix for the variables of students' critical thinking skills and mastery of concepts is homogeneous. hypothesis test 1 the results of the hypothesis 1 test showed that the critical thinking skills of students who took part in the stem-based inquiry learning model and students who took the expository learning model produced an f value of 52.608 with a significance of 0.000 <0.05. it means ho is rejected, and h1 is accepted. in other words, there are differences in critical thinking skills between students who follow stem-based inquiry learning models and students who follow expository learning models. hypothesis test 2 the results of the one-way anova analysis of students' concept mastery data with spss 26.00 for windows show that there are differences in concept mastery between students who follow the stem-based inquiry learning model and students who follow the expository learning model, resulting in an f value of 6.951 with a significance of 0.000 <0, 05. it means h0 is rejected, and h1 is accepted. in other words, there are differences in the mastery of concepts between students who follow stem-based inquiry learning models and students follow follow expository learning models. hypothesis test 3 furthermore, to find out the differences in critical thinking skills and conceptual mastery of students who study with the two learning models, an analysis is carried out using irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 177 manova with spss 26.00 for windows. a summary of the analysis using manova is in table 1. table 1. summary of analysis results of students' critical thinking ability and mastery of concepts with manova effect statistics f sig. learning model pillai's trace 26,848 0,000 wilks' lambda 26,848 0,000 hotelling's trace 26,848 0,000 roy's largest root 26,848 0,000 based on the table above, f is 26.848 with a significance value of 0.000 which is less than 0.05. it means h0 is rejected, and h1 is accepted. in other words, simultaneously, there are differences in critical thinking skills and mastery of concepts between students who follow stem-based inquiry learning models and students who follow expository learning models. these results simultaneously indicate that the student's critical thinking skills and concept mastery who take part in learning using the stem-based inquiry learning model are better than students who follow the expository learning model. differences in critical thinking ability between students who follow the stem-based inquiry learning model and students who follow the expository learning model science learning which is carried out on a stem-based has made students active, creative, critical, and able to develop their soft skills, provide meaningful learning and train students to solve problems by finding their own concepts, facts, or principles that are integrated with one or several scientific fields, such as science, engineering, and technology, increasing collaboration, and training critical thinking skills. in the initial step of this model or problem orientation, students need to formulate problems and propose hypotheses related to indicators of critical thinking, namely understanding the questions given. students understand the orientation of finding, formulating problems, or submitting hypotheses. in planning problem-solving and experiments related to critical thinking indicators, namely providing reasons based on relevant facts or evidence at each step, it will focus on how students understand planning group activities in planning procedures, assignments, and learning objectives under the problems. students will collaborate with their groups, be active, creative, and critical and develop soft skills. the next step is to make observations, collect data, and analyze data related to three indicators of critical thinking, including choosing the right reasons to support the conclusions, using all appropriate information to the problem, and providing a more detailed explanation. in this step, students conclude correctly with supporting reasons and information. students will be trained to solve problems by finding the concepts, facts, or principles integrated with one or several other scientific fields, such as science, engineering, and technology, increasing collaboration and developing critical thinking skills and creativity. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 178 the final step, namely concluding the precise conclusions and re-checking thoroughly from start to finish. students provide the best solutions to problems related to the concepts they have learned. it can stimulate students' critical thinking skills in the indicator of checking back thoroughly, which can be seen when students complete the steps according to their thoughts. different from the case with students who follow expository learning. in expository learning, students tend to look indifferent in participating in learning. it is because the expository learning model is a learning model that is always used in science learning. in the expository learning model, students do not get the opportunity to do more activities than is done in the stem-based inquiry learning model. the role of the teacher looks more dominating. teachers convey more information to students in the same case by asking, gathering information, and communicating. in this step, only a few students actively expressed their ideas. other students are seen just following the lesson without actively participating in contributing their ideas. information search by students is also limited to textbooks without utilizing other learning resources. it shows that the stem-based inquiry learning model has an advantage over the expository learning model in improving critical thinking skills. the research results are in line with islamyah et al. (2018) that the stem-based guided inquiry learning model application can improve the critical thinking skills of class x mipa 4 sman 2 singaraja academic year 2018/2019. in addition, research conducted by wariyanti (2019) also showed the inquiry learning model has a significant effect on students' critical thinking skills and learning outcomes. maryam et al. (2021) also showed that there were differences in critical thinking skills between students in the experimental class and students in the control class (p = 0.00 <0.05), so the inquiry learning model affected improving students' critical thinking skills. based on the research results above, the stem-based inquiry learning model is very effectively applied to improve students' critical thinking skills. differences in mastery of concepts between students who follow the stem-based inquiry learning model and students who follow the expository learning model in the experimental class, a stem-based inquiry learning model was applied. this stem-based inquiry learning model embodies scientific-based learning where students can discover something, encourage student learning experiences to be able to understand scientific concepts, provide a deeper understanding and make them longer memorable and meaningful for students. science learning on a stem-based learning model has made students active and critically able to solve problems by finding their concepts, facts, or principles that are integrated with one or several other scientific fields, such as science, engineering, and technology. the mastery score of the science concept that is greater in the experimental class than in the control class is also believed to be a result of the integrated implementation of the four aspects of stem. the science aspect is implemented by utilizing nature as a medium/learning resource and as one of the bases for students in making decisions, whereas the technology aspects are by utilizing various current technologies in the digitalization era or the 4.0 revolution era, where technology can cause changes in life irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 179 activities. furthermore, the engineering aspect teaches procedures that students must carry out sequentially/systematically, wherein student learning is given worksheets as a guide in experimenting. meanwhile, the mathematical aspect fosters students' reasoning in calculating and analyzing conclusions. meanwhile, for the expository learning model in the control class, the learning process tends to be one-way. students only listen, take notes, and then do questions and answer. they are less invited to solve a problem that requires reasoning, so this process reduces the meaning of learning. it is because the expository learning model prioritizes memorization rather than understanding and is teacher-centered. expository learning is not problem oriented. students have not been trained to think critically, so students' ability to understand and solve problems has not been formed optimally, so students' mastery of science concepts is not optimal. differences in critical thinking ability and mastery of concepts between students who follow learning with the stem (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) based inquiry learning model and students who follow the expository learning model the research results indicate that the application of the stem (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) based inquiry learning model is more effective for improving critical thinking skills and mastery of science concepts than the expository learning model. it is because the stages in the stem (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics)-based inquiry learning model support and encourage the growth of the potential for increased critical thinking skills and mastery of science concepts so that these two variables can be influenced together. the inquiry learning model based on stem (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) provides meaningful learning and trains students' ability to solve problems by finding their concepts, facts, or principles that are integrated with one or several other scientific fields, such as science, engineering, and technology. this model also enhances collaboration, trains critical thinking skills and creativity, and provides experiences to students. in the stem (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) based inquiry learning model, students are invited to develop thinking skills through specific observations to make generalizations. at that stage, students are stimulated to reason to go to the next stage. in the next stage, students are invited to formulate problems that will bring students to a problem that contains a solving puzzle. at this stage, students will interpret the things that are the subject matter. then in the next step, students determine impermanent answers or hypotheses until they are continued by searching for various information, data, and facts needed to answer the problem/hypotheses. at this stage, they intensively develop cognitive reasoning power and knowledge to provide responsive stimulus and results under the processes carried out. after that, students test the correctness of impermanent answers, where the alleged answers are based on the obtained data. next, students look for data or information to solve the problem either by reading learning resources, researching, asking questions, discussing, and so on. then students analyze the data to find a concept. the next stage is students, and their irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 180 groups draw conclusions and formulate rules, principles, generalization ideas, or concepts based on the data obtained. as it is today, there is the implementation of an independent curriculum where the way to achieve learning goals is through learning strategies that provide quality learning experiences, apply a material to problems, an interactive, inspiring, fun, challenging learning atmosphere, motivate students, and develop critical thinking skills. therefore, the inquiry learning model based on stem (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) becomes an alternative to achieving the expected quality of learning. judging from the advantage factors of the stem (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) based inquiry learning model, it is in line with the tpack (technological pedagogical content knowledge) model in the current ikm. the tpack model is an integration of comprehensive knowledge and skills in terms of material and pedagogy that are integrated into technological developments and the interrelationships between content knowledge, pedagogy, and technology (ananda et al., 2022). teachers in this century must have technological pedagogical content knowledge (tpack) skills, as mentioned by issues in recent learning (ichsan et al., 2022). tpack will make learning more effective and efficient by integrating technology (zainuddin et al., 2022). tpack is also an essential factor that can be used as a reference in improving the quality of learning. therefore, tpack (technological pedagogical content knowledge) is in line with the stem (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) based inquiry learning model, which both make a positive contribution to improving the quality of learning so that it will ultimately have the impact on critical thinking skills and mastery of concepts becomes better again. meanwhile, the expository learning model is more dominated by lecture methods and assignments. students are not fully involved in the learning process, trained to explore and process information, trained in making the right decision or in solving a problem, and also rarely trained to carry out an investigation of a problem, formulate and determine relevant hypotheses, and collect and analyze, or students are invited to draw conclusions based on the investigation they have done. in this case, students are only recipients of information, so students' thinking skills are low, or in other words, learning is less meaningful. therefore, students with critical thinking skills and mastery of science concepts who are taught using the stem-based inquiry learning model are better than those with the expository learning model. conclusion based on the results of data analysis and discussion of the research results, the conclusions are 1) there are differences in critical thinking skills between students who follow the stem-based inquiry learning model and students who follow the expository learning model; 2) there are differences in the mastery of the science concept between students who follow the stem-based inquiry learning model and students who follow the expository learning model; 3) simultaneously, there are differences in critical thinking skills and mastery of science concepts between students who follow the stem-based inquiry learning model and students who follow expository learning model. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 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(2019). pengaruh model pembelajaran inkuiri terhadap kemampuan berpikir kritis dan hasil belajar siswa kelas iv sd pada subtema keindahan alam negeriku (the effect of the inquiry learning model on critical thinking skills and learning outcomes of fourth-grade elementary school students on the sub-theme keindahan alam negeriku). jurnal review pendidikan dasar: jurnal kajian pendidikan dan hasil penelitian, 5(2), 1019-1024. wibawa, i. p. g. s. t. (2020). pengaruh model pembelajaran inkuiri berbasis stem dengan penugasan berbantuan aplikasi whatsapp terhadap partisipasi orang tua dan hasil belajar ipa siswa kelas iv sd se-gugus viii mengwi (the effect of the stem-based inquiry learning model with assignments assisted by the whatsapp application on parental participation and science learning outcomes for fourth-grade students of elementary schools in gugus viii mengwi). pendasi: jurnal pendidikan dasar indonesia, 4(2), 79-90. widana, i. w., & muliani, l. p. (2020). uji persyaratan analisis (test requirements analysis). klik media. widana, i. w., sopandi, a. t., & suwardika, g. (2021). development of an authentic irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 184 assessment model in mathematics learning: a science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (stem) approach. indonesian research journal in education| irje, 5(1), 192-209. zainuddin, m., saifudin, a., lestariningsih, l., & nahdiyah, u. (2022). pengembangan big book dengan model tpack dalam meningkatkan kemampuan literasi menulis anak sd (development of big book with the tpack model in improving elementary school children's writing literacy skills). briliant: jurnal riset dan konseptual, 7(3), 770-777. biographical notes ni putu evi yupani, s.pd. sd., was born in jembrana, april 2, 1991. previously served as a teacher at sdn 2 tegal badeng (2013-2014), sdn 1 pengambengan (2014-2015), sdn 3 pujungan (2015-present). completed bachelor degree at ganesha university of education (2009-2013). has a hobby of dancing and singing, and is fluent in indonesian and english. participated in various education and training programs, including: learning competency improvement program (2019), indonesia teaching fellowship teacher training program (2020), teacher's strategic role in the 2013 curriculum and the era of the industrial revolution 4.0 in the 21st century in preparing the golden generation in 2045 (2020), building verse-long learners (2020), designing learning media using kahoot (2021), designing learning media using quizz (2022), bipolar disorder webinar series (2022), the use of quizz in the implementation of the independent curriculum (2023), training on making teaching materials for the merdeka teaching platform (2023). dr. i wayan widana, s.pd., m.pd., is a lecturer at pgri mahadewa indonesia university. has studied bachelor degree in mathematics education at the open university, masters in educational research and evaluation at the ganesha university of education, and doctoral degree in educational research and evaluation at jakarta state university. areas of expertise in education measurement and evaluation. currently assigned as chair of the research and community service learning institute. as an expert trainer at the driving school (sekolah penggerak) of the ministry of education, culture, research and technology. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 544 leadership strategies and policies on online learning during the covid-19 pandemic: a case study marzul hidayat 1 and rudi hartono 2 abstract educational institutions around the world have closed due to the covid-19 pandemic endangering the academic agendas. educational institutions have to shift to online learning platforms to keep the educational activities working. nonetheless, the questions about the educational leadership strategies and policies of online learning are not clearly understood yet, principally for a developing country like indonesia, where the technical constrictions like access to the internet have become a serious issue. in this study, we focused on finding out the leadership strategies and policies of the heads of the postgraduate study programs and looking at the entire cycle in the learning process by looking at the implementation and evaluation of the goals of online learning during the pandemic. the study design was qualitative in the case study approach. seven participants were willing to get involved in this study. the primary data sources were in-depth interviews with seven participants who are the heads and secretary of the postgraduate program at one public university in jambi. we examined our interviews data by using within-case and cross-case displays and analyses. we categorized our analysis and discussion about our participants‘ perspectives and the contexts in which leadership strategies and policies of online learning they managed emerge. the analysis of our texts revealed that major issues related to the causes and covid-19: the rapid, unpredictable and 'forced' transition from face-to-face teaching to distance or online teaching, leadership strategies and policies in online learning, and evaluating teaching and learning processes: ―assessing its achievements and improving upon its effectiveness.‖ future education research and implications are also discussed. keywords inhibiting factors, online pedagogy the rapid, unpredictable and 'forced' transition 1assistant professor and faculty member, universitas jambi, jambi, indonesia; corresponding author: mhiday2012@gmail.com 2 student of master‘s program in educational management, universitas jambi, indonesia. introduction mailto:mhiday2012@gmail.com irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 545 the spread of the corona virus is not only in its country of origin, namely wuhan china, but also spreads to all parts of the world, based on the who report globally on november 15, 2020 reaching 53,507,282 people who were exposed to confirmed cases of covid-19 while the death rate reached 1,305,164 soul (who, 2020). the condition of the spread of the corona virus that is getting worse has made various efforts to break the chain of transmission of covid-19, the spread of this virus has an impact on people's lives, both economic, social and even the world of education is affected by the corona virus. this is recognized by unesco that the corona virus has had an impact on the education sector, where at least 300 million students around the world would be disrupted in learning activities (kompas, 2020). indonesia is one of the countries affected by the spread of covid 19. based on data from the task force for handling covid-19 on november 15, 2020, the transmission of the corona virus reached 467,113 people (kompas, 2020). the indonesian government has previously taken anticipatory steps for the spread of the corona virus in indonesia, especially in the field of education, namely the issuance of policies that require online learning at all levels of education. this policy is an effective step that can be taken during the pandemic, because interactions between humans do not have to meet, in today's modern times, communication can be done through print media, technology, and social media. in preventing the spread of covid-19, who has advised to stop events that can cause crowds. therefore, face-to-face learning that gathers many students in the classroom is reviewed for its implementation. lectures must be held with scenarios that are able to prevent physical contact between students and lecturers and students and students. according to milman (2015), the use of digital technology can enable students and lecturers to carry out the learning process even though they are in different places. the form of lectures that can be used as a solution during the covid-19 pandemic is online learning. according to moore, dickson-deane, and galyen (2011), online learning is learning that uses the internet network with accessibility, connectivity, flexibility, and the ability to bring up various types of learning interactions. research conducted by zhang et al. (2006) shows that the use of the internet and multimedia technology is able to change the way knowledge is delivered and can be an alternative to learning carried out in traditional classrooms. online learning is learning that is able to bring together students and lecturers to carry out learning interactions with internet assistance. at the implementation level online learning requires the support of mobile devices such as smartphones or android phones, laptops, computers, tablets, and iphones that can be used to access information anytime and anywhere (gikas & grant, 2013). the online learning policy is implemented in universities, based on the joint decree of the four ministers number 01/kb/2020 dated june 15, 2020, stating that the learning process, especially at the higher education level in the odd semester of the 2020/2021 academic year in all zones, must be held online for theoretical subjects (directorate general of higher education kemdikbud ri, 2020). various policies issued by both the central government and from the campus make online learning need to be strengthened. online learning has become a demand in the world of education since the last few years (he, xu, & kruck, 2014). face-to-face learning is considered closed and as a irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 546 traditional learning model, nowadays so that online learning facilities are needed by utilizing technology and social media (paningrahi, srivastava, & sharma, 2018). in indonesia, especially at the research site, online learning is a new learning model, for that it is necessary to identify the leadership strategies and policies used by the leaders of the study program heads at the at the research site in implementing online learning. it needs to be input into the education system by head of the study program to improve the institution in reaching market segments (allen & seaman, 2003). the purposes of this research was to find out the leadership strategies and policies of the heads of the postgraduate study programs and to look at the entire cycle in the learning process by looking at the implementation and evaluation of the goals of online learning. literature review use of technology in distance or online teaching the results of the latest research on the use of technology for online and offline teaching in indonesia in the non-covid-19 era show that there are challenges for both prospective teacher students and lecturers in their implementation. recent research on the use of technology in distance or online teaching in indonesia, among others, was conducted by mukminin, habibi, muhaimin, and prasojo (2020) who examined the behavior of prospective english teachers in using the "m-learning management system" in learning activities. these students are strongly influenced by various factors including supporting conditions, self-efficacy, perceived ease of use, subjective norms, perceived usefulness, and attitudes possessed by prospective teachers. furthermore, mukminin, fridiyanto, and habibi (2020) also conducted research on the use of ict in the classroom showing that all teachers have more knowledge about traditional, non-technology conceptions of pedagogy, and content than technological pedagogy and technological content. this shows that the ability of teachers or lecturers to use ict in teaching is still weak. the issue of the importance of using technology in distance or online teaching by student teacher candidates at the university level is also a study of the research of habibi, razak, yusop, and mukminin (2019) which found that quantitatively and qualitatively they had a positive attitude towards the use of ict, but lacked effective in implementation in the online classroom. these results are supported by the results of research by aman, prasojo, sofwan, mukminin, habibi, and yaqin (2020) that perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use, subjective norm and attitudes of self-efficacy and supporting conditions are very influential in the successful use of technology in teaching. in terms of the challenges of using technology in online teaching, the research of prasojo, mukminin, habibi, hendra, and iqroni (2019), prasojo, habibi, yaakob, mukminin, haswindy, and sofwan (2019), prasojo, mukminin, habibi, marzulina, sirozi, and harto (2018) found that there are barriers to ict integration in the classroom, including teacher knowledge about ict, funding for ict, traditional teaching styles, professional development, and school culture. meanwhile, research by marzulina, habibi, mukminin, desvitasari, yaakob, and ropawandi (2018) found that two obstacles in using technology in online teaching are lack of skills and cost of use. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 547 remote or online teaching during the covid-19 pandemic the term "online platform" is growing in popularity and has been used to describe various services available on the internet, specifically in the field of education including search engines, social media (whatsapp), zoom, google meet, online video conferences, colibri, and others during the covid-19pandemic. an online platform is defined as a digital service that facilitates interaction between two or more distinct but interdependent sets of users who interact through the service over the internet. online teaching using platforms such as zoom, google meet, online video conferences, colibri, etc. has been widely promoted during the covid-19 pandemic by various countries including indonesia. various recent studies in the context of teacher education and distance or online teaching during the covid-19 pandemic have been carried out with varying results. for example, research conducted by zhang et al. (2020), judd et al. (2020), and huber and helm (2020) found that the impact of covid-19 on teaching is happening and being experienced by governments, institutions, and stakeholders in many parts of the world. the transition from face-to-face teaching to online teaching occurred suddenly and unexpectedly and has raised several pedagogical challenges, not only in terms of teaching methods but also related to strategies and assessment tools. carrillo and flores (2020) who analyzed 134 previous studies suggest that in teacher education during the covid-19 era, it is necessary to make comprehensive changes to online pedagogy that integrates technology to support the teaching and learning process. furthermore, research by adedoyin and soykan (2020) shows that despite the sudden migration of the teaching process in teacher education to online platforms during this pandemic, the challenges experienced by lecturers and student teacher candidates can be well explored and turned into opportunities. according to adedoyin and soykan (2020), online learning will be sustainable and education will become more hybrid. also research conducted by kidd and murray (2020) on the effects of covid-19 and teacher education in the uk found that despite the relocation to the newly created online space, many of the principles and practices of ‗intentionalities‘ have remained unchanged in teacher education. leadership strategies and policies in online learning in an educational institution, especially higher education levels, the head of the study program has an important role in a policy during the strategic learning processes. the head of the study program is the leader in the study program as the key to the implementation and development of the study program. the head of the study program is responsible for improving and sustaining the student learning process and matters related to the study program. to achieve success in implementing learning during the pandemic, especially after the online learning process has been determined, the head of the study program must have strategic leadership. research conducted by alotebi, alharbi, and masmali (2018) also suggests that leadership in a virtual or online environment refers to leaders being able to influence the behavior of others through online learning media, where the findings of this study state that irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 548 transformational leadership strategies are better used in learning online rather than transactional leadership strategies because transformational leadership strategies improve performance, leadership satisfaction, and group cohesiveness. northouse (2018) state that the leadership strategy is divided into two, namely the first is the transformational leadership strategy and the transactional strategy. transformational leadership is part of a new leadership paradigm that emphasizes charismatic and effective components in leadership, an approach that changes and transforms individuals, which focuses on the intrinsic motivation of its members. while transactional leadership is transactional leadership which refers to the exchange of relationships between leaders and members, this leadership model does not want change in an organization. methodology research design, site, and participants this research used a qualitative method with a case study approach. according to marshall and rossman (1999), qualitative research has the aim of multiplying, explaining and describing the phenomenon of interest to explore, explain, or describe the phenomenon of interest. meanwhile, according to merriam (1998), qualitative research methods are methods that prioritize process, meaning, and understanding because the product of qualitative research is "richly description" and case studies are one type of qualitative research (creswell, 1998). the selection of the case study approach is also in accordance with what merriam (1998) said that a case can be a person, a program or an institution. in this research, the "case" is the leadership strategies and policies in the implementation of online learning during the covid-19 pandemic. the location of this research was carried out in several postgraduate study programs in a state university. this study was conducted from january to may 2021. the selection of research locations also paid attention to access to obtain research data. access is very important in qualitative research because it would affect how data would be obtained and who would provide data. to gain access to the research site, researchers used various networks and relationships that had been established. in the process of determining the informants, the researchers had people who understood the problems being studied, namely by using purposive sampling with a naturalistic orientation. the sample in this study was used to explore information of processes or activities or actions of several people who act as heads of the study program in order to obtain in-depth information about leadership strategies in the implementation of online learning during the covid-19 pandemic period. the participants in this study were 7 people consisting of the 6 heads of the study programs and one secretary of the study program with a doctoral education level of all participants. the ages of participants were between 46 years and 62 years old. data collection and analysis irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 549 interview is the data collection method which is most often used by researchers when researching something that has happened in the past because it will not happen again, this is in accordance with what merriam (1998) stated that interviewing was a preferred data collection method when researchers want to examine past events, which are not possible to happen again. in this research, interviews were carried out with an interview protocol. the type of interview that was carried out in the data collection process was a semi-structured interview focusing on leadership strategies and policies in online learning during the covid-19 pandemic. research participants were interviewed about leadership strategies and policies regarding online learning during the covid-19 period in relation to planning, organization, coordination, and control. each participant‘s interview lasted from thirty minutes and one hour. all 7 participants were asked to discuss their experiences about their leadership strategies and policies regarding online learning during the covid-19 period. we developed the interview questions based on the previous research and the authors digitally recorded each participant‘s accounts and responses via a digital voice recorder. in terms of the qualitative data analysis, miles and huberman (1994) wrote, ―qualitative data …are a source of well-grounded, rich descriptions and explanations of processes in identifiable local contexts…‖ (p.1). moreover, marshall and rossman (1999) claimed that qualitative data analysis was ―a messy, ambiguous, time-consuming, creative, and fascinating process‖ (p. 150) while ―undoubtedly, no consensus exists for the analysis of the forms of qualitative data‖ (creswell, 1997, p.140). for analyzing the interview data in our study, once the audiotaped interviews were transcribed, they were reviewed line-by-line so as to discover consistencies, patterns, and emerging topics. additionally, the transcriptions were reread with the temporary lists of codes that had been created. the temporary lists of codes were employed as a guide to develop inductive codes and themes. moreover, we used within-case and cross-case displays (miles & huberman, 1994) to distribute interviews data in an attempt to record every significant account related to the focus of the study among the cases (participants) that was finally used to make final themes. trustworthiness to establish the trustworthiness of data, interpretations, and conclusions, we shared our findings with the respondents to have their feedback. lincoln and guba (1985) state that this is ―the most critical technique for establishing credibility‖ (p.314) of the data or findings. we also provided rich and thick descriptions (merriam, 1998) and narratives of participants‘ leadership strategies and policies regarding online learning during the covid-19 period by including verbatim examples from the transcribed interviews data. to protect the rights of human participants, we also masked the names of people, places, and the research site through the use of pseudonyms for the participants, places, and research site while participation in this study was voluntary. findings in order to find out the causes of the online learning, the implementation of the leadership strategies in the implementation of online learning, and the supporting factors and irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 550 inhibiting factors in the application of online learning at the postgraduate study programs, we asked our participants to describe and discuss their experiences, feelings, and thoughts on leadership strategies and policies on online learning during the covid-19 pandemic. in the following, we present the major issues related to leadership strategies and policies on online learning during the covid-19 pandemic. the causes and covid-19: the rapid, unpredictable and 'forced' transition from face-to-face teaching to distance or online teaching the online learning did not just happen at the research site, but it was caused by the covid-19. to anticipate the worse impacts on education, the indonesian government was forced to produce regulations requiring all campuses to apply online learning due to the rapid, unpredictable and 'forced' changes in the pandemic era. our participants reported that they were forced to use online learning due to the unpredictable situations on their campus and students and lecturers were worried about their health and safety. for example, ―in indonesia, the covid-19 pandemic has led to the closure of campuses and universities. due to the closure of campuses and universities, it has affected the educational process, including the education process in the program that i lead. study programs, lecturers and students must quickly adapt to distance or online teaching. the need to create a good learning atmosphere for doctoral students is needed to make decisions, choices, and adaptations in order to meet not only their own expectations but also the requirements of doctoral candidates that must be facilitated by the study program.‖ [participant 1] participants generally reported that they had a variety of students from different places that had to be facilitated by the program. if online learning was not used by the program, students and lecturers were worried about their safety. in the words of one of the participants, ―the reason for the implementation of online learning is, of course, because of the current pandemic, because students who are studying on this post-graduate campus are not only from one area but also from outside the region.‖ [participant 3] participants also indicated that they had to follow the government regulations for implementing online learning in order to stop the spread of the pandemic. ―the online learning is carried out in indonesia is none other than the current covid-19 condition, making us switch lectures from face to face to online one.‖ [participant 5] the transcripts of the interviews demonstrated that our participants obeyed the government regulations to implement the online learning whether they were ready or not. they felt that irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 551 they had to do it in order to keep everybody healthy while educational processes were still running well. leadership strategies and policies in online learning the online learning that takes place due to the covid-19 pandemic makes a leader must be able to overcome changes that occur for the smooth implementation of online learning. a leader's strategy in dealing with changes needs to be done so that lectures can take place. our participants generally indicated that they had several strategies dealing with the online learning due to the rapid, unpredictable and 'forced' changes in the pandemic era among other things: changing the learning system, creating whatshapp groups, providing teaching and learning media, and managing inhibiting factors for online learning at the postgraduate study programs changing the learning system: from designing, determining, compiling, to implementing learning all of the interviewees reported that the first strategy was to make changes to the learning system, particularly schedules. our participants reported that they had to change the schedules due to the situation of the pandemic. for them, it was not easy to do it because teaching totally online was not easy for some professors who were not familiar with technology such as zoom or google meet while there was no specific training to anticipate such changes. for example, one of our participants reported, ―the rapid, unexpected, and 'forced' transition from face-to-face teaching to distance or online teaching due to the covid-19 pandemic has given rise to a number of complex challenges and obstacles so that the program requires various strategies to achieve the goals the program. first, all teaching and learning processes starting from designing, determining, compiling, and implementing learning during the pandemic are carried out online, namely through google meet or zoom. all lecturers and students inevitably have to study online. all study materials, coursework, and assessments of the teaching and learning process are carried out online and paperless.‖ [participant 1] here, it can be revealed that our participants had to prepare and involve all stakeholders to do online learning starting from designing, determining, compiling, to implementing learning which was not easy for them because it was done in a rapid and forced transition. for our participants, preparing teaching and learning including materials, coursework, and assessments was very challenging during the pandemic. our participants had to ensure that designing, determining, compiling, and implementing learning were fully carried out by all professors. however, changing the learning system was the only way for them to have otherwise teaching and learning processes would not happen during the pandemic. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 552 additionally, our participants reported that this change was experienced by education section around the world. creating whatshapp groups: designing academic dialogs among students, lecturers, and administrators another interesting strategy that our participants generally designed was making whatshapp groups for their student, lecturers, and administrators, and heads of the program. these kinds of strategies helped participants and their students and lecturers keep everything updated related to teaching and learning processes. ―students are included in a wa group so that all information for the online learning processes can be received by students directly. in the wa group, active students and alumni are joined so that they can provide input to each other if there are difficulties in the online learning process.‖ [participant 7] ―……lecturers and students are included in the wa group.‖ [participant 4] ―office needs, student study programs do not need to be face-to-face for correspondence purposes, we can use whatsapp or now there is plo, then information on academic issues is conveyed through the whatsapp group.‖ [participant 1] the whatshapp groups were used by our participants to cut the problems that would emerge before, while, and after the teaching and learning processes. our participants as the leaders of the programs felt that the groups were enough effective to help not only the students, but also the lecturers. additionally, according to our participants, there had been a lot of academic dialogs among students, lecturers, and administrators with the groups. providing teaching and learning media: “teaching and learning processes must go on during the pandemic” a leader must have a strategy in carrying out the implementation of online learning, the strategy used determines the success of the online learning. one of the learning leadership strategies that our participants had was to provide learning media for students and lecturers. learning media is used as a means of supporting the learning process for learning objectives can be achieved. teaching learning media were important for lecturers in conveying teaching materials to students to be more effective and efficient during the pandemic. ―the strategy i use in implementing online learning is to provide learning media such as zoom, which is important during the pandemic.‖ [participant 3] ―the strategy i take is that i use several platforms, existing platforms such as zoom, google classroom, but at the university level, google classroom is not used, most of irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 553 them use zoom which is indeed provided, some study programs provide zoom, some are done independently by the students themselves.‖ [participant 4] ―the strategy in implementing online learning is currently first the learning process carried out online is provided with media such as zoom, google meet or whatsapp group.‖ [participant 5] ―the strategy used by the head of the study program in implementing online learning during the current pandemic, firstly provides learning media, where currently the media that is often used is zoom, our own study program uses a paid zoom so that it is not interrupted when learning takes place because it is disconnected…..‖ [participant 6] by providing teaching and learning media, our participants expected that the media can be used to maintain active learning teaching and student projects as media could provide a useful platform for teaching during the pandemic such as cases, cooperative learning, problem solving, and interactive lecture demonstrations. our participants had worked hard to anticipate what would hurdle their students‘ learning. managing inhibiting factors for online learning at the postgraduate study programs our participants commented that they had to manage the barriers of online learning. they felt that the online learning might create a sense of isolation as every student learns in his or her own way. also, online learning needs students‘ self-discipline otherwise, it would not happen. our participants also commented that additional training for lecturers is required to anticipate technical issues. ―we have to take care everything during the online learning. lecturers and students have to be reminded that they classes in specific time. the online learning produces many problems such as students‘ isolation, lecturers‘ lack of technology.‖ [participant 4] ―you know, it is not easy to manage lecturers and students during the online learning, some lecturers are able to use online learning, and some are not. it happens to students as well.‖ [participant 2] additionally, our participants commented that they had to manage such as cost and access to the internet, administrative issues, social interactions, academic skills, learner motivation, time and technical problems. "several inhibiting factors in online learning include (1) difficulties or obstacles related to online learning infrastructure such as poor and less modern connections or sophisticated mobile phones or laptops, (2) many senior lecturers who are less familiar with online learning, (3) limited online learning resources in indonesian, (4) there are still many lecturers who have difficulty adapting curriculum content to irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 554 online learning, (5) seriousness of student involvement in online learning is still questionable, (6) the final assessment process is still not uniform among lecturers.‖ [participant 1] however, although all participants were challenged by inhibiting factors in online learning, none of them complained about the teaching and learning processes in their study programs. instead, they were able to manage the inhibiting issues and tried to find the ways out. evaluating teaching and learning processes: “assessing its achievements and improving upon its effectiveness” our participants expressed that they evaluated the teaching and learning processes. the purposes of the evaluation are to look at objectives, learning experiences, learner assessment, and the relationship among the three. they commented that evaluation was important to look at the effectiveness of teaching, teaching strategies, methods, and techniques during the pandemic. it provided them with feedback for improving their services for lecturers and students as they did not know when the pandemic would end. evaluation of teaching and learning processes during the pandemic involved gathering evidence from students and lecturers for improving the effectiveness of the teaching-learning process. ―evaluations are carried out at the end of online learning through website, email, or there are also through interviews. we asked students and lecturers. we evaluate the processes to asses our achievement and improve the effectiveness.‖ [participant 3] ―for the evaluation of online learning, it is again submitted to the lecturer in question.‖ we ask about students‘ achievement and the effectiveness.‖[participant 7] our participants did the evaluation to help to assess the achievement and to improve upon its effectiveness. for our participants, the improvement related to courses/curricula, texts, and teaching materials is important to do during the pandemic. ―evaluation plays an important role in the teaching-learning processes during the pandemic. it helps us, lecturers, and students to improve teaching and learning and the most important thing is that it is an unceasing process and a periodic exercise.‖ [participant 4] for our participants, during the pandemic how much every student has succeeded in his/her goals can only be concluded through an evaluation as there is a close association between evaluation and learning goals. discussion irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 555 the covid-19 pandemic has not ended at national borders. it has influenced people irrespective of their nationality and level of education. for education, leaders should find out the ways out for keeping students have a quality education. the purposes of this research was to find out the leadership strategies and policies of the heads of the postgraduate study programs and to look at the entire cycle in the learning process by looking at the implementation and evaluation of the goals of online learning. our findings indicated that participants in this study were challenged by the rapid, unpredictable and 'forced' transition from face-to-face teaching to distance or online teaching. however, our participants managed to anticipate the sources of the problems in online teaching and learning by changing the learning system, creating whatshapp groups, providing teaching and learning media, and managing inhibiting factors for online learning at the postgraduate study programs. one of the interesting findings in our study was that our participants changed the learning system from face to face to ―total online learning‖ which resulted in many emerging issues such as the unfamiliarity of lecturers with using platforms (e.g., zoom, google meet). in the words of carrillo and flores (2020), adedoyin and soykan (2020), mahdy (2020), almendingen, morseth, gjølstad, brevik, and tørris (2021), there is the need for a comprehensive assessment of the online education that mixes technology to support teaching and learning during the pandemic. our findings also indicated that participants managed inhibiting factors for online learning such as cost and access to the internet, administrative issues, social interactions, academic skills, learner motivation, time and technical problems. our findings are in line with what zalat, hamed, and bolbol (2021) found in their study that the highest obstacles to online learning were insufficient/ unstable internet connectivity, inadequate computer labs, lack of computers/ laptops, and technical problems. additionally, engzell, frey, and verhagen (2021) found that students made little or no progress while learning from home, suggesting that online learning during the pandemic has influenced students‘ achievement, particularly in countries with weaker infrastructure. our findings also suggested that as our participants started understanding the situations and conditions of teaching and learning processes during the pandemic, the barriers did not hinder them from continuing the learning processes. the findings of our study shed light on our understanding of the leadership strategies and policies of the heads of the postgraduate study programs in dealing teaching and learning processes during the pandemic. our findings are important to give clear information that although the pandemic has affected education harmfully, with classes and assessments being delayed or changed into the online ones due to the lockdown, our participants with their leadership strategies and policies had managed to keep teaching and learning processes happening during the pandemic. northouse (2018) state that strong leadership strategies are important during the crises time to lead the organization to reach the common goals. our findings also indicated that participants in this study even evaluated the processes in order to prepare what would happen in the future as the covid-19 pandemic still jeopardizes the academic calendars. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 556 implications for education policies and programs can be drawn from the findings of our study. for example, as the end of the pandemic is not certain yet, the government and policy makers should anticipate the new and future challenges for online learning. for example, the connectivity and internet should become a priority for the government to deal with as for remote areas; students still struggle to have the connectivity and internet. also, the sense of isolations for students has become a new issue in education during the pandemic, central and local governments should work to get with local universities to provide students with programs that can reduce their isolated feelings such as online working groups or visiting students in remote areas who cannot go anywhere. the isolated students will not always turn to their lecturers and most likely will wait for lecturers to initiate communication. our findings should be reflected in the sight of some restrictions. first of all, our participants may not be representative of all heads of postgraduate programs in indonesia. there may be dissimilarities between the experiences faced by all heads of postgraduate programs in different programs and institutions during the pandemic. generalizability of our findings to other heads of postgraduate programs is warned. future studies may take account of a larger sample of heads of postgraduate programs from different universities in indonesia, which may provide diverse perspectives. secondly, this study was limited to 7 heads of postgraduate programs at one public university in jambi, lecturers and students were excluded from this study, so in future research could investigate them. also, other researchers may replicate and extend our study to heads of undergraduate programs. conclusion using a qualitative case study, this study adds to the body of knowledge on the educational leadership strategies and policies of the heads of the postgraduate study programs and looking at the entire cycle in the learning process by looking at the implementation and educational evaluation of the goals of online learning during the pandemic, including to the causes and covid-19: the rapid, unpredictable and 'forced' transition from face-to-face teaching to distance or online teaching, leadership strategies and policies in online learning, and evaluating teaching and learning processes: ―assessing its achievements and improving upon its effectiveness.‖ findings offer insights into what 7 heads of postgraduate programs at one public university in jambi experienced during the pandemic online learning. although findings indicated that participants were challenged by various inhibiting barriers such as cost and access to the internet, administrative issues, social interactions, academic skills, learner motivation, time and technical problems for online learning, participants in this study managed to deal with the barriers as education all over the world faced the same issues, particularly in developing countries. disclosure statement no potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors. acknowledgments irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 557 we would like to thanks all participants of this study for their willingness to freely share their precious experiences and insights with us. references adedoyin, o. b., & soykan, e. 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(2018). online learning: adoption, continuance, and learning outcome—a review of literature. international journal of information management, 43, 1-14. prasojo, l. d., mukminin, a., habibi, a., hendra, r., & iqroni, d. (2019). building quality education through integrating ict in schools: teachers‘ attitudes, perception, and barriers. quality access to success, 20(172), 45-50. prasojo, l. d., habibi, a., yaakob, m. f. m., mukminin, a., haswindy, s., & sofwan, m. (2019). an explanatory sequential study on indonesian principals' perceptions on ict integration barriers. electronic journal of e-learning, 17(1), 1-10. https://www.socialpublishersfoundation.org/ https://nasional.kompas.com/read/2020 https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2020.3028474 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 559 prasojo, l. d., mukminin, a., habibi, a., marzulina, l., sirozi, m., & harto, k. (2018). learning to teach in a digital age: ict integration and efl student teachers' teaching practices. teaching english with technology, 18(3), 18-32. who. (2020). indonesia situation. jakarta: who. zalat, m.m., hamed, m.s.,& bolbol, s.a. (2021). the experiences, challenges, and acceptance of e-learning as a tool for teaching during the covid-19 pandemic among university medical staff. plos one, 16(3), e0248758. zhang, d., zhou, l., briggs, r., & nunamaker, j. (2006). instructional video in e-learning: assessing the impact of interactive video on learning effectiveness. information & management,43(1), 15-27. zhang, w., y. wang, l. yang, and c. h. wang. (2020). suspending classes without stopping learning: china‘s education emergency management policy in the covid-10 outbreak.‖ journal of risk and financial management, 13 (58), 1–6. biographical notes marzul hidayat is an assistant professor at faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, jambi, indonesia. he obtained his doctoral degree in the department of educational leadership and policy studies, florida state university, the usa with a specialization on sociocultural and international educational development studies. email: mhiday2012@gmail.com rudi hartono is a student of master‘s program in educational management, universitas jambi, indonesia. mailto:mhiday2012@gmail.com this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 323 looking at the self-innovation and learning models for the internship program students during the covid-19 pandemic: a qualitative study sofyan 1* and robin pratama 2 abstract this research explored the impact of the covid 19 pandemic on the ability of self-innovation and adjustment of learning models for students. it focused on the internship program at one education program, in a public university in jambi. based on the research problems and objectives, this research used a generic qualitative approach. it explored the structure of consciousness as experienced from the first-person point of view. the central system of an experience is its intentionality, which is directed at something because it is an experience or about some object. an experience is required for an object based on its content or meaning (representing the object) along with the appropriate enabling conditions. keywords covid-19, learning model, self-innovation, student internship article history received 7 february 2022 accepted 9 november 2022 how to cite sofyan, s., & pratama, r. (2022). looking at the self-innovation and learning models for the internship program students during the covid-19 pandemic: a qualitative study. indonesian research journal in education |irje|, 6(2), 323–340. https://doi.org/10.22437/irje .v6i2.17182 *1 faculty member, universitas jambi, indonesia; corresponding author; sofyanzaibaski68@gmail.com 2 faculty member, universitas jambi, indonesia irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 324 introduction one of the policies imposed by the government in providing education during the covid-19 pandemic is to close schools and campuses temporarily. learning activities originally carried out face-to-face in schools have been replaced online distance learning methods from home. the impact of innovation during the covid-19 pandemic is still considered to cause several problems. students are at home, while student internships require face-to-face meetings at school. it is an obstacle and a challenge for students in developing distance learning innovations based on online applications. meanwhile, for parents, students, and lecturers who are unfamiliar with distance learning, the continuity of learning from home creates a new learning environment. new problems related to the implementation of learning emerged, such as limited internet networks, limited mastery of technology, and parents’ limitations in guiding their children due to limited knowledge. in addition, the interactive nature of distance learning is often not as good as face-to-face learning. another problem is that students are hard to control. the attendance rate tends to decrease due to various factors, including discipline and control from a less-than-ideal environment (crawford et al., 2020). whereas in the learning process in the classroom, five important components constitute a unified learning environment: objectives, educators, students, materials, and evaluation. educators or lecturers are active promoters of capable learning in these five components. however, if it can encourage students to achieve the specified learning objectives, then it is effective. some problems in the learning process can be overcome, and new solutions can be generated by applying the importance of innovative learning strategies that can improve students’ creative skills. the changes, especially in significant learning activities during the covid-19 pandemic, brought new issues to the learning paradigm. this change requires a rapid and high level of adaptation to bring about these changes more than before. creativity, innovation, communication, and collaboration are deep considerations that can bring about change for the better. learning innovation aims to assist lecturers and students in implementing a quality learning process to achieve effective learning objectives. therefore, it is necessary to explore student learning innovation in an internship program at the education administration study program during the covid-19 pandemic based on a simple description, namely, which learning innovations are effective and efficient during the covid-19 pandemic. however, some limitations often occur to university students, for example, low student response and resources and socially disadvantaged students where limited access to technology and the internet impacts on organizational responsiveness or the limited ability of students to engage in online environments (apresian, 2020). many students question whether higher education is prepared for the coming era of digital learning (houlden & veletsianos, 2020). this research explored the impact of the pandemic on the ability of self-innovation and adjustment of learning models among students. additionally, this research focused on the internship program at one education program, in a public university in jambi. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 325 literature review the concept of innovation in learning in general, innovation is the introduction of new things or discoveries that differ from existing or previously known ideas, procedures, methods, and tools. rogers (1995) defined innovation as an idea, practice, or object that is realized and accepted as something new by a person or group for adoption. meanwhile, sanjaya (2010) defined learning innovation as an idea or particular actions in the curriculum and learning that are considered new to solve educational problems. in addition, innovation in the world of education and learning is crucial for students to create opportunities for themselves, avoid useless activities, and, in the end, can support themselves and their families. innovation in education and learning provides young people with solutions to get out of the big problems they face. in the end, students can complete their education, acquire skills, and transform their community into something that counts. for a prospective teacher in teaching training or apprenticeship, self-innovation development needs to be done. then what is meant by self-innovation? hermans (1999) argued that self-innovation is a condition in which a person accepts change and desires to see it. by being innovative, a person will open up hidden parts of himself. he can also project a positive part of himself onto the other world. only in this way, a person can become a model for others. self-innovation is not enough; just wishful thinking. but it must be realized in real work so that other people can see the impact of these new thoughts and actions that can give positive things to others. innovation is closely related to change. making changes for the better in learning to improve the quality of learning is essential. however, not all changes are easy to implement and accept by the learning community. rogers (1995) argued that accepting a change is not always easy. he further said that convincing the new idea is not easy, even as pointless. thus, innovators and early adopters are agents who must do so first. research conducted by rogers (1995) showed that there was a large gap between innovators (2.5%) and early adopters (early adapters) 13.5%, with the early majority (early majority) 34%, late majority (late majority), 34% who still have to think before making changes. meanwhile, the laggards group is 16 % or does not accept or even does not care about renewal. the results of rogers (1995) proved that the highest percentage of the group is in receiving renewal after socialization and introductions about the existence of a renewal concept. based on a report from the global innovation index 2020, indonesia ranked 85 with a score of 26.49 from 131 countries measured by the level of innovation (soumitra, lanvin, & wusch-vincent, 2020). this position is far behind several asean countries’ rankings, such as singapore, ranked 8 (56.61), malaysia ranked 33 (42.42), vietnam ranked 42 (37.12), and thailand ranked 44 (36.68), and the philippines, ranked 50 (35, 19). this position shows that level of innovation in indonesia still needs to be improved if it does not want to lag further behind other countries in the region or developed countries. in respond to the low level of innovation in indonesia, including learning terms, there are at least five things educators need to do in the 21 st century, so the quality of irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 326 learning will be better. these five things are the basis for making innovations in the classroom. first, provide the best learning experience with technical support for complete learning acquisition. be fully aware that the world is entering the digital revolution era. whether we like it or not, the shift toward digital technology support must be addressed positively. as agents of change, educators must be able to adapt and collaborate with digital changes in implementing them in the learning system. if not, educators will be crushed in the digital revolution and change. second, teaching is based on assertive leadership. in the classroom, the teacher acts as a leader (the person who drives the direction of education). educators must be able to determine how and what learning is carried out. when students show symptoms of not achieving learning goals, educators, as practitioners and learning experts, must immediately turn the control of the class towards the expected goals. learning materials do not have to be delivered widely. however, it is delivered in content that is designed following the grasping power and competence of the students, so they do not feel stressed or chased by targets but learn thoroughly (mastery learning). fourth, the teacher provides a meaningful learning experience for students’ lives. future leaders still on their way to power have had ambitions since they were in school. educators optimize these ideas through the provision of education in the form of ethical teachings, values, norms, morals, and the demands of life. fifth, educators invite students to be open-minded. students are equipped with the power of thinking (fixed-minded), much different from those who have developing-minded. one of the characteristics of an open-minded is a developing mind. namely, flexibly adjust and change negative paradigms about students and teaching. fixed-minded is the opposite way of thinking. how can students in the class exceed the indicators of achieving a good level of competence if they come from a group that gives up quickly? fixed-minded toward students should be replaced with believing that every student can do it. however, they require a different time, approach, and way of learning. therefore, it is necessary to have self-innovation from educators and students. learning model in the time of covid -19 the covid-19 pandemic has brought about fundamental changes in the system and implementation of learning in education units and universities. all individuals involved in education and learning are forced to make massive changes. theories of online learning, blended learning, hybrid learning, and so on that have been used as study material suddenly have to be implemented 100% and annul the research conclusions that have been guided so far. facts speak differently. the covid-19 pandemic has changed everything. this radical change in the learning system during the covid-19 emergency requires learning models that facilitate authentic learning outcomes. online meetings, technological stuttering, lack of innovation to make changes, and slow adaptation often come to the surface as complaints, obstacles, and limitations in implementing learning during the covid-19 period. the learning model is one of the essential components in implementing learning in addition to other components. the selection of appropriate, innovative learning models, facilitating authentic, measurable learning outcomes, and leading students to have particular irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 327 competencies during the covid-19 period is interesting to develop. therefore, in the current situation, the selection of learning models is an important thing to do. project-based learning (pjbl) is a product-oriented learning model. it is a model that involves students working on a project in the learning process of particular competencies. learning with the pjbl model allows students to develop their creativity in designing and creating projects to solve problems in learning. learning with the pjbl model is carried out to deepen the knowledge and skills obtained by creating works or projects related to teaching materials and competencies expected to be possessed by students. goodman and stivers (2010) defined project based learning (pjbl) as a teaching model built on learning activities and fundamental tasks that challenge students in everyday life to solve in groups. hasnawati (2015) explained that a learning model uses projects to achieve attitude, knowledge, and skill competencies as a learning process activity. the emphasis on learning lies in student activities to produce products by applying the skills of researching, analyzing, creating, and presenting learning products based on real experiences. the product in question is the result of a project in the form of designs, schemes, written works, works of art, technological/craft works, and values. the pjbl model allows students to work together independently or in groups in constructing actual products. mihardi et al. (2013) also expressed that learning using the pjbl model directs students to create a project. as a result of project work, students will independently build their knowledge, improve problem-solving, and develop thinking and communication skills. in other words, project-based learning is a learning model that uses problems as the first step in collecting and integrating new knowledge based on experience in real activities. it is designed to be used in complex problems that students must investigate and understand. global school net (2000) reported the results of the auto desk foundation’s research on the characteristics of project-based learning with the following features: (a) students make decisions about a framework, (b) there are problems or challenges posed to students, (c) students design processes to determine solutions on the problems or challenges posed, (d) students are collaboratively responsible for accessing and managing information to solve problems, (e) the evaluation process is carried out continuously, (f) students periodically reflect on the activities that have been carried out, (g) the final product of the learning activity will be evaluated qualitatively, and (h) the learning situation is very tolerant of errors and changes. based on these findings, the pjbl model was developed based on the constructivism philosophy in learning. constructivism creates a learning atmosphere that requires students to construct their knowledge (bada & olusegun, 2015). the pjbl model is a learning model that allows students to plan learning activities, carry out collaborative projects, and produce work products that can be presented to others. in connection with this definition, project-based learning is a learning model that uses problems as the first step in collecting and integrating new knowledge based on experience in actual activities. in other words, learning involves students directly in the learning process through learning activities to work on and complete a particular project. although the pjbl model can be said to be an old model, this model has many advantages over other learning models, so it is widely used and continues to be developed. one of these advantages is that the pjbl model is considered an irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 328 excellent learning model for developing various basic skills that students must possess, including thinking, decision-making, creativity, and problem-solving abilities. at the same time is seen as adequate for developing self-confidence and student self-management. challenges of the internship program in the time of covid-19 entering the second year of learning during the covid-19 pandemic provides an extraordinary experience for teachers, lecturers, students, parents, and policymakers. implementing learning during the covid-19 period, which has lasted more than a year, presents challenges for educators and students. the pandemic has eliminated the face-to-face learning process directly in the classroom and replaced it with an online distance learning process through internet access. this new adaptation makes educators have to fight extra hard to deliver learning materials, so students can absorb learning material to the maximum. the new normal situation during the covid-19 period also provides unique challenges for prospective student teacher who will do internships or teaching practices. from initial discussions with students who have done internships during the pandemic and the research carried out, the heaviest challenge in implementing teaching practices for student-teacher candidates is learning that tends to be suboptimal. learning materials and delivery, usually delivered by direct interaction in class, cannot be done during this pandemic. like it or not, learning is now done virtually. of course, the challenges faced are non-learning problems, such as complex networks, mastery of unfamiliar learning application, and the unequal ability of students and parents at home as companions to the absence of devices that students and parents can use. student-teacher candidates who have innovations in mastering multimedia face these challenges by developing learning video technology. learning is packaged properly in the form of messages in learning videos. in this context, student-teacher candidates must innovate and be creative in carrying out the distance learning process with all its challenges. developing videos is not as imagined, just recording audio and visuals, but must follow the learning principles. nevertheless, through their experience, student-teacher candidates are challenged to learn and work collaboratively. both colleagues and supervisors must find the right learning design for distance learning. it includes selecting learning models, learning materials, learning media, and ways to evaluate learning outcomes. methodology this research used a generic qualitative design, focusing on similar life experiences in certain groups. this research focused on the innovation and application of learning models carried out by internship program students during the covid-19 pandemic. we explored the structure of consciousness as experienced from the first-person point of view. data collection this research was carried out at the first degree (s1) of one education program, in a public university in jambi, in odd semester specifically for the internship program. the research period is from july-september 2021. the subjects and participants of this research irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 329 were students who contracted internship courses totaling 62 people who were selected using the purposeful convenience sampling approach. the selection of research participants was based on the fact that the researchers had access to participants. data analysis in processing interview transcript data, researchers used the nvivo 12 pro application. nvivo is a software program used for qualitative and mixed methods research. specifically, to analyze the unstructured text, audio, video, and image data, including (but not limited to) interviews, focus groups, surveys, social media, and journal articles. qsr international manufactures nvivo. the reasons and rationale for using nvivo are: (1) it can analyze and organize unstructured text, audio, video, or image data with deeper insights and more robust analysis; (2) it can playback capabilities for audio and video files, so interviews can be easily transcribed on nvivo; (3) it can retrieve social media data from facebook, twitter, and linkedin using plug-ins ncapture browser ; (4) import notes and captures from evernote great for field research, (5) import citations from endnote, mendeley, zotero, or other bibliography management software great for literature review. furthermore, the data analysis in this research started with the data transcription and ended with the presentation of the data. trustworthiness to establish the trustworthiness of the findings and interpretations, we had some measures (creswell, 2014). member checking and reflexivity were conducted to support the data trustworthiness. after the transcription, the transcription was returned to the participants for confirmation of what they said is right, member checking. through reflection, more self-aware to control the biases was established. the names of the participants were hidden fof confidentiality reasons. findings this research is generic qualitative research with a approach. this current study was experienced by a group of students during an internship in the education administration study program. from the results of the interview transcripts, researchers processed qualitative data using the nvivo 12 pro application for the following reasons: (1) nvivo allows researchers to work effectively with various types of qualitative data, and (2) nvivo provides an organized and structured analysis approach, (3) nvivo makes subgroup analysis easier, (4) nvivo helps writers become more efficient. research shows that various essential things related to the covid-19require students to innovate in the internship practice process in their respective places. to make it easier to describe the research results, the researchers divided them into several themes and coding that found new sub-themes that were closely related. the findings through the nvivo application and the new themes originating from the coding process are explained in the table below: irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 330 table 1. the findings through the nvivo application and the new themes new themes and sub-themes files (number of informants) references (number of descriptions that appear) characteristics of the innovations carried out 1 1 relative advantage 4 7 compatible 4 6 complexity 3 5 observability 4 6 trialability 3 6 resistance 1 1 low student motivation 4 9 regulations prohibiting face-to-face activities 4 9 limited internet facilities and understanding of e-learning 4 6 innovations made during the pandemic 1 1 contextual teaching learning (ctl) 4 13 building a culture of sharing session 4 11 creating school literacy facilities 2 5 recommendations and suggestions 1 1 improving ict literacy comprehension 4 12 in addition, nvivo has many advantages in processing qualitative data. first, it is in terms of literature material to be processed. one that is quite popular is to bring up the most words that appear on the transcript of the inputted data. the findings of this research produce word frequency which is beneficial for seeing words that often appear from all informants. innovation features according to rogers (1995), innovation is an idea, practice, or object considered or felt new by an individual or group. it depends on how the individual or group feels about the idea, practice, or object. according to kuczmarski (2003), innovation is a process or result of developing and utilizing knowledge and skills (including technology). experience in creating or improving new products (goods or services), processes, or systems, which significantly provide a significant value (especially economically and socially). from the two views before, innovation is a process of spreading absorption of new ideas or things to change a society that occurs continuously from one place to another, from one period to another—following from one particular field to another to a group of social system members. according to rogers (1995), the primary purpose of innovation is its adoption (science, technology, community development field) by members of a particular social irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 331 system. the social system can be from individuals, informal groups, and organizations to the community. acceptance or rejection of innovation is a decision made by a person or individual in accepting an innovation. rogers (1995) also stated that the innovation decision-making process is a mental process in which a person or individual passes from first knowledge of innovation by forming an attitude towards the innovation to deciding to reject or accept, implementing new ideas, and confirming the innovation-decision. characteristics of innovation are the nature of the diffusion of innovation, where they determine the speed of an innovation process. rogers (1995) suggests that there are five characteristics of innovation, namely: relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability or liability (can be tested), and observability (can be observed). four informants stated that the innovations carried out in the apprenticeship process had met the characteristics of innovation diffusion by rogers (1995). one of the informants reflected, reference 1 3.51% coverage ―making a literacy tree in the classroom, the innovation came from the team in designing english 2, and the other one from jogja became an idea, and the innovation came from a team agreement that is beneficial for schools.‖ reference 2 1.91% coverage ―the culture of reading in the school environment can increase knowledge by reading the literacy tree that people accept.‖ reference 3 4.49% coverage ―we try it with children or younger siblings who read or come to school. they read with the facilitation of the teacher throughout the class. children don’t just take their assignments to school. they make literacy trees and read and explain them. as a result, the class becomes more colorful and varied.‖ innovations made during a pandemic the pandemic encourages innovation breakthroughs by thinking more creatively and productively to survive and rise from adversity. the critical thinking and creativity processes echoed by the 4.0 revolution era are essentially towards innovation. the pandemic requires online learning to be able to adapt and continue to innovate as the key to the sustainability of educational institutions. educational innovation is a way to prevent the nation’s children who do not experience learning loss and spikes in covid-19 cases in education clusters. innovation is generally successful in introducing a new thing or method (brewer & tierney, 2012). in education, it aims to increase productivity and efficiency in the learning process and improve the quality of learning through various innovations in pedagogical theory, methodological approaches, teaching techniques, learning tools, learning processes, and institutional structures (serdyukov, 2017). the research results found that the innovations made by the education administration study program internship program had gone through a process of critical thinking and creativity as a support for improving learning outcomes during a pandemic. it is based on the statement of informant one that: irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 332 reference 3 2, 37% coverage ―we teach 5 th graders as a simulation and what is done at the internship location. then try it continuously at the teaching campus internship location to be more specific.‖ reference 2 1.86% coverage ―to change the mindset of the children to be able to use the media not only for games but also to market products made by their parents.‖ additionally, informant two gave a statement by using the following technology: reference 3 1.53% coverage ―we use youtube as a media source, sir, there are already videos on youtube, so i downloaded a video related to the basic competence or the topic you chose.‖ reference 2 3.51% coverage ―make a literacy tree in the classroom from which innovation emerged from the team, one team made english 2, and the other from jogja became an idea, and the innovation came from the team’s agreement that it would benefit the school‖. reference 1 2.07% coverage ―teachers working group in one school involves collaboration with various schools and various teachers from various schools but still the teacher working group.‖ also, informant three gave the following statement: reference 1 2.34% coverage ―the innovations are adjusting to existing needs and adapting to the circumstances so that from existing problems or challenges emerge ideas that can overcome these challenges.‖ reference 2 1.91% coverage ―create social media accounts for the marketing. but it becomes another obstacle to those who market it, sir, because the one who owned it couldn’t use the internet earlier‖. reference 3 2.07% coverage ―adaptation of technology brings the introduction not only have to go around the village like selling crackers, but it turns out that the introduction can take advantage of online technology.‖ moreover, informant four provided a statement of innovation by using a contextual model in internship activities as follows, irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 333 reference 1 1.00% coverage innovation applies several learning techniques, such as contextual learning techniques. the picture above shows that 4 of the informants have made innovations. if it is observed, the innovations carried out are mainly non-physical, namely in the form of concepts, views, and procedures. it can be seen from the innovative behavior carried out by the informants in implementing a culture of sharing (sharing session) and the application of learning with contextual principles (contextual teaching and learning). meanwhile, physical innovations such as making literacy trees as fewer informants carried out learning media. barriers to innovation innovation in education is often associated with the use of technology and the internet to access materials and conduct learning interactions, such as through websites, learning management systems, mobile applications, and social media. however, in reality, often innovative practices in education are limited to technology media and digital channels. in some contexts, when technology tools and networks are inadequate, and the capacity of teachers and parents is limited in optimizing digital technology, it seems that innovation practices must stop. in its essence, innovation is an effort to improve quality and efficiency through various innovations. obstacles should be anticipated if stakeholders can master education problems during the covid-19 period. in the findings of this research, informant one gave a statement, namely, reference 1 2.87% coverage ―i’m having a bit of a problem because of the government regulations that suggest students study online, so it’s a little difficult for me to teach students‖. reference 2 3.73% coverage ―yes, there is only one problem, maybe because the presence of students is actually different because the area is far away, so face-to-face meetings may only be limited to the duration of the study being not full, only half a day or maybe a quarter of a day‖. reference 2 2.27% coverage ―students who are given assignments online are mostly not purely their own results; most of them are even 100% done by their families‖. informant 2 gave the following statement: reference 1 1.57% coverage ―even the assessment made can be seen from the aspect of attitude now can not be monitored and seen directly‖. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 334 reference 2 4.77% coverage ―due to the low interest in reading, there are even high-class students who don’t understand letters, so the members of the teaching campus team and i made a breakthrough in the form of a gazebo or reading hut with the play method so that it didn’t just use the lecture method. however, the challenge of the reading gazebo from the teacher who wants to complete the basic competencies so that they cannot maximize the use of this reading gazebo‖. online learning during the covid-19 pandemic presents challenges and obstacles to developing innovation. the four informants who revealed barriers to innovation when conducting learning internships all experienced them due to the limited internet network and ability to use it. students did not attend school because of online learning and low motivation to learn. of course, these three phenomena were obstacles to developing student internship innovation. innovation cannot be developed optimally because not all teachers and students can master technology, not to mention the limitations of networks and technological tools. the government’s policy of eliminating learning in schools makes interactions between interns unable to try out the innovations that have been designed. in the end, learning from home causes low student motivation to learn. recommendations and suggestions innovation in education needs to be understood and carried out not only in the order of ways through the use of technology and digitalization but also needs to start from the order of mindset and behavior. innovation needs to be seen as an effort to develop the ability to see and do things from a different, critical, creative, attractive, and practical perspective. in this case, creativity is an essential factor for teachers and principals as well as parents or caregivers in generating enthusiasm and the effectiveness of the teaching and learning process through various ways, starting from what is available around students. creativity can be developed from a mindset that does not focus on challenges but on various opportunities, no matter how small. with creativity, teachers and parents can assist children in creating a supportive learning system to increase concentration and manage distraction, for example, by creating a regular study schedule, a supportive room arrangement, and doing various icebreakers and simple games when children get tired and bored of studying. the recommendations given by the four informants are as follows, informant one reference 1 4.96% coverage ―for the internship program to continue to run effectively during the covid-19 period, the distribution of internship places is adjusted to the student’s domicile for those outside jambi city can carry out online internships to reduce the impact of the pandemic, then between assistant lecturers and apprentices must improve irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 335 communication and often share stories about what happened at the internship location, either obstacles or information obtained‖. reference 1 6.39% coverage ―in my opinion, the team of teachers and students should work together or discuss what methods are effective to be applied, and we also have to know the background of students so that we can match the learning methods that will be carried out, such as zooming, creating groups on the internet. whatsapp, make learning videos that can help students and give assignments that can hone the child’s abilities‖. informant two, reference 2 0.83% coverage ―adaptation of learning technology and literacy like that.‖ reference 1 0.94% coverage …….then the problem of teachers who stutter in technology is due to the age factor, so they must be able to master educational technology……. reference 3 4.96% coverage ……..in order for the internship program to continue to run effectively during the covid-19 period, the distribution of internship places is adjusted to the student’s domicile, for those outside jambi city can carry out online internships, in order to reduce the impact of the pandemic, then between assistant lecturers and apprentices must improve communication and often share stories about what happened at the internship location, either obstacles or information obtained………. informant three reference 4 1.91% coverage ―create a social media account for the study. but it becomes an obstacle again that those who use it do not have sufficient skills because of low mastery of technology and are not familiar with internet-based learning.‖ reference 5 2.07% coverage ―the adaptation of socialization technology does not only have to go around but can be disseminated or disseminated using internet technology through social media networks.‖ irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 336 informant four reference 1 2.41% coverage ―unfavorable environmental situations such as limited internet access and tools that support innovation such as lack of book sources, lack of libraries and other adequate tools.‖ the picture above shows the informants’ views that the dissemination of innovations that interns have carried out needs to be improved. the improvement of learning technology competence is carried out by understanding digital literacy. increasing digital literacy for teachers is vital given the current distribution pattern and learning services that use and rely more on technology. in addition, digital literacy does not only provide benefits in terms of skills, but it also provides an understanding of more varied and broad learning resources. the concept map generated from this research can be described as follows. figure 1. the concept map discussion the covid-19 pandemic has closed almost all campuses since mid-march 2020. it is the first time that campuses have faced uncertainty. this condition makes campus people think hard to be able to adapt to uncertainty. students are also required to adjust to a new lecture style, namely online lectures. they are challenged to learn more about their innovation for adaptation, and they are expected to come up with new innovative ideas that • low student learning motivation • regulations prohibiting face-toface activities • limited internet and e-learning • improving ict literacy comprehension • relative advantage • compatible • complexity • observability • trialability • contextual teaching learning (ctl) • building a culture of sharing session • creating school literacy facilities innovations made during the pandemic characteristi cs of the innovations carried out resistance: recommendations and suggestions self-innovation irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 337 provide solutions, both innovations for adaptation and innovation and adaptation to changes in healthy living behavior that must be applied in everyday life. in times like these, students are tough learners to respond to any new uncertainties and come up with various solutions, creativity, and innovation that are much needed by the community. there is no need to produce great masterpieces that can bring about big changes. however, it is a simply creative and innovative work that can inspire and is needed by many people. with this creativity and innovation, beneficial students to others will be realized. falah (2021) and sumantyo (2020) widely studied the results of research on self-innovation and student internship models. these findings are in line with this research which resulted in innovations carried out during the pandemic by students, namely contextual teaching learning (ctl), building a culture of sharing sessions, and creating school literacy facilities. the relevance of these findings is that in today’s technological developments, interns are expected to use it as an opportunity to understand how to manage digital content properly, especially for teachers who do not understand technology at all because the adaptation pattern seems so fast and sudden. internship students are required to take advantage of technology as an opportunity to develop education in terms of models, media, strategies, and evaluation and assessment of learning. they can socialize the use of ict during online learning at home. there are several opportunities that teachers and stakeholders can take during the covid-19 pandemic, including 1) easy access to sharing information online, 2) faster working conditions, and 3) the creation of webinar series. however, apart from these opportunities, several challenges must be faced together, such as 1) how to deal with students (the coping mechanism of the student), 2)availability of gadgets and other relevant resources, and 3) online learning from home has not been implemented and regulated perfectly (not perfectly orchestrated as of the moment) (azkiya & syarif, 2021). thus, to face this challenge, teachers must be able to adapt and develop their abilities in carrying out online learning by utilizing every available source and technology so that they are familiar with and easy to realize even better education with or without covid-19. quality education is synonymous with learning that can provide space and encouragement for students to continue to express and appreciate learning needs according to their talents, interests in growth and development, and the environmental conditions of the students themselves. using technology as a medium of learning during covid-19 is one way for students to keep learning (syarifudin, 2020). the use of technology as a learning medium requires teachers and students to move in a more advanced direction (sudarsana et al., 2020). on the other hand, using technology to implement teaching and learning activities is very important and beneficial to welcome more effective education in the future. the global covid-19 outbreak has accelerated the use and acceptance of the need for digital learning. nevertheless, the traditional learning model, in this case, face-to-face, is still essential to implement, especially for practical activities in the laboratory, such as learning. in the future, online assessments will be questioned on validity and fairness. in this regard, the problem of plagiarism and self-responsibility in education and learning must be applied because future education emphasizes content more than learning methods (azkiya & syarif, 2021). one of the models that teachers can use during the covid-19 pandemic is blended learning. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 338 the learning model is a picture or pattern used during the implementation of the learning that will take place (karli, 2015). another opinion stated that the learning model is a framework of systematic procedures for obtaining learning experiences in achieving specific goals (al-tabany, 2017). in this regard, minister of education and culture regulation number 22 of 2016 concerning standards for primary and secondary education processes that: first, to achieve the learning process as stipulated in the 2013 curriculum, it is necessary to apply scientific, technology, engineering, and mathematics (stem)-based approaches and adopt project-based learning model. second, learning is carried out in an integrative and collaborative way between subjects to create critical thinking, creativity, and communicative abilities by applying the project-based learning (pjbl) model. third, teachers guide students to produce works through implemented projects (kemendikbud, 2016). thus, in the end, education will bear students who are strong in terms of mastery of knowledge, have a noble character, and have skills based on the demands of changing times. conclusion policy and innovation are two things that are interrelated and cannot be separated from each other. it is because innovation will provide beneficial new knowledge, while the policy is a concept, guideline, and method that will strengthen the innovation. with empathy from interns who trigger learning innovation efforts carried out by students to achieve internship goals while preventing the spread of covid-19, it is hoped that they can present something new and beneficial for the realization of effective and efficient education. in carrying out technology-based online learning, internship students have experience and new knowledge related to learning technology, especially those who are technology savvy. the hope is that learning innovations during the covid-19 pandemic can be used as opportunities to support the quality of internships in the future and be able to compete globally. future research is expected to be able to in-depth study of student internships in terms of the effectiveness of the internship program, both qualitatively and quantitatively. disclosure statement the authors state that they have no affiliations with or involvement in any organization or entity with any financial or non-financial interest in the subject matter or materials discussed in this paper. references al-tabany, t. i. b. 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(2020). global innovation index 2020: who will finance innovation?. genewa, switzeland: wipo. sudarsana, i. k., lestari, n. g. a. m. y., wijaya, i. k. w. b., krisdayanthi, a., andayani, k. y., trisnadewi, k., ... & aryana, i. m. p. (2020). (covid-9: educational perspective). yayasan kita menulis. sumantyo, fds (2020). higher education in the period and post-covid-19. journal of scientific studies, 1(1), 81-92. syarifudin, a. s. (2020). (implementation of online learning to improve the quality of education as a result of the implementation of social distancing). jurnal pendidikan bahasa dan sastra indonesia metalingua, 5(1), 31-34. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 340 biographical notes dr. sofyan is faculty member at the faculty of education, universitas jambi, indonesia. dr. robin pratama is faculty member at the faculty of education, universitas jambi, indonesia. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 142 emergency education policy: efl undergraduate students’ views on online learning during the covid-19 pandemic eddy haryanto* abstract anchored by sparse investigations on students’ voices regarding online learning from home during the covid-19 pandemic in developing countries context, this study aims to investigate the responses of efl students to the effectiveness of the learning from home policy in an indonesian university. fifteen students of fourth semester studying at english department were recruited. this research employed qualitative design with a case study approach as the methodology. data were collected from semi-structured interview and then analyzed descriptively. the results showed that the students perceived that online learning from home was good policy initiatives. however, they also experienced ineffectiveness regarding the contents of learning that focus more on giving students the assignments than the learning process itself. besides that, the students were not supported by conducive learning environment, enabling them to learn more effectively. students experienced some problems during online learning from home, such as poor internet connection, electrical power disruptions, and day-to-day load expenses for prepaid internet access. the findings suggest that the lecturers should provide the students with appropriate learning instruction for online learning purposes and deliver teaching materials by making use of technology. thus, policy recommendations are discussed in this article. keywords efl, covid-19 pandemic, online learning, learning from home policy * associate professor, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, indonesia; eddy.haryanto@unja.ac.id mailto:eddy.haryanto@unja.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 143 introduction there is a significant change in teaching and learning at universities across the globe during the covid-19 pandemic. a large number of universities around the world offer online classes including indonesia. most universities in indonesia are now implementing distance classes or online classes in response to the spread of the covid-19 pandemic. in addition to learning and teaching, a number of universities in the country have adopted a policy until further notice from the government so that all lecture activities carried out online learning, including midterm and final assignment guidance, theses and dissertation. this decision was taken based on consideration of the current condition of the spread of the covid 19 pandemic at the national level. thus, students and lecturers are asked to conduct teaching and learning activities using online applications such as video conference applications, e-mail, and other online social media during online learning. in other words, most of the teaching activities and communication between lecturers and the students are mediated by digital and electronic media (kosasih, 2019). however, online learning should be able to ensure all students know where they can access the material, ensure learning activities and knowledge transfers should not stop during learning from home. considering the nature of university students who are familiar with the use of technology, the use of technology in learning should be able to offer students a number of learning aids that help them learn more independently (hellystia, 2019). in addition, it is no doubt the online learning from home will make it difficult for a university to navigate teaching and learning activities. meanwhile, students will also have difficulty consulting with the lecturers, especially on a subject considered to require deeper explanation and understanding such as concept theories and methodologies of knowledge in english curriculum. besides, the unequal access and infrastructure of the internet, particularly students who stay in a rural area during the lockdown period where the place is far away from adequate internet facilities, will experience difficulties in catching up with the learning material. apart from the internet facilities and connection issue, not all students have devices that support online learning, such as smartphones or laptops and internet access in their home. theoretically, several factors determine the effectiveness of e-learning, including students’ access to the internet, sources, preparation, and willingness to obtain and learn well from the online environment (tallent-runnels et al., 2006; aydın, 2007). akbari, eghtesad, and simons (2012) and cinkara and bagceci (2013) revealed that students’ attitudes toward e-learning are deep predictors in benefiting from e-learning optimally and influencing the outcomes. furthermore, other eight factors affect the effectiveness of e-learning implementation, such as access, technology exposure and awareness, learning preferences, customs, objectives, aims, lifestyles, and personality (schrum & hong, 2001 in topkaya & erarlans, 2017). on the other hand, tallent-runnels et al. (2006) claimed that the language learning outcome through electronic learning or e-learning is derived from the learners’ efforts and attitudes towards its use. thus, assessing the effectiveness of e-learning depends closely on the effectiveness of its users and how they use it. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 144 since there are limited studies concerning online learning policy from home during the covid-19 pandemic, this study investigates the responses of efl students to the effectiveness of the learning from home policy, the reported problems or challenges to the policy, and the focus on the strategies to optimize efl learning in indonesia. the research questions are as follows: 1) what are efl students’ perspectives toward learning from home policy during the covid-19 pandemic? 2) how are the responses of efl students to the learning effectiveness from home policy during the covid-19 pandemic? 3) what are the reported problems of efl students for the uptake of online learning from home policy? 4) what are the efl students’ suggestions regarding the reported problems on online learning from home policy? literature review learning from home policy the worldwide health crisis, the pandemic of covid-19, has forced approximately 107 countries to close their face-to-face learning modes directly into online home learning. according to world health organization (who) in viner et al. (2020), the closure of schools had an impact on 862 million students worldwide. in the indonesian context, the government of indonesia responses that concerning the increasing spread of corona virus disease (covid-19), the physical and mental health of students, teachers, and all school-level stakeholders is a major consideration in the implementation of educational policies across the globe. in connection with this matter, the minister of education and culture of indonesia issued circular letter number 3 of 2020, “concerning prevention of covid-19 in education units including university, learning at home and online learning from home is the context of preventing the spread of the disease.” however, policies implemented by the indonesian government should consider the readiness of all aspects of education. policies that should prepare but planning management of online itself could carry out properly. home learning policy will have an adverse effect if this policy does not consider the readiness of all stakeholders. readiness in online learning mode should be the government's full attention to the expected results later. although this policy aims to break the chain of spreading of covid 19, the learning implementation policy should consider many aspects such as the effectiveness of learning, technological readiness, psychology, and the ability of students or parents in implementing online policies. e-learning concept the development of technology and the internet has influenced language classrooms so that electronic learning or e-learning significantly occurs in language teaching and learning today. in addition, more sophisticated features of technology brought more variation of language learning and teaching to the students where they access an e-learning material and delve either the audio, visual, or animation all at once (ezza & almudibry, 2018; shyamlee & phil, 2012). however, although e-learning needs more costs for the students, it apparently benefits the students in several aspects comprising of time-efficiency, students-centred irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 145 scheme of language learning, learners’ ease and comfort during the learning, encouraging students to learn, providing different sources and platforms for the students to contact and practice their language learning with other students (mohammadi, ghorbani, & hamidi, 2011). today, the enthusiasm and needs of e-learning have triggered people to take it into a formal level of education (tallent-runnels et al., 2006; gluchmanova, 2015). on the other hand, regardless of a traditional language learning where teacher teaches the students directly in the classroom, also known as face-to-face teaching and learning process, an online system has fundamentally supported its process in which students practice what they have already learned in the classroom with other students through the electronic learning or e-learning. nevertheless, we cannot measure the achievement of a learning process through the rapid development of technology. thus, technology does not define the success of a learning outcome, but the learners and how they use the technology do (zhao, 2003). e-learning readiness models borotis and poulymenakou (2004) define e-learning readiness as the mental or physical readiness of an organization learning experience. according to proffitt (2008), e-learning readiness itself is the degree of readiness that an individual has personal attributes, skills and knowledge that contribute to success in online learning. furthermore, warner, christie, and choy (1998) defined with a-three way online learning readiness, are; 1) face to face education that students prefer as the mode of education, 2) computer-aided communications for learning to utilize the internet as efficacies, 3) independent learning as the students skill to participate. in addition, hung et al. (2010) mentioned that “self-directed learning, learner control, motivation, and online communication self-efficacy and self-efficacy toward learning as readiness for online learning scale. moreover, chapnick (2000) has also developed the e-learning model readiness of an organization with different factors. they are; psychological readiness, sociological readiness, human resources readiness, environmental readiness, financial readiness, technological skill readiness, equipment readiness, and content readiness. e-learning model readiness is designed to simplify obtaining information on the basis needed in implementing and developing e-learning. model e-learning readiness is not only to measure the level of readiness of institutions implementing e-learning. more importantly, it can uncover factors that are still weak and require improvement and factors that are already considered successful in supporting the implementation of e-learning. methodology research design, site, and participants this research used a qualitative design with a case study approach as the methodology and semi-structured interview as the instrument. creswell (2007, p.73) argued that “case study research is a qualitative approach in which the investigator explores a bounded system (a case) or multiple bounded systems (cases) over time, through detailed, irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 146 in-depth data collection.” the sampling procedure was purposeful sampling. the researcher distributed a demographic questionnaire to find out their background information. there were fifteen students of the fourth semester studying in the english department at one public university in jambi, indonesia, as participants. the researcher chooses them as participants because they had enrolled and passed technology and enhanced language learning subject in their department. it assumed that students got involved in this study. they were familiar with all technology applications, including methods, approaches, and theoretical perspectives of using technology in learning a language since they passed technology and enhanced language learning. data collection and analysis the interviews took place in an informal online setting with the participants through video conference. the participants interviewed for about 45 minutes to investigate their perspectives toward the online learning from home policy in terms of the effectiveness of online learning, problems, and suggestions regarding the problems to improve the policy of learning online from home. all interviews were recorded with the consent of the informant and were transcribed by the researcher. several measures took to ensure the trustworthiness of the data collected. to establish trustworthiness, the researcher verified data accuracy, findings, and interpretations (creswell, 2007). the researcher's first thing in conducting the trustworthiness was to give the transcription to the informant that had been interviewed before making sure what participants had said were original. participants’ feedback was one of the other ways of doing trustworthiness. in doing the informant feedback, the researcher needs to share the interpretations of the participant’s point of view with the informant. data reduction is “a form of analysis that sharpens, sorts, focuses, discards, and organizes data in such a way that conclusion can be drawn and verified” (miles & huberman, 1994, p.11). in finding the significant statements, the researcher needed to clarify the words or phrases or sentences that the researcher thought important and relevant to the topic. then it was classified into a theme. johnson and christensen (2008, p. 399) stated that the researcher should be able to describe the fundamental structure of the experience (the essence) of the participants, in other words, that is, “clusters of meanings”. during this process, the researcher organized, grouped, or clustered the significant statements into themes or meaning units, removing overlapping and repetitive data or statements” (creswell, 1998; moustakas, 1994; patton, 1990). thus, in this data analysis based on johnson and christensen (2008), the researcher made a detailed description of the fundamental structure of the informant experience. this process was essential so that they were meaningful and interrelated to each other among categories or themes. findings and discussion the participant’s demographic information was related to their perspectives on the learning from home policy during the covid-19 pandemic. the participants of this research were efl students at an english department at one public university in jambi. they irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 147 were fourth-semester students who enrolled and passed technology and enhanced language learning subject. demographic information background showed eleven female (73.3%) and four male (26.6%) students as participants in this research. only two students (13.3%) had wireless internet at home, and two (13.3%) went out from home to find free wi-fi, whereas there were about eleven participants (73.3%) used prepaid internet provider. five major themes emerged from the interview with the participants. the table below shows themes and sub-themes of the findings. table 1. themes and sub-themes of the interview results themes sub-themes students’ perspective on learning from home policy good policy initiatives efl students’ experiences on the effectiveness of online learning home policy ineffective online learning from home learning only for assignments not conducive learning environment efl students’ problems technological problems (poor internet connection) power electrical disruptions (infrastructure problem) daily load expenses for prepaid internet (financial problem) inadequate content learning problems students’ suggestions to improve online learning effectiveness lecturers’ readiness and adequate content materials infrastructure readiness students’ perspective on learning from home policy the rapid spread of the covid-19 pandemic has changed educational policy across the globe. all education units from kindergarten to university level forced students, teachers, and other stakeholders to stay at home to break the virus chain. referring to the circular of minister of education and culture no. 3 of 2020 concerning prevention of the covid-19 in education units, and number 36962 about teaching and learning activities are also carried out online to prevent the spread of the covid-19. several local governments have already closed schools and universities to anticipate the spread of the covid-19. furthermore, the government emphasizes that the solutions in this situation learning at school or university is replaced by online learning or online class from home. all education units welcomed this learning positively from home policy, including university students as part of the policy. based on the interview results below, university students strongly supported learning from home policy during the covid-19 pandemic. “i think the online learning from home policy during the covid-19 pandemic is good policy initiatives for all of us because we know that the virus is deadly and it is irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 148 happening worldwide. the government has also prepared and recommended learning applications that students can use.” [student a] “in my opinion, this is a good policy during the covid-19 pandemic, because the spread of this virus through the crowd. the only way to stop the transmission is by applying learning from home and avoids the crowd.” [student f]. online learning from home during this pandemic creates new challenges for education, especially the readiness of all units to provide effective delivery of online learning based materials. this part discusses theoretical perspectives consequently on the effectiveness of online learning delivery system that has been implementing during the covid-19 pandemic. in terms of the students’ perspective on learning from home policy, the participants supported and had a positive attitude. the participants had good appreciation for government initiatives to stop face-to-face learning from school to home learning through the online learning system. therefore, assessing the effectiveness of online learning from home is crucial because it needs to consider the readiness of all aspects, including technology, facilities, financial, and any related things. efl students’ experience on the effectiveness of online learning from home learning from home during the covid-19 pandemic is good policy initiatives. however, the policy should consider the readiness of all units of education, including university. suppose the government do not take into account the university stakeholder’s readiness. in that case, it will become a major obstacle in online learning from home, such as the psychological readiness of students, lecturers, facilities, technology and even the environment. the effectiveness of online learning is a challenge for all stakeholders, especially the transfer of knowledge, methods and strategies for learning in the delivery of materials. furthermore, the participant's point of view on the effectiveness of the online learning from home policy was as stated below: “i think learning from home that based on online is ineffective because learning might not work optimally when compared to face-to-face activity. then, i felt that my concentration was a little disturbed and it was difficult to get better learning.” [student d] “in my opinion, the application of online learning is ineffective. that is because lack of direct communication sometimes makes misunderstanding of information. the second reason is that not all students can get internet access well, for example, in remote areas, so they are often time left behind in lectures and various assignments. the next reason is the inefficiency of time when conducting lectures via chat. then also, if we use a video or conversation based application, it also has limitations. an example is an access to video applications that have certain limits for the number of users which will certainly hinder the learning process.” [student h] irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 149 “i rate this policy as ineffective because honestly discussing via online makes it difficult for me to understand the material being discussed. besides, there is often time a misunderstanding about the material being taught. then, i also feel limitations in this online learning, for example, lack of feedback given in discussions so that sometimes makes me still confused about the material.” [student n] another issue on efl students’ experience on the effectiveness of online learning from home was learning only for assignments. learning at home does not mean giving a lot of assignments to students but presenting effective teaching and learning activities according to the conditions of their respective regions. according to kemendikbud (2020), “the teaching and learning activities process can refer to the minister of education and culture circular letter number 3 of 2020 concerning prevention of covid-19 in education units, and number 36962 / mpk.a / hk / 2020 concerning online learning and working from home in the context of preventing the spread of coronavirus disease (covid-19), as well as circular and instructions from the head of the region, and the rector of each university”. the results of the interview as stated below: “in my opinion, our lecturers always give assignments in every meeting; instead, they should give a clear concept of learning before giving a bunch of assignments.” [student a] “….. most lecturers just give us assignments without explaining further about the content materials. perhaps, universities should give a standard of how to conduct an effective online lecture.” [student c] “….. online learning only gives assignment and not giving about the appropriate learning materials”, i think our lecturer did not ready yet with this situation. a university should provide a digital library for all of us so we could get access library through an online system and connected to our lecturers.” [student b] furthermore, a not conducive learning environment is one reason that learning online from home is ineffective. learning environment or learning atmosphere is one factor that should be considered during online learning, because psychologically students need to focus and concentrate on learning. the results of the interview showed below: “ ….. then the difference is the atmosphere, it sometimes difficult for me to focus or concentrate on the material provided. not to mention when we are busy with other matters at home such as helping parents and others.” [student g]. “i think it very difficult for me to concentrate because of the noise from my family members, and i feel more disturbed when they were around me, particularly technical problems with the connection. so i think learning environment made ineffective learning from home.” [student i] irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 150 from the findings of this study that participants stated the online learning was not effective. one of the factors is that the interactions between students and lecturers are not developed flexibly. the rigidity of the interaction between the students and lecture might not have open communication. it becomes a problem in understanding the material presented. besides that, the very limited time in delivering material makes the interaction not optimal between students and lecturers. it can be concluded that the unpreparedness of students and lecturers in online learning is not yet ready physically and mentally. according to haney (2001), before the online learning policy is carried out, several things should be considered: the initiation of the implementation, online material readiness, and the use of e-learning itself. this is important because by knowing the policy planning, it will be more able to see the goals, needs, motivations and problems. furthermore, farajollahi and moenikia (2010), mcloughlin (2002), oliver (2001), and oliver and herrington (2003) argued that the most important component in online learning is support for online learners. when the support has been fulfilled properly, online learning can be said to be effective and efficient following the intended goals and outputs. similarly, kaur and abas (2004) informed that to see the readiness of e-learning in learning intervention and institutional assistance is needed because online learning designs should have standards set by the institution so that this learning can be implemented well. in this case, the researcher argued that the involvement of the university in establishing online learning system standardization is necessary, such as how lecturers might be connected to the university's digital library so that the unpreparedness of lecturers to obtain learning material did not become an obstacle in the online learning process. furthermore, the problems that arise due to the ineffectiveness of this online learning process are learning only to do assignments and environments which were not conducive to learning. learning just to do the task indicated that there was no readiness in this online learning policy. many factors should consider that online learning was only focused on the task; it might be a lack of readiness from institutions or individuals such as appropriate and adequate digital learning materials. university as responsible institutions should provide advanced equipment digital materials through lecturer’s account which is connected to a digital library or digital network with other institutions or universities. therefore, lecturers could create a more meaningful experience on online learning. moreover, giving assignments in online learning was due to limited access to material given to students. as the researcher mentioned above, there was no connectivity of lecturers to digital libraries in university, so lecturers had not been able to develop materials according to what was expected by students. meanwhile, rahmawati (2016) argued that if a lecturer has innovation in online learning, it will make it more meaningful following online learning objectives. it can be assumed that the more innovative and creative a lecturer in online learning will make learning effective and efficient. another problem that arises in the effectiveness of online learning is the readiness of the environment around the learners. psychologically the environment will be very supportive in the online learning process if an environment that is not conducive will disrupt the concentration of students. liaw (2008) agreed that a comfortable and conducive learning environment can improve student learning satisfaction and create new experiences in teaching and learning activities online. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 151 efl students’ problems on online learning from home online learning from home policy created problems in the teaching and learning for efl students. the problems include technological problems (poor internet connections), electrical power disruptions, financial problems, and inadequate content materials. research findings on the technological problems stated in the following interview below: “my problem is the signal of the internet that are sometimes unstable because i use prepaid network provider. ” [student o] “some of the problems happened when i used prepaid network internet that i experienced weak signal connections. it loaded for a long quiet time.” [student l] “so far the problem was bad internet connection because at home i did not use wi-fi. sometimes, with a bad internet connection makes me missed online lecture then i felt unmotivated.” [student k] “in my place where i stayed somewhere in regency (out of the city) that i was not able to have a good internet connection, it was really frustrated.” [student c] “the problem i experienced that it was difficult to have a strong and good internet connection.” [student g] another finding in this research was electrical power disruptions. electrical power disruption should not be a problem or an issue in online learning. however, participants faced this problem, and it became one of the major issues in online learning. as for the statements mentioned in the interview as follows: “there are many other factors that make learning from home problematic, namely the issue of electricity. it was really frustrating when suddenly blackout during the online learning because i used desktop at home.” [student f] “….first is the connection problem, wherein my residence the connection to the internet is a bit difficult so i have to wait for a long loading. in addition to the frequency of blackouts in my area.” [student n] “i think not the only university should be ready with infrastructure and facilities of technology, local government also should guarantee for the electrical issue, so we would not have any burden when we study online from home.” [students e]. “there was a time in my area where i live, the electrical power disruption (blackout) happened five times in a day, so i would rather not join the online class.” [student a] financial problems or daily load expenses for prepaid internet providers are also major issues on online learning from home. as stated in the earlier page's demographic information irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 152 background, more than half (73.3%) of the participants used prepaid internet network provider. the participants mentioned in the interview as stated below: “online learning is quite draining the pockets of students because of the high price of prepaid internet; this is a real problem for us as students. one time i used free internet from one prepaid provider unfortunately, it was so slow loading and frustrated.” [student c] “the cost to buy prepaid internet so expensive, especially if we used video and other applications which consumed big data, so sometimes we had no choice we had to have this prepaid otherwise we were not able to attend online class.” [student o] “i think one of the big problems in this online learning was that student need to spend more money to buy prepaid internet because they could not buy every week especially if we used big data such as video and other big applications’” [student l] “when i used my prepaid internet suddenly cut off, because i had no enough load for internet connection, so i decided not to continue attending the online class.” [student g] thus, inadequate content learning materials issue was part of efl students’ faced during online learning. participants in this research claimed that inadequate content learning became an obstacle that should be considered because inadequate content learning materials would affect students’ understanding of the concept of knowledge given. the interview results stated as follows: “sometimes, our lecturer did not explain in detail the concept theories from learning materials. they just gave us concept theories from e-book or journal articles then let us read it for assignment. then next meeting, the lecture did not discuss previous materials. this is really inadequate.” [student b] “ there was time that we misunderstood about the material being taught. then, i also feel limitations in this online learning, for example, lack of feedback given in discussions so that sometimes make me still confused about learning materials.” [student d] “the problem was when learning online from home, i thought the explanation from my lecturer was unclear with regards to the content learning, i could not understand the material well. the integration of technology into content learning is almost none.” [student k] “lecture sometimes did not flexible to communicate with us. inflexible group discussion and no further explanation about contents materials provided. so i was frustrated with this situation, but we had to face it.” [student m] irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 153 the research findings were namely technological problems such as weak internet connection, frequent power failures, financial problems for internet purchases for students who depend on prepaid internet providers, and materials content problems. many previous types of research proved that technology readiness is a major issue in online learning research. rogers (2003) argued that technological readiness is a prerequisite for the effectiveness of online learning and how the adaptation of learning innovations might be developed if the readiness of technology supports students and lecturers. according to tait (2003), the readiness of technology with adequate facilities and services can increase the effectiveness of online learning. furthermore, oliver and towers (2000) state that easy access to internet connectivity and adequate facilities will help create online learning effectively. likewise, carr-chellman, dyer and breman (2000) emphasize that a weak internet connection will frustrate students with online learning. therefore, if university students, teachers, environment, facilities and infrastructure are ready, it will certainly be effective. furthermore, the most surprising issue is the electricity problem. electricity readiness as supporting facilities for online learning is a very crucial issue. most of the findings of previous studies indicated the problem of online learning is a matter of technology, problems of learning content, problems of socio-culture, and problems of learning psychology (bates, 1992; psycharis, 2005; king, 2002). however, the electrical problems in this study's findings should consider making online learning policies from home. the readiness of the government must be a priority to anticipate problems arising from technology. thus, electricity is a basic infrastructure that should be met before the technology itself. if these basic needs are met, the effectiveness and efficiency of home learning using technology might be met. financial problems or daily expenses load for prepaid internet is one problem that arises in learning online from home in this study. the problem arises because most of the students (73.3%) use prepaid internet providers, causing problems, namely the inability of students to provide sufficient funds to support online learning activities at home and psychologically reduce their interest in learning to attend online lectures. as stated in the interview above, "when i used my prepaid internet suddenly cut off, because i had no enough load for internet connection, so i decided not to continue attending the online class” [student g]. this is in line with the opinion of chapnick (2000), psycharis (2005), and lopez (2007) that financial readiness should be considered in the application of technology. inadequate content learning also become a problem in online learning policies from home. according to pennings et al. (2014) and psotka (2012), that content learning material should create interactions with the correct teaching methodology between students and lecturers. furthermore, they argued that the right online teaching methodology would give satisfaction to students in attending online lessons. designing for content learning requires adequate understanding and skills and should be possessed by lecturers. if the lecturer has sufficient skills in designing online learning, it is expected that the problems caused by online learning can be minimized. in addition, lack of feedback from a lecture during class discussion also became an issue. it indicated that students could not fully grasp the knowledge given by lecture, especially concept theories in the specific subject which need further elaboration. this could be quoted from the results of the interview with one participant "there was time that we misunderstood about the material being taught. then, i also feel the limitations in this online learning, for example, lack of feedback given irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 154 in discussions so that sometimes it makes me confused about learning material” [student d]. thus, feedback is important for both lecturers and students in an online course. students’ suggestions to improve online learning effectiveness in terms of students’ suggestions to improve online learning effectiveness is crucial. the research participants had underlined some issues related to the ineffectiveness and problems during the online learning from home. however, there were only two aspects that university or lecturers need to consider during online learning to become more effective. they are; lecturer readiness aspects and technological readiness. the following statements are as follows: “the lecturer should review the right method when learning online and try to find out the conditions and constraints of students. furthermore, to make this online learning effective, i think not by imposing many assignments, but how the material delivered can be understood by students. lecturers should provide learning videos, e-books or learning material links so students can access to study independently. besides, a good internet connection is really important.” [student h] “my suggestions toward online learning are that the lecturer should be more interactive to students to not feel bored. then, the lecture should give more opportunity and let students discussed in group online then the lecturer gives feedback after the discussion part.” [student l]. “my suggestion is when conducting an online class, the lecturer must participate in class to explain the material, and the lecturer does not have to burden the student with the assignment. then we have to be ready with technological aspects.” [student d] “indonesian government should know that not all regions in indonesia have adequate technology that supports online learning. indonesia should have good preparation if online learning ran well. in another word, speed internet connection need to take into account to support online learning in all areas.” [student g] “minimize the assignment and increase the online discussion and increase the speed internet connection.” [student m] “my suggestion is the lecturers should upload their teaching videos on google drive so we can watch it. i think video is more effective to make students understand rather than give us many files, books, articles that we could not understand, and might be some students also too lazy to read those.” [student c] in terms of students' suggestions to improve online learning effectiveness, participants have suggested two main points: lecturers’ readiness and adequate content material and technological readiness. according to fageeh (2016), technology aims to help students achieve learning goals and create new opportunities in self-development for more independent learning. however, aspects of lecturer readiness should be a starting point in creating effective learning. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 155 lecturers are innovative, creative, and skilled in creating learning content that can answer the needs of students in online learning. this also concerns the readiness of the university in meeting the needs of lecturers in developing teaching materials that are suitable to the needs of their students. suppose the university is able to provide adequate facilities and infrastructure such as the availability of digital libraries connected with advanced technology tools such as virtual reality equipment, high-speed internet connection, and inter-university digital equipment sharing. in that case, it is believed that it might develop innovations in online learning. furthermore, infrastructure should be a full concern for policymakers, such as providing a high-speed internet connection for students and lecturers doing online learning, digitalized materials connected to the digital library to provide more accessibility to enhance effective learning. thus, the final statement from the interviewee was, "indonesian government should know that not all regions in indonesia have adequate technology which might support online learning. indonesia should have good preparation if online learning runs well. in other words, high-speed internet connection needs to take into account to support online learning in all areas.” [student g] conclusion and recommendations the study results showed that there were still many problems in online learning from home, even though research participants claimed that this policy initiative is a good policy. the conclusion from the results of this study illustrates that the government should consider a form of policy that can support the readiness of online learning technology from home. the very basic thing is the electrical infrastructure's readiness, which does not need to happen in online learning. if the basic electricity infrastructure has not been fulfilled properly, it is difficult to support the readiness of technology that depends on electricity itself. the recommendation that researchers can put forward is that technology readiness should be a top priority for university development, especially with the digitalization of learning materials through the availability of integrated digital libraries in student and lecturer accounts. second, universities should provide integrated and innovative training for lecturers in designing digital content materials which can support and facilitate students to learn. third, the establishment of collaborative networks between universities and the availability of digitalizing material that is easily obtained by lecturers in tertiary institutions so that the relevance and needs of students to the knowledge taught can be met properly. for future research, this research is still very limited because the number of participants is only 15 students and cannot represent the opinions of all students. this makes it difficult to generalize the results of this study. further studies to determine the readiness and problems that arise in the application of online-based education from home during covid-19 became a reference for large-scale research. disclosure statement the authors declare no conflict of interest in the design of the study; in the collection, analysis, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 156 references azis, a. 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(2020). school closure and management practices during coronavirus outbreaks including covid-19: a rapid systematic review. lancet child adolesc health, 4, 397–404. warner, d., christie, g., & choy, s. (1998). readiness of vet clients for flexible delivery including online learning. brisbane: australian national training authority. zhao, y. (2003). recent developments in technology and language learning: a literature review and meta-analysis. calico journal, 21(1), 7-27. biographical note eddy haryanto is an associate professor at faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, jambi, indonesia. he obtained his doctoral degree in development education at cenytral luzon state university, the philippines. email: eddy.haryanto@unja.ac.id mailto:eddy.haryanto@unja.ac.id this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 466 cloud collaboration: its effect toward writing achievement and impact toward attitude to learning dedi kurniawan 1 , lingga agustina suganda 2 , and zuraida 3 , abstract the study aims at finding out the effect of cloud collaboration toward writing achievement and students’ perception toward its impact to attitude of english learning. it was an experimental study with pretest-posttest control group design, and the forty-eight samples of which were randomly taken from seventy-nine students taking paragraph writing course. the data were collected using an adapted writing test and cloud service impact questionnaire. the data from the test were analysed using t-test, while the data form questionnaire were descriptively analysed. the results show that there was an increase of writing achievement before and after the treatment and the increase was caused by the cloud collaboration implementation. the results also report that the cloud collaboration implementation had a high positive impact toward students’ confidence, affective engagement and behavioural engagement to english learning, especially in writing course. keywords achievement, attitude, cloud, collaboration, writing 1 faculty of teacher training and education, sriwijaya university, palembang, indonesia: dedikurniawan@unsri.ac.id 2 faculty of teacher training and education, sriwijaya university, palembang, indonesia: linggasuganda@fkip.unsri.ac.id] 3 faculty of teacher training and education, sriwijaya university, palembang, indonesia: zuraida.blani@gmail.com mailto:dedikurniawan@unsri.ac.id mailto:linggasuganda@fkip.unsri.ac.id mailto:zuraida.blani@gmail.com irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 467 introduction writing is the core of learning activities in higher education. however, writing is the most difficult language skill to acquire in any language and even more so, writing in foreign languages (lombana, 2002). apart from that, writing is a difficult procedure that requires planning, composition, rewriting and modification (vijayavalsalan, 2016). in line with these, some studies found out that students’ results in writing test were not satisfactory (persadha (2016), arisman et al. (2017)). a similar indication was also shown by 51 respondents in my preliminary observations that they encountered difficulties in writing, even in composing a single paragraph. process-oriented approach is not a new approach to writing. recent studies show its application in the current learning context still produces good results. al-sawalha (2014) in their study found that the process approach has the potential to develop writing in english more thoroughly. in addition, sarhady (2015) revealed that the process approach motivated students to write better than the product approach. process-oriented approach is part of collaborative learning. collaborative learning is the approach that involves groups working together to solve problems, complete tasks or produce certain products (srinivas, 2011). the process of writing in learning using a process-oriented approach is called collaborative writing. luna and ortiz (2013) state that collaborative learning activities have helped students to think critically and be more open in expressing their opinions and ultimately helping students to improve their writing skills. in line with this, zhang (2018) concluded that collaborative writing learning improves students' writing competence because this activity provides opportunities to learn through the language they use in the discussion process. in theory of second language learning, krashen (1985) and long (1985) state that the second language learning process depends on input. input in the learning process is available in the interaction or communication process. changing the input to intake also depends on the interaction process. this means that language learning can occur when there is communication. in line with this, guan et al. (2006) state that through discussion and collaboration, learners actively shape their knowledge. in the learning process, the collaboration occurs inside and outside the classroom. the process in the classroom can continue outside the classroom with the help of information and communication technology (e-learning). the technology, even when in its early development is not as fast as it is today, according to smith and ragan (1999) can be an instructional medium which supports the success of learning compared to other technologies. it has standard internet platform providing support to independent learning process that is not limited to space and time due to the nature of the internet itself, which among other things can be used by anyone, anywhere, and anytime; and it is nowadays very much freely available. the combination of these two collaborative processes is included in the term blended learning (u.s. department of education office of planning development evaluation and policy, 2010). some results show that blended learning has a positive effect on english learning, such as positive perception in english blended learning classes (liu, irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 468 2013), better learning results from the combination of synchronous and a synchronous learning mode (jee & connor, 2014), and that blended learning can support the english learning and other subjects in general (sejdiu, 2014). cloud computing technology (cloud computing technology) is software or facilities provided as a remote service via the internet. the main form of cloud computing technology is a variety of internet services in the form of tools and facilities. many companies provide cloud computing services, such as google with google drive, dropbox with dropbox, and microsoft with onedrive. chang and wills (2013) explain that with cloud computing technology, activities to save work, continue work and share data can be done anywhere and anytime. the world of education can take optimal advantage of this technology with the ability to communicate and share information and data, such as text books, ppt files, videos, voice files, anywhere and anytime. in addition, collaborative work will be greatly assisted by this technology because of the ability to share data and information. lin et al. (2014) in their study of collaboration with cloud computing technology (cloud collaboration) concluded that cloud computing technology can be an effective tool in education. the covid-19 pandemic has changed the teaching and learning process condition dramatically all over the world. unesco (2020) has reported that almost one half billion students world over were forced to leave their face-to-face learning activity from school. in indonesia, the government has decided that face-to-face learning are not allowed in red and orange zone. in the green zone, where the effect of the pandemic is not so widespread as the other two zones, face-to-face learning can be held but with strict measures of health protocols. in higher education setting in indonesia, the government has decided as a response to the current situation to strengthen the online learning mode and to encourage universities to prepare a strong elearning flatform. this current situation has led teachers and other educational practitioners to develop and use technique that can help students in learning. the use of cloud technology, among other advances, can be one of the answers of the education problem in the pandemic situation. from the discussion, it was shown that cloud collaboration application in a process-oriented approach writing class has the potential to help students develop their writing skills in the pandemic era. this potential are the results of the combination of collaborative learning strength in the form of a process-oriented approach and the conveniences offered by cloud computing technology. this study tries to a seek the answer to the questions: (1) whether or not there is in increase in writing achievement before and after the implementation of cloud collaboration in process-oriented approach can improve students of writing achievement, (2) whether or not the increase is caused by the implementation of cloud collaboration and, (3) to what extent is the impact of cloud collaboration implementation toward students’ attitude of the teaching and learning process. literature review in the process-oriented approach, cognitive learning, learner's contribution to the learning context, and systematic thinking skills are the dominant aspects. strategies used irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 469 include planning, objectives, gathering ideas, writing drafts, and revisions. this approach is actually rooted in the concept of zone proximal development (zpd), or the zone of optimal development (vygotsky, 1978). in this concept, the optimal development zone lies between what learners can achieve on their own and what they can achieve with the guidance of teachers or other more capable students. this can mean that learners can achieve maximum results with the process of interaction/ collaboration with other people who have abilities that exceed their learning. stanley (1993) states that good writers plan, revise, rearrange, and delete, reread and write several drafts in one process before completing their writing. this is the essence of the process-oriented approach in learning to write. the process approach is an answer to weaknesses in the product approach, i.e. excessive emphasis on language knowledge or linguistic knowledge, with a focus on language skills. furthermore, writing activities in a process-oriented approach, such as collaborative writing, peer editing, and writing drafts have the potential to make learners more independent (alwasilah, 2006). however, this approach is not too concerned with grammar and sentence structure and does not pay too much attention to the final result and takes a long time (onozawa, 2010) and that this approach offers insufficient input to linguistic knowledge (badger & white, 2000). there are five stages in the writing procedure in this approach, namely: (a) pre-writing (motivation to write, get shared ideas, create an outline, practice and take notes, (b) write a draft (initial writing both individually and in collaboration), (c) revising (re-planning and rewriting), (d) editing (preparing for text publication) and (5) publication (exposing text to the public) (emig, 1971). these steps were then further developed by adding two stages, one at the beginning and one at the end, i.e. (1) topic selection, and (2) further activities to overcome the weaknesses shown by students in writing (hyland, 2003). the term of cloud collaboration can be defined as a way of sharing documents and collaborating in creating documents through the use of cloud computing facilities. the documents are uploaded to a central "cloud" for storage and can be accessed by others. 'cloud computing', can be defined as shared access to a computer resource (mell & grance, 2006), as a compilation technique in which it services are provided by massive low-cost computing units that are connected to internet protocol (ip) networks (qian et al., 2009). furthermore, they also state that there are five main characteristics of cloud computing: (1) large-scale computing resources, (2) high & elastic scalability, (3) shared resources (virtual and physical), (4) dynamic resources, and (5) general purposes. examples of cloud computing facilities are google with google drive and google documents, dropbox with dropbox, and microsoft with onedrive. in the learning process, cloud collaboration facilities from cloud computing can be used in collaborative learning. veldhuis-diermanse (2002) defines collaborative learning as a learning situation in which learners exchange ideas, experiences and information to negotiate knowledge to form personal knowledge that will form the basis for shared understanding and collective solutions to a problem. furthermore, dillenbourg (1999) states that collaborative learning describes a situation in which a special form of interaction occurs between learners expected to occur triggering the learning process. in learning english, irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 470 collaborative learning generally has a positive impact on learning outcomes and perceptions of collaborative learning. learners showed positive perceptions of collaborative learning implementation in writing class and they also showed better performance in writing (challob et al., 2016). they also showed a positive response with good involvement in collaborative learning activities, although there were also negative responses (hernández, 2012). google docs is a free web-based application through which documents and spreadsheets can be created, edited and saved online. files can be accessed from any computer with an internet connection and a full featured web browser. it is part of a comprehensive package of online applications offered by and associated with google. its users can import, create, edit, and update documents and spreadsheets in a variety of fonts and file formats, combining text with formulas, lists, tables, and images. it is compatible with most presentation software and word processing applications. works can be published as web pages or as print-ready manuscripts. users can control who sees their work. google docs is ideal for publishing within a company, managing a blog, or compiling work for the general public to see. in higher education setting, apple et al. (2011) found out that students thought google docs is more fun than microsoft word and even when editing and writing, students wrote longer and could write collaboratively more efficiently and faster than microsoft word. in addition, brodahl et al. (2011) in their study found that students felt that they had positive experiences when collaborating using google docs. there several studies with similar focus with this current study. first, a study from calvo et al. (2011) entitled “collaborative writing support tools on the cloud” investigating an internet architecture, called iwrite, supporting collaborative writing from both student and teacher sides. in this study, no experiments were carried out on the effects of using iwrite in learning. however, the authors were optimistic about the benefits of the internet architecture. second, zhou et al. (2012) in their study entitled “google docs in an out-of-class collaborative writing activity” which investigated the effectiveness of the google docs application in completing coursework by students by asking students to collaborate on coursework through google docs. the results indicate that google is an effective application for collaborative writing and has an impact on learning. third, yim et al. (2014) in their study "cloud-based collaborative writing and the common core standards" which aims to see how writing using cloud collaboration is carried out in schools in colorado where computers and internet access available to all students. the results show that google docs specifically with simultaneous edit and access features encouraged students to write and revise more frequently than usual. fourth, zhu et al. (2017) in their study to develop the “collaborative editing tool for non-native authors (cept)”, a computer tool providing an interface for collaborating in editing a text online as a tool for editing in writing collaboration found out that cept was able to significantly improve both the language quality and the collaboration experience. fifth, karsenti and gauthier (2018) in their study entitled "exploratory study of online student collaborative writing with teacher metacognitive prompts" which was carried out to test a student centered learning (scl) program that combined the use of technology, writing, collaboration and feedback to see how far online and offline teacher feedback affects the quality of irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 471 writing, use of metacognitive strategies, sense of ability and motivation to complete writing. the results of this study indicate that collaborative use of technology has strengthened the use of metacognitive strategies, a sense of ability and motivation to complete writing. sixth, kurniawan et al. (2020) in their study entitled “cloud collaborative reflective strategy and its effect toward english pronunciation of pre-service teachers in their teaching practice program” investigating the effect of both cloud collaboration and reflection toward pronunciation mastery. the results show that the combination of both strategies has a significant positive effect toward the pronunciation mastery. this current study is an experimental study of the implementation of cloud computing facilities in the form of cloud collaboration in writing classes using a process-oriented approach, as contrast the studies of calvo et al. (2011) and zhu et al. (2017), which are development studies developing software that can be used in online collaborative writing activities. while with the study of yim et al. (2014), the difference lies in the research method where the study is descriptive and does not try to see the causal effect of the variables. for the study of karsenti and gauthier (2018), this study does not specifically pay attention to the elements of communication and information technology. meanwhile the studies of zhou et al. (2012) and kurniawan et al. (2020), the use of google docs made it almost the same as this study, but the study did not focus on developing writing skills, the first focuses on course completion and the second on pronunciation aspect development. methodology the population was all students taking the paragraph writing course in an english education study program in the 2020/2021 academic year. the total number of students was 79. from the population, 48 students were taken randomly as sample. the samples were then divided randomly into experimental group (24 students) and control group (24 students). this study was experimental design with random sample selection. this research was carried out by dividing the research sample into 2 groups of writing class, the experimental group and the control group. the experimental group was given treatment in the form of "cloud collaboration" implementation in the "process-oriented approach" while the control group was only taught using process-oriented approach without the implementation of cloud collaboration. both groups underwent a pre-test and post-test. the pretest and posttest scores were compared to see if there was an increase in writing achievement. the posttest scores in each group were compared to see if the learning model variable caused the increase. the perception of the sample students in the experimental group towards this learning model was also measured. the term of cloud collaboration in this study is defined as the activities in which students in the writing class exchange ideas, experiences and information in the form of comment, suggestion and correction to the piece of writing another student has written. in this activity the teachers also shared their comment, suggestion and correction. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 472 the teaching procedures in the process-oriented approach of the writing class were adapted from emig (1971) and hyland (2003), as follows: (1) topic selection, (2) pre-writing, (3) draft writing, (4) revising, (5) editing, and (6) publication,. the teaching material were adapted from introduction to academic writing (oshima & hogue, 2007). in the writing class the students were asked to write 4 paragraphs, i.e.: (1) descriptive paragraph, (2) process paragraph, (3) comparative paragraph, and (4) definition paragraph. one paragraph writing process took one-week time as described in table one. the four paragraphs took 4 weeks to complete. before the whole activity begins, the teacher has prepared folders on "google drive" label with each student’s name. all writing process activities were stored in those folders. table 1. writing class procedures stage personals involved in the stage activities learning interface day topic selection, presentation students, teacher 1. class and small group discussion for topic selection 2. teaching material for writing rules and grammar synchronous, via big blue button asynchronous, via discussion forum day 1 pre-writing students, teacher 1. writing outlines asynchronous via lms day 1 draft writing students draft writing using google doc, the drafts are automatically stored online in google drive teachers can access this draft asynchronous, via google doc day 1 revision small groups of students (3 people) 1. two students provide feedback on the draft on ideas, writing convention, choice of words, and language. 2. students revise the draft based on the peer-feedback asynchronous, via google doc day 2-3 editing students and teachers 1. teachers provides detailed feedback to the revised draft on ideas, writing convention, choice of words, and grammar. 2. students edit the revised draft based on the feedback. asynchronous, via google doc day 4-5 publishing students and teachers 1. students complete paragraphs 2. the lecturer read and evaluate asynchronous, via google doc day 6-7 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 473 in the control group learning activities are carried out with the same model without the implementation of "cloud collaboration", the collaboration process was carried out via email, as compared to google doc in the experimental group. data collection and analysis to answer the research problem, two instruments were used to collect the data, i.e. (1) writing test and (2) questionnaire. a writing test was developed to measure students’ paragraph writing achievement. in the test the students were asked to write a definition paragraph in approximately 200 words. they were asked to choose a word, custom, or holiday from their culture that is probably unfamiliar to an outsider and write a paragraph to describe it and explain its meaning and/or significance. they were also asked to focus on using good paragraph structure, with a topic sentence, supporting sentences that develop (explain) the topic, and a concluding sentence. the content of the test was validated by two experts in language testing. the test was given twice, as pre-test and after treatment as post-test. the paragraphs from the test scored were scored using paragraph writing rubric on a scale of 1 5. the aspects assessed were: conventions, sentences, topic sentences, vocabulary, support sentences, and closing sentences. the results of test were grouped according to the scale in the paragraph writing rubric, i.e. (1) beginner, (2) intermediate, (3) writer, (4) advanced, and (5) expert. two instructors from a language centre did the scoring of the paragraph. to measure the impact of the implementation of the cloud collaboration toward students’ attitude to the teaching and learning process, an adapted questionnaire from cloud service impact questionnaire (csiq) (iji et al., 2017) was used. there are 34 items which were grouped in three aspects, i.e. (1) confidence (10 items), (2) affective engagement (11 items), and (3) behavioral engagement (13 items). the responses for items in questionnaire were of likert scale of 1 – 5. the benchmark point was determined at 2.5 (the midpoint of the scale). result below it is considered as having low impact and higher is having high impact. the instrument was tried out to thirty non sample students for validity and reliability. the 34 item were found valid. the results of the try out show the cronbach’s alfa q was 0.742. t-test (paired-sample and independent, significance level of 0.05, two-tailed) was used to see if there was significant mean difference between the results of pre-test and post-test in experimental group and between post-test of experimental group and post-test of control group. the data from the questionnaire was analysed descriptively. findings the results from the analyzed data are reported into two subcategory, test and questionnaire.test, the results of the pretest and posttest in the two groups were scored using paragraph writing rubric on a scale of 1 5. the aspects assessed were: conventions, irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 474 sentences, topic sentences, vocabulary, support sentences, and closing sentences. these results are described in table 2. table 2. writing score distribution and writing skill level aspects experimental control pretest posttest pretest posttest mean/ sd max/ min mean/ sd max/ min mean/ sd max/ min mean/ sd max / min convention 2.38/0.50 2/3 3.08/0.28 3/4 2,54/0.5 1 2/3 3.00/0.59 2/4 sentences 2.5/0.66 1/4 3.25/0.44 3/4 3.04/0.6 9 2/4 3.29/0.46 3/4 topic sentences 2.83/0.48 2/4 3.50/0.51 3/4 2.92/0.4 1 2/4 3.17/0.38 3/4 vocabulary 2.92/0.28 2/3 3.21/0.42 3/4 3.38/0.4 9 3/4 3.67/0.48 3/4 support sentences 3.04/0.49 2/3 3.71/0.55 2/4 3.42/0.5 0 3/4 3.67/0.48 3/4 closing sentences 1.75/0.74 2/4 3.04/0.55 2/4 1.92/0.8 8 1/4 2.54/0.51 2/3 total 2.57/0.37 1.83/3.33 3.30/0.31 2.67/ 4 2.87/0.4 6 2.3/3. 8 3.22/0.34 2.7/ 3.8 level of writing skills experimental control pretest posttest pretest posttest beginner 1 (4.17%) intermediate 19 (79.17%) 12.5% 14 (58%) 6 (25%) writer 4 (16.67%) 83.33% 10 (42%) 18 (75%) advanced 4.17% expert from the table above, it can be seen that, in the experimental group, in pretest most of the students were in intermediate category and in posttest almost all of them were in the writer category which was a level higher than the intermediate level. even in posttest, one irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 475 student is in the advanced category whereas in the control group the category improvement was not as good as the experimental group. the results of posttest showed an increase in the number of students who were in writer category, from 42% to 75%. the results show that there was a tendency that both groups experienced an increase in their writing achievement. however, the increase was higher in experimental group. paired sample t-test results showed that there was a significant difference between the mean of pretest in the experimental group (m = 2.57, sd = 0.37) and posttest in that group (m = 3.30, sd = 0.31) with the requirements; t (23) = 9.90, p = 0.00. these results indicate that there is a significant increase in grades after students are taught with this method. the results of this data analysis answered the first research question that there was a significant difference in the value of writing paragraphs before being taught using "cloud collaboration" in the "process-oriented approach" model and afterwards in paragraph writing learning. the results of the independent sample t-test for the posttest results in the experimental and control groups showed that there was no significant difference between the posttest mean of the experimental group m = 3.30, sd = 0.31) and the control group (m = 3.22, sd = 0.33) (t (46) = 0.822, p = 0.416)). while the results of the independent sample t-test both groups show that there was a significant difference between the mean pretest experimental results (m = 257, sd = 0.37) and the mean pretest control results (m = 2.87, sd = 0.46) with the requirement of t (46). = -2.483, p = 0.017). from the combination of these two independent sample t-tests, it can be concluded that the process-oriented approach with cloud collaboration applications provides a greater achievement-enhancing effect compared to without cloud collaboration implementation. the results of this data analysis answer the second research question that there is a significant difference between the increase in scores in the group taught using "cloud collaboration" in the "process-oriented approach" model and in groups taught without cloud collaboration "in the" process-oriented approach "model. " questionnaire the questionnaire’s results answer research question 3, to what extent is the impact of cloud collaboration implementation toward students’ attitude of the teaching and learning process. the mean of all item responses was 3.92. as show in table 3, the questionnaire has three aspects, i.e. (1) confidence, (2) affective engagement and (3) behavioural engagement. the means for each of the aspects respectively are 3.87, 3.94 and 3.92. these results indicate that cloud collaboration implementation has a high impact toward students’ confidence, affective engagement and behavioural engagement of the teaching and learning process, especially in the writing class. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 476 table 3. mean score of each attitude as the impact of cloud service implementation confidence no item mean sd remark 1. i am sure that i can learn english using cloud service. 4.26 0.59 high 2. i find english is frightening with cloud services. 3.66 0.83 high 3. i know i can handle difficulties in english with the aid of cloud service. 3.89 0.70 high 4. i am proud of my abilities in english when aided by cloud services. 3.91 0.77 high 5. i have an english idea which is enhanced with the aid of cloud services. 3.92 0.70 high 6. i found english confusing with the aid of cloud services. 3.64 0.90 high 7. i can handle most of subjects, but i only manage to endure english with cloud services. 3.74 0.71 high 8. i know i can do well in english by using cloud services. 4.04 0.78 high 9. i know cloud services are important but i don’t feel i need to use them to learn english. 3.85 0.82 high 10. i can get good grades in english with the aid of cloud services. 3.81 0.83 high cluster mean 3.87 high affective engagement no item mean sd remark 11. i like using cloud services for english. 3,98 0,89 high 12. in using cloud services to study english, i get my answer correctly as reward for your effort. 3,98 0,72 high 13. cloud service built my interest in learning new things in english. 4,11 0,78 high 14. i find many english problems interesting and challenging with the aid of cloud services. 3,87 0,86 high 15. learning english through cloud services is enjoyable. 4,09 0,79 high 16. i get sense of satisfaction when i solve english problems with the aid of cloud services. 3,91 0,81 high 17. i feel good about using cloud services to study english. 3,92 0,87 high 18. english is more interesting when using cloud services. 3,87 0,96 high 19. i have never been excited about english with cloud services. 3,70 0,75 high 20. i like the idea of exploring english methods using cloud services. 3,94 0,77 high 21. i always look forward to using cloud services to study english. 3,94 0,79 high cluster mean 3.94 high behavioural engagement no item mean sd remark 22. if i can’t solve an english problem, i use cloud services to try out different ideas on how to solve the problem. 4,00 0,88 high 23. i always try to do assignments with the help of cloud services. 3,98 0,84 high 24. when studying english using cloud services, i often think of new ways of solving english problem. 3,96 0,73 high 25. i think using cloud services waste too much time in the learning of english. 4,00 0,85 high 26. using cloud services to study english makes it easier for me to do more real life applications. 3,98 0,69 high 27. when i cannot understand something in english, i always use cloud services to search for more information to clarify the problem. 4,09 0,84 high 28. having cloud services to do routine work makes me more likely to try different methods and approaches. 3,87 0,68 high irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 477 29. using cloud services in english is worth the extra effort. 3,64 0,83 high 30. when i study for an english test using cloud services, i try to work out the most important parts to learn. 4,00 0,71 high 31. when i study english using cloud services, i try to figure out which concepts i haven’t understood. 3,89 0,78 high 32. if i have trouble in understanding an english problem, i go over it again using cloud services until i understand. 3,98 0,69 high 33. when i study english with the aid of cloud services, i start by working out exactly what i need to learn. 3,94 0,66 high 34 i find reviewing previously solved problems using cloud services to be a good way to study english. 3,98 0,72 high cluster mean 3.87 high discussion the first question in the study aims investigating the effect of the cloud collaboration toward students’ writing achievement. a paired-sample t-test was used to measure the mean difference of the pre-test and post-test scores. the results show the post-test score is much higher as compared to the pre-test. this result is in line with results from other study investigating the effect of cloud collaboration in a learning environment. for example, an experimental study conducted by min et al. (2018) investigating the integration of a cloud learning environment (cle) in learning process indicate an improvement in learning achievement of students. apart from it, the results also reveal that cloud learning environment enhanced professional skills, and raised motivation. furthermore, a study from kurniawan et al. (2020) who examined the effect of the cloud collaborative reflective strategy (ccrs) on english pronunciation of pre-service english teacher in which they applied cloud collaboration and reflection to develop the pre-service teachers’ pronunciation. the results report that there was a significant increase of pronunciation achievement in the sample. the pre-service teachers also perceived the ccrs as accommodating in the pronunciation aspect improvement. another study from suwantarathip and wichadee (2014) which delved into comparing writing achievement of students who did writing assignment using google docs with those working in a classroom shows that students who worked collaboratively using the application has gained in increase in their writing score before and after the treatment. the students also perceived google doc as useful in collaborative work. the second aim of this study is to seek the answer whether or not the increase was caused by the implementation of cloud collaboration. an independent sample t-test was used to see the mean difference between experimental and control group. the results show the superiority of experimental group which means that the increase of writing achievement in experimental group is caused by the cloud collaboration implementation. several other studies have the common results. zhou et al. (2012) in their study examining the effectiveness of the google docs application in completing coursework by collaborating through google docs reported that google doc is an effective application for collaborative writing and has an impact on learning. another study from yim et al. (2014) aiming to see irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 478 how writing using cloud collaboration is carried out in schools in indicated that google docs encouraged students to write and revise more frequently than usual. furthermore, zhu et al. (2017) in their study to develop the “collaborative editing tool for non-native authors (cept)”, collaborative writing tool found out that it was able to significantly improve both the language quality and the collaboration experience. karsenti and gauthier (2018) who explored to test a student cantered learning (scl) program that combined the use of technology, writing, collaboration and feedback to see how far online and offline teacher feedback affects the quality of writing, use of metacognitive strategies, sense of ability and motivation to complete writing found out collaborative use of technology has strengthened the use of metacognitive strategies, a sense of ability and motivation to complete writing. this study also aims to highlight the impact of cloud collaboration implementation toward students’ attitude of the teaching and learning process. the results described in table 3 reveal that the implementation of cloud collaboration had a high positive impact toward students’ confidence, affective engagement and behavioral engagement in learning english, especially in writing class. this finding implies several notions. the adoption of cloud collaboration help students to overcome their psychological barriers and enhance their potential to achieve better, to develop personal interest and enjoyment in learning english especially in writing class, and to participate and involve in the writing class. several other studies’ result were in line with this result that the implementation of cloud collaboration was perceived as positive and having positive impact. suwantarathip & wichadee (2014) also reported that students had positive attitude collaborative writing using google doc. another study from limbu and markauskaite (2015) indicated that google service in collaborative writing activity had led the learners to participate and to engage in meaningful conversation. however, the study also reported that the tools cannot be useful by themselves without learners’ interaction in using it. alsubaie and ashuraidah (2017) in their study on exploring writing individually and collaboratively using google docs in efl contexts revealed that students perceived google docs as a useful tool for both individual and group work. huang (2016) in their exploration of the intention to use cloud services in collaboration contexts found out that using the service can generate positive attitude and a belief that it is useful for learning. they also found out that the use of cloud service can contribute to behavioral intention. conclusions this study aims at investigating the effect of cloud collaboration implementation in process-oriented approach writing class toward the students’ paragraph writing achievement. this research also seeks to identify how students perceived the impact of cloud collaboration implementation toward their attitude of the english class, especially in writing class. the findings of this research are based on the data obtained from the students of paragraph writing class of an english education study program, a degree program in a university. the results of this research are linked to the findings of previous similar studies, and it confirms irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 479 that there was an increase of writing achievement before and after the treatment and the increase was caused by the cloud collaboration implementation. it also confirms that the cloud collaboration implementation had a high positive impact toward students’ confidence, affective engagement and behavioral engagement. a number of limitations to the research must be taken into consideration. the research has investigated the effect of cloud collaboration implementation toward paragraph writing achievement. however, the research has only concentrated the use of google docs as a collaboration tool. investigating other tools may add more insights. only the short-term effects of both memory and cognitive strategies were investigated. the study was conducted in university setting. it would add more value if it is also conducted in middle school. based on the findings of this research and its limitations, some recommendations can be suggested. to widen the findings, a future study can investigate more tools for collaboration and can also view teachers’ perceptions of the process. future research can investigate cloud collaboration in different context and can compare all the contexts being examined. disclosure statement there is potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors. acknowledgments we would like to thank all for their participation in this study. also we would like to thank irje and reviewers for accepting our article. references al-sawalha, a. m. 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(2017). cept: collaborative editing tool for non-native authors. proceedings of the acm conference on computer supported cooperative work, cscw, 273–285. https://doi.org/10.1145/2998181.2998306 biographical notes dedi kurniawan, a faculty member of english education study program, faculty of teacher training and education, sriwijaya university. lingga a. suganda, a faculty member of english education study program, faculty of teacher training and education, sriwijaya university. zuraida, a faculty member of english education study program, faculty of teacher training and education, sriwijaya university. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 6 the interrelationship among language use, linguistic competence, and higher order skills hazim taisir dayij alkhrisheh 1 , failasofah 2 , and taisir alkhrisheh 3 abstract this research aims to investigate the relationship amongst three concepts: language use, linguistic competence, and critical thinking. pedagogical and cognitive aspects of language learning are evident in the implications of this research concerning how thought influences learning, and how learning influences thought. the sample of the study consisted of 52 students from mutah university in jordan enrolled in the ba program in the department of english language and literature. the instruments used in the study included the leap-q to measure the multilingual level of participants to determine language use, a critical thinking test to measure the participants’ level of reasoning, and a toefl proficiency test to measure the participants’ level of linguistic competence. the findings show significant positive correlations between language use and critical thinking, between linguistic competence and critical thinking, and between language use and linguistic competence. we conclude that language use enhances the linguistic abilities and possibly enhances the cognitive capabilities of the participants. we recommend encouraging students to use the second language inside and outside the classroom to enhance their linguistic and cognitive abilities. keywords higher order skills, language use, linguistic competence 1. phd student at multilingualism doctoral school, the university of pannonia, hungary; hkhresha@yahoo.com 2. phd student at multilingualism doctoral school, the university of pannonia, hungary and faculty member at faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, jambi, indonesia; failasofah@unja.ac.id 3. amman arab university, jordan; tkhrisheh@yahoo.com mailto:hkhresha@yahoo.com mailto:failasofah@unja.ac.id mailto:tkhrisheh@yahoo.com irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 7 introduction jordanian students often believe that using english as a second language outside the classroom compromises their national and local identity. however, using a second language proves to be important, not only in enhancing linguistic skills, but also social and cognitive abilities (see alladi et al., 2013; bialystok et al., 2007). the main purpose of the study is to encourage students to use the second language (i.e., english) inside and outside the classroom in order to improve their linguistic, social, and cognitive skills. the fact that language use enhances linguistic skills is apparent in second language settings in which the learner is accommodated in an environment where the second language is practiced on a daily basis. the daily exercised linguistic skills are carried over from exercising social and cognitive skills required in accomplishing a successive chain of communicative engagements for different purposes. all these skills are somehow linked due to the existence of similar skills shared amongst them such as making analysis and interpreting information. these skills are cognitive in nature (higher order skills), yet they have linguistic and social beneficiary dimensions. the literature on higher order skills and especially on critical thinking mostly discusses both: the influence of critical thinking on learning (in general), and its influence on language learning in particular (see fábián, 2015; meiramova, 2017; rezaei et al., 2011; shirkhani, & fahim, 2011). according to cottrell (2017), critical thinking builds up the skills needed to succeed in a changing world especially when people have to compete against each other to prove their worth. learning the skills needed to qualify individuals for life is a common demand given that the world no longer depends (solely) on labor. the pedagogical implications of past studies indicate that critical thinking is crucial in learning (in general) and also crucial in language learning and language assessment. however, few studies show that there is a cognitive advantage for using more than one language (see alladi et al., 2013; bialystok et al., 2004; bialystok et al., 2007; kirk et al., 2013). the implications of these studies indicate that language use also influences the cognitive abilities of the subjects. this research aims to investigate the relationship between three concepts: language use (which is determined by the multilingual level of the participants and measured by the leap-q), linguistic competence (measured with a toefl proficiency test), and higher order skills (measured by a critical thinking test) in order to see which variables have stronger correlations. the significance of the study arises to address the issue of language use. in simple words, this study aims to clarify if exposing students to more second language input proves to be associated to linguistic capabilities and higher order skills. the study magnifies the importance of conversations’ engagements in shaping the learner’s mind in a world where migration is becoming a more common trend. immigrants need to communicate with natives and it seems that this communication aids them in attaining linguistic and social knowledge using different cognitive techniques. the previous literature focuses little on the impact of language use on critical thinking. exploring the relationship between the critical thinking and language use is a significant starting point for researchers who want to conduct longitudinal studies to investigate the impact of language use on higher order skills if language use and critical thinking are strongly and significantly related. our main objective is to show how using a language on a regular basis inside and irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 8 outside the classroom might benefit students in linguistic and cognitive terms. accordingly, we are conducting a correlation analyses to detect the degree of closeness of one variable to another as presented in our research questions below: 1. what is the relationship between language use and critical thinking? 2. what is the relationship between the linguistic competence of students and critical thinking? 3. what is the relationship between language use and linguistic competence? following the research questions, our hypotheses below are formed to answer the research questions respectively: 1. the multilingual level of students, which is based on language use and measured by the leap-q, will positively and significantly correlate to their score in the critical thinking test. 2. the linguistic competence, which is based on the proficiency test score, will positively and significantly correlate to their score in the critical thinking test. 3. the multilingual level of students will positively and significantly correlate to their linguistic competence. literature review language use in multilingual settings people often use more than one language and sometimes more than two languages as their increased mobility demands for different reasons including their occupation, education, or immigration. therefore, in order to initiate and maintain communication with other people in different languages, there is a need to learn a second or even a third language. second language acquisition and learning has been the topic of interest for researchers for many years. the use of two (or more) languages or dialects on people’s everyday life, according to grosjean (2002), has been undeniably widespread and become the norm in the world recently. this practice is known as bior multilingualism. he mentioned that there are some reasons causing languages into contact and hence foster bi or multilingualism such as migration of various kind (economic, education, political, religious), nationalism and federalism, education and culture, trade and commerce, and intermarriage. however, the benefits of being a bilingual have been debated for many years. some arguments and researches show that bior multilingualism gives some positive effects for an individual. on the other hand, it is also believed that being a bior multilingual could not provide any form of cognitive benefits. basically, the linguistic systems are fluctuated in children and adults by which the use of and the proficiency in two languages or more may alter based on the frequency of the language being used for their own interest or for other users in their communication (weinreich in bhatia, 2013). several psycholinguistic studies have shown that biand multilingualism can result in linguistic and cognitive advantages such as some research on the cognitive advantages of bilingualism done by bialystok since 1991 to 2009. de bot (2017) added that bi-or multilingual heavy task in monitoring the situation to select the appropriate language is an exercise for the speakers’ brain. this exercise develops particular traits in the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 9 speakers’ general skills domain which are transferred from the language domain. in other words, the use of multiple languages leads to the activation of skills that also affect non-linguistic skills. another finding explained by cook (2005) is that multilingual language users differ from monolingual language users in many considerable ways. their flexibility in their communication increases language awareness and it leads to better attitudes towards other cultures. furthermore, jessner, (2008) mentioned that being multilingual means having enhanced linguistic knowledge and experience in different languages, which may lead to different and possibly more efficient qualities in the multilingual learner and user. in the process of communicating using two or more languages, multilingualism activates some particular skills and abilities that are absent in most of the monolingual speakers’ minds. one of the skills developed by multilingual learners as the crucial language strategies is metalinguistic awareness (jessner & török, 2017). that skill is important for learners in their process of decoding different language grammar structure (kemp in jessner & török, 2017). furthermore, jessner (in herdina & jessner, 2002) stated that the learners’ enhanced development of metalinguistic awareness as multilingual speakers might influence his/her language learning skills and language management skills. it would be a crucial skill because in language acquisition, the language learning process is often interrupted by the process of overcoming different linguistic systems that exist in the new language. metalinguistic awareness has been defined as the ability to objectify language and dissect it as an arbitrary linguistic code independent of meaning. it is the ability to look at language as a thing; to evaluate language as a process or even a system; and to exercise successfully in using language (nixon, 2013) which play important role in the development of language learning strategies in language learners and users (jessner, 2008). those strategies exist at a particular stage in language learning process in a form of mental activity (ellis in jessner, 2008) which a number of them are also found by naiman et al. (in jessner, 2008) in their study. they are an active learning approach, realization of language as a system, realization of language as a means of communication, handling of affective demands and monitoring of progress. expert learners in their study showed a superior competence in shifting strategies and reconstructing their internal representations of the linguistic system. critical literacy awareness is the process of thinking critically to analyse and critique the information of social, cultural, and political power that one received. that awareness is needed when people interact with texts as medium of our communication. we have to interpret and make proper meaning on them in order to be successful in our exchange. multilinguals flexibility in their communication increases language awareness and it leads to better attitudes towards other culture. one of the skills developed by multilingual learners as the crucial language strategies is metalinguistic awareness (jessner & török, 2017). that skill is important for learners in their process of decoding different language grammar structure (kemp in jessner & török, 2017). furthermore, jessner (in herdina & jessner, 2002) stated that learner’s enhanced development of metalinguistic awareness as a multilingual speaker might advance his/her language learning skills and language management skills. it would be a crucial skill since in multilingual acquisition the language learning process is often interrupted by another new language. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 10 critical thinking as a cognitive asset for real-life preparation according to the previous review, the cognitive capacity build in the multilinguals encourages them to be critical thinkers who are also characterized with some essential skills and abilities in communication. in her multilevel model approach, fabian (2018) emphasizes that at the individual level, critical thinking is the set of intellectual skills, abilities and dispositions. fabian indicates that researchers agree that critical thinkers should be capable of utilizing inductive and deductive reasoning, making decisions or solving problems, or asking and answering questions for clarification. additionally, certain dispositions are necessary as the indicators of critical thinking, such as open mindedness, fair-mindedness, the propensity to seek reason, inquisitiveness, flexibility and respect for others’ opinions. critical thinking refers to an ability to analyse information, to determine the relevance of information gathered and then to interpret it in solving the problems which requires high-level thinking; it involves the process of analysis, evaluation, reasonableness and reflection. the literature on critical thinking traces back the phenomena to three main academic disciplines: psychology, philosophy, and the field of education (lewis & smith, 1993; sternberg, 1986). the philosophical discipline developed the critical thinking approach to fit their perspective which is more focused on hypothetical critical thinking. sternberg (1986) has reported that the philosophical school puts more emphasis on the characteristics of critical thinkers under certain conditions and circumstances. facione (1990), for instance, describes the critical thinker as an open-minded, flexible, well-informed individual. paul (1992b) discusses the phenomena of critical thinking in the context of “perfections of thought” (p. 9). he described critical thinking as “the art of thinking about your thinking while you are thinking …” (paul, 1992a, p. 643). however, the literature on critical thinking provides much more clear, concise, and concrete descriptions and definitions of critical thinking (burden & byrd, 1994; halpern, 1996; pascarella & terenzini 1991; ennis, 1962). moreover, the psychological school differs from the philosophical school in two ways. the first is concerned with the main scope of the psychological approach which focuses on the actions of critical thinkers. in other words, it focuses on what skills and abilities are usually practiced by critical thinkers (lewis & smith, 1993). basically, the behaviour of critical thinkers is the main concern of the psychological school whereas the philosophical school puts more emphasis on the characteristics and qualities of critical thinkers. the second difference is the focus on what people think measured against what they should think in certain conditions (sternberg, 1986). the psychological school differs from the philosophical school in presenting what aspects of critical thinking should be apparent. furthermore, the field of education has also had its share of critical thinking especially in the teaching and learning aspects of critical thinking such as benjamin bloom’s taxonomy for information processing skills (bloom, 1956). the advantage form which the educational school draws its benefits is the fact that it is based on years of experience of classroom practices (sternberg, 1986). however, the lack of clarity regarding their conceptual framework is evident in their instructional guides (but not the instruction strategies) and assessment of critical thinking (sternberg, 1986). irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 11 some researchers have defined critical thinking in terms of skills (burden & byrd, 1994; ennis, 1962; halpern, 1996). others have defined critical thinking in terms of complying to reasonable logic (pascarella and terenzini, 1991; simon & kaplan, 1989; stahl & stahl, 1991). even further, bloom’s taxonomy associates critical thinking to other higher order skills including knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, and evaluation (bloom, engelhart, hill, & krathwohl, 1956). despite the differences between researchers and the three schools of thought, there is an agreement amongst them regarding certain aspects of critical thinking. the aspects of agreement include analysis, using inductive or deductive reasoning to make inferences, judging or evaluating, and decision making or problem solving (ennis, 1985; facione, 1990; halpern, 1998; lipman, 1988; willingham, 2007). furthermore, there is a wide agreement amongst researchers that concerns background knowledge. most researchers agree that demonstrating higher order skills requires the individual’s attention to background knowledge (case, 2005; kennedy et al., 1991; willingham, 2007). facione (1990) argues that domain specific knowledge is crucial in practicing reasonable judgment. however, there is a disagreement amongst researchers regarding the extent of domain specific knowledge. on one hand, there are those who argue for the generalized teaching of critical thinking across domains (halpern, 2001). on the other hand, there are those who argue that thinking critically within a specific domain is more efficient (willingham, 2007). bailin (2002) points out that even at the specific skill level such as interpretation, the skill tends to vary across domains due to the different contexts that require different thinking. there are also those who argue that critical thinking is evident in both, general and domain specific areas. according to ennis (1989), critical thinking includes both deductive and inductive reasoning. ennis argues that some domains require deductive reasoning more often whereas other domains require inductive reasoning more often. ennis further argues that both types of reasoning are usually practiced in social sciences. even further, ennis argues that a certain degree of subjectivity is acceptable in certain areas such as art. moreover, facione (1990) argues for another area of agreement amongst researchers regarding dispositions. facione (2000) refers to dispositions as habits of the mind that determine how one acts in predictable yet malleable ways. these dispositions are respect for others’ opinions, the desire to be well informed, flexibility, the desire to seek reason, inquisitiveness, open mindedness, and fair mindedness. according to facione (2000), critical thinking includes both, skills and dispositions. however, there is a disagreement on whether these dispositions are major or complementary aspects of critical thinking. on one hand, those who argue for dispositions as a major aspect hold that an individual who has the dispositions to think critically but chooses not to, is a critical thinker. on the other hand, those who argue for dispositions as a complementary aspect hold that ethical standards must be fulfilled when thinking in a critical manner. according to facione (1990), an individual that does not follow the ethical standards in critical thinking is not a critical thinker. there is a further area of disagreement amongst researchers regarding the spontaneous transferability of critical thinking. on one hand, there are researchers who argue that critical thinking skills are transferable from one domain to another. on the other hand, there are researchers who argue that critical thinking transferability is not feasible. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 12 research in that area shows mixed results. halpern (2001), for instance, reports a successful transfer in his study for his students from one domain to another. nickerson (1988), on the other hand, reports mixed results to conclude that transferability seems to depend on what is taught and how it is taught. in other words, it depends on the distance of the transfer (ennis, 1989). distance refers to whether transfer is to be passed within the same or within a different domain. transferring the skills to an entirely different domain seems to be more difficult to achieve than transferring the skills within the same or a similar domain. moreover, the philosophical approach seems to emphasize passing criteria in addition to skill (paul, 1992). according to paul, these criteria include: fairness, significance, clarity, accuracy, precision, completeness, depth, logic, consistency, specificity, and relevance. the philosophical school puts even further emphasis on passing the criteria in an explicit manner (paul, 1992). critical thinking has several relations to other concepts including metacognition, motivation, and creativity. metacognition refers to one’s own awareness and control over thought (martinez, 2006). some researchers see critical thinking as part of metacognition, whereas others see critical thinking as a concept holding metacognition as one of its components (kuhn, 1999; willingham, 2007). according to kuhn (1999), critical thinking is a form of metacognition, which includes metacognitive knowing (thinking that depends on declarative knowledge), meta-strategic knowing (thinking that depends on procedural knowledge), and epistemological knowing (how knowledge is produced). on the other hand, willingham (2007) argues that critical thinking includes applying strategic skills at the right time. applying strategic skills requires strategic knowledge which is part of metacognition. moreover, facione (2000) views motivation as a precondition for applying critical thinking skills and abilities. facione (2000) pointed at dispositions as the motivation that drives individuals to apply critical thinking. motivation is seen as a base without which, critical thinking cannot be applied. unmotivated subjects mostly won’t exhibit critical thinking capabilities. finally, substantial research links critical thinking to creativity (bailin, 2002; ennis, 1985). bailin (2002) views creativity as a necessary condition for critical thinking. the link between critical thought and creativity comes from the fact that critical thinking requires generating intellectual products which, in turn, is linked to creativity. being critical regarding the quality of the intellectual products enhances creative thinking. finally, not only adults exhibit critical thinking capabilities. children also show critical thinking products including reasoning (willingham, 2007). kennedy, et al. (1991) discusses how critical thinking improves with age. the existence of critical thinking abilities in children is evident in the fact that it improves with aging. the authors argue that the only cause for children’s failure to demonstrate critical thinking capabilities is attributed to the lack of background and content knowledge needed to engage in a task. moreover, several studies reported children to have judgmental products to differentiate the credibility of various sources of information and topics (koenig & harris, 2005; lutz & keil, 2002). lutz and keil (2002) for instance found that children will find a mechanic’s opinion regarding car trouble is more credible than a doctor’s opinion for car trouble. furthermore, facione (1990) in pointing out to the apa delphi report views a suggestion to include the instruction of critical thinking to all school levels including kindergarten and early stages in addition to junior high or high school levels. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 13 methodology research design, site, and participants this research was a cross-sectional correlational case study that relied more on quantitative analysis for data interpretation. the use of a quantitative method was based on our conclusive product that requires a deductive conclusion for a hypothesis based on previous studies (i.e., the multilingual awareness) as mentioned in the introduction and the literature review. the quantitative data were represented mainly by the questionnaire and the two tests. the scores were our main concern due to their relevance to statistical analyses that relies only on numbers. the research sample mainly included students from mutah university. the students answered a questionnaire and two tests. the questionnaire that was used to measure the multilingual level of the students is the leap-q designed by blumenfeld and kaushanskaya (2007). the leap-q is designed to measure many aspects of language related phenomena such as language dominance, language exposure, and language preference; suitable for ages 14 to 80; can be administered in three forms: orally (interview), pencil and paper, and digitally; and available in 31 languages. the leap-q uses an 11-point (0-10) likert scale to determine the degree of strength in its items with each point associated to a descriptive label. the proficiency toefl test focused mainly on the receptive skills of the participants: reading and listening. we disregarded the productive skills in the toefl test. moreover, we included only one paragraph for reading and one audio for listening with 19 questions to be answered in 15 minutes. the critical thinking test focuses mainly on inferences, assumptions, deductions, conclusions, and interpreting arguments (watson & glaser, 2009). it consists of 80 items to be answered in 60 minutes. however, we only included 18 items of the test to be answered in 15 minutes mainly focusing on assumptions, deductions, and interpreting information. the reason for using short versions of both tests (the toefl and the critical thinking tests) is that students had to finish all the measures -including the questionnairein one session. in such cases, it is well known that students will begin to feel the need to fill everything so quickly disregarding the researcher’s need for authentic answers. as a result, we shortened the tests, but not the questionnaire, in order to get as much as honest and authentic answers as possible. the sample for this research consisted of 52 students (aged between 20 and 26) enrolled in the bachelor program and majored in english language and literature at mutah university in jordan. the sample included 25 males and 27 females ranging from second year to fourth year. the participants’ native language is arabic. the selection of the students was based on the purpose of the study. we selected 2nd, 3rd, and 4th year students because 1st year students have had little experience in language training. including 1st year students shows bias towards the national identity in which we are trying to eliminate. by eliminate, we are referring to eliminating the bias, not the national identity. the bias here is explained in terms of experience. in other words, the 1st year students lack the experience of learning a second language on a wider scale, thus their attachment to their national identity is still at its maximum levels. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 14 data collection and analysis the students finished the questionnaire and the two tests in one session. the researchers of the study administrated the data collection session after the approval of the university and the attendance of the volunteers. the students were given the questionnaire first followed by the proficiency test and finished the critical thinking test last. the questionnaire was held at the university, done on computer devices, and administered to clarify all aspects of ambiguity (if there is any) in its items. the questionnaire is meant to measure how much and how often a multilingual speaker uses his/her languages on a daily basis. for the native language, it is clear that learners would almost have the same level. however, for the second language (i.e., english), the students varied considerably regarding language use. the varied patterns demonstrated by the students’ answers are limited nonetheless. it seems that some advanced students (in terms of second language use) use english even at home but only in cases in which they watch a tv show or listen to music. this means that productive skills are only practiced in the classroom, whereas the receptive skills can be practiced anywhere. we used microsoft excel for computerizing the critical thinking test by having the questions automatically graded with the use of excel formulas. the leap-q was already computerized on a microsoft word file that can be transferred to microsoft excel for dealing with numbers. the toefl test was also computerized on an excel sheet much like the critical thinking test with formulas for grading the subjects as they answer the questions. the two tests were also held at the university, done on computers, and administered to clarify ambiguity (if there is any) and eliminate any chances for cheating. then the data was collected from the computers then imported to spss then analysed using person’s product coefficient for the correlation analysis. the analysis shows significant correlations amongst all three concepts (language use, proficiency and critical thinking). it should be mentioned that mutah university approved collecting data for the study without forcing subjects to participate in the study. the university administration informed the subjects in the english language department what kind of sample is required for the study and we also informed them that their data will be dealt with anonymously. the subjects were also told that their approval of participation is indicated in their attendance. in other words, if the subject attended the data collection session, his approval is implied. findings correlation analyses are commonly used to answer the “what” and the “how”. the “what” refers to what kind of relationship exists between the variables: positive, negative, or no relationship. the “how” refers to how close or distant the relationship -if there is anyis. a relationship is positive when the variables show a one direction progression. in other words, when one of the variables goes up, the other variable also goes up. a relationship is negative when the variables show a different direction progression. in other words, when one variable goes up, the other variable goes down. the degree of closeness is measured with the correlation score which is limited to the numbers between 1 and 0, or 0 and -1. the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 15 closer the score to 1, the higher positive correlation presented. the closer the score to -1, the higher negative correlation presented. the closer the score to 0, the weaker the correlation presented whether positive or negative and, in some instances, it presents no relationship. first, table 1.1 shows the correlation analysis test results on spss. the results indicate strong positive associations amongst the three variables (language use, linguistic competence, and critical thinking). table 1. pearson’s correlation analysis test results for language use, linguistic competence, and critical thinking multilingual level critical thinking toefl score toefl score .678 (p=.000) .727 (p=.000) 1 critical thinking .625 (p=.000) 1 multilingual level 1 second, the relationship between language use and critical thinking is shown in figure 1. the variables were found to be strongly correlated, r (.625), n=52, p=0.000. figure 1.the relationship between language use and critical thinking third, the relationship between linguistic competence and critical thinking is shown in figure 2. the variables were found to be strongly correlated, r (.72), n=52, p=0.000. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 16 figure 2. the relationship between linguistic competence and critical thinking finally, the relationship between language use and linguistic competence is shown in figure 3. the variables were found to be strongly correlated, r (.67), n=52, p=0.000. figure 3. the relationship between language use and linguistic competence irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 17 discussion the findings of this study demonstrate that language use, proficiency, and critical thinking are highly related. figure 1 demonstrates the relationship between language use and critical thinking. the strong association between the two variables indicates that using more than one language in varying degrees seems to influence the cognitive abilities of the individuals. however, we cannot make that claim because the correlation analysis only shows the strength of the association rather than what or how variables influence each other. this means that either language use influences critical thinking, or that critical thinking influences language use. the unknown direction of causality leads us to conclude that critical thinking is a necessary component of language learning and teaching on one hand. the previous literature on classroom practices suggests that critical thinking is highly associated to language learning and language teaching (shirkhani & fahim, 2011; meiramova, 2017; zhao, pandian & singh, 2016). on the other hand, substantial research suggests a cognitive advantage for multilinguals over monolinguals (alladi et al., 2013; bialystok et al., 2007; kirk, et al., 2013). some of these studies focused on cognitive decline amongst monolinguals and multilinguals to find that multilinguals develop dementia significantly later than monolinguals (alladi et al., 2013; bialystok et al., 2007). these studies reported a significant delay in the onset age of dementia in favor of multilinguals. other studies focused on other forms of cognition such as executive functioning and inhibitory control in specific (bialystok et al., 2004; kirk et al., 2013). mixed results have been reported. bialystok et al. (2004) reported a cognitive advantage in the simon task having found multilinguals to react faster than monolinguals. kirk et al. (2013), on the other hand, has not reported such an advantage having found no significant differences in reaction time between multilinguals and monolinguals in the simon task. moreover, critical thinking includes skills such as problem solving, making inferences, making decisions, think reasonably, and think logically amongst other skills. these skills can be applied in social settings when conversing with others. bagheri (2015), for instance, argues that applying critical thinking skills in the language learning process seems to influence the learners’ choices regarding the learning strategy use. in other words, learners who apply critical thinking skills seem to choose a variety of learning strategies that fit their learning style. the fact that critical thinkers could use different strategies for learning also means that they could use different strategies for conversations in social settings to show interest, raise awareness of the topic, organize thought, repair breakdowns, etc. this means that critical thinkers could fit better in social settings and that might explain why the critical thinking score significantly and highly correlated to language use. however, the case could be the opposite when the use of conversation strategies enhances the cognitive abilities of individuals given that these strategies are not learnt but applied immediately due to a prior experience (i.e., the first language conversation strategies). applying these strategies for a new language could prove to be useful for cognition. figure 2 demonstrates the relationship between linguistic competence and critical thinking. as mentioned earlier, bagheri (2015) argues that successful language learners are equipped with better critical thinking skills. so, it seems plausible to suggest that the teaching irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 18 of critical thinking skills must become common in schools. however, we still cannot claim that critical thinking influences language learning due to the correlation analysis which does not show the direction of causality. perhaps proficiency affects the critical thinking abilities of the individual. bagheri (2015) herself states that students who received eap (english for academic purposes) training showed better critical thinking skills. moreover, bauer, holmes and warren (2006) argue for the same direction as bagheri (2015). bauer, holmes and warren (2006) suggested that better linguistic abilities are crucial in accomplishing better critical thinking abilities. regardless of the direction of causality, critical thinking is a very important aspect of teaching and learning. teachers need critical thinking abilities to enhance their teaching experience whereas students need critical thinking abilities to enhance their learning experience. students should be taught to think critically and demonstrate high order skills and abilities. these skills and abilities will not only aid them in language learning only, but also aid them in learning in general. in a pilot study conducted with the watson and glaser critical thinking test, lombard and grosser (2008) argued that the quality of teaching critical thinking needs to improve for teachers in order to pass it on to their students properly. however, our aim in this study is to argue for multilingualism and linguistic competence as influential factors on cognition. the fact that linguistic use and linguistic competence both correlated significantly to critical thinking provides empirical support to our claims. it is evident at this point that confusion arises to the surface because of the different perspectives on critical thinking and language proficiency. on one hand, some argue that critical thinking is crucial for language learning. on the other hand, others argue for language proficiency as a crucial aspect of developing critical thinking. to sum up this part, teaching critical thinking and language teaching always go hand in hand because the two seem to influence each other in varying degrees. moreover, critical thinking is very important for both learners and teachers, but seems a bit more important for learners. whereas teachers rely more on experience in classrooms, learners rely more on cognitive acts inside and outside the classroom (e.g. paying attention for comprehension, memorizing, studying, revising, taking notes while listening, etc.). figure 3 shows the relationship between language use and linguistic competence. this phenomenon is well known in common circumstances. the more one uses a language, the more one becomes proficient in that language. dewey et al. (2012), for instance, reported that time spent in japan, time spent speaking japanese, time spent speaking japanese with native speakers, and dispersion (number of social groups in which a learner participated) are good predictors of language proficiency for non-native speakers of japanese who studied in japan. when learners decide to use the language more frequently, they gain better knowledge and control over time. they gain knowledge regarding the many aspect of the language being learnt including grammar and vocabulary. they also gain control over the grammar of the spoken language in the sense that learners will eventually find better opportunities to apply grammatical constraints on the stream of strings in conversations. even in pragmatics (i.e. knowledge of the social conduct of conversations) learners will gain more knowledge and control over time. they will learn when and how to apply certain forms of language in certain social settings. however, it is not yet clear if teachers in foreign settings (settings where the second language is not spoken) build better linguistic knowledge on the basis of language use in the classroom. theoretically, language use in foreign settings should enhance irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 19 the teachers’ linguistic experience. this assumption is based on the fact that teachers nowadays need background knowledge about certain topics. this need forces teachers to prepare well before the lesson, which means that teachers need to collect background knowledge either by reading about the topic or listening to a show (or a video) about the topic. in both cases (reading or listening), teachers will expand their knowledge and enhance their learning experience about both, the language and the topic that they are teaching. to sum up, the need to enhance the language learning experience is evident in most scenarios nowadays due to the lack of interest in most cases by students. in jordan, at least, it is well known that english is rarely spoken in public and only english language students speak english, but they rarely do so in public. the students’ use of the english language is limited to the classroom in most cases. enhancing language learning requires encouraging students to speak the second language outside the classroom to build a cognitive base that relies on using learning strategies for learning new aspects of the language and using conversational strategies for passing the nature of the social conducts of conversations to others (especially those who are still beginners in language learning). it is evident in previous studies that multilingualism provides a cognitive advantage for multilinguals. so, we can assume -but not confirmthat frequent language use should also enhance the higher order skills of the learners including their critical thinking skills. conclusions the findings of this research indicate that strong relationships exist between language use, linguistic competence, and critical thinking. however, the unknown direction of causality makes it a bit difficult to conclude that multilingualism and proficiency are influential factors for enhancing critical thinking. in order to detect the direction of causality in correlational studies, a longitudinal study must be conducted with two groups. this research can be considered a good reference point for anyone who wants to investigate the effect of proficiency on critical thinking. this can be done by conducting a longitudinal research in which two groups (experimental and control group) are compared against each other. the experimental receives extensive training in a second language; the other group receives basic training in a second language to see if extensive training enhances the critical thinking of the experiment group compared to the control group. the same can be said about language use but with a different method. for instance, a group of l2 learners in foreign settings compared to l2 learners in native settings. most research on critical thinking claims that teaching critical thinking will enhance the learners’ ability to learn a second language (rezaei, et al., 2011; shirkhani, & fahim, 2011). these claims are supported by the results of this study given that the strongest association is reported between critical thinking and linguistic competence. however, little or no reports had been provided on the impact of language use on critical thinking. the multilingual level of individuals determined by their use of the language being learned could prove to be efficient in enhancing their cognitive abilities. if so, trends to encourage speaking the second language in foreign settings must arise. if speaking in public is not to occur, then another trend should arise to address the issue of teaching critical thinking and especially in jordan. this call comes from the fact that the jordanian courses at the university level do not include a plan to teach critical thinking in irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 20 an explicit or an implicit manner. students need critical thinking for cases, the university level learning, and real-life preparation. disclosure statement no potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors of this manuscript. references alladi, s., bak, t. h., duggirala, v., surampudi, b., shailaja, m., shukla, a. k., ... & kaul, s. 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(2017). applications of critical thinking research: foreign language teaching in an intercultural context. the online journal of new horizons in education-january, 7(1). nickerson, r. s. (1988). on improving thinking through instruction. review of research in education, 15(1988–1989), 3–57. nixon, g. (2013). why are metalinguistic skills important? retrieved on january from http://www.gemmlearning.com/blog/learning-issues/why-are-metalinguistic-skills-i mportant/ pascarella, e., & terenzini, p. (1991). how college affects students: findings and insights from twenty years of research. san francisco, ca: jossey bass. paul, r. (1992, a). critical thinking: what every person needs to survive in a rapidly changing world (2nd ed.). santa rosa, ca: the foundation for critical thinking. paul, r. w. (1992, b). critical thinking: what, why, and how? new directions for community colleges, 1992(77), 3–24. rezaei, s., derakhshan, a., & bagherkazemi, m. (2011). critical thinking in language education. journal of language teaching and research, 2(4), 769. shirkhani, s., & fahim, m. (2011). enhancing critical thinking in foreign language learners. procedia-social and behavioral sciences, 29, 111-115. simon, h.a., & kaplan, c.a. (1989). in posner, m.i. (ed), foundations of cognitive sciences. (pp. 1-47). cambridge, ma: mit press. stahl, n.n., & stahl, r.j., (1991). we can agree after all: achieving a consensus for a critical thinking component of a gifted program using the delphi technique. roeper review, 14(2), 79-88. sternberg, r. j. (1986). critical thinking: its nature, measurement, and improvement. national institute of education. retrieved from http://eric.ed.gov/pdfs/ed272882.pdf. watson, g. & glaser, e.m. (2009). watson-glaser ii critical thinking appraisal technical manual and user’s guide. san antonio, tx: pearson. willingham, d. t. (2007). critical thinking: why is it so hard to teach? american educator, 8– 19. zhao, c., pandian, a., & singh, m. k. m. (2016). instructional strategies for developing critical thinking in efl classrooms. english language teaching, 9(10), 14-21. biographical notes hazim taisir dayij alkhrisheh is a phd student at multilingualism doctoral school, the university of pannonia, hungary; hkhresha@yahoo.com failasofah is phd student at multilingualism doctoral school, the university of pannonia, hungary and faculty member at faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, jambi, indonesia;t failasofah@unja.ac.id taisir alkhrisheh works at amman arab university, jordan; tkhrisheh@yahoo.com http://www.gemmlearning.com/blog/learning-issues/why-are-metalinguistic-skills-important/ http://www.gemmlearning.com/blog/learning-issues/why-are-metalinguistic-skills-important/ http://eric.ed.gov/pdfs/ed272882.pdf mailto:hkhresha@yahoo.com mailto:failasofah@unja.ac.id mailto:tkhrisheh@yahoo.com this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 376 beyond the immigration services: the role of the international center in promoting intercultural programs for international student success marzul hidayat abstract international students have come to a specific country for a specific period of time for the purpose of obtaining a degree. the success for international students who are from various academic and social backgrounds is not only about educational achievement but also regarding social connection in a new academic community. one of the centers that promotes the success for international students is the international center in every university. the purpose of this inductive study was to investigate the role of the international center (ic) in promoting international students’ success in college academically and non-academically. the theoretical framework of tinto’s (1975) student integration theory in higher education was used to guide the study while the data were collected through interviews and observations with the director, the intercultural programs and training coordinator, and one international student adviser. the interview data and field notes obtained were organized and analyzed for regularities, patterns, and emerging topics. the results of the data analysis produced six salient themes: mission and vision, pre-arrival programs, arrival programs, ongoing programs, preventive programs, international students’ challenges. the implications of the study are also discussed. keywords intercultural program, international students, multicultural programs, student engagement article history received 1 june 2022 accepted 18 november 2022 how to cite hidayat, m. (2022). beyond the immigration services: the role of the international center in promoting intercultural programs for international student success. indonesian research journal in education |irje|, 6(2), 376– 393.https://doi.org/10.22437 /irje.v6i2.24463 faculty member, universitas jambi, indonesia; corresponding author; mhiday@unja.ac.id https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v6i2.24463 https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v6i2.24463 mailto:mhiday@unja.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 377 introduction students essentially integrate into the college environment in an array of ways, and the college can support in that integration in a number of ways. but, why focus on the international center? first, it is hard to imagine a college or university without an international center, it has international students. second, the international center (ic), which is under the division of student affairs, can play a unique and important role to help international students succeed in academic and non-academic matters through its educational and social programs. mainly in terms of its role, the international center is committed to enhancing internationalization initiatives through immigration services, intercultural programs and cross-cultural exchanges, and collaborative efforts with academic and administrative departments. third, success for international students who come from different educational and social backgrounds is not only regarding academic achievement but also regarding social involvement in a new educational community ( ). mukminin, 2019 who studied to compare the intercultural effectiveness of avcılar and gök (2022) international and domestic students found that international students compared with domestic ones had a higher level of intercultural effectiveness. in terms of interventions, suggested that universities can introduce programs that could aladegbaiye et al. (2022) improve international students’ acculturation experiences at specific times. additionally, kuh found that success in college related to “academic achievement; engagement in et al. (2007) educationally purposeful activities; and attainment of educational objectives” (p. 10). fourth, international students can become important sources of diversity on university campuses in the united states and american students may take advantage of this situation in order to get used to working and studying with people from different countries and backgrounds . in light of the importance of international students’ (zhao et al., 2005) existence in the university, the international center plays an important role by providing programs and services in order to help them survive and succeed academically and socially. the purpose of this inductive study was to investigate the role of the international center (ic) in promoting student success in college academically and non-academically for international students. the research question sought to answer, “what are the programs for international students so that they persist and achieve their educational goals? creating the conditions that support student success in college academically and socially is very important because student success in college may not be “solely the responsibility of students” (tinto & pusser, 2006, p. 5). literature review the focus of the literature review was based on the findings from several studies that examine the link between the institutional conditions or factors and student success in college. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 378 institutional characteristics, student engagement, and student outcomes one of the studies related to students’ engagement and educational outcomes was done by who found that student engagement significantly contributed öz and boyacı (2021) to the students’ gpa, the students’ satisfaction, pursuing postgraduate education. additionally, investigated the relationship between institutional mission and pike et al. (2003) students’ involvement and educational outcomes. their study examined whether institutional mission, as represented by carnegie classification (background, academic involvement, social involvement, college environment, integration of experience, gains in learning), is related to student learning and development. the participants in this study were a stratified random sample of 1,500 undergraduates from across the nation who completed the college student experience questionnaire (cseq). the findings that emerged from this study are first students attending different types of colleges and universities reported having significantly different patterns of experiences in college. students differed in terms of their academic involvement, social involvement, and perceptions of the college environment. they did not differ in their integration of diverse experiences and, with the exception of general education, did not differ in gains made during college. after controlling for student background characteristics, no significant differences were found in students’ perceptions of the college environment, levels of academic and social involvement, integration of information, or educational outcomes by carnegie classification. the findings suggest that the nature of students’ educational experiences varies substantially from school to school including for international students and every institution in the us should provide academic and social support based on the nature of the students. in addition, kuh in their study focused on the effects of student et al. (2008) engagement on grade and persistence argued that most of the research examining the connections between student engagement and college outcomes were only based on single institution studies that did not always control for student background characteristics or other factors or institution-level data that can mask the effects of student-level variables. the purpose of the study was to find out the relationships between key student behaviors and the institutional practices and conditions that foster student success. the second purpose was to determine the effects of engaging in educationally purposeful activities on these outcomes for students from different racial and ethnic backgrounds. the data for this study were from 18 baccalaureate degree-granting colleges and universities that administered the national survey of student engagement (nsse) at least once between 2000 and 2003. the authors analyzed the data by using ordinary least squares or logistic regression. the findings point to two conclusions: in terms of the educationally intentional activities, there is a positive connection between student engagement and academic outcomes as indicated both by their first-year grades and by their persistence during the first and second year of university (kuh student engagement – a range of behaviors that institutions can influence et al., 2008). with teaching practices and programmatic interventions such as first-year seminars, service-learning courses, and learning communities positively affects grades in both the first and last year of college as well as persistence to the second year at the same institution and http://eric.ed.gov.proxy.lib.fsu.edu/ericwebportal/home.portal?_nfpb=true&_pagelabel=ericsearchresult&_urltype=action&newsearch=true&ericextsearch_searchtype_0=au&ericextsearch_searchvalue_0=%22kuh+george+d.%22 http://eric.ed.gov.proxy.lib.fsu.edu/ericwebportal/home.portal?_nfpb=true&_pagelabel=ericsearchresult&_urltype=action&newsearch=true&ericextsearch_searchtype_0=au&ericextsearch_searchvalue_0=%22kuh+george+d.%22 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 379 second, student engagement in every educationally intentional activity holds a compensatory impact on the 1st-year grades and persistence to the 2nd year of university at the same institution. the authors concluded that students benefited from early interventions and sustained attention at key transition points and students attending institutions that employ a comprehensive system of complementary initiatives based on effective educational practices were more likely to perform better academically, to be more satisfied, and to persist and graduate. besides, in their book entitled -student success in college: creating kuh et al. (2005) conditions that matter present policies, programs and practices at nine private and 11 public colleges and universities that provide various types of support academically and socially for a number of students. the main points of the book are to present the findings of a two-year study at those 20 institutions conducted by at the nsse kuh et al. (2005) institute for effective educational practice at the indiana university center for postsecondary research and the american association of higher education (aahe). the research team called the documenting effective educational practice (deep) consists of 24 scholars and practitioners. by using two regression models, the team selected the twenty schools from the 700 schools that participated in the national survey of student engagement (nsse) from 2000-2002. the authors concluded that there were six institutional factors or conditions that influence and shape high levels of student integration and persistence. the first is the 20 universities in the study state and share clear missions with their stakeholders, inform decisions and influence the routine operations of the schools. the second, the selected universities focus on undergraduate education and learning, utilizing active and collaborative learning activities, which show that these schools acknowledge their students possess different learning preferences and emphasize assessment of student learning outcomes. third, the twenty universities adjust physical environments for educational enrichment. for example, some universities create internal gathering spaces that involve campus residences and areas in which students and faculty may naturally come together in ways that promote student engagement. fourth, the 20 universities have created pathways to student success. many institutions have instituted early warning systems that identify students at risk and have developed networks of individuals who are ready to support them. they also offer extensive training to advisors so that they can provide accurate and timely information to students. fifth, assessment and accountability are hallmarks for the twenty universities. they frequently run both internal and external assessments of student performance and satisfaction and rely on data to inform their decision-making. finally, the 20 universities show a shared responsibility for educational quality and student success. studies on international students one of the studies on international students was done by who ammigan et al. (2021) investigated whether the satisfaction and institutional recommendations were affected by students’ nationality and destination country. they found that students’ nationality and destination country considerably influenced satisfaction and recommendations. also, irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 380 learning experience signified most for overall satisfaction while english language support and employability skills were mainly connected with institutional recommendations. additionally, conducted a particular study on a comparison of zhao et al. (2005) international student and american student engagement in effective educational practices. their study focuses on how the international students’ engagement is effective in educational activities by comparing the international bachelor degree students’ activities with american students in particular regions. found that student engagement had a zhao et al. (2005) correlation with their learning, individual development, and satisfaction with their university, including their perception on the support of their campus for the academic and social needs. this study involves nearly 3,000 undergraduate international students and more than 67,000 of their american counterparts at 317 four-year colleges and universities. the authors used the college student report, which was developed specifically for the national survey of student engagement (nsse). they used t-tests to see if the experiences of international students differed from american students and employed a series of regression analyses to contrast the scores of the two groups to account for the influence of potentially confounding background characteristics that other studies suggest could affect student engagement and satisfaction. the findings of this study indicate that international students are more engaged in some areas than american students – particularly in the first year of college – and less engaged in others. they also reported greater gains across the board in personal and social development and general education. by their senior year, the international students who are still enrolled tend to be more adapted to the cultural milieu and generally do not differ from american seniors in their patterns of student engagement, including time spent socializing and relaxing. one of the most important recommendations of this study is that a campus cannot simply recruit a critical mass of international students; it must also intentionally arrange its resources so that international and american students benefit in desired ways from one another’s presence. thus, any effort to increase the numbers of international students on a campus must also be accompanied by programs and services that induce these students and their american counterparts to engage with one another as well as in other educationally purposeful activities. this study involved a large number of international students, however, international students from different cultures and nations may differ in ways that also affect student engagement and the result of this study cannot be generalized to all international students. moreover, in a 2003 study, investigated the social and myles and cheng (2003) cultural life of non-native english speaking international graduate students at a canadian university. the purpose of the study was to investigate some major features regarding the social and cultural life of 12 non-native english speaking (nnes) international graduate students at a canadian university through interviews. this study mainly examined the nnes international students’ perceptions and experiences of how they had adapted socially and culturally to university life in and outside the classroom. twelve interviews with semi-structured format of the interviews, ranged from one hour to one and a half hours in length, were held informally. of the twelve graduate students, six males and six females were interviewed. the participants of this study included five chinese (mandarin speakers), one east indian (hindi), and six europeans (two bulgarians, two romanians, one polish, and one greek). among them, nine were working on master’s degrees and three were working irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 381 on their doctoral degrees. based on the interviews and data analysis, four themes emerged in this study: they are (1) relationships with supervisors and professors; (2) experiences as teaching assistants; (3) communication with colleagues and friends, and (4) social life. the finding of this study shows that international student experiences are mixed and the adaptation process relies on both internal and external factors. this study also indicates that the students who were interviewed seemed very well adapted to the university life regardless of the fact that they had not made an intentional attempt to get in touch with native english speaking (nes) students. because they have learned about the host culture mostly through a network of students with similar cultural and linguistic backgrounds. however, according to the authors, this also shows that cultural mixing does not take place and international students miss out on critical learning opportunities that can improve the process of adaptation. one of the suggestions of the study is that in order to provide a social context that will help the personal adjustment of nnes graduate students to university life, programs can be devised to promote the establishment of relationships among a mixture of both international students of similar cultural background and host nationals. another interesting study regarding international students comes from al-sharideh . they examined the factors that influence the personal adjustment of and goe (1998) international students at an american university. the purpose of their study was to examine the validity of the conditional hypotheses that the assimilation of american culture and the establishment of social ties with americans influence the adjustment of an international student only when the student has not established social ties with other persons with a common cultural background. the data were collected from international students enrolled at kansas state university, manhattan, kansas. of 1,093 international students who were enrolled at the university, representing 95 nations, 300 international students were chosen as the sample consisting of 223 students from the first stratum of better-represented nations and 77 students from the second stratum of sparsely-represented nations by using a disproportionate stratified sampling design with random selection. data were collected through a survey administered by telephone. in total, 232 of 300 international students in the sample were successfully contacted and 6 said no to participate. the final sample was 226 international students representing 67 nations. the rosenberg self-esteem scale was used to measure personal adjustment variable, which was conceptually defined in the study as the maintenance or achievement of high self-esteem by an international student within the context of an american university. in addition to measure assimilation of american culture variable, an attitudinal scale comprised of eight items was utilized. the researchers used the multiple regression analysis with ordinary least squares (ols) estimation to analyze the data and to test the research hypotheses. the findings of the study show that international students in the sample tended to be personally adjusted which indicates that international students in the sample tended to establish strong ties with both americans and coculturals. moreover, the findings from the multiple regression analysis revealed and provided empirical support for the hypothesis that “the relationship between the assimilation of american culture and self-esteem is conditioned by the number of strong ties that an international student establishes with other co-culturals” ( ). further, the negative sign of the al-sharideh & goe, 1998, pp. 714-715 coefficient indicates that the strength of the ties between assimilation of american culture irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 382 and self-esteem declines as the number of strong relationships with co-culturals rises. in brief, the study has shown that participation in an ethnic community via the establishment of strong ties with other co-culturals is the most important factor influencing the personal adjustment of international students. however, the study also proposes that the size of a student’s personal network of co-culturals should not be big and the establishment of strong ties with americans should be increased. this study suggests that it is not so good for international students to be extensively integrated into an ethnic community, as it seems to create problems that negatively influence their self-esteem. one of the important recommendations of this study is that higher education policies should provide programs designed to encourage the establishment of social relationships among small groups of students consisting of a combination of both international students from a similar cultural background and americans. the development of a balanced network of strong ties with both co-culturals and americans is more likely to provide a social context that will serve to promote the self-esteem of international students and help their personal adjustment to life in the american university. in addition, investigated the effects of a peer abe, talbot, and geelhoed (1998) program on international student adjustment. the purpose of their study was to (a) assess the effects a peer program on international students’ awareness, knowledge and use of campus resources, (b) assess the effects of ongoing, organized interaction with host students on international students’ adjustment, and (c) determine whether students from non-asian countries have higher scores on adjustment scales than students from asian countries. in this correlational study, sixty newly admitted international students were involved. the majority of their sample came from asian countries, other students represented europe, latin america, africa, and the middle east. their study sample consisted of two groups: 28 students who were involved in the semester-long international peer program (ipp) and a control group of 32 students who did not participate in the program. to get the data, they use two kinds of instruments student adaptation to college questionnaire (sacq) and the demographics and campus resources questionnaire. the scores of the 28 ipp participants’ campus resource use and student adaptation to college questionnaire (sacq) were compared to those of 32 international students who did not participate in the peer program. the findings of the study indicate that the ipp participants showed significantly higher social adjustment scores than the non-participants. this study also indicates those participants from asian countries showed more difficulty adjusting to campus life than international students from non-asian countries. the studies on the institutional characteristics, student engagement, and student outcomes and on international students above serve as a framework to look at what programs that are provided by the international center for the international students so that they achieve their goal and serve as a framework for the presentation of the findings of this study. theoretical framework: tinto’s student integration theory in higher education stemmed from the preceding work by spady, like tinto’s theory (1975) spady (1970). tinto a sociologist, represented one of the early conceptual models of the student attrition irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 383 process in higher education. spady theorized that the social integration of students (shared group values, academic performance, normative congruence, and support of friends) enlarges that student’s institutional commitment, ultimately reducing the chances of student attrition. in brief, student integration theory covers six characteristics tinto’s (1975) (pre-entry attributes, goals/commitments, institutional experiences, integration, goals/commitments, and outcome). prior to matriculation to postsecondary education, students develop certain characteristics that are formed by their familial upbringing. in addition, those students’ academic and social skills and abilities may happen in both formal and informal settings. these skills and abilities in turn help form students’ goals and commitments regarding college, the workforce, and their place in society as a whole. during college, formal and informal college experiences shape the student’s level of integration into the college, academically and socially. according to tinto, this level of integration has an impact on the student’s development of goals and commitments, resulting in a decision to persist in or depart from college. milestone theoretical model has become the framework tinto’s (1975) for college student retention studies. it indicates that student-institution fit forms students’ goal commitment and commitment to the institution, which eventually affect student persistence. the theory investigates the many-sided operation of relations between the student and the college academic and social systems on student persistence. although the theory did not discuss particularly international students, it has been used as the foundation of student retention studies since this model was presented. i used tinto’s theory as my framework to explore the role of international center (ic) in promoting student success in college academically and non-academically for international students. i particularly looked at the programs that the international center provides for international students before and while they are in college so that they persist and achieve their educational goals. methodology the purpose of this qualitative case study was to examine the role of the international center (ic) in promoting international student success in college academically and non-academically at an american university by looking at the programs provided for international students so that they persist and achieve their educational goals. the goal of conducting a qualitative study has historically been “to explore, explain, or describe the phenomenon of interest” and a case study is one of the (marshall & rossman, 1999, p. 33) qualitative traditions. according to ), a qualitative case study is an intensive merriam (1998 and holistic description, explanation, and analysis of “a bounded system” (p. 27) or phenomenon such as a person, a program, an institution, a process, a social unit, a group, and a policy. wrote that the bounded system can be bounded by time and creswell (1998) place and the case can be a program, an activity, or individuals. in this study, i investigated the role of the international center (ic) in promoting international student success in college academically and non-academically as my case. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 384 setting and participants the international center (ic) at an american university is one of the units, which is under the division of student affairs and is certified by the federal government to enable international students to engage in academic and social programs and that helps international students with acculturation and adjustment, and opportunities to experience american culture. the international center has fifteen staff and the number of staff working at the ic demonstrates the diversity of its students. for this study, i chose the director, the intercultural programs and training coordinator, and one international student adviser as my interviewees. they three are women. data collection for this study, interviews and observations were the techniques for data collection. employing a semi-structured interview technique, each participant was interviewed one time for about 45 minutes to investigate the programs that the international center provides for international students. all interviews were recorded with the consent of the participants and transcribed by the researcher. in addition to the interviews, observations of the two programs that the international center provides for international students were conducted and field notes taken. one of the programs was the coffee hour, which is held every friday during the semester from 5:30 p.m. to 7:00 p.m. the other program was english conversation club, which is run from monday to thursday for about one hour. i observed the coffee hour twice and english conversation club once to investigate the physical layout of the program, time line of events, interactions among students, topics of conversations, students’ activities and responses including non-verbal gestures. data analysis and coding interview data and field notes obtained were organized and analyzed for regularities, patterns, and emerging topics. in qualitative research, data are not organized and analyzed by predetermined criteria; rather the meanings and themes appear from the data. merriam wrote that in qualitative studies, data analysis “has been something like a mysterious (1998) metamorphosis” (p. 155). qualitative research is an inductive process (merriam, 1998; during the process, interview data and field notes creswell, 1998, bogdan & biklen, 1998). were read and reread. merriam (1998) wrote the process was called coding. she explained that coding was related to assign “some sort of shorthand designation to various aspects of your data” (p. 164) which would help the researcher to get back or retrieve to specific data. in this study, all the descriptions were captured from the interviews and field notes. the quotations are verbatim. the names of the participants are pseudonyms. at the beginning, i organized my data into five categories: mission and vision, pre-arrival programs, arrival programs, ongoing programs, and preventive programs. after the initial coding, the transcripts and notes were reread with the initial list of codes. codes that suggested similar meanings within the text were combined into one code. one additional code “international irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 385 students’ challenges” was considered as it emerged from the interview data. in terms of trustworthiness of this study, participant checks (two interviewees because one interviewee was busy) and rich thick description were used to help the researcher determine whether or not the study is accurate, reliable, credible, dependable, confirmable, and transferable (creswell, 1998). findings and discussion this study was to look at the programs that the international center provides for international students before and while they are in college so that they persist and complete their educational goals. in his 1975 longitudinal theory of student dropout from higher education, argued that students’ level of academic and social integration with tinto (1975) the university were the major factors in their ability to succeed in college. the findings from this qualitative case study data revealed that the international center, which is a unit under the division of student affairs and certified by the federal government, does have programs to promote international student success by engaging them in academic and social programs and by helping them to integrate into acculturation and adjustment of american culture academically and socially. six salient themes emerged: mission and vision; pre-arrival programs; arrival programs; ongoing programs; preventive programs; and international students’ challenges. mission and vision this study revealed that the international center’s mission and vision are committed to enhancing the internationalization initiatives through immigration services, intercultural programs and cross-cultural exchanges, and collaborative efforts with academic and administrative departments. the following excerpt of one of the three respondents (r#1 refers to respondent one (the international student adviser), r#2 refers to respondent 2 (the intercultural programs and training coordinator, and r#3 refers to respondent 3 (the director) illustrates the mission and vision of the center: r#3: “basically, the overall mission of the center is to help international students and american students integrate and share cultural understanding and help american students and international students develop intercultural competencies. so, our bigger mission, we do provide immigration services.” based on the mission that the international center has, it is not only to provide the immigration services, but also to integrate international students academically and socially into american educational system at the university so that they have no problems with their educational program. the three respondents above revealed that through its mission and vision, the international center plays an important role to promote international student success at the university academically and socially. through its mission and vision, the center wants to align international students’ goal and institution goal. theory indicates tinto’s (1975) that student-institution fit forms students’ goal commitment and commitment to the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 386 institution, which eventually affect student persistence. according to kuh, et al (2007), colleges and universities that line up their mission with their educational policies and programs in general are more effective and efficient. pre-arrival programs the international center provides pre-arrival programs for international students by sending them information such as newsletters, compulsory orientations and workshops, weather, and procedures to get visa to ensure that international students who want to study at the university know what they need to prepare and to do when they arrive. the programs also want to help international students to get earlier information related to academic and social matters. the following excerpt of one of the three respondents illustrates what the pre-arrival programs look like, r#1: “again, the government does require us to give certain types of pre-arrival information. so, of course, we do compile the regulations but um..um..as things progress and we realize what students really need and we try to provide more information about the procedure, what they should be aware of and how to get involved in campus life even before they step foot on campus and um..um..um..with better technology students start to get more involved even before they arrive.” the importance of pre-arrival programs for international students in relation to their success at the university can be seen from the following excerpt: r#3: we have one person that works full-time just doing the initial i-20s of students who just admitted and then that the person who sends out all of the newsletters, updating the students on what to do to prepare, what will be like when you get here, and all of the orientation and the workshops, and et cetera. pre-arrival programs are not only required by the federal government of the u.s., but also required to promote international student success by providing earlier information regarding academic and non-academic matters for them. in their study on zhao et al. (2005) international students recommended that a campus could not simply recruit a critical mass of international students; it must also intentionally arrange its resources so that international students benefit from the available resources. pre-arrival programs are essential for international students to get initial steps before they arrive on campus. arrival programs the arrival programs are also provided by the international center for international students. the programs are intended to start integrating them into the academic and social life on campus. the international center usually provides weeks of welcome. during the weeks of welcome, many activities take place, ranging from academic and social orientations irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 387 such as academic resources, counseling center, student right, enrollment, social security trips, shopping trips to the u.s. culture. the following excerpt relates to one of the respondents’ descriptions regarding the arrival programs: r#2: “then, when they arrive, we organize four weeks, we call them weeks of welcome for everyone and throughout weeks of welcome, we organize events here on campus and in the center. we have early orientation, main orientation, ssn trip, walmart trip, us culture series, student right. in addition to that, like i said weeks of welcome, it’s also filled with activities and sessions for international students when they first come here to know. then we have an office for students’ right and we have a counseling center and sports that they can play. so, we bring those people here and they give students workshops on their services. just to give everything that the university has to offer, to make their lives better and to help their adjustment process.” explicitly, the excerpt explains that the arrival programs are set up to help international students to integrate and adjust with american culture academically and socially. the programs serve as initial steps for international students to get ready, get into, and get through. kuh et al. found that students benefited from early interventions and (2008) sustained attention at key transition points and students attending institutions that employ a comprehensive system of complementary initiatives based on effective educational practices were more likely to perform better academically, to be more satisfied, and to persist and graduate. ongoing programs integration can take place both inside and outside the classroom, and student persistence in college can be influenced by their experiences gained both inside and outside the classroom . this study revealed that various ongoing programs are provided (tinto, 1998) formally and informally by the international center for both international and american students, ranging from the coffee hour, english conversation club, international friends, global ambassador, global pathway certificate, international education week, international bazaar, to bridging culture workshops. the purpose of the programs is to help both international and american students benefit in desired ways from one another’s presence. because, success for international students who come from different educational and social backgrounds is not only regarding academic achievement but also regarding social involvement in a new educational community. wrote that during college, formal and informal college experiences tinto (1975) shaped the student’s level of integration into the college academically and socially. according to tinto, this level of integration has an impact on the student’s development of goals and commitments, resulting in a decision to persist in or depart from college. the following description illustrates one of the respondents’ perspectives on ongoing programs: http://eric.ed.gov.proxy.lib.fsu.edu/ericwebportal/home.portal?_nfpb=true&_pagelabel=ericsearchresult&_urltype=action&newsearch=true&ericextsearch_searchtype_0=au&ericextsearch_searchvalue_0=%22kuh+george+d.%22 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 388 r#2: “i can tell you more about programs that are ongoing that happen every year, every semester for students that are here because that’s my job. we have many different things. we have the coffee hour, which is every friday afternoon and the main point for the coffee hour is for the international students to come and see each other in a relaxing atmosphere and hang out with each other. but also for the us students to come and meet the international students and also in a relaxed atmosphere and talk to each other, and hang out and make plans for later in the evening or the weekend and stuff like that. that’s one thing and then we do english conversation club, which depends on the schedule of tutors.” the international center has academic workshops and multiple social programs to provide support for international students and to integrate them into american culture so that they achieve their educational goal. suggested that any effort to increase the zhao et al. (2005) numbers of international students on a campus had to be accompanied by programs and services that induce these students and their american counterparts to engage with one another as well as in other educationally purposeful activities. one of the interesting ongoing programs is the international friendship program. the purpose of this program is to match an international student and an american student, as the intercultural programs and training coordinator revealed in the following quotation: r#2: “then we have the international friendship program and for that program, international students have to sign up and the us students sign up. then we match them according to their preference.” this is like a peer program that matches the international students and the host students facilitated by the international center. in a study on the effects of an international peer program (ipp) on international student adjustment, abe, talbot, and geelhoed (1998) found that the ipp participants showed significantly higher social adjustment scores than the non-participants. in addition, kuh et al. found that student engagement in (2008) educationally purposeful activities was positively related to academic outcomes as represented by first-year student grades and by persistence between the first and second year of college. the ongoing programs that the international center offers are important to integrate international students academically and socially. positive interactions with other members in one institution will enhance academic and social integration. stated myles and cheng (2003) that if cultural mixing did not take place, international students missed out on critical learning opportunities that could improve the process of adaptation. the international center as one of the units at the university facilitates the cultural mixing through educationally purposeful programs because international students from different cultures and nations may differ in ways that also affect student engagement. http://eric.ed.gov.proxy.lib.fsu.edu/ericwebportal/home.portal?_nfpb=true&_pagelabel=ericsearchresult&_urltype=action&newsearch=true&ericextsearch_searchtype_0=au&ericextsearch_searchvalue_0=%22kuh+george+d.%22 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 389 preventive programs generally speaking, international students face a number of academic and nonacademic challenges that make them work hard to be successful in college because they come from different ethnic and cultural backgrounds. during the interviews with my interviewees, i asked about the preventive programs that might be offered by the international center. what the international center does to prevent the international students from leaving the college? the following excerpts illustrate the respondents’ perspectives on the programs: r#1: “from the immigration perspective, students fail to maintain their status in some ways, they won’t be able to progress to their degree have to leave the country and if they are no fully enrolled in their program and they are not making progress in general. then they have immigration problem that we have to attend to. so, we do try to prevent problems as much as possible by looking at the students’ record by looking at individual circumstances, advising what resources are available to them. it’s not just an immigration role but we feel like we are a part of the university as a whole.” r#3: “well, at the undergraduate level, we have tuition waivers that we can award to the higher achieving international students. now at the graduate level, we have no waivers because those are in the departments.” in terms of academic matters, the preventive programs that the international center provides are to ensure that international students follow the rules that the university applies. the international center does have access to student record in case they are in trouble and the advisers at the center will respond and give advice to the students. in terms of non-academic matters such as financial problems, the international center provides scholarships for higher achieving undergraduate international students as illustrated in the above excerpts. one of the studies on international students recommends that a campus cannot simply recruit many international students; it must also intentionally organize its resources so that international students benefit from those resources. thus, any effort to increase the numbers of international students on a campus must also be accompanied by programs and services that help them to be successful . (zhao et al., 2005) international students’ challenges the three respondents revealed that international students face various problems and challenges academically and socially. the international center through its programs wants to bridge and help them succeed in their programs. among the challenges are language barriers, communication skills, adjustment to academic matters such as writing and speaking, plagiarism, and choosing major professors. in terms of language barriers, one of the respondents illustrated that: irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 390 r#1: “well, you know it’s a different environment altogether and most of our population are graduate students and having better graduate students i can say it very difficult. going into a new program, not knowing what to expect. having expectation that you have never encountered before. so that couples with not being a native speaker of english. i can imagine how challenging that is.” in terms of adjustment to academic and social life, the following excerpt illustrates one of the respondents’ perspectives on it: r#2: “it is about the adjustment, but the adjustment to a general life in another country. it is the adjustment to academic requirements because academic settings are different from their home country. so, it’s the adjustment to speaking, thinking, writing. it’s making friends because it’s difficult to make a friendship.” plagiarism and selecting major professors are the two major problems faced by international students as illustrated by the third respondent below: r#3: “so the main thing that i focus on since i came here is to identify what are the problems that the international students are having and then what can we do?... but some of the biggest problems for those i mentioned, plagiarism which is a cultural thing that many students just don’t realize that come from other countries. and, then, another huge problem of our students as i mentioned before is the major professors. and just helping students understand and navigate how they go about choosing the professors and now we also have workshops with the graduate studies on choosing professors and working effectively with your major professor. those are some of the biggest issues.” students differed in terms of their academic involvement, social involvement, and perceptions of the college environment . in relation to effective retention (pike et al., 2003) programs, proposed that first, the programs must be targeted and directed to tinto (1993) the students that they serves. next, the programs must include all students. they need to help student success by offering what students need so that they achieve their educational goals. third, effective retention programs must be dedicated to the development of supportive social and educational communities on campus. to help students out of those problems, the international center in cooperation with several academic departments and graduate studies provides programs like workshops for international students. conclusion international students may not always be aware of or ready for their transition to the new academic and social life in the united states such as a new educational system, culture, language, and society. in addition, international students will face many challenges during irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 391 their life in college. if they have no assistance to solve their problems or if they do not know where to consult with, their studies might be disturbed that finally will lead them to leave college without completion. in other words, there should be a unit with various programs to integrate them. argued that integration could take place both inside tinto (1975 and 1998) and outside the classroom, and student persistence in college could be influenced by their experiences gained both inside and outside the classroom. the purpose of this inductive study was to investigate the role of international center (ic) in promoting international student success in college academically and non-academically by looking at its programs. the finding of this study indicates that the international center has provided a wide range of programs, ranging from immigration services to academic and social matters. the programs are provided before the international students come, after they come and while they are studying at the university. in addition, the results of this study also show that in order to integrate international students into the american academic and social life on and off campus, the international center provided pre-arrival program, arrival programs, ongoing programs, and preventive programs for them. each program has its own purposes to ensure that international students can get ready, get into, and get through their educational goal at an american university. declaration of conflicting interests the author declared no potential conflicts of interest. funding the author had no funding for this study. human participants all participants and research place were masked to protect their confidentiality. references abe, j., talbot, d. m., & geelhoed, r. j. 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(2005). a comparison of international student and american student engagement in effective educational practices. the journal of higher education, 76(2), 209-231. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221546.2005.11778911 biographical note marzul hidayat, phd. is an assistant professor at faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, jambi, indonesia. he obtained his doctoral degree in the department of educational leadership and policy studies, florida state university, the usa with a specialization on sociocultural and international educational development studies. email: mhiday2012@gmail.com https://doi.org/10.3102%2f00346543045001089 https://doi.org/10.1080/00221546.2005.11778911 this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 207 participatory action research on a remote teaching practicum darryl roy t. montebon 1 , mike angel t. renon 2 , victoria j. delos santos, 3 and marilou m. ubiña 4 abstract the pandemic has adversely affected teaching practicum as a culminating activity of pre-service teacher training. teacher education institutions were forced to transform their programs into flexible modalities rapidly. in this participatory action research, the institutional remote practicum program was developed according to the preparation, actualization, mentoring, and evaluation phases. the researchers used qualitative and mixed-method strategies in certain research phases. the data gathered implied that the remote practicum program developed can be an example of how to implement the different guidelines and policies for flexible practice teaching. pre-service teachers' experiences in the implementation of the research seem to indicate that the program is responsive to their preparations as beginning teachers. the results also imply that the program's performance is efficient and effective. keywords action research, experiential learning, practice teaching, pre-service teachers, remote practicum article history received 24 january 2023 accepted 25 may 2023 how to cite montebon, d.r.t., renon, m. a. t., santos, v.j. d., & ubiña, m.m. (2023). participatory action research on a remote teaching practicum. indonesian research journal in education |irje|, 7(1), 207-227. https://doi.org/10.22437/irje .v7i1.23589 1-4institute of teaching and learning, philippine normal university, manila, the philippines https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v7i1.23589 https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v7i1.23589 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 208 introduction teaching practicum or practice teaching is a significant phase of training pre-service teachers. induced by the pandemic, teacher education institutions (teis) were confronted with a dilemma on how to conduct the practicum program because of school closures since it requires participation and immersion of pre-service teachers in a natural classroom environment. in effect, teis are to rethink and redesign programs to cater to the needs of the stakeholders. however, only a few studies are available to help address the challenge of teaching practicum; thus, a gap in the knowledge in implementing teaching practicum programs, particularly in remote set-ups, exists. in response, the tei involved in this research explored the teaching practicum program implementation in a remote set-up. through participatory action research, the researchers report the different activities conducted in this research and determine student perception of the program's implementation. specifically, the researchers say the development of a remote practicum program can assist pre-service teachers in their professional preparations and attain the competencies expected of them as beginning teachers. this research also ascertains the different challenges encountered in the program and how they were addressed. ultimately, this research aims to inform other teis in developing their remote practicum programs. teaching practicum in the new normal. pre-service teachers are given various opportunities to test theories and apply pedagogies in formal and informal educational set-ups, making learning to teach a complex, ongoing process (hallman & rodriguez, 2015). hence, practice teaching or teaching practicum is one of the significant phases of teacher preparation. in the practicum programs, pre-service teachers experience total immersion in the realities of becoming a teacher. in other words, teaching practicum enables pre-service teachers to realize how the theories they have learned in their professional education courses apply to classroom realities. in the practicum, the student gets immersed in the academic or school organization and eventually becomes part of it. the practicum site provides a learning laboratory where students experience the working world. through observation and reflection on what occurs in the organizational setting, the student may discover how academic interests relate to possible careers, gain meaningful on-the-job experience and training, and connect classroom theory to real-world practice. students contribute to the organization by performing meaningful projects and assignments of continuing value to both parties. when pre-service teachers have opportunities to construct social and learning understandings of teaching through observation, they begin to develop clinical skills, including greater confidence, a deeper understanding of pedagogy and practice, and the automaticity of routines (grossman et al., 2009). when engaging in approximations of practice, pre-service teachers have opportunities to move beyond the familiar and often comfortable role of the student to that of the teacher (hamilton & van duinen, 2018). indeed, practicum prepares pre-service teachers for professional practice. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 209 literature review mentoring pre-service teachers tantamount to the success of a practicum program is the mentoring process. hobson et al. (2012) stressed that mentoring ensures the replication of best practices in teaching and learning from expert to novice teachers. in mentoring, the mentors provided teachers with guidance and direction as they navigated the teaching-learning landscape practicum programs provide students with supervised experiences and help the student teachers to understand the full scope of teachers' roles. calamlam et al. (2016) described mentoring as a partnership between a novice and an expert. many have also suggested that these partnerships are compelling in shaping pre-service teachers as they are confirmed in contrast to the artificial environment of the tertiary education courses (tuli, 2009). the pre-service teacher, who may be called an apprentice or student teacher intern, walks through the whole teaching process with a mentor, also called the cooperating teacher. here, the pre-service teacher puts into actual practice all that was learned in the content and theory courses, strategies, or teaching methods, and tests the pedagogical content knowledge acquired in related courses before practice teaching. practice teaching is being held in the institution's different partner/cooperating schools in public and private standard education schools. more importantly, mentoring in practicum programs also helps pre-service teachers attain the standard competencies of a teacher. according to the ppst, a beginning teacher is a novice educator whose qualities meet the indicators for entry into the teaching profession. to wit: "they have a strong understanding of the subjects/areas in which they are trained in terms of content knowledge and pedagogy. they possess the requisite knowledge, skills, and values to support teaching and learning. they manage to learn programs and have strategies that promote learning based on the learning needs of their students. they seek advice from experienced colleagues to consolidate their teaching practice." (deped order 42 s. 2017) teacher standards are essential for improving education quality. peña-lópez, (2018) reported that quality education results from the deliberate implementation of policies and guidelines and, in the case of teacher education, is its standards. ingvarson (2019) corroborated that teaching standards can promote quality education because of their potential to promote widespread practice of effective and successful teaching practices. the current research also aims to respond to the challenges in preparing practicumers to meet the ppst. the activities in the remote practicum program were carefully planned to help pre-service teachers develop the competencies of beginning teachers. redesigning teaching practicum developing a remote practicum program is a relatively new endeavor for teis in the country. with such novelty, implementing guidelines is necessary. peña-lópez (2018) irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 210 stressed the importance of policies and guidelines for ensuring the effectiveness and efficiency of schools that can result in quality teaching and learning and, in effect, impact stakeholders. more importantly, teacher policies shape the development of teachers and what they do. however, even if policies and guidelines are in place, their implementation is also challenging. cerna (2013) stressed that the success of policies relies on their implementation. subsequently, the changes that specific policies aim to promote can only be realized with practical implementation. however, it is ideal to understand the requirements of the students and the demands of the course curriculum and then adopt a suitable teaching methodology that is acceptable and understandable to most of the audience. in the end, the authors support the notion of sharp and marchetti (2020) who said that the natural way should be to choose the correct teaching practice in the phygital (physical plus digital) scenario of covid-19. several researchers pointed out the relevance of preparing practice teachers for the new normal. dreer (2020) posited that field experience is still vital for practice teachers even in this 'new normal' time. however, he cautioned that the program should be well planned for the set-up is a challenge for both the supervisors and the practice teachers. gemmink et al. (2020) clarified that the stress in experiential learning may arise from the mismatch of practice teachers’ and supervisors' skills to address the virtual classrooms' challenge. in this new normal, simonsz et al. (2020) described those beginning teachers who may possess new ideas and philosophies on their students' interpersonal and societal development that can inform the teaching-learning practices. therefore, with the 'new learning curve' in the current education scenario, swennen (2020) encouraged teis to help practice teachers develop new technical skills to help them in their challenges in the new normal. she particularly called teis to support practice teachers with the experiences that they can practice new skills related to technology. while the program design of a practicum program is vital, its implementation is equally important. tantamount to the success of the program is its efficient and effective implementation. tuli (2009) asserted that the quality implementation of a practicum program results in quality teaching practice. goh et al. (2009) corroborated that successful practicum programs promote confidence among pre-service teachers. therefore, this research asserts the remote practicum program's efficiency and effectiveness and infers its implementation quality. theoretical framework the current research is primarily anchored on kolb's experiential learning theory (2015), which strongly argues that learning occurs through experience transformation. the activities provide knowledge through concrete experience, abstract conceptualization, reflective observation, and active experimentation. thus, experiential learning promotes activities that encourage students to participate actively in the process, engage in contextualized activities, build subjective evaluations and perceptions, and embark on the inductive and explorative learning experience. in teacher preparation, experiential learning is also deemed necessary by other educators. camburn and han (2015) described that experiential learning promotes reflective irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 211 practice among teachers and thus improves their teaching. girvan et al. (2016) posited that teacher professional development is both an intellectual and a personal endeavor, and experiential learning can help pre-service teachers. it requires a solid integration between engagement and experimentation. swennen (2020) stressed that experiential learning is the new normal in teacher education with the pandemic set-up in mind. she elaborated that both the students acknowledge the importance of experiential learning and the learners, which incorporates teachers' basic and psychological needs. the experiential learning theory underpins the development of this participatory action research. it aims to provide pre-service teachers with experiences that can prepare them for the realities of teaching and learning. with the advent of time and the challenges in classroom instruction, pre-service teachers must be provided with authentic experiences which can contribute to their deep understanding of the complexities of classroom dynamics and ultimately allow them to experiment with strategies to confront the challenges they will face. methodology this participatory action research was conducted in a tei in the philippines. the data-gathering procedure occurred in the third term of the school year 2020-2021 and the first term of the school year 2021-2022. all teaching practicum programs for both terms were conducted remotely. this research asks the following research questions: what principles can guide the development of remote practicum programs? what activities can be designed to conduct a remote practicum program effectively? how do pre-service teachers perceive the implemented activities? what are the perceived effects on teacher preparation of pre-service teachers? participants the primary participants of the research are the two cohorts of pre-service teachers taking their teaching practicum programs. specifically, thirty-nine (39) pre-service teachers comprise the first cohort, while 90 participants answered the survey for the second cohort. for the first cohort, more than two-thirds of the participants were female (n = 28), and the rest (n = 11) were male. for the second cohort, approximately 96% (n = 86) of the participants were female, and the rest (n = 4) were male. most participants were relatively young, as evidenced by the percentages of students between 19 to 25 years in the first (72%) and second (94%) cohorts. most of the students in the first cohort major in math and science (91%), while the rest research early childhood (3%), english language (3%), and social science (3%). on the other hand, all the participants in the second cohort were early childhood pre-service teachers. thirty-nine percent (39%) of the students in the first cohort were deployed in the tei's main campus laboratory, while the others were deployed in the university's campus laboratory schools. one student was specially deployed to a school for the blind. for the second cohort, the participants were deployed to the laboratory school of the tei's main campus and various private, parochial schools (69%). irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 212 during their stay in the deployment sites, the students were tasked to handle different grade levels and subjects. the first cohort was relatively evenly distributed to elementary (49%) and high school levels (46%), and only two students handled both grade levels. almost half of them taught math subjects only (49%). for the second cohort, all students handled elementary grades, and they could teach various subjects. most students said they could teach two or more subjects (44%) and were distributed across all basic education subjects. procedures as mentioned, the conduct of the par involved two iterative cycles. following the procedures of brown et al. (2021), each iteration involved a series of phases: preparation, actualization, mentoring, and evaluation. figure 1 below illustrates the steps followed in each cycle. figure 1. par cycle on remote teaching practicum initially, the par process in this research proceeds with the preparation phase, where faculty supervisors plan activities for the remote teaching practicum program. the planned activities were carefully designed following the implementing guidelines for teaching practicum. upon approval of the activities, its implementation happened in the actualization phase. in the actualization phase, pre-service teachers are oriented about the program, are deployed to partner schools, and are immersed in classroom realities. simultaneous with the actualization phase is the mentoring phase, in which the cooperating teachers and supervisors of the pre-service teachers constantly monitor, assess, and mentor the pre-service teachers. finally, the par culminates with the evaluation phase, where pre-service teachers were asked about their perception of the different activities conducted and how they affected their professional preparations. data sources and analysis procedures the researchers used several research methods to proceed with the different phases of the research. primarily, the researchers used document analysis to determine design irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 213 principles for the activities in the research. according to bowen (2009), document analysis is a systematic process of reviewing or evaluating documents to elicit meaning, gain understanding, and develop empirical knowledge. frey (2018) corroborated that document analysis can be used in studies with mixed-method design for triangulation purposes. the documents reviewed in this research are the released policies and guidelines for conducting the online practicum teaching program from the different governing bodies of the country and the university guideline for conducting flexible learning programs. strategically, the researchers used the exploratory design for mixed methods research in studying the effects of remote practice teaching in the two iterative cycles. creswell and plano clark (2011) described the process of exploratory design to include collecting and analyzing the qualitative data to inform the development of the quantitative instrument to investigate further the topic of research. in this par, the researchers developed an open-ended questionnaire where participants of the first iteration were asked to describe their experiences on the remote practicum. after the collected data analysis, the researchers developed a survey instrument that also explored the cohort's experiences for the second iteration and determined to what extent they observed them. the data collection for the open-ended questionnaire and the survey instrument was done using a google form. in mixed methods studies, creswell and plano clark (2011) stressed the importance of data integration. in this research, the data integration first happened at the methods level because, in the survey instrument development, the qualitative data from the open-ended questions were used as the statement for the instrument that gathered quantitative data from the participants. also, data integration happens at the interpretation level when the data are presented through embedding. as the qualitative data from the first cohort are reported in themes, the quantitative data for the second cohort is supported. for the qualitative analysis, the data were collected from the open-ended questionnaire. the researchers initially met and discussed the possible biases when they were in coding process. they then studied the data collected and determined valid transcripts that could answer the required question (n=236). responses that were found irrelevant (n=46) were excluded. the researchers then independently coded the data and discussed the initial findings to develop the final coding guide. the final coding proceeded in inter-rater mechanisms to ensure the reliability and validity of the coding process. using the formula of miles and huberman (1994), the inter-rater (irr) value calculated for the level of agreements between coders is 0.68. according to eagan et al. (2020), such irr value is often considered reliable. as described, the results from the qualitative data were used to develop a survey instrument for the second cohort. the instrument is divided into several parts--demographics, general experiences, preparatory activities, assistance to the program, supervision from the university supervisor, characteristics of mentor, challenges in the program, and the skills for teacher improvement. each part, except demographics, includes statements or ideas derived from the responses of the first cohort. the survey instrument was subjected to a phase validation and garnered a mean rating of 2.70, describing it as having acceptable content, difficulty level, instructions, language, and ethics. in the reliability test, cronbach's alpha coefficient obtained is 0.98, which implies that the survey instrument is reliable. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 214 to observe ethical principles for conducting research, the google forms for the open-ended questions in the first cohort and the survey instrument for the second cohort include statements informing participants about the research and assuring them of their safety in the process. lastly, their consent was obtained before the start of the survey. findings this section presents the results of this research's different phases of the par. phase 1: planning phase, in the planning phase of this par, the researchers deemed it essential to identify design principles that will guide the conduct of this research. figure 2 illustrates the said guiding principles. figure 2. design principles for a remote practicum program as shown in figure 2, the program aims to adhere to policies and guidelines issued by the different governing bodies in the country and the university. in this research, the researchers carefully considered and reviewed the policies and guidelines on how to conduct flexible learning programs in higher education institutions (deped order no. 42 s 2017, ched cmo no. s 2020, and the university guidelines for implementing remote learning pnu flexible learning delivery handbook. the said guidelines were to assist teacher education institutions (teis) to respond positively to the distinctive challenge and opportunity presented by the unusual circumstances surrounding ay 2020-2021 by delivering courses in innovative and flexible ways suitable to the context of educational institutions, teachers, and students. specifically, the guidelines discuss that educational programs should be flexible and deliver only the most essential learning outcomes. more importantly, the guidelines stress the observation of health protocols in conducting classes during the pandemic. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 215 in the country, the standards for teacher quality are stated in the philippine professional standards for teachers or the ppst (deped order no. 42, s 2017). the standards describe the expectations of teachers' increasing knowledge, practice, and professional engagement levels. at the same time, the standards allow for teachers' growing understanding, applied with increasing sophistication across a broader and more complex range of teaching/learning situations. the ppst shall be used as a basis for all learning and development programs for teachers to ensure that teachers are adequately equipped to implement the k-12 program effectively. it can also be used for the selection and promotion of teachers. all performance appraisals for teachers shall be based on this set of standards. that said, the practicum program in this research is to assist pre-service teachers in attaining the competencies of beginning teachers, as stated in the ppst. hence, another design principle identified is to develop a responsive professional practicum program. the researchers agree that teacher professional development happens in a continuum from beginning to exemplary practice. as such, the researchers acknowledge the significance of a standards framework that articulates developmental progression as teachers develop, refine their practice, and respond to the complexities of educational reforms. in effect, the practicum program shall be responsive in providing pre-service teachers with opportunities to learn and practice becoming a teacher by providing them with experiences to engage in teaching strategies, assessment, classroom management, professional ethics and decorum, and other related areas. while immersed in teaching practice, the documents reviewed stressed the importance of mentorship (tecpnrctq, 2019). thus, another design principle identified is the guarantee of establishing a mentoring system. according to calamlam et al. (2016), mentoring is a professional partnership process between a beginning teacher and an experienced one. meanwhile, the ched memorandum no. 4 s. 2020 mandates migrating face-to-face activities in higher education to remote teaching modalities. in other words, the ched calls for academic programs to be transposed into flexible delivery, another design principle that the researchers consider. the pandemic scenario posed an urgent need to explore other innovative learning modalities to facilitate the transition from traditional to flexible teaching and learning options. furthermore, the remote practicum program complements the outcomes-based education approach, allowing the heis to employ various means of delivery and assessment if they can show the achievement of the set learning outcomes for each course/subject for the program. the last design principle identified by the researcher is to develop an efficient and well-implemented remote practicum program. with the other design principles in mind, the researchers also realized the importance of observing an efficient and effective process of implementing a remote practicum program. however, the primary consideration of the researchers, as inferred from the reviewed policies and guidelines, is to make sure that the program will ensure minimal health risks among stakeholders. phase 2: actualization phase, as a result of the document analysis conducted, table 1 below shows the details of the activities for the remote teaching practicum in the research. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 216 table 1. activities for remote teaching practicum remote teaching practicum activities descriptions period orientation & pinning ceremony pre-service teachers undergo a series of orientation processes and enhancement programs. the preparation phase culminates with a commitment ceremony which includes receiving a pin that marks the beginning of the pre-service teachers’ journey to the practicum program. orientation of stakeholders in partner schools (principal, department heads, and critic teachers) was done. done via online platforms 1 week deployment by the end of the week, the pre-service teachers were deployed to the different partner schools. 1 day classroom observations the pre-service teachers observe and familiarize themselves with the school setting of the partner school, its processes, the conduct of classes, and the institutional culture. 1 week actual teaching the pre-service teachers are immersed in the teaching-learning processes, such as the preparation of lesson plans, development of instructional materials, facilitating classroom discussions, and conducting assessments. critic teacher mentors the pre-service teachers on how to proceed with the different teaching-learning processes. the faculty supervisors from the tei monitor the performance of pre-service teacher and gives a formative assessment. the pre-service teacher, the critic teacher, and the faculty supervisor agrees on the topic for classroom-based action research (cbar) 8 weeks final teaching demonstration the pre-service teachers showcase their teaching skills through an online synchronous class. the critic teacher and the faculty supervisor provide feedback on the teaching performance of the pre-service teacher 1 day development an electronic portfolio the pre-service teachers submit a teaching portfolio that showcases their progress in the teaching profession and evidence of their attainment of standards 10 weeks conduct classroom-based action research (cbar) pre-service teachers submit their output for the classroom-based action research they conducted 10 weeks *some activities happened simultaneously the implementation of the activities covered 12 weeks or one term for each cycle of the research. in the conduct of the activities, the pre-service teachers perceived that there was necessary guidance and support from the institute (m=4.5). for example, pt1 said, "[t]hey provide the necessary guidance." examples of assistance are resources (m=4.43) and professional support (m=4.25). the pre-service teachers from the second cohort strongly agree with all first cohort's ideas regarding assistance. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 217 in relation, the first cohort pointed out that another form of assistance they appreciate is the ease of communication with their cooperating teachers and supervisors. pt 11 said that "[m]y critic teachers and supervisors are easy to deal with." while pt3 relayed that "...they were very easy to approach when we needed help." meanwhile, the pre-service teachers from the second cohort strongly agreed on the facility of communication (m=4.32). the final form of assistance identified is the time to accomplish the activities. respondents from the first cohort recognized that they were given enough time to complete their activities, as pt12 indicated that "they gave ample time to us in preparing lessons before class activities...". pre-service teachers of the second cohort strongly agreed with such statements (m=4.14). interestingly, pt20 appreciated the extra time shared by their cooperating teachers in preparing for their teaching sessions. the second respondent also strongly agreed (m=4.14) that extra time for rehearsal to practice our presentations was provided. for monitoring, the pre-service teachers signified that conferences are regularly conducted for checking and troubleshooting purposes (m=4.50). in the assessment, pt 7 said the process "helps me see my strength and weakness as a demonstration teacher." survey responses on this statement corroborated with a strongly agreed mean rating (m=4.6). lastly, the feedback process was also cited by pre-service teachers to aid in their improvement (m=4.64). to cite, respondent 36 said, "our supervisor and critic teacher give honest feedback. their comments help me to be a better teacher and to strive more for excellence..." the research gathered the student's opinions about the best practices of itl in the different phases of the development cycle. in the preparation phase, the pre-service teachers strongly agreed (m=4.59) that the deployment preparations and processes are among the best practices. concerning this, pt 16 claimed that the orientation program called patnuro "...helped us, pt02 students, in conducting our practice teaching.". the pre-service teachers also believe that the assistance in preparing and implementing classroom activities can be considered as itl best practices (m = 4.82). it is evidenced by the responses of pt 40, who wrote that "implementation of different applications to use in teaching" is the best practice that they considered, and pt 8, who claimed that "during our pt01, having mock demonstration teaching before the actual demonstration teaching of the practice teachers is what i believe to be the best practice in itl." the pre-service teachers also lauded the mentoring abilities of their critic teachers (m = 4.95). pt 21 shared, "i think the best practice of itl is the orientation and provision of supervisors from them. having someone to advise us on doing all the required tasks greatly impacts us. it creates a strong foundation for us and helps us improve.". lastly, the supervision and feedback of their assigned professors made the pre-service teachers feel that these are the best practices. it is supported by the response of r76, who said that "last term, i love how itl conducts post-conference every after class. i gained so much insight from my ct and co-pts comments and suggestions on my performance. phase 3: mentoring phase, the role of mentors is an essential part of teaching practicum programs. in this par, the mentoring phase happened simultaneously with the actualization phase. the faculty supervisors and the critic teachers worked closely to guide the pre-service teachers in their conduct of the different teaching-learning and research activities. the exposure of the pre-service teachers in the mentoring phase seemed to show that they appreciated the process as they perceived their mentors to be effective by providing irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 218 professional guidance, extending instructional support, modeling good teacher qualities, and showing care and understanding towards them. the development of pre-service teachers needs professional guidance from mentors and, in this case, the cooperating teachers. interestingly, the pre-service teachers from the two cohorts reported that their cooperating teachers guided them by giving sound advice (m=4.64), training them to improve their questioning skills (m=4.61), and extending time and effort for their concerns ((m=4.68). moreover, pre-service teachers appreciated their open communication with their mentors (m=4.68), and their efforts were appreciated (m=4.71). for instructional support, the pre-service teachers pointed out the generosity of their cooperating teachers in sharing resources with them. for instance, pt04 said, "they were very generous in their time and resources to share it with us," to which the pre-service from the second cohort strongly agreed (m=4.39). the pre-service teacher from the two cohorts also reported that their cooperating teachers allotted time to check their lesson plans (m=4.39) and give feedback on their outputs (m=4.61). as pt13 said, she appreciated her mentor for "checking lps even on weekends, observing mock demos, and correcting and giving feedback to my demo. "consequently, the pre-service teachers felt their mentors supported them in developing their instructional skills for online classroom realities (m=4.61). the pre-service teachers also valued how cooperating teachers modeled the professional conduct of a teacher (m=4.61). specifically, pre-service teachers strongly agreed that their mentors modeled excellence in teaching-learning situations (m=4.71). as pt 5 said, "my mentor is excellent. he is good at both content and pedagogy. above all, he has a heart for the students." the pre-service teachers also strongly agreed that their mentors promoted collegiality (m=4.71) in dealing with them. as such, their mentors inspired them to become proficient teachers (m=4.68) as well. the last perception of the students for mentoring is the positive human relationship promoted by their mentors. for instance, pt 7 described his mentor as " understanding " his personal circumstances. other pre-service teachers strongly agreed that their mentors showed care and understanding of their difficulties (m=4.64). moreover, the pre-service teachers pointed out that their mentors showed concern for their well-being by constantly checking their physical and mental health (m=4.43). a sample response by pt 33 is cited for such observation:"...they also keep our health and mental health in check, and that is what i am grateful to my cts." lastly, the pre-service teachers valued the presence of their mentors during their classroom demonstrations, for it somehow encouraged them to do better (m=4.57). phase 4: evaluation phase, the evaluation phase of the research describes the pre-service teachers' perception into three categories—program implementation, challenges encountered, and effects of professional development. perceived effects on professional preparations, the juxtaposed data from both iterations seem to reveal an alignment between the experiences of the two cohorts. while the data gathered from the first cohort described the different experiences of the pre-service teachers on the remote practicum, the data collected from the second cohort corroborates their agreement with them. almost all data gathered from the survey revealed that irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 219 pre-service teachers strongly agree with the experiences described by the research's first cohort. fundamentally, several responses from the first cohort of pre-service teachers described that the program affected their motivation for teaching. han and yin (2016) defined teacher motivation as energy or drive that moves teachers to do something in their context. it is why teachers decide to act on something they encounter in their classrooms and determine the sustainability of such measures. conversely, the pre-service teachers described the program as exciting and memorable. such excitement may be due to the program's novelty, which other respondents pointed out. with such motivation, other respondents described the program as meaningful and fulfilling. the data gathered from the survey on teacher motivation revealed general 'strongly agree' responses (m=4.19). among the several statements on teacher motivation, the most strongly agreed response is the statement describing the program as meaningful (m=4.57). on the other hand, the statement with the lowest mean but still indicates an 'agree' response is the statement that the program is exciting (m=4.03). another effect of the remote practicum program is on teacher readiness. . (2017) defined teacher readiness as a state lynch et al of being that describes the ability of teachers to engage in different teaching and learning tasks. teacher readiness is essential for the achievement of the goals and objectives of the schools. with the current dilemma that schools are facing due to the pandemic, pre-service teachers be prepared for their tasks. interestingly, a respondent (pt 18) in the first cohort relayed that the remote practicum exposed them to the realities of online teaching and learning that enabled them to "...learn new things and new methods of teachings," which respondents from the second cohort strongly agreed (m=4.62). perhaps with such exposure to online classes, the respondents from the two cohorts seem to perceive that the process allowed them to develop their creativity and resourcefulness. also, the data from the two cohorts seem to agree that the remote practicum program allowed them to experience teaching students of varied cultural backgrounds. lastly, one of the respondents (pt 21) from the first cohort said that her online classes made her realize that teachers should be ready to face the camera in their online classes. thus, mindfulness in appearance, speech, and action is essential. the second cohort's data supports the observation of pt 21 (m=4.50). lastly, teaching efficacy is another area identified that remote teaching practices have an impact on. the current research adapts the definition of defined seneviratne et al. (2019) teaching efficacy as the ability of teachers to organize and manage different teaching-learning tasks. such ability influences their potential to execute teaching-learning activities that successfully guide students to achieve their learning goals. regarding teaching efficacy, the pre-service teachers described that their experience in remote practicum equipped them with pedagogical content knowledge for online teaching. for example, pt16 said, "i was able to provide students the essential contents they need for the subject i taught, providing pedagogies that align the technological needs for online learning." the respondents from the second cohort strongly agreed (m=4.38) on such observations. also, pre-service teachers' responses reveal that they experienced the design and development process of instructional materials. for instance, pt27 said, "i enjoyed the everyday teaching. it helped me develop irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 220 myself as a teacher. it was tiring to prepare materials for everyday sessions, but it made me realize that "this is the world of teaching." consequently, the survey results show that the average mean for this statement is also strongly agreed (m=4.50). regarding online classes, some pre-service teachers shared that the remote practicum made them overcome challenging circumstances (f=1; m=4.31) and deal with difficult learning situations (f=1; m=4.37). the experiences shared by the pre-service on their remote practicum reveal that the program contributes to their teaching efficacy. challenges encountered, it was inevitable for the pre-service students to experience challenges throughout their practicum. the responses about what they consider challenging were obtained from the participants of the first and second cohorts. the biggest obstacle that the pre-service teachers experienced was internet connectivity. pt 26 from the first cohort shared, "the most difficult challenge that i encountered in my remote practice teaching that i think should be addressed is the internet connection of the students.". the same sentiment was shared by participants of the second cohort, as pt 51 wrote, "so far, internet connection is my biggest challenge. it is so hard to attend class and not be able to hear my students nor see them because the internet connectivity is not good at all." another set of challenges was grouped under the teaching competence theme, including technological competence, professional competence, and personal competence. under technological competence, pre-service teachers in the first and second cohorts shared challenges involving the technology and specific applications utilization. pt 16 from the first cohort personally believes that "...adaptability to technology is still one of the biggest challenges in being a remote practice teacher." they suggested that "...proper training, social and financial support can help future pts address these challenges." in the second cohort, pt 42 expressed their frustration with using google meet, where they wrote, "i find google meet challenging to manage the virtual class. it only shows a max of nine tiles of participants on your screen, so you cannot see all your students. it is hard to know who wants to recite." professional competence shows hardships experienced by the pre-service teachers in their virtual classroom teaching and learning environment. pt 36 of the second cohort pointed this out in general when they said, "i think it would be knowing what strategies and methods you can use to deliver your demo effectively are two of the most challenging parts of the demo.". specific challenges and ways they were addressed were either shared or offered by pre-service teachers of the two cohorts. for instance, when the challenge was a language barrier or the differences in the native language of the teacher and its students, pt 11 of the first cohort turned to their critical teacher for help. "she assist(ed) me all the way.", she wrote. pt 19 of the first cohort recognized that student engagement during synchronous sessions is another challenge "because of poor signal in some area(s), students were not able to join in some classes; also, they were not required to open their camera to save data. some of them are not participating during class discussion." as an effort to address this, they said that "...we maximize the use of chat box for them to participate.". assessment, may it be formative or summative, became another challenge for pre-service teachers in distance learning. pt 23 of the first cohort claimed "... identifying if the students really learned what we taught to them." is a hardship. they suggested that "it could be addressed by giving them an appropriate approach and understand(ing) their needs in terms of their preferred way of learning." lastly, having a personal space where the pre-service teacher can deliver their lesson is essential. however, some do not irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 221 have this privilege. pt 25 from the first cohort shared that "in my situation, i don't have any place that is good when doing online teaching because there are so much noise in our place such as the sound of tricycle, karaoke that is distracting." to teach the lesson, this student goes "to my classmate's house when i have demo teaching because he has a place that is quiet, and i think my demo teaching goes well." the third set of challenges related to teaching competence is personal competence, which looks at the pre-service teachers as individuals. at times, pre-service teachers feel that they need to prepare. pt 10 from the first cohort revealed, "there are times that i want to quit because i do not have the motivation to complete my lesson plans. it is because i was not that knowledgeable about the topic assigned to me, so i kept on writing and erasing my plan.". there were also other pre-service teachers struggling because "... some are experiencing mental health issues." according to pt 33 of the second cohort. the last theme is procedural, which includes challenges that result from the pre-service teaching process. pt 37 from the first cohort named two when asked about the challenges in the process. they shared that "... i was challenged in completing my demo presentation in exactly one hour. lastly, speaking the english language only in discussing my topic was also challenging." pt 2 from the same cohort shared sentiments about the instructions. they said, "i sometimes get confused with instructions because supervisors seem to not communicate with each other." pt 63 from the second cohort had stronger opinions about instructions, where they claim inequality. according to them, "inaccurate disseminated information/instructions. workloads of pts from different cts vary, which is quite unfair since most of us handle 3-5 sections while some only handle 1 section. in that way, we do not experience equal training and exposure to the reality of the field." discussion the discussion of the results in this research is primarily anchored on the different design principles identified. the researchers discuss in this section their insights and reflections on their observations on the research result and infer implications on the design principles identified. on adhering to the policies and guidelines, consequently, the research's results suggest that the activities designed and implemented for remote practice shed light on how teis can observe the policies and guidelines. the development of the practicum program in this research primarily considered the policies and guidelines released by the country's different governing bodies. specifically, the released joint memorandum from ched and deped (2020) guided the activities for the enactment phase of the research, like classroom observations, demonstration teaching, portfolio development, conducting the assessment, and engaging in the conduct of actions of research. that said, implementing the activities from the released guideline somewhat validates its effectiveness. the results suggest that the activities are feasible and positively impact pre-service teachers. moreover, there were no reported cases of covid infection among pre-service teachers while on the remote practicum program. nevertheless, while the results imply that the activities in the released ched and deped (2020) guidelines are feasible, the researchers suggest that teis should contextualize the activities for their own experience. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 222 for instance, the internet connection challenged the success of the remote practicum program; hence when thinking of flexible learning activities, the researchers suggest devising a mechanism that will still allow pre-service teachers to proceed with the activities while adjusting to their bandwidth problems. perhaps, careful planning of synchronous and asynchronous activities so institutions can assist pre-service teachers in their practicum will help. on responsive, professional practicum program, reflecting on the research results, it seems that the remote practicum program responded to the needs of the pre-service teachers to be trained in the identified areas for improvement of a beginning teacher. as evidenced by the qualitative experiences of the first cohort and the strongly agreed responses of the 2nd cohort on the enactment phases, the remote practicum program implies preparing them to experience and possess requisites for teaching and learning processes. the positive findings for cohorts on mentoring reveal that also the program allowed the participants to establish a professional relationship with their cooperating teachers and supervisors. on another note, the researchers believe in the importance for pre-service teachers to develop teacher identity, and in this case–becoming a beginning teacher. to realize one's teaching identity, bosso (2017) pointed out two factors–motivation and efficacy. incidentally, the research's results identified the said factors as effects of the remote practicum program on pre-service teachers. according to bosso (2017), motivation and efficacy support teaching as an emotional and vocational endeavor; thus, these factors necessitate a teacher's success in the profession. while standards are crafted to better the profession, they can also challenge one's motivation and efficacy. interestingly, the positive motivation and efficacy of pre-service teachers as they were exposed to the remote practicum program are hoped for their achievement of the ppst for beginning teachers. the results revealed that the pre-service teachers desire to develop better content, knowledge, and pedagogy. perhaps, the novelty of the context of online or remote learning challenged them since their professional preparations are for face-to-face classrooms. this observation seems to support the findings of several researchers (kim, 2020; özüdoğru, 2021) that remote teaching and learning are incredibly challenging during this pandemic. nevertheless, the researchers acknowledge that pre-service realization to develop their pcks for teaching and learning further signifies a positive attitude toward further professional development, which, according to bosso (2017), is always beneficial for the school and the students. on the efficiency and effectiveness of the practicum program, in their research, tuli (2009) identified the qualities of an effective and efficient practicum program. a quality practicum program allows the integration of theory and practice and provides diverse experiences for pre-service teachers. accordingly, the results of the research show that pre-service teachers could realize how the theories they have learned in their professional education courses work in an actual classroom. as evidenced by their broad experience, the participants could assess their readiness for the different teaching-learning processes, such as navigating the relatively new online classrooms and even understanding student culture. another criterion by tuli (2009) is articulating progressive development to attain the standards. as discussed in the previous section, the remote practicum program was designed irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 223 to help pre-service teachers develop beginning teacher competencies, and the results on general experiences support the researchers' claim. additionally, a quality practicum program is flexible and encourages innovation. as to the program's design, it is evident that the remote practicum program in the research allowed pre-service teachers to innovate through their pedagogical practice and classroom-based action research. lastly, one of the characteristics of an effective practicum program by tuli (2009) is establishing a partnership between the tei and the partner school where practicum activities will be conducted. in this research, a memorandum of agreement was signed between the university and the school district where the partnership on practicum happened. by practice, establishing a memorandum of agreement (moa) with a partner public school takes time. with the pandemic situation, time is of the essence to the program and other resources. therefore, the institute strategized to find other schools for deployment to have a more efficient process. instead of deploying pre-service to public schools, the university decided to utilize its branches and partner with private schools with online modalities to quickly deploy pre-service teachers for practicum and ensure no face-to-face process will happen. adding to an efficient practice is the observation of constant communication with principals, cooperating teachers, and practice teachers by the supervisors, coordinator, and university administrators. such practice is to monitor the performance of the practice teachers and address the emerging challenges within the term. the use of social media, zoom, and googleplatforms was maximized for communication-disseminate information, instructions, meetings, and classroom observations. on the flexibility of the program, this par also envisions developing a flexible remote practicum program. as the pandemic will not be permanent, the remote practicum program in the research also aimed to be implemented in different modalities. according to ali (2020), a flexible remote program allows learners to move within and across education training and employment. implementing a flexible program ensures that activities will not be repetitive and encourages learners to progress at a higher level and prepare for a long-term career. that said, the researchers reflect on the activities implemented for the research and determine its flexibility. consequently, the activities implemented were based on face-to-face activities for practicum. with the results of the program's enactment, it appears that the activities were flexible in content and implementation. however, the researchers acknowledged that there is still a need to further explore the flexibility of the project. for instance, it would be interesting to know how the preparatory activities are translated into asynchronous activities. it is to allow pre-service teachers to be trained at their own pace. on mentoring and supervision, the research results imply that pre-service teachers acknowledge the importance of mentoring in their professional development. as evidenced by their responses in the mentoring phase, pre-service teachers realized the roles of their mentors in guiding them professionally, providing them with instructional support, and even modeling professional conduct. this observation agrees with the research of other researchers (calamlam et al., 2016; orland-barack & wang, 2021) that mentors possess different roles in the practicum program. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 224 meanwhile, the researchers identified mentoring and supervision as a design principle of the research to provide a model on how mentoring processes proceed effectively in preparing pre-service teachers. however, the researchers acknowledged that data collection had been research limitation. the data gathered from the pre-service teachers could be used to develop a generalized model for mentoring; hence the researchers recommend follow-up research on the said goal. conclusion the research's primary goal is to develop a remote practicum program for pre-service teachers. based on the results, the research’s remote practicum program developed posed an example of how to implement the different guidelines and policies for flexible practice teaching. also, pre-service teachers' experiences in the implementation of the research seem to indicate that the program is responsive to their preparations as beginning teachers. the program's implementation also gathered responses describing its efficiency and effectiveness. the results also indicate that the activities have the potential for flexibility. lastly, the research's results determine the roles and responsibilities of cooperating teachers as mentors in the program. on the other hand, the results for the refinement phases suggest areas for improvement in the subsequent iterations of the research. it has been evident that pre-service teachers need more training in facilitating teaching learning in online classes. as they venture into the relatively novel online teaching and learning, they indicate the need to be ready personally and professionally and stress the importance of improving their ict competencies. as the program is an innovation and a novel endeavor for teaching practicum, the researchers acknowledge its potential limitations. specifically, the program was implemented in a pure online modality; hence challenges in communication between parties are expected. nevertheless, the researchers will study how to further improve the communication mechanism between and among the program's stakeholders. declaration of conflicting interests the authors declared no potential conflicts of interest. acknowledgements this study has been funded by the office of the vice-president for academics of the philippine normal university. references ali, w. 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(2019). supporting beginning teachers a coaching and mentoring module for deped supervisors of experiential learning students. department of education. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 227 tuli, f. (2009). understanding undergraduate students practicum experience: a qualitative case study of jimma university. ethiopian journal of education and sciences, 5(1). biographical notes dr. darryl roy t. montebon currently serves as the director (principal) of the institute of teaching and learning at pnu. in his role as an associate professor, he specializes in teaching science education, research, and practice teaching. specifically, he instructs graduate and undergraduate courses on science, learning technologies, and pedagogies. as a researcher, he has published researches in various topics including k to 12 science education, educational technology, mentoring pre-service teachers, and sustainable development. currently, he actively participates in a research project on disaster risk management, funded by a european organization. mike angel t. renon is a technical assistant in the office of the director at pnu's institute of teaching and learning. he also works as a part-time instructor at the institute, teaching science and ict courses. currently, he is completing his master's degree in science education. dr. victoria j. delos santos is the present coordinator for pnu's practice teaching program. she holds the position of associate professor in environmental education studies, science education, and mathematics. her particular interest revolves around developing a model for integrating science into the extracurricular programs of schools. dr. marilou m. ubiña is a retired faculty and has been the coordinator of field studies at pnu. she previously served as an associate professor of curriculum and instruction and educational technology. additionally, she teaches nihonngo as a foreign language course at the institute. her research expertise lies in pre-service teacher education and educational studies. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 103 the linguistic effects of peer editing as a technique in improving collegiate compositions myla l. santos* abstract this study aimed to analyze the linguistic effects of peer editing in improving student’s composition. specifically, it described the revision priorities, types and extent of revision in peer editing. 50 students from two sections of teacher education programs at the college of education, central luzon state university were randomly selected as participants. descriptive inferential research method was used. results show that nouns and verbs were edited the most, and frequent revisions were substitution and deletion, and distribution and addition for first draft and second draft respectively. data also show the employed functions of revision were grammatical and explicature, and the size of revision was at sentence level. t-test results show that peer editing was highly significant in over-all quality and in number of words. because of the freer atmosphere of peer editing, students were not inhibited by the impositions of corrections, hence they developed empowerment and self-efficacy. keywords communicative language learning principle, errors, peer editing  faculty of college of education, central luzon state university, the philippines; myla_santos@clsu.edu.ph mailto:myla_santos@clsu.edu.ph irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 104 introduction generally, students’ language proficiency is assessed by the number of mistakes the students commit as they attempt to use the target language (tl). this is true specifically in their written output. teachers are inclined to think that the less mistakes a student has in his/her lines, the better his/her language acquisition; otherwise, he/she has difficulty in using and mastering the features of the target language, or worse, he/she is not learning at all. however, the quality and frequency of the learner’s errors are to be dealt with as available input for teaching and learning intervention. according to selinker and candlin (1992), errors are evidences that learners are internalizing and exploring the target language. it is undoubtedly the act of composing and improving which can create problems for students, especially for those writing in second language (l2) in academic context. formulating new ideas can be very difficult because it involves transforming or reworking information. it is important, therefore, that those involved in the teaching of writing recognize these errors, then correct them; thus the need for editing and proofreading. several research prove that second language (l2) writing instruction depends crucially on writing evaluation or revision as that of williams (2012), bitchener and ferris (2012), and nelson and carlson (2006). feedback on writing quality determines proficiency level. as interpreted by students and teachers, when there is less correction on a paper, the writer of such has better proficiency than those with more feedback in the form of correction. more so, after the feedback, if the student writer is able to follow and attend to the feedback appropriately, it signifies a better proficiency than those who have inadequate attention to and action on the feedback. this provides instructional variation towards attainment of expected written output. various research as that of leki (1991), sheen (2010) and patridge (2014) argue that evaluation judgment is an integral part of the writing process particularly in the editing stages. the response made toward the writing process is closely associated to the strategies of editing. this can either be planned as pedagogical intervention which aimed at enabling students to improve their compositions. however, experts recommend the exploration of the relationship between editing and text improvement. text editing is clearly what really happens to the text, generally on surface changes. text improvement is a concept of an objective sense, maintaining the opportunity to discover personal meaning. yet, experts claim that the final assessment of any editing depends whether the editing process improve the text. the response made to the writing process is closely associated to the strategies of editing. this can be a planned pedagogical intervention which aimed at enabling students to improve their composition. with this, it is believed that direct intervention may affect the spontaneity of the ideas in the student composition and may restrict their language use, as well as teacher’s direct corrections and marks on the paper. conversely, common observation is that students feel at ease when they interact with their peers rather than the perceived authority of the teachers. hence, it is important to provide a seemed to be comfortable and learning opportunities which recognize individual efforts for self-improvement. that is even error correction can be an encouragement for students to view errors as an opportunity for learning the target language. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 105 nevertheless, given the increased emphasis on student-centered instruction and the reservation of teacher’s role in the classroom as facilitator of learning, for communicative language learning (cll), l2 learning is a collaborative activity where the learner is actually participating in the process. with the introduction of peer editing as another scheme, students can have a personal encounter with their errors with less imposition from the teacher’s direct correction. according to wood (2017), peer editing has several merits which include students’ interaction enables them of teaching each other at the same time. this as he further reiterates can improve their self-concept and be comfortable with the second or foreign language. each student takes a negotiating role to contribute and to receive as well. in fact, it is believed that text improvement during a writing activity should be done in much freer condition of peer collaborative activity. hence, this study attempted to describe the effect of peer editing in improving student’s composition. the results gained from the study described the revision priorities, types, and extent of revision of peer editing. specifically, the study tried to explore what lexical items are revised first in peer editing activity, what types of revision are employed in peer editing activity, and to what extent, in terms of over-all quality are the texts revised in peer editing activity. literature review learner’s language contains errors (kinsella & singleton, 2011). that is, some of the utterances produced by the learners are not well formed according to the rules of the adult grammar. however, errors are important source of information about language use and language learning because they can conclusively demonstrate that learners do not simply memorize the target language and its rules, they reproduce the language in their utterance; they explore the language and try to invent it (santos, 2019; falla-wood, 2017). the exploration and expression of the language are integral components of second language (l2) acquisition in the macro skills such as in writing. in their discussion of accommodation and restructuring principles in language use, abedi and sato (2007) explain the relationships of input and the established linguistic skill. according to them, the learners tend to permit new structure to their already existing structure or to restructure their existing structure based on the new input. the learners tend to permit new expressions given the input. oftentimes however, sato et al. (2010) say that this results in a mismatch of linguistic structure and communication purpose. hence, during the accommodation and restructuring processes, errors are inevitable and error correction is required. this is commonly observed in writing composition in l2 and fl. in composition writing, error correction usually happens during the revision stage. nevertheless, text editing and improvement entail error correction. general perception is that editing of students’ composition is done by the teacher (jedlowski, 2000; mišak, et al., 2005; barnett, 1989). teacher editing according to them is seen on how errors are corrected, what types of errors are corrected first and who is expected to correct the errors. a review by hendrickson (1978) cited in uysal and aydin (2017), pawlak (2014) and barnett (1989) of several foreign language education literature on error corrections reveal that (a) no current standards exist on whether when, which or how student errors should be corrected or who should correct them, (b) there are few widely accepted linguistic criteria of grammatical and lexical irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 106 correction in foreign language teaching, (c) much of what has been published on error correction is speculative, and needs to be validated by a great deal of empirical experimentation, and (d) despite the limitations, a sufficient body of literature on error correction exists to merit a systematic review in the process. in communicative language learning (cll), learning experience is considered a dynamic activity because the learner is actually participating in the process (fella-wood, 2017). they are learning at the same time monitoring their weaknesses and improvement. the experience becomes positive and thereby improves the self-efficacy of students in learning the language. the employment of process-product approach, according to myles (2002) follows the same cognitive and affective learning framework for it facilitates the opportunity for knowledge building and transformation. hence, emphasis on student-centered instruction and the teacher’s role as facilitator as explained by lim & griffith (2016) be considered in communicative language classroom. specifically during the productive stages, the involvement of students in the writing process; prewriting, writing the drafts, and improving the drafts, is vital to the development of positive values towards the language learning and facilitate the learning strategies of the students (eckstein, 2016). hence, chaudron (1998) emphasizes the exploration of peer correction or self-correction with teacher’s guidance in empowering individual student’s self-efficacy for he believes that in peer editing, students feel at ease when they interact with their peers. this self-efficacy belief of the students is vital consideration in the employment of peer editing in esl composition class. padilla (2002) finds significant advantages to using written peer feedback in developing students’s writing skills. accordingly, although revisions in the peer editing addressed more the grammar and sentence construction, mechanics and word choice, the student writers attended fully to the feedback given by the peer. this provided an opportunity of confidence and trust, thus “giving room for recommendations” (p. 64). her study further reveals that the peers seemed to find convenience in explicitly correcting the essay. in turn, the student writers find it easy to substitute forms in their work for the option provided by the peer editors. the identified disadvantages, however, is that most students in peer editing dwell more on surface errors. also, according to zhang (2002), there are instances, however, that indirect association of some aspects of the process is used and thereby affecting the target skill. his study, for instance, found that the peer editors felt they are playing as teacher editors when they edit their classmates drafts in the manner their teacher edited they own drafts. students at any instructional technique use linguistic modifications. in the field of linguistics and language learning, bertrand (2013) underscores two objectives of error correction in student compositions in terms of theoretical and practical importance. the theoretical aspect deals with the language pedagogy used inside the classroom that looks into the learning process of the students. on the other hand, the practical aspect is concerned with the remedial action to be taken to correct the needs either on the part of the learner or the teacher. bertrand (2013) adds that the function of error analysis is both theoretical and practical as it explains eventually the sources of the errors in order to help the student writers to understand them and correct afterwards. the forms and rules for their combination are what they call the grammar of the language. insai and poonlarp (2017) say that all languages are rule-governed. they hypothesize that selective irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 107 error correction is a more effective instruction and technique both cognitively and affectively, in internalizing the rules in the structures. accordingly, they considered high frequency errors to have top priority. muthmainnah (2019) suggests that errors in general grammatical rules are more deserving of attention than errors involving lexical exceptions. hence, she suggests that common errors that impede meanings should be corrected first. however, linguistic proficiency alone does not seem to lead to better writing (hasibuan, 2013; barkley et al., 2014; philippot & graves, 2009; galvis, 2010). indeed, there is more to good writing than linguistic accuracy. some linguists believe that one aspect to improve in student compositions is the understanding of how the language operates appropriately in the content and context. error correction as both input and intake as a form of accommodation and restructuring processes is not just a mere rendition but an integral part of language acquisition as shown in figure 1 below. figure 1. accommodation and restructuring processes aside from the identification of error, another important aspect in peer editing is the priority of error correction (bertrand, 2013). according to him, priority of error correction entails which structure/s or category/categories be corrected or revised first. he further explains that the priority of error correction is deemed important for it will not only help the student writers to correct errors but also will provide instructional clue of presenting lessons of structures. research found that verbs and prepositions are most problematic in the student composition. these are followed by modifiers and pronouns; the least is the nouns.in verbs, common errors committed by the students are s-v-a, time sequencing (tenses) (nakamaru, 2010; eckstein, 2016; evans & ferris, 2019), the strongest argument for systematic group work in text editing is that it generates spontaneous interaction between or among the members of a group, creating opportunities for the development of their emerging internal system (yugandhar, 2015). yugandhar (2015) explains that peer groups provide a mutually supportive environment for learners that is less threatening than the direct editing with the teacher. rosnida and zainal (2011) propose a language pedagogy that is based on the use of group work. they enumerated advantages of such strategy such as group work generates interactive language and at the same time offers an embracing effective climate. also, because group work is a step toward individualized instruction, it promotes learner’s responsibility and autonomy. figure 2. the conceptual framework showing the relationship input and output under the peer intervention (input processing) (accommodation/restructuring) input intake developing system irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 108 figure 2 shows the process of accommodation and restructuring has been an integral part of text editing and text improvement. freeman – larsen and long (1991) have emphasized that input is comprehensible through an interaction process where learners clarify, confirm and repeat features of l2 which they do not really understand. in the process, they somehow depend on the manner of revision and available feedback for improvement. though these instructional modifications, linguistic adjustments such as accommodation and restructuring are provided to the improvement of organization and the comprehensibility of the texts. a study on peer error feedback by zheng (2007) focuses on finding the extent that the students can correct their language errors in collaboration with peers. according to him, peer editors have preferences of editing such as the local errors rather than the global errors. specifically, peer editors focused more on a specific lexical category to edit first, like nouns first before verbs, modifiers etc. but as zheng (2007) emphasizes, these are not errors in competency but are performance mistakes out of carelessness. evan and ferris (2019) report that peer editors made both text-based and surface revisions. further, he classifies the types of revisions employed by the japanese efl students as (1) addition when the peer editor adds information to the paper, (2) deletion, when the peer editor deletes information, (3) substitution, when the peer editor substitute information, (4) permutation when the peer editor rephrases information, (5) distribution when the peer editor rewrites same information in larger chunks, (6) consolidation when the peer editor combine separate information together, and (7) re-order when the peer editor moves information. finally, bermudez & prater’s (1994) study reveals that over-all quality of composition after the peer editing activity yielded reliability and significant relationship. over-all quality and number of units (words, idea unit and sentences) qualify the importance of peer editing technique. research gap the process approach is considered a framework for writing process. through this, learners are able to get sufficient feedback. studies support the idea that error correction facilitates communicative and linguistic proficiency in a target language, more than if these errors remain uncorrected. however, there is no general consensus on what categories are to correct in students drafts. also, studies have quite a hint on when to correct these categories so as to conclusively identify how the corrections improve the drafts. hence, it is emphasized that teachers should create a kind of classroom environment where students can confidently express their ideas, feelings, aspirations and meanings. however, as seen in the results of many studies, this is usually hindered by the perceived imposition of teacher’s authority during the editing and correction process, more the embarrassment and threat of being singled out by classmates brought by errors committed during the composing stage. though many educators propose priorities on error corrections like those errors that carry a high degree of stigma, and those seriously impair comprehension, the local errors vs. the global errors (e.g., riveramills & plonsky, 2007; bitchener and ferris, 2012; hasan and akhand, 2010; hyland, 2000). bu & kyo (2019), kyle (2016), macintyre & gregersen (2012), nunan (1989), and sheen and ellis (2011) proposed strongly that in the productive stages teachers should directly involve the students in all the writing stages; prewriting, irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 109 writing the drafts and editing and proofreading. in the editing and proofreading stage, it is encouraged to try out how students react on group editing and conferencing to lessen the impact of teacher’s correction; hence, this study. much has been found on teacher’s authority in students’ effort of improving their drafts, but there is a dearth of studies on peer editing. methodology research design, site, and participants the present study is descriptive inferential research that relied on quantitative data. as the study aimed at describing a number of features of data, this study described the frequency of the lexical items revised in peer editing, types of revision employed in peer editing and the over-all quality of the texts revised in peer editing activity. this study also employed inferential method to identify the significance of peer editing in improving the students’ drafts. hence, the quantitative data in this study were generated through text analysis of students' drafts following the text improvement process based on figure 3. in text analysis, the text editing and text improvement process started with the teacher discussing principles of effective sentences and principles of good paragraph writing including editing and revising techniques for two weeks. this is the general linguistic input. in the revision-intervention, students took turns to read all the drafts of the group, and proofread and wrote their suggestions for improvement. in the revising activity, students incorporated the corrections and suggestions written on their paper. finally, impressions were taken from the drafts by comparing the two drafts to answer the research questions posed earlier. a total of 50 student participants were randomly selected from the two sections of teacher education programs. these students were enrolled in writing in the discipline (engl 110) subject in central luzon state university. their ages ranged from 16-18. the two sections, bsed and beed, were classified as comparatively equal in academic performance based on their average rating in the qualifying examination for the program. finally, they were considered to be of equal formal l2 background for they passed .the two basic english courses, english 100 (study and thinking skills) and english 105 (oral communication). figure 3. text improvement process in peer editing irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 110 data collection and analysis for the text improvement process, the study was guided by the accommodation and restructuring theory and on krashen’s accommodation theory illustrated in figure 1. further, process – product approach was followed in the composition development as shown in figure 2. the analysis of the results led to the assessment of effectiveness of the peer editing in terms of the identified variables as a technique in improving student composition. the text analysis covered both descriptive and inferential statistics specifically the t-test. the numerical descriptive analysis was adapted from zeng (2007) covering the frequency of revision on linguistic categories, and the types of revision such as addition, deletion, substitution, permutation, distribution, consolidation and re-order following nakanishi (2007). following prater and bermudez’ s (1993), numerical analysis was used to present the means and standard deviation and the t-test between the first and final drafts so as to gain impressions on the significant difference between the two drafts for overall quality, word, sentences and idea units. the overall quality is based on a six-point holistic scoring scheme. fluency was measured by counting the number of words, sentences and idea units. an idea unit is a single clause, dependent or independent. the scoring was also validated by two inter-raters who are also teachers of the same subject in writing. the inter-rates’ assessment yielded 87% similarities. then to evaluate the difference of the two drafts in terms of the effectiveness of the editing scheme used in improving their composition, data was subjected to anova at 0.05 and 0.01 levels of significance. ethical considerations this research used individuals as the main source of the data. but to keep the rights of human research participants, their names and personal details were kept with utmost confidentiality. they were also told that their submission of drafts for this study was voluntary. findings frequency of revisions of lexical categories as shown in figure 4, the frequently revised or edited words were the nouns and verbs, both in the first and second drafts. the peer editors tended to change words into their synonym or related words. it implies that the peer editors gave importance to word choice. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 111 figure 4 shows that in terms of revising lexical categories, the peer editors revised nouns and verbs in both first and second drafts. data present more than half revisions on these two lexical categories. they are followed by adjectives which are at 36% and 34% for the first and second drafts respectively. peer editors also revised pronouns at 30% and 24% for the first and second drafts. following the pronouns is adverb where significant observation between the first and second drafts was deduced. unlike other previously identified lexical categories, adverbs were revised more in the first draft than in the second draft. in fact, the conjunction which follows adverb was revised more than adverb in the second draft. also, peer editors found it to revise conjunction equally both in the first and second drafts at 17%. the least revised lexical category was the preposition. an observable decrease of frequency for the preposition was generated between the first and the second drafts, 13% and 4% respectively. types of revisions in composition writing, students invest time responding to the assumptions of revision and improvement. in doing so, several linguistic responses were employed. table 1. types of revisions employed in the first and second drafts types of revision first draft second draft f % f % addition 18 36.00 32 64.00 deletion 27 54.00 16 32.00 substitution 35 70.00 26 52.00 permutation 13 26.00 21 42.00 distribution 9 18.00 33 66.00 consolidation 15 30.00 11 22.00 re-order 13 26.00 21 42.00 table 1 shows the types of revisions in the drafts. multiple types were used apparently in the revision process. with the first draft, almost two thirds (70%) of the peer editors tried to revise the text by substituting words intended to correct identified errors. these were done usually on local errors such as subject-verb-agreement, verb forms, pronoun-antecedent, and others. further, addition registered lower (36%) than deletion where more than half of the peer editors marked words to be omitted. almost equally employed types of revision were consolidation (30%), permutation (26%), and re-order (26%). the least employed types of revision is distribution (18%).on the second draft, distribution, addition and substitution were employed the most, 66%, 64% and 58% respectively. permutation at 42% was employed more than deletion at 32%. least employed revision functions on the second draft were re-order and consolidation, at 42% and 22% respectively. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 112 functions of revision table 2 shows the different functions of revisions that are employed which include grammatical, cosmetic, texture, deletion and explicature. a significant 36% of the peer activity focused on revising the composition grammatically. the revision activities were based on the grammatical rules and conventions the peer editors have in mind. table 2. functions of revisions functions of revisions f % grammatical: to make the text grammatically correct 18 36 cosmetic: to improve the lay-out of the text 4 8 texture: to change sentence or paragraph length for variety 3 6 deletion: to remove unnecessary and problematic information 11 22 explicature: to make the information in the text more vivid and more direct 14 28 n = 50 next to grammatical function is the explicature at 28%. revision in explicature was done by making the information in the text more vivid and more direct. following explicature is deletion, a little lower at 11%. for deletion, peer editors remove unnecessary and problematic information. the two least functions of revision which were employed by the peer editors are cosmetic and texture at 8% and 6% respectively. size of revision according to hassan and akhand (2010), size of revision is also known as fluency. fluency is measured by counting the number of words, the number of sentences and the number of idea units in each composition. an idea unit is defined as a single clause, independent or dependent (hasan & akhand, 2010). table 3. size of revision done in response to the peer editing size f % symbol 3 6 word 12 24 phrase 7 16 clause 6 12 sentence 21 42 paragraph 2 4 n=50 table 3 shows the most frequent size of revision of the drafts done by the student writers in response to the peer editing. most of the revisions were on sentence level at 42%. sentences were either elaborated or re-ordered. next to sentence level revision was on word level at 24%. although the student writers were concerned of making their idea explicit, they also judiciously checked their structures on the word level. following were phrases and clauses, irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 113 14% and 12% respectively. last revisions come from symbols and paragraph level at 6% and 4% respectively. punctuations were confined only on the most familiar ones like period, comma, question marks and seldom quotation marks, colons and semi-colons. lastly, paragraph revision (4%) was done last. one paragraph was transferred from the beginning to end for the purpose of emphasis. another one was deletion of the whole paragraph as it was felt unnecessary in the composition. overall quality of the revised drafts table 4 presents the test of significance between the first and second drafts relevant to the peer editing as an intervention to composition improvement. the variables tested are overall quality, total number of words in the composition, idea unit or the total number of comprehensible phrases in the composition, and total number of sentences. table 4. test of significance between the first and second drafts structures first draft second draft t-test mean sd mean sd over-all quality 2.88 0.67 2.58 10.57 11.583 0.001** words 161.37 41.84 184.64 50.07 12.718 0.000** idea unit 25.57 6.19 26.57 6.96 1.153 0.284* sentence 10.11 2.39 11.86 3.84 14.951 0.271* in terms of over-all quality, test of significance shows that there is a highly significant difference between the first draft and the second draft. total number of words in the composition is also found to have a high significance between the two drafts. the difference in total number of phrases referred to in this study as idea unit and the total number of sentences in the composition were found to be significant. discussion frequency of revisions of lexical categories, the frequently revised or edited words were the nouns and verbs, both in the first and second drafts. the peer editors tended to change words into their synonyms or related words. this shows that the peer editors gave importance to word choice. also, peer editors were quite conscious of subject-verb agreement (s-v-a). many of the concerns posted relative to verbs were on s-v-a. however, the specific focus on s-v-a was seen to be evident that some other forms of verbs were neglected. revised next to nouns and verbs were adjectives, pronouns and adverbs. they were identified based on the notion of appropriate expression to match the meaning (word choice). most of the errors identified by the peer on pronouns were agreement with its antecedent. adjectives and adverbs were revised on the basis of what is perceived to be more appropriate term (word choice). peer editors tended to revise adjectives and adverbs by changing the writer’s words with synonymous term. what is evident in the data is that students seemed to feel that nouns should be more specific (choice of words) while the verbs should be grammatically correct. (e.g. s-v-a, irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 114 tenses). this is also in cognizant with the findings of anudin (2019) as he states verbs in sentences are given emphasis to be structurally correct in most student composition. verbs, together with nouns, were the ones tended to be revised in the first draft. in the students’ drafts, the most difficult features of the verb were present progressive, irregular past form, regular participle, third person singular agreement, and the auxiliary verbs. the difficulty in verb was evident when the peer editors corrected the verbs in the first draft but would revise them again in the second draft. this is an indication of backsliding according to myles (2002) and is a common occurrence in l2 writing. student participants also show difficulty in addressing concerns on adjectives, pronouns and adverbs. however, a limitation was observed in terms of peer editing relative to modifiers. this shows a limitation of the peer editors in dealing with errors. they saw single error at a time and thereby corrected errors one after the other too. in such cases, peer editors revised nouns but failed to check on agreement with related modifiers. with pronouns, most of the errors were on pronoun-antecedent relationship or the consistency in number and in person. this was very evident in the first drafts. this is attributed to the nature of the peer editors’ l1 (filipino) which does not specifically provides active reconstruction of consistency in number and in person. william (2012) and berowa and agbayani (2019) explain it as related to the role of input. as part of text improvement, conjunctions were frequently added to structures to make meaning more elaborated and exemplified. as frequently used forms of revisions were addition and expansion, peer editors believe conjunctions can help achieve such forms of revisions. nevertheless, the students did not display common errors in conjunctions except in trying to expand the meaning. conjunctions were often used when students tried to expand the ideas through adding more sentences, phrases and clauses. lastly, the least edited lexical category was prepositions. however, students’ limitation on prepositions was illustrated in the process of pointing out the errors to the supposedly revision action. that even the peer editors marked the preposition to point out it needed revision, the student writer ignored it. this is attributed to the l1 l2 non-correspondence on prepositions. like consistency in number and person, and agreement of subject and verb, accurate use of prepositions is not represented in l1 as there is just limited number of preposition in l1 compared to much of the l2. prepositions are indeed, one of the most difficult words to master in sla, hence was the least word edited by the peer. significant to note was the equal attention given by the peer editors on conjunctions in the two drafts. this can be attributed to the notion that conjunctions somehow are easy to employ for the simplicity and their constant functions (anudin, 2019). in some instances in the students drafts, there were indications that the student writers also employed self-correction that even if it was not corrected or edited by the peer editor if he/she felt his/her sentences needed to be changed, he/she initiated the correction. this is another proof of students’ empowerment and improvement of self-efficacy. while observing the process of peer editing, the student tended to monitor his/her own development and doing thing on her own. finally, the instances and the frequency of error correction to the different lexical categories were explained by students as simultaneous with their effort to understand and internalize the features of the target language. the process of understanding and irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 115 internalizing the features of the tl was the accommodation and restructuring of the intake process in sla. this intake process later produced the developing system of the students which became very evident in the students’ second drafts. in the process of accommodating they commit over-generalization, simplification, and transfer. these categories according to richards (2015) are student’s limitation in terms of linguistic performance. types of revisions, in composition writing, students invest time responding to the assumptions of revision and improvement. in doing so, several linguistic responses were employed. with the first draft, majority of the peer editors tried to revise the text by substituting words intended to correct identified errors. these were done usually on local errors such as subject-verb-agreement, verb forms, pronoun-antecedent, and others. as zheng (2007) illustrates, peer editors focus first on local errors than on global errors. data show that peer editors’ employment of substitution and deletion was attributed to the editing culture the students were exposed to. more often than not, even with teacher’s editing, to edit or revise means to correct structures grammatically, and also to delete problematic structures. also, based on the results, the attitude that the student writers have toward the peer editors and the revision strategies of improving the text they employed influenced the composition. it shows that even the students were given the freedom to work on their own in peer editing, they still tended to accomplish the task with the perceived teacher’s expectation and protocols in mind. further, addition registered a little lower than deletion where more than half of the peer editors marked words to be omitted. still a common practice in the revision stage, peer editors seemed to think that the weakness of the composition can be addressed by adding more information. this is a usual tendency of students, that if they wanted to be understood, they offer lengthy explanations and exemplifications. almost equally employed types of revision were consolidation, permutation, and re-order. this may be attributed to the notion of continuity of these three types; that is to rewrite same information in larger chunks is also to rephrase and to re-order the information. on the second draft, distribution, addition and substitution were employed the most. the student writers’ employment of distribution usually was done for emphasis in meaning but necessarily not following the suggestion of the peer editors for improvement. this is because the usual notion students have after the first editing was that unnecessary and problematic items in the composition were already been removed permutation was employed more than deletion. this shows the probability that student’s believed that the first draft had undergone improvement and therefore should maintain the remaining structures perceived to be necessary after the first editing. least employed revision functions on the second draft were re-order and consolidation. re-order and consolidation were used to simplify the idea and also to eliminate structure errors. it is evident that on the second draft, peer editors attempted to make the composition more expressive as they required the writer to provide more information. as the first draft revision focused on local errors; the second draft revision of the peer editors focused on the idea or content of the composition. this is a relevant finding and insightful to teaching l2; peer editors focused on one concern on each stage of editing and not the wholistic concerns of improving the composition at a time. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 116 with such reactions toward the comments and suggestions of the peer editors on their texts, the student writers seemed to be relaxed and confident in the interaction process. the student writers were not somehow conscious of the ratings they got but what was more important was to express themselves and be understood. this is another proof of self-efficacy as also illustrated in nakanishi (2017). however, there were instances in the student’s reaction to the peer editing that they tried to challenge the peer editors, their classmates, whom they believed were somewhat of their own level with respect to l2. this agrees with william (2012) observations that the students did not totally trust the editing of their classmates. for instance, the students followed the revision suggested by the peer editors but they also put marks such as question marks before or after the changed word/s or underscored the edited part. although the student writers had a freer atmosphere in peer editing activity, the students still considered grammar accuracy which students “perceived to be an imposition in teacher-led editing” (park, 2010:23). a significant amount of the peer activity was focused on revising the composition grammatically. this is attributed to the usual focus of editing process the students have experienced and was evident in the peer editors’ comments. the peer editors were somewhat in a role as teachers. most of their corrections were on local errors regardless whether their classmates adhered to the editing or not. their understanding of a better composition was one of grammar accuracy. this agrees with myles (2002) findings. this is attributed to their basic language education where correct usage of structures was emphasized (tonio et al., 2019). in an informal interview, most of the students stated that acquiring l2 means mastering the rules of grammar. also in consideration of the process-oriented task, the students still considered the teachers to be final and ultimate reader and editor of the composition (mcgarell, 2002). hence, although the study shows that improvement during the peer editing activity was more likely on the content of the text, both student writers and peer editors tried hard to correct grammar errors. next to grammatical function is the explicature. consistent with the prior findings of richards (2015) and santos (2019), texts were revised to make the meaning vivid through explicature, adding, and substitution. these actions in the revised texts show that student writers did not believe that all marked parts of the composition were erroneous, but probably just a misunderstanding that they need to explicate to make their meaning come across. another, results show that deletion was minimally used as a means of revisions. this supports the observation above that rather than delete, student writers explained more or exemplified more to make their meaning understood. hence, they viewed the editing as not a correction to an error both on structure and content, but just a lapse of judgement of the peer editors toward the content. also, student writers felt they own the content and the meaning. so in case word or words were marked by the peer editors, the student writers tried to maintain the idea of the structure by rephrasing or expanding the meaning. in fact, during the revision stage and rewriting the edited drafts, the student writers even approached the peer editors to clarify and explain the marked structure and convinced them that these words should not be deleted. this finding is supported by porto (2000) who states that the writer uses his/her experience; knowledge, opinions and beliefs to own the meaning and to build irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 117 his/her message in the composition. as observed, this non-deletion was an indication of the sense of equality perceived by both groups. as illustrated, because student writers did not want to delete as much as possible any part of the composition, neither did the editors often employ deletion as a revision scheme. the peer editors indirectly extended respect to the student writers toward their ownership of the content and meaning. size of revision, results on the size of revision show that the most frequent size of the drafts done by the student writers in response to the peer editing was on sentence. sentences were either elaborated or re-ordered. these were done by continuous adding of sentences with less fear of being edited again. this was in support to the intention of the student writers to make their details more explicit when peer editors tried to correct their composition. also, this shows the less inhibitions of the student writers on the editing intentions. this also proves the relaxed relationship between the student writers and the peer editors. more so, the relaxed atmosphere in the peer editing activity enabled the student writer to assert their property of the composition specifically the idea therein. when not adding another sentence to elaborate or explain the idea, the student writer tried to restate or rephrase the whole sentence. hence, this shows the intention that the student writer would like to maintain the idea. indeed, this direct display of strong belief to the idea is a sign of self-efficacy during the composition writing. next to sentence level revision was on word level. although the student writers were concerned of making their idea explicit, they also judiciously checked their structures on the word level. both student writers and peer editors believed that local errors should also be checked as in the case of word choice, verb form, and agreement. these were observed in the word level. this was done through substitution which was one of the most frequently employed types of revision. the manner in which revision on the word level was done and was acted upon particularly for correct usage concerns showed that the usual revision the students were exposed to. peer editors marked the word that was supposed to be revised and the student writers just focused on the marked word. as porto (2000) revealed in his study, although good content is valued, and flaws in content are penalized, serious grammatical mistakes are also prioritized. due to the complex process of writing in l2, the student writers often found it difficult to develop word groups in large chunks. in most observations, instead of revising phrases and clauses, the students tend to revise the whole sentence. they felt that ideas and structures of these phrases and clauses were not isolated from the whole sentence. last revisions come from symbols and paragraph level. symbols including punctuations were not much problematic to both student writers and editors. punctuations were confined only on the most familiar ones like period, comma, question marks and seldom quotation marks, colons and semi-colons. most of the errors in punctuation marks though was on the use of comma. as identified, student writers were prone to elaborating and expanding their ideas to an extent of committing run-on sentences. this however is in contrast with sato et al (2010) findings that students tended to write shorter and simpler structures in their composition to avoid revisions. lastly, paragraph revision was done last. it was not surprising that student writers revised texts on paragraph level because it entailed much effort and time to do it. also, students believed that in revising paragraphs, they were actually revising the idea. the limited instance of paragraph revision, however, was done through re-ordering. one irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 118 paragraph was transferred from the beginning to end for the purpose of emphasis. another one was deletion of the whole paragraph as it was felt unnecessary in the composition. overall quality of the revised drafts, test of significance between the first and second drafts relevant to the peer editing as an intervention to composition improvement shows significant relationship. the effect of the peer editing in improving the composition was highly significant with over-all quality and number of words in the composition. this means that the peer editing activity somehow made the writer conscious of their errors in the presence or absence of the exact correction because based on the given data for revised texts; the editors seldom provided the exact correction. frequently, the editors circled, underlined or put question mark or other devices that highlighted the part for revision. the students therefore were made conscious of their errors and took the initiative to correct them though sometimes the correction seemed still to be inappropriate or incorrect which was similar to findings of muthmainnah (2019), barkley et al. (2014) and rosnida and zainal’s (2011) studies. the limitations of the peer editors were attributed to their linguistic competence as well as the lack of training for efficient editing skills. however, the high significant correlation between the peer editing and the over-all quality of the texts was a result of the writer’s intention to make their ideas explicit. the idea or content of the composition improved because the writer wanted to prove to the peer editors, seen as classmates by the writers, of the worth of their text. the number of words was also highly significant with the employment of peer editing. as the editor requested the writer to improve the second draft through elaboration as a result of the distribution, permutation and addition revisions. the writers added a lot of words to explain more or to exemplify the ideas in the composition. however, it was not significant with idea units and sentences. results show that students at their level elaborated ideas by adding words and not much of longer structures such as idea units and sentences. looking closely at the data, students even at the same level benefit from the peer editing activity. generally, they adhered to the editing done by their classmates as there was a lot freer atmosphere. more importantly, the reactions given by both group, the peer editors and the student writers show establishment of self-efficacy as confidence was shown on their feedback to the editing process. this is similar to macintyre, and gregersen’s (2012) discussion in their study on language anxiety. conclusions based on the results of the analysis, peer editors focused on a single linguistic concern as they edited. most of their initial editing focused on local errors such as on correct use of nouns and verbs. this has pedagogical implications. students know that the backbone of an utterance is nouns and verbs. teaching lexical items should be contextualized; and that these words are realized not only inside the classroom but in authentic experience of making meaning. another, the difficulty of both groups regarding the preposition should be considered in the curricular concerns. within the limitations of the activity, preposition somehow is neglected. teaching the proper use of preposition should be given attention like that of other categories. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 119 data show that the major functions of revision used by the editors were to make the information vivid and more exemplified. this is the metalinguistic characteristics of the students in terms of sla; that to make other people to understand them is to provide elaborate and detailed explanation. this is also attributed to a freer atmosphere brought about by the peer to peer interactions. they were not inhibited by the idea that an authority, the teacher, would be reading and grading the composition. this is a classic advantage of using peer editing activity in composition development. this is student empowering and developing self-efficacy, not only of their own but collaboratively realized with their peers. although the student writers had a freer atmosphere in peer editing activity, the students still considered grammar accuracy which students “perceived to be an imposition in teacher-led editing” (park, 2010, p. 23). peer editing activity focused on revising the composition grammatically. this is attributed to the usual focus of editing process the students have experienced and was evident in the peer editors’ comments. their understanding of a better composition was one of grammar accuracy. this was attributed to their basic language education where correct usage of structures was emphasized (santos, 2019). hence, although the study shows that improvement during the peer editing activity was more likely on the content of the text, both student writers and peer editors tried hard to correct grammar errors. next to grammatical function was the explicature. the actions in the revised texts show that student writers did not believe that all marked parts of the composition were erroneous, but probably just a misunderstanding that they needed to explicate to make their meaning come across. as observed, this non-deletion was an indication of the sense of equality perceived by both groups. as illustrated, because student writers did not want to delete as much as possible any part of the composition, neither did the editors often employed deletion as a revision scheme. the peer editors indirectly showed respect to the student writers of their ownership of the content and meaning. more so, the relaxed atmosphere in the peer editing activity enabled the student writer to assert their property of the composition specifically the idea therein. when not adding another sentence to elaborate or explain the idea, the student writer tried to restate or rephrase the whole sentence. indeed, this direct display of strong belief to the idea was a sign of self-efficacy during the composition writing. next, although the student writers were concerned of making their idea explicit, they also judiciously checked their structures on the word level. both student writers and peer editors believe that local errors should also be checked as in the case of word choice, verb form, and agreement. this was done through substitution which was one of the most frequently employed type of revision. last revisions were symbols and paragraph. punctuations were confined only on the most familiar ones like period, comma, question marks and seldom quotation marks, colons and semi-colons. most of the errors in punctuation marks though were on the use of comma. as identified, student writers were prone to elaborating and expanding their ideas to an extent of committing run-on sentences. lastly, paragraph revision was done least. it was not surprising that student writers revised texts on paragraph level because it entailed much effort and time to do it. also, students believed that in revising paragraphs, they were actually revising the idea. in terms of over-all quality, based on the correlation analysis, the effect of the peer editing in improving the composition was highly significant with over-all quality and number of words in the composition. this means that the peer editing activity somehow made the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 120 writer conscious of their errors in the presence or absence of the exact correction for the editors seldom provided the exact correction. frequently, the editors circled, underlined or put question mark or other devices that highlighted the part for revision. however, the highly significant correlation between the peer editing and the over-all quality of the texts was a result of the writer’s intention to make their ideas explicit. the idea or content of the composition improved because the writer wanted to prove to the peer editors, seen as classmates by the writers, of the worth of their text. the number of words was also highly significant with the employment of peer editing. as the editor requested the writer to improve the second draft through elaboration as a result of the distribution, permutation and addition revisions. however, results show that students at their level elaborated ideas by adding words and not much of longer structures such as idea units and sentences. in general, students even at the same level benefit from the peer editing activity, foremost because it was done on a lot freer atmosphere. more importantly, the reactions given by both group, the editors and the writers show establishment of self-efficacy as confidence was shown on their second drafts as output of the editing process. disclosure statement no potential conflict of 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(2007). analysis of using multimodal feedback in writing instruction from efl learners’ perspective. english language and literature studies, 8(4), 21-29. biographical note myla lagmay santos pursued a doctoral degree in applied linguistics at the de la salle university manila, where she also obtained her ma in english language education degree both under ched scholarship grant. she is a faculty member of the college of education, central luzon state university, science city of munoz, nueva ecija, teaching professional education courses and english major subjects in both undergraduate and graduate levels. she is also a student teaching supervisor and the former chair of the department of secondary education and the head of print resources and publication services (prps) of the center for educational resources and development (cerds), the production and publication arm of the university. she authored and co-authored references in professional education subjects and a skill text in developmental reading i. her research line includes cross discipline linguistic description, syntax, and sociolinguistics. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 236 investigating the contributing factors to teaching anxiety during teaching practicum: a case of indonesian pre-service efl teachers dinda permatasari 1 , herri mulyono 2 *, ferawati 3 abstract a body of literature has shown that teaching anxiety is one among other critical issues encountered by pre-service teachers when performing classroom teaching during a teaching practicum program. the current study attempted to examine the contributing factors to this anxiety among pre-service teachers performed the teaching of english as a foreign language (efl) during their practicum in primary and secondary schools in indonesia. to this end, 202 pre-service efl teachers were asked to complete teaching anxiety scale (tchas) questionnaire. statistical analyses were performed to the collected quantitative data. findings of the study revealed that there was statistical difference between male and female on the anxiety factor of ‘being unable to answer students’ question’ (f = 6.724, p < .05) but not on other factors of ‘incompetent in classroom’ (f = 3.568, p>.05), ‘dislike teaching’ (f = .001, p>.05), ‘career uncertainty’ (f = 1.238, p>.05), and ‘the negative attitude of the students’ (f = 3.713, p>.05). findings of the study also showed that teaching anxiety was experienced by pre-service efl teachers teaching at primary school, lower secondary school and upper secondary school during the teaching practicum with similar level of anxiety. keywords pre-service efl teachers, teaching anxiety, teaching practicum, teaching anxiety scale 1. university of muhammadiyah prof. dr. hamka, jakarta, indonesia 2. university of muhammadiyah prof. dr. hamka, jakarta, indonesia; hmulyono@uhamka.ac.id 3. university of muhammadiyah prof. dr. hamka, jakarta, indonesia mailto:hmulyono@uhamka.ac.id irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 237 introduction teaching practicum program plays a pivotal role in preparing quality teacher in a teacher education institution (trent, 2013). in the program, pre-service teachers are given an opportunity to engage with an authentic hands-on experience in actual classroom learning settings (nemtchinova, 2018). the program also facilitates the pre-service teachers to develop their instructional competences and carry out some reflection on such competences, to address potential instructional issues by observing and learning from knowledgeable and more able practitioners and peers, and to apply the obtained theoretical knowledge from courses they attended at universities with experience-based learning in primary, secondary, and tertiary schools, or particular independent learning sites (flores, 2015; nemtchinova, 2018). a study by busher, gündüz, cakmak, and lawson (2015) has shown that teaching practicum was effective in developing pre-service teachers’ skills such as classroom management skill and their skill to address students’ individual differences in the classroom. more importantly, teaching practicum program was found to help prospective teacher to familiarize with students’ perspectives and appreciate what it meant to experience like a ‘real’ teacher in a ‘real’ environment. in literature, teaching anxiety is one among other critical issues encountered by pre-service teachers when performing classroom teaching during a practicum program. anxiety is simply viewed as a feeling of uneasiness, incompetence, fear, and nervous about doing something in a particular situation (horwitz, 2016; horwitz, horwitz, & cope, 1986; ningsih, narahara, & mulyono, 2018; tum, 2015). salavera, antoñanzas, noéb, and teruel (2014) describe anxiety as a naturally pathological response in someone’s body resulting negative aftermath and unpleasant feelings for those who suffer it. an anxiety to teach is concerned with a situation in which pre-service teacher feels emotional and tension while before, during and after teaching. in the context of foreign language teaching, can (2018) perceives teaching anxiety as feeling unbelief, unsure of the ability to teach a foreign language properly and feeling they are incompetent in using the foreign language to the students. pre-service teachers who experience foreign language teaching anxiety (flta) tend to feel excessive fear and tension restricting them to perform foreign language (fl) teaching at their best (tum, 2015). many studies have been conducted to identify some contributing factors to flta among pre-service teachers. a study done by numrich (1996), for instance, found flta factors including teachers’ perception of their inadequate level of grammar, lack of time management and instructional issues during classroom teaching. particularly, carol (1996) highlighted the use of target language for providing instructions to the students was shown as the most significant anxiety factor affecting teachers during fl classroom instruction. aydin (2016) also revealed some factors that lead to the pre-service efl teachers’ anxiety during teaching practicum such as a lack of teaching experience, fear of making mistakes, and their proficiency perceptions of the target language. a study by dil, kaygısı, nitel, and araştırma (2016) revealed two contributing factors to flta, including teachers’ fear of failure and using the target language. teachers were observed to feel anxious whether they had provided the insufficient instructions to the students. irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 238 additionally, merç (2011) identified the causes of foreign language pre-service teacher anxiety in the context of turkish public university. utilizing a qualitative study, merç administered 150 diaries along with 30 semi-structured interviews of the pre-service teachers to get more in-depth insights into their experiences during teaching practicum. the result yielded some contributing factors pre-service teachers flta, such as students and class characteristics, classroom management, teaching techniques, and supervisor’s observations. moreover, a study by yoon (2012) examined the sources of teaching anxiety among 52 non-native pre-service teachers attending courses at a state university in south korea. after analysing data from the participants’ surveys, the study found that the use of target language, lack of self-confidence, and inadequate preparation were the primary sources of teaching anxiety, while in indonesian teacher education context, agustiana (2014) revealed that lack of teaching experience was the predictor of teaching anxiety among pre-service efl teachers. kiggundu and nayimuli (2009) point out, despite the thorough preparation, the pre-service teachers found it difficult to teach, as pupils were unresponsive; the pupils did not do their tasks, were noisy and were not actively engaged in classroom activities. matoti and lekhu (2016) also suggest that they were doubtful of their assigned supervisors’ views toward their lesson plan executions, thinking they were not going to meet the supervisors’ expectations. this impression is similar to a study by sammephet and wanphet (2013) that their anxiety remains even after-teaching hour considering to the supervisors’ and their pupils’ opinions. aslrasouli and vahid's (2014) study focused on the role of gender on the levels of anxiety among initial and knowledgeable iranian in-service efl teachers. the study found that gender was not a significant variable that contribute to flta. in contrast, a study by matoti and lekhu (2016) revealed that male pre-service teachers tended to be more anxious during classroom instruction practices compared to their female counterparts especially with regard to classroom-management and lesson plans executions, and both genders were occasionally anxious about their initial preparation in order to deliver materials. literature also shows that teaching anxiety negatively affects on pre-service efl teachers’ instructional performance. tum (2012) examined the effects of teaching anxiety on teacher’ performance in teaching and found that anxiety brings detrimental impact on three dimensions of pre-service teachers instructional practices: their use of target language, pedagogical competencies and instructional activities. abongdia, adu, and foncha (2015) discusses several pre-service teachers who undoubtedly hesitate themselves that negatively affects their attitude towards the teaching profession. they also felt such alienation, which in turn diminishes the effectiveness of teaching practice. these two studies (e.g., abongdia, adu, & foncha, 2015; tum, 2012) have shared the same notions as the prior study by keavney and sinclair (1978) that teaching anxiety has an inimical effects on the classroom climate. this condition may indirectly reduce teaching effectiveness in terms of pupil outcomes by decreasing pupil motivation to learn, which will then interfere with students’ learning and performance. although teaching anxiety have been evident in literature among pre-service efl teachers as discussed earlier, such an issue is still underexplored in indonesian teacher education context. the current study thus attempts to investigate the factors that contribute irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 239 to pre-service efl teachers’ anxiety during teaching practicum in indonesian education context. specifically, the study attempts to address the following two research questions: 1) do the pre-service efl teachers feel teaching anxiety during teaching practicum? 2) what are the contributing factors to pre-service efl teachers during teaching practicum? methodology research design this current study was a survey aiming at investigating contributing factors of teaching anxiety among pre-service efl teachers in indonesian teacher education settings. survey design was purposefully employed to target a wide field of populations and to produce numerical data which thus help present descriptive and explanatory information related to the objectives of the current study (cohen, manion, morrison, & bell, 2018). specifically, an online survey method was selected as it was practical, time efficient, ease of data entry, fast data processing as well as lower cost (granello & wheaton, 2004; wright, 2005; zhang, kuchinke, woud, velten, & margraf, 2017). despite such benefits, granello and wheaton (granello & wheaton, 2004) identify several issues concerning the online data collecting method, including the representation of the sample, response rates and technical difficulty. targeted sampling (i.e. third year of pre-service efl teachers studying at faculty of teacher training and pedagogy) thus was adopted to address the issues related to sample representation and it may improve response rates (dusek, yurova, & ruppel, 2015). in addition, the online survey was developed using google form as it was simple, easy to use (ningsih et al., 2018) and has already been familiar among pre-service efl teachers in indonesia. research sites and participants a total of two hundred and two pre-service efl teachers from faculty of teacher training across universities in indonesia participated in the study where they were asked to complete an online teaching anxiety scale (tchas) survey. they were from seven provinces in indonesia, namely jakarta, west java, banten, south east sulawesi, lampung, riau islands, central java, aceh, east kalimantan, east java, south sumatera, north sumatra, jogjakarta, jambi, south kalimantan, south sulawesi, and west nusa tenggara with many from jakarta (n=66, 32.67%), west java (n=38, 18.8%) and east java (n=37, 18.3% and other less than 8%). the participants were dominated by145 female and with 57 males, aged between 18 to 30 year-old. table 1 below presents the demography of the participants. irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 240 table 1. participants’ demography demography number percentage gender female 145 71.78% male 57 28.21% age < 20 4 1.98% 20 < n < 25 192 95.05% 25 < 6 2.97% practicum site primary school (ps) 10 4.95% lower secondary school (ls) 102 50.49% upper secondary school (us) 90 44.55% all of the participants had an upper intermediate level of english language proficiency. they also had attended three teaching english as a foreign language (tefl) courses (i.e., introductory course to the teaching of english as a foreign language, approaches to tefl, lesson planning and micro teaching) and had just completed their teaching practicum at schools. however, prior the study we have observed that although many of pre-service teachers have attended three courses on tefl methods, the feeling of anxiety to teach and to use a foreign language simultaneously still exists among them. data collection instruments and analysis an online five-likert scale teaching anxiety scale (tchas) questionnaire was distributed to 202 pre-service efl teachers to collect quantitative data regarding their anxiety to teach english during teaching practicum. the questionnaire adapted from parsons' tchs (1973) survey. the teaching anxiety scale (tchas) has been developed by parsons (1973) used to measure teaching anxiety. although tchas was developed in the 1970s, its use in recent education and classroom research is still precise and suitable for measuring teaching anxiety, both in-service and pre-service teachers (for example see cheung & hui, 2011; peker & ulu, 2018; pelton, 2014). originally, there were fifty-four items in the instruments, but we opted to use twenty-three questions to that addressed the research questions of the current study. from the twenty-three items, nine items are about the fear of facing the students’ unexpected reactions and questions in a class. three items are about comparing the ability to other pre-service teachers and items are about feeling pessimists can be a good teacher. two items are about feeling nervous about being observed by the college supervisor and about hesitation when preparing the lesson. the rests are about the ability to control self and class during teaching activities. demography items were added to the questionnaire and they include gender, age and type of school they were teaching in. the questionnaire was created using google forms, and was distributed online to the participants through a link that shared through social media such as twitter, facebook, line, whatsapp and instagram. to help the participants read and comprehended each item in the questionnaire, all items in tchas was translated into bahasa indonesia. the questionnaire was opened for two months and irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 241 during the time had recorded 202 responses. the collected data then were analysed using factor analysis with varimax rotation, correlation, one-way anova, and regression in spss (cheung & hui, 2011). prior the data collection, consent was obtained from the participants of the current study. participation was voluntary and the rights of human participants were protected. the names of people, places, and research site were masked. findings the result from factor analysis the calculation of the factor analysis was done entirely by using varimax rotation. twenty-three tchas items extracted into five factors with alpha ranging .45 to .89. these five extracted factors were labelled as incompetent in the classroom, dislike teaching, career uncertainty, being unable to answer students’ question and the negative attitudes of the students. as identified in the analysis, three items number 6, 14, and 17 were not related to those factors, and they were omitted accordingly. the rest were categorized into five factors: incompetent in classroom with 34.73% of the total variance, dislike teaching with 6.79% of the total variance, career uncertainty with 6,04% of the total variance, being unable to answer students’ question with 4,75% of the total variance, and negative attitudes of the students with 4,67% of the total variance. table 2 shows the result of the factor analysis of tchas. table 2. factor analysis for 20 items of teaching anxiety items incompetent in classroom (alpha= .89) dislike teaching (alpha= .73) career uncertainty (alpha= .56) being unable to answer students’ question (alpha= .5 8) the negative attitude of the students (alpha= .45) 4 .58 7 .72 9 .50 10 .57 16 .52 18 .64 19 .55 20 .51 22 .68 23 .68 3 .76 5 .73 21 .73 2 .57 13 .64 1 .74 8 .67 12 .39 11 .49 15 .79 irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 242 the table above showed the number of items related to each factor. the score factor of teaching anxiety is incompetent in the classroom ranging from .50 to .72. the second factor is dislike teaching ranging from .73 to .76. the third factor is career uncertainty ranging from .57 to .64. the fourth factor is being unable to answer students’ question ranging from .39 to .74, and the last factor is the negative attitude of the students ranging from .49 to .79. in addition, the demographics such as gender and age were found correlated to two tchas factors with p<0.01 and p<0.05 (see table 3). the correlation between age and incompetent in classroom and being unable to answer students’ question were at .14 and .13, respectively. the correlation between gender and being unable to answer students’ question, and gender and age, were at .1 and .25, respectively. as observed, the correlation level of the demographics and two tchas factors remained weak which analysis between them were not performed. note: * correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed); ** correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). table 3. correlations amongst different factors the result from anova calculation anova calculation was performed to compare the means between gender on the five anxiety factors. table 4 below presents the descriptive statistic of gender and the teaching anxiety factors and table 5 shows the result of anova, respectively. table 4. descriptive statistics of gender and the teaching anxiety factors variables n mean std. deviation min max incompetent in classroom female 145 30.44 7.630 10 50 male 57 32.63 6.836 12 46 total 202 31.06 7.464 10 50 dislike teaching female 145 10.12 2.554 3 15 male 57 10.11 3.080 3 15 total 202 10.11 2.705 3 15 no factors 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 incompetent in classroom 1 .10 .14* .12 2 dislike teaching 1 3 career uncertainty 1 .01 .11 .04 4 being unable to answer students’ question 1 .18** .13* .02 5 the negative attitude of the students 1 .06 6 gender 1 .25** .12 7 age 1 .04 8 types of school 1 irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 243 table 4. descriptive statistics of gender and the teaching anxiety factors (cont.) career uncertainty female 145 6.06 1.731 2 10 male 57 6.37 1.970 2 10 total 202 6.14 1.802 2 10 being unable to answer students’ question female 145 9.48 2.148 4 15 male 57 10.33 2.030 3 15 total 202 9.72 2.145 3 15 the negative attitude of the students female 145 6.38 1.659 2 10 male 57 6.88 1.637 2 10 total 202 6.52 1.664 2 10 table 5. result of anova between gender and teaching anxiety factors variables df f sig. incompetent in classroom between groups 2 3.568 .060 within groups 199 total 201 dislike teaching between groups 2 .001 .977 within groups 199 total 201 career uncertainty between groups 2 1.238 .267 within groups 199 total 201 being unable to answer students’ question between groups 2 6.724 .010 within groups 199 total 201 the negative attitude of the students between groups 2 3.713 .055 within groups 199 total 201 as shown in table 4, the mean of female and male in ‘incompetent in classroom variable’ showed that male’s was higher than female’s. in ‘higher dislike teaching’, the mean score of the female was higher than male but mean score of the male in ‘feeling career uncertainty’ remained higher than the female. male was shown to be afraid of ‘being unable to answer students’ question than the female and experienced more the negative attitude of the students than the female. in addition, the statistical analysis using anova (see table 5) revealed that there was statistical difference between male and female on the anxiety factor of ‘being unable to answer students’ question’ (f = 6.724, p < .05) but not on other factors of ‘incompetent in classroom’ (f = 3.568, p>.05), ‘dislike teaching’ (f = .001, p>.05), ‘career uncertainty’ (f = 1.238, p>.05), and ‘the negative attitude of the students’ (f = 3.713, p>.05). besides comparing gender and the five anxiety factors, anova calculation were done to compare the means between types school on the five anxiety factors. table 6 below presents the descriptive statistic of types of schools and the teaching anxiety factors and table 7 shows the result of anova, respectively. irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 244 table 6. descriptive statistics of types of school and the teaching anxiety factors variables n mean std. deviation min max incompetent in classroom ps 10 30.40 6.114 20 39 ls 102 30.38 6.885 10 44 us 90 31.90 8.182 12 50 total 202 31.06 7.464 10 50 dislike teaching ps 10 10.00 2.582 5 13 ls 102 10.21 2.565 3 15 us 90 10.02 2.891 3 15 total 202 10.11 2.705 3 15 career uncertainty ps 10 6.60 1.578 5 10 ls 102 6.02 1.665 2 10 us 90 6.23 1.972 2 10 total 202 6.14 1.802 2 10 being unable to answer students’ question ps 10 9.60 2.119 6 13 ls 102 9.65 2.232 3 14 us 90 9.81 2.066 5 15 total 202 9.72 2.145 3 15 the negative attitude of the students ps 10 5.70 1.829 3 9 ls 102 6.42 1.650 2 10 us 90 6.72 1.642 2 10 total 202 6.52 1.664 2 10 table 7. result of anova between types of school and teaching anxiety factors variables df f sig. incompetent in classroom between groups 2 1.030 .359 within groups 199 total 201 dislike teaching between groups 2 .199 .888 within groups 199 total 201 career uncertainty between groups 2 .671 .512 within groups 199 total 201 being unable to answer students’ question between groups 2 .154 .857 within groups 199 total 201 the negative attitude of the students between groups 2 2.080 .128 within groups 199 total 201 irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 245 table 5 presents the descriptive statistics of school types and the five teaching anxiety factors. teachers who teach in upper secondary school felt more anxious of being incompetent in classroom ( ̃=31.90) while those teaching in lower secondary school felt more about being dislike teaching than others ( ̃=10.21). more importantly, primary school teachers felt more anxious about their career ( ̃=10.21) and those teaching in primary school and secondary schools had similar anxiety of being unable to answer students’ question ( ̃=9.72). it is interesting that secondary school teachers were more anxious of the students’ negative attitude than the primary school teachers. result of anova calculation showed that there was no statistical difference among primary, lower secondary school, and lower secondary school teachers on the five factors of teaching anxiety (p>.05). discussion the research question number one was intended to find out whether pre-service efl teachers feel teaching anxiety during their teaching practicum. as analysed above, the findings from the statistical survey have responded positively about the existence of teaching anxiety encountered by them during their teaching practicum in their initial period. further, we tried to determine several factors contributing to the pre-service efl teachers’ teaching anxiety, which turned out to be our second research question. we found that their teaching anxiety feeling has been aroused due to several factors such as incompetent in classroom, dislike teaching, career uncertainty, unexpected students’ questions, and students’ negative attitudes. these five factors were extracted from two precedent studies investigated by can (2018) and cheung and hui (2011). the finding corresponds with the results of an earlier study by cheung and hui (2011) suggesting that those teaching anxiety factors (i.e. incompetent in classroom, dislike teaching, and career uncertainty) cause many negative impacts between teacher and students. the current findings more revealed that the pre-service efl teachers faced uncertainty towards their teaching careers. not only the pre-service teachers deal with it, even the experienced teachers also dilemma about their commitment to their teaching careers as convinced by floden and clark (1988). moreover, the current findings voiced that the teachers worried when they were asked an unexpected question that they could not answer accurately, supported by kim and kim (2004). more similar studies on teaching anxiety also indicated by gardner and leak (2015) who found that teachers with highly teaching anxiety had difficulty standing up in front of the students and answering unexpected students’ questions. these views were also corroborated with a study by ameen, guffy, and jackson's (2016) which showed that the factors triggered teaching anxiety was unable to answer students’ unexpected question. the teaching anxiety feeling was confronted by the pre-service efl teachers not only coming from themselves, but also coming from students. can (2018) found in his study that the pre-service efl teachers felt anxious when the students performed negatively in the learning process. this notion shared the same view as can and basturk (2018) study that the pre-service efl teachers in their study were not into teaching as it was involved of irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 246 managing class, dealing with disrespectful and naughty students, resulting the pre-service efl teachers to dislike teaching similar with our current findings. while numrich (1996) further had explored the factors including teachers’ perceptions of their inadequate proficiency, lack of time management and instructional issues during classroom teaching which were viewed as a pre-service efl teachers’ incompetence in the classroom, similar with this current findings. conclusions the current study was conducted to address an inquiry if pre-service efl teachers experienced teaching anxiety during teaching practicum and the contributing factors to such an anxiety. result of the statistical analysis showed that all pre-service efl teachers felt anxious when performed classroom teaching during teaching practicum at school. some contributing factors to such a teaching anxiety that had been identified concerned with their feeling of being incompetent in the classroom, dislike teaching, career uncertainty, being unable to answer students’ question and negative attitude. the analysis also resulted that there was statistical difference between male and female only on the anxiety factor of ‘being unable to answer students’ questions. in addition, there was no significant difference on the experience of being anxious in teaching among pre-service efl teachers teaching in primary school, lower secondary school and upper secondary school. references abongdia, j.a., adu, e. o., & foncha, j. w. 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(2015). foreign language anxiety’s forgotten study: the case of the anxious preservice teacher. tesol quarterly, 49(4), 627–658. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.190 wright, k. b. (2005). researching internet-based populations: advantages and disadvantages of online survey research, online questionnaire authoring software packages, and web survey services. journal of computer-mediated communication, 10(3), jcmc1034. yoon, t. (2012). teaching english through english: exploring anxiety in non-native pre-service esl teachers. theory and practice in language studies, 2(6), 1099–1107. zhang, x., kuchinke, l., woud, m. l., velten, j., & margraf, j. (2017). survey method matters: online/offline questionnaires and face-to-face or telephone interviews differ. computers in human behavior, 71, 172–180. biographical notes dinda permatasari dinda permatasasri is studying at english department, faculty of teacher training and pedagogy (fkip), university of muhammadiyah prof. dr. hamka jakarta, indonesia. herri mulyono, phd. is a senior teaching staff at faculty of teacher training and pedagogy (fkip), university of muhammadiyah prof. dr. hamka jakarta, indonesian. he obtained his ph.d in tesol at university of york, uk. herri’s research interests include the contributing factors for effective teaching and learning and the incorporating of technology in language learning classroom. e-mail: hmulyono@uhamka.ac.id ferawati graduated from english department, faculty of teacher training and pedagogy (fkip), university of muhammadiyah prof. dr. hamka jakarta. she is a staff at scientific publication support and enhancement unit. mailto:hmulyono@uhamka.ac.id this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 260 embracing the 2013 curriculum: a qualitative metasummary of problems dairabi kamil* abstract this study seeks to synthesize research findings on problems in implementing the 2013 curriculum in schools across the country. the terminal objective of this study is to construct a large picture of the issue across different contexts of the synthesized studies. drawing on qualitative metasummary variant of the qualitative metasynthesis method, data were collected through online searching of relevant research reports available in several databases. data analyses followed the procedure suggested by sandelowski and barroso (2007) on 81 research reports. findings of this study show that problems in the implementation of the 2013 curriculum can be grouped under ten topical categories, namely 1) teacher’s readiness; 2) assessment; 3) learning resources; 4) infrastructure; 5) introduction and training; 6) learning process; 7) time allocation; 8) student’s readiness; 9) regulation; and 10) monitoring and supervision. it was also found that 4 out of the 7 anticipated problems in the pre-implementation public assessment period of the curriculum exist in the synthesis. it is therefore suggested that: 1) continuous monitoring and assistance by related authorities of the implementation of the 2013 curriculum is needed to help teachers and schools deal with the identified problems; 2) as teachers’ readiness seems to be the central problem in the implementation, solving this problem also help ease the other problems; 3) as the current study only on focuses the problems in the implementation of the curriculum, it does not necessarily mean that the curriculum is void of advantages and strength. therefore, the researcher recommends research that looks into this side; and 4) as most of the anticipated problems existed in the synthesis, there seems to be so far inadequate control and follow-up of the valuable anticipation. therefore, in the future, close attention and immediate actions should be taken to address such issues. keywords curriculum, metasummary, problems, qualitative study * associate professor, institut agama islam kerinci, jambi, indonesia; drbkml@gmail.com mailto:drbkml@gmail.com irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 261 introduction curriculum changes are common in any system of education. the changes are mostly made in order to suit the latest development in the context where it is used. such development can be ideological, methodological, and pragmatic in nature. ideology driven curriculum changes are made about shifts of the ideological or philosophical foundation of the context where the curriculum is implemented, which has also shifted its educational philosophy. the methodology is driven curriculum changes mainly result from the development of education's methodological aspects and contents. for instance, when a new approach or method of teaching claimed to improve the quality of learning is adopted by a system of education. the pragmatic curriculum changes orient the curriculum to the needs of its society that may include workplace and market demands as both educational and non-educational issues can trigger such curriculum changes. since its independence in 1945, indonesia has repeatedly changed its national curriculum. on average, the curriculum changes or revisions are made once every ten years, and, as suggested above, the changes have been ideological, methodological, and pragmatic in nature. however, rapid and fundamental curriculum changes occurred during the 2004 to 2013 period. in 2004, the ministry of education (moe) launched the competence-based curriculum, an outcome-oriented curriculum that replaced the long practiced content-based curriculum. in 2006, the so-called school-based curriculum was introduced. although essentially identical to the competence-based curriculum, it transferred the responsibility for developing the curriculum from the moe to schools. hence, the change was fundamentally from a centralized curriculum development paradigm to a decentralized one. later, in 2013, the 2013 curriculum was launched. this curriculum is still competence-based, but its purposes stress more on holistic learning and character building. most importantly, the 2013 curriculum takes back the responsibility for developing the curriculum from schools to the moe. however, so far, no clear or official information is available on the reasons that have led to the re-transfer of the responsibility. this has further deepened the belief held by many educators in indonesia that a new regime means a new curriculum. the literature has been consistent in suggesting the central role of teachers for successful curriculum innovation. nation and macalister (2010) argue that change should also occur in the minds of teachers and other people affected by the innovation and change in the curriculum. however, fullan (2009) argues that most top-down changes have been centered on policy and the initiation phase, overlooking the process and implementation problems. at the same time, implementation can either be absent, superficial, partial, or thorough. in the same tone, graves (2009) claims that the top-down “specialist approach” to curriculum development where different groups of people involved, who might have insufficient knowledge and information on the many different contexts within which the curriculum will be implemented, undertake different functions in curriculum development with their own beliefs, assumptions, and interpretation of the nature of the curricular policy may fail in the implementation. therefore, as mcgrail (in alwan 2006) suggested, participating effectively in curriculum innovation, teachers need a profound understanding of the rationale for the innovation. this particularly concerns the “why” of the innovation. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 262 they also have to understand the conceptual framework, principles and underlying assumptions of the new curriculum (brooker & clenet, 2006; gopinathan & deng, 2006, orafi & borg, 2009). this is because they are the executors of curriculum of the top-down hierarchical pyramid of curriculum development and implementation. hence, there is clearly a need to listen to teachers’ voices and concerns in a curriculum change. in the context of the 2013 curriculum, there had been efforts to gathers educators’ perspectives. before launching the curriculum, the moe allocated a period of time until december 2012to pilot project the curriculum in some schools across the country. in addition, during the period, the public was also invited to post their opinions regarding the curriculum to the moe online. according to the report by the moe (2012), there were 5729 responses received, which centered on seven themes, namely: 1) justification of the curriculum change; 2) the competencies; 3) the structure of the curriculum; 4) training for teachers; 5) textbooks; 6)time allocation, and 7) extension of duration of the lesson. based on the responses, the moe concluded that; first, the public accepted the underlying concept of the curriculum but demanded stressing on character education through the subject of religious teaching; second, training is to be provided for school principals and teachers; third, parents need to be introduced to the curriculum; and fourth, the public welcome the extension of the duration of the lesson (kementerian pendidikan dan kebudayaan, 2012). ornstein and hunkins (in hussain, adeeb, & aslam, 2011) suggest that curriculum implementation is an integral part of curriculum development. however, it is often considered a distinct part that is not related to curriculum development. in addition, hussain et al. (2011, p.2-3) suggest that, “implementation involves attempts to change individuals’ knowledge, attitudes and actions; it involves interactions between curriculum planers, management, teachers, students and all stakeholders”. furthermore, they argue, “curriculum development process is not static. rather, it is continuous and cyclic and undergoes a continual process of modification in the light of feedback obtained through constant monitoring of existing curriculum. it does not lead to a finished final product and demand for continuous improvement in the light of the continuously changing needs of society. it means that continuous monitoring and evaluation should be implanted as vital parts in curriculum development process.” (p.3) in light of the above-mentioned views, now after almost five years of implementation, there is a need to see how the 2013 curriculum is implemented in the field; whether or not the concerns voiced five years ago exist in the implementation of the curriculum, and if there are new issues and problems to be addressed. there have been a great number of qualitative studies that evaluate the implementation of the 2013 curriculum, for example, suhardono (2014), riptiani, manuaba, and putra (2015), hermuttaqqien (2015), siskandar (2016), matra, sidqi, and ulya (2016), and many others. however, the studies are context-specific in their scope and findings, reflecting only the status of the implementation of the curriculum in a single research site. in contrast, a larger account on the issue needed for a more comprehensive overview is, to the researcher’s knowledge, so far still unavailable. therefore, a study that synthesizes the findings across those studies is needed to offer a wider picture of implementing the curriculum across the country. such information is important as a part of irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 263 efforts to monitor how the curriculum is implemented at schools continuously. hence, issues related to the weak points of the curriculum can be mapped and improved. the literature suggests that curriculum implementation should be considered an integral part of the curriculum development cycle to continuously monitor how the curriculum is practiced by teachers at school and, hence, to improve the curriculum. as the executor of the curriculum, teachers play a vital role in the realization of the curriculum and, thus, in the process of curriculum development itself. they possess first-hand information about the implementation of the curriculum. however, although school level studies on the implementation of the 2013 curriculum have been conducted in some areas of the countries, such studies are context-specific in their scope and findings. to date, no study synthesizes findings from completed qualitative studies on the issues to offer more comprehensive picture of the status of implementing the curriculum across the country. this study aims to fill the voids. literature review curriculum innovation: definition and forms markee (1997, p. 46) defines “curriculum innovation” as “a managed process of development whose principal products are teaching (and testing) materials, methodological skills, and pedagogical values that are perceived as new by potential adopters.” however, alwan (2006) argues that whether a curricular innovation carries something new is subjective. drawing on fullan (1999), she furthermore argues that innovation in curricular policies does not necessarily entail change, which is a process of transformation that comes in various degrees in its speed, size, thoroughness, profoundness, and direction. the literature has used other four terms, i.e. curriculum reform, curriculum change, curriculum renewal, and curriculum development” interchangeably with “curriculum innovation”(stolk et al., 2010; suter 2002; wedell, 2003; brooker & clennett, 2006; handal & herrington, 2003; iemjinda, 2007; wang, 2008; nunan, 1995; cumming, 1993; kilpatrick, 2008). one thing that can be inferred from the usage is that the meanings of these terms are overlapping. however, marsh and willis (2003) suggest that “curriculum change” is the generic term that covers the other four terms, in the sense that curriculum change has been understood and realized in the form of “curriculum innovation”, “curriculum reform” and “curriculum renewal”. the undertaking or translation of these notions into curriculum documents, i.e. syllabi and lesson plans, by curriculum developers is referred to as curriculum development. at the end of the continuum comes curriculum enactment or the implementation of the curriculum by teachers in their teaching (brady, 1992; lewy, 1991; bolstad, 2004; graves, 2009, 1992; marsh, day, & hannay, 1990; kennedy, 1992; ramsay, hawk, harrot, marriot, & poskit, 1995; gopinathan & deng, 2006). in this study, the term “curriculum innovation” is understood in markee’s (1997) definition and used to refer to and mean the other four terms used in the literature, emphasizing curriculum and syllabus development. the literature also shows that innovations in a curriculum have been made on its approach, objectives, focus, scope, contents, structure / organization, process / irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 264 implementation, responsibility for curriculum development, product / outcomes, materials, and assessment (barnett, 2006; brooker & clennett, 2006; wedell, 2003; suter, 2002; cumming, 1993; kırkgoz, 2008; borman, 2008; orafi& borg, 2009; wang, 2008; handal & herrington, 2003; van zoest & stockero, 2006; stolk et al., 2010; iemjinda, 2007; kilpatrick , 2008). referring to the curriculum innovations mentioned above, the shift from decentralized school-based curriculum to centralized 2013 curriculum in the indonesian context of education exemplifies innovations in curriculum and syllabus development. teachers’ practices in curriculum innovation the literature on teachers’ practices has been mostly focused on teachers’ classroom practices. very few addressed the issue of teachers’ practices in curriculum innovation or development. interestingly, of 37 books and articles available for review, either on “teachers’ classroom practices” or “teachers’ practices in curriculum innovation”, none has operationalized or defined the term “practice”. however, all discuss how teachers perform or execute their particular professional tasks in their contexts of teaching. hence, it seems that there is common sense or shared understanding among researchers in what “practice” means. nevertheless, for clarity, “practice” in this study is understood as “the actual performance of an activity in a real situation” (macmillan english dictionary, 2002, p. 1104). studies on teachers’ practice in curriculum innovation worldwide, although limited in number, have been consistently reporting the existence of “gaps” between the intention of the innovation and teachers’ practice. to mention a few, in the united states, olson (2006) finds the discrepancy between what prescribed by the mathematics curriculum reform and teachers’ classroom. in libya, examining the implementation of a new communicative english language curriculum in secondary schools, orafi and borg (2009) find considerable differences between the intentions of the curriculum and the instruction observed. in china, wang (2008), observing the implementation of language policy in the chinese tertiary context, concludes that “teachers failed to implement what was required from policymakers in the classroom” (p.1). in the netherlands, a study on chemistry teachers’ involvement in early stages of context-based curriculum innovations by stolk et al. (2010) demonstrates that the teachers only adopt the innovation partially. competency-based curriculum as previously mentioned, the 2013 curriculum is still using the framework of the 2004 curriculumthe competence-based curriculum (cbc). therefore, in this study, it is essential to discuss this kind of curriculum here. cbc is developed to view that education is intended to develop learners’ functional competence that will enable them to function appropriately in their community (ansyar, 2004). mc asham (cited in hasan, 2002, p.4) defines competency as “ …knowledge, skills, and abilities that a person can learn and develop, which become parts of his or her being to the extent that he or she can satisfactorily perform particular cognitive, affective, and psychomotor behavior.” such qualities, found in learners themselves, are trained and developed through teaching and irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 265 learning processes until they become internalized in learners’ personality (chickering & claxton, 1981). in cbc, student competencies required for the course as well as competencies to be developed during the course are outlined and explained (kern 1990). the main difference between cbc and other types of the curriculum is that it focuses more on achieving quality learning, on profound-comprehensive-continuous learning with contextual materials, rather than on quantity. it also gives a significant role to local school teachers to design their own syllabus that will suit their teaching context (kwartolo, 2002). balitbang-diknas (2002, p. 25) defines cbc as “a set of plans and arrangements of competencies and learning outputs students should achieve in their study, including types of assessment, organization of teaching and learning activities, and the enforcement of educational resources for the development of school curriculum.” initiatives for adopting cbc as a substitution for the 1994 curriculum began in 2001. these initiatives were not only based on the common rationale for curriculum change, i.e. to cope with ever-changing demand of the age and dissatisfaction of the results from almost one-decade implementation of the 1994 curriculum, but also on a fundamental political shift that takes place in indonesia since the dawn of the new order era in 1997 which had ruled indonesia with such a centralized system for more than 30 years (sidi, 2002). now, with more democratic and decentralized governance, the educational sector also needs a curriculum that will enhance decentralization and give a wider autonomy to local schools. finally, in late 2002, after a series of seminars, pilot projects, and evaluations organized and supervised by the centre for curriculum development and research, department of national education, a decision to adopt cbc was made. full implementation of cbc in schools across the country was expected to be realized in 2004 (boediono, 2002). from the official guidelines of cbc released by the centre for curriculum development and research or balitbangdiknas / puskur (2002) some important points can be drawn: 1. the underlying ideas on which cbc is developed are the development of one’s competence knowledge, skills, and basic values which are habitual and reflected in his thoughts and actions. one’s consistency and continuation in his habit of thinking and acting will make him competent, in a sense that he possesses the knowledge, the skills, and the basic value necessary for doing something. 2. the rationale for adopting the concept of competence in the curriculum are: a) competence is related to students’ ability to perform a task in various contexts; b). a student’s competence reflects his or her learning experience; c).competence is learning outcomes which explain what students do after the learning process; d). students’ ability in performing a task should be well defined within a standard which can be achieved through a measurable effort. 3. cbc can be diversified, extended, and adjusted according to the immediate context and demands of students and the community. 4. the development of syllabus refers to cbc and its components which have been developed centre for curriculum development and research. local schools which have sufficient resources may develop their own syllabus which they think will suit their needs. this should be done with an agreement from the local board of education. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 266 5. the local board of education may organize schools with insufficient resources in developing syllabus. this can be done by involving experts or other related parties (balitbang diknas, 2002). colleges and universities also adopt cbc. with this curriculum, the directorate of higher education only lists the students' competencies when they finish their tertiary study. colleges and university are free to develop their own curriculum and syllabus and nominate subjects as long as they are aimed and referred to the list of competencies. the 2013 curriculum the curriculum 2013 is competency-based. a competency-based curriculum is an outcomes-based curriculum and therefore, curriculum development is directed at developing competencies formulated from standard of graduation competencies. similarly, assessment of learning outcomes and curriculum outcomes is measured by the achievement of competencies. the success of the curriculum is defined as the achievement of competencies designed in the curriculum document by all learners. competencies for the curriculum 2013 are designed as follows: 1. the contents or curriculum contents are competencies expressed in core competencies and further detailed in the basic competencies of every subject; 2. core competencies are categorical descriptions of internal competencies covering the aspects of attitude, knowledge, and skills (cognitive and psychomotor) that learners must achieve for a level of school, class and subjects. core competencies are the qualities that a learner should have for each grade through basic competencies learning organized in a student-centred learning process; 3. basic competencies are competencies that learners learn for a theme at elementary school and for subjects in certain junior/high school classes; 4. core competencies and basic competencies in secondary education are targeted at the sphere of attitude while at the secondary education level on intellectual ability (high cognitive ability); 5. core competencies become the organizing elements for basic competencies; 6. basic competencies are developed based on accumulative, mutually reinforcing principles and enriched between subjects and levels of education; 7. the syllabi are developed as a learning design for one theme at the elementary school level or one class and one subject at junior and senior high school levels; 8. lesson plan is developed from each basic competency for the subjects and the grade (kementerian pendidikan & kebudayaan, 2013). methodology as this research aims to synthesize findings of completed qualitative studies within the scope of the research questions, qualitative metasummary (sandelowski & barroso, 2007) method is considered suitable for the current study to achieve that aim. sandelowski and barroso (2007) outline that, as a type of qualitative research synthesis, qualitative metasummary is “... a quantitatively oriented aggregation of qualitative findings that are themselves topical or thematic summaries or surveys of data” (p.151). regarding the selection of studies to be included in qualitative synthesis research, sandelowski, docherty, irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 267 emden (1997) suggest that, to get the most relevant studies, qualitative synthesists need to, first, determine topical similarity across the foci of the research being conducted and that of targeted completed qualitative studies; second, set inclusion criteria for the topically similar studies to be included in the research; and third, determine methodological comparability among the included reports as the initial guidance in retrieving and selecting sample reports to be synthesized. pertaining to the notion of topical similarity, this study sought completed qualitative research that addresses the issues of problems and opportunities in the implementation of the 2013 curriculum, particularly those raised in the research questions. the inclusion criteria follow the four parameters suggested by sandelowski and barroso (2007) i.e., the topic (what), the population (who), the time (when), and the methodology (how). thus, the completed projects included in this study are qualitative research exploring the problems and opportunities in the implementation of the 2013 curriculum as perceived by school teachers from 2014 to 2017. to be more specific on the who parameter, this study sought qualitative research that takes elementary, junior high, or senior high school teachers general, religious, vocational, or special schools. in addition, the how parameter also addresses the methodological comparability among included research reports. the current study searched for the data through two online search engines, i.e. “google”, and “portal garuda”an official website of the ministry of research and higher education of the republic of indonesia that hosts academic research reports from indonesian scholars and researchers. the search term used was “implementasi kurikulum 2013”. initial retrieval followed by an examination of individual items yielded from both search engines 301reports that fitted the topical similarity parameter. these included undergraduate theses, master degree theses, and research reports. further examination with the inclusion criteria resulted in 81 items (see appendix) relevant to further analysis following the procedure outlined in the methodology chapter. these include 6 undergraduate theses, three master theses, and 72 research reports from various study contexts. in terms of education levels, the reports came from research on elementary, secondary, and high school contexts. their coverage ranges from classroom and subject level accounts to a province-wide study of curriculum implementation, from general, vocational, and religious types of school to school for special needs students. data analysis in this study follows sandelowski and barroso (2007) that suggest that qualitative metasummary data analysis techniques include (a) extracting findings, separating them from other elements of the research report; (b) editing findings to make them accessible to any reader; (c) grouping findings in common topical domains; (d) abstracting findings; and (e) calculating manifest frequency and intensity effect sizes. findings analysis of the findings of the 85 reports found 209 mentions of problems in the implementation of the curriculum that can be further classified into ten topical areas presented in the following table in the order of decreasing number of mentions: irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 268 table 1. problems found in the synthesis no. topical area number of mention percentage 1. teacher’s readiness 38 18,2 % 2. assessment 31 14,8 % 3. learning resources 29 13,9 % 4. infrastructure 24 11,5 % 5. introduction and training 23 11 % 6. learning process 15 7,2 % 7. time allocation 14 6,7 % 8. student’s readiness 14 6,7 % 9. regulation 7 3,3 % 10. monitoring and supervision 6 2,8 % teacher’s readiness the current study found teacher’s readiness as the most frequently reported problem, with a total of 38 (18,2 %) studies mentioning it. this implies the dominance of the weight of the issue over other issues identified in the summarized studies. furthermore, the problem of teacher readiness is made up of first, teachers’ lack of or partial understanding of the curriculum; second, teachers’ difficulty to change their old teaching paradigm and habit to the new one prescribed by the curriculum; and third, teachers’ low information technology (it) literacy. assessment the problem of assessment was reported in 31 studies (14,8 %). almost all reports on this issue justified it by the complexity it carried. they said that the authentic assessment required by the curriculum with extra foci on the learning process and evaluation of attitude on every student was considered too complex by many teachers. they had practically no sufficient time to carry out all the details of the required assessment. in addition, some teachers were also reported to have not yet understood the conceptual aspects of the assessment; let alone how to conduct it. learning resources as reported in 29 studies (13, 9%), learning resources cover a wide range of issues. first, there was a shortage or unavailability of subject matter text-books problem. this was associated with problems in the production and distribution of textbooks. second, there were also problems with the contents of the textbooks. since contextual situations and conditions of schools and students in indonesia may vary greatly from one to another school, the written and produced textbooks by the ministry of education and culture's written and produced textbooks were deemed to be overlooking and uniformizing those variables. therefore, in some contexts, the textbooks were of limited utility. in addition, it irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 269 was also reported that the contents of textbooks for some subjects were not well synchronized with the corresponding basic competencies stated in the syllabi. furthermore, for the elementary school level that implements an integrated curriculum approach through cross-subjects thematic learning, such a lack of synchronization issues made it difficult for teachers to integrate lessons across subjects. the third problem related to learning resources is the unavailability of adequate learning media. most reports on this issue argued that the use of scientific method necessitates will be successful only if adequate learning media support it. this is because parts of the approach, such as observing and analyzing information, require them. fourth, some studies also reported problems with lesson plans used by teachers. the lesson plans were copied from other teachers whose students’ background might be different from their students. however, the copied lesson plans were not tuned in to suit their context of teaching. infrastructure the problem of infrastructure was reported in 24 studies (11,5%). all refer to the unavailability of adequate infrastructure to support learning, and hence also means the success of the implementation of the curriculum. some of the reports linked the issue with the needs for sufficient funding, which in turn originates in financial policies and planning. however, schools do not have the authority and power in these areas. much of the decision regarding school infrastructure lies in the hand of the government and the people representative house. in such a situation, curricular policies are very often not timely supported by necessary infrastructure policies. introduction and training twenty-three studies (11%) mentioned this problem in their reports. three situations were identified to have been associated with the problem. first, some teachers had not been formally introduced to the curriculum. second, some of the studies highlighted the effectiveness of the training on the curriculum provided for the teachers. it was reported that some of the training was not comprehensive in terms of topics covered and were ineffective in terms of achieved results. in addition, the “one-shot” type of training of trainers (tot) and a small number of teachers involved was also seen as weak points. third, it was also reported that the training had been mostly general in nature. the teachers voiced their needs for subject-specific training that address subject level issues. learning process the learning process problems centered on the difficulty faced by teachers in implementing the scientific method in their teaching and was mentioned in 15 studies (7, 2 %). several other problems such as teachers’ readiness, lack of learning resources and infrastructure, and the complexity of assessment previously mentioned were seen to contribute to the problem. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 270 time allocation 14 studies (6, 7%) mentioned time constraints as a problem in the implementation of the curriculum. this problem was mostly associated with the complex assessment teachers have to do. the assessment requires extra time for teachers to prepare. while they also have other responsibilities to bear, such as preparing lessons, media, and fulfilling works related to their managerial and administrative roles. student’s readiness student’s readiness problem, reported in 14 studies (6, 7%), refers to their learning motivation and activeness in the process of learning. as the scientific approach is student-centered in nature, it demands the students to take an active role in learning. it also necessitates strong self-motivation to learn. such a paradigm shift is not easy to achieve after years of, for example, teacher-centered learning. at the senior high school level, it was also reported that parents’ unjustified favoritism towards science major had caused many students to sit in lessons that they were not ready for and not interested in. at the lower elementary school level, since the greater focus is given to developing basic skills such as reading and counting, the implementation of a scientific approach was found to face more challenges. regulation at the school level, this problem (reported in 7 studies, 3, 3%), as indicated by the reports, refers to the absence of regulations in some schools researched that support implementing the curriculum, such as ones on class size and teacher’s workload. such an absence, although it seemed insignificant, was reported to indirectly affect the performance of the curriculum. large class size impedes the application of student-centered learning, scientific approach, and authentic assessment. similarly, teachers with excessive workload were reported to be having time-constraint problem in planning lessons and conducting an assessment. monitoring and supervision the problem of monitoring and supervision, mentioned in 6 studies (2, 8 %), highlighted the need to enhance the role of school principal as a supervisor and the school supervisors about implementing the curriculum. it was argued in the reports that during and after the curriculum introduction period, teachers needed close guidance to ensure that they were on the right track in the implementation of the curriculum. such guidance was reported to be scarcely available. this left the teachers on their own with unanswered questions while, at the same time, having to keep the classes running within the new curriculum framework. in other contexts, the curriculum mentoring program launched to overcome the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 271 problem-where core teachers (or guru into) was assigned to guide other teachers in dealing with the curriculumwas reported to be of limited success. as mentioned in the introduction chapter of this report, the current study also aims to see whether or not the curriculum pre-implementation public assessment period problems also exist in the synthesis. the assessment itself anticipated seven problems, namely, 1) justification of the curriculum change; 2) the competencies; 3) the structure of the curriculum; 4) training for teachers; 5) textbooks; 6) time allocation, and 7) extension of duration of the lesson. based on the responses, the moe concluded that; first, the public accepted the underlying concept of the curriculum but demanded stressing on character education through the subject of religious teaching; second, training is to be provided for school principals and teachers; third, parents need to be introduced to the curriculum; fourth, the public welcome the extension of the duration of the lesson (kementerian pendidikan & kebudayaan, 2012). the synthesis shows that 4 out of the seven problems of the issues anticipated in the pre-implementation public assessment period exist. the following table summarizes these findings: table 2. anticipated and existing problems no. anticipated found in the synthesis 1. justification of the curriculum change 2. the competencies 3. the structure of the curriculum 4. training for teachers -teacher’s readiness -introduction and training 5. text-books learning resources 6. time allocation time allocation 7. extension of duration of lesson. time allocation discussion the findings of this study show that the problems in the implementation of the 2013 curriculum across the synthetized research can be categorized into ten topical areas. of course, these topical areas are not clear-cut for, to some extent, each of them is related to each other. this section will discuss, first, the findings within a systemic view on how the topical areas are connected to each other. this is to offer a comprehensive apprehension of the issue; and second, a comparison of the findings with the problems identified in the pre-official implementation period of the curriculum as mentioned in the background of the problem of this report. these will be discussed with existing relevant literature on the issue. the problem of teachers’ readiness comprises teachers’ lack of or partial understanding of the curriculum, teachers’ difficulty in changing their old teaching paradigm and habit to the new one prescribed by the curriculum; and their low information technology (it) literacy identified by the majority of the research are common but often looked over phenomena in a curriculum change. studies have repeatedly shown that problems related to teachers’ understanding area prevailing phenomenon in curriculum innovation (nation & macalister, 2010). research by gross et al. (1971), cited in fullan irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 272 (2007), found the majority of the teachers’ inability to understand the conceptual foundation and the whole picture of the innovation they were implementing. mcgrai (in alwan 2006) argues that teachers need a profound understanding of the rationale for the innovation to participate effectively in curriculum innovation. this particularly concerns the “why” of the innovation. they also have to understand the conceptual framework, principles and underlying assumptions of the new curriculum (brooker & clenet, 2006; gopinathan & deng, 2006, orafi & borg, 2009). however, nation and macalister (2010) suggest a high possibility for curricular change to be misunderstood by implementers. wang (2008) highlights explicitly understanding of the syllabus and the learner-centred approach often promoted by the syllabus and textbooks as two areas where problems with teachers’ understanding are likely to occur. nevertheless, researchers have also stressed the importance of a shared common understanding between policymakers and implementers for a change to be successful. wang (2008), for example, warns that misunderstanding or partial understanding by teachers as the implementer of the policy might result in their reluctance to adopt the change and ignorance of some aspects of it. in this light, fullan (2007), drawing on gross et al. (1971), who found the difficulty in the majority of teachers to grasp the underlying ideas of educational innovation, stresses the necessity to clarify the intention of the curriculum change by the initiators at the initial phase of the change. this is to minimize teachers’ anxiety and frustration in the implementation phase. he exemplifies his suggestion by referring to research finding on curriculum change in canada, where a new curriculum guideline was dismissed by teachers’ due to problems with their understanding. he, furthermore, anticipates a greater problem of understanding in a more complex change. furthermore, nation and macalister (2010) note that curriculum change is not only about change in the curriculum per se, but also about changing teachers’ belief. they furthermore argue that teachers come to training or workshops with well-established beliefs about teaching and curriculum from their professional experience and pre-service program. therefore, in addition to introducing the curricular change, it is also important to address the issue of change of teacher’s beliefs, particularly at the initial part of the training or workshop. when their beliefs are ready for change, they would be likely to accommodate new ideas easily. this also shed some light on the problem of introduction and training identified in this study. there seems to be a rare phenomenon for teachers to adopt a new curriculum innovation and alter their old paradigm with the new one after participating in training. it takes time for such a change to happen. borman (1984) and kennedy (1992) theorize that the problem of teachers’ understanding of curriculum innovations is because they are practitioners rather than theoreticians. teachers are more concerned with short-term classroom-level decision-making than long-term curricular planning and theoretical issues. other researchers associate the problem with the influences of past curricula on teachers’ understanding of the new one (brooker & clenet, 2006; bartlett, 1992; marsh et al., 1990). the teachers’ readiness problem is also related to the introduction and training problem identified in the synthesis. training and workshops on the curriculum for teachers in indonesia usually take two forms, but all are in “once-off” mode. first, there is training and workshops organized by the ministry of national education, either at the provincial or district level. in this form, several selected teachers are invited to attend the training or irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 273 workshop and are expected to disseminate the knowledge and skills they get from the training or workshop to their colleagues. the second form is organized by teachers by embedding it in the teachers regular meeting program, usually held on district level or through a school-level program. in both forms, teachers who have had training organized by the ministry of national education usually act as instructor. however, these kinds of training, due to some problems, are not effective. this finding signifies the need for rethinking and reconceptualizing the training program. the ineffectiveness of the “once-off” mode has also identified in south africa (ramparsad, 2001) and singapore (goh and yin, cited in nation and macalister, 2010). rampersad (2001) suggests that such training should be made a formal program. he proposed that such a program be made a compulsory part of teacher development which can be held during extended school hour or extended school vacation. this scenario could be considered in curriculum training in indonesia. the reasons are; first, the 2013 curriculum carries a range of knowledge and skills that need to be mastered by teachers. teachers can well absorb these in a “once-off” mode of training. second, in most teacher preparation programs, curriculum development or, at least, lesson planning is taught as a credited compulsory subject and lasts at least for one semester. this indicates that the subject should be approached intensively rather than occasionally. rampersad's (2001) suggestion is also in line with handler’s (2010) note that curriculum decision making requires particular expertise which could only be fully acquired through advanced education. as argued by bartlett (1992), curriculum development is about teacher development. the teachers in the synthesized reports also voiced their concern about the type of assessment required by the curriculum. the curriculum mandates seven kinds of assessment to be carried out on students: authentic assessment, student’s self-assessment, portfolio assessment, quizzes, daily assessment, middle-semester exam, and semester exam. they perceived these many types of assessment are too demanding for their tight time schedule and amidst a number of work-related responsibilities they have to bear. if compared to the types of assessment in the previous curriculum, i.e. the school-based curriculum, a considerable shift of focus is readily observable. the previous curriculum relied on tests and focused on the assessment of outputs of learning, i.e. the extent to which students achieve the predetermined competencies. however, the assessment in the 2013 curriculum focused on wider aspects of learning, not only the outputs but also the process of learning and academic development of every individual student. in addition, it also seeks to assess the three domains of learning, i.e. cognitive, affective, and psychomotor. another extra-load is the curriculum's assessment behaviour and attitudes for the curriculum that also mandates character education to be integrated into every subject. pertaining to changes an educational innovation brings, kirgoz (2008) and wang (2008) suggest that teachers’ implementation of an innovation is related to the extent to which the innovation fits their current understanding of teaching, skills, and teaching style. thus, they are unlikely to adopt innovations that are not congruent with these three aspects. this view shares the idea that the size of innovation matters. an innovation that requires a significant alternation in teachers’ understanding and practice will be difficult to realize by teachers (stoller, 1994, cited in nation and macalister, 2010). irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 274 to be successful, a curriculum change often requires sufficient learning resources that go with both the theoretical and practical demands of the curriculum. similarly, the scientific approach carried by the 2013 curriculum also calls for such supports. however, studies have shown that this has been one of the major problems in indonesia. for example, research by kamil (2012) found that most schools in his study were not well equipped with adequate facilities and media. schools that were better equipped are usually favourite schools located in cities. although schools and school committees improve their infrastructure and facilities through the school operational assistance program that disburses block grants to all schools throughout the country, based on a per-student formula, i.e. the amount of the grant a school receives depends on the number of enrolments, only schools with a big number of students will enjoy a bigger sum of grants. usually, these schools are favourite schools and mostly located in cities. schools with fewer students receive smaller amounts and, therefore, less able to improve their facilities and resources or extend their academic programs, even though their needs are actually quite similar to those of favourite schools. the problem identified in the learning process should be taken as central to the implementation of the 2013 curriculum. this is because it is the “connector” that bridges the ideals of the curriculum to its aims, i.e. the outputs of learning. almost all of the conditions of other problems identified in this study contribute to those of the learning process and hence the outputs. therefore, the quality of the learning process and its outputs can, to a large extent, serve as an indicator of other related problem identified in the synthesis. this synthesis is summed up in the following figure that shows a systemic presentation of the problems identified in the current study: figure 1. a systemic view of the synthesized problems this study also shows that 4 out of 7 problems anticipated in the pre-implementation public assessment period exist in the synthesis, namely; 1) teacher’s readiness; 2) introduction and training; 3) learning resources, and 4) time allocation. as can be readily seen, all these four irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 275 problems are practical in nature. in fact, so are the ten problems identified in the synthesis? the other three anticipated problems, i.e. 1) justification of the curriculum change; 2) the competencies; and 3) the structure of the curriculum, which are theoretical, were not identified in the synthesis. again, this finding is consistent with borman (1984), kennedy (1992), who suggests that teachers are practitioners, not theoreticians, that concern more with practical issues of their teaching. however, the finding does not necessarily conclude that there was no theoretical problem with the curriculum. conclusion and recommendations this research aims to synthesize research findings on problems faced by teachers in implementing the 2013 curriculum. it also aims to compare the syntheses with problems anticipated during the curriculum pre-implementation public assessment period. based on the findings and discussions, the following conclusions can be drawn. the synthesis yields ten topical categories of problems in implementing the 2013 curriculum: teacher’s readiness, assessment, learning resources, infrastructure, introduction and training, learning process, time allocation, student’s readiness, regulation, and monitoring and supervision. the ten topical categories are interrelated in nature where problems in a topical category may entail problem in another or other topical categories and vice versa. all the ten topical categories are practical in nature, indicating that the teachers were more concerned with issues related to their teaching practices than the theoretical ones in implementing the curriculum. comparing the findings of the synthesis with problems anticipated during the curriculum pre-implementation public assessment period shows that four out of the seven anticipated problems also existed in the synthesis. however, none of them was theoretical in nature. disclosure statement the authors declare no conflict of interest in the design of the study; 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(2016) evaluasi implementasi kurikulum 2013 di madrasah aliyah. cendekia: journal of education and teaching, 10(2), 117-132. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 278 stolkl, m.j., de jong, o., bulte, a. m. w., & pilot, a. (2010). exploring a framework for professional development in curriculum innovation: empowering teachers for designing context-based chemistry education. research in science education, doi 10.1007/s11165-010-9170-9. springer. suhardono, s. (2014). evaluasi implementasi kurikulum 2013 pada pembelajaran geografi sma di kabupatenk laten. s1 thesis, fakultas ilmu sosial. suter, c. (2002). curriculum innovation on the basis of the european language portfolio. university of birmingham. van zoest, l.r. &stockero, s.l. ( 2006) . the role of curriculum materials in new teachers’ practice. proceedings of the 28th annual meeting of the north american chapter of the international group for the psychology of mathematics education. mérida, méxico:universidadpedagógica nacional. wang, h. (2008). language policy implementation: a look at teachers’ perceptions. asian efl journal, 30, 1–25. wedell, m (2003). giving tesol change a chance: supporting key players in the curriculum change process. system, 31(4), 439-456. biographical note dairabi kamil is an associate professor in teaching english as a foreingn language (tefl) at the faculty of education and teacher training, state islamic institute of kerinci, jambi, indonesia. he holds a phd from international islamic university malaysia (iium) in curriculum and instruction, an m.ed in tesol–international from monash university, australia, and ba in english education from universitas jambi. he received a jambi province government scholarship to pursue his phd and was a recipent of australian development scholarship (ads) for his master study. in 2013-2014, he received a sabbatical research grant from the government of the republic of indonesia for his sabbatical leave resarch on anti-corruption education at the education university of hong kong. his research interests include teaching english as a foreign language (tefl), language curriculum and instruction, teacher professional development and the use of ict in education. in 2011-2012, he was involved as a researcher in a nationwide program of analytical and capacity development partnership (acdp) on environmental education in indonesia, jointly funded by the government of the republic of indonesia and the asian development bank. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 387 english exposure from digital media and its influence on communicative competence: students’ perspectives and experiences eddy haryanto 1 , urip sulistiyo 2 , povi fransiska 3 , and imelda yose 4 abstract this research investigated the phenomenon of english language exposure from digital media, which is divided into three media platforms (internet and social media, audiovisual, and audio). the main aim of the research was to find out participants‟ perspectives on digital media as language users and digital media‟s influences on the participants‟ communicative competence. this research was designed as a qualitative research with a phenomenological approach. the data were collected through semi-structured interviews and document reviews. the findings are divided into two main issues. first, the participants‟ perspectives on digital media revealed that digital media are divided into two points of views; 1) their functions (providing platforms to integrate language knowledge into language productions, providing blueprints of popular linguistics features, and answering to any questions about all related information), 2) the contents (limitless, authentic, and engaging). the findings of the research suggest that there is an important experience of english exposure found and exercised by the participants from/in all the three digital media. implications and suggestions are also discussed. keywords communicative competence, english exposure, digital media, students‟ perspectives 1. faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, indonesia; eddy.haryanto@unja.ac.id 2. faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, indonesia; urip.sulistiyo@unja.ac.id 3. graduate school, universitas jambi, indonesia; povi.fransisca@gmail.com 4. sekolah tinggi ilmu komputer dinamika bangsa jambi, indonesia. mailto:eddy.haryanto@unja.ac.id mailto:urip.sulistiyo@unja.ac.id mailto:povi.fransisca@gmail.com irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 388 introduction the notion of linguistics competence is initially brought forward by chomsky (2006, p.3), which he uses to refer simply to “a person‟s knowledge of his language and its system of rules”. this concept is used when he defines language „competence‟ as opposed to „performance‟, which is the knowledge and skills required to deal with the social dimension of language use that are dependent on the speaker, the addressee, and other contextual features. in making such a distinction, chomsky (2006) views linguistic competence as rule-governed systems which are unaffected by social and situational variations; grammar alone describes the speakers‟ knowledge of his language. hence, if one has known all rules of grammars, one is enough to be called competence, regardless to his or her ability of non-grammatical aspects of communication (popsecue, 2012). however, the concept of communicative competence proposed by hymes (1972) is believed to be a broader and more realistic notion of competence and is thought to be the most relevant contribution for the development of applied linguistics, especially in the field of education. insofar as students‟ competence in language is involved, major issues have always arisen, one of which is the contributing factor of the process and one of the most definitive factors of students‟ language competence is the exposure of the target language. in indonesia, formal classroom has conventionally been the sole looked-up medium where students‟ english language competence is expected to enhance. this is maybe due to the fact that there used to be a comparatively inadequate amount of linguistics activity students can do outside of the four walls of the english classroom where language exposure is possible. consequently, the crusade of dedicating efforts to make best of mere classroom teaching and learning process had begun; interested parties have ventured a relentless endeavor to make these hours worthwhile for students by perfecting the teaching techniques, methods and so on, books have been updated constantly and teachers training have been continuously held to create a more effective measures to assist students. in short, any necessary effort to perfect the classroom process has been exhausted by teachers and educators alike. this raises the question as to why students in the country still have relatively low competence in communicating using english in real life as one of the most notorious problems in this issue had been long identified. regardless of government‟s efforts, the bitter truth stands; classroom experience has a very limited range and capacity for students to obtain the required amount of exposure to improve their competence. ranging between 6-8 hours a week over materials that students may not choose or pick, it makes it impossible for students to proceed a swift enough progress of learning or acquisition in improving language competence. as an idea, the notion of students gaining competence in language from the exposure in their informal activities or environment actually goes way back, as oppose to traditional believe that students only learn english at school. the arguably most prominent argument was made by skolverket (2006 as cited in macloid & larson, 2011, p.6), who stated that; “for some students, the one that gives greater influence for the overall language competence is the informal learning, while the classroom learning only works as stimulant”. however in indonesia, this so said exposure was simply non-existent before the euphoria of home entertainment, internet, and affordable smartphone as the media meant comes into being. irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 389 this research aimed to investigate the influence of english exposure from digital media toward participants‟ english communicative competence with the following research questions: 1. what are the students‟ perspectives on digital media as language learners? 2. how do digital media influence the participant‟ communicative competence? literature review models of communicative competence according to bagaric (2007), along the lines of many applied linguists in modern times who gave their valuable contribution to the further development of the concept or framework of communicative competence, two of whose theoretical reflections and empirical work seem to have had the most important impact on the theory of communicative competence; one model proposed by canale and swain (1981) and another one is proposed by bachman and palmer (1990). the first comprehensive model of communicative competence, which was intended to serve both instructional and assessment purposes, is that of canale and swain (1981), further elaborated by canale (1983). in their concept of communicative competence, canale and swain (1980) and canale (1983) refer competence in linguistics to the (conscious or unconscious) knowledge of an individual about language and about other aspects of language use. on the other hand, bachman and palmer (1990, p.4) defined communicative language competence as “a concept comprised of knowledge or competence and capacity for appropriate use of knowledge in a contextual communicative language use.” in elaborating on this definition, bachman devoted special attention to the aspect of language use that is, the way language is used for the purpose of achieving a particular communicative goal in a specific situational context of communication. in essence, the conceptual framework postulated by bachman and palmer is not much different from canale and swain‟s (1981) theory. many theorists even suggest that the work of bachman and palmer (1990) is actually the elaboration models of canale and swain‟s (1981) model and relate more to the language learning. in fact, it is a revised model of the canale & swain‟s (1981) model, based on results in language testing research. for that reason, both theories have many resemblance and overlaps nature. according to bachman and palmer (1990), many traits of language users such as some general characteristics, their topical knowledge, affective schemata and language ability influence the communicative language ability. acquiring communicative competence from digital media exposure the use of the english language outside of the classroom differs from learner to learner depending on individual differences and learning strategies. pickard (1996), for instance, studied the strategies used by german learners to practice english during their spare time. the findings showed a greater involvement in passive activities, such as reading and listening, than in activities that required the use of productive skills. according to pickard (1996), when irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 390 exposure to the target language is enjoyable and pleasurable, it may, then, aid language acquisition. additionally, lamb (2010) suggested that motivation and degree of autonomy are also fundamental aspects in language development when learning opportunities are scarce. he found that self-motivated students were more willing to seek and exploit the resources available in their learning environment. similar results were obtained by wong and nunan (2011) in a study on the characteristics of "more effective" and "less effective" (classified according to the scores obtained on a standardized proficiency test) university students in hong kong. their findings revealed that the more effective learners spent significantly more time practicing english outside of the classroom than the less effective learners. in addition, in a previous study, nunan (1997) claimed that the „good‟ foreign language learner finds ways of activating his or her language out of class. this statement is in agreement with research on successful language learners, which has demonstrated that language development can be attributed, in part, to the learners' determination to use the target language outside of the classroom (hyland, 2004). however, even when learners have plenty of resources available to use, they may not be aware of the potential ways of using them to acquire the language effectively. this is a problem that has been often discussed by researchers concerned with informal learning strategies. in general, they propose to raise awareness among teachers and to incorporate a domain in teacher training programs (pickard, 1996) or in the school curriculum (wong & nunan, 2011) to teach students how to seek and make profitable use of strategies and sources for practicing the language in their particular learning environments. however, indonesia is not native to english language. yet, given the recent development of communication technology (such as internet and social media), this no longer means that the supply and opportunity of the trafficking language is amount from limited to nothing at all like it used to. as in this globalization age, learning is no longer restrained in time and space. through the internet, learners are offered opportunities to communicate and learn collaboratively with learners worldwide (shield & weininger, 2004), thus lifting the barrier of non-existent informal english language practice. lightbown and spada (1999) and toyoda (2001) postulated that informal learning promotes learners‟ autonomy, social equality and identity and most importantly, the motivation as such some students do not find in the formal learning. motivation of learning can often support learners to become more responsible and willing to engage in their own learning defined as learner's autonomy. internet and social media the term “social media” refers to the wide internet-based and mobile services that allow users to participate in online exchanges, contribute user-created content, or online communities (dewing, 2010). the social media phenomenon in indonesia is one of the biggest in the world. over 95% of indonesian internet users use social media (saleh, 2013 as cited in inayati, 2014). globalwebindex (2013) states that several popular social media such as twitter, facebook, youtube, and google are found to be highly popular in indonesia. saleh (2013) also states that semiocast, a global social media agency based in paris, has rated jakarta, indonesian capital, as the number one users of twitter. beside twitter, facebook has enjoyed a irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 391 considerably high popularity in indonesia, which is ranked as the third highest facebook user country by a leading media industry provider in newyork (mediabistro, 2013). a study done by sutrismi (2014) about indonesia teenagers‟ use of english in social networking, particularly facebook, finds that it has become a common thing for teenagers in indonesia nowadays to perform code mixing (indonesian-english) in their social networking. this happens due to many purposes, two of which are to follow the trend and to show a prestige (sutrismi, 2014). a sneak peak of some facebook pages of randomly selected teenagers the researchers personally knows also reveals that english tends to be performed, especially by those who live in cities who are apparently have gotten comfortable and confident of their english. audio-visual exposure (tv programs and movies) earlier research (d‟ydewalle & van de poel, 1999; vanderplank, 2009 as cited in aurstad, 2013) has pointed to significant effects from media exposure to a second language acquisition among learners, although again, it may be argued that much of what has been measured is linked to passive understanding rather than an active performance. gilmore (2007) further argues that a comprehensible input ought to be an authentic sample of the target language as authentic material offers much richer samples of the target language than the language found in adjusted material. authentic material can in this sense enhance both the communicative competence of the learners and the overall linguistic competence. that means that the exposure of english that supplies input to learners is said to be more comprehensible and this very much relies on the authenticity of the material. in general, any speaking english films that students watch supply a great authentic exposure. when students watch the films, they are exposed to the language, either vocabulary, grammar or most importantly aspects related to the socio cultural which is not normally found in any other contexts. this is one of the advantages films that has to offer as a source material of exposures. the acquisition happens when students do not think of the language as much as the story of the movie. those who claim to watch movies a lot have better chance to acquire english faster because there is a pattern in form of accidental repetition that is a vocabulary or input that students are exposed to repeatedly and become fossilized in students‟ mind. hence, the acquisition already takes place. youtube channels also have become massively celebrated audiovisual platform these days. this activity may not be under-credited anymore. youtube channels are so popular that so many teenagers in indonesia are not only loyal subscribers to some channels but as well as the practicing youtubers. although so far there is no research has ever investigated the phenomenon of youtube and youtubers and its influence to language learning (which is very necessary given its increasing hype), a preliminary interview to random language learners showed that many of english language contents are more likely to be visited such as new release song video music clips, upcoming movie trailers, viral videos, tutorials channels and talk show interviews. beside movies and youtube channels, it seems that the medium of television programs of television can also play a role in the acquisition and strengthening of a new language (webb, 2010). tv programs, interestingly, has shown to have a varied impact on irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 392 english learners. in indonesia, television has shifted into one of the most important parts of “family” time. not surprisingly, there are numerous channels with different and specified programs (sport channel, cartoon channels, cooking channels, etc). in cities, the availability the cable tv makes it possible for people all around to access channels from outside of the country, including english-speaking channels. audio exposure (songs) lynch (2005) states that music is prevailing in different media such as tv, movie, nightly news and in different occasions such as when people do exercise, are at work, play, and worship. songs nowadays have become oriented towards young people and usually consists of relatively short and simple words that enable even those who just have rudimentary knowledge about english to comprehend the songs and hence enjoy listening to them. beside the potential acquisition of linguistics skills, another possible benefit the listeners can get by listening to songs, just like movies, is the involvement of cultural knowledge. lems (2001 as cited in xiaowei, 2010, p. 21) stated, “english songs are a rich mine of information about human relations, ethics, customs, history, humor, and regional and cultural differences.” one point the researcher brings about this exposure to english related to materials found in songs is the distinctive advantage songs have is in the lyrics, which is the repetition of certain words and expression in the chorus. beasley and chuang (2008) underline the importance of the content of the lyrics, which should correspond with the listener‟s interests, which in turn, contributes to repeat listening to the song. repetition is argued be important in incidental acquisition, as it contributes to deep knowledge (beasley & chuang, 2008 as cited in batluk, 2015). in line with that, lems (2001) in xiaowei (2010) states that songs lyrics should be focused on since they have common short words, as well as repetition of words and structures which help learners understand the meaning of words. the repetition of the same words and structures is a spontaneous enhancement of memorizing the meaning, the pronunciation and the usage of these words and structures. methodology research design this research was to describe the lived experience of language learners who are exposed to english language from digital media in their everyday lives, the nature of the research dictates a method that could allow the researchers to do in-depth investigation by acquiring lengthy description, elaboration and lavished information narrated firsthand from the participants, purely from their perspective. for that reason, researchers felt to be legitimately obliged to undertake a qualitative study under phenomenology approach ((mulyadin, 2018; mukminin, 2012; wahyuddin, 2018). as pointed out by moustakas (1994), the core principle of phenomenological study is to understand how one or more individuals experience a phenomenon and to explore in depth accounts of experiences and their irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 393 meanings from participants‟ personal words, descriptions, reflections, and perspectives on the phenomenon. participants of the research the participants of the research were students in one of senior high schools in jambi. it is arguably one of the most prestigious schools in jambi city. this school has gained popularity due to the students‟ high achieving reputation, competitive nature, and versatile gimmicks in terms of subjects‟ achievement. however, that was not merely the reason this school was chosen, beside all those facts, this school is also very reputable in terms of english academic excellence. according to hycner (1999, p.180), “phenomenon dictates the method (not vice versa) including even the type of the participants.” purposive sampling was chosen since it is considered as the most important kind of non-probability sampling, to identify the participants. the participants were finally chosen based on several criteria set forth concerning the purpose of the research, which are: 1. the participants are at the same level or grade at the school, for practical reason 2. the participants are active users of digital media 3. the participants are particularly exposed to english language to some extent of digital media usage. boyd (2001) regards two to ten participants of phenomenological research subjects as sufficient to reach saturation. so, the total of five participants was hoped to contribute in this study. techniques of data collection simon and goes (2011 as cited in simon, 2013) mentioned that the most common means of data collection in a phenomenological study was through in-depth interviews to gather the participants detailed descriptions of their experience, participants written or oral self-reports or even their aesthetic expression (art, narratives, poetry) can also be evaluated. lester (1999, p.1), a phenomenologist further expands it, saying “ …gathering deep information and perceptions through inductive, qualitative methods such as interviews, discussions and participants observation and representing it from the perspective of the research participants.” semi-structured interview in this study, it is mandatory for the conduct of prolonged and explorative interviews to commence. a number of 15 questions were prepared prior to the interview. this question guideline was distributed prior to the interview was audio recorded. we took time to explain each point that was going to be discussed such as technical terms and difficult glossaries that might hamper their comprehension of the questions. the participants were students in their sophomore year. for that reason, we had to use as simple language as possible so there wouldn‟t be misunderstanding, misinterpretation or ambiguity. few of the times, the code irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 394 mixings were inevitable in which we had to use some indonesian words to explain certain words or expressions (and paused the interviews). each interview was done in the course of 50 60 minutes for each participant. during the process, the researcher admittedly skipped and changed some prepared questions but overall the result of the interview was positively summed up when the researcher felt that the data were exhausted. trustworthiness in this research, the data collected through interview and document review. this method was to establish trustworthiness of this research by looking at this phenomenon by obtaining different data or resources but from the same group of participants. since it is phenomenological research, the in-depth prolong engagement in the interview was naturally the main source of the data and reviewing physical documents. secondly, this research also used “reflexivity”. the importance of being reflexive is acknowledged within social science research and there is widespread recognition that the interpretation of data is a reflexive exercise through which meanings are made rather than found (mauthner et al., 1998). in this research, we interpreted how and why the participants thought, did and perceived the phenomenon as it was, which was then translated into the discussion and conclusion parts. more importantly, it lines up with phenomenological major views. as hammersley (2007) pointed out, that phenomenologist, in contrast to positivists, believe that the researcher cannot be detached from his/her own interpretation and understanding and should not pretend otherwise. the third way to ensure trustworthiness is member checking. lincoln and guba (1985, p. 314) stated that “this is the most critical technique for establishing credibility.” in this research, member check was done twice; after all the raw data in form of transcripts was summed up and after the whole research was final. the purpose was beside to confirm that all data were accurate and authentic, the participants were also asked to give feedback and opinion of the whole result. data analysis and data reduction in semi-structured interview particularly, from 15 questions set forth, in the execution, around 40 questions were asked. this causes unnecessary data that are not closely related to the investigations. the data that were not relevant or loosely relevant to participants‟ perspective toward digital media, language learning strategies or the influence of english exposure from digital media toward the participants‟ communicative competence were all dismissed as they didn‟t answer research questions. we read the report of the data and deleted the passages that did not seem to fit. additionally, all irrelevant redundant data were also stored out, after this process; all the pages of the finding were soon filled only with relevant quotes and data. irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 395 findings participants’ perspective on digital media in the quest of answering this issue, the length of the use of digital media by the participants had to be established first. almost all participants of the research are avid users of digital media, who claimed to have been a loyal and constant consumer of virtual and digital experience, which involves a massive deal of language use. digital media and by extension of course, internet and social media as well as audio-visual and audio formats, had been personally exercised by the participants that spanned ranging between 2-5 years (for internet and social media) and reasonably even more for the other two digital media (audio visual media and audio). the extent of the use of each digital media is more or less the same amongst all participants in which the answer for the most frequently used media among all participants are the same (internet and social media). there is a slight difference on two least frequently used media but not really significant amongst all 5 participants. the list as shown in the table below is of the use of digital media amongst the participants: table 1. the exposure of english language from each digital media platform participant exposure from internet and social media platforms exposure from audiovisual platform (tv program and movies) exposure from audio platform (songs) 1 1 2 3 2 1 2 3 3 1 2 2 4 1 2 2 5 1 2 2 as evident from the table above, there is quite a striking resemblance in the pattern of digital media use among the participants. clearly shown, from all three digital media, internet and social media are unanimously the most frequently used platform, followed by audiovisual platform, which ranks number two (although three participants said that they are exposed to audiovisual media and audio in an equal or same quantity) while two other participants stated that they used audiovisual media more than audio or song format. all participants agreed that the existence of digital media has many varying degree of critical advantages to english learning. strictly from general standpoint, they viewed digital media as a practical platform that has a great influence to their overall english learning as well as their competence. it means that their english language learning is greatly assisted and affected by the exposure from those digital media. this was particularly signified when they answered to question in separate interview that explicitly asked their perspective of the existence of digital media toward their english learning. irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 396 the influence of digital media to students’ communicative competence positive influence of digital media, there are two main quintessential data emerged as to how digital media were favored by the participants. first is the influence of digital media to their communicative competence is (1) viewed from the functions, and (2) viewed from the content. digital media viewed from the functions-providing platforms to integrate the knowledge of language into language production. in their elaboration, all the participants stated that had been a part of regular social banters using two digital media they viewed to be most notoriously useful to perform the language; internet and social media. these two most prolific platforms, in which language is produced and used in different discourses, as stated by one of the participants, “offers a medium to connect people all around the globe.” they enable the participants to be consistently updated with the news, information and whatnot, as well as give them a direct way to make new acquaintances and to talk to existing ones in regular basis. as specified further, the most often communication channels used by the participants were personal chat (line, whatsapp) and group chat (forum, blogs, community). we had obtained copies of these private chats and asked the participants‟ permissions to be displayed in this research, to which they agreed (the copies of all personal digital documents are scattered all over this discussion). social media (mostly instagram and facebook), are the second mostly used platforms when english language is produced, followed by internet sites with comment sections (youtube, blogs, and posts). by doing such virtual activities, english language overflows in terms of input as well as output. further mentioned by the participants, the confirmation of word definition occurs somewhere along the way, and better yet, negotiation of meanings as well, in which the participants brainstormed or negotiated certain aspects of language, thus actualizing their critical thinking and linguistics strategies. “it is more fun and easier when we use digital media to learn english because in digital media we can explore our english, we [long pause] we can ask our friend or another country, we can talk about it together.”(participant 1) according to some participants, one of the things that really distinguish the use of english language in digital media to other types of social-related communication forms, especially direct communication using english, is in terms of the psychological factors; performing english language in digital media spare them the social anxiety. it means that when they performed english language in digital media, psychological challenges that the participants normally have to face in direct speaking face-to-face interactions felt lifted. as a result, social media is preferred to use as they set aside communication protocols that some people might find difficult or discouraged to do if done directly. this case is best highlighted by one part of the interview below. irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 397 “…..you don‟t have to interact with the people in person. and by some (activities) doing speaking and some practice test in the school i think it will make us more nervous about showing our english.”(participant 4) answer to any questions about english language-related information, even by saying that language learners can find any answer for questions they have in english (like definition and usage of certain words) is an understatement because in fact they don‟t only answer the questions asked but also elaborate and provide explorative examples and related information thus potentially maximizing the learning. furthermore, through the use of certain platforms (like movies and videos), this information is exemplified by being used in real contextualized communication. yet this issue is best explained by the participants of the research in the case of internet. myriad of internet-based applications or online dictionaries such as google translate (which came up multiple times during the interview) not only enable the participants to find out just in a matter of seconds everything they need to know about english language start from vocabulary, expressions to other formal and informal aspects of english language but could also be done in practically easy and quick way with accurate results. “before digital media exist, i think we have difficult way to learning english, we just learning english by book or finding difficult word just look at to dictionary and it took times and we have to bring dictionary…. but now when social media (digital media) exist we can use social media like google translate to know what the meaning of the word or sentence.” (participant 1) “….if we meet some difficult work, we can use google translate to search or to know what the meaning of the word, so we can learn much…” (participant 3) “i think before the coming of this technology and easy access, it is little hard to learning english… like we should open the dictionary if don‟t know about the meaning of some words.” (participant 2) “….. there are so many words that my teachers give as a vocabulary task and i think it‟s too difficult for us so we check it in the internet.” (participant 4) “yes, it is easy for now, because we can search from google translate if we don‟t know the meanings and from movies and we can know more from how to daily speaking conversation and many else (others).” (participant 5) in the data, all participants could not help but comparing these applications to the traditional way of english learning (checking dictionary or asking teachers). this, beside having to do with the practicality, also meant that participants though that to have lifted the barrier of awkwardness or the “trouble” they must have go through if they have to consult their teachers or dictionary every time they encounter a new thing or a problem in their irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 398 english. moreover, it is understandably easy to see why the participants favored digital dictionary rather than traditional dictionary. beside the accuracy, online dictionary or applications are now featured with audio function to check the pronunciation of words searched. this was also majorly complimented highly. digital media viewed from their content the second basis on the positive perspective addressed to digital media is from their content. digital media contents carry many linguistics upsides that the participants viewed to be profoundly helpful and insightful into what english language is and how it is ideally performed. the views on the contents of digital media were subcategorized into three main parts. content of digital media is viewed as limitless and varied. all participants unsurprisingly agreed that digital media compared to any platforms of english exposure in their lives have the richest language exposure material, superior to any other kinds. this discussion inevitably leads to a comparison between digital media platform and formal english class such as school and english courses. in so doing, some participants claimed that english exposure from digital media was more abundant, more varied and to great extent, more dynamic than the english language they learned at schools or other formal classes like english course. the superiority of digital media here is reasonable since other medium, formal english setting in particular, has many inevitable degrading factors. the most prominent limitation of such formal classes, course study or english club compare to digital media is primarily in terms of time. formal settings comprise only 4 hours a week in the participants‟ school, which resulted to not enough exposure for the participants and ultimately a very limited amount of real opportunity for them to practically use english language in communication. this is thought to be inadequate as the driving force of communicative competence improvement. digital media are viewed to bring limitless and more versatile forms of content in which english language are often used either in blatant full english or code mixed in indonesian language. this content can be both in form of writing and spoken ranging from articles, online games, youtube channels, web engines, mp3, social media for chatting, updating information, connecting to other people from all over the world and so many others. thus, this varied and rich content indulge the participants to keep using them by switching from one activity to another. as the result, digital media have an unquantifiable number of gimmicks that keep participants interested and provoked to use them incessantly understandably so. in contrast, language exposure in formal learning only comes from two sources; exercise books and teachers‟ talking time and more learning-based and as consequence repetitive and regarded to be relatively monotonous. content of digital media is viewed as engaging. there is no denying that one of the best gimmicks of digital media is because they offer handful of interesting and engaging activities to do by the users. this is not exclusively designed for the teenagers, even adults irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 399 are also fond of using digital media mainly for this reason, but this phenomenon is probably more observable on teenagers since they leave myriads of digital prints whenever they do digital activities, mostly related to their nature to be more expressive and open than adults do. the versatility of content or material supplied by digital media has exactly what common teenagers find attractive or enticing to keep them to stay “online”. it keeps engaging the participants to use them in daily basis. connecting it to the flexibility of the time the participants can venture and explore digital media, than the participants have what in their hands, a tool to do a lot of numerous different activities whenever they want or need to. this means they could switch from one activity to another anytime they wanted and chose the kind of material or forms of activity they want to do. “…yes, if i feel tired playing online games, i can just use social media or watch videos…yes…if we need to chat our friends, we can do it as soon as we want because of digital media, so it can be done.” (participant 3) “…because i think digital media have more interesting. and there are many kind of materials that keep them interesting than normally found in school. such as youtube videos that make me feel enjoy.” (participant 4) watching movies and youtube vidoes and listening to songs but mostly using social media are amongst many activities that the participants normally did with digital media, additionally they also did blogs, online gaming, writing poem, reading articles and many others. some participants claimed to being okay spending the whole day just to play with their phone doing those activities, which they normally did in school holidays. negative influence of digital media although the previous points were validated over and over again by participants with rich exploration, the data also showed that despite the ironclad stance the participants were taking, which is in favor of digital media, they also had several noteworthy downsides or negative influence on the participants‟ english learning. these came up within the interview by some participants. different (sometimes conflicting) versions of forms and usages of english language. with the progressive advancement of digital media, a numerous sources of information about particular topics, ideas and ways of language being performed or informed is one of the reasons they were being favored. internet as a tool, which provides multitudes and extensive range of answer to language issues that the participants sought to find out, has in a great way help them to be critical in analyzing and synthesizing relevant information because it indirectly prompted them to choose certain information based on a particular context. however, for the participants this was not necessarily always a good thing. they said that the versions of information provided could be different, at best and conflicted at worst. irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 400 i think like when language used in in social media or google search, we can‟t know which one is the correct one so it is…yeah…it is confusing.” (participant 3) “the first one is learning by using digital media can make us confusing (confused). it is easy but sometimes too many (much) information and different so i don‟t know what is the right one. i think it may disturb us in learning english.” (participant 4) overall, the state of language confusion for the participants covers such factors as: (1). different usages of english language that are geographically-based (american, australian, british, singaporean, etc), (2). personal style (pronouncing names of a person, places or buildings, etc.). during the data collection, the participants elaborated clearly by coming up with clarifying examples of this issue. one of the participants found two characters in two different movies that named “viola” and both have different ways of pronouncing (one is “vaiola” and another is “viola”), she got confused for a while and until with time went by, she eventually deduced at some points that both pronunciation of that named are practiced by the english speaking people. another participant pointed out that it was confusing when some words were presented in different (written) forms such as “grey” and “gray” or “center” and ”centre” (as distinguished by british and american english). for the formal purpose sometimes when finding similar cases to other words, it is hard to find which is from which type of english. “i don‟t know which (one) should i choose because i don‟t know the correct one.” (participant 1) expose some culturally “inappropriate content” brought in english language. one of the underlying substances of language is that it brings the cultural essence of the language users, in this case is english language users. as much as the participants praised the content of digital media, some behavioral content that are exercised in it carries negativism nonetheless, as viewed by participants. the culture meant here is one which implicitly or explicitly carried when english language is performed in real communication by the people who speak english as their native language or second language (western cultures). it is clear that digital media have a very low standard of restricting or censorship if viewed from the looking glass of eastern cultures, which is probably regarded as revolutionary in terms of political standpoint if we relate it to free speech. however, all participants agreed that not all of the english speaking content or material represented in digital media was well-fitting for them in cultural sense. the case of inappropriate use of verbal language as well as non-verbal content is inevitable since the gap between indonesian culture and western culture is quite significant. digital media expose language being used in real context of native or native-like communication and production. as the result, the culture carried by the platform is reasonably viewed to be both (or either) positive and negative. for example, some mild physical intimacy between a boy and a girl is considered normal in american or english culture but extremely taboo in indonesian yet this kind of images and irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 401 texts still scattered around social media and internet. some “naughty” words are also considered okay to be uttered by teenagers in western culture but not in ours. furthermore, in internet videos, youtube channels and movies as well as some television programs, these kinds of behaviors were explicitly displayed repetitively for the participants to be exposed to in their daily lives. this case was best highlighted by one of the participants saying more and more of her friends in social media were behaving erratically such as over-exposing themselves, tending to show precocious thoughts, which she believed as the impacts of social media from other countries users. when asked, she showed her friends‟ recent status and gave it to the researcher. figure 1. students’ status in social media according to the participants, this type of behavior is inappropriate and they strongly opposed it. however, as in social media, the exposure is undetermined so they would see and be exposed to it anyway. this is thought to be prompted by the influence of global scale internet layout in which such behavior is seemingly seen as normal in the english speaking countries like in america but not for indonesian teenagers. in this sense, according to some participants, english is used only to legitimize their thoughts in a way that it was coy and invited less brutal reactions or comments compared to the use of indonesian language. nevertheless when asked if they ever did at some points ever used that kind of language, some participants shyly admitted that they occasionally used somewhat light swearword such as “go to hell”, “dammit” or “wtf” and “wth” (abbreviation) that were thought to be less vulgar and harmful socially. from the copies of chats and social media pages above, it can be seen that the participants were inclined to use this type of language in communication. they stated that they used them strictly in informal context which indicated they did realize the difference of when to use this language and not (in this school, they wouldn‟t be acceptable). additionally, there are reasons behind the use of benign curse words; it is strongly related to the strategies irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 402 the participants directly and indirectly use as language learners when exposed to digital media. discussion according to bachman and palmer (1996), communicative competence is a concept comprised of knowledge or competence and capacity for appropriate use of knowledge in a contextual communicative language. so, the nature of competence is not only the knowledge of a language but also the ability to use that knowledge in actual production. this concept is also relevant to the pioneering theory proposed by hymes (1972) when the original idea of communicative competence was first introduced. hymes (1972) claimed that competence should be respected as both knowledge of language and also the performance all at once. in particular, communicative competence should be measured by several aspects, one of which is “whether (and to what degree) something is in fact done, actually performed, and what its doing entails” (hymes, 1972). this is what is seemingly the favorable part of digital media for language learners since they provide a place, medium or platform in which the ability to use the language is now possible in daily basis. with digital media, language learners can actually put their knowledge to use by participating actively on the discussion and communication through many different activities in digital media. bringing hymes‟ theory (1972) to the phenomenon of digital media in which performance is what mostly determines the level of ones‟ communicative competence, the results of the research suggest that digital media play the utmost essential role in improving those competences by not only providing the constant exposure for language acquisition but also the platforms needed for the participants to exercise or perform those knowledge in an actual performance or production. this, according to the research, includes multiple activities in social media as well as varying english related platforms in the internet such as commenting on blogs or youtube, personal chat, forum chat and many others. in short, digital media create the opportunity of contextualizing use of english language through the many different platforms in which performance can be measured. breaking down bachman and palmer‟s (1996) theory of communicative competence by the influenced of digital media, the data suggest that the use of digital media (either consumption or production of language) does in fact have significant impacts on all aspects of the participants‟ communicative competences. however, what is quite interesting is how the participants perceived those three parts of communicative competences and the degree of the influences. we has to read between the lines to conclude that this order is mainly based on the idea and strongly associated with what the participants thought they learned less at schools. the platforms of english language use in this case are strongly related to motivation. motivation is also theoretically agreed to be one of the most prominent parts of language learning. it is understandably reasonable since the motivation is the driving force that can enhance the exercising of certain language in a significant manner. as mentioned by the participants, the personal-based interests promote by the digital media making it impossible for them not to be indulged in the phenomenon itself. the participants could individually irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 403 handpick based on their own personality work greatly in generating positive emotion of the participants thus making their motivation steadfastly linear. it is without doubt that the stronger their motivation, the more learning (or acquisition, for that matter) occurs. although the motivations of actually using the english language in digital media are unique for each participant in way that they are interest-based (different for each participant), since there are literally numerous relatable activities that participants could choose to do from and in digital media, the typecast of the specialty here is no longer important. digital media do not only indulge the participants with interesting content with language use but more importantly they encourage the participants tremendously to participate in the interest-based communities and certain social circle in which they are becoming a part of. conclusion the result of the research suggests that there is an important experience of english exposure found and exercised by the participants from/in all the three digital media investigated in this research. this phenomenon was evident by the eloquence of the elaboration and exploration provided by the participants from the data during the interview. after confronting the experience of the phenomenon, it was also found that each aspect of communicative competence was affected direct/indirectly by the experience of constant exposure of english language. in regard to the intensity of the influence, the researchers may not fail to notice that the participants uniquely viewed the level of substantial influence of each communicative competence partially (if not mostly) based on what they felt lack of getting from formal settings. it is to the researchers‟ realization that most language productions and performance exercised by the participants as the result of the influence of digital media were mostly analyzed from one form of data; written form. in fact the only speaking performance was observed by the researchers was exclusively done during a short period of interactions in the interview. therefore, a conclusive statement that english exposure also influences the communicative competence in the form of spoken performance in particular may not be drawn. it will take another standalone investigation that includes prolong observation to 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(2010). strategies of learning english vocabulary from pop songs: a study among college students in china (unpublished master thesis). kristianstad university, kristianstad, swedia. biographical notes eddy haryanto is an efl lecturer at faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, indonesia. e-mail: eddy.haryanto@unja.ac.id urip sulistiyo is an efl lecturer at faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, indonesia. e-mail: urip.sulistiyo@unja.ac.id. povi fransisca is a graduate student at graduate school, universitas jambi, indonesia. e-mail: povi.fransisca@gmail.com imelda yose is a lecturer at sekolah tinggi ilmu komputer dinamika bangsa jambi, indonesia. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 23 socio-constructivist learning and teacher education students’ conceptual understanding and attitude toward fractions edwin d. ibañez 1 and jupeth t. pentang 2 abstract the study assessed the conceptual understanding and attitude toward fractions of teacher education students in a socio-constructivist learning environment. specifically, it determined the students’ level of conceptual understanding before and after instruction; verified the types of conceptual changes that occurred; and ascertained the attitude of students toward fractions before and after instruction and its relationship to their levels of understanding. descriptive-correlational research method was used. socio-constructivist context-based teaching method was employed to introduce the concept of fractions. achievement tests and interviews were administered to determine the students’ level of conceptual understanding. conceptual analysis based on jensen and finley’s (1995) method with tiberghien’s (1994) classification of changes was utilized to describe students’ conceptual understanding and conceptual changes. in order to determine their attitude on fractions, students were asked to answer the socio-constructivist attitude questionnaire. the level of conceptual understanding of teacher education students in fraction was functional misconception and partial understanding before and after instruction, respectively. the type of conceptual change that occurred among teacher education students was change for the better. socio-constructivist learning more likely to improve students’ attitudes toward fractions; promoted prosocial behavior among students; and tend to increase students’ activeness in the classroom activities as evidenced. keywords attitude, conceptual understanding, fractions, socio-constructivist learning environment, teacher education students 1. college of sciences, central luzon state university, science city of muñoz, philippines; edwindibanez@clsu.edu.ph 2. department of secondary education, college of education, western philippines university, puerto princesa city, philippines; jupeth.pentang@wpu.edu.ph mailto:edwindibanez@clsu.edu.ph mailto:jupeth.pentang@wpu.edu.ph irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 24 introduction conceptual understanding and attitudes towards fractions among pre-service teachers play a vital role in mastering the computational skills needed to perform mathematical tasks to solve a problem. mathematics educators today also recognize the need to develop conceptual understanding as well as a positive attitude towards the subject (agbozo, 2020; andamon & tan, 2018; aziz et al., 2019; mendezabal & tindowen, 2018). to illustrate, students should not wait for the teacher to give directions and information. they need to be active problem solvers with a determination to persevere until a reasonable solution is reached. they should explore, reason out, take initiatives to investigate mathematical principles, create new ideas, and apply this knowledge to new problem-solving situations. these should be the main objectives of teaching mathematics in the classroom and should have far-reaching implications for educational procedures. with these objectives in mind, teachers are called upon to provide their students with appropriate learning experiences. conceptual understanding and attitude must come first before procedural knowledge and skills. observations commonly point out, however, that teachers take the majority of lessons in mathematics to develop knowledge of rules and algorithms, probably because of the misconception that these are the only things that matter in mathematics teaching. it is also possibly easier for mathematics teachers to make children master rules and follow algorithms than to teach them conceptual knowledge – knowledge of the underlying structures of mathematics. according to gagne et al. (1993), teaching for procedural knowledge refers to the knowledge of how, and especially how best, to perform mathematical task. it involves teaching definitions, rules, formulas, and algorithms in a predetermined sequence of steps. since a consistent sequence of steps can be performed over and over again, then procedural knowledge can be acquired through practice. teaching for conceptual understanding on the other hand, refers to “the comprehension of mathematical concepts, operations, and relations to be able to do the required mathematical task” (national research council, 2001). it begins by posing problems that require students to reason flexibly. conceptual understanding helps the solver to develop a meaningful representation of the problem and also to narrow the search for solutions by matching the schema or conditions of the set of actions in the procedural memory that are most likely to produce satisfactory results. thus, a significant indicator of conceptual understanding is the ability to use mathematical knowledge in circumstances where such knowledge is required and useful (cananua-labid, 2015; national research council, 2001; science education institute, department of science and technology & philippine council of mathematics teacher education, 2011). an indicator of conceptual understanding is also the ability of students to interpret the problem and to select the appropriate information to be able to apply a strategy for a solution. evidence is communicated by linking the problem situation, relevant information, appropriate mathematical concepts, and logical/reasonable responses. in the philippines, it seems an ordinary scene that teacher educations students have poor conceptual understanding of and negative attitude towards fractions. the study of irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 25 fractions starts as early as first grade; in spite of the regular rehearsal of this mathematical topic through secondary school level, many students reach college without showing adequate skills in fraction (cantoria, 2016). relative to this condition now and long years ago, cantoria (2016), ibañez (2001), lee-chua (2012), lelis (2013), and pentang et al. (2021) revealed poor beliefs and misconceptions of filipino teacher education students regarding fractions. this is similar to teacher education students abroad (agbozo, 2020; agbozo & fletcher, 2020; huang et al., 2009; newton, 2008; osana & royea, 2011; siegler & lortie-forgues, 2015; thanheiser et al., 2013). accordingly, this poor performance is attributed to negative attitudes (kennedy, 2019; mendezabal & tindowen, 2018). poor conceptual understanding and negative attitude towards fractions are found among teacher education students in central luzon state university. with the data obtained from the registrar’s office, about 35% failed or dropped math 311 (problem solving in mathematics) every year. as such, enrollment in math 311 increases every first semester. aside from the regular incoming senior students, irregular students come to enroll for the second or third time. thus, choosing a suitable teaching methodology is necessary to address the students’ needs regarding fractions. with this, the study asserted that the socio-constructivist learning environment will improve the conceptual understanding and attitude towards fractions of teacher education students. theoretical framework this study was anchored on the following theories: conceptual analysis theory (jensen & finley, 1995), classification of changes in conception (tiberghien, 1994), socio-constructivism (vygotsky, 1978), and context-based learning theory (clement, 1997). jensen and finley’s theory and tiberghien’s (1994) classification of changes in conception were utilized to determine the level of student’s conception and to describe the conceptual change that occur. on the other hand, vygotsky’s (1978) socio-constructivism was employed to emphasize the importance of knowledge construction in the mind of the learner through social interaction and negotiation. finally, clements’s theory was used in contextualizing the content of the lesson to develop the desired conceptual understanding. tiberghein’s changes in conception, from the conceptual trace analysis results before and after instruction, tiberghein’s (1994) classification of changes in conception was used. it is possible to determine exactly what type of changes occurred from the pretest to the posttest. these changes in conception are classified into the following: 1. unchanged conception – the student does not show change of conception after instruction. 2. change for the better – the student shows positive change of conception after instruction. this change for the better can be classified into three: extension of field of applicability – the student does not change the structure of the model. student only adds a new element at the level of events. within the same structure, the student interprets a new event after teaching. since student’s model is in terms of objects and events, it is very close to perception. semantic conceptual change – corresponds to a modification in the selection of objects, their roles and the way they are related. even if this type of learning is without radical change irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 26 conceptual change socio-constru ctivist context-based teaching method teacher education students’ pre-instructional conceptual understanding and attitude toward fractions teacher education students’ post-instructional conceptual understanding and attitude toward fractions attitude change in theory, it requires a new organization of knowledge insofar as there are new semantic relations between the model and the experimental field (events). theoretical conceptual change – relating to a change at the level of theory, an in particular in causality. the learner has the capacity to go from the level of objects and events to the level of a model consistent with a scientific theory. it implies that the student’s explanations have become coherent with the scientific principle involved. 3. change for the worse – the student shows negative change of conception after instruction. vygotsky’s socio-constructivism, another framework of this study was based on vygotsky’s (1978) socio-constructivism – a process of concept building wherein the learner constructs and reconstructs meaning depending on past experiences. this meaningful construction is established between prior knowledge and the present learning activity and enhanced through social interaction. clement’s context based learning theory, context-based learning is anchored to constructivism as the theory of learning that is currently adopted by most mathematics educators for students to have possession of conceptual understanding (clement, 1997). it refers to the use of mathematical problems in real life contexts to introduce mathematical concepts. with reference to these theories, this study assessed the teacher education students’ levels of conceptual understanding and conceptual change, and described the attitudes of students toward fractions before and after instruction in a socio-constructivist learning environment. furthermore, correlation was done on students’ level of conceptual understanding and their attitudes. following is the research paradigm of the study. figure 1. research paradigm figure 1 shows the research paradigm using the socio-constructivist context-based teaching method. contextualized lessons and activities were used to introduce the concept of fractions and other related topics. collaborative or group learning was utilized to promote social interaction and to give students opportunity to learn from one another. the levels of conceptual understanding were determined based on student achievement tests, and interview results. students’ attitudes toward fractions were determined using the socio-constructivist attitudinal questionnaire. the one-dimensional arrow from post to pre-instructional conceptual understanding and attitude indicates the existence and nonexistence of change. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 27 methodology research design, site, and participants the study used a descriptive-correlational research method which described the relationships among variables, without seeking to establish a causal connection (sousa, 2007). descriptive research focused on the quantitative and qualitative assessment of teacher education students’ levels of conceptual understanding and attitudes toward fractions in a socio-constructivist learning environment. students’ conceptual change before and after instruction was also described and analyzed. furthermore, correlational research was used to determine the degree of relationship that exists between students’ conceptual understanding and attitudes. purposive sampling was used among 25 teacher education students enrolled in basic mathematics course at central luzon state university. purposive sampling was employed to produce a sample that can be logically assumed to be representative of the population (lavrakas, 2008). accordingly, the respondents were selected depending on their mathematical abilities based from their grade in college algebra. the researchers utilized interpretation guide in the data analysis that transmuted student’s grade to verbal description using ranges of values of student’s grade like high achiever (1.00-1.75), average achiever (2.00-2.50), and low achiever (2.75-3.00). data collection and analysis respondents were subjected to pre-testing through an achievement test followed by classroom instruction. for each instructional plan, a contextual activity was given in which a group of five teacher education students solved collaboratively. after answering the activity, each group through their reporter presented their solutions and answers before the whole class. this was followed by a class discussion to ensure that all of them understood the lesson. at the end of the instruction in all the topics on fraction, a posttest was administered to assess the students’ performance after they were taught. the instructional plans used were subjected to content validation by experts in mathematics education. these plans were rated according to whether or not the learning objectives are measurable, realistic, and attainable. also, the activities, exercises, and assignments were evaluated according to their appropriateness to the learning objectives. in the descriptive context, jensen and finley’s (1995) conceptual trace analysis was used to provide description of the exact level of student’s conception labeled as best understanding, partial understanding, complete/incomplete, functional misconception, or no understanding respectively. conceptual analysis was done considering the relationship between the students’ answer to multiple choice items and their corresponding solutions or reasons which were descriptively categorized as correct complete solution/reason, correct but incomplete solution/reason, and incorrect solution/reason. results of the conceptual trace analysis determined the type of changes occurred from pretest to posttest. tiberhien’s classification of changes in conception such as unchanged conception, change for the better, or change for the worse was utilized. change for the better has three categories namely irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 28 extension of field of applicability, semantic conceptual change, or theoretical conceptual change. the socio-constructivist attitude questionnaire adopted from seeping (2006) was utilized in determining teacher education students’ attitudes toward mathematics before and after instruction. this instrument reflects three important features of understanding mathematics like cognitive, activeness in the classroom, and pro-social behavior. content validity of this instrument was established by the proponent with the help of three experts in the field of psychology, applied linguistics, and science education. data gathered through the use of this instrument were analyzed using mean and standard deviation. further, the relationship between teacher education students’ conceptual understanding and their attitudes toward fractions was answered through the data gathered using the achievement test and the socio-constructivist attitude questionnaire. to measure the strength of association between the two variables, the data were correlated using pearson r coefficient of correlation. this analysis is necessary to established relationship between conceptual understanding and attitude towards fractions which may serve as a baseline in adopting socio-constructivist learning environment. findings teacher education students’ levels of conceptual understanding before instruction table 1 summarizes the level of conceptual understanding of teacher education students before instruction. the overall grand mean of 1.45 suggests that before instruction, teacher education students had functional misconception level of understanding. specifically, teacher education students had correct/incomplete understanding in fraction: the whole and its parts; similar and dissimilar fractions, and equivalent fractions. however, they had functional misconception in comparing and ordering fractions and addition and subtraction of fractions and no understanding in multiplication and division of fractions. table 1. level of conceptual understanding of the teacher education students before instruction lesson mean value per lesson before instruction high achievers average achievers low achievers teacher education students 1) fractions: the whole and its parts 3.50 (bu) 0.93 (fm) 0.83 (fm) 1.75 (c/i) 2) fractions: the whole and its parts 4.00 (bu) 0.57 (nu) 0.67(nu) 1.75 (c/i) 3) similar and dissimilar fractions 4.00(bu) 0.27(nu) 0.70(nu) 1.66(c/i) 4) equivalent fractions 3.47(bu) 0.47(nu) 0.43(nu) 1.46(fm) 5) comparing and ordering fractions 3.13(pu) 0.67(nu) 0.37(nu) 1.39(fm) 6) addition and subtraction of fractions 1.40(fm) 0.33(nu) 0.40(nu) 0.71(nu) mean per level 3.25 0.54 0.57 1.45 description bu nu nu fm legend: 3.20-4.00 = best understanding (bu) 2.40-3.19 = partial understanding (pu) 1.60-2.39 = correct/incomplete (c/i) 0.80-1.59 = functional misconception (fm) 0.00-0.79 = no understanding (nu) irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 29 high achievers’ level of conceptual understanding before instruction, the grand mean of 3.25 tends to confirm that the high achievers have best understanding of fractions before instruction. for “fraction: the whole and its parts”, respondents recorded best understanding (mean = 3.50). all the students answered the multiple-choice items with complete and correct solutions or explanations corresponding to each item in the test. student 1 explained that fraction is normally interpreted as part of a group of objects and employed approximation and representational analysis to arrive at a concise solution and correct answer. student 2 and 3 made a correct choice having inadequate explanation expressing their thoughts about fractions in english and tagalog. for “similar and dissimilar fractions”, respondents had best understanding of the concepts (mean = 4.00). fractions that name parts from the same unit, fractions that have been divided into the same number or equal parts, and fractions having the same denominators are called similar fractions according to students 1, 2, and 3 respectively. otherwise, these fractions are dissimilar. student 2 displayed a pictorial and systematic presentation of his solution. this implies that student 2 displayed a clear understanding of adding similar fractions. student 3 had concise explanation of his answer, which shows clear understanding of the concepts on adding and subtracting similar fractions. for “equivalent fractions”, respondents showed best understanding (mean = 4.00). all of them knew that equivalent fractions in higher terms can be found by multiplying both numerator and denominator by the same number. equivalent fractions in lower terms can be found by dividing both terms of the fraction by the same number. all of them had applied the concept of equivalent fractions in finding the right answer, and correctly performed the operations and simplified their answer. in “comparing and ordering fractions”, respondents showed best understanding (mean = 3.47). although they differed in solutions, they successfully did the task of arranging fractions from least to greatest. student 2 worked on comparing the decimal forms of the fractions by dividing the numerator by its corresponding denominator. student 1 found it difficult to solve the least common multiple of 6, 19 and 21, while student 3 had difficulty in constructing models. in “adding and subtracting fractions”, respondents showed partial understanding (mean = 3.13). student 1 made a straightforward correct solution by simplifying both fractions before adding. student 2 followed the steps in adding dissimilar fractions using the least common denominator. student 3 had misconception in adding dissimilar fractions when he added the numerators then the denominators. this misconception was carried to problems 23 to 25 where he had difficulty in executing the operation. in “multiplication and division of fractions”, respondents showed functional misconception (mean = 1.40). only student 1 showed best understanding level of conception, applying the algorithm of multiplying and dividing fractions and simplifying the final answer using prime factorization. both students 2 and 3 had either functional misconception or no understanding about these problems. they both had wrong choices of answers and offered no solutions. average achievers’ levels of conceptual understanding before instruction, results showed that before instruction, the average achievers have no understanding on fractions (mean = 0.54). the average achievers demonstrated functional misconception regarding the concept of “fraction: the whole and its parts” (mean = 0.93). students 4, 5 and 9 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 30 could partially explain that fraction is a part of a whole and could partly recognize the fraction represented by a figure. students 6, 7 and 8 correctly chose the answers but their solutions or explanations were incorrect and the rest had no solutions. accordingly, these teacher education students attested that their answers were simply intuitive guesses. for problems requiring application and analysis regarding the concept of fraction, only student 5 demonstrated partial understanding while the rest had either functional misconception or no understanding on these questions. student 5 had selected all the correct answers but her solutions or explanations were also incomplete, implying the lack of knowledge on how to simplify fractions. student 9 gave details of his thoughts in tagalog, “basta fraction, part iyon ng isang buo” (“when it comes to fraction, that’s part of the whole thing”). concerning the concept of “similar and dissimilar fractions”, students in this group fell under no level of understanding (mean = 0.57). student 5 and 7 have misconceptions on least common multiple while student 6 explained that same size automatically means similar fraction. student 9 had this misconception of adding similar fractions and offered another answer different from the available choices. student 4 and 8 recorded no response. in answering “equivalent fractions” problems, the average achievers showed no understanding (mean = 0.27). as reflected in their solutions most of them were not able to identify equivalent fractions. only two students can generate fractions equivalent to a given fraction using either multiplication or division. when asked how they arrived at their solutions, one could not explain it while the other had no solution. besides, none of the six average achievers got the right answer for questions requiring application and analysis concerning equivalent fractions. on problems pertaining to “comparing and ordering fractions”, the average achievers showed no understanding (mean = 0.47), where they were not able to compare fractions using equality and inequality symbols such as greater than and less than. three students committed mistakes in ordering and comparing the four fractions from least to greatest. the other three did the correct ordering and comparing but when asked to explain their answers only student 5 was able to discuss the solution. the students understand what is asked in the problem but did not know how to go about it. they either got correct answer but no solution, or gave both incorrect answer and solution. the students showed no understanding in “addition and subtraction of fractions” (mean = 0.67). all students in the average ability group did not recognize fractions that can be simplified. three students knew that the given fractions cannot be added readily because the denominators were not the same. they got the least common denominator, but committed mistakes performing addition. one student succeeded in arriving at the correct answer with correct solution. although he wrote the final answer on the test booklet without written solution, he explained his thoughts on how he got the answer mentally. for problems requiring application and analysis, the students found difficulty in answering. while they were able to identify the type of operation to be used, they were not able to execute the correct operations. in problems dealing with “multiplication and division of fractions”, the students had no understanding (mean = 0.33) which means they could not explain how the correct answer was obtained. low achievers’ level of conceptual understanding before instruction, as shown in table 1, the low achievers had no understanding regarding fractions before instruction irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 31 (mean = 0.57). the low achievers showed functional misconception regarding the concept of “fraction: the whole and its parts” (mean = 0.83). two students were able to describe fraction as a number that represents a part of a whole when the whole is divided into equal parts. the ideas of these two students were all expressed in tagalog. even if they had difficulty expressing their ideas, they tried their very best to explain what they did. meanwhile, in representing fractions, some students chose the right answers while some did not. when asked to explain their answers, five students said that they do not have any idea because their answers were just a guess. the low achievers demonstrated no understanding on “similar and dissimilar fractions” (mean = 0.67). these students cannot generalize what they meant or what they stood for. three of the low achievers made queries during the pretest regarding the term three-fourths. one asked: “is it the number 3.4?”, while the other two asked: “is it a fraction?” the researchers answered the queries of these students and all the while he thought that the concept three-fourths had been made clear to them. surprisingly, two out of them still chose the wrong answer. student 11 got the correct answer, but he offered no solution, explaining that she solved the problem by association. concerning “equivalent fractions”, the low achievers showed no understanding (mean = 0.70). only two students had correct answer but having incomplete solution. another student had no concrete idea about finding the missing number to make the fractions equivalent, yet manage to explain the reasonableness of the calculated result and matched it with the choices of answers offered. on problems regarding “comparing and ordering fractions”, the low achievers showed no understanding (mean = 0.43). the students were not able to compare fractions using the symbols for equal, not equal, greater than, and less than. other students committed mistakes in comparing and ordering fractions from least to greatest. only one correctly compared and ordered the fractions but was not able to explain her answer. problems that require application and analysis in comparing and ordering fractions seemed too difficult for the students to solve. some who got the correct answer had incorrect solution or did not justify their answer. the students showed no understanding in “addition and subtraction of fractions” (mean = 0.37) and in “multiplication and division of fractions” (mean = 0.40). comparing the performance of the low achievers with the average achievers, the researchers noted similar observation to the basic operations regarding fractions. the same misconception was observed when adding and subtracting dissimilar fractions. students tend to add also the denominators. they were also unaware that to divide fraction by another fraction, they need to invert first the divisor and then proceed to multiplication. teacher education students’ levels of conceptual understanding after instruction table 2 summarizes the level of conceptual understanding of teacher education students after instruction. the overall grand mean of 2.71 infer that teacher education students had partial understanding after instruction, implying an improved performance after employing the socio-constructivist approach. accordingly, teacher education students had irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 32 partial understanding in similar and dissimilar fractions, equivalent fractions, comparing and ordering fractions, addition and subtraction of fractions and multiplication and division of fractions. still, they had correct/incomplete understanding in fraction: the whole and its parts. high achievers’ level of conceptual understanding, after instruction, all of the high achiever participants attained best understanding level of conceptions (mean = 3.74). regarding “fractions: the whole and its parts”, the teacher education students maintained their best understanding level of conception (mean = 3.72). most of them answered and explained their solutions correctly and completely. two students partly developed understanding in some items, when the researchers asked them to explain their answer, one focused on the numerator and forgot to explain the denominator while the other just shook his head and said, “that’s all i know, sir.” table 2. level of conceptual understanding of the teacher education students after instruction lesson mean value per lesson after instruction high achievers average achievers low achievers teacher education students 1) fractions: the whole and its parts 3.72(bu) 0.93(fm) 1.70(c/i) 2.12(c/i) 2) similar and dissimilar fractions 4.00(bu) 2.94(pu) 2.58(pu) 3.17(pu) 3) equivalent fractions 4.00(bu) 2.08(c/i) 2.00(c/i) 2.69(pu) 4) comparing and ordering fractions 4.00(bu) 3.00(pu) 1.83(c/i) 2.94(pu) 5) addition and subtraction of fractions 3.60(bu) 2.33(c/i) 1.73(c/i) 2.55(pu) 6) multiplication and division of fractions 3.13(pu) 2.77(pu) 2.47(pu) 2.79(pu) grand mean 3.74 2.34 2.05 2.71 description bu c/i c/i pu legend: 3.20-4.00 = best understanding (bu) 2.40-3.19 = partial understanding (pu) 1.60-2.39 = correct/incomplete (c/i) 0.80-1.59 = functional misconception (fm) 0.00-0.79 = no understanding (nu) on problems regarding “similar and dissimilar fractions” (mean = 4.00), “equivalent fractions” (mean = 4.00), and “comparing and ordering fractions” (mean = 4.00), the high achievers uphold their level of understanding after receiving instruction. students 1 and 3 improved their level of understanding from no understanding to best understanding, and no understanding to partial understanding, respectively. both of them converted each fraction to decimal and chose the highest decimal. student 1 showed complete solution while student 3 approximated the decimal values. regarding “addition and subtraction of fractions”, the students performed best understanding (mean = 4.0). all of them made a straightforward correct solution; and their answers were simplified with complete units. their answers were arrived at systematically irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 33 and logically. they were all familiar with the use of least common denominator and then converting dissimilar to similar fractions before performing the addition and subtraction operations. in “multiplication and division of fractions”, only student 1 attained best understanding level of conception. both students 2 and 3 improved their conceptual understanding but did not reach the best level. these students knew the concept of multiplying two or more fractions. though they had different ways of applying this method, they all arrived at the correct complete answer and solution. in dividing a fraction by another fraction, they inverted first the divisor before proceeding to multiplication. average achievers ‘level of conceptual understanding, with a grand mean of 2.34, average achievers recorded correct/incomplete understanding after instruction. on the concept of “fractions: the whole and its parts”, the average achievers had functional misconception (mean = 0.93). students 4, 6, 7 and 8 had chosen the correct answer but had correct incomplete solutions. they knew technical terms like fraction, numerator, denominator, fractional bar and the like. conversely, students 5 and 9 had chosen the correct answer and had likewise correct complete solution. they gave details of their thoughts with additional and counter examples. regarding the concept of “similar and dissimilar fractions”, students classified as average achievers had partial understanding (mean = 2.94). two students were still confused as to whether they were to add or to copy the denominators in adding or subtracting similar fractions. another student knew that she needed to copy the denominator but cannot perform operations. the three other students chose the correct answers but arrived only at incomplete solutions. regarding problems that dealt on “equivalent fractions” the average achievers reached partial understanding (mean = 2.08). the students knew to name fractions equivalent to a given fraction (multiplying or dividing both its numerator and denominator by a none zero number). one mentioned that to be able to divide the numerator and denominator exactly by the same number, there should be a common factor between them. on problems regarding “comparing and ordering fractions”, this average achieving group of students had partial understanding (mean = 3.00). three students had incorrect answers but had correct incomplete solution or explanation. one knew that one strategy of comparing dissimilar fraction is to change the fractions to a set of similar fractions then compare the numerators, yet did not know how to convert dissimilar to similar fractions. another student recognized the strategy of converting these fractions to decimal form by dividing the numerator by the corresponding denominator but did not simplify the answer. in “addition and subtraction of fractions”, all students in this group had correct/incomplete understanding (mean = 2.33). the students chose the correct answer but had no solution explaining that they just approximated it. another set of students employ the least common denominator but committed mistakes while adding. nevertheless, one made a straightforward correct solution by simplifying both fractions before simplifying the terms. in one problem, he used algebraic representation to solve for the missing number. for problems containing analysis and application, most of the average achievers showed an improved performance. they were able to identify the type of operation to be used and easily executed them. they only differ in the manner of presenting the solution or explanation. on “multiplication and division of fractions”, average achievers had developed their conceptions attaining partial understanding (mean = 2.77). visibly shown to most of them that irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 34 when they were asked to explain their solutions, despite the fact that some were not so sure about what they are saying, all of them stated the algorithm of dividing fractions. that to them, division of fraction is just the reverse of multiplication. they inverted the divisor and proceeded to multiplication in solving the problems. low achievers’ level of conceptual understanding, after instruction, the low achievers’ group had correct/incomplete level of understanding with a grand mean of 2.05. on the concept of “fractions: the whole and its parts”, the low achievers had correct/incomplete understanding (mean = 1.70). some students correctly chose most of the answers but had incorrect solution or explanation. others had solutions or reasons correct with minor corrections. in representing fractions, most of the low achievers did not get the correct answer but showed correct incomplete ideas. referring to “similar and dissimilar fractions”, the low achievers demonstrated partial understanding (mean = 2.58). the students obtained correctly the answers to majority of the questions but they had no solutions. others had incorrect answers in similar and dissimilar fractions. despite that they had incorrect answers they tried their best in explaining their solutions or reasons. regarding “equivalent fractions”, the low achievers had correct/incomplete understanding after instruction (mean = 2.00). most of their answers were correct but had varied solutions classified as either correct complete or correct incomplete. students 11, 13, 14 and 15 gave correct incomplete solutions, while students 10 and 12 had these correct complete solutions. for problems pertaining to “comparing and ordering fractions”, the low achievers had complete/incomplete understanding (mean = 1.83). the students were able to compare fractions using symbols for equal, not equal, less than or greater than. some chose the appropriate answers in comparing and ordering fractions from least to greatest but most of them were confused of their answers because they used guesses to arrive at the said answers. in some problems, the students converted each fraction to decimal numbers because for them numbers in between can be easily seen in decimal form. with this solution of low achiever participants regarding comparing and ordering fractions, problems that require application and analysis were solved by these students. after receiving instruction, the low achievers had correct/incomplete level of understanding in “addition and subtraction of dissimilar fractions” (mean = 1.73). the students gave correct answers but had wrong or no solutions at all. other students had incorrect answers but had correct incomplete reasons in most of the problems in adding and subtracting dissimilar fractions. concerning “multiplication and division of fraction”, the students had partial understanding after instruction (mean = 2.79). the students’ answers were incorrect but had ideas in solving the problems. in contrast, students got most of the questions regarding multiplication and division of fractions but had incomplete solution. their reasons were not enough to justify their answers. table 3 presents the general summary of the teacher education students’ conceptual understanding towards fraction before and after instruction. with the grand means of 1.45 before instruction and 2.71 after instruction, the level of conceptual understanding of teacher education students improved from functional misconception to partial irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 35 understanding. with the grand means of 1.45 before instruction and 2.71 after instruction, the level of conceptual understanding of teacher education students improved from functional misconception to partial understanding. table 3. conceptual understanding of students in the achievement test before and after instruction lesson teacher education students conceptual understanding before instruction after instruction 1) fractions: the whole and its parts 1.75 (c/i) 2.12 (c/i) 2) similar and dissimilar fractions 1.75 (c/i) 3.17 (pu) 3) equivalent fractions 1.66 (c/i) 2.69 (pu) 4) comparing and ordering fractions 1.46 (c/i) 2.94 (pu) 5) addition and subtraction of dissimilar fractions 1.39 (fm) 2.55 (pu) 6) multiplication and division of fraction 0.71 (nu) 2.79 (pu) grand mean (description) 1.45 (fm) 2.71 (pu) legend: 3.20-4.00 = best understanding (bu) 2.40-3.19 = partial understanding (pu) 1.60-2.39 = correct/incomplete (c/i) 0.80-1.59 = functional misconception (fm) 0.00-0.79 = no understanding (nu) types of conceptual change that occurred among the teacher education students in fractions in a socio-constructivist learning environment as presented on table 4, it can be observed that high achievers showed change for the better in lessons regarding addition and subtraction of fractions and multiplication and division of fractions, in particular theoretical and conceptual change, respectively. however, high achievers had unchanged conception in lessons about fraction. for the average achievers, the following table showed that they demonstrated change for the better in all the lessons, particularly; they showed semantic conceptual change in lessons concerning fraction. on the other hand, theoretical conceptual change was viewed in lessons relating to equivalent fractions and multiplication and division of fractions. for the low achievers, results confirmed that they showed change for the better in all the lessons. particularly, they showed semantic conceptual change in lessons concerning mathematical concepts. on the other hand, theoretical conceptual change was observed on the lessons of fraction: the whole and its parts, similar and dissimilar fractions, and multiplication and division of fractions. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 36 table 4. types of conceptual change that occurred among the participants lesson before instruction after instruction types of change ha aa la overall ha aa la overall ha aa la overall 1 3.50 bu 0.93 fm 0.83 fm 1.75 c/i 3.72 bu 2.94 pu 1.70 c/i 2.79 pu uc cb (s) cb (t) cb (s) 2 4.00 bu 0.57 nu 0.67 nu 1.75 c/i 4.00 bu 2.08 c/i 2.58 pu 2.89 pu uc cb (s) cb (t) cb (s) 3 4.00 bu 0.27 nu 0.70 nu 1.66 c/i 4.00 bu 3.00 pu 2.00 c/i 3.00 pu uc cb (t) cb (s) cb (s) 4 3.47 bu 0.47 nu o.43 nu 1.46 fm 4.00 bu 2.33 c/i 1.83 c/i 2.72 pu uc cb (s) cb (s) cb (s) 5 3.13 pu 0.67 nu 0.37 nu 1.39 fm 3.60 bu 2.27 c/i 1.73 c/i 2.53 pu cb (t) cb (s) cb (s) cb (s) 6 1.40 fm 0.33 nu 0.40 nu 0.71 nu 3.13 pu 2.77 pu 2.47 pu 2.79 pu cb (s) cb (t) cb (t) cb (t) grand mean 3.25 bu 0.54 nu 0.57 nu 1.45 fm 3.74 bu 2.34 pu 2.05 c/i 2.79 pu uc cb (t) cb (s) cb (s) legend: bu – best understanding cb – change for the better ha – high achievers pu – partial understanding t – theoretical change aa – average achievers ci – complete/incomplete s – semantic change la – low achievers fm – functional misconception uc – unchanged conception nu – no understanding attitude of the teacher education students toward fractions in a socio-constructivist learning environment before instruction, it can be noted that before instruction (table 5), participants showed either lower degree of agreement or disagreement with all the statements in the questionnaire. the participants agreed on items 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 14, and 15. their slight agreement on these statements suggests that they only appreciate this socio-constructivist context-based teaching method as an alternative to the conventional lecture method. this is confirmed by the statement that obtained the highest mean rating: “i learn more when i work alone.” (mean = 3.15). moreover, students’ disagreement on items 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, and 12 suggests idea that students are not comfortable with this kind of learning environment. this disagreement is consistent with the comment that they wrote: “perhaps it is right to say that two heads are better than one, but still it is different if you are the one who discovered.” irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 37 table 5. students’ responses to the socio-constructivist attitude questionnaire before and after instruction items before instruction after instruction mean sd mean sd 1. i learn more when i receive explanations from my group mates. 2.30 0.60 3.17 0.65 2. i learn more when i explain the lesson to my group mates. 2.10 0.73 3.75 0.60 3. i learn more when i work alone. 3.15 0.83 2.09 0.85 4. discussing the solution to a problem in a group of five increased the number of ideas that i can use in fractions. 2.41 0.69 3.26 0.69 5. discussing the solution to a problem in a group of five increased the number of problem-solving techniques that i can use in fractions. 2.37 0.70 3.13 0.81 6. small group discussions help increased retention of information. 2.40 0.75 3.04 0.71 7. working in a group of five promotes students’ active participation in learning fractions (i.e., asking a question or requesting help from group mates, explaining or suggesting a solution to a problem, etc.) 2.49 0.65 3.76 0.81 8. studying mathematics in a group of five is more fun than studying fractions alone. 2.80 0.85 3.52 0.79 9. studying fractions in a group of five is more interesting than studying fractions alone. 2.95 0.80 3.52 0.85 10. i like to work in a small group because i like to help other students learn. 2.87 0.71 3.42 0.60 11. when we work together in a group of five, i expect that everyone will participate in the discussions and no particular member of the group will dominate the discussions. 2.82 0.75 3.63 0.76 12. i don’t like to work in a group of five because my group mates engage in off-task activities (e.g., chatting, fooling around). 2.00 0.75 1.61 0.78 13. working together in small groups can promote good students’ relationship with others. 3.00 0.79 3.65 0.49 14. when i work with other students, i develop social skills (e.g., sharing, cooperating, responsibility, etc.) 2.97 0.78 3.70 0.56 15. working in a group of five facilitates effective communication among students. 2.65 0.68 3.61 0.50 grand mean (interpretation) 2.36 (disagree) 3.26 (strongly agree) legend: 3.25 4.00 = strongly agree 2.50 3.24 = agree 1.75 2.49 = disagree 1.00 1.74 = strongly disagree after instruction, students responses to items 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,6, 8, and 9 reveal their attitudes toward learning fractions after experiencing socio-constructivist learning environment in the class (table 5). the two items in this category that obtained the highest mean rating are: “studying fractions in a group of five is more fun than studying fractions alone.” and “studying fractions in a group of five is more interesting than studying fractions alone.”. it can be observed that students strongly agreed on these two items. the next five items in this category which showed lower degree of agreement are: “discussing the solution to a problem in a group of five increased the number of ideas that i can use in fractions.”, “i learn more when i receive explanations from my group mates.”, “discussing the solution to a irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 38 problem in a group of five increased the number of problem solving techniques that i can use in fractions.”, “small group discussions help increased retention of information.”, and “i learn more when i explain the lesson to my group mates.”. the positive attitudes of the students on these statements prove that they appreciate the socio-constructivist type of learning as an alternative only to the conventional lecture method. this is confirmed by their disagreement with the statement “i learn more when i work alone.” students’ positive regard towards socio-constructivist type of learning is consistent with what they wrote in their comments. according to them, it was the sharing and exchange of ideas that made the topics easier to understand. they found group discussion very enjoyable. it provided them with opportunity to explain the lesson to others or to get an explanation from their group mates. the following excerpt attest to this: “i learn a lot during our group discussion. lesson becomes easier because of the ideas shared by my group mates. it’s my first time that i was not bored in math. actually, i enjoyed learning the lessons especially the topic on similar and dissimilar fractions.” another theme that emerged was they like to study collaboratively because asking questions to peers is less threatening than asking questions to the teacher. students were more comfortable asking question directly to their groupmates than to their teacher. according to them, sometimes they do not like to ask questions directly to the teacher because of fear of criticism or embarrassment. this can be gleaned from the excerpt: “it is the group learning that i like because i wasn’t shy to ask my group mates. i understand slowly. sometimes, i really don’t understand the lesson but i cannot ask question because once i asked, they all laughed.”. this attitude prevents students from learning because the questions that student asks provide teachers with important feedback to assess the extent to which students are progressing toward the learning goals. this reveals their current understanding and misconceptions which could guide teachers in making instructional decisions about ways to represent content and the kinds of learning activities they plan. on the other hand, there were some students who said that they preferred direct instruction where the teacher explains the lesson, provides many examples, and lets them solve the exercises on the board. this is shown in the comment: “i want the style that our teacher will explain the topic and the student solves in front of the class if there is an activity needed to perform even just once in a while, because it helps me to learn faster by means of it.” this group of students was particularly dependent on teacher’s detailed explanation of concepts. they believed that good teaching should involve providing students with examples for them to follow later. this is not surprising because these students were not used to this type of strategy. to them, teachers are supposed to provide students with ideas that allow them to improve their skills through sequentially arranged learning tasks and students are expected to acquire these ideas and skills exactly in the same way they were presented. unfortunately, this attitude “leaving all the explaining to the teacher” does not promote critical thinking and limit students’ creativity. since the teacher had supposedly told everything then, it would be possible that students will not try to look for other solution paths anymore. the effects of socio-constructivist environment on students’ prosocial behavior were identified based on their responses to items 10, 12, 13, and 14 of the questionnaires. the two statements with high level of agreement are: “when i work with other students, i develop social skills (e.g., sharing, cooperating, responsibility, etc.).” and “working together in small groups can promote good irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 39 students’ relationship with others.”. in fact, these two statements are the highest rated items not only in this category but in all items in the questionnaire. another statement in this category that received a low degree of agreement is: “i like to work in a small group because i like to help other students learn.”. the positive effect of socio-constructivist type of learning on students’ prosocial behavior is further strengthened by their disagreement on the statement, “i don’t like to work in a group of five because my group mates engage in off-task activities.” the very low mean suggest that students are willing to help their group mates without any condition attached to it. with regard to activeness in the classroom, item 7, 11, and 15 were evaluated. students highly agreed on these statements: “working in a group of five facilitates effective communication among students.” and “working in a group of five promotes students’ active participation in learning fractions (e.g., asking a question or requesting help from group mates, explaining or suggesting a solution to a problem, etc.).”. these two propositions are actually the primary goal of socio-constructivist type of learning such as to provide each student with opportunities to verbalize their ideas and participate actively in the thinking task. the high mean rating of these two items is indication of students’ active involvement in the instructional classroom activities as a result of their group learning. likewise, students agreed on the statement, “when we work together in a group of five, i expect that everyone will participate in the discussions and no particular member of the group will dominate the discussions.”. this advocates only that students believe that every learner must be an active participant in the learning process. they believe that everyone must be given equal opportunity to participate actively in the group discussion whether he or she is a help-seeker or help-giver. relationship between teacher education students’ conceptual understanding and their attitudes toward fractions table 6 indicates statistically highly significant correlation between teacher education students’ conceptual understanding and their attitudes toward fractions, r (13) = -0.691, p < .001. this implies a negative substantial relationship that exists between the two variables – conceptual understanding and attitude, meaning, when conceptual understanding or attitude increases the other one tends to decrease. this further implies that the positive attitude towards fraction among students is not a strong indicator of their high level of conceptual understanding. moreover, the sample coefficient of determination (r 2 = 0.4775), reveals that 47.75% only of the total variation of the teacher education students’ conceptual understanding was accounted for by the attitude towards fraction in a socio-constructivist learning environment. table 6. pearson correlation between teacher education students’ conceptual understanding and their attitudes toward fractions attitude towards fractions teacher education students’ conceptual understanding -0.691** legend: **highly significant (p<.001) irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 40 discussion even after the intervention, the results showed similar findings with lelis (2013) where teacher education students had weak conceptual knowledge of the five notions of fraction as part-whole, operator, measure, quotient and ratio. they also showed a lack of procedural knowledge on the operation of the three types of fractions: simple, mixed and complex. the functional misconception to partial understanding result is also consistent with the findings of cantario (2016) and siegler and lortie-forgues (2015), who found that teaching student performance in fraction resolution has reached an unacceptable level. prevalent errors have been demonstrated by adding dissimilar fractions, adding a mixed number and fraction, and multiplying a mixed number by fraction, because dominant procedural knowledge in fraction addition interferes with their knowledge of fraction multiplication, and vice versa. also, they demonstrated a low level of content knowledge of fractions, as demonstrated by their inability to add common fractions and their failure to translate mixed numbers into equivalent fractions. this finding further agrees with de castro (2004) who found that most of the teacher education student respondents were able to perform the task and discuss the step-by-step procedure for the algorithm but could not give any reason as to how and why the algorithm works. as these teacher educations students will be teaching soon, huang et al. (2009) indicated the preservice teachers need more stimuli to construct their conceptual knowledge about fractions. this study suggests the need for teacher education students to develop the conceptual understanding towards fractions and for instructional changes in the teacher preparation program. conversely, results argue morano and riccomini (2020) where teacher education students demonstrated high levels of conceptual understanding of fraction addition and subtraction, and relatively weak conceptual knowledge of fraction multiplication and division. to go over the main point, the particular types of conceptual change that occurred among teacher education students toward fractions in a socio-constructivist learning environment were change for the better, and semantic conceptual change. participants had change for the better in all the lessons. theoretical conceptual change in multiplication and division of fractions and semantic conceptual change in lessons of fraction: the whole and its parts, similar and dissimilar fractions, equivalent fractions, comparing and ordering fractions, and addition and subtraction of fractions. based on these results, it can be noted that there is a good turnout of teacher education students who improved their conceptual understanding after the intervention through socio-constructivist context-based teaching method. this is very visible from the outcome gathered from the average and low achiever participants. for most of the high achievers, who even before instruction had either partial or best understanding of the lessons, unchanged conception dominated their responses. this finding supports that conceptual change occurs naturally during a student’s conceptual development but can also be elicited and facilitated by means of instructional interventions (schneider, 2012; vosniadou, 2008) such as socio-constructivist learning. in the context of respondents’ attitude towards fraction in socio-constructivist learning environment, the overall grand mean of 2.36 tends to show that teacher education students before instruction had disagreement to this kind of intervention. in contrast, the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 41 overall grand mean of 3.26 tends to show that teacher education students’ after instruction had strong agreement to this kind of intervention. this is consonant with seeping (2006) who revealed that the socio-constructivist learning environment improved college students’ prosocial behavior, attitudes toward mathematics learning, and activeness in classroom activities. this positive change in attitude may be related to schunk and zimmerman (2003) who described the social constructivist theory of self-regulation as grounded in theories of cognitive development that postulate that human beings are intrinsically motivated, active learners. mental representations and refinements in understanding develop over time, with reflection, experience, social guidance and the acquisition of new information. self-regulation, then, is seen by social constructivists as a process in which students “acquire beliefs and theories about their skills and competencies, the structure and difficulty of learning tasks, and the way in which efforts and strategies are used to achieve goals” (schunk & zimmerman, 2003). by analyzing the correlation, it could be claimed that the remaining 52.25% may be due to other factors like the learning environment or the teaching strategy adopted. thus, the positive change in the level of conceptual understanding could not be attributed mainly to the attitude of the students. moreover, the positive relationship between conceptual understanding and attitude could probably happen and be manifested after a longer period of time. the interrelationship among self-efficacy, conceptual and procedural knowledge and their causal relationships towards performance did not also indicate a good fit in the study of lelis (2013). considerably, both conceptual understanding and attitude may be taken account in valuing the performance of teacher education students. this is akin with andamon and tan (2018) who found that students’ attitude towards mathematics and conceptual understanding in mathematics were found the best predictors of students’ performance in mathematics. the researchers acknowledged the study's limitations, which included a small sample size and a pre-pandemic setting, which may limit generalizability. these constraints could be investigated further. conclusions since students have found the socio-constructivist context-based teaching method to be effective in the transfer of learning, it is suggested that math teachers consider the use of this method in the teaching of other mathematics topics. contextualized fractional problems have broadened students' views on the applicability of fractions to day-to-day activities, and therefore it is proposed that math teachers use contextualized problems whenever possible. furthermore, preparing a pre-test would help identify the individual misconceptions of students and institute lessons and activities that would lead to positive conceptual change. developing activities that would promote desirable cognitive processes are encouraged, as a specific type of cognitive processes is needed to acquire a higher level of conception. conversely, math teachers may consider the influence of bilingual language in the teaching of fractions as it has a great influence on the understanding of the problem structure. while students may be encouraged to solve problems using any solution strategy that makes sense to them and share their constructed and invented strategies with their group irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 42 mates for the benefit of all, educational leaders are likewise fortified to formulate policies that would strengthen the teaching and learning of mathematics, such as policies for implementing the use of socio-constructivist context-based teaching methods, particularly in basic mathematics courses. finally, researchers are encouraged to carry out further investigations into this study in order to refute or confirm the findings. probably, this study must be conducted on a larger sample, over a longer period of time, in order to achieve more defined results. this may include the types of student interactions that can be observed during the socio-constructive learning process. enriching mathematics curriculum by incorporating some of the teaching techniques and strategies would assist students develop their conceptual understanding. correspondingly, this would lead to finding out whether a focus on conceptual understanding will result in improved procedural understanding or whether a focus on procedural understanding will result in improved conceptual understanding. disclosure statement no potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors. acknowledgments the authors extend their cordial acknowledgment to everyone behind the success of this study and to the indonesian research journal in education for serving as an avenue for the publication of this article. references agbozo, k. k. 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(eds) encyclopedia of the sciences of learning. springer. https://www.prodigygame.com/main-en/blog/attitude-towards-math https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/170691/preparing-teachers-for-the-big-reform irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 44 schunk, d. h. & zimmerman, b. j. (2003). self‐regulation and learning. in i.b. weiner (ed.), handbook of psychology. science education institute, department of science and technology & the philippine council of mathematics teacher education. (2011). framework for philippine mathematics teacher education. sei-dost & mathted. siegler, r. s., & lortie-forgues, h. (2015). conceptual knowledge of fraction arithmetic. journal of educational psychology. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/edu0000025 seeping, a. v. 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(original work published 1934.) biographical notes edwin d. ibañez is a professor of the department of mathematics and physics, college of science, central luzon state university, science city of muñoz, philippines. he has been on the academe for 29 years and serves not just as a professor but also as chief of internal audit services. he is also mathematics education trainer of the department of science and technology, science education institute (dost-sei). he handles several mathematics courses in the undergraduate and graduate programs, presented researches and published various books. jupeth t. pentang is an instructor of the department of secondary education, college of education, western philippines university, puerto princesa city, philippines he handles graduate and undergraduate courses on mathematics education, assessment of learning, research and statistics. besides, he serves as project leader, training coordinator and resource speaker in various extension activities. moreover, he co-authored books and has in press research publications in web of science and scopus indexed journals. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 223 investigating the plights of nigerians in diaspora: a case study of nigerians studying in malaysian universities yusuf suleiman 1 and ibrahim kawuley mikail 2 abstract in view of the researchers‟ personal experiences between 2016-2017, this study investigated the plights of nigerians in diaspora with a specific focus on nigerians studying in malaysian universities. the research design adopted for the study was a qualitative method with a case study approach (interview and observation). 10 nigerian students studying in three malaysian universities participated in the study. interview protocol tagged “interview protocol on plights of nigerians in diaspora (ippnd)” was used to collect data from the participants while observation was designed to elicit relevant information in all the selected universities. data were analyzed qualitatively to find the common themes. the findings revealed that nigerians were faced with numerous challenges including apathetic attitude of nigerian embassy in malaysia, lack of part-time job opportunities, high exchange rates, and visa issues. additionally, our findings suggested solutions to the problems of nigerians such as fast responses to students‟ challenges by the nigerian embassy, availability of part-time job opportunities for nigerians and issuance of 2 years visa. the study recommends that nigerian embassy in malaysia should have a comprehensive list of nigerians that are schooling in various malaysian institutions with a view to enable them to have an accurate data gathering of their citizens. keywords diaspora, malaysian universities, nigerian students, qualitative approach 1 department of educational management and counseling, faculty of education, al-hikmah university, ilorin, kwara state, nigeria; yusufsuleiman@alhikmah.edu.ng 2 school of education, federal college of education, zaria, nigeria introduction mailto:yusufsuleiman@alhikmah.edu.ng irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 224 education remains the bedrock to a successful life. it is the process of acquiring knowledge, values, ethics and norms with a view to become a better citizen in the society (umar, 2014). people acquire education so that they can be self-reliant, and contribute their quota to the development of the society. internationalization of higher education is one of the dynamism of globalization which has reduced institutions of higher learning to a global village by facilitating teaching and learning across nations and continents. the impact of globalization and internationalization on higher education has created a market for the active recruitment of international students, especially in asia (caldwell & hyams-ssekasi, 2016; esenturk, demir, yilmaz & ilhan, 2016; kadouf, 2017; manzuma-ndaaba, harada, romle, & shamsudin, 2016; owoyemi, din, sabri, & sani, 2015). from the global statistical index, the number of international students has increased from 28.6 million as at 70‟s to 152.5 million in 2007. indeed, this growth was found in east asian countries and pacific nations. in the case of nigerian students, almost 4.3 million chose to study in foreign countries in 2011 (manzuma-ndaaba et al., 2016). in fact, globalization is the bedrock that accelerates internationalization of education worldwide. this trend has great impact on international students to interact with their partners from different nations at the host country. for instance, students across the planet would meet with each other for the purposed of education. globalization has come up with new version for making students as human capital because globalization process has been manifested by new knowledge and information flow (chikezie & sabri, 2017; olutayo, 2016). knowledge has become the most valuable commodity in the present global economy, which is entirely different from previous international economies. therefore, globalization has cemented the ground for the interaction and interconnection within international student at the global arena. thus, the number of investigations into the process that influence international student‟s decision for higher education abroad has increased due to globalization and a rising competition in the higher education sector (petruzzellis & romanazzi, 2010; umar, 2014; umar, noon, & abdullahi, 2014). on two factors behind students‟ interest in schooling abroad, it was characterized on push and pull factors. from the perspective of push factor, the reason behind was started since colonial era which most of the developing countries were not provided with standard universities. this has paved the way for sending their students to obtain higher education in developed societies like uk, us and france etc. because, from 1960‟s-1970‟s there was international students from eighteen developing countries studying in us alone. this was accentuated due to the negligence of colonial government to promote higher education in some parts of african continent (teferra & albach, 2003). the colonial policy of sending students from their colonies to their metropolis is well known in uk, france, germany, belgium, italy and portugal. this would enable them to acquire higher university education over there. this would ensure them to train the colonies in order to assist the white men administering the colonies (umar et al., 2014). in fact, some colonial powers like belgium had completely prohibited the higher education in their colonized states, while spain, portugal and france have a limited number for the enrolment of africans into higher irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 225 education (albach, 2003; albach, 2004; teferra & albach, 2003). although, lack of access to higher education in developing societies, is the pull factor for international students, couple with the perception that there is better quality system of education in abroad. this was due to the availability of technological facilities and technology based program. these factors had attracted most of the international students especially africans to go to foreign countries for higher education (phang, 2012; sola & olukoya, 2011). on push factors, the push factors comprise proximity to the countries; quality of education and reputation of the institutions; available program and courses in line with the interest or area of specialization for the international students; and quality of their academic staff among others (phang, 2012). however, some micro-economic obstacles like security, cost of living, level of infrastructural development, visa policy, religion, climatic condition, and commonality of language were also the pull factors (mazzarol & sautar, 2008; manzuma-ndaaba et al., 2016; umar et al., 2014). these factors contribute immensely to the african students and nigerians in particular to travel outside for higher education. in the case of malaysian attraction, it reveals that certain important factors such as affordable school fees, political stability, geographical location, relaxed visa policies and average living expenses in malaysia have continued to attract a wide range of students from asia, africa and the middle east. these were among the motivating factors that made nigerian students to come down to malaysian universities in furtherance of their higher education (malaysian ministry of higher education, 2009). meanwhile, reliable figures of nigerians living abroad is generally lacking due to poor record keeping on the part of the nigerian authorities. host countries‟ figures are also incomplete because many of the countries do not take into consideration naturalized and second generation nigerians in immigrants statistics (sola & olukoya, 2011). according to organization of economic co-operation development (oecd) statistics, it is claimed that about 1.2million nigerians reside abroad, the nigerian ministry of foreign affairs gives an estimate of about 20 million nigerian residents in europe and the united states of america. despite the unreliability of the above statistics, one fact that is very clear is that a huge number of nigerians are resident abroad and that more or less; this category of people constitutes the nigerian diaspora (adebayo, 2010). nigerians‟ search for education cannot be overemphasized. with a population of over 180 million which makes it africa‟s demographic giant, nigeria has become increasingly involved in international migration worldwide in search for education to cater their national and individual needs. the quest for quality education often made nigerians to seek for the acquisition of foreign certificates. due to the dismal state of the nigerian higher education system, universities in the united kingdom, north america, asia and ghana and south africa often embarked upon recruitment drives for nigerian students (adebayo, 2010; umar, 2014). on the number of nigerians in foreign institutions, according to the unesco institute for statistics, there are more than 52,000 nigerians in tertiary education abroad, with some 17,300 in the united kingdom, 12,000 in ghana and 7,000 in the united states. these figures are an undercount, given the central bank figures for ghana, the institute of international education‟s counting of 9,500 nigerian students in american colleges and irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 226 universities, and project atlas figures that show 19,000 nigerian students in the uk (university world news, 2018). in 2016, it was estimated that 13,000 nigerians were studying at various levels in educational institutions in malaysia as pointed out by ambassador datuk jin malaysian high commissioner to nigeria (malaysian ministry of higher education, 2019; vanguard newspaper, 2018). in fact, malaysian universities continued to be most attracting destinations to the students from africa, middle east and other parts of asia (umar, et al, 2014). in 2016, figure collected through centre for international affairs and cooperation (ciac) revealed that university utara malaysia (uum) alone had 500 nigerians pursuing various degrees (centre for international affairs and cooperation, universiti utara malaysia, 2016). it is reported that nigerians that are living in china, malaysia and other foreign countries are faced with various challenges such as exchange rate, cultural dichotomy, adaptation barrier, general financial difficulties, and racial discrimination (university world news, 2018; vanguard newspaper, 2018). despite these challenges, this could not stop them from attending various foreign institutions for advanced programs (petruzzellis & romanazzi, 2010). on the rationale behind the influx of nigerians in malaysian institutions, reports indicate that malaysian universities have attracted numerous nigerian students due to the affordable tuition fees, cost of living, and easy visa process. above all, they have high quality of education. this was due to the high standard of facilities, academic manpower and e-learning process. these factors made them to graduate their postgraduate students with sound academic background at stipulated period of time. in fact, it serves as a motivating factor to galvanize the spirit of zealous academic scholars to come up, for completing their academic journey over there (abdulkadir, 2010; akhtar, pratt & bo, 2015; farah & barack, 2019; khanal & gaulee, 2019; mikail, 2016; woldegiorgis & doevenspeck, 2015). in view of the foregoing, the focus of the present study was thus on investigating the plights of nigerians in diaspora with a particular reference to nigerians that were studying in malaysian universities. specifically, this study was carried out in view of the hardship faced by nigerian students in malaysia between 2016-2017. three research questions were raised to guide the study: (1) why are nigerians coming to malaysia to pursue their degrees? (2) what are the problems faced by nigerians that are schooling in malaysian universities? (3) what are the solutions to the problems faced by the nigerians schooling in malaysian universities? literature review even though an extensive literature review shows that empirical studies on plight of students in foreign countries are limited. nevertheless, available studies indicate that there are several challenges faced by international students in foreign institutions. they include socio-cultural adaptation, financial problems, academic stress, discrimination or racial discord, safety and among others (abiddin & akinyenib, 2015; haugen, 2013; umar et al., 2014; university world news, 2020). for instance, umar et al. (2014) admitted that financial challenges, social and cultural adjustments, family separation, exploitation of landlord and agents and stigmatization on africans were the challenges confronting african students and irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 227 nigerian students in particular. the studies of constantine et al., (2004) and echchabi and olaniyi (2012) found that most of the debilitating threat against international students includes socio-cultural adjustments, racism or racial discrimination, adaptation to new educational system, pedagogical matters, languages skills, climate condition, system of foods in abroad and financial constraints. malaklolunthu and selan (2011) and tan ai lian (2012) confirmed that international students experienced challenges of adjusting to food, weather, financial arrangement, health care, accommodation and local language, while financial and language limitations add to the difficulties for the new comers in fact, most of the new students were confronting with these constraints. meanwhile, job opportunities in malaysia is very limited, regardless to the postgraduates students to combine studies and work as in the case of us, and some european countries. moreover, research conducted by umar (2014) enumerated some challenges confronting nigerian postgraduate students in malaysian universities. these challenges encompass financial constraints; socio-cultural adjustments; separation from families; exploitation or cheating by the landlord and their associates and racial discrimination or stigmatization against african nationals. they have found that the above mentioned threats, intimidating nigerian students in developing their educational career in malaysia. they further reveal that the self-sponsored students used to find it very difficult than any other students. while cultural barrier creates a wide gap between indigenous citizens and other expatriates students. the financial constraints have blocked the postgraduate students with families to leave their family at home and come too stay alone. there is discrimination against nigerians and africans in general by their nationals. in the same vein, university world news (2020) reported about the perceptions of tanzanian students in chinese universities. the study found that the challenges of tanzanian students that are studying in china and found that language barrier came out as the leading challenge facing the majority of the surveyed trainees. 67% of respondents were trained in english, 19% in mandarin with english translations and the remaining 14% attended the courses in mandarin language. the study of akhtar, pratt, and bo (2015) reported several factors in the cross-cultural adaptation of african students in various chinese universities and concluded that adapting to the culture in china is one of the challenges of african students. furthermore, phang (2012) reported that the international students faced financial and human resources challenges as well as lack of available scholarship for non-eu students. the above study was revealed on international students in european countries. obviously, there is no provision for scholarship to non-eu candidates. while, in most of the malaysian universities the scholarship is often limited to few number of students. they only considered those who undertook their previous studies at malaysia or were opportune and privileged to. hyams-ssekasi, mushibwe, and caldwell (2014) found that there are challenges for black africans in accessing foreign education in the united kingdom. the challenges range from admission issue, visa application, high cost of living, high tuition fee and others. an empirical review of literature conducted by khanal and gaulee (2019) on the challenges of international students revealed many challenges faced by international students in their host countries. the challenges include visa issue, funding, discrimination; high cost of living etc. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 228 he concluded that further studies are needed to examine how the challenges can be mitigated so that international students can have good experience in their host countries. according to university word news (2018) report, between 2016 and 2017, most nigerian students in malaysia suffered with financial constraints. this was due to the blocking nigerian atm cards to dispense malaysian ringgits on the course of fighting corruption and money laundering by the president buhari‟s administration. the exchange rate fluctuated and rose up beyond the expectations of students‟ economic plan because the exchange rate shifted from 56 naira per ringgits in 2015 to 85 naira and above per ringgits in 2016 and 2017 respectively. this tragic economic condition, arose when malaysian universities started increasing visa renewal fees, accommodation and later tuition fees. this trend has really intimidates the financial transaction of nigerian students in malaysia. in support of the foregoing point, chikezie and sabri (2017) investigated the financial well-being of nigerian students in universiti putra malaysia and concluded that students without sponsorship are facing hard time in malaysia. furthermore, farah and barack (2019) have found reasons for african students‟ quest for turkish universities and submitted that scholarships and opportunities are the reasons for students‟ quest for schooling in various turkish universities. kadouf (2017) examined the sudanese students‟ quest for university education in malaysia. the outcome of the study indicates several factors which include scholarship, job opportunities and others. the challenges faced by students include discrimination, lack of access to job opportunities and scholarship. putting the foregoing studies together, thus this study intended to extend the previous studies by examining deeper into the plights of nigerian students in malaysian universities with a view to provide measures that can be used to reduce the hardship been faced by the students. methodology research design, participants, and locale of the study in this present research, we adopted a case study approach to investigate the study on plight of nigerians in diaspora with particular focus on nigerians that were schooling in malaysian universities so that comprehensive data collection about the study subject matter could be obtained. the qualitative approach of case study is a research method that contains an up-close, in-depth and meticulous exploration of a subject of study and its associated contextual position. the case study approach in qualitative research has been widely used by investigators or researchers for a long period of time and has been applied in different disciplines (sekaran & bougie, 2013; silverman, 2015). it has also been broadly used in social sciences as a qualitative research method to explore modern real-life circumstances and has provided an underpinning of application of thoughts and extension of procedures. case study approach has several benefits. first, a case study helps in conveying the understanding of a multifaceted issue or object. second, it has the tendency to extend experience or add strength to the present knowledge via preceding research. second, the contextual analysis in case study revolves around a narrow number of conditions or events and how they relate https://essaymin.com/case-study/ irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 229 (creswell, 2015; peterson & kim, 2013; suleiman, hanafi, & thanslikan, 2019; wikiversity, 2015). the participants consisted of nigerian students pursuing various undergraduate and postgraduate degree programs in malaysian universities. in order to draw out participants for the study, we employed purposive sampling techniques to select two public universities (universiti malaya (um) and universiti utara malaysia (uum)) and one private university (insania university college). purposive was employed to select ten (10) students from the three selected universities (creswell, 2015; creswell, 2012; sekaran & bougie, 2013). the table below shows the three universities and the 10 selected participants for the study. table 1. name of universities and number of participants selected s/n name of university number of participant selected 1 (uum) (public university) 5 2 (um) (public university) 3 3 insania university (private university) 2 total 10 furthermore, following creswell‟s (2012) suggestion in selecting participants in research, we have three valid reasons for selecting 5 participants from universiti utara malaysia. first, according to data obtained from the centre for international affairs and cooperation (ciac now u-assist) in 2016, the university has over 500 active nigerian students pursuing various undergraduate and postgraduate students. second, the university has the highest number of nigerians more than other universities in malaysia. thirdly, those nigerians studying in the university came from the six geo-political zones (north-west, north-east, north-central, south -south, south-east and south-west) of the country. therefore, for having such number of nigerian students, we concluded that we will be able to get sufficient information that will help to investigate the current study. in addition, as at december, 2015, documents collected indicate that universiti malaya (um) has more than 300 nigerians studying various programmes. lastly, insania university college has nigerian students but it is not up to students in universiti utara malaysia and universiti malaya. data collection and analysis in order to get proper and sufficient information on the plights of nigerian students in malaysian universities, interview and observation methods were used to collect relevant information from the 10 selected participants. the interview protocol tagged “interview protocol on plights of nigerians in diaspora (ippnd)” was developed mainly for the study. specifically, we used observation method to complement the findings obtained through the interview method as suggested by creswell (2015). however, three reasons justify the use of interview method to collect data. first, interview method is a commonly used method of gathering vital information from interviewee on a particular subject matter. second, interview method contains vital information that interviewer will use as a guide to elicit relevant data from the interviewee. lastly, interview method covers essential questions to be asked. it contains semi-structured open-ended questions (creswell, 2012). trustworthiness irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 230 has grown to be a vital concept as it allows researchers to explain the merits of qualitative terms outside of the parameters which are commonly used in quantitative research. the main purpose of trustworthiness in qualitative study is to support the argument that the inquiry‟s outcomes are “worth paying attention to” (creswell, 2013). in order to ensure the trustworthiness of data, the interview protocol was given to experts in the field of the study with a view to check the quality and relevance of the questions contained. thus, the experts‟ corrections and observations were corrected in the interview guide. lastly, pilot study was conducted in one university outside the three selected universities for the main study. the essence of pilot study is to ensure reliability of the protocol to be used for the main study. to ensure adequate data collection for the study, we employed two research assistants, who helped us to collect data from the participants. aside the interview protocol and observation checklist, other materials used to collect data include laptop, digital audio tape, ipad phone, camera, biro, pencil, eraser, exercise book and jotter. the interviews conducted lasted for two months, february-march, 2017. the minimum time spent on interview was 30 minutes while maximum was 40 minutes. the language adopted for the interview is english. according to creswell (2013), it is important to transcribe the data collected via a qualitative approach so that views of the participants can be known. this helps researchers to draw conclusion on the matter that is been investigated. in line with creswell‟s (2015) suggestion, the present study transcribed the data before starting the analysis because data analysis cannot be performed without transcription. we transcribed the data collected from the participants by listening to voice recordings of the interviews conducted. during this process, loss of any kind of information was avoided by listening repeatedly to the recordings. laptop, hear piece, jotter, biro, pencil and eraser were used for data transcription. the minimum time spent for transcribing the participants‟ view is 20 minutes. the transcription produced 20 pages and the data was printed for data codification. in consonance with the study research questions, codifications were carried out by reviewing the data received from the participants. the participants for the study were assigned code. we have two reasons for assigning code to the participants. first, it helps the researchers to identify each participant when analyzing data. second, it makes data analysis seamless because participants‟ views are easy to be understood (creswell, 2012). table 2 below showing the code assigned to the participants for easy identification. table 2. participants and code assigned participants code assigned participants code assigned 1 ds1 6 ms1 2 ds2 7 ms2 3 ds3 8 ms3 4 ds4 9 bs1 5 ds5 10 bs2 note: ds connotes doctoral student; ms for master student; bs for bachelor student irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 231 ethical considerations ethical consideration is an important issue to be followed when conducting research via a qualitative approach (creswell, 2013). it is an essential step that researchers must consider when dealing with human beings. similarly, scholars suggest that participant‟s privacy must be taken into consideration to allow the researchers to get the needed information they intend to use to investigate a study. in view of the foregoing, before collecting data in the present study, we sought the participants‟ consent, and the purpose of the study was explained to them. also, the participants were assured on the confidentiality of the information to be obtained from them. findings it is vital to provide a background of informants in qualitative research; this is also relevant in quantitative research as well. the aim of providing profile of informants is to gain a better understanding of the informants based on their characteristic that formed their character. another motive for reporting the profile of is to exhibit transparency in research (sekaran & bougie, 2010). in the light of the foregoing, the profile of the informants is explained below: table 3. informants’ profile sex male 8 female 2 total 10 program of study phd 5 msc 3 bsc 2 total 10 number of participants based on configuration of nigeria northern part of nigeria 5 southern part of nigeria 5 total 10 as shown in table 3, the sex of the participants used for the study includes 8 males and 2 females. on programme of study, five (5) are phd students, three (3) were masters‟ students, while 2 were undergraduate students. table 3 indicates that 6 students were selected from universiti utara malaysia (uum), 2 students from universiti malaya (um), while the remaining 2 students were picked from insaniah university college. lastly, in order to avoid bias and to get relevant data from the participants, five students each from southern and northern part of nigeria that are schooling in malaysian universities were selected to participate in the study. furthermore, getting the themes that can gather the codes related to one another is the next stage after the codification of the received data (esenturk et al., irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 232 2016). that is why creswell (2015) is of the view that it is essential that the researcher takes research questions of the study into consideration and needs to be conscious of what s/he is looking for in research questions. the words, sentences and paragraphs were coded via conceptualization with the aim of determining the idea wanted to be expressed while the data was read. for this reason, the emerged themes were coded in accordance with the study research questions. the concepts occurring as a result of codification were systematically gathered under a significant theme. at the end of the thematic coding, three main themes and eleven sub-themes emerged. table below shows the emerged main and sub-themes after data codification. table 4. thematic coding of the data collected theme one: reasons for the influx of nigerians in malaysian universities sub-themes: 1. exposure 2. better facilities 3. scholarship opportunities 4. career advancement theme two: problems faced by nigerians that are schooling in malaysian universities sub-themes: 1. apathetic attitude of nigerian embassy in malaysia 2. lack of part-time job opportunities for international students 3. high exchange rate 4. visa issue theme three : possible solutions to the problems confronting nigerians in malaysian universities sub-themes: 1. quick response to students‟ challenges by nigerian embassy 2. availability of part-time job opportunities 3. issuance of 2 years visa reasons for the influx of nigerians in malaysian universities our data confirmed reasons for the influx of nigerians in malaysian universities as the theme one of the study. in the same vein, evidence from the interviews conducted revealed four sub-themes, which formed reasons for the influx of nigerians in malaysian universities to pursue bachelor degree, master degree and doctorate degree. the four reasons include exposure, better facilities, scholarship opportunities and career advancement. exposure, evidence from the interviews conducted in this study showed that many nigerians come to malaysia for studies simply because they want to get more exposure. views of the participants for the study lend credence to this. for instance, ds1 expressed thus…”the reason for coming to study in malaysia is to get better exposure in a better irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 233 environment that is different from what is obtainable in nigeria”. the opinions of other participants coincide with the one quoted earlier. according to ds4, he opined thus…”without mincing words, travelling alone is education and exposure itself because you can compare the exposure of people that are schooling in nigerian institutions with exposure that people that are schooling in malaysia and other foreign countries will get”. also, the views of ms1 and bs2 corroborate the foregoing: “to be candid, we came to malaysia so as to get exposed to so many things that we lack in nigeria in terms of education and other related things.” (ms1) “for instance, coming to malaysia make us to associate with people from other countries across the continents. so, by establishing connections with those people, you learn to appreciate and respect peoples‟ opinions and views about issues.” (bs2) in view of the above accounts, it can be said that exposure is one of the key reasons responsible for the influx of nigerians in various malaysian higher institutions. better facilities, our study confirmed that better facilities in malaysian universities remain one of the reasons why nigerians troop to malaysia for studies. majority of the participants interviewed concur that malaysian universities are well equipped with first class teaching and learning facilities than what is obtainable in nigerian universities. according to ds5, he said…”there universities here have uninterrupted power, have quality teaching and learning facilities (e.g. standard library, conducive classroom, etc.) for both undergraduate and postgraduate students”. in the same vein, ms3 said…”universities here in malaysia cannot be compared with nigerian universities in terms of facilities. therefore, we came to malaysia because of good facilities that nigerian universities are lacking”. in order to further justify the reason for the influx of nigerians to malaysia, bs2 explained thus…”unfortunately, nigerian universities lack good facilities that can aid students learning, thus justify our reason for coming to abroad for studies so that one can learn in serene and conducive environment.” in addition, aside the interviews conducted which support the participants‟ views on better facilities, observation method used to access the facilities in malaysian universities concur with the interviews conducted. table below indicates that malaysian universities have better facilities that attract foreigners to study there. table 5. observation on availability of facilities in malaysian universities s/n facilities better than nigerian universities not better than nigerian universities 1 classroom facilities v 2 standard library that is equipped with relevant materials v 3 availability of lecturers v irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 234 taken together, it can be said that nigerians come to study in malaysian universities because of their good facilities that are in line with international best practices. scholarship opportunities, evidence from this study indicates that scholarship opportunities formed another reason why nigerians are coming to malaysia for their doctorate, masters and undergraduate programmes. according to ds4…”before coming to malaysia, we were told of various scholarship opportunities for international students, and we actually got scholarship to run our phd programmes.” ms3 expressed thus…”we came to malaysia to study because of scholarship and other financial aids opportunities.” bs1 explained thus…”scholarship and other opportunities such as research assistant are the reasons why nigerians are coming to foreign countries (including malaysia) to further their studies. bs3 said…”sincerely speaking, most nigerians are here because of scholarship opportunities for international students.” in support of the above views enunciated by the participants, observation and documents collected indicates that more than 50 nigerians benefitted immensely from universiti utara malaysia‟s (uum) scholarship (partial and full scholarship for undergraduate and postgraduate), research assistant (ra) and graduate teaching assistance (gra) opportunities (between 2010-2016). at universiti malaya (um), observation and documents revealed that more than 80 nigerians were on partial and full scholarship for their studies as at december, 2015. also, at insania university college, some nigerians confessed that they benefited immensely from the universities‟ scholarship (partial and full) opportunities such as research assistant and other financial benefits that are designed for international students. career advancement, interviews conducted shows that nigerians are schooling in malaysian universities for career advancement. specifically, those that are doing their master and phd want to use it to gain promotion and appointments when they come back to where they are working in nigeria. according to ds2, “since lecturers without phd in nigerian universities are not recognized and sidelined in scheme of things, then we decided to do our phd so that we can be recognized and accorded more respect in the university and society where we come from. basically, we‟re embarked on phd programme for career advancement.” in support of the foregoing, ds5 said, ”since nuc (nigeria‟s national universities commission policy states that the minimum qualification for lecturers in nigerian universities is phd, we decided to go for phd programmes so as to improve ourselves and increase our profile.” also, the view ms3 concurred with other participants on career advancement, he said, ”we‟re currently running our masters here which we about to complete. we intend to start our phd immediately after our msc. we want to ensure that we bag our doctorate degree before returning to our various institutions where we work in nigeria so that we can get promotion and other benefits accrued to people with phd certificate.” irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 235 in support of the above views, observation and data collected revealed that up to 10 nigerians are lecturers at universiti utara malaysia (as at 2016). in view of the above perspectives given by the participants and other methods used for the study, it clearly shows that career advancement is one of the main reasons why nigerians travel abroad to further their studies, most especially in malaysian. problems faced by nigerians who were schooling in malaysian universities data collected clearly indicate that problems faced by nigerians in malaysian institutions formed theme two of the present study, as enunciated by the participants selected for study. the problems faced include apathetic attitude of nigerian embassy in malaysia towards nigerians, lack of part-time job opportunities, high exchange rate and visa issue. participants‟ views on the four problems are discussed below. attitude of nigerian embassy in malaysia, empirical evidence from this study revealed that nigerians studying in malaysia believed that nigerian embassy in malaysia show less concern towards the plights of their citizens as explained by the majority of the participants that participated in this study. according to ds2, “the nigerian mission here in malaysia is not alive to her responsibility, which is funded from the national purse. the levity with which they treat cases involving nigerians here smacks of sentiment disdain and funding such a mission from our common wealth should be reassessed. though, we all know that most nigerians here do not respect malaysia‟s laid down policy, nevertheless, our embassy should swing into action whenever there are issues involving nigerians.” similarly, ms3 explained thus...”nigerian embassy in malaysia is not doing their job as expected from them. even to get our expired international passport replaced is a problem. they treat nigerians with disdain as if they are not from nigeria.” also, bs1 said, “the issue on apathetic attitude of nigerian embassy towards nigerians has been for a very long time. they don‟t care about the plights of nigerians here at all. many nigerians have had series of cases that our embassy needs to wade in, but because of the lackadaisical attitude of our embassy, those issues are yet to be visited.” lack of part-time job opportunities, in this study, we found that lack of part-time and full time job opportunities for international students (including nigeria) as posited by the majority of the participants, who participated in this present study, is one of the challenges facing nigerian students in malaysia. according to ds5, he said…”frankly speaking, nigerians and other international students are not allowed to work in malaysia as indicated in the visa issued, and this made crimes committed by international students to be high”. in support of the foregoing point, ms2 opined that…”foreign students are not allowed to take up either part-time or full time jobs.” ds4 explained thus, ”the policy here in malaysia doesn‟t give room for students to be engaged in either part-time or full time job. malaysia is not as liberal as usa and uk where they allow irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 236 international students to take up part-time jobs either in school or outside the school.” the above is in consonance with the policy in malaysia concerning job opportunities. according to the visa policy in malaysia, it clearly indicates that student-visa issued does not allow international students to engage in any work in malaysia. high exchange rate is another issue affecting nigerians that are schooling in various malaysian universities, as majority of the participants bare their minds on it. according to ds1 and ms2, they said, ”high exchange rate is a huge challenge for nigerians that are schooling in various malaysian higher institutions. currently, 1 malaysian ringgit (rm1) is equal to 92 naira (nigeria‟s currency). last week, it was 1 malaysian ringgit to 88 naira. this high exchange rate makes life unbearable for us to pay school fees, and other things that are needed to assist us in our education.” (ds1) “in early 2016, nigerians in malaysia and other countries were able to access foreign exchange due to cbn‟s position that (central bank of nigeria) the value of the country‟s currency, the naira, has plummeted by about 40% since the beginning of the year.” (ms2) in the same vein, ds3 said, “high exchange rate is a serious problem that hampers our studies in malaysia. some of us are unable to pay our school fees because of the high exchange rate. most nigerians here in malaysia are sponsoring themselves. few are being sponsored by tetfund (tertiary education trust fund) and other interventionist agencies in nigeria such as ptdf (petroleum technology development fund).” in addition to the interview conducted, through observation and documents collected concerning how inaccessibility of foreign exchange affect nigerians schooling in universiti utara malaysia (uum), we found that most students are in active (owing school fees) (bursary department, universiti utara malaysia, 2016). the hardship made the executive committee of the nigerian community in uum to interface with the deputy vice-chancellor (international affairs) of the university with a view to finding a lasting solution to the hardship been experienced by nigerians. visa issue, according to participants used for the study, they conclude that issuance of one year visa to students affect them in one way or the other. according to ds4, he said: “issuance of visa is a serious problem for international students here. firstly, imagine the stress that new students coming to malaysia for the first time used to pass through. they‟ll have to apply for visa with reference (popularly called vwr), which usually take 3 to 4 months before it can be issued. this delay often makes students not to arrive malaysia early for registration of studies. also, for those that are already in malaysia and willing to get their visa renewed, it is also a long process which cost us a lot of money and energy.” irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 237 in support of the above point, ms3 explained thus…”application for visa through emgs has made life unbearable for us in this country.” in the same vein, bs2 said, “application for visa via emgs worsens students‟ situation in malaysia because of the bureaucratic bottlenecks attached to it. firstly, for new students to get visa, you have to pass through long and unnecessary process which often delay students‟ resumption for first registration. secondly, for those students that are already in malaysia and willing to renew their visa, they have to go through strenuous procedure before their visa can be issued. this long procedure usually delay students who wish to travel within malaysia or back to their country could not do so due to visa application that is being delayed by emgs.” ds5 opined, “visa is another issue that affects nigerians that are studying in malaysian universities. according to visa policy of education malaysian global services (emgs), new students are to be issued a one year student-visa, subject to students‟ registration at his/her institution. also, the visa shall be renewed every year, subject to students‟ continuation of study in malaysia.” possible solutions to the problems confronting nigerians in malaysian universities interviews conducted suggest three possible solutions to the problems confronting nigerians that are studying in various malaysian institutions form theme three of this study. they include quick response to students‟ challenges by nigerian embassy, availability of part-time job opportunities for students and issuance of 2 years visa policy. quick response to students’ challenges, participants used for the study opined that staff at the nigerian embassy needs to be alive to their responsibilities by quickly attend to nigerians who have lodged their complaints. according to bs1, he said…”there are many petty things (e.g., fighting, discrimination etc) happening to nigerians in malaysia that ordinarily should be resolved amicably with the quick intervention of the nigerian embassy. ds3 explained thus…”honestly, in order to reduce the plights of nigerians in malaysia, our embassy should attend and resolve cases involving nigerians. lastly, ds5 said…”we expect the newly appointed ambassador to malaysia to reform the embassy with a view to attend to the needs of nigerians. they should know that they are posted to malaysia mainly to ensure positive relationship between the two countries.” availability of job opportunities, the interviews conducted revealed that part-time job opportunities should be available for students who are schooling in various malaysian institutions so that crime committed by foreigners will be reduced. according to ds2, he said…”the issue of no job for foreign students should be reviewed by the malaysian government so that students can engage in part-time jobs as it is been done in other climes. by doing so, crime rate in malaysia will be drastically reduced to the barest minimum”. similarly, ms2 opined, irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 238 ”foreign students should be allowed to take up part-time jobs so that they can use it to sustain themselves. as it is done in the uk, usa, australia and other countries, malaysian government adopt the job policy of the said countries so that foreign students involvement in crimes such as cyber-crime, stealing, prostitution and other vices will be curbed.” in support of the foregoing, bs1 specifically said…”we appeal to malaysian government to abolish the no-job-policy for foreign students, students should be allowed to do part-time jobs (such as security, hotel attendant, clerk, cleaners etc.) so as to reduce crimes rate in malaysia.” issuance of 2 year-visas, in this study, the interviews conducted indicated that students want the malaysian government through education malaysia global services (emgs) to review the visa policy from 1 year to 2 years. according to bs1, he said…”issuance of year visa policy through emgs should be upwardly reviewed to 2 years so that students will not be subjected to stress in the name of visa renewal on yearly basis”. the foregoing view is supported by ds2, he said…”we go through a lot of bureaucratic bottlenecks in applying for visa every year, so malaysian government should mandate the emgs to issue 2 years visa to registered foreign students.” discussion the first research question of the study was why nigerians are coming to malaysia to pursue their degrees. thus the first research objective of the study was to know the reasons why nigerians are coming to malaysia for studies. our findings revealed four reasons why nigerians preferred malaysia for studies; they include exposure, better facilities, scholarship opportunities and career advancement. firstly, on exposure, we found that majority of nigerians came to malaysia for studies so that they can be more exposed and establish friendship with people from diverse culture and religious. secondly, we found that nigerians chose to study in malaysian universities because of the country‟s better facilities and technological advancement. in order to complement the findings from the interviews, observation method and other documents used for the study indicates that malaysian universities are well equipped with better facilities, which cannot be compared with universities in nigeria. as shown in table 5, it indicates that universities in malaysia have better classroom and library facilities, as well as availability of enough lecturers than nigerian universities. thirdly, the interview conducted revealed that nigerians preferred malaysia for study because of scholarship opportunities. in addition to the interview, observation method used indicates that nigerians go for studies in malaysia so that they can get scholarship. documents collected showed that universiti utara malaysia (uum) offered more than 50 nigerians scholarship opportunities (both undergraduate and postgraduate, research assistants (ra) and graduate teaching assistance (gta) (from 2010-2016). also, our observation and documents collected showed that more than 80 nigerians benefited from universiti malaya‟s (um) various scholarship opportunities. fourthly, our study found that nigerians come to study in malaysian institutions for career advancement. the foregoing is irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 239 in consonance with the studies of kadouf (2017) and phang (2012) who concluded that lack of access to better facilities in developing countries was the reason why its citizens go for studies abroad because they believe that there was better quality system of education in abroad. due to lack of access to higher education in some developing countries, coupled with the view that there is better quality system of education in abroad, are responsible for students‟ quest for more studies, and also exposure to modern teaching and learning facilities is often responsible for it. specifically, availability of technology based program was one of the factors that attract international students, especially africans to go to foreign countries to studies. in the same vein, the current findings is also in congruent with the report of ministry of higher education in malaysia (2009) who revealed that certain factors such affordable school fees, relaxed average living expenses in malaysia have continued to attract a wide range of students from africa and the middle east. report also established that due to availability of good facilities in malaysian universities, it attracts international students from many countries to study various undergraduate and postgraduate programmes. the study of umar (2014) is also in tandem with the current findings. he found that malaysian universities have attracted numerous nigerian students due to the affordable cost of living and school fees and that they have high quality educational facilities that are of international standard. the second research question was the problems faced by nigerians that are schooling in malaysian universities. thus, the aim of the second research objective of the present study is to identify the problems faced by nigerians that are schooling in malaysian universities. findings from the interviews conducted revealed four problems facing nigerians in malaysia. the problems include apathetic attitude of nigerian embassy towards nigerians, lack of part-time jobs for international students, high exchange rate and visa issue. firstly, on apathetic attitude of nigerian embassy towards nigerians, evidence from our study revealed that majority of the participants was not happy with the way the nigerian embassy treat them. secondly, majority of the participants claimed that there were no part-time job opportunities for foreign students in malaysia. thirdly, our findings revealed high exchange rate as another problem confronting nigerians that are schooling in malaysian universities. lastly, we found that participants are not happy with the one year visa policy for international students made by the malaysian government. the finding is in consonance with the study of umar (2014) who found that the disheartening attitude of nigerian embassies in foreign countries (including malaysia) towards nigerians is not new. many cases had been reported in some countries on how nigerian embassies failed to show concern about the challenges facing nigerians. the studies of echchabi and olaniyi (2012), malaklolunthu and selan (2011), and phang (2012) support the foregoing findings. they found that many african students that studying in malaysian institutions was battling with some difficulties. specifically, they are faced with lack of job opportunities, financial challenges and stigmatization. also, most of the threat against african students includes socio-racism, pedagogical matters, climate condition, and adaptation to new educational system, pedagogical matters, languages skills and financial constraints. specifically, they were of the view that international students are irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 240 faced with financial challenges as well as inadequate availability of scholarship for non-eu students. similarly, the current finding is also consistent with the university world news (2018), whose report indicates that there were many nigerian students in malaysian universities that are having financial restraints. this was due to unfavorable policy by the nigerian government on foreign exchange, where students‟ atm cards were unable to dispense malaysian ringgits. the exchange rate was consistently fluctuates and rise up beyond the expectations of students economic plan where 56 naira was equivalent to 1 ringgits in 2015 to 85 naira and above per ringgit in 2016 & 2017 respectively. report further indicates that the economic condition arises when malaysian universities started increasing tuition fees, accommodation fees and visa renewal fees. this development has really intimidates the financial transaction of nigerian students in malaysia. the current findings are synonymous with the work of chikezie and sabri (2017) who conducted study on the financial well-being of nigerian in malaysia and found that students without sponsorship are facing hardship in malaysian universities due to high tuition fee, high exchange rate among others. in addition, akhtar, pratt, and bo (2015) reported several factors in the cross-cultural adaptation of african students in various chinese universities which include language barrier, high cost of living, and discrimination. the third research question of the study was based on solutions to the problems faced by nigerians schooling in malaysian universities. the third research objective of the study was to proffer possible solutions to the problems faced by nigerians that are schooling in malaysia. our findings revealed three possible solutions to the problems faced by nigerians in malaysia. as suggested by the participants used for the study, the three solutions include quick response to students‟ challenges by nigerian embassy, availability of part-time job opportunities and issuance of 2 years visa. firstly, on quick response to students‟ challenges by the nigerian embassy, participants agreed that embassy should be responsive and responsible to the plights of nigerians so that issues involving them can be resolved amicably without further delay. secondly, participants are of the view that malaysian government should review the no-job-policy for international students that are schooling in malaysian institutions, by allowing them to take up part-time job opportunities like hotel attendant, cleaner, and store keeper. thirdly, study found that issuance of 2 years visa for nigerians and other international students that are schooling in malaysian institutions will help to douse the challenges being experienced by them. specifically, participants are of the view that emgs should be mandated by the malaysian government for upward review of the visa policy from the current 1 year visa to 2 year visa. the findings are in sync with the study of woldegiorgis and doevenspeck (2015) on the current trends, challenges and prospects of student mobility in the african higher education landscape. the study concluded that policies regarding mobility of students in higher institutions in africa should be flexible and encouraging for easy access of opportunities for students in african countries. the current findings are also in line with the study of farah and barack (2019) that established various reasons for african students‟ high quest for turkish universities and concluded that scholarships and access to job opportunities are responsible for university education in turkey. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 241 conclusion and implications based on the findings, this study has successfully provided answers to all the three research questions formulated for the study, while the three research objectives were achieved. therefore, it can be said that even though majority of nigerians are schooling in malaysia because of exposure, scholarship opportunities, better facilities and career advancement, nevertheless, their plights in malaysia is excruciating and disheartening to note. their plights includes apathetic attitude of the nigerian embassy, lack of job part-time job opportunities, high exchange rate and visa issue. in view of the foregoing findings and based on our personal experiences and observation on the plights of nigerians in malaysia, the following recommendations were made: (1) in order to reduce numerous crimes committed by international students in malaysia, malaysian government should as a matter of importance, review the no-job-policy with a view to enable foreign students to engage in part-time jobs. students‟ intention to survive in the country often makes them to engage in illegal activities such as cybercrime and other social vices. (2) in order to attract more international students to malaysian universities, issuance of visa with reference (vwr) by education malaysian global services (emgs) should be processed within two to three weeks so that prospective students will be able to use the letter to fast-track their application for visa at the malaysian embassy in their countries. in addition, upward review of visa renewal from 1 to 2 years is necessary to stem students‟ challenges within and outside malaysia. (3) more scholarship (partial and full) opportunities should be provided for international students, so as to reduce crimes and increase the current rankings of malaysian universities. (4) nigerian embassy in malaysia should endeavor to have a comprehensive list of nigerians schooling in various malaysian institutions with a view to enable the embassy to have an accurate data. by doing so, the embassy will be able to use the data to attend to students‟ requests at all times. (5) nigerians in malaysian universities should shun acts that could tarnish the image of nigeria. specifically, students should not involve in crimes such as drug trafficking and other related vices. despite the fact that the study on the plight of nigerians in diaspora was investigated with both interview and observation methods, where interesting findings were found, nevertheless, there are some suggestions for future researchers who might be interested in working on similar study. for instance, since the present study limited the participants to 10 students across selected public and private universities in malaysia, future study on plight of nigerians in malaysia could employ survey method to collect relevant data from large number of students to see whether their findings will support or discountenance the present findings. better still, both survey and interview could be used to examine students‟ perception on plights of nigerians in malaysian universities with a view to getting irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 242 comprehensive information to draw meaningful inferences. an investigation is needed to examine the causes of rising cases of nigerian students‟ involvement in sharp practices in malaysia. specifically, a comparative study on the plight of nigerian students in other countries in asia such as indonesia, thailand, singapore, and philippines could be studied to juxtapose the perceptions of nigerians within the stated countries. lastly, study could be conducted to examine the plights of other african students in malaysia with a view to proffer lasting solutions to their challenges. disclosure statement there is no conflict of interest reported by the authors. acknowledgments we would like to thank all participants who participated in this study. also we would like to thank irje and reviewers for accepting our article. references abdulkadir, i. 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(2015). current trends, challenges and prospects of student mobility in the african higher education landscape. international journal of higher education, 4(2), 105-115. biographical notes yusuf suleiman works at the department of educational management and counseling, al-hikmah university, ilorin, kwara state, nigeria; yusufsuleiman85@gmail.com ibrahim kawuley mikail works at school of education, federal college of education, zaria, nigeria. mailto:yusufsuleiman85@gmail.com this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 141 indonesia’s local content curriculum (lcc) initiative: decentralization and perspectives from high school classrooms in banten michael sean young 1 abstract this study asked how, and in what ways the local content curriculum (lcc) initiative was being implemented in response to decentralization reforms in banten, indonesia. a discussion of the background of decentralization and lcc policy and their implementation builds a framework for understanding the development of the lcc. specific attention is given to school-based teams and curriculum development in relation to indonesian decentralization policy (macro level) and the lcc as a proxy for the policy at the micro level. the ethnographic case study investigated nine lecturers and 25 students at a university faculty of teacher training and education program, and 16 lcc senior secondary teachers in five high schools. data were collected through primary interviews, followup conversations, and classroom participant-observations. the study was a sustained, ten-month long immersion in the school communities in order to yield data adequate to answer the research questions. the discussion and findings provide extensive and diverse evidence of dynamic responses to lcc policy changes, as lecturers and teachers were well informed about and engaged in the implementation of lcc courses. implications of findings are discussed. keywords decentralization of education, local content curriculum, indonesian education 1. assistant professor, the college of the marshall islands; myoung@cmi.edu mailto:myoung@cmi.edu irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 142 introduction since the 1990‟s, and significantly since 1998 with the end of the suharto presidency, indonesia has moved from a highly centralized education system to an increasingly decentralized one, with policy reforms and initiatives intending to improve educational quality and relevance by strengthening regional, district and school autonomy, and capacities. law no. 22 of 1999 on “local government” devolved authority and responsibilities for local governments in numerous sectors beginning january 1 st , 2001, with the exception of security and defense, foreign policy, monetary and fiscal matters, justice and religious affairs (usman, 2005). the reforms encourage greater regional and local control politically and financially, including such areas as teacher recruitment and training (behrman, deolalikar, & soon, 2002; purwadi & muljoatmadjo, 2000; sadiman, 2006), adoption of competency-based curriculum standards (utomo, 2005) and local-level curriculum development (bjork, 2005). indonesia‟s educational system is responding to these dramatic societal changes and demands, and to the concurrent influences of globalization and localization, with decentralization reforms including increased curricular and instructional autonomy, higher teacher qualification standards and improved teacher training. addressing the “harmony between local and global cultures” and “implementation of regional autonomy” in practice, english and local content curriculum (lcc) are required subjects in junior and senior secondary schools, and in some elementary schools, indicative of pragmatic efforts to meet the nation‟s educational needs at and from the local level. the requirement of english at the secondary level can be viewed as representative of global aspirations for indonesian education, while the local content curriculum reflects the nation‟s commitment to an appreciation of local and regional variations. local content curriculum (lcc); also known as muatan lokal or (mulok) represent major components of decentralization policy (kebijakan decentralisasi), and are undergirded by the principles of democracy, autonomy, and self-motivation for learning. bjork (2003), in a study of junior secondary schools (slp/ sltp; grades 7-9) in east java, found that deeply rooted school cultures and sociopolitical contexts exert a powerful influence on teachers‟ perceptions and behaviors. he concludes there are three major aspects impeding the implementation of the lcc initiative and changes in curriculum and pedagogy: “civil service culture, incentives and rewards, and center-local relations,” and of these factors, bjork‟s (2005) phenomena of “civil service culture” and center-local relations affecting teacher autonomy and adaptation, and how these impact teacher training, will likely relate to the perceptions of the professors and student-teachers in this study. the problem with the implementation of the lcc, as a significant and symbolic component of decentralization reform initiated in 1994 (bjork, 2005; sadiman, 2006) is that even if provided with support such as training and resources, there are deeper issues concerning past social norms and expectations regarding authority-subordinate relationships. it is not unusual for people to base their understandings, attitudes and actions upon their past experiences and exigent social realities; in actuality we could consider this the norm. bjork (2005) observes that teachers may need convincing through tangible benefits such as financial incentives and assured job security (in cases of non-permanent, non-civil service irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 143 teachers). utomo (2005) questioned bahasa indonesia teachers‟ responses to the cbc. one question left unclear in this regard is “how do secondary teachers of other subjects respond to the challenges of creating, developing and successfully implementing lcc in schools?” like many countries in southeast asia, the republic of indonesia has pursued decentralization reforms like the lcc concurrently with efforts to increase and improve english as a common language in business, government, at higher education levels, and as a medium of instruction in some senior secondary schools. additionally, all students study bahasa indonesia, as well as communicating in over 200 local dialects, primarily the regional languages of javanese, sundanese, and balinese. bahasa indonesia is the national language, and arabic and diverse local languages are spoken throughout indonesia. for the province of banten, the location of this study, the main local languages are sundanese and javanese. a question arises from this hypothetical construct: is local-language instruction—or even english— incorporated into the local content curriculum subject matter? which preferences tend to take precedence, and if so to what degree? the answers certainly would impact the preparation of teachers of these subjects, and at the time of the study, no previous research on this subject in indonesia could be found. the graphic representations of bjork (2005) illustrate the forces of the state, namely the education policy of the ministry of national education, the parental sector, and student influences, mediated by the teachers‟ values about education. note that bjork (2005) does not consider extra-national or global forces. he contends that in the indonesian system, the role of the state is much greater than in other countries, due to historical bureaucratic customs. thus, even with sound and coordinated structural decentralization policies in place, as opposed to unsupported and inconsistent efforts across the 34 provinces, change is slow to occur. better understanding the scope of this problem requires analysis that moves from critique of decentralization theory and national policy to their affects in a unique institutional context, to schools and the lives of teachers and students. in the pursuit and development of new knowledge about how teachers respond to a new national educational policy, this study critically reviews the most closely related and current research with the rationale of learning how educators respond in this specific context regarding increased levels of teacher autonomy and decision-making as embodied in the local context curriculum initiative. anen (1992) recommended “improving cooperation and coordination between teacher training institutions and provincial offices of education” (p. xv) and the findings of this study provide specific data on, and knowledge of, this educational need. literature review decentralization of education theory the concept of decentralization involves the delegation of authority and responsibilities from the core of a central government or an organization outward to the more local level (for example, to provinces) or to departments. benefits and challenges of decentralization will be discussed here. the list of countries pursuing decentralization reforms during the past 20 years is long, and includes a majority of developing nations (malik, 2007). decentralization of educational systems has been a global trend for decades, irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 144 and is “one of the most important phenomena to have affected educational planning in the last 15 years” (mcginn & welsh, 1999). the reasons for this are complex; while rationales and assumptions vary from nation to nation, there are commonly recurring themes. they include diverse factors such as international economic pressures, governments ostensibly and genuinely encouraging the promotion of political democratization, global and local groups (often in solidarity) demanding greater voice (duncan, 2007) and research demonstrating that decentralization can improve government, organizational and institutional efficiency. degrees of centralization or decentralization of educational systems differ according to these diverse factors unique to each country‟s government, economy, history, religions, and culture, however, and the central debate for education systems frequently revolves around distribution of power, loci of control, and decision making (bray, 1999; mcginn & welsh, 1999; weiler, 1990). it is important to remember decentralization is not an end unto itself—it is a means for providing better education more effectively and equitably. specific reasons beyond the merely political for decentralizing educational systems include improving the relevance and appropriateness of curriculum, increasing retention and graduation rates of students, addressing disparities in the quality of education for marginalized communities, and improving student achievement. assumptions and claims are made that decentralization can improve efficiency of systems by encouraging the identification of problems and needs and the most appropriate responses at the local level, related to, for example, teacher distribution and payment, accountability, provision of curriculum, and maintenance of school materials and facilities. many of these responses are given as reasons and rationales for decentralization in indonesia, as described in the next section, but are these claims valid? definitions and typologies of centralization and decentralization of education systems are generally similar, with diverging interpretations and modifications. rondinelli (1981) was one of the first to describe three forms of decentralization: deconcentration, delegation, and devolution. he later added privatization as a fourth form (rondinelli et al., 1984). according to rondinelli (1981), decentralization is the “transfer or delegation of legal and political authority to plan, make decisions, and manage public functions, from the central government and its agencies to field organizations of those agencies, subordinate units of government, semi-autonomous public corporations, area-wide or regional development authorities; functional authorities, autonomous local governments, or non-governmental organizations.” exceptions and modifications to this definition have been advanced. according to mcginn and welsh (1999), “decentralization is about shifts in the location of those who govern, about transfers of authority from those in one location or level vis-à-vis education organizations, to those in another level,” including four possible locations of authority: 1) the central government; 2) provincial, state or regional governing bodies; 3) municipal, county or district governments; and 4) schools. these levels and locations can be combined and overlaid with each of rondinelli‟s (1981) three forms for the analysis of any given system. rondinelli‟s (1981) three degrees of decentralization are (1) deconcentration is the process through which a central authority establishes field units or branch offices, staffing them with its own officers. thus, personnel of the ministry of education may all work in the same central building, but more likely some of them would be posted out to provinces and irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 145 districts, (2) delegation implies a stronger degree of decision making power at the local level. nevertheless, powers in a delegated system still basically rest with the central authority, which has chosen to “lend” them to the local one. the powers can be withdrawn without resort to legislation, and (3) devolution is the most extreme of these three forms of territorial decentralization. powers are formally held at sub-national levels, the officers of which do not need to seek higher-level approval for their actions. the subnational officers may choose to inform the center of their decisions, but the role of the center is chiefly confined to collection and exchange of information. to interpret and summarize bray‟s (1999) definitions above; deconcentration is the distribution of centralized government offices across geographical, or territorial, areas. delegation implies the transfer of authority and decision-making to separate governmental units that remain responsible to the central government. devolution is the strongest form of decentralization, transferring decision-making and authority over fiscal resources to regional and local governing bodies. for the case of indonesia, the theme of “unique contexts influencing results” and that of “new problems always arising” make logical sense and are likely to apply. however, for indonesia, which until recently was highly centralized, the context is quite different, and moving toward the center of a continuum of centralization-decentralization holds great promise. indonesia‟s multiple desired outcomes seem to uniformly conform with many of the potential benefits of decentralization if the pitfalls discussed thus far can be avoided. the local content curriculum can be viewed as a fundamental embodiment of educational decentralization policy (macro-level) moving forward in indonesian schools at the micro-level. decentralization in indonesia the current movement which has been encouraged through globalization and democratization, and in the interests of “unity in diversity,” has sought to promote the localization of educational methods and curricula for communities and schools. as mentioned in the introduction, legislation from the indonesian ministry of national education (mone, 1994) specifically prescribes certain proportions of curriculum and instructional method be developed from and at local levels; this is the local content curriculum (bjork, 2003). jalal (2006) describes the general features of decentralization of government management in indonesia as 1.) a transfer of authority of educational policies from central government, entailing the delegation of discretion over educational policy and money needed to finance these responsibilities, and 2.) shifting various educational decisions from government to people, or stakeholders, directly implementing and benefiting from these educational decisions. that areas such as setting standard competencies, national curriculum, evaluation calendar and evaluation instruments are retained at the central level is corroborated by sadiman and pudjiastuti (2006). jalal (2006) traces the federal origins of education policy to the fourth amendment of the 1945 constitution, article 31:2, which states that every citizen is entitled to an education and that every citizen should enroll in basic education and the government should finance it. after conducting a limited study on the irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 146 progress of a school based management pilot program, jalal concluded, as do sadiman and pudjiastuti (2006), that these efforts must be sustained over time and require buy-in from all stakeholders, especially school leaders such as principals, teachers, communities, and parents. sadiman and pudjiastuti (2006) observe that since the 2001 beginnings of decentralized government management of education, progress has been made towards the goals of improving teaching qualifications and performance and creating more conducive learning environments in schools by making schools more autonomous, democratic, diverse and participatory at the community level. however, they echo the sentiments of yulaelawati (2005), bjork (2003, 2005), and others from within the educational leadership of indonesia that the instruction in schools is isolated from social and physical experiences in the lives of students, the learning processes are routine, and school administrators are not monitoring and evaluating classroom activities adequately. the “national education reform in indonesia: milestones and strategies for the reform process” reported by yulaelawati (2007) gives an up-to-date summary address of the general goals and direction of the decentralization program and current strategies to promote its advancement for improving the quality of teachers and schools. as follows, yulaelawati (2007) emphasizes the role that the lcc plays within the framework of the cbc for promoting diversity and unity simultaneously, and the need to maximize the use of existing educational resources by decentralizing aspects of school management at the district and local levels. duncan (2007) asserts that the efforts of decentralization have yielded unevenly distributed results for urban and rural regions and people with minority demographic and socio-economic backgrounds, and it cannot be completely successful without mollifying these social inequities. in contrast to this, a much more recent study by the world bank demonstrated that decentralization is working in indonesia (teo, 2007). the study of lcc development in response to decentralization is recommended as an extension of the work of bjork (2003, 2005) and utomo (2005). local content curriculum as mentioned previously, local content curriculum (lcc) is a major component and “flagship” of indonesia‟s current decentralization reform movement which has sought to promote the localization of educational methods and curricula for communities and schools (bjork, 2003, 2005). as mentioned in the introduction, local content curriculum legislation from the indonesian ministry of national education (mone, 1994) specifically prescribes certain proportions of curriculum and instructional methods to be developed from and at local levels (bjork, 2003). the lcc actually predated indonesia federal law no. 22 of 1999 on local government, which stated “the authority to implement and manage education shall be transferred from the national government, i.e., the ministry of national education (mone, which had replaced the ministry of education and culture, or moec) to local district/municipal governments (purwadi & muljoatmodjo, 2000). the purpose is to make national standards and subject matter more relevant to students in their regions and localities. it is hoped this will make the study of cbc standards more engaging and irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 147 interesting; thus promoting achievement and promoting the retention and progress of students from grade level to grade level. the lcc is a separate subject area and course in which students learn facts and concepts derived from their communities. examples of this are cultural, as with the humanities, like art, crafts, architecture, theater and fashion; historical, such as significant events and inhabitants of their area, geographical, as with maps, rivers, mountains, or the ocean; which leads to science— the types of resources and industry of their area; and linguistics, as with local dialects. the following are some examples conveyed by bjork (2005). he defined four characteristics of the revised lcc of 1994 including: (1) it consists of different subjects, (2) it has a share of up to 20 percent of the curriculum, (3) it is relevant to the needs of the local community and the world of work, and (4) it is developed at the local level under the responsibility of the regional offices of the moec/mone in accordance with the availability of resources, regional and local development criteria, and employment opportunities. these primary characteristics of the program currently remain intact. furthermore, bjork (2005) summarizes the goals of the lcc as to: delegate authority to the localities, reduce the percentage of students exiting the system, provide vocational training, create tighter links between curricula and local conditions, increase community involvement in the schools, and improve the instructional process (bjork, 2005). in order for teachers to effectively change the use of curriculum and instruction in the classrooms, they would need “to transform themselves from deliverers of a curriculum prepared by experts in the capital to autonomous educators who used their creativity and intelligence to enliven instruction for their students” (bjork, 2005, p. 37). in order for genuine devolution of authority to take place, the knowledge, methods, and attitudes of teachers would need to change, including greater knowledge of subjects and course objectives, and greater autonomy and responsibility in teaching. however, in the study of the implementation of lcc in junior secondary schools in east java, bjork (2003) found that deeply rooted school cultures and sociopolitical contexts exert a powerful influence on teachers‟ perceptions and behaviors, and he concluded there are three major aspects impeding the implementation of the lcc initiative and changes in curriculum and pedagogy; “civil service culture, incentives and rewards, and center-local relations” (p. 202). the problem with the implementation of the lcc, a significant and symbolic component of decentralization reform initiated in 2001 (bjork, 2005; sadiman & pudjiastuti, 2006), is that even if provided with support such as training and resources, there are deeper issues concerning past social norms and expectations. it is not unusual for people to base their understandings, attitudes and actions upon their past experiences and exigent social realities; in actuality we could consider the norm. bjork (2005) observes that teachers may need convincing through tangible benefits such as assured job security and financial incentives before adjusting their teaching when these changes radically differ from the status quo of past decades. for bjork‟s (2003) visual representation of these multi-level tensions, and my proposed graphic adaptation of these for this study, see figures 1 and 2. irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 148 figure 1. forces acting upon teachers figure 2. forces in the indonesian public school system movements toward decentralization in various sectors of governments, particularly educational systems, during different periods of national development, have been a popular trend worldwide, with dramatic legislation-led progress made during the 1990‟s and into the new millennium. the apparent and obfuscated motives, political dynamics, and benefits or drawbacks of decentralization are contextually complex and require direct scrutiny beyond official statistics, document analysis and literature review; however these can provide the foundations for future quantitative and qualitative research. decentralization in the indonesian system can potentially have very positive effects. if the process truly involves the delegation of authority for spending, administration, and decision making to the states, a dubious issue in itself, then state-level initiatives can be made to improve the quality education at a local level. while indonesia has made dramatic legislative-led decentralizing reforms to improve the overall state of education, the effects of these reforms must be questioned and critiqued at the provincial, district, and school levels to better understand if delegation of decision-making and spending are genuine, and to find if efficiency and quality of instruction and outcomes improve or worsen. the final conclusion to be drawn on educational decentralization, or territorial devolution, in indonesia, is that while some see local autonomy in education as more irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 149 efficient and responsive to local schooling needs, more democratic for school communities, and more encouraging of entrepreneurialism and cooperation between locales, opponents maintain that decentralization and greater local autonomy can foster local elitism and incompetence, lack of accountability, redundancy, financial waste and even corruption; and local diversity can lead to competition, antagonism, and confusion about educational outcomes. to further complicate decentralization theory discussed here, to what extent are global, state and local influences impacting teacher training and the implementation of policy reforms, and are global influences displacing or impinging upon state and local perspectives, ways and actions, or complementing and facilitating the interpretation and implementation of decentralization of education policies such as the local content curriculum? these specific assumptions followed from my inquiry: 1. that ub (university of banten), and similar universities‟ programs, address issues of indonesian educational policy, the cbc, and english and lcc instruction, including a.) pedagogy and methods, b.) curriculum and learning materials, and c.) administrative and professional conduct. 2. the assumption that development of lcc at the school level would be consistent from one school, or district, to the next, or that some system or model for developing lcc exists. 3. that there is a structural model or protocol that the lcc committees follow in developing lcc, regarding what local content curriculum should consist of. is it comprised of regionally relevant subject areas such as tourism in bali, agriculture in rural areas, or marine biology on the coast? are local history, culture, and languages included? if “yes,” are other subjects such as computer literacy or english also incorporated? specific reasons for decentralizing education systems include improving the relevance and appropriateness of curriculum, increasing retention and graduation rates of students, addressing disparities in the quality of education for marginalized communities, and improving student achievement (bray, 1999; hannaway & carnoy, 1993; mcginn & welsh, 1999). assumptions and claims are made that decentralization can improve efficiency of systems by encouraging the identification of problems and needs and the most appropriate responses at the local level, related to, for example, teacher distribution and payment, accountability, provision of curriculum, and maintenance of school materials and facilities. many of these are given as reasons and rationales for decentralization in indonesia, thus the explicit goals of the lcc are to 1) delegate authority to localities, 2) reduce the percentage of student exiting the system/provide vocational training, 3) create tighter links between curricula and local conditions, 4) increase community involvement in the schools and 5) improve the instructional process (bjork, 2005). bjork‟s (2003, 2005) and other previous research (anen, 1992; utomo, 2005) suggest that teachers‟ habits impede reform at the local level, and that change and implementation of the cbc-ktsp, pakem and lcc reforms has been very slow to occur. in summary, how have decentralization policy reforms impacted teachers‟ and schools‟ development of the lcc? the graphic representations of bjork (2005) illustrate the forces of the state, namely the education policy of the ministry of national education, the parental sector, and student influences, mediated by the teachers‟ values about education. note that bjork (2005) does not consider extra-national or global forces. he contends that in the indonesian system, the role of the state is much greater than in other countries, due to historical bureaucratic customs. thus, even with sound, coordinated structural decentralization policies in place, as irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 150 opposed to unsupported and inconsistent efforts across the 34 provinces, change is slow to occur. methodology this study is inductive, in that there was no hypothesis to be tested, but rather knowledge to be gathered and processes to be explored. this is the rationale and purpose for the choice of a qualitative, ethnographic case study. as the primary research instrument, i used individual and focus group interviews, classroom and campus observation and analysis of written documents and cultural artifacts for data collection and analysis in this study. nine lecturers and more than 25 students at the university faculty of teacher training and education program, for a total of more than 35 instructor and student participants were interviewed and observed in classrooms and at campus-wide activities. additionally, 16 english and lcc senior secondary teachers, and provincial and district english supervisors were interviewed. the lecturers varied in age from the late-twenties to the late-thirties; students ranged from 18 to 22. the population and sample are defined as a case study following stake (1995) and yin (1989). the present faculty of teacher training and education of the university of banten in serang, banten, indonesia originated in 1982, when a school of teachers training and education (fkip) was established. this study was conducted with the permission and authorization of the ub rector and the principals of the five high schools. in all the senior high school classrooms i visited the students wore uniforms, with the boys in khaki or blue colored slacks and short-sleeve shirts, and the girls in long skirts and blouses. many girls in the high schools wore jilbabs (head coverings); however, some did not. data were collected through primary interviews, followup conversations, classroom participant-observations, and campus activities participant-observations. in order to yield data adequate to answer the research questions, a sustained, ten-month long immersion in the language and culture of the school communities was necessary to inductively seek out factors and patterns occurring in the processes of curriculum development and implementation of the classes. the data collected is descriptive, and concerned with and meanings for the participants (bogden & biklen, 1998). interviews conducted in english and partially in bahasa indonesia (with the help of a translator) which lasted from 40 to 60 minutes each were utilized. the questions were thematic, open-ended, and sequenced with each participant responding in turn and listening to one another‟s responses in focus groups. to counter critiques that the ethnographic case-study approach is too reliant on subjective data, the researcher sought to establish credibility of collection and interpretation of the data through triangulation and member-checks. lincoln and guba (1985) proposed corresponding qualitative criteria for approaches paralleling quantitative criteria for evaluating qualitative research. for this study, transferability and credibility of participants bolsters validity, and dependability and confirmability support generalizability. the data collected and analyzed through interviews, field work observations on campus and in classrooms, and artifacts (student work, for example) was triangulated to ensure qualitative validity and reliability. teachers and administrators from similar high school in a rural part of banten were involved to strengthen reliability. the researcher‟s perceptions are irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 151 acknowledged as subjective at stages in the selection of data collected, and in the analyses of the data. during and after data collection, with the individual and focus group interviews with university lecturers and students, and senior high school teachers, the data was analyzed through a process of organizing and coding. interviews were transcribed, in detail, from the recorders to word documents as soon as possible following the interviews. this maximized accuracy of the literal spoken words and interpretations of meanings. the responses to thematic and open-ended questions, together with data from field notes and observations were then examined to find recurring themes and patterns, and these were matched with themes from the literature review and theoretical framework. this type of “line-by-line” and whole sentence or paragraph analysis is known as “open coding” (miles & huberman, 1994). after, and while, following the process of reflective memo-taking, organizing, coding and categorizing, and analyzing and interpreting, the researcher tried to be careful to triangulate the data from multiple perspectives in multiple situations through member checks, and to search for alternative or subtly imperceptible understandings. the guiding paradigms and methods are consistent with the ethical principles for researching participants or “human subjects,” including: respect for persons, which includes the requirement of a voluntary informed consent process, beneficence, which entails an obligation to protect persons from harm by minimizing risks and maximizing benefits, and justice, which requires that selection of subjects be fair and equitable and that particular care be taken when working with populations whose status puts them in a vulnerable position. findings and discussion the local content curriculum (lcc) as a subject in elementary and public schools represents a part of indonesia‟s commitment to decentralization and the localization of educational methods and curricula for communities and schools. as stated, the broad goals of the lcc are to; 1) delegate authority to localities, 2) reduce the percentage of students exiting the system/provide vocational training, 3) create tighter links between curricula and local conditions, 4) increase community involvement in the schools and 5) improve the instructional process (bjork, 2005). the purpose is to make national cbc-ktsp standards and subject matter more relevant to students in their regions and localities, and to promote the retention and progress of students from grade level to grade level. the lcc is a separate subject area and course, and in some cases students learn facts and concepts derived from their communities, like art, crafts, architecture, theater and fashion, history, geography, science and linguistics, as with local dialects. the selection of topics and development of curriculum depends upon the types of resources and industry of the community and occurs at the school level. one fundamental aspect of my lcc research question was “what is the local content curriculum, and how does it reflect local influences on schooling in the context of decentralization?” more specifically, i also wanted to know if social studies, indonesian or english language, pancasila 1 and civics, religious education, or other subject area teachers five inseparable and interrelated principles in the national philosophy of indonesia. irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 152 provided training in university programs to develop and teach local content curriculum (lcc,) or if this was a separate major for student-teachers. the answer to this specific question is “no.” while the english education lecturers at the ub (university of banten) demonstrated a great deal of knowledge about the local content curriculum subject area in schools, they explained to me that there is no program of study or courses to prepare teachers specifically to teach lcc at the elementary and secondary levels, at ub or any teacher training institutions in indonesia. this section discusses the lecturers‟ knowledge and views of the lcc, and then ventures beyond the case of ub into four large public senior high schools in serang and one public senior school in a rural village near pandalayan, banten. i discovered there is no major, and no course, for the local content curriculum at ub, or any other institutions that anyone knew of. this may indicate the government‟s intention to concentrate the development of lcc subjects at the k-12 school level. it is discussed, however, in the curriculum course (atin) and courses directly related to second-language teaching (rizal & john). two purposes became to learn more about lecturers understanding of the development, design, and implementation of lcc, and to learn more about the actual development, design, and implementation of lcc at the secondary school level. yudi described the relationship of the recently gained autonomy of banten province in relation to english and the local content curriculum: “before 2001 banten was part of west java and bandung sundanese…all is more decentralized now, like for the lcc schools can choose what language can be given…under suharto emphasis on bahasa indonesian was stronger…not such a need of english, especially in elementary schools. now times are changing…english has now become part of lcc in some schools. when i ask experts … they say we lack english teachers. we need to make it an obligation or it will be a problem in elementary schools… and it is optional in some areas a lot…” yudi explains that english is included as an lcc subject in response to school resources and the interests of students. the local content curriculum courses do not always reflect the “local” culture, industry and language, but rather, the decisions about the content of the courses are determined at the local level, to be relevant and desirable for the students. often, though, the lcc course content does reflect local culture and industry, as will soon be discussed. yudi also points out that the role of english as a course in the curriculum, and an lcc subject, seems to have increased during the transitions between four democratically elected presidents since suharto, presidents b.j. habibie, abdurrahman wahid, megawati sukarnoputri, and currently president yudhoyono. additionally, rizal maintained a viewpoint heard frequently in and out of schools in serang and around banten: that banten‟s heritage and traditions are a source of great pride for citizens here and not simply for deeply personal reasons of identity, but for welcoming visitors for business and tourism as well. banten has been famous for its location on the sunda strait, an important shipping lane, and ports, and industry from serang west to cilegon and out to the coast. regarding the inclusion of cultural and language courses in the lcc, he explained: “banten province really pays attention to national heritage, for example, the baduy—it‟s about empowering…their traditions, how they learn, they are prohibited from irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 153 going to school, but some can read and write…its fantastic…their symbol is the golok (like machete)…” schools at the elementary level often include sudanese or javanese languages as lcc classes, and some classes i visited in the senior high schools were related to local industry, similar to vocational subjects. schools often include local arts, crafts, and horticulture as lcc subjects. however, i also found global influences in lcc courses i visited, including foreign languages such as english, arabic, japanese and german, and in the more industrial/vocational classes. john described his views on the lcc in elementary and secondary schools: “first for the implementation of the lcc is the viability of time, second, is to consider the four to five subjects of national exam: language, math, science, social science. the lcc may be viewed as contributing to these courses for the preparation of students.” the major subjects indicated by john are consistent in the cbc-ktsp standards, and the national ebtanas test, for the entire country, and thus reflect state monitoring of the curriculum. the standards for english are also included with these, but with lcc courses, because they are created at the school level, standards can be adopted from national curriculum or developed originally. john continued: “english is now compulsory from the fourth grade in elementary school, since 2004, as efl…and sundanese, javanese, and in lampung, lampungese are taught as part of the lcc classes… i believe it is different in each school…” john continued to explain the incorporation of english and local languages as lcc subjects in schools. “in dealing with local content curriculum especially in banten and serang, they provide also sundanese language, and also javanese with bantenese accent, as lcc…also, i can show you, let‟s say in my province of lampung, they also have a local content about lampungese, the students learn about the lampung language even starting from elementary school and until senior high school, and this is what proves for us as a really local content, because each province will be different local content especially about language, in banten that would be sundanese language, and javanese language with bantenese accent...they have lampung language included as local content curriculum…yes, and preserved and taught as local content…” local languages are often included as local content curriculum courses, more commonly at the elementary level, but at the secondary level, foreign languages are included. again, decisions about the content and development of lcc courses are made at the school level, under the supervision of school principals and teachers working as an lcc team. the primary purpose of the lcc curriculum courses is to provide students with stimulating and interesting subjects that will increase participation and retention of students, and not primarily to emphasize the “local.” rather, many lcc courses i observed seemed to be what might be considered “elective” subjects, not necessarily focused on preservation of local customs and practices, but in response to global influences (as with languages) and practical economic and vocational subjects. irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 154 enong is also very knowledgeable about the language situation in indonesia in general, and as a subject in schools. she stated, “as i mentioned english and mandarin chinese were offered at my schools... what is important for the issue of language inclusion in the local content curriculum is that local languages and dialects are not necessarily included. especially at the junior and senior secondary levels, foreign languages may be taught in the lcc courses. the inclusion of foreign languages as lcc subjects reflects the resources of schools and the interests in students according to the lcc‟s purposes. instructors‟ and student-teachers‟ enthusiastically expressed their views on the inclusion of diverse languages in schools related to lcc, mainly that it is helpful and beneficial to provide students with courses of all kinds, including local culture, crafts, industry and language that the students themselves want to take and study. these lecturers and students are very interested in learning english, and highly motivated in their studies, but they also shared a love for learning language in general, and unanimously agreed that learning local languages should be encouraged, as well as studying other foreign languages. local languages are studied as part of the lcc, especially in elementary schools, the study of local languages such as javanese, sundanese, or lampungese seems to give way to the study of foreign languages at the junior and senior high school levels. because there is no formal training of lcc teachers in higher education teacher preparation programs such as ub, i sought access to five senior high schools in serang and a rural village in banten to learn more about lcc course design and implementation. local content curriculum at five senior high schools in banten a woman named ibu etin, who was an english teacher, offered to assist me with my study, and was extremely helpful in acquainting me with the principals and teachers at two of the largest and oldest public, academic senior high schools, and two large vocational-academic senior high schools in serang. after writing formal letters requesting a visit to the schools, i met with each principal and offered my services as a workshop facilitator, and later lead workshops with teachers on effective english instruction and incorporation of english within other subjects. the principals were very supportive of my study, granting me permission to visit the english and lcc classes. i interviewed english and local content curriculum teachers at these schools and visited and observed in many english and lcc classes. the campuses and classrooms of all five of the senior high schools visited are very clean, well-maintained, and very beautifully landscaped. the rural high school was exceptionally beautiful, situated near a river and surrounded by rice fields. classrooms in some of the four city high schools were air-conditioned, which was unusual. examining the actual development, design, and implementation of lcc at the secondary school level, i interviewed teachers and observed classes at the five senior secondary schools, and found that for all lcc classes choices are made at the school level according to the expressed needs and desires of the students, the resources available (especially the knowledge and abilities of the prospective teacher) and the judgment of the principal, administrators and teachers involved with creating the class. irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 155 selection and development of local content curriculum at the school level senior high school number 1 (sman 1) is in the center of serang, and it is serang‟s oldest high school. i interviewed and observed ibu aiyda, an english teacher at senior high school 1 and graduate of ub. her senior english teacher, ibu ann, and then was introduced to jon, an lcc teacher on april 28, 2009. jon was very enthusiastic to meet etin and i, and was passionate about teaching the lcc classes. he spoke some english, and etin translated all he said in indonesian. jon is not only geography and art teacher by training, but also has backgrounds in “tamanan,” or horticulture, and electronics. jon explained that sman 1 offered lcc courses in gardening/landscaping/horticulture in 10 th grade, and “elektro” in 11 th grade, and which was about all kinds of machines and appliances. jon said that he was selected to teach these courses as part of the school lcc committee, with the principal‟s support, in response to students‟ interests. i asked jon if he could explain exactly why these two courses were chosen and developed, and he said, “this city, serang, and province of banten, and the whole country of indonesia, has a rich tradition of gardening. this class first started in 2002, and was included regularly since 2006. the country also has a need for knowledge and improvement of technology… how things work, especially all kinds of practical machines and electricity. so, elektro was started in 2008.” etin continued to translate jon‟s understanding: “they say „lokal‟ because it is developed locally, like „tamanan‟ (gardening) at sma 1. and other senior high schools might have different muaton lokal, depending on teachers that they have and the needs of their students. maybe like dagum-dagum, the traditional music.” jon actually extended the rationale for these classes to the city‟s, province‟s and nation‟s past traditions and their future needs providing practical and enjoyable subjects for the students that appeals to their interests. these are the core purposes of the lcc courses. i asked if jon could describe how the curriculum for the two classes was created, and he said, “the curriculum was partly based on depdiknas “life skills” courses curriculum, but finally designed by the school team. the lcc committee also was thinking of the enjoyable and active learning lessons, in order to make the students feel free from the hard subjects. they like to study mulok, the students; because it is skills… it‟s practical and fun… i like teaching these mulok classes, and the students like taking them. did you see the gardening in the (school) entrance? and in front of this class? before they make this garden, they must make a plan… like a picture. yes, they have to plan first, and get matierials. for “elektro” class, they also must make plans. we do the wiring for the whole house, drawings and diagrams, and for appliances and electronics… and we use the electronic symbols, like for the electric currents…” jon and the lcc committee‟s consideration of “enjoyable” and “active learning” lessons, overlaps the goals of the lcc with the pakem initiative for methods and instruction irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 156 demonstrating a strong understanding of the intentions and purposes of the decentralization reforms examined in this study. in the classes i visited i witnessed examples of these plans, drawings and diagrams, and they were impressive. the students were not simply relaxing and having fun in the classes; they were enthusiastic and working hard on their projects. jon proudly offered me lesson plans and sample projects his students had done, and insisted i take some with me as artifacts. he showed us an experiment his students had done using a chemical to check the purity of water, and then invited us to the elektro class. on the way, jon explained to etin and i that other lcc courses were offered in foreign languages such as english, german, japanese, and mandarin, depending on the available teachers‟ abilities to teach them. in this sense, the lcc seems a venue for playing out local responses to global influences. i asked about computer or internet classes for the lcc and he said there is a separate it course that students can take for this. the elektro class discussion was entirely in indonesian, but the teacher began by saying “hello mr. mike. welcome to our class.” pak jon stood by in the front of the class guiding the questioning. two male students were giving a powerpoint presentation before a class full of students on the design and operation of a washing machine. students asked questions about what to do if certain parts, like the belt, broke down, and what to do if the washer was not balanced and began shaking. a student asked whether hot or cold water should be used, and the students said they did not know, there was no difference. pak jon explained that clothes could be soaked first in hot water and that cool water was better if you are worried about colors bleeding. pak jon later explained that the students enjoy this class, because it‟s very practical and different than the other classes, and that‟s why it is offered. this is consistent with the lcc goals of relevance and interest for the students. jon said that in this elektro class, students talk about the over-all components of many common household machines, their power supply, purpose, design and function, and move from theory to actually taking apart the machines in class. they progress toward actually coming up with ideas for new products. jon said, “this does not interfere with the other subjects. there is no homework in the mulok course, and it‟s good for entrepreneurs, and innovative students to be able to create… they don‟t feel bored…” stimulating interest and relevance for the students in the lcc courses is the second goal of the lcc policy, and the practical and relevant skills learned in this course directly related to the students‟ everyday lives in serang, goals two and three of the policy. smk 1 and 2 are urban, located in downtown serang, and academic-vocational senior high schools. senior high school 2 (smk 2) serang is attended primarily by boys and in addition to academic courses offers programs in operation of large industrial machines and motors. there were also electronics and computer lcc courses, as with the traditional industrial arts curriculum. the senior high school 1 (smk 1) serang is attended primarily by girls and besides academic courses offers programs in hotel and restaurant hospitality and information technology. i observed classes in which students had prepared restaurant menus and were role-playing at serving a couple in a restaurant. these lessons were entirely in indonesian, and incorporated numerous elements of the pakem characteristics. the teacher explained to me that she had extensive training and background in this field, and offered to teach the classes as part of the lcc. she also said that many students specifically come to smk 1 because they offer this program, and the school helps to place students in irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 157 internships and jobs at restaurants and hotels in serang. during my stay at the hotel taman sari there were four female students who served training internships there. these vocational skills are of great interest to the students studying at smk 1, thus are consistent with goals one, two and three of lcc policy. the skills are also valuable to the students in the particular contexts of their city, and similar large cities in indonesia, where they can be used in work and daily life, “creating tighter links between curricula and local conditions.” the senior high school 1 (smk 1) pandalayan is about 2 hours southeast of serang, and west of rangkasbitung, in a very rural region of banten. the school sits to the east of a major river, and is surrounded by expansive fields and padis. i visited and inquired about the lcc classes here. the main lcc class deals with the making of shoes and sandals. the teacher of this course had experience designing and making shoes and sandals, and as with the other schools‟ lcc programs, the principal said the students there really enjoyed this class because it is considered “fun” and a break from the standard academic courses. the principal also showed me a large and carefully tended fish pond on the edge of the campus that students cared for as part of the lcc curriculum. the principal and students took a great deal of pride in the pond, and the footwear course as lcc courses, consistent with all five of the broad goals and purposes of the lcc policy. senior high school 2 was the second major public senior high school i visited (sman 2, or dua sekolah menenga atas negeri) on the south side of serang. sman 2 is on a major highway going south from serang to the city of pandeglang. it sits on a hillside facing wide-open rice fields, and is expansive and beautifully laid out—also in a modified rectangular manner. ibu ica is an english teacher here and i visited her classes many times. biotechnology, as an extension of biology, arabic, japaanese and english are also offered as lcc subjects, and pak kato teaches english conversation as an lcc course. when i asked if we could discuss his lcc course, pak kato replied, “oh, mulok, you mean?” lcc is an english acronym, and the lcc teachers i met with all refer to lcc as “muaton lokal,” or “mulok.” english conversation is taught as an lcc course at sma 2 in both the “social” and “science” programs in the eleventh grade, with kato teaching all students in the social program and another english teacher, ibu li, teaching students in the science concentration. kato said english conversation was developed as an lcc course since the previous school year, and when i asked who created the course, he replied, “it‟s not really „who‟ created it, but it‟s the needs of the school… we, all of the mulok team agreed. we used to have „english day,‟ but it was hard to manage all of the students with only two teachers. ibu li and me proposed english conversation as a mulok subject because mulok must be different than the original english class. english class is for the sake of evaluation, (as with the national eptanas test) and english mulok is more for the skills. that‟s the difference. so, i selected the material about something needed for daily life and communication… what we need, that‟s the key. like going to eat, how you have to pay, how to give suggestions, how to invite people, etc…” i asked about the mulok team‟s collaboration in actually deciding which subjects to include as lcc courses, and kato said the present lcc courses were the one‟s selected and approved irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 158 by the team and the school principal, according to the student‟s “needs” and teachers‟ areas of expertise. “it‟s based on the school conditions,” he said. he further explained that pilot courses for tenth grade were “sekolah kategori mandiri,” relating to schools and national independence, and reflecting both national and international influences on the development of lcc courses at sma 2. i asked if students have a choice of which lcc course they would take in each grade, and he said “no, all students must take all three of the mulok courses (in eleventh grade, for example) in a formal schedule” that rotates during the school year. i asked why pak kato wanted to teach the lcc (mulok) course and he again said “it‟s based on the school‟s need.” i asked why pak kato would want to volunteer to take on the extra work of developing and teaching english conversation as an lcc course, and he explained that it‟s not really very much additional work. “i have been a civil servant teacher, so it is compulsory,” he said, meaning that he must be teaching a certain number of classes at the school, and the lcc english conversation classes he teaches take the place of the regular english classes required for the students. he and ibu li, “consulted and discussed” together in developing the curriculum and materials for the lcc english conversation course. “we give the concepts, then have students practice, and then we test, or evaluate, the students speaking and listening skills... the students‟ skill level really influences the methods… some students really like it, and it does also help for the national exam (in english). i‟ve also found that female students seem to like it more…” he explained to me that the students are of very different abilities. some have very limited english proficiency, but like the additional help of english as an lcc course, because they‟re required to take it as a regular course, and this gives them more practice. other students who are more proficient in english like to take it as an lcc class because it is not that difficult and they enjoy it. in pak kato’s english conversation classes, i observed that the materials were developed independently, with sections from textbooks, and the students were engaged in small group, pairs, and class-wide practice of the basic communicative skills in english. the selection of english as an lcc course is consistent with goals one and two of the lcc, to “delegate authority to localities,” empowering teachers and administrators at the school level in choosing a subject that students would have an interest in taking. it is unclear how goal three of the lcc, to “create tighter links between curricula and local conditions,” is served by including english as an lcc course. this shows that the five broad goals of the lcc may be potentially inconsistent, and must be negotiated at the local level. english as a foreign language, which i‟ve proposed to represent “global” influences, also (potentially) contributes to the students‟ performance on the national exam taken in the twelfth grade, showing that lcc courses can be selected and developed by schools in response to global and national influences. the lcc goals and practice: comparing this study with bjork’s although local content curriculum is neither a major nor a course within the fkip teacher training program, the english program lecturers and students are all familiar with the lcc as a subject, its origin and purpose. they also are aware that the course is developed at the school level, depending on the needs and interests of the students and the resources irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 159 available to each particular school, especially in regards to teacher expertise. the lcc classes i visited in the five senior high schools also reflected the understandings of lecturers and students at the ub fkip program, as the courses were designed and developed by school teams lead by the school principal, and utilizing resources available and appealing to the interests of the students. the teachers interviewed and observed also were well aware of the purpose of the lcc classes, to retain and engage students, and to give them subjects that are interesting, enjoyable, and relevant to their lives. my findings at the ub fkip, and from the senior high schools, substantiate and differ from bjork‟s findings about the implementation of lcc in public schools. compared with bjork‟s (2005) junior secondary public school teachers in east java, the ub lecturers‟ well-informed knowledge of the cbc‟s and lcc development and adaptable teaching styles depict a completely different outlook for indonesian education, and the teachers in the senior high schools were well-informed on the purpose of the lcc and had developed interesting lcc courses. the administrators and teachers coordinating the lcc at the senior high schools had developed and implemented these courses over the past four to five years, and were quite satisfied with these classes and students seemed to enjoy them very much. these differences from bjork‟s (2005) findings may be related to the difference in time since the initiation of the lcc, and the difference of the location of these schools between the cities of malang and serang, and their proximity to jakarta, and also to the difference between junior and senior high schools. bjork (2005) found that private schools in malang were more proactive and concerned with students‟ learning, and less affected by ritual practices and authority relationships. the faculty of the senior high schools i visited were appreciative of ritual customs like the morning flag ceremonies, and the formality of relationships, yet were also concerned with high-quality teaching and students‟ learning. the goals of the lcc reflected in practice recalling the five “broad goals of the lcc” (bjork, 2005, pp. 30-37) the first, “to delegate authority to localities,” is clearly taking place in the schools observed; principals and teachers worked together to design and implement lcc courses. the second, “to reduce the percentage of student exiting the system/provide vocational training” is difficult to measure, but some courses observed reflect both vocational and local attributes. the third, “to create tighter links between curricula and local conditions,” is occurring in the sense of local industry, vocations and traditions, such as with the horticulture and fish pond courses. the fourth, “to increase community involvement in the schools” was not directly examined in this study. the fifth goal, “to improve the instructional process,” is a broad goal that, in the stimulating of interest in school, integrating active learning methods, and in some cases supporting national curriculum objectives, is supported by these lcc courses. none of the broad goals of the lcc policy explicitly state that a goal is to represent local traditions like art, crafts, architecture, theater, fashion, music, and history in local content curriculum courses, but rather, to pursue the five broad goals. the purpose is to select and develop courses at the school level with subject matter more relevant to students in their regions and localities, promoting the retention and progress of students. the selection of topics and development of curriculum depends upon the types of resources and industry of the irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 160 community and occurs at the school level, and in the senior high schools also included courses in foreign languages including english, reflecting global influences upon the development of lcc curriculum. the many reasons given by university lecturers and students, and high school teachers, showed that english does represent global influences and aspirations, while in many ways the local content curriculum represents localization not only through language and cultural offerings, but horticultural, mechanical, industrial, and business influences in the communities. how can english become a subject in a local content curriculum course? due to the characteristics and purposes of the lcc explained previously: student interest and resources available at the school level, as decided upon by principals and school lcc committees. the lcc also represents cooperation and collaborative involvement between teachers, administrators and communities, and for the participants in this study, an awareness and desire for teacher autonomy and participation in the implementation of decentralization policies. the lcc courses in these senior high schools reflect a mixture of local and global influences; however, in ways local desires are being shaped by global influences. it is not surprising that lcc courses in the smk (academic-vocational) high schools supplement the fields and occupational trainings provided at these schools, and the fish pond and footwear course at the rural sma pandalayan also reflect local industries. the students in these classes also enjoyed taking them as a diversion from the regular academic classes. foreign languages as lcc courses reflect global influences, and the interests of students and resources of the schools to include them. in the case of english, the lcc courses are also serving as supplemental to the required english classes, which are measured on the national ebtanas test. in this way the influence of the state is, perhaps inadvertently, still present in the lcc curriculum. the main point is that the lcc courses are being autonomously developed by the school principals and teachers, according to available resources and students‟ interests. this is a major, positive conclusion of this study. local content curriculum and decentralized education in banten lcc as a subject is not a specific major or minor area of studies at this fkip; however, lecturers and students are very familiar with its many dimensions. english and lcc teachers in the senior high schools also were knowledgeable and proactively incorporating the national curriculum standards and active learning methods in classes. global, state and local influences were all evident in the backgrounds and dispositions of the lecturers, teachers and students, but in a complementary as opposed to competing way. local culture, values, and ways of interrelating socially—the “local identity” of the people of banten, has developed over centuries in western java. the authoritarian central government‟s impact on indonesian society endured from 1945 to 1998 under presidents sukarno and suharto. democratization and decentralization of education are ambitious national goals, and the state‟s reform policies explored in this study have great potential to improve the quality of education in indonesia. this study explores how educators are responding at the local level as the state devolves more centralized control, and how global, state and local influences are affecting their understandings and approaches toward teaching. irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 161 figure 3. proposed theoretical model for teacher training in the context of educational decentralization in indonesia in response to bjork knowledge and instruction of the local content curriculum the local content curriculum (lcc) as a subject in elementary and public schools represents one aspect of indonesia‟s commitment to decentralization and the localization of educational methods and curricula for communities and schools. the purpose is to make national cbc-ktsp standards and subject matter more relevant to students in their regions and localities, promoting the retention and progress of students from grade level to grade level. the lcc is a separate subject area and course, and in some cases, especially at the elementary level students as reported by lecturers, students and teachers, students learn facts and concepts derived from their communities, like art, crafts, architecture, theater and fashion, history, geography, science and linguistics, as with local dialects. the selection of topics and development of curriculum depends upon the types of resources and industry of the community and occurs at the school level. education & english students education & english lecturers lecturers‟ & students‟ values towards school forces of localization-local content curriculum (lcc) influence of the state cbc-ktsp & pakem forces of globalization-english language contemporary decentralization reform national history of centralization irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 162 although local content curriculum is neither a major nor a course within the fkip teacher training program, the english program lecturers and students are unanimously familiar with the lcc as a subject, its origin, purpose, development, design, and implementation. they also are aware that the course is developed at the school level, depending on the needs and interests of the students and the resources available to each particular school, especially in regards to teacher expertise. the lcc was discussed in the curriculum course and courses directly related to second-language teaching. because the lcc is not significantly represented in the ub fkip teacher training program, i felt it was necessary to visit public high schools in banten. examining the actual development, design, and implementation of lcc at the secondary school level, i found that all lcc classes choices are made at the school level according to the expressed needs and desires of the students, the resources available (especially the knowledge and abilities of the prospective teacher) and the judgment of the principal, administrators and teachers involved with creating the class. the many manifestations of lcc classes in the five high schools shows that, for this case, english is more commonly included as a lcc subject than local languages such as javanese or sundanese, along with other foreign languages. local languages are more likely to be included in elementary schools, and local arts, crafts, sports and traditions were reported to be included in lcc courses in elementary schools. however, in the senior high schools i observed local customs were represented only in the form of means of earning a livelihood, such as in the lcc courses at the rural senior high school with horticulture, the fish pond and shoe and sandal-making classes. lcc classes i observed such as horticulture-landscaping and the fish pond are local traditions as well as means of earning of living. lcc courses in the urban senior high schools focused more on foreign languages and vocational/elective subjects, reflecting more global influences. english as a required subject and as a lcc course in some schools is a unifying common language within the nation, as well as internationally. the lcc goals and practice: comparing and contrasting and bjork’s study ii my findings at the ub fkip, and from the senior high schools, substantiate and differ from bjork‟s findings. compared with bjork‟s (2005) junior secondary public school teachers in east java during the 1990‟s, the ub lecturers‟ well-informed knowledge of the cbc-ktsp, pakem active learning methods, and lcc development and adaptable teaching styles depict a completely different outlook for indonesian education. bjork (2005) concluded that “indonesia‟s long history of top-down authority structures, failed experiments with democratic rule, economic uncertainty, and emphasis on the schools‟ obligation to support national integration are preventing individuals at all levels of the system from altering their behavior. teachers, in particular, are choosing not to adopt the role of the autonomous educator that government officials have designed for them. these influences, more than technical factors highlighted in macro assessments of the lcc, have impeded a redistribution of authority to the local level” (2005, p. 174). irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 163 beyond the ub fkip program, i found that the administrators and teachers coordinating the lcc at the senior high schools had developed and implemented these courses over four to five years, and were quite satisfied with these classes and students seemed to enjoy them very much. these differences from bjork‟s (2005) findings may be related to the difference in time since the initiation of the lcc, which had just begun in the mid-nineties during bjorks‟s (2005) study, and to the difference of the location of these schools between the cities of malang and serang, and their proximity to jakarta, and also to the difference between junior and senior high schools. although changes in behaviors and practices require changes in training and culture, i believe changes have been occurring over the past decade. bjork (2005) found that private schools in malang were more proactive and concerned with students‟ learning, and less affected by ritual practices and authority relationships. the faculty of the senior high schools i visited were appreciative of customs like the morning flag ceremonies, and the formality of relationships, yet were also concerned with high-quality teaching and students‟ learning. hundreds of local languages and dialects are spoken throughout indonesia, and in banten the main local languages are sundanese and javanese. local languages are taught in some schools as part of the lcc curriculum. both local-language instruction, at the elementary level, and english instruction are incorporated into the lcc, and english is required in the junior and senior secondary schools i visited. all participants exhibited an inherent pride and appreciation for their local languages and traditions, and in some cases students did not fluently speak indonesian languages other than the national language. it is not surprising that the english lecturers, students and teachers expressed a proclivity for learning english; however i did not interview bahasa indonesia teachers, or teachers and students of other foreign languages. in some cases, english, arabic, german, chinese, japanese, and other foreign languages are incorporated at local content curriculum classes. this is both a limitation and would be an excellent area for future research. the many reasons given by university lecturers and students, and high school teachers, showed that english does represent global influences and aspirations, while in many ways the local content curriculum represents localization not only through language and cultural offerings, but horticultural, mechanical, industrial, and business influences in the communities. how can english become a subject in a local content curriculum course? due to the characteristics and purposes of the lcc explained previously: student interest and resources available at the school level, as decided upon by principals and school lcc committees. the lcc also represents cooperation and collaborative involvement between teachers, administrators and communities, and for the participants in this study, an awareness and desire for teacher autonomy and participation in the implementation of decentralization policies. conclusion and implications the lecturers, students, and teachers in this study demonstrated attitudes and actions that are positive and enthusiastic about the dialectal interplay between global and local influences, in negotiating local-state-global tensions in implementing the local content curriculum. the data collected and analyzed through interviews, field work observations on irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 164 campus and in classrooms, and artifacts (student work, for example) was triangulated to ensure qualitative validity and reliability. the lecturers, students and teachers expressed and showed positive perceptions of and progressive adaptation to the integration of the cbc‟s for the local content curriculum in the ub fkip teacher training program and senior high schools. the forces of traditional ways of teaching and the forces of globalization are in a constant flux of transformation and simultaneously contribute to the maintenance and transformations of established practices into new practices for implementing decentralization of education policies as manifested in the lcc. if traditional patterns of behavior reflecting deference to authority and social-professional hierarchy are evident, then these participants are channeling those attitudes and behaviors to comply with the expectations accompanying the lcc educational policy examined in this study. if advocates of decentralization policy assume greater local autonomy promotes increased responsiveness to local needs, how can we predict what those local needs and preferences are? examination of local content curriculum subjects at the senior high schools revealed locally-determined preferences and globally-determined preferences, and showed both local and global influences on teachers as they respond to decentralization reforms in education, yet it seems that for these lecturers, teachers and students of english global influences are “filling the gaps” left with less government control, and through educational borrowing global pedagogical theory and research has caused a degree of convergence in the implementation of decentralization policies. local needs are central to the implementation of the through integration of active learning methods and development of lcc courses, and they are determined at the school level, with collaboration of city and provincial education offices and colleges and universities. lecturers,‟ students‟ and teachers‟ values toward learning and teaching are simultaneously adapting between highly-centralized school cultures remaining from the past and contemporary decentralization reforms (figure 3). i surmise the degrees of progress vary greatly from urban to rural schools, and among the different levels of schooling. the lecturers, teachers, administrators and students i worked with at ub and in banten‟s senior high schools have made great progress in the implementation of educational policy reforms. john said, “the latest improvements are changing the paradigm…the old paradigm of teaching… the new regulations of government are improving salaries and compensation, and ask to improve the competence and qualifications for all teachers…like from a study background of s1 to s2… since 2001 teachers in banten…with improved salaries from government, more autonomy, will do more for the welfare and quality of teachers…it is more possible to respond more accurately from a local level…and more responsible to local schools and students…” the teachers and lecturers all demonstrated and modeled personal and collective efficacy, both important, and essential, in the exercise of human agency (bandura, 1995). furthermore, the history of centralized government and adherence to authority make the nurturance of autonomous behavior complicated, but not impossible. bandura (1995) explains how, depending on established social beliefs and patterns, personal and collective interests must be continuously balanced under strong leadership and a sense of social irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 165 solidarity and purpose. in more collectivist societies where norms of cooperation and compliance with authority structures prevail, personal interests can be encouraged and directed toward the attainment of personal and collective goals. asian communitarianism is characterized by community-oriented values such cooperation, maintenance of group harmony, cooperation, and a desire to “save face” in awkward situations (tan & ng, 2007; zialcita, 1999). the lcc teachers demonstrated these attributes and “asian communitarianism” in their teaching approaches, and the students learn these dispositions for their own study and for teaching younger students that i observed. students show dispositions in and out of class that are more and less passive and assertive, but all students showed independence and a willingness to work hard. many lecturers, teacher and students were familiar with the lcc curriculum due to their own educational experiences. currently at the university of banten; however, the integration of the components of decentralization examined in this study is extensive, relevant and vibrant. while state influence continues in the overall structure of the school system and the mandating of decentralization policies, global influences are having a significant impact on the lecturers, students and teachers in this study, while local concerns, except insofar as they relate to responding to opportunities created, or perceived to be created, by globalization remain intact and provide a cultural foundation in bantenese society and schooling. the major challenge facing indonesian education is the need for thousands of well-qualified teachers, including upgrading the qualifications and abilities of current teachers. anen (1992), bjork (2005), sadiman (2006), utomo (2005) and others recommend teacher training and incentives to improve teacher quality and instruction for the implementation of the cbc, like that of the lcc, but recognize there are deeper issues concerning past social norms and expectations. as changing people‟s knowledge, attitudes and practices takes time, it is not surprising that evidence of proactive responses to policies beginning mainly in 2001 have taken time to observe. evidence from this study showed that there was extensive cooperation and collaboration between individuals and institutions at all levels within banten province‟s education system. cooperation and collaboration often extend beyond provincial boundaries to the national level. finally, for recommendations and more on further research an important approach to understanding responses to educational decentralization that stems directly from the literature review would address fiscal control and management issues, such as the allotment of funds from the national and provincial level, to the school level, to better understand if fiscal and territorial devolution has resulted in greater local control of resources for schools and teachers, and how that control is working out. this could also be accompanied by research in the use of incentives such as compensation, job security and status since the era of decentralization reforms has begun, and asking how, if at all, things have changed and if these changes have an effect on teacher behaviors. acknowledgments i would like to thank the irje journal editors and anonymous reviewers for their help in improving my manuscript. irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 166 references aanenson, c. 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(2007). national education reform in indonesia: milestones and strategies for the reform process. jakarta: kementerian pendidikan. biographical note michael sean young, ph.d is a faculty member at the college of the marshall islands. he specializes in international and comparative education and earned his doctorate in this from florida state university and masters in international and intercultural education from florida international university. he has taught and researched in the fields of education and english in the philippines, indonesia, the u.a.e., india, south korea, and saudi arabia. he has a book published on education policy and teacher training in indonesia. http://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/newspapers/digitised/issue/biztimes20070223-1 this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| irje | vol.4 | no. 2| year 2020 |issn: 2580-5711 312 irje |indonesian research journal in education| the mission of the irje |indonesian research journal in education| is to serve as a vital and international forum for a different group of scholars and researchers who are of interest in exchanging ideas in order to enrich the theory, policy, and practice of education in indonesia and around the world and who can grasp a noteworthy voice in discussions and decision-making around issues of education. irje is a free, twice-yearly, open access, peer-reviewed, international, and e-journal, published in indonesia, which accepts unpublished, high quality, and original research manuscripts in english, resulting primarily from quantitative, qualitative, and mixed research methodology related to or associated with education. all research articles appearing in irje have undergone a thoroughly peer-review. editorial team founder & executive editor amirul mukminin, universitas jambi, indonesia lead editor akhmad habibi, universitas jambi, indonesia managing editors muhaimin, universitas jambi, indonesia mukhlash abrar , universitas jambi, indonesia assistant editors masbirorotni, universitas jambi, indonesia harlina harja, iai nusantara, indonesia international editorial board jeffrey ayala milligan, the florida state university, usa thomas f. luschei, claremont graduate university, usa shen chen, university of newcastle, australia tiago neves, university of porto, portugal saedah siraj, university of malaya, malaysia judit navracsics, university of pannonia, hungary pedro sanchez escobedo, universidad autónoma de yucatán, mexico muhammad kamarul kabilan, university of science, malaysia farrah dina binti yusof, university of malaya, malaysia https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=ip8-bosaaaaj&hl=en https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=4lk2yumaaaaj&hl=en 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universitas jambi, indonesia lenny marzulina, state islamic university of raden fatah, indonesia nunung fajaryani, universitas jambi, indonesia siti rahma sari, iai nusantara, jambi, indonesia focus and scope irje |the indonesian research journal in education| accepts unpublished, high quality, and original research manuscripts in english, resulting primarily from quantitative, qualitative, or mixed research methodology related to or associated with education. these issues include, but not limited to, practices, policies, and research in education from early childhood education to higher education which cover the areas of instruction, learning, teaching, curriculum development, educational policy, language education and policy, bilingual education, multicultural education, art education, teacher education, educational technology, educational developments, educational psychology, and international education in indonesia and other parts of the world. publication frequency irje is 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motivation etta mamang sangadji, sopiah sopiah, bagus shandy narmaditya 360 the development lectora inspire based learning media for high school students in learning history budi purnomo 375 listening comprehension performance and problems: a survey on undergraduate students majoring in english hariswan putera jaya, ismail petrus, dedi kurniawan prahmana 387 learner autonomy: a qualitative inquiry into indonesian tertiary efl students' voices daflizar irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| irje | vol.4 | no. 2| year 2020 |issn: 2580-5711 315 404 written corrective feedback for students’ research proposal in english: what do students and lecturers prefer and why? fortunasari fortunasari, nunung fajaryani, bunga ayu wulandari, khairunnisa khairunnisa 417 english teachers’ strategies in managing large classes: a case study lenny marzulina, dian erlina, muhammad holandyah, kasinyo harto, deta desvitasari, dessi angreini 433 a survey on investigating data-sharing behavior among stem researchers: the context of a developing country wilda syahri, yusnaidar yusnaidar, muhaimin muhaimin 450 the effect of locus of control on learning achievement during the covid-19 pandemic nasir nasir, sriyanti mustafa, sulvianti sulvianti, nur azizah 462 analyzing the initiationresponse and feedback patterns and its impact on the interaction between teacher and students in english classroom eka barahma putri, machdalena vianty, sary silvhiany 479 do conceptions of learning predict language learning strategies? evidence from indonesian efl learners dairabi kamil irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| irje | vol.4 | no. 2| year 2020 |issn: 2580-5711 316 496 the effect of education and gender on language proficiency: a study of multilingual hungarian young adults’ verbal fluency noémi szabó, failasofah failasofah 510 observing the efl students’ 21st century skill performance through learning activities of research on the elt course hadiyanto 525 “they are english education graduates, but they teach science by using english”: a mismatch between policy and practice? eddy haryanto 544 leadership strategies and policies on online learning during the covid-19 pandemic: a case study marzul hidayat, rudi hartono 560 the validation of the information systems success model: lms integration during covid-19 miftahuddin miftahuddin, lantip diat prasojo, awanis akalili 575 augmented reality trends in teaching english tenses: the case of non-english education students yelia yelia, dony efriza, santi hendrayani this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 249 difficulties and correlation between phenomenon and reasoning tier of multiple-choice questions: a survey study hilman qudratuddarsi 1 , renuka v sathasivam 2 , and hutkemri 3 abstract two-tier multiple-choice (2tmc) has been introduced as an instrument to analyze a conceptual understanding at tier 1 and reasoning to the answer at tier 2. even there are many studies on using the instrument; there is still relatively little attention on scoring method. therefore, this study aimed to compare difficulties and to see if there is a correlation between responses at the phenomenon and reasoning tier. the instrument namely representational systems and chemical reaction diagnostic instrument (rscrdi) containing 15 items were translated into indonesian language and validity and reliability of the instrument were established. rscrdi was tested with 185 pre-service chemistry teachers (19 males and 166 females). their raw data were converted into logit, and it was found that the phenomenon tier was slightly more difficult. based on pearson correlation test, it is found that the phenomenon tier and reasoning tier were significantly correlated, r=.362, p-value <0.001. keywords chemical reactions, diagnostics test, two-tier multiple-choice questions 1. postgraduate student, university malaya, kuala lumpur, malaysia; hilmandarsi@gmail.com 2. senior lecturer, university malaya, kuala lumpur, malaysia; renukasivam@um.edu.my 3. senior lecturer, university malaya, kuala lumpur, malaysia; hutkemri@um.edu.my mailto:hilmandarsi@gmail.com mailto:renukasivam@um.edu.my mailto:hutkemri@um.edu.my irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 250 introduction two-tier multiple-choice (2tmc) has been introduced and accepted mainly as an instrument to gauge students‘ conceptual understanding (lin, 2016; saat et al., 2016). the instrument can categorize science students‘ conceptual understanding into three categories. these categories are the scientific conception, misconception, and lack of knowledge (akkus, kadayifci, & atasoy, 2011; gurcay & gulbas, 2015). discussions on conceptual understanding are widely studied in the literature. the proof is meta-analysis study from soeharto, csapo, sarimanah, dewi, and sabri (2019), gurel et al. (2015) and wandersee, mintzes, and novak (1994) by reviewing 111 articles (2015-2019), 237 articles (1994-2014) and 103 articles (before 1994) on diagnostics instrument. there is also a study from teo, goh, and yeo (2014) who analyzed articles on six best papers on chemistry education-related fields from 2004-2013 and concluded the popularity of conception studies. from the ubiquitous study, 2tmc is recently considered as a sound instrument for which amalgamates the advantages of multiple choices (easy grading, objective) and essay (in-depth analysis)(gurel, eryilmaz, & mcdermott, 2015; lin, 2016). even there are a plethora of studies on 2tmc in science education, and there is still relatively little attention over how best to analyze two-tier especially grading (fulmer, chu, treagust, & neumann, 2015). the first study is by fulmer et al. (2015), who concluded that responding reasoning tier is more demanding compared to answering phenomenon tier. it is in line with studies from tan, goh, chia, and treagust (2002) who found that around 50.1% of students can correctly answer the phenomenon tier compared to 30.0% in reasoning tier. therefore, it is recommended to give more points on reasoning tier. to accomplish the effort of findings best way of scoring, xiao, han, koenig, xiong, and bao (2018) evaluated six possible scoring systems by measuring psychometric properties such as reliability and goodness of model fit. the differences between six scoring systems are based on the considerations of difficulties between phenomenon and reasoning tier. from the analysis, it is found that there is a scoring system superior to others. since there are many possibilities of a scoring system, it is vital to analyze which consideration to take, such as samples‘ level of education. in the study of fulmer et al. (2015), there is a different trend in which undergraduate samples can overcome reasoning better compared to phenomenon tier. university students study science concepts are more profound compared to high schools, so it is reasonable if they understand the reasoning of a specific answer. as the proponent of fulmer et al.‘s (2015) study, it is vital to analyze more data for university level, so the consideration of marking system can be addressed correctly. there are two research objectives for this study: (1) to determine the items differ in average estimated difficulties between tier-1 and tier-2 and (2) to determine if any significant correlation of person logit between phenomenon and reasoning tier at 2tmc. there are two research questions concerning this study: (1) how do the items differ in average estimated difficulties between tier-1 and tier-2? and (2) is there any significant correlation of person logit between phenomenon and reasoning tier at 2tmc irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 251 literature review two-tier multiple choice 2tmc is the extension of tmc by adding more sources of identifying conceptual understanding (taslidere, 2016). 2tmc has two parts, namely the phenomenon tier and reasoning tier. the first-tier is usually set-up the same way as noted with the ordinary multiple-choice, but the second-tier involves students selecting a reason as to why they chose the answer in the first-tier (adadan & savasci, 2012; schaffer, 2012). phenomenon tier measures factual knowledge or core concepts in a tested domain (taber & tan, 2011). for instance, dilute sulfuric acid is added to some green copper(ii) carbonate powder. vigorous effervescence occurs, and the copper (ii) carbonate disappears, producing a blue solution. from the phenomenon, some questions are raised, such as the reasons for the changes, chemical reactions, ionic reactions, and how if reactants are changed (chandrasegaran, treagust, & mocerino, 2007, 2011). the second tier is the justification of responses at phenomenon tier (taslidere, 2016). in this tier, conceptual knowledge is asked in responses to the phenomenon in the first tier. the rationale of answering phenomenon tier goes beyond knowing (taber & tan 2011). adding reasons can provide profound information about student's conceptual understanding as to the way of assessing learning experience (fulmer et al. 2015). this reason can be provided as open-ended or multiple-choice as the current study. this method is useful when students provide reasons shortly or insufficient information which tend to be useless and time-consuming (chu, treagust, lim, & chandrasegaran, 2015). figure 1. example of two-tier multiple-choice questions irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 252 rasch model the basic principle of this theory is ― a person having a greater ability than another person should have the greater probability of solving any item of the type in question, and similarly, one item being more difficult than another means that for any person the probability of solving the second item is the greater one‖ (bond & fox, 2015). in the current study, the rasch model is utilized to measure the proof of construct validity and data analysis. as stated by liu (2010) in the book entitled ―using and developing measurement instruments in science education: a rasch modeling approach, the cause of the stagnant replacement of ctt into rasch model is the lack of training and skills of science educators to apply the theory (liu, 2010; romine, schaffer, & barrow, 2015). data of learning outcomes cannot be treated as interval data because the scoring method by calculating and adding several correct answers can only assume data as ordinal data. either interval or ordinal data can rank students, but the interval of ordinal data is not equal among data. therefore the transformation of data is needed to meet the nature of running statistical analysis for comparative study such as t-test, anova, and correlation (saidfudin et al., 2010). one way to overcome the problem is to transform data by employing the rasch model. this model can work to address measurement problems by telling the condition when someone responds an item, defining excuses of the responses, directing how to estimate the responses and determining the relation of responses to the estimated situation (wright, 1977). in analyzing students learning the outcome, the rasch model can give a better representation and explanation even in a small number of students. this offers the high precision of comparison and the exact degree of the level of achievement (osman, badaruzzaman, & hamid, 2011). from the rasch model, one of exciting feature is also the ability to visualize data using wright map (item-person map) which is a graphical and empirical representation of a progress variable (boone, staver, & yale, 2014; wilson, 2008). to estimate respondent measure by considering a person‘s ability and item difficulties, rasch model calls the term as logit. logit = log (p/(n-p), where p= number of correct item from given items, n= number of given items. logit is classified into person logit and item logit. person logit : ψ [p] = ln (p/(1-p), item logit : ψ [p-value] = ln (p-value/(1-p-value), where ψ symbolize logit transformation. in nature, the logit score delineates natural log odds of each person to succeed in an item for the determination of the zero point scale (ludlow & haley, 1995). item difficulty is the attribute that affects the person‘s response while the person‘s ability shapes the item difficulty estimates (abdullah, noranee, & khamis, 2017). the proponent of rasch model measurement are two theorems: 1) a more capable person has a higher probability of correctly responding to all the items provided. 2). an easier item is more likely to be answered correctly by all respondents or test-takers (linacre, 1999; sumintono & widhiarso, 2015). irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 253 scoring system in two-tier multiple-choice questions there are two primary methods of scoring two-tier multiple-choice questions, namely individual scoring and pairing scoring. pair scoring treats an item pair as a combined item in a dichotomous mode that awards credit for answering both items correctly and zero points for all other responses (bayrak, 2013; chandrasegaran et al., 2007; lin, 2004; tüysüz, 2009). individual scoring that treats questions in an item pair as individual items and assigns points for each tier independently (ding, 2017; fulmer et al., 2015; han, 2013; koenig, schen, & bao, 2012; nieminen, savinainen, & viiri, 2012). based on the study of fulmer et al. (2015), they found that reasoning tier was more difficult compared to phenomenon tier and suggested to give a higher mark on reasoning tier. therefore, to extend the study, xiao et al., (2018) evaluated six methods of scoring as summarized in table 1. in the table, pattern "00" means incorrect at both phenomenon and reasoning tier, while "11" is correct at both tiers. pattern "10" is for correct at phenomenon tier only, while "01" means correct at reasoning tier only. by measuring the model fit, it is conceded that no model tend to fit the model better. therefore, consideration of purposes and sample are essential to determine the best scoring method. table 1. summary of the scoring method method patterns of answer ―00‖ ―10‖ ―01‖ ―11‖ 1 0 0 0 1 2 0 1 1 2 3 0 0 1 2 4 0 1 0 2 5 0 1 2 3 6 0 2 1 3 reference: (xiao et al., 2018) methodology research design the study was a quantitative study with a survey design. the study stipulates on the collection and explanation of numerical data in the form of answers in phenomenon and reasoning tier (gay, mills, & airasian, 2009; given, 2008). the main reason for the design is the nature of research objectives and research gaps in the literature. the study is also considered as a survey design because it directly explicates the phenomena of pre-service teacher conceptual understanding without giving any manipulation of the sample characteristics in a point of time (creswell, 2012). irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 254 instrument representational systems and chemical reaction diagnostic instrument (rscrdi) was adapted from chandrasegaran et al., (2007) who researched on the development of this instrument. in its application in singapore, the reliability of the 15-item 2tmc was established by a cronbach alpha coefficient of 0.65, the difficulty of item ranging from 0.35 to 0.94, and the discrimination indices ranged from 0.35 to 0.59 for 12 of the items (chandrasegaran, treagust, & mocerino, 2009). after obtaining permission to use rscrdi, the instrument is firstly translated by the first author who studied chemistry in his undergraduate study. the indonesian language version was reviewed by two chemists who taught for more than ten years and graduated from abroad, specifically the united states and germany. after the validation, the indonesian language version is translated back to english by other chemist who has a phd in chemistry, and he was graduated in australia. to establish content validation, the instrument was reviewed by three lecturers who have qualifications looking to their experiences and educational backgrounds. one of them is a professor at inorganic chemistry which suits the materials. pilot study the purpose of this pilot study was to estimate administration time, the reliability, and goodness of model fit of the translated instrument — the sample of the pilot test aged 18-20 years old. they are students from university a as in the real study as many as 69 pre-service chemistry teachers (10 males, 59 females). analyzing the data of the pilot study applied the scoring rule is dummy variable, 1 for the correct answer, otherwise 0. the result of reliability and separation was in table 2. table 2. reliability and separation instrument cronbach's alpha person reliability item reliability person separation item separation phenomenon 0.59* 0.58* 0.80 1.18 2.01 reasoning 0.57* 0.58* 0.71 1.04 1.57 based on nunnally (1978), the minimum cronbach's alpha of multiple-choice questions are 0.50, and the value exceeded the minimum score. according to devellis (2012), minimally acceptable reliability for person and item are 0.65, and both tiers have person reliability lower than the standard. reliability score lower than acceptable score are often found in diagnostic test such as 1) (caleon & subramaniam, 2010): 0.40 and 0.19 2) (sreenivasulu & subramaniam, 2013): 0.40 and 0.43 3) (sreenivasulu & subramaniam, 2014): 0.54 and 0.48, 4) (hoe & subramaniam, 2016): 0.31 and 0.38, 5) (yan & subramaniam, 2018): 0.22 and 0.23. the reliability score for each example is presented for the phenomenon and reasoning tier. it is vital to notice that articles for all example are top-tiered articles (teo et al., 2014). the next result to consider is item separation, based on (sumintono & irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 255 widhiarso, 2015), the formula is h (separation) = {(4 x separation) + 1}/3, and the result for phenomenon and reasoning are 3.01 and 2.43, implying that items on phenomenon tier can distinguish test-takers into high, moderate and low, while reasoning tier is only high and low ability. the following result is the goodness of model fit as in table 3, which presented mean square (mnsq), tolerated z-standard (zstd) and correlation points (pt mea corr). boone, staver, & yale (2014) gave the criteria: (a) 0.5 <mnsq <1,5 (b) -2.0 <zstd <+2,0 (c) 0.4 <pt measure right <0.85 or positive measure. to state an item does not fit the rasch measurement model is the condition in which all criteria fall outside the acceptable value (sumintono & widhiarso, 2015). considering the mean value and item by item, all items fit well the rasch measurement model. it is concluded that the instrument has good construct validity. table 3. goodness of model fit item infit outfit pt mean corr mnsq zstd mnsq zstd p r p r p r p r p r 1 1.03 0.99 0.2 0 1.13 0.92 0.7 -0.3 0.33 0.34 2 1.1 0.97 1.1 -0.2 1.1 0.93 0.7 -0.4 0.30 0.39 3 0.87 0.96 -0.9 -0.3 0.73 0.93 -1.2 -0.4 0.51 0.4 4 1.03 0.96 0.4 -0.5 0.96 0.96 -0.2 -0.3 0.37 0.42 5 0.95 0.86 -0.4 -1.6 0.88 0.82 -0.5 -1.5 0.43 0.52 6 1.02 0.9 0.3 -0.8 1.27 0.84 1.8 -0.9 0.34 0.49 7 1.02 0.94 0.2 -0.7 1.04 0.92 0.3 -0.6 0.37 0.44 8 1.18 0.95 1.6 -0.5 1.32 0.93 1.7 -0.6 0.19 0.43 9 0.98 1.03 -0.2 0.4 0.91 1.02 -0.6 0.2 0.42 0.36 10 0.86 1.07 -1.6 0.8 0.84 1.05 -1.2 0.5 0.52 0.32 11 0.87 0.9 -1.2 -0.9 0.8 0.82 -1.1 -1 0.51 0.46 12 0.99 1.06 -0.1 0.6 0.96 1.13 -0.2 0.9 0.4 0.30 13 1.2 1.19 1.8 1.9 1.44 1.33 2.2 * 2.3* 0.16 0.18 14 0.92 1.07 -0.7 0.7 0.84 1.19 -0.9 1.2 0.47 0.27 15 0.87 1.16 -0.9 1.8 1.01 1.15 0.1 1.3 0.46 0.24 mean 0.99 1.00 -0.03 0.05 1.02 1.00 0.12 0.03 0.39 0.37 sd 0.11 0.09 0.99 0.99 0.20 0.15 1.12 1.03 0.11 0.10 min 0.86 0.86 -1.6 -1.6 0.73 0.82 -1.2 -1.5 0.16 0.18 max 1.2 1.19 1.8 1.9 1.44 1.33 2.2 2.3 0.52 0.52 irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 256 data collection and sample before data collection, the students were informed that the test was diagnostic, and the results of the test would not affect their grades. however, the result can be beneficial information for their lectures to improve their teaching style (saat et al., 2016). to collect data, the researcher employs paper and pencil based test which provide a chance for the researcher to observe the process of data collection, better response rate and affordability of respondents (zuidgeest, hendriks, koopman, spreeuwenberg, & rademakers, 2011). since it is a test, data collection is conducted by registering the test class-by-class to selected sample. in the current study, the selection of the sample is based on stratified random sampling, and the procedure is 1). the population (total 323 pre-service chemistry teachers) was divided into three groups according to their year of education, namely first year, second year and third year. 2). from each group, it was selected 65% (total population, n=209) and randomly selected using spss 25. the consideration of choosing the number of samples was the result of calculation employing g* power 3.0.10.0 where data analysis was one-way anova (effect size 0.40 and alpha value 0.05) was 102 sample. the descriptive statistics of the selected sample are shown in table 4 below. the sample of the study is 18-21-year-olds with the majority of them from the regency in lombok and sumbawa. only a small number of students are from other provinces such as east nusa tenggara. they also from various background of schools such as senior high schools, vocational schools, and islamic boarding schools. table 4. demography of the sample of the study characteristics number of samples percentages (%) year of education 1st year 72 40,19% 2nd year 61 32,06% 3rd year 52 27,75% gender male 19 10.27% female 166 89.73% university a 114 61.62% b 51 27.56% c 20 10.81% total 185 100% data analysis to compare the difficulty level of phenomenon and reasoning tier, data of students answer is assumed to measure the same construct. therefore, reasoning tier of each question are different questions; as a result, there are 30 questions of the study. this methodology was the same as (fulmer et al., 2015), which carry out a study with similar purposes. the irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 257 procedures are: 1) student's responses were coded 1 if they answer correctly and 0 if their answer is incorrect. then the data were used to find item and student‘s logit using winstep 3.7.3 software. logit is the estimation of respondents‘ measure by considering a person‘s ability and item difficulties. 2) mean of logit from phenomenon and reasoning tier was compared to see their difference. after the comparison, the correlation of both tiers was analyzed to see the tendency of students‘ responses with the null hypothesis: ―student‘s answer in phenomenon tier is not significantly correlated to student‘s answer in reasoning tier‖. the data to use for this analysis is person logit in phenomenon and reasoning tier. from the data, it was estimated normality and linearity as the requisite assumption of the parametric test, then conducted one-tailed pearson correlation. findings the preview of pre-service chemistry teachers‘ ability on the chemical reaction on phenomenon and reasoning tier are shown using wright map as in figure 1. mean of phenomenon tier is -.626 (sd = 0.945), while reasoning tier is higher with -.525 (0.988). their mean difference is around 0.1, with almost the same value of standard deviation. it means that the variance of both sets of data looks similar. figure 2. wright map of phenomenon tier (left) and reasoning tier (right) irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 258 research questions 1: comparison of phenomenon and reasoning tier to compare the difficulty of phenomenon and reasoning tier, both tiers were assumed to measure the same construct. it implies that in the process of finding logit, each question will be separated into two items to produce 15 items for phenomenon tier and 15 items for reasoning tier. this procedure is adapted from (fulmer et al., 2015), which also conducted a study on the comparison of components of two-tier multiple-choice questions. from this analysis, it is found the item logit as presented in table 5. table 5. logit of each item item phenomenon reasoning 1 -0.71 0.35 2 -0.33 0.58 3 0.52 0.68 4 0.54 0.08 5 0.91 0.03 6 -0.67 -0.67 7 0.65 0.43 8 -0.54 -0.54 9 -0.35 -0.71 10 0.29 0.24 11 -0.5 0.05 12 0.14 -0.37 13 -0.69 0.43 14 -0.08 0.24 15 0.26 -0.28 average -0.037 0.036 sd 0.546 0.452 min 0.91 -.71 max -0.71 0.68 the logit of phenomenon tier is in the range of -.71 to 0.91 with average of -0.037 (sd = 0.546), while reasoning tier has an average of 0.036 in the range of -.71 to 0.68 (sd = 0.452). in the overall, reasoning tier is more complicated than phenomenon tier if referred to average logit, where reasoning is 0.036 > -0.037 (phenomenon tier). looking to the data of each item, reasoning tier is more difficult on item 1, item 2, item 3, item 11, item 13, and item 24, while phenomenon tier is more demanding on item 4, item 5, item 7, item 9, item 10, item 12, and item 15, meanwhile 2 items, i.e. item 6 and item 8 have the same level of difficulty. taking into consideration the average and item comparison, it can be said that their score is almost the same. irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 259 research questions 2: correlation of phenomenon and reasoning tier to see the further relationship of student's performance in the phenomenon and reasoning tier, the pearson correlation of both scores was conducted to know whether both scores are correlated or not. this analysis is the way of estimating if student answer phenomenon tier correctly, they can have a higher chance to answer the reasoning tier correctly. before running a correlation test, it is reported the assumption test for correlation to decide the use of the parametric test (pearson correlation) or non-parametric test (spearman correlation). these tests are normality and linearity in which normality test is based on the result of skewness and kurtosis, while linearity based on scatter plot of both data sets. both data are normally distributed, which is indicated by the value of skewness and kurtosis within ±1.96 as the standard of determination normally distributed data. since both data are normally distributed, the subsequent analysis is to estimate linearity by presenting the result of scatter plots of both data, which assumed that the data fulfil the assumption of linearity. since both data are normally distributed, have a linear relationship; fulfill minimum required sample and data scale, one-tailed pearson correlation can be conducted. the null hypothesis of the analysis is ―person logit in the phenomenon tier is not significantly correlated to person logit in the reasoning tier‖. it is found that phenomenon tier (m=-.6261, sd=.95) and reasoning tier (m=-.5252, sd=.98) is significantly correlated, r=.362, p-value <0.001. it means that a phenomenon tier can explain 13.1% of the variance in reasoning tier. the positive and significant correlation implies that if a student can answer phenomenon tier correctly, there is a high chance of the student to answer the reasoning tier correctly. discussion difficulties in this study, it was found that reasoning tier was more difficult than phenomenon tier, meaning that students could express what they know, but they are more difficult to state the reason. the research finding was similar to fulmer et al. (2015) when analyzing light propagation and visibility data from chu, treagust, & chandrasegaran (2009) which tests 2382 secondary students in korea and singapore. similarly, the study from liu et al. (2011) also concluded that reasoning tier is more difficult after analyzing the data of 794 middle school students in scientific reasoning. based on the analysis of using classical test theory (ctt) stated the evidence of the difficulties of requiring students to explain their reasons compared to explicate their knowledge (caleon & subramaniam, 2010b; xiao et al., 2018). as an instance, a study from tan, goh, chia, and treagust (2002) found that a higher percentage of students can correctly answer phenomenon tier compared to reasoning tier. from this study, looking to the level of difficulty in each item, more items had greater difficulty on phenomenon tier compared to reasoning tier. this different result is also irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 260 revealed by fulmer et al. (2015), when analyzing the data of the united states on the classroom test of scientific reasoning (ctsr) with sample undergraduate students. the same thing about this study and ctsr data is the sample from the university. to explicate the conflicting result, it is necessary to look at the teaching style of high school students and university students. in many high schools, specifically indonesian schools, the study of chemistry covers many topics in a short period. as a result, high schools students study chemistry to fulfill examination, which focuses on the effort to be able to answer a question without understanding the concept in depth. contrarily, university students learn topics in-depth, which allow them to provide reasoning from chemistry concepts of high schools test. correlation this study found any correlation between the response of students' in phenomenon and reasoning tier. the first possible reason is from the development of the two-tier instrument. in their development, the choices of reasoning tier must be from the common reasons of respondents to select an answer. the careful selection of distractor and key answer is also possibly contributed to the result of correlation. the other study to find the same result with an identical method is fulmer et al., (2015). the methodology firstly transforms the data into person logit and measures their correlation. in the study, they found that phenomenon and reasoning tier is correlated for light propagation and visibility in the first data set. in the second data set, both tiers are correlated for control of variables, combinatorial reasoning, probabilistic reasoning and proportional reasoning. another study found a correlation between the phenomenon and reasoning tier is liu et al. (2011) on the topic of energy concepts. in the study, the instrument has ten items with two different forms, namely constructed responses (cr) and explanation multiple-choice questions (emc). cr items allow students to give reasoning like open-ended 2tmc, while emc looks like 2tmc, but it is constructed like ordered multiple-choice questions. in the study, phenomenon and reasoning tier for all cr items are significantly correlated, while emc item has nine items correlated significantly. conclusion and recommendations this study found that reasoning tier is more difficult than phenomenon tier after considering their average, but the comparison of each item shows that they have a fair degree of difficulties. therefore, this finding suggests considering the level of education of sample (high schools or undergraduate) when an educator wants to score students in responding to two-tier multiple-choice questions, which means that university students do not need any difference in scoring between phenomenon and reasoning tier. also, the answer of students in both phenomenon and reasoning tier are positively correlated. it means that if students answer correctly in phenomenon tier, there is a high chance of the students to answer reasoning tier correctly. irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 261 disclaimers this study was funded by lembaga pengelola dana pendidikan (lpdp) as part of the first author two-year full scholarship to study his master degree. references abdullah, n., noranee, s., & khamis, m. r. 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(1977). solving measurement problems with the rasch model. journal of educational measurement, 14(2), 97–116. xiao, y., han, j., koenig, k., xiong, j., & bao, l. (2018). multilevel rasch modeling of two-tier multiple choice test: a case study using lawson‘s classroom test of scientific reasoning. physical review physics education research, 14(2), 020104. yan, y. k., & subramaniam, r. (2018). using a multi-tier diagnostic test to explore the nature of students‘ alternative conceptions on reaction. chemistry education research and practice, 19, 213–226. https://doi.org/10.1039/c7rp00143f zuidgeest, m., hendriks, m., koopman, l., spreeuwenberg, p., & rademakers, j. (2011). comparison of a postal survey and mixed-mode survey using a questionnaire on patients‘ experiences with breast care. journal of medical internet research, 13(3). biographical notes hilman qudratuddarsi is a postgraduate student, university malaya, kuala lumpur, malaysia, e-mail; hilmandarsi@gmail.com renuka v sathasivam is a senior lecturers, university malaya, kuala lumpur, malaysia, e-mail; renukasivam@um.edu.my hutkemri is a senior lecturer, university malaya, kuala lumpur, malaysia, e-mail: hutkemri@um.edu.my mailto:renukasivam@um.edu.my this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 433 students’ perceptions in a diverse language classroom: the case of one public university in indonesia hesti wahyuni anggraini 1 , rita hayati 2 , and nova lingga pitaloka 3 abstract diversity in language learning classrooms is important subject to study. diversity affects students‟ viewpoints and their success in language learning. diversity does not exist without challenges; therefore, the emphasis here explored how diversity appeared and how the students accommodated the diversity to promote learning goals. this paper presented students ' perception of diversity in an english language classroom at one public university in indonesia. this exploratory study aimed to better understand diversity to meet students‟ needs. by conducting a survey, the questionnaire and interview aimed to collect information about (a) demographic data (age, gender, and nationalities), but not limited to students‟ level, culture and socioeconomic status, (b) students‟ viewpoints about diversity and (c) how to accommodate the differences. the result showed that positive viewpoints referred to cultural awareness, knowledge acquisition and relationship while negative one referred to the difficulty to tolerate differences. some recommendations are derived from the results. keywords cultural differences, diversity, demographic data, language classroom socioeconomic status 1. faculty of education and teacher training, universitas sriwijaya, indonesia; e-mail: hwanggraini@fkip.unsri.ac.id 2. faculty of education and teacher training, universitas sriwijaya, indonesia; e-mail: ritahayati78@yahoo.com 3. faculty of education and teacher training, universitas sriwijaya, indonesia; e-mail: novalinggapitaloka@fkip.unsri.ac.id mailto:hwanggraini@fkip.unsri.ac.id mailto:ritahayati78@yahoo.com mailto:novalinggapitaloka@fkip.unsri.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 434 introduction diversity in teaching and learning english is an interesting topic to discuss. the diversity of backgrounds and demographic conditions in english learning and teaching is a challenge for teachers. teachers are expected to create a conducive and balanced atmosphere based on students' linguistic and cultural diversity in the classroom (schwartzer, haywood, & lorenzen, 2003). a significant difference occurs in the teaching process in the classroom, where in the past, teaching english as a foreign language requires lecturers to focus solely on the language component. different learning styles, cultural backgrounds, and different levels of english ability are the three points the teachers should consider. to better suit learners' needs, teachers try to find what the students are expecting. it is now recommended that there be a good balance of cultural, personality, intellectuality and language acquisition aspects. that's because student diversity is the most important part of language learning (alyan, 2011). learning can be impeded by class diversity. the increasing diversity of universities stems from various trends: globalization, student and teacher migration, broader access to higher education (altbach, reisberg, & rumbley, 2009), and subsequent adult education. as a consequence, university students and teachers display personal, cultural, and economic demographic characteristics that impact student learning. students experience different learning styles and various learning habits in such diverse classrooms. amongst other things, the impact of class diversity on student learning depends on the activities proposed by multicultural and multi-age instructors. then, learning a language means that learning its culture. chinh (2013) reported that culture in english language teaching has traditionally focused on english-speaking countries' target culture. however, english as international language (eil) has led to significant changes in elt's teaching and learning culture practice. instead of relying on the paradigm of native speaker competence and target culture, elt's culture teaching now aims to develop learners as intercultural speakers in a globalized context. given the need to integrate diverse cultures into elt practice as a platform for learners to become intercultural speakers, the attitudes of learners towards this issue are paramount. next, although there is a modest positive correlation between social class and achievement, it should not be assumed that this relationship applies to all children from families with low socioeconomic status. there are many exceptions (comer, 2005). thus, it can be concluded that poor learning achievement is not an inevitable result of low socioeconomic status. teachers can direct and invite parents to participate in their children's education, and this can improve student achievement. academic achievement, generally, is defined as the extent to students has reahed the learning goals. a study conducted by liu, peng, and luo (2019) reports that academic achievement is one of the key indicators for evaluating student performance and educational achievement. socioeconomic status of the family is the main factor influencing academic achievement, but the relationship between ses and academic achievement may vary across different socio-cultural contexts. the results indicated a moderate relationship between ses and academic achievement. moderation analyzes indicated that the relationship between ses irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 435 and academic achievement has gradually declined in recent decades; ses has a stronger correlation with language achievement than science/math achievement and overall achievement. these findings were discussed from the government's educational policy perspective. one kind of diversity in language learning is learning styles. learning styles are different ways of learning. they involve learning methods, especially for a person who is presumed to be the best person to learn. the learning styles are the conditions, according to james and gardner (1995), which allow the student to perceive, process, store and recall the contents of the learning. peirce (2000) believes that learning style is the way people like it over other learning methods, such as school learning. teachers, school managers and other members of the educational team should take into account differences in student learning styles. research has shown that focusing on the individual differences and learning characteristics of teachers and other teachers' teams is an important factor in improving student quality and improving student academic achievement (safe, 2008; tella & adeniyi, 2009). personality differences also plays important role that the teachers should pay attention to. actually, academic achievement is regarded as an important criterion for quality of education. on the other hand, students differ across a wide range of variables. in other words, they do not only differ in personality, family background, age and gender, etc. but also display different attitudes and emotional responses to the environment. students have distinctive characteristics of personality that make them ready to take different views on the world and therefore to act differently in various social and educational environments. taking these differences into account, educators can help recognize the individual differences between their students. predictors for academic achievement often lie in one extreme and non-cognitive variable (e.g., personality features, socioeconomic status, etc.) with cognitive measures, intelligence and mental capabilities. despite the results of the studies, in order to predict academic achievement, different results were obtained. the role of cognitive abilities and characteristics in academic performance was consistently highlighted (paunonen & ashton, 2001). educators have always asked if personality characteristics can help them achieve higher academic achievements. based on the descriptions above, this study tried to answer (a) how the students perceived diversity in language learning process and (b) how the students accommodated those differences in order to better reach the learning goals. this research aimed at exploring students‟ perception of diversity to enlighten teaching practice in the university and knowing the ways how the students tried to accommodate diversities in language learning. the information provided in this study about students‟ perception of diversity in the classroom contributed to increase the understanding of students‟ experience in one specific international university. diversity presence presented its own challenges, so the focus of this study was to investigate how students perceive the diversity present in english learning and teaching processes, especially in intellectual abilities, culture, ethnicity, gender, personality, learning styles, and socioeconomic status. the aims of this study were formulated on the basis of the research questions: (a) how did the students see diversity in language learning classroom and (b) how did they accommodate the diversity? irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 436 literature review cultural diversity culture deeply influences the process of learning and teaching english. cultural aspects contribute to the identity and self-concept of students and can influence students‟ beliefs and self-value behavior and expectations, social relations, language use, and other patterns of behavior. students' ethnic and cultural backgrounds have a significant impact on their ability to learn english. the study illustrates that if students have access to learning material that is appropriate to their culture; their understanding is greater than if the culture is not compatible with the student culture. in a study by yousef, karim, and janefeshan (2014), 95 students from three different ethnic and cultural backgrounds in the middle east (arabic, kurdish, and turkish) were tested using english reading materials containing culturally similar content and culturally different content. the results of these studies indicate that the mean scores of students are very different because students tend to get high scores when students recognize cultural differences. socioeconomic status a study conducted by rodriguez-hernandez, cascallar, & kyndt (2020) reported that socioeconomic status is measured by education, occupation, income, household resources, and neighborhood resources, while higher education academic performance is measured by achievement, skills, and persistence. the meta-analysis also reveals a positive yet weak relationship between the ses and higher education academic performance. university experience, previous academic achievements and work status were more closely related to academic performance than ses. students attend schools every year that represent a variety of socioeconomic situations. socioeconomic status refers to an individual or group's level of education, income, and professionalism. although both higher and lower socioeconomic status students attend school, it is difficult to ignore the effect of lower socio-economic status on student achievement. students with a lower socio-economic status often face additional challenges, including a lack of resources for learning, difficult conditions for learning and poor motivation that adversely affect their academic performance. language differences and learning styles in many non-english speaking countries, linguistic diversity in teaching english as a foreign or second language is a compelling challenge. in their study of 50 chinese adult english learners, data gathered by wu, wu, and le (2014) further expresses the contrast between languages in a rather different situation. the students' survey in the study revealed that due to their own orthographic language structure and their accents, they felt frustration because of extreme difficulty expressing themselves correctly in english. in addition, chinese students were concerned with pragmatics or their feelings about how they use language in social settings, plus their own learning skills, and how trust was a serious problem for them (aydin & koch, 2012). students' own suggestions to alleviate learning irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 437 problems included spending more time practicing speaking to enhance their accents, which could enhance their trust; they should also think of learning english as a competition to encourage and motivate them to study harder (wu, wu, & le, 2014). then, in particular, for example, the pronunciation in indonesian, as stated in (pujiyono: 2013) and (roach: 2009) differs from that in english. because indonesian does not have the sound /θ/ and /ð/, the two sounds may be difficult for students to pronounce. students differ in their styles of learning. the manner in which different learners may have distinct learning styles and strategies is another aspect of diversity. learning styles refer to the typical way of learning for a child and arise from cognitive and personality-based variables, while learning strategies refer to the manner in which learners manage their learning experiences and efforts consciously. the interest in learning styles derives from successful learners' studies (brown, 2007). student achievement is also affected by individual preferences in the learning environment and conditions. as individual learners, there is only one learning style inherent to students (dörnyei, 2009). personality differences and student diversity in english language learning studies conducted by krashen (1985) and gass and selinker (1994) have covered the relationship between personality and language learning. these experts indicate that there is a clear connection between personality and language acquisition, as personality determines the comfort zone of the learner. so, learners of a second language or foreign language, according to their personality, will make a choice of strategies and skills. many students with lower levels of previous education expressed frustration with their inability to understand and learn english. previous educational background influences the learning styles they are used to. then, many contradictions emerge when discussing how gender affects participation and learning in classrooms. while some students said they felt no difference, others said they did. the students expressed many opinions on the multicultural influence of their own participation and their classmates. while some students felt an individual's nationality or culture was irrelevant in the classroom context, others felt that diversity was favorable or unfavorable. many students emphasized the importance of scrutinizing students' demographic conditions. although many students feel that age has no effect on learning english activities, others say age gives its own color in classroom learning. some students feel younger students have an edge in class and learn faster. age can also influence beliefs about goals students think can achieve. methodology research design, site, and participants this exploratory study was aimed to know students‟ viewpoints toward diversity in language learning and how the students cope with the challenges. to answer the reseach questions in this setting, a descriptive survey design applied. this study took place in an english education study program of a public university in south sumatera. we chose this university because this university has enrolled a broad range of students coming from various provinces and races. also, this university is doubling on efforts to promote diversity as it forms students‟ exchanges from various countries. besides, this university got an a irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 438 accreditation, so that this university can be a model for others. therefore, we were interested in exploring deeply the students‟ perceptions on diversity in language learning classroom. we adopted a purposive sampling. thus, all of the juniors in indralaya class were the participants of this study. the participants were 45 juniors, 6 male students and 39 female students. the participants were at the age of 19-20 years old coming from different races, even provinces. the participants were chosen on the basis of their experiences/stories during their study. the sample used in this analysis was not indicative. the purposes of this study were not to generalize the findings, compare or portray similarities with other universities. students may differ greatly from non-included students in this sample. however, the sample was large enough to derive and categorize student perceptions that could be confirmed by a statistical sample. this sampling design gave information in their learning context about the perception of diversity by students. it is the first step towards analyzing the problems expressed by students at university level regarding the diversity of language learning. it can provide information on student characteristics and their understanding of diversity. results can provide valuable data to better understand students' experience of diversity. data collection and analysis this exploratory study used an open-ended questionnaire and semi-structured interview to collect the data. the interview was conducted by using communication platform, i.e., zoom meeting for the fifth semester students enrolled in department of language and arts, english language study program in one of public university in indonesia. questions related to academic courses students studied during the semester using english as a medium of instruction. this ready-made questionnaire (jeannin, 2013) aimed to collect information about the characteristics of students, learning styles, and opinions about their diversity experience at the university. the information gathered included their demographic data (age, gender), their perception of diversity, and the ways they applied to accommodate the differences. the questionnaire answers were anonymous for the sake of the confidentiality. a semi-structured interview was conducted in order to confirm more thoroughly the students‟ viewpoints of diversity in language learning classroom and how they tried to assign the diversity. to collect data during the covid-19 pandemic, we sent private messages to the 45 english majoring juniors. before collecting the data, students received a message informing them about the survey. we explained the purpose and provided information on answering questions. we asked all students to volunteer and complete the questionnaire only once. the students' consent reflected the answering questionnaire. then, for interview session, the students were asked through zoom meeting. to analyze the data, we implemented the steps of analyzing the data followed the procedure described by creswell (2012). the steps were organizing and preparing the data, reading through the data, coding the data into categories, building themes, representing and reporting the findings, and interpreting the data. besides, member checking was also carried out to confirm the credibility and control of biases by returning the transcribed interview text back to the participants and asking them for its accuracy. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 439 ethical considerations this exploratory study was dependent on the presence of the participants as the key basis of the data sources. referring to the ethical considerations, still in indonesia scope, an irb authorization process was not used. the researchers covered the participants‟ identities, places, and the research site through the use of made-up names to keep the privacy of the participants. then, the contributions of the participants were totally volunteer and their information was privately treated. in other words, the participants‟ identities were confidential. findings this part explained the results of the study. it explored the students‟ perceptions of learning foreign language in a diverse classroom. it also discussed about some challenges experienced by the students in such condition. students’ viewpoints of diversity in language learning classroom first, tables 1 provided some demographic information. see the following tables for detailed information. table 1. demographic information about the respondents 45 respondents % numbers gender female: 86.7 male: 13.3 female: 39 male: 6 age min. 19 max. 21 average. 20 race basemah: 4.4 komering: 2.2 palembang: 60 kayuagung: 2.2 lematang: 4.4 ogan: 4.4 banyuasin: 6.7 others: lampung: 2.2 javanese (java island): 4.4 pali: 4.4 rejang (bengkulu): 2.2 bugis (sulawesi): 2.2 basemah: 2 komering: 1 palembang: 27 kayuagung:1 lematang: 2 ogan: 2 banyuasin: 3 others: lampung: 1 javanese: 11 pali: 11 rejang: 1 bugis: 1 type of residents rental: 11.11 house: 88.89 rental: 5 house: 40 parents‟ income above 5 million: 8.9 5 million: 17.8 under 5 million: 73.3 above 5 million: 4 5 million: 8 under 5 million: 33 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 440 table 2 below showed why students chose to study at universitas sriwijaya. the table showed the sum of the number of times each answer picked. it gave sums of occurrences and informs about the salience or intensity of endorsement of each reason (hsia & spruijt-metz, 2008). table 2. students’ reasons to study at one public university in indonesia 45 respondents rank 1 rank 2 % having professional skills or program 29 16 64.4 better understanding about english language 30 15 66.7 learning in multicultural classes and experience 39 6 86.7 studying subjects with international examples 2 43 4.4 improving leadership 3 42 6.7 develop critical-thinking abilities 9 36 20 learn how to work in a team 5 40 11.1 anticipating financial reasons 25 20 55.6 graduating quickly/faster 1 0 2.2 others (to study at the best university in south sumatra) 1 0 2.2 from the table 2 above, it could be shown that multicultural classes and multicultural experience, improving english language skills, and acquiring particular professional skills or specific programs were the four most important reasons why the students chose the university. also, students‟ financial was one of the reasons why universitas sriwijaya became a place to study, as one said, “the students choose universitas sriwijaya because to improve english (not clear/strong enough, because there are more universities better than unsri), to acquire specific professional skills or for a specific program (such as, to join bidik misi or unsri programs that meet the students‟ needs or to get bachelor degree), and financial reasons (it is strong reason. in other sides, i see that the students have.” table 3 below presented the students‟ problems in facing diversity in language learning classroom. table 3. students’ challenges regards to diversity 45 respondents rank 1 rank 2 % age differences 0 0 0 english language differences 8 37 21.6 diverse cultural backgrounds 11 34 24.4 diverse initial knowledge in the subject 14 31 31.1 gender differences 2 43 4.4 different students‟ ability to understand the subject 25 20 55.6 some student do not behave properly in the class 10 35 22.2 none, class diversity is not disturbing for me 11 34 24.4 other: 0 0 0 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 441 table 3 showed that students mentioned “different students „ability to understand the subject” and “diverse initial knowledge in subject” were two the main diversity challenges in language learning process. then, diverse cultural backgrounds did not seem to be a challenge to the students and they did not feel disturbed by the diversity. this result was confirmed that the students feel diversity as an enjoyment. students answered a few sentences or words. “i think all of the above doesn‟t really disturb me, but one thing that still be annoyed is when someone is make joke about my mother tongue /local languages which is javanese. sometimes, when my accent is mix java and indonesia, some people always make jokes and laugh about it. they still didn‟t really understand that every people has their own accent and local languages. and it‟s not polite if they laugh at the language, because every language is beautiful and has it‟s own story.” “i think class diversity is not disturbing for me, because individually i am not person who get disturb by the differences of cultural background, age, or initial knowledge in the subject. so, class diversity is not disturbing for me.” “i think diversity and multicultural classrooms it is just like a common environment that i used to live in. so, there‟s no specific feeling for me because i used to know a lot of people with different backgrounds, etc., and i am comfortable in it.” “i think diversity and multicultural classrooms. this includes many different factors: race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, socio-economic status, ability, age, religious belief, or political conviction. all these factors work together to inform how students (and teachers, and everyone else) encounter the world.” “i think diversity and multicultural classroom not become my obstacles to develop my ability in learning. the diversity even teaches me to learn tolerance and togetherness, although there is often an inequality in some things but so far i can still cope with it.” table 4. students’ perceptions of diversity 45 respondents yes no % do you think that diversity at your university is appositive opportunity for you? 40 5 88.89 as shown in table 4, 88.89% of students said cultural diversity was another positive consideration in language learning. in order to explain why they perceive cultural diversity positively or negatively in the survey, an open question was used to ask students. “i think diversity and multicultural classroom not become my obstacles to develop my ability in learning. the diversity even teaches me to learn tolerance and irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 442 togetherness, although there is often an inequality in some things but so far i can still cope with it.” “i think diversity and multicultural classrooms give me another experience of meeting new people with a different character and it helps me to learn how to respect and appreciate other people.” “i think diversity and multicultural classrooms give me a lot of insight of a certain culture rather than knowing them from stereotypes created by people. it‟s nice to witness cultural differences since despite our differences; we can still unite to support each other‟s studies and performance. i also can get a lot of understanding of other cultures better. to conclude, i feel happy when i‟m in a diverse classroom, as long as the environment isn‟t hostile.” “i feel new and good at the same time. i need to adapt because of this diverse and multi-cultural classrooms but i also feel good since it is the new things for me and it makes me appreciate it more and enjoy it.” “i feel great about it. the main reason why i chose unsri to go to college is because i want a new experience with new people, new environment, new atmosphere, new perspective and view from different people in south sumatera. in classrooms, i don‟t have any difficulty whether it is about how to communicate, socialize, or sharing something. i learn, accept, and act such how i supposed to act as new arrival (anak rantau). i have heard this phrase “when in rome, do as the romans do” table 5. responses toward diversity in language learning classroom 45 respondents number % cultural awareness learn from/understand cultures 2 4.4 experience diversity 4 8.9 learn to interact 0 0 be open-minded 11 24.4 be adjustable 4 8.9 acquire knowledge learn from others 7 15.6 share information 1 2.2 acquire new knowledge 5 11.1 explore something 3 6.7 improve or learn language(s) 0 0 readiness for future career 1 2.2 relationship make new friends 6 13.3 networking 1 2.2 others irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 443 as stated in table 5, respondents believed cultural diversity was an opportunity because it raised different cultures' awareness and sensitivity. they were able to improve their understanding of different cultures, learn how to communicate and become more open-minded. cultural diversity had also been a source of improvement in knowledge, exchange, and language. students saw cultural diversity, embedded in a globalized environment, as a chance to prepare for their professional lives. finally, students emphasized the possibility of making new friends in a diverse community. students‟ statements toward student diversity in language learning classroom were as follows, “yes, because going to a diverse school may bring about people, experiences, events, and other things we may not be used to, i'll come to learn how to deal with differing views, beliefs, ideas, and ways of life.” “yes, it does, because diversity at my university can make us more care about each other, i mean we all can tolerate each other. diversity also can make a good way to collaborated each other in the classroom while learning and we can also know about other people perspective or opinion of something.” “i think so. like i said before, diversity teaches me to learn tolerance and togetherness. in addition i learned various kinds of culture and behavior of my friends who come from different areas. also, with that diversity i can get the opportunity to develop my ability in building cooperation with people who have different backgrounds.” “yes, it promotes personal growth-and a healthy society. diversity challenges stereotyped preconceptions; it encourages critical thinking; and it helps students learn to communicate effectively with people of varied backgrounds. it strengthens communities and the workplace.” “yes, it is. by having a diverse classroom, i can learn more about other cultures without being biased or any misjudgments. by knowing from the people themselves, i can learn on how to be tolerant towards them so i won‟t offend them or people with their cultures in the future because the last thing i want is me forming a certain judgment without knowing the real truth.” “yes, absolutely i do. the more we learn something about anything then we will understand more how to communicate to various people‟s characters. experience is the part that human cannot buy, it needs process. at the end we will go straight down to society, so the more you get to know and understand something new (culture, perspective, knowledge, story) the more you‟ll be able to put yourself in the community.” irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 444 table 6. negative views of diversity in language learning classroom 45 respondents rank 1 % difficulty to understand others 25 5.6 one of student‟s responses of this statement was that “i think when someone knows the subject faster then i will feel intimidated and it makes me feel nervous in that class”. this meant that without some self-esteem and self-confidence, no successful learning activity could take place. others‟ negative judgments to some extent might create anxiety and as a result the student may stop learning. anxiety was a factor that is closely related to self-esteem, risk-taking, and inhibition. in l2 learning, anxiety could play a significant role if it interferes with the learning process. it was not easy to define, even though it is a common feeling. it came with feelings of frustration, self-doubt, fear, or anxiety. the willingness of a learner to interact had also been linked to anxiety. the number of people present, the topic of conversation, and the formality of the circumstances often affected it. a study conducted by anggraini (2016) supported this condition. she mentioned that there was statistically significant difference in students‟ writing achievement on the basis on writing anxiety. closer analysis found out the reasons why this happened. writing anxiety is mostly reported as evaluation apprehension; neither stresses apprehension nor product apprehension. students who experienced medium level of writing anxiety might feel the signs of writing anxiety, but it might not be too harmful for them. on the basis of the students‟ responses in semi-structured interview, the students agreed that there were some points they offered about the diversity in language learning process. one of the points was cultural awareness. discussion the findings provided data on why respondents chose universitas sriwijaya. first, students expected to learn in multicultural classes and multicultural experience, improved their english language skills, learnt professional skills, and financial reasons. these findings came from students at universitas sriwijaya who chose to study. students had already chosen to study at this university and aligned their interest with their individual university choice in the english language and multicultural approaches. students struggled to learn with different classmates, with different levels of language and the ability to understand some subjects. this condition appeared to be consistent with the fact that students chose this university to improve their english language skills; their choice was a consequence of the diversity of english. this answer was, in fact, close to one of the main disturbing effects of diversity, "the diverse ability of students to understand the subject," supporting "diversity of initial knowledge" and "diversity in understanding the subject" should strengthen teachers' attention to students' heterogeneous readiness to learn (glowacki-dudka, murray, & concepcion, 2012). cultural diversity was positive for 88.89% of respondents. they perceived that cultural diversity through exchanges with diverse students made them more culturally conscious and knowledgeable. by networking, they also tried to adjust while preparing for their future career. diversity could not be denied in irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 445 someone‟s life, society and, therefore, communities, places of work, schools, and services for early learning. one substantial contributor to diversity was culture. culture is a comprehensive concept in itself and includes many elements, such as values and behavioral styles, language and dialects, non-verbal communications, perspectives, worldviews and reference frameworks (banks, 2006). culture is also complex in that people, practices and environments are constantly changing and a single definition of culture is therefore difficult to have. here, learners needed the ability to work with a diversity of people, because they needed to engage with people from many different backgrounds and worldviews in the changing global environment, and to work with a variety of ideas to solve increasingly complex challenges in the real world. difficulty to understand others‟ differences was the negative perspectives of students toward the diversity. here, it could be true that each student differed in their ability to solve issues and to study. it was expected that the lecturers should not, therefore, place their hopes on intelligence theories and measures. intelligence can be defined at one level as a general learning ability or the capacity to acquire and use knowledge or skills. intelligence is defined by the consensus definition expressed by gardner (1983) as the capacity to deal with abstractions, to solve problems, and to learn. there is no separate intelligence, but every student has only one intelligence in general or has in common moran, kornharber, and gardner (2006). intelligence, as stated by jafar (2010), is the ability to solve problems or to create products that are judged by one or more cultural rules. nine different intelligences are described, including linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, spatial, body-kinesthetic, naturalistic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and existential intelligences. then, in general, the teachers tended to think of students who exhibited a high level of linguistic abilities as intelligent and were therefore influenced by the lecturers' abilities themselves. students who were capable in other fields could be considered inactive, stupid, and lacking motivation if the teaching focus is on the activation of language intelligence. in conclusion, it was very important to understand the theory of multiple intelligences and their principles, because it opened up different possibilities to help students learn in the process of learning english more effectively and successfully. conclusions and recommendations in this study, the reflections of the participants shed light on the teaching and learning of culture in the indonesian english as a foreign language context. the most important thing was their enthusiastic welcome to diverse cultures' integration into the world practice in english language teaching and learning. the following suggestions were made, based on the results of the study, in order to effectively implement the teaching of diverse cultures in the context of the indonesian efl. students viewed cultural diversity as an opportunity to become culturally sensitive, to learn more, to prepare for their future, and to develop relationships. to develop their english skills and acquire multicultural experience, they chose this university. teachers should be culturally responsive, supporting students' willingness to communicate in english and interact in a multicultural environment. in order to provide different cultural perspectives on an issue and meet various learning needs, they should value diversity. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 446 in terms of current practice, it seemed some students struggled to participate in class and mingle with other cultural groups. they had probably faced various barriers. further research should explore this condition. then, perceived differences in their classmates' ability to understand the subjects suggest that actions should be taken to individualize the experience of learning. teachers should be better able to reconcile different students' readiness to understand subjects. just knowing that all students are different from each other is not enough. in the process of second language acquisition, the teacher should also be skilled and willing enough to help the students use these differences to their advantage. the study of individual differences and their pedagogical implications is therefore hoped to further lead to the type of teaching practices that increase the success ratio of second language acquisition. disclosure statement no potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors. references anggraini, h., w. 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(2009). locus of control, interest in schooling, self-efficacy and academic achievement. cypriot journal of educational sciences, 4(3). wu r., wu, r., & le, v.t. (2014). challenges of adults in learning english as a second language: focus on adult education in china, journal of language teaching and research, 5(5), 1132-1138. yousef, h., karimi, h., and janefeshan, k. (2014). the relationship between cultural background and reading comprehension, theory and practice in language studies, 4(4), 707-714. biographical notes hesti wahyuni anggraini is a lecturer at the language and arts education department, faculty of teacher training and education, sriwijaya university, palembang, indonesia; hestiwahyunianggraini@fkip.unsri.ac.id rita hayati is a lecturer at the language and arts education department, faculty of teacher training and education, sriwijaya university, palembang, indonesia; ritahayati78@yahoo.com nova lingga pitaloka is a lecturer at the language and arts education department, faculty of teacher training and education, sriwijaya university, palembang, indonesia; novalinggapitaloka@fkip.unsri.ac.id mailto:hestiwahyunianggraini@fkip.unsri.ac.id mailto:ritahayati78@yahoo.com mailto:novalinggapitaloka@fkip.unsri.ac.id this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 280 motivational framework of academic scholars and student leaders: comparative analysis on achievement and mastery goals rosario f. quicho 1 abstract this study examined the motivational framework of the academic scholars and student leaders in terms of their achievement goals, sense of self, and facilitating conditions. respondents were 163 scholars and 85 student leaders. utilizing the inventory of school motivation, sense of self scale (sos), and facilitating conditions questionnaire (mcinerney et al., 2001), they were purposively chosen since they have different social processes, characteristics, and of different experiences. the survey questionnaire aimed to explore their motivations in pursuing their activities and to recognize their values and goals. anchored on personal investment (pi) theory (maehr & braskamp, 1986), this study explored the similarities and differences of the motivational characteristics of these two groups of students and how they have invest their resources, energy, time and talent. descriptive comparative and causal correlation were used to guide the analysis of this research. pearson r was used to determine the relationship between socio-demographic and academic related characteristics of the respondents and motivational framework, and the inter-correlation of the different components of the motivational framework. results revealed that the two groups have multiple achievement goals. they were high in achievement goals and on mastery goals but differed in performance goals, social goals and extrinsic goals. in terms of sense of self, they have high knowledge and beliefs about oneself and moderate social support (facilitating conditions). these two groups likewise differed in adopting achievement goals, particularly in terms of mastery goals where the academic scholars scored higher in task goals than the student leaders. they also differed in performance goals, particularly in social power where the student leaders got significantly higher score than the academic scholars. keywords achievement goals, academic scholar motivation, mastery goals, student leaders 1. an associate professor at central luzon state university, college of education, department of education and related studies (ders), philippines email; rfquicho@dotclsu.edu.ph mailto:rfquicho@dotclsu.edu.ph irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 281 introduction a number of factors affect students’ behaviors and performance in the school and one of the most influential is motivation. motivation is the attribute that “moves” us to do or not do something (gredler, 2001). it is “the reasons underlying behavior” (guay et al., 2010). igniting a spark of energy and fervor in the students to learn and succeed in academic and life pursuits is a fundamental role of any school. students who are motivated are more likely to engage and complete challenging educational tasks, and are more competent in doing those tasks while students who are not motivated to work hard consequently will not succeed. taking into account the significance of motivation in the educational setting, various motivational theories emerged. one of these is the personal investment (pi) theory. it is a social cognitive theory of motivation which assumes that one’s behavioral investment in a situation is a function of the meaning of the situation to a person. in this theory, meaning is held to be comprised of three interrelated components, namely personal goals or incentives, sense of self characteristics, and perceived behavioral options. pi theory is also particularly relevant in investigations into how individuals of varying social and cultural backgrounds relate to differing achievement situations (maehr & braskamp, 1986; ryan & patrick, 2001). central luzon state university is a prestigious university and one of its major goals is to provide quality and excellence in learning. part of its mission is to develop socially responsible and empowered human resources. it also takes pride in being the center of excellence in various fields as awarded by the commission on higher education (ched). with this premise, it is the institution’s duty and responsibility to produce quality graduates and empowered human resources. however, in materializing this institution’s goal and mission, educators need to dig deeply on the factors contributory to the students’ success in their endeavors. one of these is by delving at the motivational framework such as sense of self, achievement goals, and facilitating conditions of the students (ames, 1992; ames & archer, 2008). incorporated in the mission and goal of the university is honing the knowledge, skills, and values of students. two significant groups of students of varying social backgrounds are considered to be affront in the realization of the stated objectives, the academic scholars and student leaders. however, they are of opposing poles (bernardo, 2008). while academic scholars are observed excelling in academics but are not participative in terms of leading student organizations, the student leaders are observed very active in leading organizations but are observed not performing well academically. thus, they may be playing on a different motivational framework. though different in terms of social aspects, they are assumed to play important roles in our society in the future. heads and leaders of the different offices, institutions, and organizations in our country in the future are assumed to emanate from these two important groups of students. exploring intently, the academic scholars or the honors students are known as “superior” to other students in an institution or of “high ability” or “the best and brightest”(achterberg, 2005), are quirkier and more engaged, and are subject to the same problems, frustrations, and anxieties as their non-scholar counterparts (kaczvinsky, 2007). the student leaders, on the other hand, are the people in-charge of a students’ group or irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 282 organization that are expected to provide social and emotional support to the group by listening, acknowledging, teambuilding, and supporting other members. they provide direction and assistance to the group in accomplishing their tasks. the academic scholars and student leaders are two groups with different social processes, characteristics, and of different experiences. it would be interesting to know their motivations in pursuing their activities and to recognize their values and goals. considering the significant roles these groups will carry out in the university today and in the future, it would be imperative to guide these students in establishing appropriate values and goals which are positive predictors of better-quality performances. the difference in social bearing between these two groups is manifested in their motivational behaviour (elliot, 1999; elloit & dweck, 2005; skinner et al., 2008). while the academic scholars are particularly known to achieve and succeed in most if not all of their scholastic achievement, they are usually observed to have difficulty in collaborative tasks. because they are more of self-reliance and personal achievement, they are somehow confused performing consistently well in both individual and group activities. and because most of them are very competitive individually, they are prone to compete against a given standard or to an extent to the rest of the group. the student leaders, however, are inclined to leading and working with a group, they are more sensitive to the aspiration and needs of the members of the group than their own. they do not compete but rather they work with them so as not only to achieve individually but collaboratively (legault & green-demers, 2006; ganotize et al., 2012). undeniably, academic scholars and student leaders are two important but different groups of students. albeit in some situations, the academic scholars turn out to be student leaders as well. stirred up with the personal investment theory, this study explored the similarities and differences of the motivational characteristics of these two groups of students. 1. how do these two significant groups of students invest their resources – energy, time and talent? 2. do they have sensible purpose and confidence in performing curricular, co-curricular, and extra-curricular tasks? 3. how do they set their goals such as mastery goals, performance goals, social goals, and extrinsic goals? 4. what is the social dimension of their schooling? the students act within the context of the meaning they give to the situation. meaning and motivation are inextricably linked. the meaning of the situation to the individual determines personal investment and knowing the meanings individuals hold allows us to predict how and when they will invest their time and energyin their jobs or in other activities. in short, people invest themselves in certain activities depending on the meaning these activities have for them (maehr & braskamp, 1986; hardre & reeve, 2003; jenning, 2003; rusillo & arias, 2004). investigating these students’ background is essential because these characteristics can be extremely influential in affecting students’ attitudes toward schooling, as well as in performing other undertakings. irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 283 methodology respondents of the study the respondents of the study were the 163 academic scholars and 85 student leaders of central luzon state university. the academic scholars were the university scholars who obtained a gpa of 1.50 and above, and the college scholars who obtained a gpa of 1.51 to 1.75 during the preceding semester. included in the student leaders were the elected and appointed leaders or presidents of the different student organizations such as university supreme student council, college student organizations, fraternities/sororities, college based organizations, non-college based organizations, campus ministry, clsu collegian, and student organizations in the dormitories. research design descriptive comparative and causal correlation were used to guide the analysis of this research. specifically, specific data to describe the clsu academic scholars and student leaders were gathered regarding their socio-demographic characteristics and motivational framework such as achievement goals, sense of self and facilitating conditions. processing intensely, students who were academic scholars and student leaders were compared based on the variables earlier mentioned. data on demographic characteristics such as age, gender, ethnicity, religion, family size, monthly family income, and academic related characteristics such as high school attended, high school general average, college admission test scores, course pursued, year level, academic load and academic performance of the two groups of students were correlated to their sense of self, achievement goals, and facilitating conditions. the motivational framework of the two groups of respondents such as achievement goals, sense of self and facilitating conditions were also correlated. research instruments the study utilized four instruments. the first instrument was a questionnaire developed by the researcher which was used in obtaining the data for the socio-demographic and academic related characteristics of the students and in gathering answers on what motivate the academic scholars to excel in their studies, the satisfaction they got from it, and the reasons why the student leaders choose to be leaders of the organizations and the satisfaction they got from it. the other three instruments were adopted affective instruments which were used in determining the motivational characteristics of the two groups of students: inventory of school motivation (ism), sense of self scale, (sos) and facilitating conditions questionnaire (fcq). questions from the affective instruments were answered using a five-point likert-type scale anchored on 1 (strongly disagree) and 5 (strongly agree). a letter of request to use the said instruments was sent to dr. dennis m. mcinerney, the one who developed the instrument, through electronic mail. irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 284 data gathering procedure a letter of request to conduct the study was sent to the vice president for academic affairs and to the deans of the different colleges in the university. with the questionnaires given to the students, the researcher gathered the data regarding their age, gender, ethnicity, religion, family size, monthly family income, high school attended, course pursued, year level, and academic load. the academic scholars were asked what motivates them to excel in their studies and the satisfaction they got from it while the student leaders were asked on the reason why they have chosen to be leader of the organization and the satisfaction they got from it. their responses on the three affective instruments: sense of self scale, (sos), inventory of school motivation (ism), and facilitating conditions questionnaire (fcq) were also gathered. in gathering the data for the student leaders, questionnaires were distributed during the assembly meeting of all the heads of the student organizations at the office of student affairs which was conducted on the second week after the opening of classes. for the presidents of the different students’ dormitories, the researcher personally asked the dormitory managers or house parents to allow her to give the questionnaires to the presidents. collection was done every 7:30 in the evening during school days, the time when the students were expected to be inside the dormitories. the different college registrars were also requested to convene the academic scholars and the president of the college council under their jurisdiction and they distributed the questionnaires. a letter of request was also given to the director of the clsu office of admission to allow the researcher to acquire the other needed data. these include the respondents’ clsu cat score, high school general average and academic performance (grade point average). methods of data analysis descriptive statistics was used to analyze the data on socio-demographic and academic related characteristics of academic scholars and student leaders, and their motivational framework such as achievement goals, sense of self, and facilitating conditions. pearson r was used to determine the relationship between socio-demographic and academic related characteristics of the respondents and motivational framework, and the inter-correlation of the different components of the motivational framework. to compare the motivational framework of the two groups of respondents, t-test was used. for purposes of computing relationship among variables, ethnicity was later recoded as ilocano (1), tagalog (2), and others (3) since the tagalog predominated in the sample. the same procedure was done for religion where the variable was recorded as catholic (1) and noncatholic (2). irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 285 findings and discussion comparison of the motivational framework of the academic scholars and student leaders achievement goals, a significant difference was noted in the mastery goals of the two groups of respondents, specifically to task goals ( t =-2.05). a higher mean score was obtained by the academic scholars ( x  =4.55) compared with the student leaders ( x  =4.44). probably, the difference can be explained by the fact that the academic scholars were more focused in their academic lessons, in mastering academic skills, and improvement in their school work compared with the student leaders. the student leaders had the desire to improve their leadership skills, to develop their personality such as expressing their ideas, and being in-charge of the group. task is a significant academic endeavor for academic scholars. one of its primary duties involves focusing on academics. because academic scholars are considered the cream of the crop of an institution, probably they are more concerned with their grades. by doing so, this group of students might believe that they maintain their scholarship through high grades. furthermore, mastery of academic skills is possibly necessary to maintain their academic standing. as assumed, perseverance and persistence are closely knitted to developing academic skills. through the art of repetition, specific skills might be gradually developed to its fullest potential. frustrations along the road are inevitable. however, academic scholars possibly can adapt to certain situation, and move forward to master higher level of skills. a significant difference was obtained in social power ( t =3.355). the student leaders obtained significantly higher score on social power ( x  =3.05) than the academic scholars ( x  =2.67). the reason for this difference may be the fact that the academic scholars were more focused in their studies rather than to be leaders of organization. table 1. comparison of the motivational framework of the academic scholars and student leaders motivational framework mean of the respondents academic scholars (n=163) student leaders (n=85) t -value a. achievement goals 3.69 3.77 1.411 1. mastery 4.38 4.35 -.469 task 4.55 4.44 -2.051* effort 4.20 4.26 1.030 2. performance 2.90 3.19 2.815 competition 3.12 3.33 1.721 social power 2.67 3.05 3.355** 3. social 4.02 4.07 .831 affiliation 3.89 3.94 .520 social concern 4.14 4.21 .932 irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 286 table 1. continued… 4. extrinsic 3.49 3.45 -.371 praise 3.79 3.87 .723 token 3.18 3.04 -1.367 b. sense of self 3.62 3.61 -.171 1. sense of purpose 4.71 4.56 -2.553** 2. sense of reliance 3.71 3.78 1.041 3.negative self esteem 2.40 2.42 .269 4. positive self esteem 3.66 3.68 .222 c .facilitating conditions 3.37 3.42 1.108 1. further education intention 4.17 4.131 -.468 2. school valuing 4.49 4.41 -1.372 3. parent support 3.38 3.42 .331 4. teacher support 3.63 3.67 .456 5. peer help 3.95 3.99 .384 6. leave school 1.57 1.82 2.160* 7. pride from others 4.10 4.05 -.442 8. negative parent influence 1.49 1.59 1.096 9. affect to school 4.32 4.25 -.899 10. negative peer influence 2.01 2.35 2.855** 11. positive peer influence 4.00 3.98 -.242 legend: * significant (p<.05) ** highly significant (p<.01) they were in their sophomore year where the number of units enrolled ranging from 20 – 27 units for the non-science courses and 19 – 24 units for the science courses. becoming a leader probably was not their primary concern. on the part of the student leaders, since majority of them were in their senior years (64.7%) and majority were under load (had enrolled as low as 3 units), they had ample time for other activities, such as leading organizations. student leaders want to serve students relative to their studies, concerns and problems and school culture. for instance, student life in the dormitories is quite complex especially for those who come from remote areas or first time to live independently away from their parents. adapting to the new environment is quite challenging for them. student leaders play a significant role in serving the student population who are likely on same situation. student leaders can counsel, console, guide, and assist students who are experiencing environmental adjustment. more so, by giving supplemental support to students, student leaders can enhance leadership skills. these skills involve handling/managing a specific group of students and organization, constructing and implementing guidelines and learning to communicate and irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 287 mingle with other people in the community. once they developed their ability as leaders, they may be able to influence others of their leadership qualities. this seems to be the most vital element of a student leader, a person who can not only influence others but also implement change. for the social and extrinsic goals, no significant difference was obtained. both groups scored high. sense of self, the findings reveal high significant difference in the sense of purpose ( t =-2.553) of the two groups of respondents where higher mean was observed from the academic scholars ( x  =4.71) against the mean scored by the student leaders ( x  =4.56). this result can possibly be explained by the fact the academic scholars value education for the future was more evident compared with the student leaders. they are more focused in their academic work compared with student leaders whose priority is their being leader of their respective organization. facilitating conditions, significant difference was recorded in leaving school of the two groups of respondents ( t =2.160). both groups scored low mean for leaving school, with the student leaders scoring a little bit higher ( x  =1.82) than the academic scholars ( x  =1.57). the academic scholars had parents who motivated them to perform well in the school, monitoring their academic progress, and were supporting their academic activities. they had also very good academic performance. with the conglomeration of data gathered for the academic scholars, it can be concluded that the academic scholars had no intention of leaving the school and were more determined to stay in the university and finish their course on time. with the case of the student leaders, majority of them were in their senior years, stayed in the university longer than the number of years required for their courses, most of them were irregular students with grades ranging from conditional to excellent. given these facts, the parents of the student leaders probably tend to negatively influence their children of quitting schooling. this may be associated with additional semester for the student leaders and additional financial burden on the part of the parents. probably, the parents encourage their children to leave school and find a job. results also showed high significant difference in the negative peer influence ( t =2.855) of the two groups of respondents. the mean for the student leaders was x  =2.35 which was significantly higher than with the academic scholars’ ( x  =2.01). this means that student leaders were more likely influenced by their friends. unlike the academic scholars who were influencing their friends to excel in their studies. for the student leaders, the condition was different. conducting organization activities in order to comply with the requirements of the office of student affairs made possible the development of camaraderie and closeness among members. even after the activities were already conducted, they still want each other’s company. consistently doing this may sacrifice attendance to their classes and may eventually lead to sacrificing their grades. irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 288 relationship between socio-demographic and academic related characteristics and motivational framework in terms of achievement goals of academic scholars and student leaders three socio-demographic characteristics of the academic scholars and student leaders were highly correlated with achievement goals. these were age (r =.246), course pursued (r =.191), and year level (r =.255). similarly, gender (r =.157), and ethnicity (r = -.132), were also found as having significant correlation with achievement goals. these findings suggest that these variables can highly predispose the achievement goals of the academic scholars and student leaders. age was found to be significantly correlated particularly in the performance goals and social goals. this implies that the older the scholars and the leaders, the higher their adoption to performance goals and social goals. performance goals are related with competition and being in-charge of the group while social goals are related with the desire of working with others and showing care and concern with others. the findings suggest that the older are the students, the higher are their performance and social goals. a high significant correlation was also observed between course pursued and achievement goals (r = .191), particularly in performance goals and extrinsic goals. this suggests that the non-science students tend to have higher pursuance of performance goals and extrinsic goals compared to those who pursued science courses. this finding can be attributed to the fact that since the students who were enrolled in science courses pursued more difficult curricular subjects, they had lesser time pursuing competition within the group, but they would rather work with their peers in doing their works and other projects. in terms of extrinsic goals, the students enrolled in non-science courses tend to seek praises and recognitions from their parents, teachers, and peers. based on the researcher’s observation while gathering data for the academic performance of the respondents, it was identified that those enrolled in the science courses were more superior than those in the non-science courses in terms of their gpa. another variable having a high significant correlation with achievement goals was year level (r =.255). this implies that the higher the curricular level of the students, the higher their acceptability to performance and social goals. the fourth year students were higher in terms of performance and social goals than sophomores. this is probably true because those in the higher curricular level were more adjusted to academic works. table 2. relationship between socio-demographic and academic related characteristics and motivational framework in terms of achievement goals of the academic scholars and student leaders mastery performance social extrinsic achievement goals socio-demographic characteristics age .041 .250** .172** .121 .246** gender .186** .024 .177** .099 .157* irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 289 table 2. continued… ethnicity .001 .252** -.034 -.140 -.132* religion .074 -.014 -.095 -.022 -.034 family size -.005 .070 .032 -.050 .023 monthly family income .069 -.047 .137* -.028 .026 academic related characteristics high school attended .034 .028 -.032 -.059 .016 high school general average .159* -.110 .056 .047 .020 college admission test score .059 -.124 .025 -.026 -.052 course pursued .004 .178** .040 .199** .191** year level .067 .292** .166** .083 .255** academic load -.021 .031 -.035 .074 .031 academic performance -.019 .206** -.036 .018 .095 avenue for them to devote time to build relationship with other people. in the case of student leaders, majority of them were in their senior years and enrolled only few numbers of units (as low as 3 units). this offers them longer time to spend on establishing good relationship with other students, to become leaders, and to try winning on competitions. this study also revealed significant relationship between gender and achievement goals particularly mastery goals (r =.186) and social goals (r =.177). this implies that females tend to have higher adjustment achievement goals and social goals compared to males. this can be further explained that females are more persevering in doing their academic works and in mastering academic skills. as cited in the article “loving beyond our gender-personalities,” females tend to have more admirable characteristics like being sympathetic, empathetic, compassionate, caring, kind, helpful and cooperative than males. the significant relationship (r =.252) between ethnicity and performance goals was also noted. students who are tagalogs and those belonging to other ethnic groups tend to have higher adoptability to performance goals than ilocanos. probably, these students have more ardent desire of winning competitions and being in-charge of groups. likewise, academic performance was also significantly correlated with performance goals. students who have high grade point average tend to pursue performance goals. probably, the competition they are aspiring are academic related competitions and being in-charge of doing classroom activities. in addition, high school general average was also found as having significant relationship with mastery goals. students who got high school grade average in high school tend to pursue mastery goals. these students were intrinsically self-motivated and had the innate desire to master academic skills and exert effort in their studies. irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 290 relationship between socio-demographic and academic related characteristics and motivational framework in terms of sense of self of the academic scholars and student leaders table 3 reveals that the socio-demographic and academic related characteristics of the academic scholars and student leaders showed no significant correlation with their adopted sense of self, except for age, monthly income, high school general average, course pursued, and year level which have significant correlation with some of the components of sense of self. age was found to have high significant relationship (r = .214) with sense of reliance. this implies that students who are older tend to have higher sense of reliance or the confidence in doing academic works than their younger counterpart. course pursued was also found as having significant correlation with sense of reliance (r =.174). this explains that the students enrolled in the non-science courses tend to have higher degree of pursuing sense of reliance. this can probably be explained by the fact that since these students enrolled curricular subjects which are less difficult and less complicated compared with enrolling science courses that entail a lot of laboratory activities and requirements, it is most likely that self-reliance was developed among them. they rely more on their ability. on the other hand, those enrolled in science courses tend to engage in collaborative effort. moreover, a highly significant correlation was also observed between year level and sense of reliance (r =.200) which means that those in the higher curricular year tend to develop more sense of reliance. since they were in the later years of their studies, as earlier stated, they had developed more independence and confidence in doing their work. similarly, significant correlation was also observed between high school grade point average and two components of sense of self: sense of purpose (r =.154) and negative self-esteem (r =-.128). students who had high grade point average in high school tend to have high sense of purpose and low negative self-esteem. as described by mcinerney et al. (2001) these are students who value school more for the future and have low hold of negative feelings about their general intellectual ability at school. finally, income was also having significant correlation with positive self-esteem which implies that students who have high family income tend to have higher degree of pursuance of positive self-esteem. since these students are financially secured, probably they have nothing to worry about in terms of the expenses which they may incur. this contributed in developing positive feeling that they have the ability to finish their studies. table 3. relationship between socio-demographic and academic related characteristics and motivational framework in terms of sense of self of the academic scholars and student leaders sense of purpose sense of reliance negative self-esteem positive self esteem sense of self socio-demographic characteristics age .063 .214** -.031 .085 .123 irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 291 table 3. continued… gender .117 -.077 -.102 -.042 -.059 ethnicity -.053 -.077 .066 .016 .006 religion .004 .057 .009 -.103 -.032 family size .002 -.017 .024 .076 .043 monthly family income -.038 .026 .055 .149* .045 academic related characteristics high school attended -.013 .068 .075 .096 .101 high school general average .154* -.029 -.128* -.003 -.022 college admission test score .113 .026 .083 .012 .012 course pursued .025 .174** -.022 .116 .116 year level .029 .200** .016 .088 .116 academic load .121 .016 .003 .036 .061 academic performance -.111 .003 .079 .027 .016 relationship between socio-demographic and academic related characteristics and motivational framework in terms of facilitating conditions of the academic scholars and student leaders in general, only one socio-demographic variable, the college admission test score, had negative high correlation with facilitating conditions (r = -.188). this implies that students who got high cat percentile scores tend to have fewer tendencies to leave school. cat score also showed high significant correlation with negative peer influence (r = -.188). this means that students who have high cat percentile scores tend not to be influenced negatively by their friends in leaving school and looking for job. academic load was found having significant correlation with further educational intention (r =.170), school valuing (r = .175), and a significant correlation with leave school (r =-.146). this implies that those students who were enrolled in full load and overload have more desire to further their studies, value school highly, and have lesser intention of leaving school. this finding is very apparent with their desire to finish their studies with the prescribed number of years in their curricular program. another socio-demographic characteristic that showed significant correlations with facilitating condition was gender. specifically, gender was high significantly correlated with school valuing (r = .201), leaving school (r = -.251), negative parent influence (r = -.211), negative peer influence (r = -.318) and with further educational intention (r =.176), pride from others (r = .173), and positive peer influence (r = .149). these results imply that females tend to value schooling, have no intention of leaving school, are not influenced negatively by their parents and by their friends. furthermore, females have higher intention of furthering their studies or pursue graduate degree, put more importance on the pride of parents, teachers and peers, and receive positive influences from their friends. high school general average also showed high significant correlation with leaving school (r =-.221), negative parent influence (r =-.188), and negative peer influence (r =-.195). similarly, it also showed significant correlation with school valuing (r =.143), and affect to school (r =.154). irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 292 students who obtained high grades in high school tend not to be advised by parents to leave school, not receiving negative encouragement from parents, and not receiving negative influence from their friends, like leaving school. moreover, these students tend to value schooling and show high affection to school. significant correlation was also obtained between age and parent support (r =.132) and pride from others (r =.128). this suggests that older students get more support from their parents, and feel the importance of pride coming from their parents, teachers, and peers. since they were near the end of their studies, this is the time where the students need more emotional and financial supports from their parents and feel the pride of their parents in their approaching graduation. ethnicity was also significantly correlated with negative parent influence (r = .162). tagalogs and other students coming from other ethnic groups tend not to receive negative parent influence. additionally, religion was found as having significant correlation with affect to school (r =-.140). this explains that the noncatholics were showing more positive concern about schooling compared to the catholics. as described by mcinerney et al. (2005) these students show more fondness or predilection in studying and doing their schoolwork and are showing the feeling of excitement and happiness in learning new things. similarly, significant correlation was found between high school attended and affect to school (r =-.128) which explains that those who graduated in private schools put higher regards to schooling compared with those who graduated in the public schools. this can be explained by the fact that since some private schools are operated by religious group, religious and character building lessons are included in their curriculum. probably, the values of putting importance to education are included here and were inculcated to the students. year level was also correlated with negative parent influence (r =-.132). the students who are in their senior years tend not to receive negative influence from their parents. encouragement was given probably by their parents to prioritize schooling since they are near the end of their tertiary education. furthermore, course pursued was observed as having significant correlation with further educational intention (r = .136). those pursuing non-science courses tend to aspire for further education or to pursue graduate school. this can be explained by the fact that the competition for hiring graduates from non-science courses, and competition for promotion are very stiffed, students already have a vision of not just finishing their college degrees but further attain advance studies. similarly, academic performance was found as having significant correlation with school valuing (r =-.138), leaving school (r =.171), and negative peer influence (r =.150). students who have high grade point average tend to value or give more importance to education, tend not to leave school but rather persevere to finish their education, and tend not to entertain negative influence from their friends. this finding coincides with the high mean score of the respondents to mastery goals ( x  = 4.37) which emphasizes persistence and perseverance in mastering academic skills. sources of motivation of the academic scholars motivation serves as energy drive or intention to engage in different learning activities. it is an internal state that arouses, directs and maintains behavior. table 4 presents irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 293 the sources of motivation of the academic scholars in order to excel in their studies. these sources contributed enormously to whatever academic accomplishment they had. based on the open-ended responses of the academic scholars, parents and family were their primary sources of motivation. this implies the significant involvement of parents in the educational undertakings of their children. this finding shows congruency with the high mean score obtained by the academic scholars in their motivational framework particularly on parent support ( x  =3.38), pride from others ( x  =4.10), and their low mean score in negative parent influence ( x  =1.49). the finding implies that the parents were supporting the respondents in their studies, paying attention to their academic performances, concerned regarding their future, and showing pride of the accomplishments of their children. these motivated the academic scholars to excel. this finding was consistent with the previous studies on parental involvement (bandura, barbaranelli, caprara, & pastorelli, 1996; epstein & van voorhis, 2001; grolnick & slowiaczek, 1994; henderson & mapp, 2002). children have long been believed to be associated with a range of enhanced school outcomes for students, including varied indicators of achievement and the development of student attributes that support achievement. research also indicates that active involvement of parents in the education of their children in general yields relevant students’ achievement outcome: learning and success table 4. sources of motivation of the academic scholars to excel in their studies motivation frequency (n=163) parents and family, and the sacrifices done by parents in supporting his/her studies 106 the desire to 293ulfil their dreams, gain good future, and get rid of poverty 58 friends’ and peers’ expectations and advice 21 rewards like scholarship, distinction/honor, praises, and the desire to graduate with flying colors 18 the lord god who gives everything 7 the desire to gain more/additional knowledge 5 competition with other students 3 the teachers 2 *multiple response second, the desire to fulfill their dreams, gain good future, and get rid of poverty were also identified as sources of their motivation. this revelation is particularly true to the academic scholars who were hard up and were considering the attainment of education as their way to get rid of poverty. having this motivation, they became more focused in learning and mastering academic skills, more persistent and perseverant in their studies, amidst difficulties in learning. in addition, the academic scholars also had high mean score for sense of purpose ( x  =4.71) where it explains that the academic scholars were trying hard in their studies so they can finish a college degree and will have better future. the academic scholars also had high school valuing ( x  =4.49) which means that they were doing well in the school so they can finish their studies and have better future. furthermore, they also had high mean score for affect to school ( x  =4.32) which explains of the respondents real interest in studying. irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 294 third, another source of motivation was their friends’ and peers’ expectations and advice. this suggests the important roles played by the friends and peers in their lives. this can be proven by their high mean score for positive peer influence ( x  =4.00) and the low mean score for negative peer influence ( x  =2.01). as asserted by johnson, johnson, and anderson, (1983), students may also perceive support from their classmates in terms of feeling cared about, both as a person and as a student with respect to their academic learning. fourth, rewards received by the academic scholars like scholarship; distinction/honor, praises, and the desire to graduate with flying colors were also identified as one of the sources of motivation. this can be supported by their high mean score for praise ( x  =3.79) which explains the importance of praises from parents, teachers, and peers when complying with academic works. the moderate high mean score of the respondents for the token likewise justifies this finding ( x  =3.04) which explains the importance of receiving rewards from significant others when they do school work. lastly, other sources of motivation that had been identified include strong faith of the academic scholars to the heavenly father who gave them everything they need, and the desire to gain more or additional knowledge. this is being supported by their high mean score for effort ( x  =4.20) where the students work hard to understand new things at school. however, competition among students and teacher influence were considered the lowest sources of motivation. among the 163 respondents, it is a lament to know that only two revealed that their teachers motivated them. teachers, as claimed by many researchers, are considered as important and influential persons in the students’ life. teachers exert a powerful influence on the formation of academic perceptions and development of academic behaviors (goodenow, 1993; wentzel, 1998a, 1998b). they can influence motivational features of the classroom learning environment (deci & ryan, 1985). perceived support from teachers has been shown to be strongly related to prosocial and responsible behavior, educational aspirations, intrinsic values, and enhanced self-concept (goodenow & grady, 1994; harter, 1996; wigfield & rodriguez, 1998). there are many powerful ways on how teachers influence their students, but these seem fell short as presented by the findings of this study. satisfaction obtained from being academic scholars table 5 presents the satisfaction obtained by the academic scholars in chronological order as revealed by this study. self-fulfillment and being proud of oneself were disclosed by the respondents as their primary satisfaction. probably, these were the outcomes of the effort they exerted in their studies since they have obtained very high mean score for effort ( x  =4.20). pride of parents and family followed next. these indicate the satisfaction of their parents being proud of their academic achievements. fulfillments in getting high grades and contentment in retaining the scholarship were also considered as important elements of their satisfaction. the rewards the scholars received after working hard and performing well in class gave them satisfaction. furthermore, happiness of knowing that better future awaits was also identified as contributing factor to their satisfaction. this satisfaction of the scholar respondents corresponds to their very high mean score on sense of purpose. ( x  =4.71). irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 295 table 5. satisfaction obtained from being academic scholars satisfaction frequency (n=163) self-fulfillment and being proud of oneself 68 pride of parents and family 53 fulfillment in getting high grades 20 contentment in retaining the scholarship 18 happiness of knowing that better future awaits them 16 confidence in facing other people 10 the feeling of being worthy, loved, and appreciated 8 pride of friends and peers 7 the feeling of being blessed 4 *multiple response similarly, confidence in facing other people was another source of satisfaction. this finding was probably related to their economic status in life where academic scholars, who were hard up, usually have confidence in facing other people regardless of their status. moreover, the feeling of being worthy, loved, and appreciated by the significant people in the scholar respondents’ lives like parents, and other members of the family, teachers, friends, and peers contributed to their satisfaction. pridefulness of friends and peers and the feeling of being blessed were least identified as forms of their satisfaction. the former was congruent with the high mean score of academic scholars to pride from others ( x  =4.10) which most likely suggest the important role of pridefulness of friends and peers. the latter was a form of recognition from above for those academic scholars who had great faith in the almighty god. reasons for choosing to be leader of the organization table 6 depicts the reasons given by the student leaders in choosing to become leaders of the organizations. the primary reason identified was to serve their fellow students by way of helping them with their problems and concern. this concession reflects the social concern of the student leaders. caring and helping other people were always their primary concern and part of their goals as leaders. table 6. reasons for choosing to be leader of the organization reasons for being leaders frequency(n=85) to serve my fellow students by helping them with their problems and concern 47 to improve/develop more my leadership skills 41 it is a good training that can prepare me to the real world outside the school 20 to inspire and influence other people to become competitive, helpful, cooperative 17 to develop my personality like gaining more confidence, expressing my ideas, and establishing good relationship with others 13 likewise, the belief that they are qualified, or have the capacity to be leaders, and by becoming leaders will improve/develop more their leadership skills, was irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 296 also identified as one of the reasons to lead certain organization. this statement shows the social power of the student leaders where they got moderately high mean score ( x  =3.05). this implies their strong desire to be leaders. in addition, to be a leader is a good training that can prepare them to the real world outside the school. this satisfaction of the student leaders reveals their sense of purpose not only on their school works but also on their task as leaders. to develop their personality like gaining more confidence, expressing their ideas, and establishing good relationship with others emerged as reasons for students to become leader. satisfaction gained from being a leader self-fulfillment or selfsatisfaction and enjoyment in helping their fellow students emerged as the primary form of satisfaction gained from being a leader. more so, personality development to become more socialized and responsible appeared to be a vital context of their satisfaction. these fulfillments kicked in to their contribution to the development of organization and the members. recognition received by the student leaders from other people regarding their good performance boosted their satisfaction. lastly, trust gained from the members of the organization was least satisfaction of being a leader. the assertion done by the student leaders about their gained satisfaction from being a leader reflected the different goals they pursued, primarily their social concern, extrinsic goal in the form of recognition, and their task goal. table 7. satisfaction gained from being a leader satisfaction frequency (n=85) self-fulfillment/selfsatisfaction and enjoyment in helping my fellow students 49 development of personality (to become more socialized, and more responsible) 29 contributed to the development of the organizations and the members 21 recognition received from other people regarding my good performance 13 gained more experiences and learned new things 6 gained trust from the members of the organization 5 established strong relationship with other people/organizations 4 *multiple response conclusion student leaders were more likely influenced by their friends unlike the academic scholars who were influencing their friends to excel in their studies. students who got high school grade average in high school tend to pursue mastery goals. these students were intrinsically self-motivated and had the innate desire to master academic skills and exert effort in their studies. academic load was found having significant correlation with further educational intention, school valuing, and a significant correlation with leave school. this implies that those students who were enrolled in full load and overload have more irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 297 desire to further their studies, value school highly, and have lesser intention of leaving school. this finding is very apparent with their desire to finish their studies with the prescribed number of years in their curricular program. confidence in facing other people was another source of satisfaction. this finding was probably related to their economic status in life where academic scholars, who were hard up, usually have confidence in facing other people regardless of their status. this statement shows the social power of the student leaders. this implies their strong desire to be leaders. furthermore, to be a leader is a good training that can prepare them to the real world outside the school. this satisfaction of the student leaders reveals their sense of purpose not only on their school works but also on their task as leaders. to develop their personality like gaining more confidence, expressing their ideas, and establishing good relationship with others emerged as reasons for students to become leader. references achterberg, c. 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(1999). approach and avoidance motivation and achievement goals. educational psychologist, 34 (1), 169-119. elliot, a. j., & dweck, c. s. (2005). handbook of competence and motivation. new york: guilford. epstein, j. l., & vanvoorhis, f.l. (2001). more than minutes: teachers’ roles in designing homework. educational psychologist, 36(1), 181–193. ganotice, f. a., bernardo, a. b., & king, r. b.(2012). testing the factorial invariance of the english and filipino versions of the inventory of school motivation with bilingual students in the philippines. journal of psycho educational assessment, 30(1), 298-303. goodenow, c. (1993). classroom belonging among early adolescent students: relationships to motivation and achievement. journal of early adolescence, 13(1), 21-43. goodenow, c., & grady, k. e. (1994). the relationship of school belonging and friends’ values to academic motivation among urban adolescents. journal of experimental education, 62(1), 60-71. grolnick, w. s., & slowiaczek, m. l. (1994). parents’ involvement in children’s schooling: a multidimensional conceptualization and motivational model. child development, 65(1), 237–252. irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 298 gredler, m. e. (2001). learning and instruction: theory into practice (4th ed.). prenticehall, inc., upper saddle river, new jersey. guay, f., chanal, j., ratelle, c. f., marsh, h. w. la rose, s., & boivin, m.(2010). intrinsic, identified, and controlled types of motivation for school subjects in young elementary school children. british journal of educational psychology, 80(4), 711–735. hardre, p. l., & reeve, j. (2003). a motivational model of rural students’ intentions to persist in, versus drop out of, high school. journal of educational psychology, 95(1), 347– 356. harter, s. (1996). teacher and classmate influences on scholastic motivation, self-esteem, and level of voice in adolescents. in j. juvonen & k. r. wentzel (eds.), social motivation: understanding children’s school adjustment (pp. 11-42). new york: cambridge university press. henderson, a. t., & mapp, k. l. (2002). a new wave of evidence: the impact of school, family, and community connections on student achievement. austin, tx: southwest educational laboratory. jennings, g. (2003). an exploration of meaningful participation and caring relationships as contexts for school engagement. the california school psychologist, 8(1), 43-52. legault, l., & green-demers, i. (2006). why do high school students lack motivation in the classroom? toward an understanding of academic amotivation and the role of social support. journal of educational psychology, 98(1), 567–582. kaczvinsky, d. (2007). what is an honors student? a noel-levitz survey. journal of the national collegiate honors council. online archive. 49.http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/nchcjournal/4 maehr, m. l., & braskamp, l. a. (1986). the motivation factor: a theory of personal investment. lexington, ma: lexington books. mcinerney, d. m., dowson, m., & yeung, a. s. (2005). facilitating conditions for school motivation: construct validity and applicability. educational and psychological measurement, 65(1), 1-21. mcinerney, d.m., hinkley, j., dowson, k., & etten, s.v. (2001). aboriginal, anglo, and immigrant australian students’ motivational beliefs about personal academic success: are there cultural differences? journal of educational psychology, 90(1), 621-629. rusillo, m.t. and arias, p.f..(2004). gender differences in academic motivation of secondary school students.electronic. journal of research in educational psychology, 2(1), 97-112. ryan, a. m., & patrick, h. (2001). the classroom social environment and changes in adolescents’ motivation and engagement during middle school. american educational research journal, 38 (2), 437–460. skinner, e., furrer, c., marchand, g., & kindermann, t. (2008). engagement and disaffection in the classroom: part of a larger motivational dynamic? journal of educational psychology, 100(1), 765-781. wentzel, k. r. (1998a). friendships, peer acceptance, and group membership: relations to academic achievement in middle school. child development, 68(1), 1198-1209. wentzel, k. r. (1998b). social relationships and motivation in middle school: the role of parents, teachers, and peers. journal of educational psychology, 90(2), 202-209. irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 299 wigfield, a. j., & rodriguez, d. (1998). the development of children’s motivation in school contexts. in p. d. pearson & a. iran-nejad (eds.). review of research in education, 23(1), 73-118. biographical notes rosario f. quicho is an associate professor at central luzon state university, department of education and related studies. she finished her doctor of philosophy major in development education at the same institution where she is currently affiliated handling professional education courses. she holds a bachelor in elementary education major in english (magna cum laude) and master of science in educational psychology at wesleyan university philippines. serving as coordinator of the graduate program her research interest includes quantitative researches in student motivation and classroom instruction. email: rfquicho@dotclsu.edu.ph, mailto:rfquicho@dotclsu.edu.ph this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 177 perceived effectiveness on the use of english language in teaching mathematics and science husarida 1 and rolando d. dollete 2 abstract this study investigated the perceived level of effectiveness on the use of english in teaching mathematics and science in one bilingual school in jambi, sumatra, indonesia. students from grades 5 and 6 and six teachers participated in the study by providing data on their experiences in learning and teaching mathematics and science using english medium for instruction. a questionnaire was used in this study consisting of the socio-demographic characteristics of the students and teacher, school factors, perceived level of effectiveness on the use of english in teaching mathematics and science. statistical procedures of descriptive statistics and pearson correlation using spss 20 were used to analyze data. the major findings of the study were (1) most participants perceived that english medium instruction helped them in improving their english reading and writing skills; (2) most participants agreed with the helpfulness of english as a medium instruction; (3) there was no significant relationship between teachers’ socio-demographic characteristics and the perceived level of effectiveness on the use of english in teaching mathematics and science; (4) there was a significant relationship between students’ socio-demographic characteristics and the perceived level of effectiveness on the use of english in teaching mathematics and science; (5) there was a significant relationship between school factors such as facilities and equipment with the perceived level of effectiveness on the use of english in teaching mathematics and sciences perceived by students; (6) there was a negative significant relationship between school factors and the perceived level of effectiveness on the use of english in teaching mathematics and science perceived by teachers. recommendations are also discussed. keywords bilingual education, english as a medium instruction, mathematics and science 1. graduate student, college of education, central luzon state university, science city of munoz, nueva ecija, the philippines; sarikim36@gmail.com 2. faculty member, college of education, central luzon state university, science city of munoz, nueva ecija, the philippines. mailto:sarikim36@gmail.com irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 178 introduction the use of english as medium of communication not only emerged in western countries but also in asian countries, for example in malaysia and indonesia (majhanovich, 2014). some researchers have examined the reasons of english medium for instruction expansion in terms of broader issues such as economic, social, political and educational forces (wilkinson, 2013) or institutional policies that encourage student mobility (altbach & knight, 2007) and global university rankings. the deliberation of the future needs of a country becomes one of the reasons that influences language policy decisions when it comes to the medium of instruction (rogier, 2012), and these decisions are often closely linked to the economic concept of globalization (collins, 2010), with english as medium of instruction, it is believed that it would offer graduates the best opportunities for academic advancement and training as future workers (byun, chu, kim, park, kim, & jung, 2011). as the first foreign language was incorporated into the indonesian education curriculum, the public's response to the teaching of english has never declined. since its introduction as a muatan lokal in the 1990s, english teaching has penetrated rural schools that have been taught since grade 1. the development of the foreign language education is still evolving to the present despite the constraints of teacher availability and teaching resources. bilingualism in indonesia is hotly debated by many scholars (margana, 2015). in 2006, some schools selected by the ministry of national education implemented a program known as rintisan sekolah bertaraf international (translated as the pioneer international standard schools). these schools were directed to develop english language skills through english bilingual education in mathematics and science subjects and to promote habitual english use inside school. in indonesia, there are some schools that already implemented the use of english as medium of instruction in the classroom. they use english to teach subjects such as mathematics and science. the reason for this is because it will help students to improve their english language skill and help them to be globally competitive. the teacher faces the difficulty on how to teach the students with english as a medium instruction even though they will be guided by textbooks that use bilingual language that provided instructions in both bahasa and english. they find more comfort when they use bahasa rather than english. the teacher sometimes teaches by using first language rather than english. the understanding of english in indonesia is still not commendable, because some indonesians think english is not necessary, so they focus on using their first language to teach and learn in the classroom, especially in jambi. there are many scientists and mathematics experts in jambi who cannot understand english and some instruction used by scientists and mathematics experts around the globe. for example, when they have international seminar, they face the difficulties in explaining their research and responding when there is question asked by foreign researcher. sometimes when they want to publish their research, they cannot do it by themselves, but they asked people to translate it. it will be better if they understand it by themselves, so they can express their idea more. that is why, we need to teach them early from elementary, so they can remember and get used to it. but the problem is not all schools in indonesia especially in jambi implement english as medium of instruction in their school, only some private and public schools. this study irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 179 investigated the perceived level of effectiveness on the use of english in teaching mathematics and science in one bilingual school in jambi, sumatra, indonesia. to achieve the purpose of the study, the following questions guided the study: 1. what is the perceived level of effectiveness on the use of english language in teaching mathematics and science as perceived by students and teachers? 2. what is the relationship of teachers and students socio-demographic characteristics and the perceived level of the effectiveness on the use of english in teaching mathematics and science as perceived by students and teachers? 3. what is the relationship between school factors and the perceived level of the effectiveness on the use of english language in teaching mathematics and science as perceived by students and teachers? the study tested the following hypotheses: 1. there is no relationship between the teachers’ and students’ socio-demographic characteristics and the perceived level of effectiveness on the use of english in teaching mathematics and science as perceived by students and teachers. 2. there is no relationship between school factors and the level of the effectiveness on the use of english language in teaching mathematics and science as perceived by students and teachers. literature review socio-demographic characteristics age has been associated with the achievement in mathematics. the uganda national examinations board (2013 as cited by kiwanuka et al. (2015) reported that the mean scores in mathematics of younger students in senior two (grade eight) were higher than those of their older counterparts within the same class. however, ayotola and adedeji (2009) reported that age had an insignificant negative correlation with mathematic achievement of senior two students. sex difference in language development, shows a clear female advantage in verbal ability, was already well established in the literature (lovas, 2011). the reasons for these gender differences are still a matter of some controversy although research literature focuses on three major areas to explain differences: biological gender differences in infancy, gender socialization and fathers’ influence on language development. several studies focus on biological factors to account for gender differences (cho & holditchdavis, 2014; northwestern university, 2008). for example, researchers from northwestern university (2008) found that brain areas associated with language, work harder in girls during language tasks, and that boys and girls rely on very different parts of the brain when performing these tasks. furthermore, they found that language processing is more abstract in girls and more sensory in boys. cho and holditch-davis (2014) argued that prenatal exposure to high levels of testosterone, may account for some of these differences. sex differences are a recurrent theme throughout the literature in academic studies in general and in mathematics studies in particular. mathematics is often considered to be a domain in which boys are higher irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 180 achievers, both in terms of attitude and self-concept. contrary to this, findings showed that mathematics school achievement and grades did not differ significantly between boys and girls (skaalvik & skaalvik, 2004). educational attainment of parents, parents are the supporters of the education of their children. they give financial support and also they help them at home. educational attainment of parents refers to the highest education level that parents have completed. some researchers found out that this factor also affects the students’ achievement in the school. according to kainuwa and yusuf (2013), there exists a difference between children of educated parents and students with parents having completed only primary school or not. they further state that fathers of with university degree; their children perform considerably well and get the highest score in examination. family income, the family income, high or low, can have its impact on student’s achievement in all their learning years. since they are in their early years, their family income can affect their education. some schools and colleges may look carefully to this point. they may ask for family resources and how they can pay their tuition. otherwise, they may not have a place in that college. if the family has a high income at the early stage of the student learning, it may help him/her in that school. this could make a huge difference from students whose family has a high income in his late learning (humlum, 2011). another difference is the environment impact of the families with high/low income to their children is learning. some students from low-income families have difficulties to understand or learn. their vocabulary is less and not that much compared with the other students from different background. also, their way of learning and understanding is different from others, because their parents may not help them at home or they have single parent. if they are poor, then their parents work all day for them, they have no time to help their children with homework. another thing is the stress they have and their family at home. these may affect their grades because no one will help them or even, sometimes, care about their success in schools (jensen, 2013). some schools help and support students from low-income families. they provide them with computers and some materials for better learning. these kinds of schools are built to help these students outside schools (demski, 2011). teacher education level and teacher’s preparation teachers are the ones who facilitate teaching and learning process. they are the ones who guide students in the teaching and learning process. the more professional are the teachers, the more strategies and techniques that they will use to support the teaching and learning process. buddin and zamarro (2009) found that “advanced level teachers’ educational degrees had no bearing on students’ gain” (p. 104). the effect of teachers’ professional qualification of student achievement was also not significant in this study. teachers who were more qualified academically and professionally did not reveal excellent results as compared to those less professionally sound and qualified. buddin and zamarro (2009) noticed that teacher quality has a considerable effect on the student achievement, but the qualification in both academic and professional showed a negative correlation effect on student achievement. irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 181 a value-added study in louisiana in 2008 of more than 1,200 new mathematics, reading, language arts, science, and social studies teachers from 10 school districts found that certified teachers were more effective than uncertified teachers in increasing their students’ achievement. noell, porter, patt, and dahir (2008) analyzed the state test scores of students in grades 4-9 and found negative impacts on student performance linked to teachers’ lack of training within the field in which they were teaching. the findings were statistically significant (at p<0.001), and particularly large effects were found for mathematics, language arts, and social studies teaching. the researchers concluded that teachers who were certified in the content area they were teaching were more effective than those not certified to teach that content. a well-controlled 2005 study used longitudinal, individuallevel data for 132,000 students from houston to examine 4th and 5th graders’ achievement gains on six different reading and mathematics tests over a 6-year period. researchers, darlinghammond, holtzman, gatlin, and heilig (2005) found that certified teachers consistently produced stronger student achievement gains than did uncertified and alternatively certified teachers, including teach for america (tfa) recruits. controlling for teacher experience, degrees, and student characteristics, uncertified tfa recruits were less effective than certified teachers and performed about as well as other uncertified teachers. tfa recruited who stayed in teaching and became certified after two or three years did about as well as other certified teachers in supporting student achievement gains; however, nearly all had left teaching after three years. teaching mathematics and science using english instruction teaching mathematics and science is not easy since it is related to calculation, understanding of concepts, principles, and relationship of mathematic with other subjects, so many teachers and students find it hard. the reasons why mathematics is difficult to learn is that the concepts in mathematics are abstract and are difficult to understand, and also the students have alternative meaning of certain mathematics words before any mathematics teaching takes place. sometimes students find that mathematic is a boring subject. they have low motivation in learning mathematics, so they do not have intrinsic motivation in learning; the same as in science, some students also find that science such as biology, physic and chemistry are boring subjects. students’ dislike for mathematics may have stemmed from psychological incidences such as fear, endurance, and perseverance, and associated factors. mathematics and science curriculum may have not much relevance to real life situation, and also mathematics teachers are not interested in the subject and do not help their students by way of catering to individual differences. since mathematics and science knowledge and skill are delivered through language, so language plays an important role in order to support the improvement in these subjects. the use of english as medium of instruction in mathematics and science can help students improve not only their academics in both subjects but also their performance in english language skill itself (nor, aziz, & jusoff, 2011). this may create unfamiliarity to those concepts taught to them and may slow down or retard their science and mathematics learning. sudden change to the current science and mathematics medium of instruction may irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 182 also cause cultural shock to the students. normally, students’ conceptions of prior experience and knowledge influence students’ learning in science and mathematics. english education in indonesia in indonesia, english education is one of the most important subjects. various ways have been done by the ministry of national education, as a breakthrough in order to achieve optimal target of english mastery. the history of teaching english as a foreign language in indonesia lies long since dutch colonial times. but the new english is officially taught as a foreign language in indonesian schools along with the publication of the decree of the minister of education and culture in 1967. since then, english teaching has continued to grow. even since the 2000s english began to be taught in elementary school. the international school was also launched but was later abolished by the constitutional court in 2013. although it has long been included in the curriculum of education in the country, many students admitted that they often face problems when learning english. english lessons in indonesia are more on memorizing than understanding. it is felt less supportive in preparing someone to be able to use english in conversations with others and for academic affairs. some of the students also find that english is difficult because they do not have background knowledge of english and english is not common used by them in their society. the students have low self – confidence when they start to practice speaking in english because they think, they will pronounce it wrongly, that is why english teachers face the difficulty in the classroom when they want their students to actively participate in using english. some students who are already quite good in english have no place to practice their english, so as time goes by since they do not practice it every day, they already forget and do not know how to use it anymore. sometimes they lose some vocabulary that they already have before. perceptions on english as a medium of instruction huang (2015) conducted research to investigate students’ perceptions of the english medium instruction courses in terms of their learning motivation, learning anxiety, and learning achievement. 157 students, including 93 local and 64 foreign students participated in the study by completing a students’ self-assessment questionnaire on emi course taking experiences. the major findings of the study were (1) most participants were motivated to take emi courses to strengthen english ability and professional knowledge, (2) most participants agreed with the helpfulness of emi courses, (3) interactions with students of other nationalities motivated earning in emi courses, (4) the major learning anxiety experienced by local students stemmed from self-perceived low english proficiency, (5) there existed significant reverse association between learning anxiety and learning achieve mentor learning motivation, and (6) there existed significant differences between local and international students in measures of learning motivation, learning anxiety, and learning achievement. additionally, tabtadze (2015) conducted research related to the factors that influenced the effectiveness of bilingual education. the result revealed that the school mostly implemented “weak” bilingual education program, the program did not have irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 183 sufficient human resources and the parents, school stakeholders and community were not active in designing and implementing this program. furthermore, martine, slate, and garcia (2014) examined the reading and mathematics performance of english language learner of boys and girls grades 3,4,5 and 6 as a function of early-exit and late-exit of bilingual program. texas assessment of knowledge and skills reading and mathematics scores of all english language learner boys and girls who were enrolled in both early-exit or late-exit bilingual education programs were analyzed for the 2008-2009, 2009-2010, and 2010-2011 school years. results were not consistent across reading and mathematics, across the four grade levels, and across the three school years. on the taks reading test, five instances were present in which statistically significant differences were revealed for boys and 11 for girls. on the taks mathematics test, eight statistically significant results were revealed for boys and six for girls. these statistically significant differences were not consistently in favor of either the early-exit or the late-exit bilingual education programs. moreover, the differences that were present reflected small to trivial effect sizes. as such, neither the early-exit nor the late-exit bilingual education program was demonstrated to be more effective than its counterpart. methodology research design and respondents this research was quantitative research using a descriptive correlational design. the correlational research design was used to answer the research objectives in order to find out the relationship between the socio-demographic characteristics and school factors with the perceived level of effectiveness on the use of english language in teaching mathematics and science as perceived by students and teachers. total enumeration was used in the study, “the perceived level of effectiveness on the use of english in teaching mathematics and sciences”, there were 51 respondents included 45 students were from grade 5 and 6 and six teachers from international standardized school in indonesia. from the total of 51 respondents, only 39 students and six teachers participated in this study because five students had outside school activity so they were not around during the administration of the questionnaires. purposive sampling was used to determine the perceived effectiveness of the use of english in teaching mathematics and science. the reason for choosing this sampling method because in order to find participants who were suitable for this study, for example the participants should be the students who study mathematics and science using english. research instrument questionnaires were given to the students and teachers in order to find out the results of research objectives on the level of effectiveness on the use of english in teaching mathematics and science, questionnaires were translated into bahasa indonesia, their native language. this questionnaire helped to determine the perceived level of effectiveness on the use of english language in teaching mathematics or science as perceived by students and teachers. this questionnaire has 3 parts, part i includes the socio-demographic irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 184 characteristics of the students and teacher such as age, sex, educational attainment of parents, language/dialect spoken, educational attainment of teacher and teacher preparation. part ii includes school factors such as facilities and equipment which was mark on a four-point scale of four (very adequate) to 1 (least adequate) and part iii includes the questions related to perceived level of effectiveness on the use of english in teaching mathematics and science as perceived by students and teachers. these questionnaires used likert scale items, the questionnaire requested participants to mark on a four-point scale of four (highly effective) to one (least effective) how they would rate the effectiveness of english medium instruction that they used in mathematics and science class. from the total 51 questionnaires for both students and teachers, only 39 questionnaires were given back to the researcher to be analyzed. the pre-test of questionnaire was conducted in a public school in jambi which used english medium instruction. a total of 20 participants participated in this pre-test. the result showed that the questionnaire was reliable with α = .652 with n of items as 44 greater than 0.5. the questionnaire was revised. data gathering procedure and analysis the grade 5 and grade 6 respondents together with the six teachers were obtained from the principal to participate in this study. after the permission from the principal, the questionnaires were administered to both student and teacher respondents inside the classroom and were guided by the class adviser and also the principal. after the participants had filled up the questionnaires, the questionnaires were collected and analyzed. in analyzing the data, descriptive statistics such as frequency, percentage, mean and standard deviation were used to describe the data of the respondents’ demographic background and their perception toward the perceived level effectiveness of the use of english in teaching mathematics and science. the pearson-product moment correlation coefficient was used to find out the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. findings and discussion this study was conducted primarily to find out the level of effectiveness on the use of english in teaching mathematics and sciences at private school in jambi, indonesia. a total of 39 student respondents and six teacher respondents participated in the study. questionnaire was utilized in gathering the data needed. the data were analyzed using descriptive statistics: frequency counts, percentage, mean, and standard deviation. person-product moment correlation coefficient was employed to determine the relationship of the socio-demographic characteristics and school factors of the respondents and the level of effectiveness on the use of english in teaching mathematics and science. socio-demographic characteristics of teachers, students and school factors the average age of the teacher respondents was 25-29 years old (26.6%) and the sex deliberation of teacher respondents was equal which comprised 50.00 percent male irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 185 respondents and 50.00 percent female respondents. all of the teacher respondents had bachelor’s degree (100%). majority of the teacher respondents took english course before teaching (66.7%). the average age of the student respondents was 10-12 years old (10.49%) and half of the student respondents were 10 years old (53.8%). and majority of them were males (56.4%). the majority of the parents were college graduate (64.1%) and the majority of the student respondents speak jambi dialect. school factors included facility and equipment that were available in the school. mostly both students and teachers perceived that they have adequate facilities and equipment to support the process of teaching and learning in the school with x  =2.85 and x  =3.50 which implies that all facilities and equipment were moderately adequate. respondent teacher’s preparation the result indicated that the majority of the teachers ( 4 or 66.7%) took english courses before teaching and two out of the 6 teachers respondents (2 or 33.3%) studied, which means that the teachers already prepare well before they teach. this finding is supported by noell, porter, patt, and dahir (2008) who found that the teachers who were trained well before teaching will perform well when they teach. table 1. school factors in terms of school facilities and equipment as perceived by the teacher and student respondents school factors frequency(n=6) percentage teacher preparation took english course 4 66.7 study alone 2 33.3 table 2 presents the school factors by students and teacher respondents. this includes the school factors such as facilities and equipment that can affect the student’s performance in learning mathematics and science using english. the result shows that the school facilities had pooled mean of x=2.85 and x=3.50. school canteen got the highest mean of x=3.26 which means that the canteen was very adequate for students and teachers to eat and spend their rest time. it also can be gleaned from the table the school equipment with the pooled mean of x =3.11 and x=3.16 indicated that all the school equipment was moderately adequate. tables, chairs and air conditioner got the highest mean of x =3.23 and x =3.18 as perceived by students and chairs and air conditioner got a highest mean of x =3.67 as perceived by the teachers, that indicated the school has very adequate tables and chairs and also air conditioner to study. irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 186 table 2. school factors in terms of school facilities and equipment as perceived by the teacher and student respondents school respondents factors students teachers n=39 n=6 mean sd d mean sd d facilities 2.85 .604 ma 3.50 .836 va 1. speech laboratory 2.56 1.14 ma 3.00 .632 ma 2. school canteen 3.26 .751 va 3.33 .816 va 3. classroom 2.85 .812 ma 3.00 .632 ma 4. auditorium 3.05 .793 ma 3.33 .816 va 5. gymnasium 2.85 .904 ma 3.00 .632 ma 6. library 3.15 .961 ma 3.17 1.16 ma 7. school clinic 2.74 .938 ma 2.67 1.03 ma 8. parking area 2.87 .978 ma 2.67 1.03 ma 9. printing shop 2.82 1.04 ma 3.00 .632 ma 10. internet shop 2.85 .605 ma 2.83 .983 ma equipment 3.11 .739 ma 3.16 .408 ma 11. white board 3.21 .767 ma 3.17 .753 ma 12. air conditioner 3.18 .914 ma 3.67 .516 va 13. board markers 2.97 .932 ma 3.50 .548 va 14. projectors 3.08 .984 ma 3.50 .837 va 15. tables 3.23 .959 ma 3.50 .548 va 16. chairs 3.23 1.01 ma 3.67 .516 va 17. lighting 2.90 1.07 ma 3.21 .653 ma legend: 3.26 – 4.00 = very adequate (va) 2.51 – 3.25 = moderately adequate (ma) 1.76 – 2.50 = adequate (a) 1.00 – 1.75 = not adequate (na) perceived level of effectiveness on the use of english in teaching mathematics and science as perceived by students perceived level of effectiveness on the use of english in teaching mathematics and science perceived by students shown in table 3 with the pooled computed mean of x =2.91, verbally described as “moderately effective” and a standard deviation of .459. the items which earned the highest weighted mean was “english medium instruction help me to improve my english reading and writing ability” (x =3.38), followed by “i understand more when my teachers explain it in bahasa rather than in english” (x=3.33). these items earned a descriptive rating of “highly effective”. this may mean that the students who learn mathematics and science in english help them to improve their english especially in reading, writing, listening and speaking which means that the students can read and write better in english” and this result conformed the study done by rogier (2012) who found out the students of english medium instruction class improved their speaking, writing and reading ability and also some irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 187 students perceived that they will understand mathematics and science more if the teachers use bahasa indonesia. table 3. perceived level of effectiveness on the use of english language in teaching mathematics and science as perceived by students parameter mean sd description i enjoy all the lessons delivered in the english language only 3.03 0.77 moderately effective in the classroom, my teachers always use english 3.10 0.91 moderately effective i feel that my bilingual education experience is effective in helping me learn english. 3.18 0.68 moderately effective i would have succeeded academically without the support of the bilingual education program. 2.36 0.95 effective i understand math and science well when my teachers explain it in english 3.00 0.94 moderately effective i find english-medium instruction (emi) useful 3.10 0.88 moderately effective i understand more when my teachers explain it in bahasa rather than in english 3.33 0.80 highly effective i got new vocabularies every time my teacher used english in classroom 3.18 0.91 moderately effective i can respond directly when my teachers ask question in english 2.85 0.96 moderately effective i can understand directly when my teachers give instructions in english 2.87 0.89 moderately effective using english in math and science is difficult for me 2.54 1.14 moderately effective english medium instruction help me to improve my english listening and speaking ability 3.31 0.97 highly effective english medium instruction help me to improve my english reading and writing ability 3.38 0.87 highly effective it hard for me to understand math and sciences instructions in english 2.69 1.03 moderately effective english instruction medium help me to understand all the math and sciences book that written in english 3.00 0.91 moderately effective i do not have self-confident to participate in class when they use english 2.13 1.03 effective english medium instruction motivate me to study english more 3.08 1.06 moderately effective i can easily understand some instructions in english book 3.08 0.90 moderately effective english medium instruction improve my english 3.26 0.91 highly effective i talk to my friends using english in classroom 2.56 0.91 moderately effective i feel anxious when i cannot understand some instruction 2.72 1.02 moderately irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 188 in english effective i can understand easily when the mathematics and sciences exam written in english 2.69 0.97 moderately effective i ask the classmates for help when i encounter difficulty in the full-english course 2.54 1.02 moderately effective english medium instruction is easy and helpful for me 2.97 1.13 moderately effective pooled mean 2.91 .459 moderately effective legend: 3.26 – 4.00 = highly effective 2.51 – 3.25 = moderately effective 1.76 – 2.50 = effective 1.00 – 1.75 = least effective perceived level of effectiveness on the use of english in teaching mathematics and science as perceived by teachers perceived level of effectiveness on the use of english in teaching mathematics and science perceived by students shown in table 4 with the pooled computed mean of x=2.75, verbally described as “moderately effective” and a standard deviation of .440. the item which earned the highest weighted mean was “i find english-medium instruction (emi) useful” (x=3.50) and followed by the items “teachers have appropriate skills of english to teach in emi.” (x=3.33). these two items earned a descriptive rating of “highly effective.” table 4. perceived level of effectiveness on the use of english language in teaching mathematics and science as perceived by teachers parameter mean sd description i find english-medium instruction (emi) useful 3.50 .548 highly effective emi increase the employability chances of students. 2.83 .983 moderately effective teachers have appropriate skills of english to teach in emi. 3.33 .516 highly effective teachers have problems teaching in emi 3.00 .632 moderately effective i explain in bahasa when i have problem explaining concepts in english. 2.50 .837 effective my students do not understand when i explain in english 2.50 .837 effective students have problem understanding concepts of mathematics in emi. 2.83 .408 moderately effective students have problem understanding concepts of science in emi. 2.67 .516 moderately effective students will have better understanding of mathematics in bahasa. 3.00 .000 moderately effective students will have better understanding of science in bahasa. 2.67 .516 moderately effective if science and mathematics subjects are studied in english, the students can learn the language of science 2.83 .753 moderately effective irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 189 and technology emi has a negative effect on the efficiency of science and mathematics instruction 2.33 .516 effective emi will have an adverse effect on student achievement in science and mathematics subjects. 2.83 .753 moderately effective the difficulty i encounter in emi is my low english proficiency 2.17 .753 effective i feel anxious every time i do not know the meaning of the instruction in the textbook 2.83 .753 moderately effective i always find out the meaning of the instructions before i enter the classroom 2.17 .753 effective teaching mathematics and science in english help me to improve my english language skill 2.67 .516 moderately effective i have difficulty every time i explain the subjects in english 2.83 .753 moderately effective my students will not respond directly if i use full english without any translation 2.67 .816 moderately effective my students participate actively in the classroom using english 2.67 .816 moderately effective i think non-english-speaking students should be taught basic subjects in their own language while they learn english. 2.67 .816 moderately effective i prefer to teach in bahasa rather than in english 2.76 .440 moderately effective pooled mean 2.75 .440 moderately effective legend: 3.26 – 4.00 = highly effective 2.51 – 3.25 = moderately effective 1.76 – 2.50 = effective 1.00 – 1.75 = least effective relationship between students’ socio-demographic characteristics and perceived level of effectiveness on the use of english in teaching mathematics and science age was found to a have significant relationship with a perceived level of the effectiveness on the use of english in teaching mathematics and science in two items, “i understand mathematics and science well when my teachers explain it in english” (r=.350) and i can easily understand some instructions in english book” (r=.344). the findings most likely suggest that the students understand more if the textbook is written in english and when the teacher teaches mathematics and science in english. this finding negated the study of kiwanuka et al. (2015), where they found that the mean scores in mathematics of younger students in senior two (grade eight) were higher than those of their older counterparts within the same class. sex was found to have a significant but negative relationship with a perceived level of effectiveness on the use of english in teaching mathematics and science in one item, “it is hard for me to understand mathematics and sciences instructions in english” (r=.381) which irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 190 implies that the students who are females tend to have a hard time to understand mathematics and science when the teachers teach using english. this study confirms the study of skaalvik and skaalvik (2004) who found that boys performed well than girls in mathematics. language/dialect spoken was found to have a significant relationship with a perceived level of the effectiveness on the use of english in teaching mathematics and science in one item “i enjoy all the lessons delivered in the english language only” (r=.328). the finding may mean that the students who speak jambi dialect tend to enjoy the lesson if the teachers used english only without mixing it with their first language or their dialect. table 5. relationship between student socio-demographic characteristics and perceived level of effectiveness on the use of english language in teaching mathematics and science as perceived by the students student profile age sex educational attainment of parents lang. spoken perceived level of effectiveness on the use of english language in teaching mathematics and science i enjoy all the lessons delivered in the english language only -.091 -.036 .021 .328 * in the classroom, my teachers always use english -.101 -.009 .070 -.093 i feel that my bilingual education experience is effective in helping me learn english. -.167 -.059 -.054 -.157 i would have succeeded academically without the support of the bilingual education program. .157 -.247 .203 -.039 i understand mathematics and science well when my teachers explain it in english .350 * -.275 .189 .121 i find english-medium instruction (emi) useful .056 -.186 .309 .134 i understand more when my teachers explain it in bahasa rather than in english .274 -.194 .000 -.126 i got new vocabularies every time my teacher used english in classroom .082 .184 -.138 .063 i can respond directly when my teachers ask question in english .045 -.096 -.007 -.046 i can understand directly when my teachers give instructions in english .288 -.135 .077 .023 using english in mathematics and science is difficult for me -.092 -.287 -.278 .085 english medium instruction help me to improve my english listening and speaking ability .153 .082 .105 -.001 irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 191 english medium instruction help me to improve my english reading and writing ability .091 -.005 -.167 -.230 english instruction medium help me to understand all the mathematics and sciences book that written in english .155 .000 .260 .069 english medium instructions help to improve my achievement in mathematics and sciences because i easily understand it .197 .090 .125 .077 i do not have self-confident to participate in class when they use english -.112 -.086 -.298 .066 i find english-medium instruction (emi) useful .056 -.186 .309 .134 english medium instruction motivate me to study english more .113 .166 045 -.153 i can easily understand some instructions in english book .344 * -.209 -.013 .116 english medium instruction improve my english .215 .035 -.151 -.227 i talk to my friends using english in classroom .222 -.163 -.136 -.186 i feel anxious when i cannot understand some instruction in english .063 .004 .148 .238 i ask the classmates for help when i encounter difficulty in the full-english course .267 -.118 -.195 -.229 english medium instruction is easy and helpful for me .271 .117 .169 .156 legend: *significant (p<.05) relationship between teachers’ socio-demographic characteristics and perceived level of effectiveness on the use of english in teaching mathematics and science as shown in table 6, there was no significant relationship between teachers’ socio-demographic characteristics and perceived level of effectiveness on the use of english in teaching mathematics and science. this finding may mean that whether the teachers young or old, male or female, certified teacher or not, college graduate or not, speak jambi dialect or not and had enough preparation or not, there was no relationship with the level of the effectiveness on the use of english in teaching mathematics and science. the hypothesis stating that teachers’ profile has no significant relationship with perceived level of effectiveness on the use of english in teaching mathematics and science was accepted. this study negated the result of the studies done by noell, porter, patt, and dahir (2008) that certified teachers perform well in teaching and kainuwa and yusuf (2013) that the children who have parents with higher educational attainment perform well in the classroom. irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 192 table 6. relationship between teacher socio-demographic characteristics and perceived level of effectiveness on the use of english language in teaching mathematics and science as perceived by the teachers teachers profile age sex field of specialization lang. spoken teacher pre. perceived level of effectiveness on the use of english language in teaching mathematics and science i find english-medium instruction (emi) useful .333 .535 -.333 .124 -.707 emi increase the employability chances of students. -.557 -.645 .186 -.530 .131 teachers have appropriate skills of english to teach in emi. -.707 -.094 .000 -.351 -.500 teachers have problems teaching in emi .000 .231 -.577 .215 .000 i explain in bahasa when i have problem explaining concepts in english. -.218 .000 .218 .568 -.463 my students do not understand when i explain in english .218 .175 -.218 .568 .000 students have problem understanding concepts of mathematics in emi. .447 .239 -.447 .388 .316 students have problem understanding concepts of science in emi. -.707 -.756 .707 -.175 -.250 students will have better understanding of mathematics in bahasa. students will have better understanding of science in bahasa. -.707 -.756 .707 -.175 -.250 emi has a negative effect on the efficiency of science and mathematics instruction .000 -.094 .000 .439 -.500 emi will have an adverse effect on student achievement in science and mathematics subjects. -.243 -.065 -.243 -.150 -.343 the difficulty i encounter in emi is my low english proficiency -.243 -.130 .243 .511 -.686 i feel anxious every time i do not know the meaning of the instruction in the textbook -.243 -.065 -.243 -.150 -.343 teaching mathematics and science in english help me to improve my english language skill .707 .661 -.707 .614 -.250 i have difficulty every time i explain the subjects in english .243 .519 -.728 .391 -.343 irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 193 my students will not respond directly if i use full english without any translation .000 .418 -.447 .555 -.632 my students participate actively in the classroom using english .000 .418 -.447 .555 -.632 i think non-english-speaking students should be taught basic subjects in their own language while they learn english. .000 .418 -.447 .555 -.632 i prefer to teach in bahasa rather than in english -.228 .065 -.228 .312 -.534 note: effectiveness number 9 and highest educational attainment got the same answers from the respondents; therefore, correlation cannot be computed relationship between school factors and the perceived level of effectiveness on the use of english in teaching mathematics and science perceived by the students school facilities and equipment were found to have a highly significant relationship with the level of the effectiveness on the use of english in teaching mathematics and science in statement, “i enjoy all the lessons delivered in the english language only” (r=.461 and r=.498). this finding may mean that the better school facilities and school equipment that the school has the more effective and enjoyable are the lessons in class, especially for mathematics and science when using english language only. school equipment was found to have a significant relationship with the level of effectiveness on the use of english in teaching mathematics and science in statement, “i feel that my bilingual education experience is effective in helping me learn english” (r=.316) which implies that if the school have adequate equipment to teach, it will help the students who had bilingual education experience more effective in learning mathematics and science especially using english medium instruction. school facilities were found to have highly significant relationship with the level of the effectiveness on the use of english in teaching mathematics and science in statement, “i understand mathematics and science well when my teachers explain it in english” (r=.432). this finding may mean that adequate school facilities available in the school help the students to understand the explanation from the teachers in mathematics and science using english. on the other hand, school facilities were also found to have significant relationship in three statements, “i find english-medium instruction (emi) useful” (r=.404), “english medium instructions help to improve my achievement in mathematics and sciences because i easily understand it” (r=.328) and “i can understand easily when the mathematics and sciences exam written in english” (r=.323). the hypothesis stating that school factors have no significant relationship with the perceived level of effectiveness on the use of english in teaching mathematics and science perceived by students was rejected. this finding negated the study of mcgowen (2007) where facility adequacy was not directly related to student performance. irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 194 table 7. relationship between school factors and perceived level of effectiveness on the use of english language in teaching mathematics and science as perceived by the students school factor facilities classroom equipment perceived level of effectiveness on the use of english language in teaching mathematics and science i enjoy all the lessons delivered in the english language only .461** .498** in the classroom, my teachers always use english .314 .126 i feel that my bilingual education experience is effective in helping me learn english. .243 .316* i would have succeeded academically without the support of the bilingual education program. .211 .083 i understand mathematics and science well when my teachers explain it in english .432** .172 i find english-medium instruction (emi) useful .404* .269 i understand more when my teachers explain it in bahasa rather than in english .092 .149 i got new vocabularies every time my teacher used english in classroom .263 .225 i can respond directly when my teachers ask question in english -.026 -.081 perceived level of effectiveness on the use of english language in teaching mathematics and science i can understand directly when my teachers give instructions in english .184 .187 using english in mathematics and science is difficult for me .166 .045 it hard for me to understand mathematics and sciences instructions in english .188 .042 english instruction medium help me to understand all the mathematics and sciences book that written in english .266 .127 english medium instructions help to improve my achievement in mathematics and sciences because i easily understand it .328* .182 i do not have self-confident to participate in class when they use english .086 .198 english medium instruction motivate me to study english more .219 .271 i can easily understand some instructions in english book .181 .008 english medium instruction improve my english .041 .072 i talk to my friends using english in classroom .120 -.065 i feel anxious when i cannot understand some instruction in english .131 .192 i can understand easily when the mathematics and sciences exam written in english .323* .148 i ask the classmates for help when i encounter difficulty in the full-english course .058 .216 english medium instruction is easy and helpful for me .286 .281 legend: *significant (p<05) **highly significant (p<01) irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 195 relationship between school factors and the perceived level of effectiveness on the use of english in teaching mathematics and science perceived by the teachers school facilities were found to have a significant negative relationship in three statements, “my students will not respond directly if i use full english without any translation” (r=-.878), “my students participate actively in the classroom using english” (r=-.878) and “i think non-english-speaking students should be taught basic subjects in their own language while they learn english” (r=-.878) which means that these statements were related to classroom activity such as a conversational activity so both students and teachers do not need facilities. they just need the discussion on several topics in mathematics and science subjects and the fewer students; the more they are engaged to the discussion. furthermore, the teachers sometimes used bahasa indonesia in the classroom. the hypothesis stating that school factors have no significant relationship with the level of effectiveness on the use of english in teaching mathematics and science perceived by students was rejected. this finding negated the study of mcgowen (2007) that facility adequacy was not directly related to student performance. table 8. relationship between school factors and perceived level of effectiveness on the use of english language in teaching mathematics and science as perceived by the teachers school factor facilities classroom equipment perceived level effectiveness on the use of english language in teaching mathematics and science i find english-medium instruction (emi) useful -.655 .447 emi increase the employability chances of students. -.122 .581 teachers have appropriate skills of english to teach in emi. -.463 .632 teachers have problems teaching in emi -.756 .775 i explain in bahasa when i have problem explaining concepts in english. -.429 .293 my students do not understand when i explain in english -.429 .293 students have problem understanding concepts of mathematics in emi. -.293 .200 students have problem understanding concepts of science in emi. .000 .316 students will have better understanding of mathematics in bahasa. students will have better understanding of science in bahasa. .000 .316 if science and mathematics subjects are studied in english, the students can learn the language of science and technology -.476 .759 emi has a negative effect on the efficiency of science and mathematics instruction -.463 .632 irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 196 emi will have an adverse effect on student achievement in science and mathematics subjects. -.476 .759 the difficulty i encounter in emi is my low english proficiency -.476 .542 i feel anxious every time i do not know the meaning of the instruction in the textbook -.476 .759 my students will not respond directly if i use full english without any translation -.878* .800 my students participate actively in the classroom using english -.878* .800 i think non-english-speaking students should be taught basic subjects in their own language while they learn english. -.878* .800 i prefer to teach in bahasa rather than in english -.769 .881* legend: *significant (p<.05) note: effectiveness number 9 got the same answers from the respondents; therefore, correlation cannot be computed conclusions and recommendations based on the results of this study, the following conclusions were drawn. majority of the student respondents were males. their age ranged from 10-12 years old. majority of their parent were college degree holders and some were secondary education graduates. most of them speak jambi dialect. teacher respondents were equal in sex distribution with three males and three females. their age ranged from 25-29 years old. majority of their teacher were college degree holders. most of them speak jambi dialect and the majority of the teacher respondents took english course before teaching mathematics and science using english medium instruction. both student and teacher respondents perceived that they have adequate facilities in their school to facilitate their teaching and learning activities. english medium instruction was perceived to be highly effective in helping the students to improve their achievement in mathematics and science and also their english language skills especially in reading and writing. english as medium instruction was perceived to be highly effective for the teachers because they found it useful for both the teachers and students and also the teachers need to have appropriate skills to teach using english medium. age, sex, and language spoken have significant relationship with perceived level of effectiveness on the use of english in teaching mathematics and science. there was no significant relationship between teachers’ socio-demographic characteristics and the perceived level of effectiveness on the use of english in teaching mathematics and science. there was a highly significant relationship between school factors and the perceived level of effectiveness on the use of english in teaching mathematics and science as perceived by the students in term of facilities and equipment. this relationship suggested that the school should have adequate facilities and equipment to support teaching and learning activity, so it will help the students to learn, like tape recorder or listening laboratory to help the students to improve their listening skill. there was a significant negative relationship between school factors and the perceived level of effectiveness on the use of english in teaching mathematics and science as perceived by the teachers in term of facilities and equipment. irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 197 this relationship suggested that the fewer facilities and equipment that were used, the more engaged were the students in classroom discussion. in the light of the results and conclusions of this study, the following measures are strongly recommended. teachers should continue to use english language in classroom to help the students improve both their achievement in mathematics and science and also their english language skill. students should be given all the chances to learn and develop their english language skill and also their performance in mathematics especially for female students. gender issue as it relates to achievement in mathematics and science should also be given attention. the teachers should give a chance to students to participate in 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(2008). boys’ and girls’ brains are different: gender differences in language appear biological. science daily. retrieved from http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/03/080303120346 nor, f.m., aziz, m.a., & jusoff, k. (2011). should english for teaching mathematics and sciences (etems) in malaysia be abolished? world applied sciences journal, 36-40. rogier, d. (2012). the effects of english-medium instruction on language proficiency of students enrolled in higher education in the uae (unpublished master thesis). uk: university of exeter. skaalvik, s., & skaalvik, e. m. (2004). gender differences in mathematics and verbal self-concept, performance expectations, and motivation. sex roles, 50(3–4), 241– 252. tabatadze, s. (2015). factors influencing the effectiveness of bilingual educational programs: the prospects of pilot programs in georgia. sino-us english teaching, 12(9), 93-109. wilkinson, r. (2013). english-medium instruction at a dutch university: challenges and pitfalls. in a. doiz, d. lasagabaster and j. m. sierra (eds.), english-medium instruction at universities: global challenges (pp. 3-24). bristol: multilingual matters. biographical note husarida was a graduate student, college of education, central luzon state university, science city of munoz, nueva ecija, the philippines. she is a currently working as a research assistant at the graduate school, jambi university, indonesia. rolando d. dollete, phd. is a faculty member, college of education, central luzon state university, science city of munoz, nueva ecija, the philippines. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/508459 http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/03/080303120346 this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 93 implementing technology in english language learning: friend or foe maya puspitasari 1* , juhana 2 , and muhammad arifin pelawi 3 abstract nowadays, foreign language education relies heavily on digital technology. a growing emphasis on 21 st -century skills and massive technological advancements raise more concerns than ever about the competency of english as foreign language (efl) teachers. this study aimed to investigate the level of digital technology readiness among efl teachers in indonesia and respondents’ experiences in implementing technology in the education curriculum in indonesian schools. a quantitative survey of 90 teachers was conducted to observe the teachers’ perceptions and experiences with technology. the study showed that technological advancement has helped teachers teach the english language. the respondents believed that technology could improve the students’ english skills, including speaking, listening, reading, writing, pronunciation, and grammar. this study provided the teachers' perception of the value of using technology in english language learning. keywords digital technology, english language learning, information and communication technology article history received 18 february 2023 accepted 27 april 2023 how to cite puspitasari, m., juhana, & pelawi, m.a. (2023). implementing technology in english language learning: friend or foe. indonesian research journal in education |irje|, 7(1), 93 – 103. https://doi.org/10.22437/irje .v7i1.23868 1* universitas terbuka, indonesia; corresponding author: maya_p@ecampus.ut.ac.id 2 universitas terbuka, indonesia 3 influx https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v7i1.23868 https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v7i1.23868 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 94 introduction students' information and communication technology (ict) competencies are regarded as critical components of 21 st century skills (ratheeswari, 2018). asad et al. (2020) defined ict as information technologies and communication using electronic equipment, especially computers, to create, store, analyse, and send information”. governments and educational departments around the world might invest heavily in ict infrastructure and other initiatives to prepare teachers to use technology for learning and teaching. doing so can help them to capitalize on the growing potential of icts and better equip students with ict skills. ict might play an essential role to form the human capital that meets the needs of modern world economies (klochkova et al., 2019). recent research in teacher education has demonstrated that the quantity and quality of teachers’ technology experiences in their teacher education programs are significant factors determining new teachers’ adoption and application of icts (lawrence & tar, 2018). razak et al. (2018) claimed that technology can provide significant influence in english language classrooms to improve teaching methods. the teacher thus needs to have sufficient knowledge in applying the technology in their teaching (bhattacharjee & deb, 2016). students will then benefit if teachers use digital technology in their classrooms. the shape of the teaching process has become a primary source of concern because of massive technological advancements. it has significantly increased the value of using technology in the classroom. despite the necessary rush to incorporate digital technology into the teaching and learning process in efl classrooms, opportunities and possibilities may arise. the objective of this study is to examine teachers’ attitudes and use of technology in their teaching process. this study seeks to address the following research questions:  how do teachers use technology in efl classrooms?  what is the impact of technology on english language learning?  how do students perceive the use of technology?  what is the impact of technology on students? literature review the advancement of ict is undeniably transforming the workplace culture. teachers must be prepared to use and adopt technology because it improves students' learning. ahmadi and reza (2018) believed that when learners learn with technology, it assists them in developing their higher order thinking skills. afterward, teachers must recognize that the 21 st century classroom must include technology-supported teaching materials (chapelle & hegelheimer, 2013). to positively influence teachers' adoption and use of technology, training, development workshops, and school policies should be redesigned (razak et al., 2018). a robust learning environment can be created once the teacher uses technology in their teaching. furthermore, it will transform the educational process of learning and teaching so that students deal with knowledge constructively and actively. because of the growing demand for effective communication among people from diverse social and cultural backgrounds in the workplace or academic settings, the need to irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 95 learn other languages using various learning resources and methods has become the focus of educational research. the covid-19 pandemic has also impacted education, including on teachers and students. due to the closure of universities and schools, teachers and students were forced to quickly adapt to remote teaching. to meet such a demand, sla and efl research seeks to determine how a language such as english can be effectively acquired and learned by efl/esl learners. using technology as a learning method will increase the learner's motivation and language skills (ahmad and reza, 2018). such technologies might enable students to practise what they have learned in the classroom. numerous advantages are provided by technology in the field of education. sulaimani et al. (2017) stated that technology integration has been influenced by technological tools and the appearance of new methods and strategies in the field of language learning and teaching as a result of having access to a wide range of resources. because students can process information inside and outside the classroom, technology encourages them to learn everywhere and at every time. according to goldie (2014), modern society, with its rapid scientific and technological advances, has seen an exponential rise in accessible knowledge and continuously changing and emerging technologies. by increasing learner engagement in the learning process, technology has the potential to transform a passive learner into an active learner (parkin et al., 2012; sawang et al., 2017). nowadays, there is widespread acceptance of technology as a necessary component of society, and learners must be exposed to technology from an early age (nikolopoulou & gialamas, 2015). advances in technology have also enabled students to interact virtually with their peers and collaborate on learning input and output. sabiri (2020) claimed that ict enables the lesson to become more interesting and motivating for the learner. nowadays, they can specify the learning platforms based on their needs or interests. aside from that, learners can interact virtually with other learners to exchange data and collaborate on learning input and output. furthermore, since the activities platform can be customized for individual learners, the learning process is personalized. teachers should then be aware and well-prepared to effectively integrate these advances into their practice. computer-assisted language learning (call) has become a specific term used in the field of efl. there have been a few research investigations demonstrating that call has a positive impact on the learning process in efl classrooms. son (2019) indicated the respondents showed positive attitudes toward digital technology use. the findings of the study also showed that the use of digital devices by respondents was enjoyable, and they believed that the use of digital tools and resources could enhance their learning. however, many teachers might be familiar with yet incapable of using the technology. callo and yazon (2020) reported that most of the respondents at the laguna state polytechnic university, philippines had less competence in using facebook classroom, google classroom, screencastifiy, loom, flipgrid, screencast-o-matic, and webinars. in line with that, some participating teachers in joshi et al. (2020). it indicated that they were not well trained in teaching by using online platforms such as zoom and skype. in indonesia, the participating teachers at vocational schools in the sleman district had a low category of digital technology care, technology literacy, and digital technology capabilities (astuti et al., 2021). irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 96 teachers' behavior shifts as the modern classroom evolves, necessitating the adaptation of teachers' roles and responsibilities. technology may then require the teachers to adapt and adopt their teaching strategies to student-centered instruction. doucet et al. (2019) implied that teachers can now co-teach, team teach, and collaborate with colleagues from other departments, so they no longer teach in isolation. teachers' technology-related experiences, such as their ict professional development and ict knowledge, are critical factors that can influence the use of technology in their classrooms (bowman et al., 2022). the emergence of digital education stands out among the recognized policy trends during the pandemic (zancajo et al., 2022). in the national recovery plans nations, digitalization virtually monopolizes the focus of attention on education policy. recovery plans for most nations will put a strong emphasis on creating digital infrastructure and skills. in these strategies, digitization is anticipated to assist traditional educational delivery in formal education rather than marking a change from earlier educational models, even though do not present new topics on educational agendas, the policy ideas, instruments, and tactics on teacher development, the crisis seem to have contributed to making policy goals to promote digitalization. although the crisis has not yet resulted in significant policy innovations, it has refocused attention (and added public resources) on digital technologies and online learning. therefore, the covid-19 problem is a path-accelerator that helps to enhance the policy instruments and remedies that improve teachers’ digital technology care, technology literacy, and digital technology capabilities of teachers. methodology an online survey was used in this study to collect information regarding respondents' use of technology and their usage of technology in general. evans and mathur (2018) suggested that online surveys can help researchers to reach more respondents easily. the survey in this study, consisting of 55 questions, was developed using google forms. it included closed questions to capture biographical details and respondents’ profiles and likert scale questions to determine skill levels, use of technology, and types of technology. the quantitative data were analysed using excel, providing descriptive data on the percentage of respondents in each category. ninety-four respondents completed the online survey. the respondents were dominantly english teachers from various primary and secondary schools. they were also lecturers from both state and private universities in indonesia. findings and discussion four themes were used in presenting the analyzed data in this paper: technology usage in daily life, technology usage in english language learning, teachers’ perception of the usage of technology for students, and technology improving students’ english skills. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 97 technology usage in daily life the first research question sought to understand how teachers use the technology in efl classrooms. one of the responses to the questionnaire statements related to this question is shown in table 1. table 1. technology usage in daily life no statements strongly agree agree uncertain disagree strongly disagree 1 technology helps me in doing my work. 65.2% 34.8% 2 i found technology useful in my daily life. 64.8% 34.1% 1.1% 3 technology makes my life easier. 70.7% 29.3% as implied by table 1, technology has been the respondents’ daily need. the data above is contradicted by astuti et al. (2021) that indicated the teachers in their study had low capability, care, and literacy in using digital technology. all the teachers who answer this question like to use digital technology. the answers imply that they care, have the capability, and have good literacy in using digital technology. the difference in the result can be tracked to the respondent between teachers pre-pandemic and after-pandemic. the respondents in this study come from teachers that must learn and use digital technology during compulsory remote teaching for almost 2 (two) years during the pandemic. it can be seen from figure 1 that all teachers use digital technology in some varieties. figure 1. tools / media used by respondents the adoption of digital technology comes from the lockdown due to the pandemic and the ensuing e-learning experiment may have overemphasized the significance of digitalization and online education in the post-covid-19 age (zancajo et al., 2022). while many educational systems throughout the world have been gradually transitioning to the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 98 digital age over the past few years, the covid-19 problem has sped up this trend. despite numerous obstacles, the covid-19 issue has given tech businesses and products a chance to expand internationally. technology companies provided free access to various digital resources for the continuation of education during school closures for educational institutions, teachers, and students, earning millions of unpractised users in the process. in addition, education organizations signed emergency contracts with many of these businesses to purchase infrastructure, web platforms, and other products. the covid-19 pandemic has presented an opportunity for the government of indonesia (goi) to push for the digitization of school institutions. goi in their merdeka belajar (freedom to learn) curriculum expects teachers to implement ambitious improvements to digitize the classroom, frequently stressing the idea that the present design of educational systems has proven insufficient for a world that is becoming increasingly digital. the goi has also stressed the importance of students' digital skill development as a critical tactic for navigating the post-covid future and reducing the pandemic's monetary impact. even if goi was in favor of such policies before the covid-19 crisis, the peculiarity of the covid-19 scenario is the amount of consensus and focus placed on making digital education the primary theme to deliver education that can bring teachers and students using digital technology in daily life. technology usage in english language learning some questions in the online survey asked the respondents to show their views on the usage of technology in learning english. their responses varied from strongly agree to strongly disagree. table 2. technology usage in english language learning no statements strongly agree agree uncertain disagree strongly disagree 1 technology is useful for english language learning. 89% 9.9% 1.1% 2 i want to use technology in english language learning. 80.4% 18.5% 1.1% 3 technology is hard to be applied in english language learning in indonesia. 12.2% 8.9% 10% 54.4% 14.4% 4 i have used technology in english language learning at my school. 47.3% 50.5% 2.2% 5 i use elllo in teaching listening in english language learning. 19.8% 31.9% 24.2% 22% 2.2% 6 i use trello for english language learning. 13% 34.8% 28.3% 20.7% 3.3% 7 i use padlet in english language learning. 22.8% 46.7% 17.4% 12% 1.1% irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 99 table 2 demonstrates how the teachers’ believed technology was helpful to help them to improve students' progress in learning english. interestingly, there was not much variety in the first claim that technology was useful. in other questions, the teacher’s answers were mostly positive in saying that they wanted to adopt new applications for learning english that they do not know, such as elllo, trello, and padlet. however, they also responded negatively by stating that technology was hard to be implemented in indonesia. it might indicate that most respondents were willing to accept new technology and were optimistic about the digital technology implementation in english language learning. here supposedly, we must take institutional and contextual factors into account to understand the scope and depth of the changes that digitalization has prompted inside the education sector. although regions in the context of a national crisis suffer identical external pressures, they can understand the difficulties that these forces entail differently. one reason was based on region and schools that they would tend to react to digitalization differently depending on their institutional strengths and standard forms of resources and provision of professional development (bowman et al., 2022; zancajo et al., 2022). there is interesting fact that there are more varieties in answering how hard to adopt technology and adoption technology that was not widely promoted use during the pandemic compared to how useful technology on the usefulness of technology. however, in this data, the lack of resources and professional development for the respondents that did not have the optimism of application technology in language teaching could not be connected. the less enthusiasm for using technology as the respondents had little access to the internet access (50%), good computer equipment (68.8%), and enough funding. the findings also suggested that the willingness to adopt digital technology was not connected to the problems they encountered. however, most respondents who were against the implementation of technology in english language learning had good funding (56.8%) and good internet access (50%). meanwhile, most respondents had taken their undergraduate degree that had exposure to professional development related to the technology introduced. teachers’ perception of the usage of technology by students table 3. teachers’ perception of the usage of technology by students no statements strongly agree agree uncertain disagree strongly disagree 1 students can do self-learning more easily because of technology. 46.7% 46.7% 4.3% 1.1% 1.1% 2 students have known digital literacy and technology well. 25% 42.4% 28.3% 4.3% 3 students are more motivated in learning if i use technology in the teaching and learning process. 34.8% 55.4% 8.7% 1.1% 4 students can focus better if they use technology. 26.1% 55.4% 18.5% irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 100 table 3 shows that teachers had favorable opinions on using technology for students. the response to the survey demonstrated that teachers profited from the ability to use technology to make students can do self-learning (93.4% agree and strongly agree). this perception might be relevant to what mulyono et al. (2021) stated the teachers in their study believed their students could easily access learning material without being restricted by time or location. this condition is related to students’ self-learning. moreover, the responding teachers also positively perceived that technology could assist them in motivating students to learn (90.2% agree and strongly agree) and have better focus (81.5% agree and strongly agree). the result was lower in the perception that students had better focus and good technology literacy and knew it well (67.4% agree and strongly agree). a peculiar thing it indicated that a lot of teachers believed even though students did not have good technological literacy and did not know it well, they were still able to help the students to do self-learning, had more focus, and could motivate the students better. it indicated that students were different from the teacher. bowman et al. (2022) said that without good digital literacy and knowledge about technology, it would affect the motivation, focus, and use of technology in learning and teaching. technology usage in english language learning table 4. technology improves students’ english skills no statements strongly agree agree uncertain disagree strongly disagree 1 my students’ speaking skills are better thanks to technology. 18.5% 54.3% 23.9% 3.3% 2 my students’ listening skills are better thanks to technology. 19.6% 63% 15.2% 1.1% 1.1% 3 my students’ reading skills are better thanks to technology. 21.7% 64.1% 12% 2.2% 4 my students’ writing skills are better thanks to technology. 18.7% 58.2% 17.6% 5.5% 5 my students’ pronunciation skills are better thanks to technology. 25% 67.4% 6.5% 1.1% 6 my students’ grammar skills are better thanks to technology. 18.5% 53.3% 22.8% 5.4% as shown in table 4, the responding teachers were happy that the technology they had employed could help students in improving their english language skills. however, there is a difference in the number of people who agree on what skills are supported by technology. the biggest thing is helping to increase publicity with more than 90% agreeing. meanwhile, in listening, writing, and grammar, it only reached 70%. it is a very interesting finding because it shows the peculiarity that there are teachers who feel that technology can help pronunciation but not in speaking, and teaching writing is better than grammar. on the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 101 other hand, reading is also not the highest, even though what really helps from technology based on literature is the ease of finding reading material online, not pronunciation training. it might be interesting to study them more deeply the data through qualitative methods. conclusion the findings in this study have relevance to how technology is helping teach the english language. it would be vital to share best practices since most study respondents were happy with their adoption of technology in english teaching. it became interesting that teachers did not always fully consider their students’ literature, and knowledge of technology affected their use of technology for self-learning and focus on studying. the data from this study is more interesting because the resources provided by schools do not affect the optimism in technology implementation but also adopt recent technology. regarding the current study, there are a few things to keep in mind. first, our participation cannot be regarded as an accurate representation of all indonesian english language teachers since virtually all the participants were graduate students and learning by using technology most of the time in an open university type. thus, their acceptance of technology has a higher probability better than the national average. despite the warnings raised above, this study has successfully shown how language teachers regarded technology as a helper for them to teach their students. however, more research is required to determine how students have viewed teachers' methods for providing learning by technology. more investigation is required to determine why some teachers who are in good professional development do not optimism about new technology and the technology adoption in english language teaching in indonesia. the research needs to use qualitative research to be able to dig deeper into implementation technology in indonesian schools, especially in a context affected by a cultural difference not only about resources that are already abundant in the literature. declaration of conflicting interests the authors declared no potential conflicts of interest. references ahmadi, d., & reza, m. (2018). the use of technology in english language learning: a literature review. international journal of research in english education, 3(2), 115-125. asad, m. m., hussain, n., wadho, m., khand, z. h., & churi, p. p. (2020). integration of e-learning technologies for interactive teaching and learning process: an empirical study on higher education institutes of pakistan. journal of applied research in higher education, 13(3), 649-663. astuti, m., arifin, z., mutohhari, f., & nurtanto, m. (2021). competency of digital technology: the maturity levels of teachers and students in vocational education in indonesia. journal of education technology, 5(2), 254-262. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 102 bhattacharjee, b., & deb, k. 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(2018). english language teachers’ readiness for the application of technology towards fourth industrial revolution demands. asia-pacific journal of information technology and multimedia, 7(2-2), 89-98. sabiri, k. a. (2020). ict in efl teaching and learning: a systematic literature review. contemporary educational technology, 11(2), 177-195. sawang, s., o'connor, p., & ali, m. (2017). using technology to enhance students' engagement in a large classroom. j learn des, 10, (11-19). irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 103 son, j-b. (2019). learner training in digital language learning for pre-service translators and interpreters. context-specific computer-assisted language learning: research, development and practice. queensland: apacall. sulaimani, a. o., sarhandi, p. s. a., & buledi, m. h. (2017). impact of call in-house professional development training on teachers’ pedagogy: an evaluative study. cogent education, 4(1), 1-12. zancajo, a., verger, a., & bolea, p. (2022). digitalization and beyond: the effects of covid-19 on post-pandemic educational policy and delivery in europe. policy and society, 41(1), 111-128. biographical notes maya puspitasari, phd. is working at universitas terbuka, indonesia dr. juhana is working at universitas terbuka, indonesia. muhammad arifin pelawi is working at influx. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 136 the subaltern’s voices in the rupi kaur’s selected poems: a reflection of multicultural education neisya1*, fitria aprilia 2, and anita3 abstract poetry becomes rupi kaur‟s way of expressing her feelings based on her self-experiences. the young indian poet girl puts on her life story in poetry books milk and honey the sun and her flowers and home body. this research tries to reveal the subaltern‟s voice portrayed in kaur‟s selected poems as a reflection of multicultural education. the research was a qualitative utilizing spivak‟s subaltern theory. it was found that kaur was the victim of hatred by the sikh tribe who then immigrated to canada. by living in a new environment, kaur who previously dominated in her origin country tries to speak up about her bitter experiences and trauma, being raped by her uncle and determined by all men to keep silent in the poem. the poem then becomes media for educating and encouraging people, especially women, to have bravery in facing their trauma and speak to the public to heal the wound. unfortunately, kaur‟s way of speaking up leads to western cultural representation. the hegemonic practice of western culture unconsciously penetrates kaur‟s way of thinking. all in all, the subaltern woman cannot be apart from the determination. keywords hegemonic practice, migration, representation, rupi kaur, western culture article history received 27 february 2023 accepted 18 june 2023 how to cite neisya, n., aprilia, f., & anita (2023). the subaltern‟s voices in the rupi kaur‟s selected poems: a reflection of multicultural education. indonesian research journal in education |irje|, 7(1), 136 – 147.https://doi.org/10.22437 /irje.v7i1.23744 1*universitas bina darma, palembang, south sumatra, indonesia; corresponding author: neisya@binadarma.ac.id 2,3 universitas bina darma, palembang, south sumatra, indonesia https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v7i1.23744 https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v7i1.23744 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 137 introduction poetry is an act of meditation, improvisation, and exploration, and urgency is what guides the writer into the poetic journey (van rooyen & d‟abdon, 2020). it is a compact language that expresses complex feelings. in addition to qualities of memorability, musicality, imagination, and invention, poetry is expected to touch readers at an emotional level (yadav, 2018). for an indian canadian young poet, rupi kaur, poetry is her way to express her feelings based on her self-experiences. poetry is the language of human emotion (kaur, 2022). rupi kaur, born in punjab on 4 october 1992, emigrated to canada at a young age with her family. to symbolize and preserve her mother language (punjabi), she only uses lowercase and period in all her poems including the title of her poetry books. kaur further explains on her website, rupikaur.com, that punjabi is written in either shahmukhi or gurmukhi script. within the gurmukhi script, there are no uppercase or lowercase letters, a visual representation of what she wants to see more of within the world. kaur puts on her life story in her poetry books milk and honey, he sun and her flowers, home body. all the poems are related to one another. it has the primary storytelling of a woman‟s journey in life (tarigan et al., 2020). her work touches on love, loss, trauma, healing, femininity, and migration. moreover, kaur, in home body, digs deeper life of racism, classification/capitalism, and oppression. born in a sikh family, she had been separated from her father before she was born, due to hate crimes against sikh men, following the 1984 sikh genocide tragedy in india. then she followed later at four years old with her mother to canada. kaur recalls her father leaving hastily to avoid any harm as thousands of sikhs were targeted, arrested, and even murdered at hands of the indian government (singh, 2019). she experienced oppression and abuse throughout her life. as a child, kaur was raped by her, uncle and it had long-lasting effects. kaur and her mother were told to be silent. when kaur tried to speak up, her father and other men in her life would shut her down. because of her poems about women at most, kaur becomes famous as a feminist. several research and journals discussed rupi kaur‟s poems using a feminist approach. hagman (2020) analyzed kaur‟s poems from her poetry collection in kaur‟s second poetry book published, the sun and her flowers, with the framework of critical discourse analysis and feminist research. in addition, kaur‟s word selection of her poetry has been analyzed by saddiah and tarihoran (2021). it discusses the intrinsic and extrinsic elements found in the poems. furthermore, hussain and ali (2021) carried out research on kaur‟s home body as a reaction to the patriarchal mechanism of society, where women have always been subjugated, suppressed, and surpassed by men. adapting feminism by beauvoir, the research reveals women in postmodern/postcolonial india are marginalized based on their gender. this research tries to reveal different perspectives of rupi kaur‟s selected poems by analyzing the subaltern‟s voice portrayed in them. subaltern is a term conceived by the italian marxist antonio gramsci, who used it as a codeword for any class of people (but especially peasants and workers) subject to the hegemony of another more powerful class (buchanan, 2018). the concept of the subaltern gained increased prominence and currency with gayatri irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 138 spivak‟s essay can the subaltern speak? written in 1985. spivak combines ideas from marxism, feminism, and deconstruction (riach, 2017). as an immigrant, kaur adopts the western point of view. she applies hegemonic practice that delivers the question „does kaur represent herself or the product of western representation?‟. it becomes a reflection of multicultural education which enables the readers to see the hybridity of kaur‟s cultural identity through her texts. a view of multicultural education as something that exclusively addresses „minorities‟, either as groups inequitably excluded from social access or as a positive presence, however, has its limitations and difficulties (kalantzis & cope, 1998). literature review analyzing kaur‟s voices shout in the poetry books, the condition refers to subaltern theory. this theory is popularized by gayatri chakravorty spivak in her essay can the subaltern speak? written in 1988. subaltern means the people of inferior rank or status. it refers to the populations that are socially, politically, and geographically outside the hegemonic power structure of the colony and colonial homeland. subaltern classes may include peasants, workers, and other groups denied access to hegemonic power. they are marginalized and oppressed people, made in different ways and different from general people (saadila et al., 2021). spivak laid stress on the gendered subaltern – woman, who undergoes oppression doubly inflicted by both colonial legacy and patriarchy in the third world countries (rahman, 2015). spivak, in this essay, wants to end the oppression and exploitation of subaltern women (muama & mustofa, 2022). if spivak's chief concern can be summarized as a wariness of the limitations of cultural studies, what is particularly interesting about her engagement with the postcolonial predicament is the uneasy marriage of marxism, feminism, and deconstruction that underlies her critical work. subalterns become a continuous issue around the world. migration to another region or country creates a new minority in the host place, especially when the host country has very different ethnic and cultures. multicultural education is proposed to overcome the cross-cultural effect appears. a vital goal of multicultural education is to reform the school and other educational institutions so that students from diverse racial, ethnic, and social-class groups will experience educational equality (banks, 1993). further, its paramount goal is to give both male and female students an equal chance to experience educational success and mobility. delivering „equal intellectuals‟, spivak briefly invokes gramsci's subaltern theory concern „with the intellectual's role in the subaltern's cultural and political movement into hegemony. the problem is that the subject‟s itinerary has not been traced to offer an object of seduction to the representing intellectual. in the slightly dated language of the indian group, the question becomes, how can the people‟s consciousness be touched, even as their politics are investigated? with what voice consciousness can the subaltern speak? (williams & chrisman, 1994). the domination of western culture exists, as can be seen in one of the subaltern theory issues, feminism, which is a theoretical ideology that emerged from the western world (hussain & ali, 2021). the term „feminism‟ begins in us and europe in the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 139 late century of 19 th as a political party that fights for women‟s suffrage and defend other rights in society (siregar et al., 2020). methodology the method used in this research is qualitative. this method does not involve numbers or numerical data. it involves words or language pictures, photographs, and observations. qualitative research is an approach to exploring and understanding the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human problem. the research process involves emerging questions and procedures, data typically collected in the participant‟s setting, data analysis inductively building from particulars to general themes, and the researcher making interpretations of the meaning of the data. the final written report has a flexible structure. this design focuses on data collection, analysis, and writing. however, it originates out of disciplines and flows throughout the research process (e.g., types of problems and ethical issues of importance) (creswell, 2014). this qualitative method is used by identifying subaltern theory contained in the data, especially the main object of this research which are selected poems from three of rupi kaur‟s poetry books milk and honey, the sun and her flowers home body. to strengthen the research, some supporting data are needed from sources such as journals, books, articles, video reviews, and interviews. those all data will be analyzed and elaborated further to draw a conclusion answering the problems of this research. the research object the object of the research is several poems written by an indian canadian young poet, rupi kaur, which are collected in her three poetry books entitled milk and honey, the sun and her flowers, home body. the first book was a self-published poetry book in 2014. the second and third poetry books follow were in 2017 and 2020 and printed by the publishing company. there are 71 poems from those three poetry books selected to be researched by using gayatri spivak‟s subaltern theory approach to reveal the subaltern woman‟s voices in them. techniques for collecting the data the research data is collected through multi-methods and sources to get the best data to be observed and analyzed further. primary data comes from selected poems of rupi kaur in milk and honey, the sun and her flowers, home body poetry books. the secondary data comes from multiple sources, such as journals, articles, books, video reviews, and interviews related to the object of the research and the approach. firstly, to dig for the meaning of the poems and learn the author‟s life story, the researchers read all three poetry books and the subaltern theory to understand and comprehend the ideas. the poems then are determined and classified based on the subaltern issues found. texts in the poems selected are highlighted to be analyzed. next, the researchers browse articles and books related to the author, the book, and the theory approach as supporting data. some video interviews of rupi kaur are also watched and analyzed as supporting data to see the author‟s perspectives. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 140 techniques for analyzing the data in analyzing data, the researcher is focused on the oppression, struggle, racism, and gender classification consisting of selected poems of milk and honey, the sun and her flowers and home body poetry books by rupi kaur. the researchers use the theory of subaltern by gayatri chakravorty spivak. the techniques in analyzing the data are identifying subaltern theory contained in selected poems of rupi kaur‟s poetry books milk and honey, the sun and her flowers, home body to build the base of the research study, analyzing the base data found in kaur‟s selected poems as the main object of the research through spivak‟s subaltern theory approach, observing secondary data from multiple sources to support the voices found in kaur‟s selected poems, relating and elaborating the points found to strengthen the research analysis until finally concluding the research. findings the three rupi kaur‟s poetry books were written in a similar style, beginning with a chapter feeling of pain as a general feminine feeling in an amoral relationship. it starts with a self-abusive approach, goes through some remedial measures, and finally reaches a state of acceptance and relief. the book attempts to communicate about most common female experiences by women in different roles as daughter, lover, mother, and most important woman (islam, 2020). misinterpretation of love as a sexual relationship dominates the poems‟ themes. this concept is the result of kaur‟s childhood trauma. kaur asserted that women have been taught that sex is like a pit stop for men. they might come and go as they please as stated in a welcome poem, “you have been taught your legs are a pitstop for men that need a place to rest a vacancy, body empty enough for guests „cause no one ever comes and is willing to stay” welcome, milk and honey – p.13 kaur‟s first book milk and honey brings a woman‟s oppression and determination from a man, especially in her eastern original culture, india. by disclosing the story of her life, her parents, and her ancestors, kaur‟s poems aim to create a sense of solidarity among her readers, who might be able to grasp the power of being united against inequality and injustice. freedom of belief as sikhs deprived and capitalism in the hierarchy of social life experienced by her parents and fired her to voice it out loud. readers‟ response even being irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 141 the trigger, pulls her to voice it bigger and louder. these comments on writing are suggestive of her writings in verses as well. kaur‟s poetry is so popular that a „brand‟ like the image of her poetry gets formulated (deka, 2000). “you want to keep the blood and the milk hidden as if the womb and breast never fed you” the poem above in the sun and her flower page 223 on the other hand, proposes a change oi the way of thinking against east culture that considers the female body as something taboo to be discussed and published. her western culture way of thinking appears more in kaur‟s second poetry book, the sun and her flowers. her readers‟ target widens from „coloured-skin‟ women to all women. therefore, kaur, in line with feminist thought, is also challenging the idea of dualism which has been typical of western thought (masini, 2019). having been raised in canada by a punjabi family, kaur might have experienced a lack of consistency and coherence between her parents‟ teachings and beliefs and those of her newly adopted culture, originating uncertainties about the uncovering and understanding of her identity. kaur‟s inconsistency can be identified in her poet‟s story flows, which change readers‟ target form of women from „her origin minority‟ to „universal‟ which means from the colored-skin women to all skin color women, including white, west. the west‟s belief is better than the east, is also portrayed in her poems. some poems tell the beauty standard is white-centered, and she represents the minority colored-skin and hairy girls, trying many attempts to look like the majority as the standard, the white one. meanwhile, her family‟s deep dark life has been expressed in home body, kaur‟s third poetry book. throughout the collection, kaur‟s poetry reflects on the negative traits of western society, such as capitalism, racism, and patriarchy (tanzmeister, 2021). “...when you‟re an immigrant you keep your head down and stay working when you‟re a refugee and you don‟t have papers when they call you illegal outsider terrorist towelhead you work until your bones become dust you are the only one you can count on...” a lifetime on the road, home body – p.93 its hierarchy cannot be refused. as migrants, they must follow the host country‟s system where in this case, they are the peasants, the low workers, and the subaltern. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 142 discussion sikh was banned in india. 1984 remains one of the darkest years in modern indian history. the conflict began in october 31, 1984, when indira gandhi, the prime minister of india, was assassinated by her two sikh bodyguards. her assassination catalyzed genocidal attacks around india, especially in its capital, new delhi. sikh victims were dragged out of their cars and homes and beaten to death, fires were set to their houses of worship known as gurdwaras, women were raped, and homes and stores were burned down to ash (singh, 1999). like the united states, the canadian government also liberalized its migration policy in the 1960s. this change has created a chain migration procedure. the sikh diaspora is based on the painful drive or “separation of people from their country of origin. the indian state has killed more than 200,000 sikhs in the last 20 years without hope for predictable justice (jathol, 2019). to survive, rupi kaur‟s father, a sikh man, moved to canada as a refugee. she followed at four years old with other family members. at the age of five, kaur was raped by her uncle. the trauma of sexual abuse experienced brought long-lasting effects on her. kaur and her mother, as women, had no right to speak out, protest, or argue even with her family members. they were forced to be silent by the men. keeping the trauma, kaur faced more trouble in the new country. different languages had worsened her childhood life, no one could be her sharing partner. in a talk show, she said, “i‟ve been drawing since i was five years old, i moved to canada with my family when i was four years old. we moved from punjab, and i couldn‟t talk to anyone when i arrived, „cause i didn‟t know any english. and so, i couldn‟t really make any friends. and so, books became my friends” (the tonight show, 2018). writing and illustrating is her partner in sharing, and the poems are the result. the poems written in her poetry books then become her life story. those poems are based on her life experiences, as stated in her interview with emma watson, “…and i hardly read comments and that‟s usually how i do it. i think it‟s about honesty and just sharing that. it‟s so personal so everybody around me is like it‟s okay, like you know, this person isn‟t criticizing you they‟re just criticizing the work and i‟m like but the poetry was literally me. yeah, you know this poem is about my life, poems about my experiences, and the people that i love, so it‟s very difficult and even though i am self-aware and i do try to like, you know, not let it affect me, i‟m sure at a level it has affected, you know, the way that i write” (our shared shelf, 2018). trauma that has been kept for so long is finally published through her poems. most poems discuss women, and many illustrations of the naked woman‟s body support it. female body an important topic of feminist subject mattergets introduced here as a property of the patriarchal male to dictate its fulfillment. female subjectivity in sexuality is also evaluated in irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 143 terms of love, sex, and rape. in another poem, „the art of being empty‟ on milk and honey page 33, the insult to the female self that her physical existence is considered something very shameful (islam, 2020). rape is not the only one causing her trauma. masini (2019) reported her father‟s sexual demands towards her mother taught him that sex was a man‟s right and a woman‟s obligation. abuse like this was what shaped her perception of a woman‟s role in society. it shows the situation in which women are overwhelmed by the pressure of patriarchal societal norms, sexual abuse in a family environment that causes mental trauma at such young ages, and social pressure and expectations towards women that become oppression against women (adzkiya et al., 2022). the traditional mind of male-dominant societies considers women a machine for giving birth to their babies. they are handled as a tool for their sexual desires (hussain & ali, 2021). kaur‟s poems, such as welcome and many others, were considered provocative by many readers and critics. however, kaur is using the sketch of the female body as a symbol for women‟s empowerment and to question social constructs and the way society perceives the female body (gawrieh, 2019). forming a protest women‟s oppression, rupi kaur stands as an outspoken vocal for the rights of women in a patriarchal mood of society. she declares the culture around her as rigid and biased in terms of gender. the patriarchal mechanism even does not leave the mind of women free. she stands against women‟s discrimination and misbehavior done to them. the poetry books represent rupi kaur as a valid advocate for women. she is a woman who stands liberally and equally against males and challenges them through her art, literature, and literary manners (hussain & ali, 2021). capitalism is another subaltern issue written in kaur‟s selected poems was experienced most by her parents in the working field. the poem a lifetime on the road tells about discrimination and race classification. the word terrorist in the poem is a punch for western people who generalize eastern men as perpetrators of the 9/11 tragedy, the world trade center building crashed on 11 september 2001. permitted to live in the host country, immigrants must follow any rules of being white as the original people of the host country, canada. capitalism is hierarchical (pardede, 2020). no matter how hard they work, immigrants and minorities will not be respected or valuable. though it is hard for them, what they can do is only fall into the system to stay alive. the subalterns could never understand the power game and hegemonic policies of elites and their supporters. they just obeyed and considered them as their well-wishers, and they ruled over these downtrodden people (saadia et al., 2021). publishing poems to represent subaltern‟s voices, rupi kaur meanwhile reflects western culture. when a woman‟s voice is under men in eastern culture, speaking woman is possible and acceptable in western countries. diaspora and migration have created such diverse scenarios that the identities of people, their inner selves, their traditions, and their viewpoints are all likely to change during and after moving abroad. being raised as a diasporic sikh girl in canada resulted in kaur feeling torn between two cultures, one that is still quite conservative when it comes to how women are treated in society, while the other is more liberal but does not prevent women from considering themselves not beautiful enough, not clever enough, not brave enough. in her poetry, kaur irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 144 considers both perspectives of her country of origin and that of her adoptive one (masini, 2019). in kaur‟s case, this second view of cultural identity makes clear why she is struggling with finding her identity because identity is not something that you can just read about and understand. it does not come with explanations in books, as it does not only come with precise facts. recognizing oneself and one‟s native culture becomes much more complicated when you must deal with other cultures and other ways of living, especially when they do not seem to be like your original one. since canada is kaur‟s host country, multicultural education supports her western way of thinking. helping her survive by learning and adapting to the culture, kaur is indeed breaking tradition which means that she is modifying her cultural identity step by step. thus, cultural identity might at first seem to be something stable and fixed by strict rules but, on the contrary, cultural identity is in a continuous process of change and redefinition. yet, the possibility of bringing deeper changes to one‟s cultural identity comes together with the struggle of identifying one‟s self since dealing with two or more cultures and their expectations might result in a feeling of non-belonging to either one culture or the other. thus, when people migrate, it is natural that identities, perspectives, and viewpoints may change along with the change in one‟s social and cultural environment. indeed, with her poetry, kaur celebrates the freedom of expressing one‟s culture and especially accepting yourself for who you are, even though this might imply disregarding the cultural practices of your original culture in favor of those of your adoptive one and vice versa. hegemonic dominance is never fixed, just like cultural identity. kaur is aiming at binding together all those who are in search of freedom and equality. the poet often addresses women in her poetry, specifically women of color, as they constitute a minority in minority. not only do they face inequality because of their gender but also because of their skin color. with the hope of helping others who might find themselves in a similar situation, kaur creates a sense of communality in her poems when she speaks about diaspora, abuse, and daily issues, such as her break-up. those who share the same or simi traumatic experiences are likely to feel relieved when they become aware that others have gone through what they have gone through in the first place since this shows that trauma can reach anyone, even though minorities are especially, being fragile parts of society. at the same time, she is helping her readers who might identify themselves with her story, and it creates a communal sense of solidarity between the author and her readers (masini, 2019). calling other women „sisters‟ as represented in the home body, page 166 points out the familial type of support that kaur is willing to demonstrate to other women, which she shows to the public through the same poetry. eventually, the poet identifies herself with all women by using “we” instead of “i” as stated in „stronger together‟ home body page 161 and addressing all females rather than talking about herself. spivak‟s perspectives of intellectuals are proven. all women are being her concern instead of only her colored-skin women as a minority. it becomes difficult to identify the persona separately from the whole race of women with whom she expressed her sorority. this sorority is central to her identity and liberation. her voice turns from local to universal (islam, 2020). her poetry becomes a representative voice of the readerly thirst for mass (deka, 2000). irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 145 subalterns are just a tool of a hegemonic practice that symbolizes political, social, and even cultural domination by a group against the other. since hegemony is indirect, it is usually operated through ideological and ethical inclinations to the dominated group, and in spivak‟s perspective, a subaltern group is a group whose voices are always represented, while the representation is only a tool for the actual domination (setiawan, 2018), and domination is always accompanied by oppression which can be physical, psychological, and moral or in the realm of ideas (pardede, 2020). conclusion migration compels rupi kaur to face two different cultures of the countries, east and west. many challenges are faced by kaur and her family. it forces her to adapt and adjust to her current life. the surroundings affect her way of thinking. getting multicultural education seems to help kaur‟s problems. in contrast, when the culture from her origin country, india, teaches women to be silent and act under men‟s orders, her new country, canada, shows her the freedom to speak out and face others, both men and women, a western culture. feminism, gendered classification, hegemony, and capitalism from subaltern theory, are found in many of kaur‟s poems in her poetry books. she successfully tells readers about her life experiences before and after her migration. meanwhile, she succeeds in showing the world that her life in western culture is much way better than her previous life. kaur, by speaking out through her poetry books is asking for acceptance and admission of her life changing. cultural issues seem to be a never-ending discussion. many new problems appear through cultural encounters. rather than centering one‟s culture on the world or trying to equalize, another theory, bhabha, in his perspective, proposes the „third space‟, a result of hybridity, a new space of transcultural forms. continuing this research, bhabha‟s third space theory is recommended as the approach to further interesting research on a cultural mix. declaration of conflicting interests the authors declared no potential conflicts of interest. acknowledgments we are grateful to have precious support from the institution, universitas bina darma palembang, especially from prof. dr. sunda ariana, m.pd., m.m. as the rector, and precious guidance from the leadership of nuzsep almigo, s.psi., m.si., ph.d. references adzkiya, n. p., 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(2021). the body of woman's rights as portrayed in rupi kaur's milk and honey based on elaine showalter's gynocriticism. journal of language and literature, 21(1), 68-78. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 147 van rooyen, h., & d'abdon, r. (2020). transforming data into poems: poetic inquiry practices for social and human sciences. education as change, 24(1), 1-17. williams, p., & chrisman, l. (1994). can the subaltern speak. colonial discourse and postcolonial theory: a reader, 66-111. yadav, m. k. (2018). discussion on the concept of poetry: t. s. eliot versus i. a. richards. international journal of english language, literature and translation studies (ijelr), 4(5), 79-85. biographical notes neisya is working at universitas bina darma, palembang, south sumatra, indonesia fitria aprilia is working at universitas bina darma, palembang, south sumatra, indonesia anita is working at universitas bina darma, palembang, south sumatra, indonesia this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 245 pedagogical competencies and classroom anxieties in teaching general music rayvin d. pestaño 1 and florante p. ibarra 2 abstract this study utilized a descriptive correlational research design to examine the pedagogical competencies and classroom anxieties in teaching general music of 50 public junior high school mapeh (music, arts, physical education & health) teachers in gapan city, philippines. quantitative data were gathered using questionnaire as the main instrument involving statements measured through likert scale. with a six-month data gathering, pearson r was utilized in the analysis. results disclosed that musical skills and knowledge were significantly correlated with pedagogical competencies and classroom anxieties in teaching general music. recommendations on capacitating mapeh teacher‟s musical skills and knowledge must be considered to further improve the quality of music education. keywords classroom anxieties, general music, pedagogical competencies, musical skills, musical knowledge 1 college of education, central luzon state university, philippines, e-mail: rayvin.pestano@clsu2.edu.ph 2 department of education and related studies, college of education, central luzon state university, philippines, e-mail: fpibarra@clsu.edu.ph mailto:rayvin.pestano@clsu2.edu.ph mailto:fpibarra@clsu.edu.ph irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 246 introduction music, arts, physical education and health (mapeh) is a mandatory course from elementary to junior high school which is a combination of different disciplines. teachers in the junior high school generally encounters challenges and struggles in teaching one of mapeh‟s component parts – music. while music is considered an academic discipline and must be recognized as such (atabug, 1996), mapeh teachers‟ pedagogical competencies might be affected when one has acquired inadequate musical skills/knowledge to teach a specific musical concept. one of its impacts would lead to some sort of classroom anxiety in teaching general music to students. as stipulated in the revised basic education curriculum (rbec, 2002)both in the elementary and secondary levels, the minimum teaching and learning competencies are as follow: singing (alone and with others), reading musical notation, improvising (rhythmic patterns, melodic improvisation or variation), creating music (composing or arranging), listening to music (describing and analyzing), performing (solo instrument or with others) and understanding music in relation to history and culture (atabug, 1996). pedagogical competencies to teaching general music in the classroom require some degree of competency and musical skills which are imperative in the teaching and learning process. in its broadest sense, pedagogical competency is the ability to do or perform something successfully or efficiently. specifically, it concerns about teaching capacity, from lesson plans to approaches to teaching performance including classroom management. as topics progress from simple to complex, mapeh teachers‟ skills (musicianship) is imperative to sustain the quality of instruction. when a teacher feels that his/her acquired music skill is insufficient, there will also a feeling of anxiety in performing the assigned teaching task. because of the huge components of musical concepts being taught to students, music teachers with less musical knowledge and skills are exposed most likely to some extent of teaching anxiety. teaching anxiety is a usual human experience applicable to various settings. as defined by thomas (1976), teaching anxiety can be described as “feelings, beliefs, or behaviors that interfere with a person‟s ability to start, continue, or finish teaching tasks” (p.28). in this case, teacher preparation, classroom management and public speaking are affected by teaching anxiety. while there are number of studies have been conducted to determine the teacher‟s pedagogical competencies (emiliasari, 2018; mardapi & herawan, 2018; sumual & ali, 2017), there are limited researchers in the context of competencies in teaching music (kovalev et al., 2016; marcheva, 2018), assessing teachers competence in music (funmilayo, 2019; maranzano, 2002), and teachers‟ teaching anxiety (sinclair & ryan, 1987; thomas & thoresen, 1976). this is where this inquiry hoped to address mapeh teachers‟ pedagogical competencies and classroom anxieties in teaching general music to junior high school students. purposively, it hoped to examine how effective a mapeh teacher with high level of musical skills and in contrary, it would also define how classroom anxiety affects instruction in general music when mapeh teachers lack musical skills. this study was conducted to describe the musicianship, pedagogical competencies and classroom anxieties of the respondents. furthermore, to investigates the impacts of musicianship (musical knowledge and skills) to pedagogy and anxiety in general musical class. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 247 literature review teacher competency is believed to be an integral part in transmitting certain skills and knowledge to students for the reason that it deals with “teachers‟ belief and ability to plan and execute courses of action necessary to successfully achieve a specific teaching objectives in a particular context” (tschannen-moran & woolfolk, 2007, p.223). numerous studies on competencies in teaching have been documented thus far (devries, 2013; johnson & matthews, 2015 ; juchniewicz, 2010; macleod & nápoles, 2014), teachers perceptions and behaviors in relation to teacher competencies (madsen & cassidy, 2005; taebel, 1990), and assessing teacher competencies (danielsons, 2009; mohanna et al., 2007; nielsen, 2014). teaching anxiety is a usual human experience applicable to various settings. in a study by plaut (1998), an estimated eight percent of all people experience some degree of anxiety when they become the center of attention. teaching anxiety in general music classroom has always been a constant issue in teacher education institution. various studies have been conducted about teaching anxiety in classroom (gardner & leak, 1994), prevalence and severity of teaching anxiety (ameen et al., 2002), coping strategies and various anxieties (roach, 2003), personal effects on teaching anxiety and teaching strategies (houlihan et al., 1969), and teaching anxieties in classroom management (peker, 2009; oral, 2012). this study was based primarily on framework of teaching by danielson (2009) and spielberger‟s (1989) trait-state theory on anxiety. framework for teaching explores the various areas of competence that a teacher needs to develop and have expertise. it encompasses four domains of teaching responsibility such as planning and preparation, classroom environment, instruction and professional responsibilities. on the other hand, trait-state theory on anxiety focuses mainly in emotional state or a condition that is characterized by subjective, consciously perceived feelings of tension and apprehension and perceived threats in the environment. this covered three interrelated areas such as behavioral, psychological and emotional characteristics. by looking through this lens, issues related to pedagogical competencies and classroom anxieties in teaching general music had been given prime emphasis. this study hoped to critically examine how an acquired musical knowledge and skills define teachers‟ pedagogical competencies and teaching anxieties in teaching general music class. figure 1 shows the conceptual framework of the study. in the conceptual framework, the independent variables included the socio-demographic profile such as age, sex, bachelors‟ degree, highest educational attainment and number of years in service and musicianship which comprised of musical knowledge and musical skills. pedagogical competencies such as planning and preparation, classroom environment, classroom instruction, professional responsibilities and classroom teaching anxieties which include behavioral, psychological and emotional characteristics served as dependent variable. as shown on the figure, it had established the interrelationships and correlations of the variables. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 248 figure 1. conceptual framework of the study showing the relationship of the independent and dependent variables methodology research design, site, and participants descriptive research design was utilized to investigate the state of musicianship associated with pedagogical competencies and classroom teaching anxieties in teaching general music class among selected junior high school mapeh teachers in the division of gapan city. bernard (2006) describes the research design as a blue print, or outline, for conducting the study in such a way that maximum control will be exercised over factors that could interfere with the validity of research results. in this study, it was used to determine the socio-demographic profile and musicianship (musical knowledge and skills) and their significant links to pedagogical competencies and classroom teaching anxieties. the population in this study was junior high school teachers teaching the subject mapeh (music, arts, physical education and health). there were a total of 50 mapeh teachers-respondents from eight (8) public secondary schools in gapan city, nueva ecija philippines. total population sampling was used. there were a total of 50 mapeh teachers who participated in this study. bernard (2006)defines total population sampling as a sampling technique that involves examining the entire population that have a particular set of characteristics. it is more commonly utilized with relatively small number of cases being investigated, thus, gaining complete representation of respondents in this study. socio-demographic profile o age o sex o bachelor‟s degree o highest educational attainment o years in teaching musicianship o musical knowledge o musical skills pedagogical competencies o planning and preparation o classroom and environment o classroom instruction o professional responsibilities classroom teaching anxiety o behavioral characteristics o psychological characteristics o emotional characteristics irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 249 data collection and analysis survey questionnaires were personally administered by the researcher to the respondents after seeking approval from the schools division superintendent of gapan city, nueva ecija philippines. furthermore, the research instrument was guided by murcia et al. (2015) “questionnaire in evaluating teacher‟s competency” and revised according to the needs of the study. to determine the instruments validity and reliability, a pilot test was made and it earned a cronbach alpha of 0.923. teacher respondents were likewise provided with orientation and explanation of the purpose of the study as well as the instructions in each item in the survey-questionnaires. data analysis including frequency count, percentage, standard deviation and means were utilized in determining the socio-demographic characteristics and musicianship of the respondents. pearson correlation was used to examine the relationship between socio-demographic profile, musicianship of the respondents and their pedagogical competencies and classroom teaching anxieties. findings and discussion teachers’ socio-demographic profiles table 1 presents the socio-demographic profile of the respondents. fewer than half or 20 (40%) of teachers were 21-29 years old followed by 12 (24%) who were 30-39 years old. nine teachers (18%) were 40-49 years old, seven (14%) who were 50-59 years old and two (4%) disclosed that they were 60 years old above. loughlin and barling (2001) noted that “young workers” represent the workforce and are mostly found to be very active. in terms of sex, most of the teachers (29 or 58%) were female while 21 (48%) were male. this implies that female teachers dominated the teaching force of mapeh in the division of gapan city. according to richardson and watt (2006) women showed stronger motivation than men in their desire to work with children/adolescent. with regards to bachelors‟ degree, majority of the teachers (23 or 46%) were bsed other major graduates, followed by 22 (44%) bsed mapeh and five (10%) graduated in other programs. this implies that teachers are being hired because of necessity regardless of specialization of the teacher. johansson and myrberg (2019), emphasized the importance of specialist teacher in teaching the subjects effectively. they also found out that teacher‟s specialization has a positive relationship with student‟s achievement. as to highest educational attainment, majority of the respondents (32 or 64%) earned master‟s units, followed by 13 (26%) who have not yet pursued graduate studies, five (10%) obtained their masters‟ degree and none among them have earned units nor finished doctorate degree. in years of teaching, more than half of the teachers belong to the bracket of 1-10 years (34 or 68%) while eight (16%) belong to the 11-20 years in teaching. five (10%) had 21-30 years in teaching whereas three (6%) had 31 years above in teaching. harris and sass (2011) noted that teachers with more than five years of experience are more effective than teachers with no experience. hence, teachers with more years of experience tend to increase effectiveness in teaching. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 250 table 1. socio-demographic profile of the respondents musicianship of the teacher respondents table 2 presents the musicianship of the respondents. it can be noticed that tteachers obtained an overall mean of 2.41 interpreted as having low level of musicianship. also, the overall standard deviation was 0.25 indicating narrow distribution of responses. musical knowledge. mk of the respondent has an overall mean of 2.36 which indicated that respondents were found to have low level of proficiency in these areas. the overall standard deviation of 0.24 revealed that respondents answer was narrowly dispersed. it can be implied that respondents have insufficient knowledge in teaching general music class. socio-demographic profile frequency (n=50) percentage age 21-29 years old 20 40% 30-39 years old 12 24% 40-49 years old 9 18% 50-59 years old 7 14% 60years above old 2 4% mean: 31 sd: 5.2 sex male 21 42% female 29 58% bachelors‟ degree bsed mapeh 22 44% bsed other major 23 46% other program 5 10% highest educational attainment bachelors‟ degree 13 26% masters‟ units 32 64% masters‟ degree 5 10% doctorate units 0 0% doctorate degree 0 0% number of years in teaching 1-10 years 34 68% 11-20 years 8 16% 21-30 years 5 10% above years 3 6.% irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 251 musical skills. looking at the respondent‟s musicianship in terms of musical skills, it can be seen that respondents were also found to have low level of musical skills based on the overall mean obtained. results implied that respondents have insufficient musical skills in handling and teaching general music class. table 2. summary of respondents’ musicianship relationship between socio-demographic profile and musicianship, pedagogical competencies and classroom anxieties of the respondents table 3 illustrates the relationship between socio-demographic profile of the respondents and their musicianship, pedagogical competencies and classroom anxieties in teaching general music class. table 3. relationship between respondents’ socio-demographic profile and musicianship, pedagogical competencies and classroom anxieties parameters musicianship pedagogical competencies classroom anxieties mk ms pp ce ins pr bc pc ec age 1.88 1.29 1.74 .025 .070 .152 -.052 -.047 -.131 sex -.237 -.197 -359* -.369** -.363* * -.171 .278 .207 .154 bachelors‟ degree -.518** -.416 ** -.417** -.495** -.361* -.185 .655 ** .649 ** .635 ** highest educational attainment -.019 .105 .098 .026 0.10 .129 .056 -.003 .004 years in teaching .277 .281* .256 .043 .194 .279 -.080 -.129 -.131 *. correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed) **. correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). relationship between socio-demographic profile and musicianship bachelor’s degree and musical knowledge and musical skills, it can be seen in table 3 that bachelor‟s degree has a negative significant relationship with musical knowledge and musical skills at 0.01 level of significance. findings on the relationship of bachelor‟s degree and musicianship mean sd descriptive rating musical knowledge 2.36 0.27 low musical skills 2.47 0.24 low overall mean 2.41 0.25 low legend: 3.26-4.00 very high 2.51-3.25 high 1.76-2.50 low 1.00-1.75 very low irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 252 musical skills and knowledge suggest imperative connection of the variables. because of its negative relationship, this might simply mean that a bachelor‟s degree with concentration on four components (i.e. mapeh – as to music, arts, physical education and health) compared to bachelor‟s degree with area of concentration in music education would have contrasting output in terms of acquired level of musical skills and knowledge. the former would have a lesser degree of musical knowledge and skills since developing aptitude in music is not that intense while the latter purely concentrates in enhancing one‟s skills and knowledge in music. thus, it would offer sufficient proficiency in both areas. these findings likewise coincide with danielson (2009)and neilsen (1990) on assessing teacher competency. teachers possessing degree with area of concentration purely in developing skills have the capability to be more effective educator compared to non-pure degree. years in teaching and musical skills, years in teaching also posted a moderate negative significant relationship to musical knowledge at 0.05 level of significance since the value in the significance is less than 0.05. the result might imply that the longer a person establishes himself or herself as music teacher will most likely develop sufficient musical knowledge. as proven in various music researches, atabug (1996) gave emphasis on the importance of long period of preparation for a person to fully equip with musical skills and knowledge. relationship between socio-demographic profile and pedagogical competencies sex and planning and preparation, classroom environment and instruction, it has been revealed that sex have a moderate negative relationship to respondents‟ pedagogical competence in terms of planning and preparation, classroom environment and instruction. findings likely imply that both male and female mapeh teachers have equal capabilities to teach general music. however, results might also suggest that there are certain uniquely male and female issues in teaching general music. harmonized with tiger (2017), gender role suggests some degree of pedagogical competencies that make both male and female different in their teaching styles. female music teachers tend to focus more on vocal music concerns while male music teachers most likely prefer instrumental music. bachelors’ degree and planning and preparation, classroom environment and instruction, results disclosed that bachelor‟s degree established a negative significant relationship with planning and preparation and classroom environment and with instruction. results likely offer evidences on the significant importance of what specific degree a person possesses to come up with certain pedagogical competency. teachers with music degree perform higher level of pedagogical competencies in teaching general music compared to teachers not having pure music education degree. compared with atabug (1996), this norm has been consistent up to this present time. this has also been confirmed by nielson (1990)and danielson (2009) on evaluating teacher competency. relationship between socio-demographic profile and teaching anxiety bachelor’s degree and behavioural, psychological and emotional characteristics of teaching anxiety, findings revealed that bachelors‟ degree posted a significant relationship with behavioural, irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 253 psychological and emotional characteristics. these findings on the relationship of bachelor‟s degree and teaching anxiety in terms of behavioral, psychological, and emotional characteristics would have the tendency to negatively impact teachers teaching performance. because of its high positive correlations, these might simply mean that, based on respondents‟ profiles on their undergraduate degree, teachers with bachelor‟s degree with little concentration in music components most likely experience high level of teaching anxiety. on the other hand, teachers with bachelor‟s degree having concentrated purely in music education most likely manifest lesser degree of teaching anxiety. these findings concur with previous researches on the acquired competency level of teachers through their area of concentration and how these would affect their pedagogical competencies (macleod & nápoles, 2014; johnson & matthews, 2015; juchniewicz, 2010; hamann et al., 1998). specifically, the findings harmonize with de vries (2013) who emphasized that generalist teachers tend to experience various degrees of teaching anxieties depending on their acquired level of skills and knowledge obtained during their formative years of experience. koran and koran (1981) also noted that music teachers might be at great risk to suffer from anxiety compared to other discipline since it requires sufficient musical skills. relationship between musicianship and pedagogical competencies and teaching anxiety table 4 presents the relationship between musicianship in terms of musical knowledge and musical skills and their pedagogical competencies as to planning and preparation, classroom environment, instruction, professional responsibilities and teaching anxieties such as behavioral, psychological and emotional characteristics. musical knowledge/musical skills and planning and preparation, musical knowledge and preparation and planning posted a very high positive relationship. because musical knowledge is imperative to music analysis, the result most likely propose that planning and preparing for specific music class requires sufficient information and familiarity to specific music concept being taught. likewise, a highly positive correlation has been revealed between musical knowledge and planning and preparation for general music class. this relationship most likely suggests that musical skills such as reading notations and playing a specific instrument are imperative to formulating objectives for the specific musical concept to be discussed. thus, the necessity of possessing certain level of musical knowledge and skills most probably enhances teachers‟ ability to plan and organize meaningful music learning experience. concurred with guskey (1986), high performing schools with competent teaching task force require individual teachers to sustain and even enhance more their musical skills, knowledge, and attitudes essential to plan and prepare certain teaching tasks. tschannen et al. (2007) agreed with the former in that teacher‟s belief of possessing high level of skills have the ability to plan and execute courses of action necessary to successfully achieve a specific teaching objective in a particular context. musical knowledge/musical skills and classroom environment, a strong positive relationship has similarly revealed between musical knowledge and classroom environment, because of the necessity of adequate music knowledge and fluency on various music activities, the result most likely suggests that teachers having ample musical knowledge can manage classroom irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 254 transitions properly. also, a strong positive correlation has been noted between musical skills and classroom environment. the result tends to suggest that possessing high level of musicianship (e.g. note reading, teaching student how to play an instrument, or handling performing group) could create a friendly learning environment for students. this finding is consistent with reeves (2002) stating teachers having high innate skills will likely manifest propensity to monitor and enhance student progress by providing them meaningful classroom environment of learning. musical knowledge/musical skills and instruction, musical knowledge has been likewise noted to have high positive correlation with instruction. the result most likely implies that the quality of classroom music instruction is dependent of the musical knowledge the teacher has acquired. thus, this would dictate on teacher‟s flexibility in terms of teaching strategies for better music class dynamics. strong positive correlation has also been noted with instruction. the finding most likely implies that instruction in music classes would be the heart of the teaching and learning process. this is where teachers manipulate their teaching strategies and styles in utilizing instructional materials and implement music activities that would best describe and define specific music concept being learned by students. this result coincides with reeves (2010) who looked at the positive learning environment by means of quality instruction. their research studies revealed that by incorporating high quality instructional strategies, teachers tend to engage students into specific collaborative teamwork and decision-making. musical knowledge/musical skills and professional responsibilities, a positive significant relationship has been established between musical knowledge and professional responsibilities. this finding might possibly entail that having adequate musical knowledge can offer certain degree of confidence to involving oneself in the teaching and learning process professionally. corresponds with the findings of juchniewicz (2010) whose study examined the influence of professional responsibilities on teaching, it was found out that the higher the level of knowledge, teachers tend to manifest effective communication skills with students that would define teachers‟ professionalism. musical skills and professional responsibilities were likewise found to have a strong positive relationship. this result tends to imply that teachers would be confident enough to handle music classes and would exercise professionalism in their teaching as well as in dealing with other duties associated with professional work attitudes. this result confirms the findings of napoles and macleod (2014) on teacher skills in observing professionalism inside the classroom and student engagement. they indicated that classroom discussions with teachers‟ high skills in observing professionalism most likely manifests high student engagement. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 255 table 4. relationship between respondents’ musicianship, pedagogical competencies and classroom anxieties musicianship pedagogical competencies classroom anxieties pp ce ins pr bc pc ec musical knowledge .730** .508** .646** .588** -.521** -.573** -.516** musical skills 729** .546** .528** .485** -.480** -.502** -.413** *. correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed) **. correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). relationship between musicianship and teaching anxiety musical knowledge/musical skills and behavioral characteristics, findings disclosed that musical knowledge established a high negative relationship with behavioral characteristics of teaching anxiety. the result implies that lesser musical knowledge tends to increase anxiousness in incorporating music related activities in the classroom in which teachers are unfamiliar with. likewise, a strong negative correlation has been noted with musical skills and behavioral characteristics on teaching anxiety. the finding tends to suggest that teachers having insufficient musical skills be likely to feel bothered and worried in teaching musical concepts which are not familiar with them. concur with the study of gardner and leak (1994) that teachers with inadequate skills had experienced teaching anxiety associated with the teaching process. furthermore, bernstein (2017) notes that teaching anxiety could lead to the development of unsuitable and ineffective teaching behaviors which is not ideal for education. musical knowledge/musical skills and psychological characteristics, a high negative relationship has been likewise revealed between musical knowledge and psychological characteristics of teaching anxiety. the outcome specifically implies that teachers lacking the minimum requirement of musical knowledge to teach general music class have the propensity to constantly recall and review specific musical concepts to be taught. furthermore, this psychological behavior tends to increase teachers „inability to focus on certain teaching situation. match with atabug (1996) on the magnitude of skills acquired by a person will most likely experience lesser degree of focus problem but productive in various teaching contexts. strong negative relationship has also been established between musical skills and psychological characteristics of teaching anxiety. the result revealed that teachers with inadequate musical skills tend to experience an increased concentration problem when teaching specific musical concept to students. this results to communication apprehension in the teaching and learning process. similar to the finding of roach (as cited in wagner, 2011) which indicates a negative correlation between communication apprehension and the possibility of acquiring more or less teaching skills. roach concludes teachers equipped with expertise most likely experience lesser psychological difficulty in teaching. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 256 musical knowledge/musical skills and emotional characteristics, there had been a strong negative relationship linking musical knowledge and emotional characteristics of teaching anxiety). the impact of inadequate skills on musical facts or information tend to amplify teachers‟ apprehension or trepidation on executing and even integrating music activities to the teaching and learning process. the findings of oral (2012), houlihan et al. (1969), and ammen, et al. (2002) on the impact and severity of emotional teaching anxiety have similar implications. oral (2012) notes that majority of teachers tends to feel continuous uneasiness and discomfort when engaged in unfamiliar teaching task. likewise, houlihan et al. (1969) put emphasis on teachers with extreme level of teaching anxiety associated with controlling moods have the high tendency of not to employ cognitive restructuring strategies in the classroom. furthermore, a high negative relationship was also found between musical skills and emotional characteristics of teaching anxiety. based on the finding, teachers with inadequate musical skills have the tendency to decline teaching general music class and vulnerable to distress when teaching a musical concept is unsuccessful. this means that the lesser the degree of musical skills, the higher the level emotional anxiety. coincide with bernstein (2017), a person who struggles with anxious thoughts and emotional disturbance might have problems communicating concepts, answering student questions, or even give adequate response to students. in this manner, the impact of teaching anxiety might have negative effect on the nature of music discussion. conclusion and recommendations based on the results of this study, the following conclusions were drawn. socio-demographic profile of respondents was remarkably diverse. the largest number of participants belonged to age bracket of 20-29 years old and considered the youngest of all respondents. dominated by female teachers, their educational attainments varied from bachelor‟s to master‟s degree. some of whom disclosed of having master‟s degrees and units while none of them entered thus far in the doctorate degree program. years of service from 1-10 years comprised the majority of respondents and only three revealed having more than 31 years in their teaching professions. teachers musicianship such as musical knowledge and skills were found to be low. with regards to their pedagogical competencies in terms of planning and preparation, classroom environment, instruction and professional responsibilities their perceived proficiency were found to be low. subsequently, mapeh teachers‟ most likely manifest inadequately capabilities or unskillful on these areas. on the other hand, classroom environment and professional responsibilities revealed to be teachers‟ high level of pedagogical competencies. consequently, teachers were most skillful on areas of classroom environment and in carrying out professional responsibilities. in terms of the overall characteristics of mapeh teachers‟ teaching anxiety, the three areas (i.e., behavioral, psychological, and emotional) were perceived to have high level of teaching anxieties. musicianship (musical skills and musical knowledge) and pedagogical competencies were found to have very strong positive correlations. thus, mapeh teachers having insufficient musical skills and musical knowledge were most likely having less pedagogical competencies on planning/preparation and instruction in general music class. furthermore, irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 257 musicianship had been revealed to have high significant negative relationship with teaching anxiety. mapeh teachers possessing inadequate musical skills and knowledge most likely have the tendency to constantly experience extreme behavioral, psychological, and emotional teaching anxieties. based on the outcome of the study, it can be inferred that the higher the acquired musical skills and musical knowledge, the higher the level of teachers‟ pedagogical competencies. the lower the musical skills and musical knowledge, the higher the level of teaching anxiety in general music class. since majority of the mapeh teachers handling general music classes belonged to younger generation of teachers, they should be encouraged to take advance studies in music education for them to nurture their musical skills and knowledge on the pedagogical aspects of music education. this would enhance teachers‟ abilities to execute the minimum teaching and learning competencies in music education. disclosure statement no potential conflict of interest or any other similar divergence associated with this research article by the author. acknowledgments we would like to acknowledge the indonesian research journal in education for serving as a flat form for providing the researcher opportunity to internationally publish academic and scholarly works. references ameen, e., guffey, d., & jackson, c. 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(2007). the differential antecedents of self-efficacy beliefs of novice and experienced teachers. teaching and teacher education, 23, 944– 956. biographical notes rayvin d. pestaño is an assistant professor at college of education, central luzon state university. a doctor of philosophy in development education graduate at clsu‟s department of education and related studies. his research interest focuses on music, physical education, sports, teaching and learning and school management, e-mail: rayvin.pestano@clsu2.edu.ph florante p. ibarra is an accredited full-fledged professor at central luzon state university graduate school of education in the philippines. he teaches courses such as advance methods of educational research, philosophy of education, and philosophy in educational management ethics. a multi-awarded music educator and music researcher, his interests focus on classroom instructions, school management system, teaching and learning musical traditions and cultural anthropology. he published various research articles in reputable international journals under social science citation indexed, emerging sources citation indexed and scopus, e-mail: fpibarra@clsu.edu.ph this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 373 gender differences in verbal fluency and language dominance by arab students darin nshiwi 1 and failasofah 2 abstract this study falls within multi-lingual processing area. the aim of this study is to investigate the language dominance and gender differences in verbal fluency by arab students in a foreign country. the impact of duration residence's years and the differences in the phonological and semantic fluency by gender in english as a foreign language, standard arabic and arabic dialect among arab students at pannonia university in hungary are examined. ten arab students were involved in this study (five males and five females) between the ages of 25-35 years old. the task in this study contained two main categories to measure the phonological and semantic fluency. the participants were asked to write as many words as they could that started with letter (s) in one minute in the phonological category. while in the semantic category, they were required to write as many jobs as they could in english, standard arabic and arabic dialect. this study concludes that the phonological fluency in english and arabic dialect is higher than in standard arabic. however, the semantic fluency in standard arabic and arabic dialect is higher than english because vocabulary in both categories are almost the same. it is also found that female participants are more fluent in the phonological and semantic categories. nevertheless, there are no real differences in processing the phonological and semantic tasks according to gender among educated arab students residing in a foreign country. keywords gender differences, language dominance, phonological fluency, semantic fluency 1. multilingualism doctoral school, the university of pannonia, hungary; dareen33omar@gmail.com 2. multilingualism doctoral school, the university of pannonia, hungary and faculty member at faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, jambi, indonesia; failasofah.unja@gmail.com mailto:dareen33omar@gmail.com mailto:failasofah.unja@gmail.com irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 374 introduction verbal fluency (vf) tests are mostly used in neuropsychological assessment research and clinical practice. these tests are also used to investigate cognitive functions, language use and language dominance (luk & bialystok, 2010; schmid & keijzer, 2009). shao et al. (2014) define verbal fluency task as a test that normally consists of two categories to test verbal functioning, such as semantic fluency and phonological fluency that is usually named as letter fluency. demographic characteristics of the participants can play a role in the semantic and phonological fluency. for example, age, level of education and gender are thought to be influential and can affect fluency. nevertheless, these variables especially gender have inconsistent results. the impact of gender on verbal fluency has been a debatable issue. many studies in the field of vf reported contradicting results about this variable. for instance, kurth et al. (2017) study reported results about the gray matter in female brains in bormann area 44 and 45, and it asserted the superiority of females in verbal fluency and verbal memory tasks. however, berminger, and fuller (1992) research manifested the males' superiority in the oral verbal fluency tests. other studies that investigated age, gender and education reported other inconsistent results. for example, van hooren et al. (2007) conducted a study to determine the effect of age, education and sex on cognitive speed, verbal memory, executive functioning and verbal fluency on group of 578 participants aged 64-81. the data analysis showed that gender has been noticed to affect verbal memory. women were found to perform better on the verbal memory tests. however, tombaugh et al. (1999) study that collected normative data of phonemic verbal fluency (fas) and categorical verbal fluency found that gender accounted for less than 1% of variance for fas and animal naming. mathuranath et al. (2003) also conducted a study to examine the impact of age, education and gender on vf in cognitively unimpaired malayalam older learners. the study concluded that level of education significantly influence letter fluency. however, age and level of education were found to affect the semantic fluency. nevertheless, gender impact had no effect on sematic and phonological fluency. another study which was conducted by brucki et al. (2004) analyzed the influence of education, gender and age on verbal fluency. they examined 257 healthy participants with a mean age of 49.42 years and having a mean educational level of 5.58 years. the gender variable was not found significant in the various tasks. however, age seemed to influence the number of category changes. on the other hand, educational level had a statistically significant effect on all measures, except for clustering. in addition to investigating the gender impact on vf, the present study aims to investigate the language dominance among these arab students according to the duration of their residence in hungary. dominance is defined as the asymmetries of using one language over the other in terms of skills and production. abundant body of research has been conducted to examine language attrition and language dominance in bilingual immigrants (schmid & keijzer, 2009). the aim of this study is to investigate the language dominance and gender differences in verbal fluency by arab students in a foreign country. this study is intended to investigate the following questions: what is the difference in processing the phonological irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 375 and semantic verbal fluency among english as a foreign language, standard arabic and arabic dialect? is there a difference in processing the phonological and semantic verbal fluency tasks according to the participants‟ gender? literature review what is the difference between a language and a dialect? regional dialects, from the linguistic point of view, are just as rich and complex as standard languages, although in some cases, they have similar vocabularies, grammars, and sounds. speaking in different dialects unquestionably is experienced by arab speakers as they have standard (dialect) arabic and different regional arabic dialects. they may unconsciously have the ability to shift sociolinguistic styles in different contexts. these styles range along a continuum between different dialects, usually standard and vernacular varieties. the extreme ends of the style-switching continuum are often assumed to be „bidialectalism‟ (hazen, 2001). mitterhofer (2013, p. 8 cited lewis 2009) define dialect as follows: “[e]very language is characterized by variation within the speech community that uses it. those varieties, in turn, are more or less divergent from one another. these divergent varieties are often referred to as dialects. they may be distinct enough to be considered separate languages or sufficiently similar to be considered merely characteristic of a particular geographic region or social grouping within the speech community. often speakers may be very aware of dialect variation and be able to label a particular dialect with a name.” according to crystal (1997 cited in solano, 2006), a dialect can be defined as a variety of a language that is distinguished from other varieties of the same language by its pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, discourse conventions, and other linguistic features. in addition, farr & ball (1999, p. 206) confirm that dialects are rule-governed systems, with systematic deviations from other dialects of the same language. dialects are seen: „„as complex and as regularly patterned as other varieties of english, which are considered more standard‟‟. thus, although the term dialect is frequently used to refer to the language used by people from a particular geographic or social group or to mean a substandard variety of a language, in fact everyone speaks dialects (preston, 1993 as cited in solano, 2006). mitterhofer (2013, p. 6) differentiates between a dialect and standard language as follows: dialect and language differ by their different domains of use. dialects are used more among family and friends, in local settings and work places and they are usually spoken, not written. the standard language is used in public and official domains, e.g. in education, administration, literature, science, etc. yet, this is not always the case, as speakers of the speech variety which has become the standard language will use the standard language also in the domains of family and local settings. at the same time dialects sometimes are used also in more formal and official settings. irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 376 standard arabic and arabic dialects standard arabic or the language of the holy quran is the official language in the arab world. the standard version of arabic is widely use in written literature, official media and the medium of education (cotterell & callison, 2014). on the other hand, dialects of arabic are considered spoken languages that descended from standard arabic. dialects may differ through the ordering or addition of rules. sometimes these dialects are so different and varied to the extent that some speakers cannot understand others from other regions. this linguistic phenomenon is known as diglossia, in which the standard language varies extremely from the spoken dialect. the arabic dialects differ for historical reasons and have been individually influenced by the pre-arabization language spoken by the population, as is the case with aramaic in the levant, as well as the european languages from the time of colonization. such distinctions are important as north african dialects are unique in the quantity of french loanwords, whereas iraqi arabic has been historically more influenced by turkish. shaalan and ziedan (2007) study found on five main characteristics that differentiate standard arabic from egyptian. 1. distortion of verbs (e.g. ًحاآتة مه سأآتة -َضَرْتتِيً مه َضَرْتتًِ –تليتً مه تللت ماتأعذ مه ) أما تقعذ 2. distortion of nouns. (e.g. الِخير مه الَخيѧ دي م -ر ѧن يѧ َجمً -را ѧمه َر خايف مه خائف فيه مه أيه -ميه مه َمْه -ُجمٍُر ). 3. distortion of pronouns and letters meanings. (e.g. احىا مه وحه -)عصايتي مه عصاي َُ َُّ مه ٌُ ٌ 4. distortion of the structure of the word form (e.g. مه تالت شٍُر -)اتاَب مه تثاءب ثالثة شٍُر 5. replace the characters and movements. (e.g. سقة مه ثقة -تُم مه ثُم -تِعثان مه ثعثان ه شثث "أي تعلقمشثط ) bilingualism impact on verbal fluency studies in the field bilingualism have detected positive impacts on verbal fluency. for example a longitudinal study was conducted to examine the impact the effect of bilingualism on memory call, verbal and categorical fluency by ljungberg et al. (2013) and it showed that bilingual participants outperformed monolinguals in memory recall and letter fluency. however, there was no correlation between bilingualism and categorical fluency. another research conducted by luo and bialystok (2010) investigated verbal fluency in monolinguals and bilinguals. the data analysis revealed that high-vocabulary bilinguals performed better in the letter fluency task. bilingualism has not been always seen beneficial when it comes to verbal fluency. gollan et al. study (2002) showed that monolinguals'' superiority in verbal fluency tasks. bilinguals participants scored lower than monolinguals in all verbal fluency tasks, which suggests that language switching can cause slowing in the verbal process. irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 377 methodology sample of the research the sample contained 10 arab students (five males and five females) dwelling in vezsprem/ hungary, aged of 25 to 35. eight participants were ma students, while two of them were phd candidates at pannonia university in hungary who come from different region in arab. the writers and all the participants are colleagues at the same faculty university; therefore they got their access to them. in their countries, each of them speaks two different dialects namely standard arabic and their regional arabic dialect. instrument this study employs quantitative methods in order to answer the research questions. the research instrument used was two kinds of fluency tests; phonological and semantic fluency tests. the task contained two main categories to measure the phonological and semantic fluency in english as a foreign language, standard arabic and arabic dialect. the phonological fluency, the participants were asked to write as many words as they can that start with letter (s) in the phonological category, since the letter (s) has almost the same frequency both in english and arabic (english: 6.3%, arabic: 6.01%). the instructions were in arabic. when the participant provided words with the same root (e.g. variations of gender, number) that belong to the same word, just the first answer was credited. in addition, when the participant named numbers, the first answer was only credited. however, if the participant named the same word more than once with different meaning, the answer was accepted. regional and slang words in the dialect arabic were also accepted if the participants were able to explain their meaning. the semantic fluency, the subjects in the semantic task were required to write as many jobs as they can in english, standard arabic and arabic dialect within one minute. the instructions were also in arabic. regional designations of jobs were accepted in dialect arabic. any repetition of the same job (including jobs' variations according to number or gender) was not credited. data collection procedure and analysis to collect data, students were sent an electronic quiz via email and they were asked to fill a quiz that contained three main sections in english, standard arabic and arabic dialect. the first part of the quiz contained two demo sections (phonological and semantic). the first section asked the participants to name as many words as they can that start with the (a) letter. however, in the semantic section, the subjects were asked to name as many animals as they can in one minute. when the minute passes, the participants move directly to next category. the quantitative data from the quiz was analyzed by using spss program to extract the mean and standard deviation through descriptive and inferential statistics. the findings were presented in tables and illustrated in bar charts. irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 378 findings this study is intended to find the difference in participants‟ phonological and semantic fluency when producing words in a given time and to discover whether their gender can have an impact on verbal fluency tasks. from the tests performance and spss data analysis, the results can be shown as presented in following tables: table 1. means, standard deviations, and correlations (phonological category) variable n m sd 1 2 3 eng (s) 10 9.50 2.63 -.54 .73* stanarab (s) 10 7.50 3.86 .540 -.84** diaarab (s) 10 9.30 2.94 .737* .84** - figure 1. sum of word that starts in(s) in english, standard arabic and arabic dialect table and figure (1) show that the phonological fluency in english (m=9.50, sd=2.63) and arabic dialect (m=9.30, sd=2.94) are higher than that in standard arabic (m=7.50, sd=3.86). the average of words that start in (s) which the participants wrote in one minute in english and arabic dialect are almost the same. while, the number of words that start in (s) in standard arabic are less than that in english and arabic dialect which can be attributed to the fact that these participants are in hungary and they use these two languages more frequently than standard arabic. it can also be noticed from the above table that the data set is normally distributed because the sd is > 0.05. it reveals a significant correlation between english and dialect arabic at the 0.05 level and a strong correlation between standard arabic and dialect arabic at the 0.01 level in the phonological category. table 2. means, standard deviations, and correlations (semantic category) variable n m sd 1 2 3 eng (job) 10 7.90 3.44 --.40 -.28 stanarab (job) 10 12.80 355 -.40 -.78** diaarab (job) 10 12.20 23.79 -.28 .78** - irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 379 figure 2. sum of jobs in english, standard arabic and arabic dialect it can be noticed from table and figure (2) that the semantic fluency in standard arabic and arabic dialect is higher than english. the average of words in (jobs category) which the participants wrote in one minute in standard arabic (m=12.80, sd=3.55) and arabic dialect (m=12.20, sd=3.79) is almost the same. while, the mean of words in (jobs category) is less in english (m=7.90, sd=3.44) which can be attributed to the fact that both jobs in standard arabic and arabic dialect are almost the same. the previous table shows that the data set is normally distributed because the sd is > 0.05. there is also strong correlation between standard arabic and dialect arabic at the 0.01 level. the second task was given in order to find whether there are any phonological fluency differences between male and female participants. table 3. gender difference in the phonological fluency gender eng(s) stanarab(s) dialarab(s) female mean n sd 10.6 5 1.5 9.6 5 3.6 10.8 5 2.2 male mean ………….. n sd 8.4 5 3.2 5.4 5 3.0 7.8 5 2.9 figure 3. gender difference in the phonological category irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 380 table and figure (3) show that females (1) superiority in performance in the phonological fluency task in english, standard arabic and arabic dialect over the males (2). in all categories of tasks, female mean scores are higher around two points than male: 10.6 for english, 9.6 for standard arabic and 10.8 for arabic dialect. table 4. gender differences in the sematic the fluency task gender eng (jobs) stanarab (jobs) dialarab (jobs) female mean 8.2 14.2 13.4 n 5 5 5 std. deviation 4.02492 4.26615 4.77493 male mean 7.6 11.4 11.0 n 5 5 5 std. deviation 3.2 2.3 2.4 figure 4. gender difference in the phonological category as can be noted from table and figure (4), female participants show that they are more fluent in the semantic fluency task than male participants (2). yet, the last task display dissimilar results as the difference among participants are insignificant. years of residence on verbal fluency/the phonological fluency a correlation test was conducted to answer question two related to gender differences of participants. the result is revealed as follows: irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 381 table 5. language dominance in the phonological fluency tasks years of residence n eng(s) m sd standarab(s) m sd diaarab(s) m sd 0 1 9.00 . 12.00 . 12.00 1 1 4 9.25 3.59 8.50 4.65 10 3.46 2 4 10.5 2.08 6.50 2.64 8.74 2.63 3 1 9.50 3.86 7.50 3.86 9.30 2.94 it can be noticed from table (5) that the phonological fluency according to the years of residence is the following: the participant who just arrived is more fluent in standard arabic (m=12, sd=.) and arabic dialect (m=12, sd=1) than english (m=9, sd=.). four of the participants have resided in hungary for one year and they were more fluent in english (m=9.25, sd=3.59) and arabic dialect (m=10, sd=2.08) than standard arabic (m=8.50, sd=4.65). while the four participants who spent two years were more fluent in english (m=10.5, sd=2.08) than standard arabic (m=6.50, sd=2.64) and dialect arabic (m=8.74, sd= 2.63). however, the participant who spent three years in hungary were also more fluent in english (m=9.50, sd=3.86) and arabic dialect (m=9.30, sd=2.94) than standard arabic (m=7.50, sd 3.86). table 6. language dominance in the semantic fluency tasks years of residence n eng(job) m sd standarab(job) m sd diaarab(job) m sd 0 1 4.00 . 16.00 . 13.00 . 1 4 6.00 3.16 13.75 4.11 13.75 4.85 2 4 10.50 2.51 12.00 3.26 10.75 3.59 3 1 9.00 . 9.00 . 11.00 . it can be noticed from table (6) that the semantic fluency according to the years of residence is the following: the participant who just arrived is more fluent in standard arabic (m=16, sd=.) and arabic dialect (m=13, sd=1) than english (m=4, sd=.). four of the participants have resided in hungary for one year and they were least fluent in english (m=6, sd=3.16), while they were equally fluent in arabic dialect (m=13.75, sd=4.11) and standard arabic (m=13.75, sd=4.85). while the four participants who spent two years were almost equally fluent in english (m=10.5, sd=2.08) and dialect arabic (m=10.75, sd=3.59) irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 382 more than in dialect arabic (m=12, sd=3.26). however, the participant who spent three years in hungary was also more fluent in dialect arabic (m=11, sd=.) than standard arabic and (m=9.00, sd=.) and english (m=9.00, sd=.). discussion in sociolinguistics, dialects refer to varieties of a language which differ in vocabulary, pronunciation, and grammar and which are associated with particular geographic regions or social groups. in a context of bior multilingual, „second dialect acquisition‟ (sda) most often refers to acquisition of the standard dialect; there are also instances when a non-standardized regional or social dialect is the target (siegel, 2010). weener (in hazen, 2001) points out that "in general, when the speaker of one dialect must process a verbal message from another dialect, the redundancy in that message is less for him than for a speaker of the dialect in which the communication was presented." it also proves that acquiring different dialects lead to dialect attrition in certain varieties. from her study, poplack (in hazen, 2001) concludes that it is undeniable that multilingual children possess elements of two or more linguistic systems, and have structured this input in a socially significant way. multilingualism unquestionably experiences by mostly people around the world including arabic countries and they may unconsciously have the ability to shift sociolinguistic styles in different contexts. these styles range along a continuum between different dialects, usually standard and vernacular varieties. the result of this verbal fluency study demonstrates that there are significant differences between two categories of tasks (i. e., phonology and semantic) in english, standard arabic and arabic dialect. even so, there are only few of them that indicate significance differences within tasks (within different categories and language). all the languages score are varied and dynamic. verbal fluency tasks are frequently used in neuropsychological assessment, in clinical practice, and in research. however, verbal fluency tasks have also been used in research on non-clinical groups to measure verbal ability including lexical knowledge and lexical retrieval ability and as a test of executive control ability (shao et al., 2014). the reason can be attributed to the fact that the tasks have compelling face validity which executive control abilities or both of a person with a serious deficit in lexical access will perform poorly in the tasks. fluency scores are useful indicators of general verbal functioning and as essential evidence in knowing how strongly performance in the tasks is affected by each of the abilities involved. the use of the verbal fluency tasks may attain from their face validity as tests of both verbal ability and executive control that participants need to retrieve words of their language. it requires them to access their mental lexicon and they need to focus on the task, select words meeting certain constraints and avoid repetition. therefore they involve their executive control processes (fisk & sharp, 2004). in this study most participants‟ answers in the phonological categories are nouns whether they are in english, standard arabic or arabic dialect. this is in line with clark et al. study in 2014 in which they confirm that participants tend to generate similar items in a close succession during a fluency task. this phenomenon is considered to be due largely to irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 383 unconscious processes, such as spreading activation in a network, and is considered to be relatively “automatic.” moreover, participants generated more words in the semantic fluency task than in the phonemic fluency task which contradicts grogan et al. study in 2009 in which the participants were more fluent in the phonemic task. however, this result is in line with cerhan et al. (2002) study which confirms that healthy individuals usually tend to generated more words by the semantic fluency category than by phonological one. languages that are used often and have therefore a high default level of activation are difficult to suppress or inhibit, but once deactivated are also more difficult to activate. as all participants in the study live in hungary as international students, they mostly use english with friends and teachers and use arabic dialect among arabic students. standard arabic seems to be rarely used by them. when participants were asked to write any word begin with s sound, they perform better in english and arabic dialect. accordingly, languages differ in level of activation, and this level of activation will depend on amount of contact and use, level of proficiency reached, maybe method of instruction, age of acquisition and many more variables (de bot, 2004). it is assumed that at a given moment in time, each language has its default level of activation. first language (l1) which is used more frequent will have a high level of activation, whereas a language learned in the past for a few weeks will have a very low level. de bot explained that activating a language means increasing its level of activation and it could also mean lowering the level of activation of other languages at the same time. the fact that languages differ with respect to their default level of activation means that we need some system to make it possible to speak a language with a lower level of activation to start with. without such a system, the stronger language always wins (de bot, 2008). thus, it can be assumed that the deficits in either verbal ability or executive control should manifest themselves in poor performance in the fluency tasks. therefore, the fluency task is used as an efficient screening instrument of general verbal functioning. based on some other study evidences, multilingual students in this study had more cognitive flexibility; they might switch not just between languages but one task and the next. erard (2012) argues that speakers of those two varieties also do a lot of switching back and forth. moreover, changes of quality between second and third language learning might be based on the differences in norms that the language learners relate to a bilingual norm in third language learning as opposed to a monolingual norm in second language learning (jessner, 2008). most researches on multilingual processing prove that many variables have been shown to play a role in language development. one of them is gender. the result of this study reveals that female participants more fluent than male. this is in line with the study of maccoby (1966, p. 26) which states that: through the preschool years and in the early school years, girls exceed boys in most aspects of verbal performance. they say their first word sooner, articulate more clearly and at an earlier age, use longer sentences, and are more fluent. by the beginning of school, however, there are no longer any consistent differences in vocabulary. girls learn to read sooner, and there are more boys than girls who irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 384 require special training in remedial reading programs; but by approximately the age of ten. however, statistically, this superiority in performance is not significant. this result is in line with hyde et al. (1988) study which confirms that there is no substantial strong evidence of gender difference in the verbal ability tests. this result contradicts denn‟s result (as cited in hyde et al., 1988) that concluded the superiority of females in verbal fluency tests and that they have better verbal abilities than males. maccoby and jacklin (1974) report about 85 studies reveals that “girls' verbal abilities mature somewhat more rapidly in early life, although there are a number of recent studies in which no sec difference has been found. during the period from preschool to early adolescence, the sexes are very similar in their verbal abilities.” they assume that at about age 11, the sexes begin to diverge, with female superiority grow through high school and possibly beyond. girls could perform better and get score higher on tasks involving both receptive and productive language, and on "high-level" verbal tasks (analogies, comprehension of difficult written material, creative writing) as well as upon the "lower-level" measures (fluency). conclusion this study was conducted at pannonia university in hungary. it investigated the phonological and semantic fluency of ten arab students. it concluded that the phonological fluency in english and arabic dialect is higher than in standard arabic. however, the semantic fluency in standard arabic and arabic dialect is higher than english. it was also found that female-participants were more fluent in the phonological and semantic categories. nevertheless, there are insignificant differences in processing the phonological and semantic tasks according to the gender. the small sample size in this study means that it could not be generalized. future larger study should be conducted so it could represent the population of arab speakers at the same setting of study. moreover, more detailed information that might affect and influence the speakers‟ fluency in bilingual context could also be investigated for more comprehensive findings. therefore, the result of the study could be contributed as reference to develop understanding in multilingual processing area. references benton, a. l. (1968). differential behavioral effects in frontal lobe disease. neuropsychologia, 6(1), 53-60. brucki, s. m. d., & rocha, m. s. g. (2004). category fluency test: effects of age, gender and education on total scores, clustering and switching in brazilian portuguese-speaking subjects. brazilian journal of medical and biological research, 37(12), 1771-1777. cerhan, j. h., ivnik, r. j., smith, g. e., tangalos, e. c., petersen, r. c., & boeve, b. f. (2002). diagnostic utility of letter fluency, category fluency, and fluency difference scores in alzheimer's disease. the clinical neuropsychologist, 16(1), 35-42. irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 385 clark, d. g., wadley, v. g., kapur, p., deramus, t. p., singletary, b., nicholas, a. p., & marson, d. (2014). lexical factors and cerebral regions influencing verbal fluency performance in mci. neuropsychologia, 54, 98–111. cotterell, r., & callison-burch, c. (201). a multi-dialect, multi-genre corpus of informal written arabic. in lrec (pp. 241-245). de bot, k. (2004). the multilingual lexican: modeling selection and control. the international journal of multilingualism. retrieved at https://rug.nl/staff/c.l.j.de.bot/ijm012.pdf de bot, k. (2008). the imaging of what in the multilingual mind? second language research, 24(1), 111-133. erard, m. (2012). do dialect speaker get the same benefits as bilinguals? retrieved from: https://aeon.co/essays/do-dialect-speakers-get-the-same-benefits-as-bilinguals fisk, j. e., & sharp, ca. (2004). age-related impairment in executive functioning: updating, inhibition, shifting, and access. retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15742539 grogan, a., david, w. green, nilufa, a., crinion, j. t. j., & price, c. j. (2009). structural correlates of semantic and phonemic fluency ability in first and second languages. cerebral cortex, 19(11), 2690–2698. gollan, t. h., montoya, r. i., & werner, g. a. (2002). semantic and letter fluency in spanish-english bilinguals. neuropsychology, 16(4), 562. hazen, k. (2001). an introductory investigation into bidialectalism. retrieved from: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/dd6d/d2ddd4f0c4a0ecf20277a14f968d29e0f688.p df heim, s., eickhoff, s. b., & amunts, k. (2009). different roles of cytoarchitectonic ba 44 and ba 45 in phonological and semantic verbal fluency as revealed by dynamic causal modelling. neuroimage, 48(3), 616-624. hyde, s., janet & linn, marcia. (1988). gender differences in verbal ability: a meta-analysis. psychological bulletin, 104. jessner, u. (2008). teaching third languages: findings, trends and challenges ulrike jessner university of innsbruck, austria. retrieve on november 25, 2017 from ulrike.jessner@uibk.ac.athttps://www.unil.ch/files/live/sites/magicc/files/shared/ ressources/jessner_2008_teaching_third_languages.pdf ljungberg, j. k., hansson, p., andrés, p., josefsson, m., & nilsson, l. g. (2013). a longitudinal study of memory advantages in bilinguals. plos one, 8(9), e73029. loonstra, a. s., tarlow, a. r., & sellers, a. h. (2001). cowat metanorms across age, education, and gender. applied neuropsychology, 8(3), 161-166. luo, l., luk, g., & bialystok, e. (2010). effect of language proficiency and executive control on verbal fluency performance in bilinguals. cognition, 114(1), 29-41. maccoby, e. e. (1966). the development of sex differences. maccoby, e., & jacklin, cn (1974). the psychology of sex differences. e, 513-520. mathuranath, p. s., george, a., cherian, p. j., alexander, a. l., sarma, s. g., & sarma, p. s. (2003). effects of age, education and gender on verbal fluency. journal of clinical and experimental neuropsychology, 25(8), 1057-1064. https://rug.nl/staff/c.l.j.de.bot/ijm012.pdf https://aeon.co/essays/do-dialect-speakers-get-the-same-benefits-as-bilinguals https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15742539 https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/dd6d/d2ddd4f0c4a0ecf20277a14f968d29e0f688.pdf https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/dd6d/d2ddd4f0c4a0ecf20277a14f968d29e0f688.pdf mailto:ulrike.jessner@uibk.ac.athttps://www.unil.ch/files/live/sites/magicc/files/shared/ressources/jessner_2008_teaching_third_languages.pdf mailto:ulrike.jessner@uibk.ac.athttps://www.unil.ch/files/live/sites/magicc/files/shared/ressources/jessner_2008_teaching_third_languages.pdf irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 386 mitterhofer, b. (2013). lessons from a dialect survey of bena: analyzing wordlists. sil international, leiden: leiden university. schmid, m. s., & keijzer, m. (2009). first language attrition and reversion among older migrants. international journal of the sociology of language, 200, 83-101. shaalan, k., bakr, h., & ziedan, i. (2007, september). transferring egyptian colloquial dialect into modern standard arabic. in international conference on recent advances in natural language processing (ranlp–2007), borovets, bulgaria (pp. 525-529). siegel, j. (2010). second dialect acquisition. retrieved from: http://assets.cambridge.org/97805215/16877/excerpt/9780521516877_excerpt.pdf solano-flores, g. (2006). language, dialect, and register: sociolinguistics and the estimation of measurement error in the testing of english language learners. teachers college record, 108(11), 2354-2379. tombaugh, t. n., kozak, j., & rees, l. (1999). normative data stratified by age and education for two measures of verbal fluency: fas and animal naming. archives of clinical neuropsychology, 14(2), 167-177. van der elst, w. i. m., van boxtel, m. p., van breukelen, g. j., & jolles, j. (2006). normative data for the animal, profession and letter m naming verbal fluency tests for dutch speaking participants and the effects of age, education, and sex. journal of the international neuropsychological society, 12(1), 80-89. van hooren, s. a. h., valentijn, a. m., bosma, h., ponds, r. w. h. m., van boxtel, m. p. j., & jolles, j. (2007). cognitive functioning in healthy older adults aged 64–81: acohort study into the effects of age, sex, and education. aging, neuropsychology, and cognition, 14(1), 40-54 biographical notes darin nshiwi is a phd student at multilingualism doctoral school, the university of pannonia, hungary and can be reached at dareen33omar@gmail.com failasofah is phd student at multilingualism doctoral school, the university of pannonia, hungary and faculty member at faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, jambi, indonesia and can be reached at failasofah@unja.ac.id http://assets.cambridge.org/97805215/16877/excerpt/9780521516877_excerpt.pdf mailto:dareen33omar@gmail.com mailto:failasofah@unja.ac.id this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 543 running dictation to develop students’ listening comprehension ability hariswan putra jaya, 1 nova lingga pitaloka, 2 and alhenri wijaya 3 abstract the aims of this research were to find out whether or not there was a significant improvement on students‟ listening comprehension achievement after being taught by running dictation method and their perceptions on running dictation. the sample of this research was the second semester students of english education study program at one state university in south sumatera, indonesia. the method of this study was experimental study with a one group pretest and posttest design. the data were collected by using listening comprehension prestest and posttest. t-test was used to analyze the data. the results showed that t-value was greater than t-table. it can be concluded that running dictation could improve students‟ listening comprehension achievement. some implications are also made for future research. keywords experimental study, listening comprehension, running dictation 1 lecturer at the language and arts education department, faculty of teacher training and education, sriwijaya university, palembang, indonesia; hariswan_pj@fkip.unsri.ac.id 2 lecturer at the language and arts education department, faculty of teacher training and education, sriwijaya university, palembang, indonesia; novalinggapitaloka@fkip.unsri.ac.id 3 lecturer at the language and arts education department, faculty of teacher training and education, sriwijaya university, palembang, indonesia. mailto:hariswan_pj@fkip.unsri.ac.id mailto:novalinggapitaloka@fkip.unsri.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 544 introduction there is an assumption among the public that a person's success in learning english can be seen from his/her ability and skills in speaking. a person who can speak fluently even though his/her pronunciation and grammar is not correct is considered successful in learning english. only a few people think that listening comprehension skill is also a measure of language proficiency that shows language skills. listening comprehension skill, different from hearing skill, is a skill to understand spoken language. according to ahuja and amita (2008), hearing is a conscious activity of receiving sound waves produced by the speaker, while listening is an activity of getting meaning of the heard sound. in other words, listening involves more complex activity than hearing. for instance, someone who hears a baby crying out loud is using his sense of hearing, but when he understands the sound of his baby‟s crying as a signal of being hungry, it is a form of listening because he has attached a meaning to what has been heard. a person's ability to understand spoken language is one of the important factors in language learning, because in fact in everyday life the language activity that most people do is listening. schwartz (1998) suggests that adults use half of their communication activities to listen, while students receive 90% of information on campus and school from listening both from lecturers and from other people. however, listening comprehension is less considered to be a priority in the english teaching and learning process. richards and renandya (2002) state that most english teachers disregard the teaching of listening comprehension. they consider listening comprehension as a soft skill that can be obtained outside the school and not to be necessarily taught. thus, when it comes to listening comprehension, both in real-life communication and the learning process, students may be good at reading, speaking, or writing, but not at listening. in order to improve the quality of education, almost all colleges require a toefl certificate for students who will complete their studies at the s1 (undergraduate), s2 (graduate), and s3 (postgraduate) levels with a certain minimum score in accordance with the policies set by the department and study program. of the three toefl test subjects (listening comprehension, structure and written expression and reading comprehension), listening comprehension test was the most difficult test item for most test participants causing them take several tests to achieve the desired score. this may occur due to the difficulty in learning listening skills experienced by not only english department students but also non-english department students. various studies conducted by language teaching experts showed that learning listening skills had its own difficulties when compared to learning other language skills. according to underwood (1990), there are several difficulties experienced by english learners in this skill, namely (1) listeners cannot control the speaking rate of the person delivering the message and feels the message has disappeared before it is understood. one message is understood as the other message is lost. (2) listeners do not have the opportunity to ask the speaker to repeat or clarify the message conveyed, for example when listening to the radio or watching tv, so that the message must be irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 545 understood as it is. (3) the limited vocabulary of the listeners makes them unable to understand the contents of the text and can even make them bored and frustrated. (4) the listener's failure to recognize and understand the 'signs' sent by the speaker causes them misunderstand the content of the message received (5) errors in interpreting the message received make listeners interpret the message differently from what was intended. (6) uninteresting topics, physical exhaustion, and a noisy environment make them unable to concentrate. thus, to minimize these difficulties, a teacher has to find appropriate teaching methods in listening class, one of which is running dictation. kazazoglu (2013) argues,” dictation is a productive learning devise for revising language skills. the learners can have immediate feedback on the nature of their linguistic performance. they can compare their output with an original text.”(p.1345). many studies reported the use of dictation in developing english skills, like listening (kuo, 2010), and writing (zaskiyah &husniah, 2017) and english aspects like vocabulary (tang, 2012). running dictation is a kind of dictation technique. case (2013) explains that running dictation offers enjoyable and interactive ways of learning in listening, speaking, reading, and writing skill. students can work into groups or pairs depending on the number of students in a class. they can collaborate to complete their worksheet. these activities facilitates their collaboration. in other words, running dictation makes students move around and work in a team. furthermore, council (2008) adds that running dictation employs a fun way which can motivate students at upper primary and lower secondary level. there has been limited research investigeting the effectiveness of running dictation for teaching listening skill in higher education context. students‟ perceptions in tertiary education level on the use of running dictation in listening class have not known yet. therefore, the research questions were: “is there a significant improvement on students‟ listening comprehension achievement after being taught by running dictation method”, and “what are their perceptions on running dictation?” literature review listening comprehension human has been using their ability in listening comprehension since a young age for many purposes: education, business, or to fulfil their social need. based on the function, listening can be separated into several types: discriminative, comprehension, critical, biased, evaluative, appreciative, sympathetic, empathetic, therapeutic, relationship, false, initial, selective, full and deep listening (thaker, 2008). listening comprehension requires the listeners to understand what is spoken by the other parties and be fully engaged in the process of finding out what is the ideas that the speaker tries to imply. this is another level of listening that must be mastered by students of english as a second language. extensive collection of vocabulary and good understanding in language structure or grammar is needed to fully understand what other english speakers say so that it can be said that with good listening skills it will also be easier to master other skills.thaker (2008) underlines that listening comprehension or can be considered as content listening, and full irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 546 listening requires listeners to have a good foundation in grammar and syntax. knowledge in grammar and syntax helps the students to construct the pattern of how the words and phrases are arranged in the sentence. howat and dakin (1974) also state that the purpose of listening comprehension is to identify and understand what other people are trying to imply and is related to the dialect, pressure, language structure, choice of words and their meanings. in addition, listening comprehension can deepen students' understanding and abilities in learning english because if students are able to advance their skill in listening comprehension, they can support other skills such as speaking, reading, and writing. brown (2001) state that there are two elements of listening, which are macro and micro-skills. macro skills are considered as a group of skills to comprehend what other people say in general meaning while micro-skills are considered as a group of skills that are used by listeners to identified and analyze the spoken discourse thoroughly. micro and macro skills have an essential role in investigating the students' difficulties in listening comprehension because they provide a categorization that can help to identify the criteria of an excellent listening performance. the micro skills include (1) discriminate among the distinctive sounds of english, (2) retain chunks of the language of different lengths in short term memory, (3) recognizes english stress patterns, words in stressed and unstressed positions, rhythmic structures, intonation concourse, and their roles in signalling information, (4) recognize reduced forms of words, (5) distinguish word boundaries, recognizes a core of words, and interpret word order patterns and their significance, (6) process speech at a different rate of delivery, (7) process speech containing pauses, errors, corrections, and other performance variables, (8) recognizeze grammatical word classes (nouns, verb etc.) systems (e.g., tense, agreement, and, pluralization), patterns, rules, and elliptical forms, (9) detect sentence constituents and distinguish between major and minor constituents, (10) recognize that a particular meaning may be expressed in different grammatical forms, (11) recognize cohesive devices in spoken discourse. for the macro skill, it consists of (1) recognize the communicative functions of utterance according to situations, participants, goals, (2) infer situations, participants, goals using real-word knowledge, (3) from events, ideas, and so on, describes, predict outcomes, infer links and connections between events, deduce causes and effects, and detect such relations as the main idea, supporting the idea, new information, given information generalization, and exemplification, (4) distinguish between literal and implied meanings, (5) use facial, kinetic, body language, and other nonverbal clues to decipher meanings, (6) develop and use a battery of listening strategies, such as detecting keywords, guessing the meaning of words from context, appealing for help, and signalling comprehension or lack thereof. running dictation running dictation could be one of interesting strategy to improve students‟ listening skill. running dictation is a fun strategy that is possibly adapted in a number of ways with its irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 547 relative ease in preparation. running dictation is the teaching and learning strategy in which the students work in group to dictate the sentences, there is a runner and the writer in each group (hess, 2001). running dictation is a multi-skill activity involving listening, speaking, reading, and writing. it is fairly easy to prepare and practice. running dictation is a type of dictation in which in its implementation students must be responsible for the part of the story that is obtained or received. dictation is given using recorded stories from native english speakers. this activity is carried out in groups where when the first person gets the story section from the lecturer, they immediately turn to the second person and retell the story section. this is done onwards until the last group member. this activity is carried out continuously with fragments of different paragraphs until the story is finished. after the entire paragraph has been dictated, each group rewrites the story. the written story can then be displayed / posted on the board for comparison with other groups. as for more specifically, the teaching procedures are as follows: 1. students form groups of 5-6 people and each member of each group is numbered. 2. the lecturer calls one of the numbers (can start with the member number 1 etc. to make it easier), directs the student outside the classroom and dictates a short paragraph. 3. students listen and remember the paragraphs read by the lecturer and dictate back to all members of the group in chain. 4. each group member memorizes the contents of the paragraph and the fastest group immediately raises their hand and says “bingo”. 5. the lecturer appoints a member of the group to tell the paragraph. 6. the group that is the fastest and can tell the paragraph correctly gets points. 7. the teacher does the same activity until all paragraphs are conveyed and all group members have a turn. 8. each group writes down each paragraph on origami paper and arranges them in the correct order to form a story. 9. each group displays their work in the classroom. methodology research design, respondents, and locale of the study this research was a quasi-experimental study applying the pre-test-post-test non equivalent group design. cohen, manion, and morrison (2007) state that this research methodology is one of the most commonly used methods in educational research. in this quasi-experimental research of pre-test and post-test nonequivalent group design single research question was addressed which was to find the effectiveness of running dictation in improving students‟ listening comprehension achievement. this research method was selected for this study because of the following factors: (a) administrative constraints which do not allow the researcher to have random selection; (b) it is unrealistic to conduct the study in true experimental design because of limitation of space and time allowed for this research; c) quasi-experimental design can show what actually happens in real life irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 548 surroundins without any disruption in the present educational systems; (d) the results of quasi-experimental design is still compelling and particularly prominent in evaluation research studies as argued by bryman (2001); and (e) the use of intact classes in quasi-experimental designs could reduce the presence of hawthorne effect that can frequently arise when subjects are randomly selected and assigned to conditions for cooperative lesson periods (chong, 2003). the pre-test and post-test nonequivalent group design can indicate that subjects are not randomly selected and assigned to conditions (gay & airasian, 2003; haslam & mcgarty, 2003). therefore, quasi-experimental study was chosen to answer the research questions with the following procedures:  administering a pretest to measure the students‟ listening comprehension.  giving treatment to the subjects by teaching listening comprehension applying running dictation  administering a posttest after the treatment measuring the students listening comprehension achievement.  comparing the pretest and posttest scores to find the score differences. the population of this study was the 19 students belonged to class ii b of the second semester students who were taking the intermediate listening course at english education study program, language and arts education department, faculty of teacher training and education. the sample of this study was chosen by using purposive sampling techniques. the sample was chosen based on the class distributions on the academic year 2019/2020. there were two classes. class ii a and ii b. the class ii b was chosen since the average pre-test score was under the the average pre-test score of the class ii a. data collection and analysis the data were collected by using listening test. the test was adopted from a ready-made toefl-like test listening material. the listening section measures test takers‟ ability to understand spoken english in an academic setting. the listening test consists of 50 questions which were divided into three parts. the first part of the listening test required the students to listen to audios in the form of short conversations which consist of 30 questions, long conversations in the second part consist of 8 questions, and monologues in the third part consist of 12 questions. each listening passage was associated with a set of questions intended to assess test-takers‟ ability to understand main ideas or important details, recognize a speaker‟s attitude or function, understand the organization of the information presented, understand relationships between the ideas presented, and make inferences or connections among pieces of information. besides, a questionnaire was also used to discover students‟ perceptions on the use of running dictation. the questionnaire was validated by a senior lecturer. regarding the procedure of data collection, the first steps is organizing the teaching procedures. running dictation procedure was adapted from various resources so that it irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 549 could be used to teach listening comprehension. the procedure was then given to a senior lecturer for expert judgment. a lesson plan was designed after the procedure was validated. before the group received treatment, the students were given a readymade toefl prediction pre-test. the group was given post-test after fifteen meetings at the end of the semester. the students were also given a questionnaire after the post-test to find out their perceptions towards learning listening comprehension through running dictation. this study used a quantitative data analysis by using spss. the quantitative data of this study was the numerical data and they are formulated by using statistical method. descriptive statistics, percentages, normality test, and paired sample t-test was used to analyze the data. t-tes was used to analyzed the data. gay (1992) states that t-test is used to determine whether two means are significantly different at a selected probability level. the method was used to find the significant differences between pre-test and post-test in listening comprehension ethical considerations prior to this research, the reseacrh participants were informed about what the research was intended to and how it was carried out. then, full consent were obtained from the participants. the protection of the privacy of research participants were also ensured by using anonymity of individuals and organisation participating in this research. furthermore, adequate level of confidentiality of the research data were also ensured. findings effectiveness of running dictation to improve students’ listening comprehension ability in this study, 19 students who took intermediate listeing course participated and were given a listening pretest, treatment with running dictation, and posttest. the results of their scores from both tests are displayed on table 1. table 1. distribution of pre-test and post-test scores no score interval category pre test post test no % no % 1 86-100 excellent 0 0 % 9 47 % 2 71 85 very good 3 16 % 10 53 % 3 56 70 good 10 53 % 0 0 % 4 40 55 sufficient 6 31 % 0 0 % 5 <40 poor 0 0% 0 0 % total 19 100% 19 100% irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 550 from table 1, it can be seen that before students were taught by using running dictation method, there were only 3 students (16%) who had very good listening comprehension ability and 10 students (53%) who had good listening comprehension ability. it is also known that 6 other students (31%) had sufficient listening comprehension ability. in other words, students in this class has already had good listening skill, but they still need improvement. after students were taught by using running dictation, it can be seen that there was difference on their scores. their listening scores on posttest improved as 10 students (53%) and 9 students (47%) belong to very good and excellent category of listening comprehension ability respectively. in addtition to this percentage, descriptive statistics was also employed. the results are presented on table 2. tabel 2. paired samples statistics mean n std. deviation std. error mean pair 1 pretest 60.68 19 8.782 2.015 posttest 85.26 19 5.216 1.197 from the result of the descriptive statistics above, it is known that the pretest mean score was 60.68, while the posttest mean score was 85.26. because the posstest mean score was greater than the pretest mean score, it can be concluded that descriptively there was a difference of mean scores between pretest and posttest score. then, to know whether or not there was significant difference, inferential statistics using paired sample t-test was carried out. however, as this test belongs to parametric statistic, a prerequisite analysis was necessary, namely normality test by using saphiro –wilk. the result can be seen in table 3. table 3. tests of normality test kolmogorov-smirnov a shapiro-wilk statistic df sig. statistic df sig. listening score pretest ,215 19 ,021 ,937 19 ,231 posttest ,159 19 ,200 * ,934 19 ,202 *. this is a lower bound of the true significance. a. lilliefors significance correction from the result of normality test above by using shapiro-wilk, it can be seen that the sig. scores of pretest and postest were 0.231 and 0.202 which were greater than 0.05. based on this result, it can be concluded that the students‟ listening scores on pretest and posttes were normally distributed. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 551 table 4. paired samples test paired differences t df sig. (2-tailed) 95% confidence interval of the difference upper pair 1 pretest posttest -21.744 -18.216 18 .000 the result of paired sample t-test above shows that the sig.(2-tailed) score was 0.000 which was lower than 0.05 (sig. 0.000 < 0.05). furthermore, the t score was -18.216 with df 18 which was greater that t-table 2.101 (t count -18.216 > t table 2.101). based on these analysis results, ho was rejected and h1 was accepted. in other words, there was a significant difference on the students‟ listening scores between pretest and posttest after the students were taught by using running dictation. students’ perceptions on running dictation eventhough the result showed that there was statistically significant improvement on the students‟ listening comprehension scores, dicovering their perceptions on the use of running dictation was necessary to find out its strengths and weaknesses. their pereptions on running dictation based on a questionnaire given after the treatment are displayed in the following figure. figure 1. the results of students’ perception on running dictation 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 item 1 item 2 item 3 item 4 item 5 item 6 item 7 item 8 agree hesitate disagree irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 552 the results of the questionnaire distributed to students showed that all students (100%) in this study stated that they had difficulty listening in english. listening in a foreign language is generally the most challenging activity compared to activities in other language skills. statement number 3 showed that 78.95% of students in this study stated that learning to listen was more fun when done together, 10.53% was doubtful and 10.53% was not fun at all. statement number 2 was strengthened by statement number 3. 84.2% stated that learning to listen was not fun and no students stated that it was fun if done alone. furthermore, statement number 4 showed that 84.21% of students stated that learning to listen through running dictation was not boring and 10.53% stated that it was boring. furthermore, it was found that 89.47% of students stated that learning to listen through running dictation was fun and 5.26% stated that it was not fun. 89.47% of students also stated that running dictation improved their listening ability, 10.53% were doubtful and no students (0%) stated that it improved their listening ability. statement number 7 showed that 84.21% stated that they were motivated to improve their listening ability through running dictation, 10.53% stated that they were not. finally, statement number 8 showed that 94.74% stated that their listening ability was better now and no students (0%) stated that it was not better now. discussion from the result, it is known that students‟ listening comprehension ability was improved after being taught by using running dictation. this significant result was because of the dictation. nation and newton (2009) explains that dictations facilitate language learning by enabling students to focus on the language form of phrase and clause level constructions, and by creating feedback on the accuracy of their perception. attempts to measure what memory of phrases remains after dictation have not been found, so it is considered that dictation serves primarily as a consciousness raising activity. the consciousness raising comes from the subsequent feedback about the errors and gaps in perception. furthermore, the improvement on students‟ listening comprehension ability was due to learning activities carried out by using running dictation as it gave freedom to students to collaborate independently. nurdianingsih and rahmawati (2018) reported in their study that with the implementation of running dictation, students could work together with their group. they were also more confident and actively enganged in doing the group and individual tasks during the instruction. in other words, running dictation facilitates collaborative learning. collaborative learning is a situation where there are two or more people learning or trying to learn something together (dillenbourg, 1999). furthermore, chiu (2008) asserts that unlike learning alone, people who are involved in collaborative learning make use of each other's resources and skills (asking each other's information, evaluating each other's ideas, monitoring each other's work, etc.). more specifically, collaborative learning is based on a model in which knowledge can be created in a population where members actively interact by sharing experiences and taking on (different) asymmetric roles. in other words, collaborative learning refers to the environment and activity methodology of students doing irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 553 general tasks where each individual depends and is responsible for each other (mitnik, et al, 2009). furthermore, the effectiveness of running dictation in improving listening skills was also supported by the results of a perception questionnaire. running dictation is a fun learning activity for students. collaborative learning has also provided fun learning for students. case (2013) stated that running dictation was a fun activity in learning to listen, speak, read, and write. in other words, students obtained two fun activities, collaborative learning and running dictation. deporter and hernacki (2013) state that fun learning is a strategy used to create an effective learning environment, apply curriculum, deliver material, and facilitate the learning process that improves student learning achievement. as stated by djamarah (2010), fun learning is learning that is designed in such a way as to provide an atmosphere full of joy, fun and most importantly not boring. in other words, fun learning is a pattern of good relationships between teachers and students in the learning process. furthermore, nurdianingsih and rahmawati (2018) also reported that running dictation was effective as this techniques offered enjoyment in learning as students were like playing a game while learning. conclusions from the results of this study, there are several conclusions that that can be drawn. first, the listening ability of the 2nd semester students of the english education study program, fkip sriwijaya university improved significantly after taking in the intermediate listening course in which they were taught by using running dictation. the results of a questionnaire that measured students' perceptions of using running dictation in learning listening in the intermediate listening course also showed that the majority of students liked this strategy and reported that their listening ability improved after learning using running dictation. however, this study has some limitations such as it has small number of participants as the sample so that the generalizability of the research results is limited, and there was no control group to validate to what extent the effectiveness of running dictation influences students‟ listening comprehension ability compared to students in control group who are not taught by using running dictation. thus future studies are recommended to use running dictation with bigger sample, control group, or other english skills/aspects. references ahuja, g., & amita, a. (2008). how to develop profitable listening skill. new delhi: sterling. brown, h., d. 2001. teaching by principles: an interactive approach to language pedagogy (second edition). white plains, ny: longman/pearson education. bryman, a. (2001). social research methods. oxford: oxford university press. case, a. (2013). how to use running dictation in efl class. http://edition.tefl.net.ideas/games/running-dictations-in -efl/ http://edition.tefl.net.ideas/games/running-dictations-in%20-efl/ irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 554 chiu, m. m. (2008).flowing toward correct contributions during groups' mathematics problem solving: a statistical discourse analysis. journal of the learning sciences, 17 (3), 415 463. cohen, l., manion, l., & morrison, k. (2007). research methods in education (6th ed.). london and new york, ny: routledge. council, m. t. (2008). esl developmental continuum p-10: teaching strategy –running dictation. victoria: deecd. deporter, b., & mike, h. (2013). quantum learning: membiasakan belajar nyaman dan menyenangkan. bandung: kaifa. dillenbourg, p. (1999). collaborative learning: cognitive and computational approaches. new york, ny: elsevier science, inc. djamarah, s. b. (2010). guru & anak didik dalam interaksi edukatif : suatu pendekatan teoretis psikologis. jakarta : rineka cipta. gay, l. r., & airasian, p. (2003). educational research: competencies for analysis and application (7 th ed.). upper saddle river, nj: pearson education. haslam, s. a., mcgarty, c., & haslam, s. a. (2003). research methods and statistics in psychology. london: sage. chicago. hess, n. (2001). teaching large multilevel classes. cambridge: cambridge university press howatt, a. and dakin, j. (1974), „language laboratory materials‟, in allen, j. p. b. and corder, s. p. (eds) the edinburgh course in applied linguistics 3, (london: oup). kazazoğlu, s. (2013). dictation as a language learning tool. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 70(4), 1338-1346. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.01.195 kuo, y. (2010). using partial dictation of an english teaching radio program to enhance learners‟ listening comprehension. asian efl journal, 47, 1-126. mitnik, r., recabarren, m., nussbaum, m., & soto, a. (2009). collaborative robotic instruction: a graph teaching experience. computers & education, 53(2), 330-342. nation, i. s. p. and newton, j. (2009). teaching esl/efl listening and speaking. new york, ny: routledge. nurdianingsih, f., & rahmawati, o, i. (2018). running dictation as an effective technique on the teaching writing skill. ellic proceedings, 2, 127-131. richards, j. c. and w. a. renandya. (eds.). (2002). methodology in language teaching: an anthology of current practice. cambridge: cambridge university. schwartz, a.m. (1998). listening in a foreign language in g burkart (ed), modules for the professsional preparation of teaching assistants in foreign language. washington, dc: center fo applied linguistics. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ed433723.pdf tang, q. (2012). the effectiveness of dictation method in college english vocabulary teaching. theory and practice in language studies, 2(7), 1472-1476. thaker, s. (2008, october 2). types of listening (blog post). retrieved from http://drshaileshthaker.co.in/2008/10/02/types-of-listening/ underwood, m. 1990. teaching listening. longman handbooks for language teachers. london: longman. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.01.195 https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ed433723.pdf http://drshaileshthaker.co.in/2008/10/02/types-of-listening/ irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 555 wang, l., & fan, j.(2015). listening difficulties of low-proficiency efl learners: a comparison of teacher and learner prespectives. asian efl journal, 17(3), 85-110. zakiah, i. s. & husniah, r. (2017). the effect of running dictation towards students spelling in writing short functional text at smp islamic qon. journal of english teaching, literature, and applied linguistics, 1(2), 22-28. biographical notes hariswan putra jaya is a lecturer at the language and arts education department, faculty of teacher training and education, sriwijaya university, palembang, indonesia; hariswan_pj@fkip.unsri.ac.id nova lingga pitaloka is a lecturer at the language and arts education department, faculty of teacher training and education, sriwijaya university, palembang, indonesia; novalinggapitaloka@fkip.unsri.ac.id alhenri wijaya is a lecturer at the language and arts education department, faculty of teacher training and education, sriwijaya university, palembang, indonesia. mailto:hariswan_pj@fkip.unsri.ac.id mailto:novalinggapitaloka@fkip.unsri.ac.id this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 418 building the entrepreneurial spirit of students: the case of an islamic boarding ali idrus 1* and sukandar hadi 2 abstract this research aimed to analyse the entrepreneurial spirit of students in islamic boarding schools. it used a qualitative approach. this research was conducted in nurul iman islamic boarding school students. the data were obtained through observation and interviews. the data analysis techniques used were data collection, reduction, data presentation, verification, and conclusion. researchers' findings and analyses led them to the conclusion that the implementation of the program to develop the entrepreneurial spirit of students at the islamic boarding school applies life skills education ranging from hard skills to foster the independence of students in developing an entrepreneurial spirit. keywords entrepreneurial spirit, hard skill, islamic boarding schools, life skill education, soft skill article history received 26 january 2022 accepted 15 october 2022 how to cite idrus, a., & hadi, s. (2022). building the entrepreneurial spirit of students: the case of an islamic boarding schools. indonesian research journal in education |irje|, 6(2), 418–430. https://doi.org/ 10.22437/irje.v6i2.17044 1*faculty member, universitas jambi, indonesia; corresponding author; ali.idrus@unja.ac.id 2 doctoral student at universitas jambi and lecturer at stai syekh maulana qori, bangko, indonesia https://doi.org/%2010.22437/irje.v6i2.17044 https://doi.org/%2010.22437/irje.v6i2.17044 mailto:ali.idrus@unja.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 419 introduction pondok pesantren or islamic boarding school is indonesia's first islamic educational institution and a facilitator for educational progress in indonesia. the presence is the contribution in the context of teaching the nation's life and giving birth to intellectual cadres who are ready to recognize their scientific potential in the community. it is proven to have made its alumni become leaders of national and international reputation. therefore, islamic boarding schools work as a creator for truly patriotic national cadres; cadres who are willing to die for the sake of fighting for the nation can give all their time, property, and even their souls (anwar, 2017). islamic boarding schools effectively read the conditions of the times by giving rise to an entrepreneurial curriculum. it is according to the example of the prophet muhammad, as a trader at the beginning of his preaching. thus, islamic boarding school incorporates an entrepreneurship curriculum to produce a strong and independent generation under the mandate of the republic of indonesia law no. 20). 2003 concerning the national education system (sisdiknas), namely education must be able to produce ready-to-use products with good faith, piety, and morals. today, many students and alumni have a spirit of independence, such as working in the business or entrepreneurship sector. it has been demonstrated that with the pattern of life that endures and is what it is, he is still able to exist and even grow himself, not only having benefits but also having an impact felt by the surrounding community that most pupils have an entrepreneurial spirit that can be described as successful enough. after graduation, only a few of the students became unemployed. their belief will earn a living and sustenance from allah swt become a power for them to survive with their relatives. these students have an unyielding philosophical foundation from a doctrine in the islamic boarding school. according to recent research, it has been found that entrepreneurial spirit and skills can be transmitted and taught systematically. it means, with just a little political will, this social entrepreneurship education can enter the world of indonesian education. thus, creating new social entrepreneurs process can be slowly developed to support indonesia's development progress (wibowo & nulhaqim, 2015). the task of education can be seen from at least three approaches. the three approaches are education as a potential developer, the process of cultural inheritance, as well as the interaction between potential and culture so that as a potential developer, the task of educators is to find and develop the basic abilities possessed by students so that they can be acculturated in everyday life. to achieve the above objectives, in the current era of globalization, society is experiencing rapid changes, which demands the need for effective school entrepreneurship according to the entrepreneurship competence of school principals. now, the concept of entrepreneurship is still developing in the world of islamic boarding schools. entrepreneurship is an attitude, soul, and ability to create something new that is very valuable and useful for everyone. entrepreneurship is a mental attitude and mindset that is always active or creative, empowered, creates, works, and is humble and tries to increase income in its business activities. someone with an entrepreneurial character is irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 420 always dissatisfied with what he has achieved. entrepreneurs are people who are skilled at utilizing opportunities to develop their businesses to improve their lives. based on a preliminary study at the nurul iman islamic boarding school, sebapo district, muaro jambi regency, the students participated in and studied several business units built by the islamic boarding school as a place for training and developing the entrepreneurial spirit of students as follows carpentry, welding, fashion, catering, fish cultivation, and islamic boarding school cooperatives. the establishment of this business unit is a place for students to practice, and we also bring the teachers from outside the school to learn how to weld and carpentry. this unit is also an effort to make islamic boarding schools independent in the economic sector. literature review the entrepreneurship and history the term entrepreneurship was first introduced in the early 18 th century by the french economist richard cantillon. according to him, an entrepreneur is "an agent who buys means of production at certain prices in order to combine them" (murphy, 1986). the etymological meaning of entrepreneurship/entrepreneur comes from sanskrit, consisting of three syllables: "wira", "swa", and "sta". wira means superior human, exemplary, tough, virtuous, big-hearted, brave, hero, pioneer, warrior/warrior of progress, and has a great character. swa means alone, and sta means standing (ministry of education and culture, moec, 2013). the term entrepreneurship comes from the translation of entrepreneur, which in english is known as between taker or go between. in the middle ages, the term entrepreneur was used to describe an actor who led a production project. the complete concept of entrepreneurship was put forward by josep schumpeter, namely as a person who breaks the existing economic system by introducing new goods and services, creating new organizational forms, or processing new raw materials. that person carries out their activities through new or existing business organizations (ministry of education and culture, moec, 2013). in addition, the definition of entrepreneurship according to the presidential instruction of the republic of indonesia (inpres) no. 4 of 1995 concerning the national movement to communicate and cultivate entrepreneurship is the spirit, attitude, behavior, and ability of a person to handle businesses or activities that lead to efforts to create, implement new ways of working, technology and products by increasing efficiency to provide better service and earn greater profits (ministry of education and culture, moec, 2013). entrepreneurship is a process of applying creativity and innovation in solving problems and finding opportunities to improve life (business and work). entrepreneurship is a function that includes the exploitation of opportunities that arise in the market or the world of work. the exploitation is related to the direction and combination of productive inputs. an entrepreneur is always required to face risks or opportunities that arise and are often associated with creative and innovative actions (sandiasa, 2009). irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 421 entrepreneurship first appeared at the beginning 18 th century with new inventions such as the steam engine, spinning machine, and others. their primary goal is the growth and expansion of the organization through innovation and creativity. profit and wealth is not the primary goal. in simple terms, the meaning of entrepreneur is a person who dares to take risks to open a business in various opportunities and dares to take risks, which means being mentally independent and dare to start a business without being overwhelmed by fear or anxiety, even in uncertain conditions (kasmir, 2007). entrepreneurship is a skill that is essential in the 21st century given the limited support of natural resources for the well-being of the world's population, which is expanding and increasingly competitive. the spirit and spirit of entrepreneurship that is established and refined well since adolescence will be able to produce innovative human resources that can free the nation and country from dependence on natural resources. of course, what is needed is entrepreneurship which has a high impact on growing economic production in supporting the nation’s welfare through original works creation (ministry of education and culture, moec, 2014). entrepreneurship in the world of education the notion that educational institutions only seek knowledge, then look for work, must be altered to seeking knowledge and implementing it in the field. thus, national education must be able to bring educated generations to produce jobs. entrepreneurship education that is taught from the start can modify the sort of national education that has already become a poor bureaucracy since it is just focused on developing a new generation that simply fills offices. with the fact that the educated unemployment rate is increasing from year to year, currently, this form of bureaucratic schooling does not deserve to be allowed if it is continued. increasing the pool of available labor can be achieved through enhancing educational standards. however, according to sukristin (2016), the level of education in indonesia is still very low compared to surrounding nations such as malaysia, singapore, and brunei darussalam. hence, the quality of indonesia's human resources is still low. therefore, indonesia is now facing two problems in human resources, namely challenges from within and abroad. indonesia's economic condition is getting worse day by day, so there are many unemployed everywhere. it is because many junior high school graduates do not continue to high school, as well as those from high school who do not continue to university, while their skill set is very lack. meanwhile, from abroad, the challenges are very complex, including the agreement between afta (asean free trade area) and alfa (asean free labor area). the consequence is that indonesian workers must have good human resources and be able to compete with workers from outside, especially in asean countries. seeing these conditions, the world of education must be able to play an active role in preparing human resources who can face various life challenges locally, regionally, nationally, and internationally. they are not only sufficient to master the theories but are also willing and able to apply them in social life and can solve various problems faced in everyday life. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 422 education that can overcome the above is the most appropriate education that is oriented toward the entrepreneurial spirit, namely a brave soul and able to face the problems of life and life naturally, a creative soul to find solutions and overcome these problems, and an independent spirit and not dependent on other people. one of the entrepreneurial spirits that need to be developed through early childhood education is life skills. entrepreneurship competence entrepreneurship-minded education is an education that applies principles and methodologies toward the formation of life skills for students through a curriculum developed in islamic boarding schools. the framework for developing entrepreneurship among educators is felt to be essential because educators are "agents of change" who are expected to be able to instill characteristics, traits, and character as well as an entrepreneurial spirit in their students. in addition, the entrepreneurial spirit is also very necessary for an educator because, through this spirit, educators will have a work orientation that is more efficient, creative, innovative, productive, and independent (kompri, 2015). by having some of the basic skills above, a person will have the ability (competence) in entrepreneurship. ten competencies must be owned by entrepreneurs, namely: (dan & bradstreet business credit service).  knowing your business, which must know what kind of business, will be done. an entrepreneur must know everything that has to do with the business or business that he will do. for example, a person who will do a hotel business must know about hospitality. for a computer marketing business, he must know how to market computers.  knowing basic business management, namely knowing the basics of business management, for example, how to design a business, organize and control a company, including being able to calculate, predict, administer, and record business activities. knowing business management means understanding the tips, ways, and processes and managing all resources effectively and efficiently.  having the proper attitude, namely having the right attitude toward the business he does. he must act as a trader, industrialist, a real businessman, and not half-hearted.  having adequate capital is having sufficient capital. capital is not only in the form of material but also moral. trust and determination are the primary capital in a business. therefore, there must be enough time, enough money, energy, space, and mentality.  managing finances effectively, namely having the ability to manage/manage finances effectively and efficiently, find sources of funds and use them appropriately, and control them accurately.  managing time efficiently, namely the ability to manage time as efficiently as possible. organize, calculate, and keep the time according to the needs.  managing people, namely the ability to plan, organize, direct, move (motivate), and control people in running the company.  satisfying customers by providing a high-quality product is to give satisfaction to customers by providing quality, useful, and satisfying goods and services. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 423  knowing how to compete, namely knowing the strategy/how to compete. entrepreneurs must be able to uncover strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats from the start and competitors. he must use a swot analysis both against his early and against competitors.  copying with regulations and paperwork, namely making clear rules/guidelines (expressed, not implied) (ruswandi, 2012). some characteristics that are most needed to support the emergence of an entrepreneur with the opportunity to be successful, namely:  the power of motion (drive), such as initiative, enthusiasm, responsibility, perseverance, and health.  thinking abilities, such as original, creative, critical, and analytical ideas.  ability to build relationships (competence in human relations), such as easy to get along (sociability), having a stable emotional level (high eq), friendly, helpful (cheer fullness), cooperative, considerate, and wise (tactfulness).  able to convey ideas (communication skills), such as being open and able to convey messages orally (speaking) or in writing (memo).  special skills (technical knowledge), such as mastering the production process or service in their field, and knowing where to get the information needed (irianto, 2015). in addition to skills and abilities, entrepreneurs must also have a balanced experience. there are 4 (four) primary abilities needed to achieve a balanced experience for successful entrepreneurship, namely:  technical competence, namely having competence in design (know-how) under the form of business to be chosen. for example, the ability in production engineering and product design. he must know how goods and services are produced and presented.  marketing competence, namely having competence in finding suitable markets, identifying customers, and maintaining company viability. he must know how to find specific market opportunities, such as customers and special prices that competitors have not managed.  financial competence, namely having competence in finance, managing purchases, sales, bookkeeping, and profit/loss calculations. he must know how to get funds and use them.  human relations competence, namely competence in developing personal relationships, such as the ability to relate and build relationships of inter-company partnerships. he must know healthy interpersonal relationships (irianto, 2015). irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 424 fostering the entrepreneurship spirit of students at islamic boarding schools islamic boarding schools have tried to develop the spirit of entrepreneurship in students as expected by the challenges of the times. lupriyono and wacik stated that the entrepreneurship strategy includes developing a vision, encouraging innovation, and structuring the entrepreneurial climate (irianto, 2015).  vision/mission development. the first step in entrepreneurship of educational institutions is to formulate a vision/mission. vision or mission is a picture of the ideals or wishes of the school to be realized in the future. the school's vision must be formulated clearly, and concisely and contains real support for realizing entrepreneurial change or innovation (irianto, 2015).  innovation. concerning the school's entrepreneurial spirit, this strategy means cultivating and developing original and innovative ideas. therefore, every school principal in entrepreneurship is required to have an innovation agenda. this innovation agenda becomes a specific and primary tool in a school's entrepreneurship strategy. the innovation agenda that is owned naturally refers to the quality set or quality criteria that reflect the needs and expectations about education in schools from all interested parties. as an alternative, two primary elements can be considered for the innovation agenda. the first is the internal element of the school institution, and the second is the external element of the school. the internal elements of school institutions that can be studied include a) learning experienced by students, b) development of curriculum/education programs, c) professional competence of teachers and development of teaching systems, d) infrastructure and development of educational facilities/facilities, e) education funding, f) school culture development and g) management behavior itself. meanwhile, external elements of the school institution that can be studied include a) the attention and participation of parents/community and b) natural conditions and the sociocultural environment of the community. the innovation agenda is an example of a program that reveals the entrepreneurship of the two elements of the school (irianto, 2015).  intrapreneurial climate structural. this strategic step is a process of forming elements and an atmosphere that supports the implementation of the innovation agenda. in this case, the commitment of the principal's management and leadership and the professionalism of the staff/teachers are very much needed. the pressure of structuring the entrepreneurial climate is on improving efforts for the implementation of innovation projects. it means that this strategy emphasizes the organization’s internal processes, namely the efforts made by the school to strengthen its management system. it cannot be separated from the demands for changes in entrepreneurship in the management pattern itself. the ability to describe educational policies that apply in the area, transformational and visionary leadership, ability to manage change, make decisions, and develop profitable networks are several demands that must be met by school principals in developing the intended strategy. this strategy is a corporate venture, which is an internal organizational process that is essential for developing products, processes, and technology. they are all institutionalized for long-term prosperity (irianto, 2015). irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 425  entrepreneurial spirit motivating. motivation is the process of generating, directing, and strengthening behavior toward a goal. motivation is the background of individuals to act to achieve definite goals. motivation is the willingness of individuals to expend various efforts in meeting their needs. motivation can be observed from the tension experienced by individuals. the greater the tension, the higher the level of effort shown by the individual in achieving his goals. in entrepreneurship, the motivation role, especially the motivation to succeed, is essential because several motives that will be the drive (stimulus) for achieving success (kompri, 2015). one of the most significant attributes of entrepreneurs is their ability to innovate. without innovation, the company will not be able to endure long. it is the result of customers' shifting desires and expectations. customers will not constantly consume the same goods. customers will turn to other brands if they cannot find what they look for here. as a result, the company will have to keep coming up with new ideas if it wants to stay in business (ministry of education and culture, moec, 2010). in addition to innovation, marketing also needs to be done. marketing is an organizational function and a set of processes for creating, communicating and delivering value to customers and managing customer relationships in ways that benefit the organization and its shareholders (kotler & keller, 2009). methodology this research uses a qualitative approach. a qualitative approach is a research approach that requires a deep and thorough understanding of the object under research to answer the problem, obtain data, and then analyze it and obtain research conclusions in definite situations and conditions. qualitative research has various definitions, but creswell (2015) defined it as an attempt to interpret the existing reality with several scientific interpretations (creswell, 2015). furthermore, taylor et al. (2015), defined qualitative as a research procedure that produces descriptive data in the form of written words or verbal from people and observed behavior. this approach is directed at the background and the individual holistically (whole) (taylor, 2015). the data were obtained through observation and interviews. the data analysis techniques used were data collection, reduction, data presentation, verification, and conclusion. this research was carried out at nurul iman islamic boarding school. in 1994, the nurul iman islamic boarding school was a group of recitations organized by mr. kiyai sochieb and mrs. nyai hj. siti bachriyah then as long as the growing number of students expanded to several areas such as penerokan, bahar river, batanghari river, tanjung jabung, bangko, musi banyuasin, to extend to the provinces next to riau and palembang. seeing the community’s enthusiasm for studying religion, kh sochieb and nyai hj. siti bakhriyah established the dormitories as lodging places for students whose domicile was far from the boarding school. over time, thanks to the grace of allah swt, the students of the nurul iman islamic boarding school experienced rapid development. seeing the dynamics of the development of islamic boarding schools and the needs of the community, several educational institutions have now been developed such as madrasatul khuffadz, madrasah salafiyah i, ii, iii, and iv, as well as majlis ta'lim. to respond to the challenges of an increasingly complex era, the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 426 nurul iman islamic boarding school has developed a public education institution. in 2001, on waqf land, al-arief islamic middle school and high school were established under the auspices of the nurul iman islamic boarding school. the existence of this public education cannot be separated from the nurul iman islamic boarding school. findings the notion that the boarding school only seeks knowledge and then looks for work must be changed to seek knowledge and apply it in the field. thus, national education must be able to bring educated generations to create jobs. entrepreneurship education taught from the start can modify the sort of national education that has already become a poor bureaucracy since it is just focused on developing a new generation that only fills offices. with the fact that the educated unemployment rate is increasing from year to year, this type of bureaucratic schooling does not deserve to be allowed to continue. opening a new business unit is not an easy thing, of course, there are many hurdles, both in terms of lack of funds, execution that is not in line with the plan, loss of results, and so on, so that entrepreneurship education training activities do not go well and do not improve. the business units of the nurul iman islamic boarding school have all gone through a meticulous planning process so that till now they are still running well and even enjoying development, in the sense of rising assets and turnover in each business unit. some of the business units of the nurul iman islamic boarding school muaro jambi are as follows:  carpentry  welding  fish cultivation  culinary art  fashion  islamic boarding school cooperative the results of the interview with the leadership of the boarding school said that: "in opening these business units, of course, it is not just open, but based on careful planning with definite considerations, by looking at the capabilities possessed by islamic boarding schools. based on research observation data in the field, the entrepreneurship training strategy for students at nurul iman boarding school is good. it is based on the fact that every day the officers must leave and return at the stated time, the presence of the chief executive as the person in control in the field, and the obligations or responsibilities of each business unit officer in line with his position and tasks. one of the entrepreneurial activities in this boarding school is carpentry. this increase in the entrepreneurial spirit of students in the carpentry field is based on the high level of current development, it is of course, an opportunity for graduates to be independent, to realize students who are proficient in carpentry, kyai provides facilities and infrastructure to recruit teaching staff, based on the results of interviews with tf carpentry teachers are permanent employees who are authorized by the kyai in making tables, chairs, cabinets and so on, and teach carpentry students. from the data above, the carpentry teachers are irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 427 permanent and have expertise in the carpentry field, assigned by the kyai to provide guidance and direction for the students. from the results of the observations, the teacher starts his practical activities by asking about the ability of students who follow the practice of carpentry, starting from the introduction of tools to make work materials such as cabinets, tables, chairs, etc. in its implementation outside of school hours which are included in extra-curricular activities, namely, saturdays starting at 15 to 16.30 wib while sundays starting at 7.30 to 10.00 wib. it is not required for students, yet for anyone with a carpentry spirit, the number of students who routinely follow this carpentry practice is 15 students. the results of the interviews and observations above show the efforts of islamic boarding school leaders to develop the entrepreneurial spirit of students. welding is one of the forms of entrepreneurial knowledge that was developed by the nurul iman islamic boarding school. in its implementation, the kyai looks for a student mentor with skills in welding. the results of interviews with teachers who are authorized by the kyai to become a teacher in welding say, “i have a certificate expertise from the welding field obtained from the work training center (blk), armed with this knowledge, i guide students on how to weld and what tools are used.” apart from working in carpentry and welding, another entrepreneurial activity at the nurul iman islamic boarding school carried out by the students is raising fish. the nurul iman islamic boarding school provides supporting facilities to carry out these activities, namely a fish pond in the islamic boarding school area. for this fishery sector, kyai appointed ustadz gunarso as the field coordinator because he already had experience in catfish breeding before staying at the nurul iman islamic boarding school. entrepreneurs in the fisheries sector consist of male and female students, chaired by ahmad fadil who is in the 3 rd grade of vocational high school. they are both responsible for teaching their group members how to cultivate catfish and tilapia. four fishponds are used for fish cultivation, each size 5x20 meters. the number of ponds used for catfish is two, and for tilapia is two. catering is an extracurricular entrepreneurial education that aims to equip students with the competence to cook and sell their food to other parties. the delegation of kyai to culinary teachers with a culinary background education experience is very supportive of the efforts of the islamic boarding school leadership in developing the students’ entrepreneurial spirit. in increasing the empowerment of teachers in teaching the culinary field, the islamic boarding school has provided facilities and infrastructure for this. although it is still very simple, it does not slack the enthusiasm of the ustadz and students in learning to cook. based on the observations, there is a catering laboratory which is a former class for learning, not a special laboratory provided for culinary practice. in an interview with ny, a teacher who teaches culinary arts said: “culinary lessons provide an allocation of 6 hours face-to-face, it is held every friday at the end of school hours and continues on sundays, it is the policy of the islamic boarding school leadership as an effort to overcome limited facilities and infrastructure, seeing the enthusiasm of the students in learning these culinary arts, the boarding school will conduct building developments or in a special place in learning about culinary. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 428 in the learning process, the teacher prepares the material that has been prepared at the beginning of the semester to be taught in the learning process, then distributes recipes ranging from simple things to a stage that is difficult to practice, with limited facilities and infrastructure the teacher can create a conducive learning environment, the teacher divides the students into several groups to complete a recipe that has been distributed. the results from the production of cakes, both pastries, and cakes made in the learning process, are used for own consumption and sold to students and in the islamic boarding school environment, seeing from this very productive culinary development, the school plans to build a bakery where the production will be sold in the islamic boarding school environment and the community around the islamic boarding school. the efforts to awaken the entrepreneurial spirit of students are the primary priority of the islamic boarding school leadership for the independence of students after completing their education at the islamic boarding school. interviews with cooperative administrators said: cooperatives are boarding school-owned businesses to provide for the daily needs of students and empower students. implementation of entrepreneurship training at the nurul iman islamic boarding school is the business field of islamic boarding school cooperatives. in the implementation process, this cooperative is managed entirely by the students of the islamic boarding school. from the results of observations and interviews at the nurul iman islamic boarding school, the leadership's efforts in developing the entrepreneurial spirit of students have been carried out optimally because this islamic boarding school is based on a vocational school, running a business is a demand from this islamic boarding school educational institution. discussion now is the time for children to be taught from the beginning to recognize various types of entrepreneurship as an alternative to face the future beyond the dream of becoming an office employee. the priyayi mentality as the inferior bureaucracy consequence, which has been the current type of national education, must begin to be abolished because the facts show that job vacancies in the office are always limited. on the contrary, work opportunities outside the office are wide open for all generations. the implementation of entrepreneurship education at the nurul iman islamic boarding school offers several choices of life skills with quite a lot of variants, ranging from general skills such as personal skills, self-potential awareness skills, rational thinking skills, and social skills to specific skills such as academic and social skills or even vocational skills. in this research, the researcher focuses more on specific skills, namely academic skills and vocational skills. the concept of the life skills program developed at the nurul iman islamic boarding school is vocational skills that refer to the vision and mission of equipping foster children with various skills and abilities that can become life experiences in adulthood: including being optimistic about fate, broad-minded, polite and have a noble character, and able to solve the problems of life (becoming human beings). as a result, the following figure will serve as a model for the development of the entrepreneurial spirit: irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 429 figure 1. the conceptual model of student entrepreneurial spirit formation in the model above, the entrepreneurial spirit of the student (santri) in islamic boarding schools is trained through entrepreneurship training and independent learning from many sources, such as the internet and entrepreneurship books. conclusion the implementation of the program to develop the entrepreneurial spirit of students at the islamic boarding school applies life skills education ranging from hard skills to soft skills that are taught to foster the independence of students in developing an entrepreneurial spirit, hard skills instilling various kinds of entrepreneurial learning and training carried out, such as agriculture, plantations, animal husbandry, fish cultivation, managing cooperative boarding schools, catering, fashion, carpentry, and so on. meanwhile, the development of the students’ entrepreneurial spirit in soft skills was found to be independent behavior of students, doing activities independently, foreign language application in an islamic boarding school environment, an additional course of language and rhythm of reading the koran, and so on. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 430 declaration of conflicting interests the authors declared no potential conflicts of interest. references anwar, m. a. (2017). manajemen kelembagaan pondok pesantren: strategi dan pengembangan di tengah modernisasi pendidikan (institutional management of islamic boarding schools: strategy and development in the midst of educational modernization). pustaka ilmu. creswell, j. w. (2015). penelitian kualitatif & riset desain: memilih diantara lima pendekatan (qualitative research & research design choosing among five approaches). yogyakarta: pustaka pelajar. irianto, y. b. (2015). modul-1 konsep-kewirausahaan (module-1 concept-entrepreneurship). bandung: upi bandung. kasmir. (2007). kewirausahaan (entrepreneurship). jakarta: raja grafindo persada. ministry of education and culture, moec (2013). kewirausahaan (entrepreneurship).jakarta: kementerian pendidikan dan kebudayaan. ministry of education and culture, moec (2014). prakarya dan kewirausahaan (crafts and entrepreneurship). jakarta: kementerian pendidikan dan kebudayaan. kompri. (2015). manajemen pendidikan (educational management). alfabeta. kotler, p., & keller, k. l. (2009). manajemen pemasaran (marketing management). jakarta: pt. indeks. murphy, a. e. (1986). richard cantillon: entrepreneur and economist. oxford university press. ruswandi, m. (2012). kewirausahaan (entrepreneurship). karawang: arus publishing. sandiasa, g. (2009). buku ajar kewirausahaan (entrepreneurship textbook). singaraja, bali: fakultas ilmu sosial dan ilmu politik universitas panji sakti. sukristin, s. (2016). meningkatkan motivasi belajar kewirausahaan menggunakan metode metafora (increasing motivation to learn entrepreneurship using metaphorical methods). jurnal pendidikan dasar, 4(2), 179-187. taylor, s. j., bogdan, r., & devault, m. (2015). introduction to qualitative research methods: a guidebook and resource. john wiley & sons. wibowo, h., & nulhaqim, s. a. n. (2015). kewirausahaan sosial: merevolusi pola pikir dan menginisiasi mitra pembangunan kontemporer (social entrepreneurship: revolutionizing mindsets and initiating contemporary development partners). unpad press. biographical notes dr. ali idrus. is a professor at faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, jambi, indonesia. sukandar hadi is a doctoral student at universitas jambi and lecturer at stai syekh maulana qori, bangko. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 43 skimming and scanning techniques to assist efl students in understanding english reading texts qismullah yusuf 1 , yunisrina qismullah yusuf* 2 , burhansyah yusuf 3 , and afla nadya 4 abstract this research aimed to find out whether the skimming and scanning techniques (sst) can improve efl students’ english reading comprehension in recount texts, especially on identifying the main ideas and detail information, in a senior high school in meulaboh, aceh, indonesia. a number of 32 eleventh grade students participated in this study, and the one group pre-test and post-test design were used. data collection was from a pre-test and a post-test. in analyzing the data, statistics was used. the results showed that the mean score of the pre-test was 45 and the post-test was 65, with 20 points of improvement. furthermore, the result of t-test was 4.7, while the critical value of 0.05 significant level was 2.4, with the degree of freedom at 23. since t-test>t-score, thus sst improved the students’ reading comprehension in this study. nevertheless, the paper further discusses some setbacks while implementing sst in the classroom. keywords skimming, scanning techniques, efl students, english reading texts 1 department of english education, faculty of teacher training and education, syiah kuala university, banda aceh, indonesia. 2 *corresponding author: department of english education, faculty of teacher training and education, syiah kuala university, banda aceh, indonesia; yunisrina.q.yusuf@unsyiah.ac.id 3 department of english education, faculty of teacher training and education, syiah kuala university, banda aceh, indonesia. 4 department of english education, faculty of teacher training and education, syiah kuala university, banda aceh, indonesia. irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 44 introduction english reading comprehension is among the skills that students in indonesia must be skilled at since the recent tests in the indonesia’s national examination more emphasized much on reading (yusuf & fauzan, 2016). this examination is held for students for every transition of schools levels, from elementary to enter junior high, from junior high to enter senior high, and from senior high to enter university. particularly for the senior high school students, the expectation of their reading skill becomes higher so that they can obtain good scores in english to enter the university. various types of texts are presented in the english subject in the national examination. recount texts are among them. since this text type is taught in the senior high school level, their good understanding in this text type is essential because it is always presented in the national examination. nevertheless, not all expectations are always in line with the facts. many studies have revealed that a lot of students in indonesia still face difficulties in understanding english reading texts, particularly in aceh, one of the provinces in indonesia (gani, yusuf, & susiani, 2016; komariah, ramadhona, & silviyanti, 2015; natsir & anisati, 2016). accordingly, the fourth author of this paper, afla nadya, who conducted her internship in one of the senior high schools in meulaboh, aceh found quite an alarming situation to the students in the english subject. she discovered that the average score of reading comprehension test of the student is 50 for all eleventh grade students. from this average, only four students were found to achieve the score of 65 as the highest, and ten students were found to achieve the score of 30 as the lowest. she collected the test results of the english subject conducted by the school prior to the official national examination as practice for the students. she discovered that they were sufficient in questions related to reference, inference, and detail information, but they obtained very low scores on questions related to the identification of main ideas and detail information. this is not a surprise, especially since english is treated as a foreign language in indonesia’s educational policy (sari & yusuf, 2009); it is likely that these efl (english as a foreign language) students encounter problems in learning the language. torgesen (2002) says that the inability to identify the main ideas is among the problems encountered by students in reading comprehension. this is supported by gunning (2002) who further added that all aspects of reading of comprehension (i.e. identifying main idea, detail information, inference, reference, and vocabulary) are were a struggle for students to grasp. these problems can be caused by the teachers from ineffective of techniques in teaching reading (torgesen, 2002), or from the students themselves when they have insufficient knowledge and sentences structure in the language being learnt (gunning, 2002), and lack of motivation to learn english in general (achmad & yusuf, 2016). nevertheless, it is quite alarming that by the eleventh grade, the students in the school under study are still facing trouble in reading comprehension, especially in identifying the main ideas and detail information of the reading texts. this is because by the end of the twelfth grade, they are going to face the national examination, in which much of the questions in the english subject are related to reading comprehension. a need to overcome these students problem is urgent, and thus, the researchers must take steps to assist them in improving their reading comprehension. hence, based on the literature, some of the techniques to do so and can be applied by the teachers to facilitate their students are the skimming and scanning techniques (diaz & irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 45 laguado, 2013; sasmita, 2013; ulmi, sundari, & sukmaantara, 2015), hereafter is referred as sst throughout the paper. accordingly, the researchers would also like to implement the sst to the students for this research. seeing its successful results in previous studies, we would further like to inquire whether these techniques also apply to these students. consequently, the question posed for this research is: do the sst improve students reading skill, especially in identifying main idea and finding detail information in recount texts? the result of this research is anticipated to benefit both teachers and students in teaching reading for the english subject. should the experiment succeed; the teachers can use it as a reference in using effective the sst in improving their students’ reading comprehension. based on the research question established above, the following hypotheses are formulated: 1. alternate hypothesis (ha): the sst will improve students’ reading comprehension. 2. null hypothesis (ho): the sst will not improve students’ reading comprehension. literature review reading comprehension sheng (2000) defines reading as the process of communication between the reader and the writer to make sense of written or printed symbols, which involves the recognition of letters, words, phrases and clauses, and comprehension. hengari (2007) further adds that interpretation, appreciation and application are much related to the process of reading. and thus, reading comprehension is the process of getting the meaning from texts. the aim is to gain an overall understanding about what is described in the text (woolley, 2011). without the skills of reading comprehension and the motivation to read, students’ academic progress can be limited (alvermann & earle, 2003). henceforth, reading comprehension is a complex process in which the readers identify basic information and are able to predict, to infer, to argue and to recognize the writer’s points of view. reading comprehension is divided into various skills. a well-known statement related to reading proficiency from mikulecky and jeffries (2007) is a reader who wants to have a higher proficiency in reading should be able to define main idea, find detail information, make inference, and have sufficient vocabulary while reading. similarly, harmer (2001) also confirms that to identify the topic, predict and guess detail information, specific information, and general understanding are five purposes of reading comprehension. according to hare and milligan (1984), the ability to identify main ideas in a text is an important key to reading comprehension. furthermore, the recognition of the main idea is important because it does not only help readers to understand the paragraph being read, but also to help them remember the content later. the main idea is not stated in any particular sentence in the paragraph, but each sentence typically contains details that lead to a common idea. information offered in a text can occasionally be too general or too specific. therefore, readers have to indicate information being informed in the text based on their needs or intentions for reading. finding this detailed information further aids readers to be better in understanding the text. this is among the aspects that enhance reading comprehension (mikulecky & jeffries, 1996). in a set of statements, some of the words in one sentence are often repeated in other sentences (king & stanley, 2009). irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 46 in passages, writers try not to repeat words very often because it would be clumsy and redundant, and thus, for readers, to make inference or to recognize reference words and be able to identify the words to which they refer to can help them better understand the reading passage. vocabulary is greatly related to the reading ability because it is a major part in reading comprehension. by knowing the meanings of the words, readers can decrease their difficulty in processing information provided in the text. according to brown (2010), the more vocabulary a reader has, the easier him or her in understanding the text, in other words, an increase in vocabulary size has noticeable effects on reading comprehension. clearly, comprehension is more than a matter of reading the words. readers need to involve themselves in actively making decisions, solving problems, and using background knowledge in an attempt to make sense of the texts that they read. in consequence, the comprehension skill to find main ideas, details information, references, and guessing word meaning play a great role in determining the readers’ overall understanding of the text being read. skimming and scanning techniques among the techniques that can be applied by english teachers to improve student’s reading comprehension are the skimming and scanning techniques (diaz & laguado, 2013; sasmita, 2013; ulmi, sundari, & sukmaantara, 2015;). previous studies have shown that the implementation of the sst can increase students’ ability in reading comprehension. a study done by ulmi, sundari, and sukmaantara (2015) looked at the effect of using the sst on eighth grade students’ reading comprehension achievement of recount texts at a junior high school in silo, jember by using an experimental design. the data were obtained by interviews, documentation and administering reading tests. the results showed that the use sst improved the students’ reading comprehension and they enjoyed its implementation in the classroom. another study carried out by sasmita (2013) investigated the use of skimming and scanning in comprehending english texts to 42 university students in malang. two classes were used as sample of the second semester students; the first class was taught with the skimming and scanning technique, meanwhile the second class was taught using the conventional method. the results showed that the first class achieved better scores in reading comprehension after the skimming and scanning techniques were implemented in the teaching and learning process. another research by diaz and laguado (2013) also affirms that the use of skimming and scanning techniques can enhance reading comprehension and improve students’ reading skills. further data form observations and semi-structured interviews revealed that these techniques also changed their students’ perceptions towards reading to positive point of views, motivated the students to read better. in a nutshell, previous studies have showed that by using both skimming and scanning techniques, efl students’ motivation and achievement in reading comprehension can be improved. ngoc (2015) encourages teachers to inspire their students to practice skimming and scanning reading texts. this practice is believed to commendably “prevent the students from inefficient reading habits such as reading word by word, reading aloud, moving lips, translating, reading for form and details” (ngoc, 2015, p. 197). when they can irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 47 read efficiently, students can make predictions on the purpose of the texts, the main topic and conceivably some supporting ideas. skimming technique according to liao (2011), skimming is done at a speed three to four times faster than normal reading. readers often skim when they have masses of materials to read in a limited amount of time. in skimming, readers only have to take the most important information and the main idea rather than read all of the words (sutz & weverka, 2009). as skimming is related to speed, abdelrahman and bsharah (2014) propose that to improve reading speed, readers also need to increase concentration, improve memory and recall, and reduce sub vocalization, interruptions, procrastination and stress. they also provide the procedure of the skimming technique into three steps as follows (abdelrahman & bsharah, 2014):  read first sentence of paragraph  read last sentence of paragraph  read key words in between they further added two skimming patterns in the process (abdelrahman & bsharah, 2014): 1. for formal style, and this is typical of most text books (with long involved sentences and long paragraphs), therefore readers should read using the three steps outlined above. 2. for informal style (shorter sentences and paragraphs), the readers should read using first two steps only. in teaching, the students are taught to skip words and learn to select key words or phrases to captivate important information with concentration and practice. to conclude, because skimming technique deals with the process of rapid coverage of reading a text to determine its gist or main idea (brown, 2003), therefore, students are likely to depend more on top-down processing (ueta, 2005). this is done so that they do not have to translate detailed information in the text. and so, it is typically recommended to read the first and the last sentence of the paragraph, because the main idea of the text is usually stated in those parts. scanning technique scanning is unlike skimming, because readers are not concerned with the broader meaning of the text, but the detail (sutz & weverka, 2009). in this technique, the readers look for specific information within a text such as dates, names, and places, among others. moreover, brown (2003) explains that scanning is the process of quickly searching for particular piece or pieces of information in a text. the purpose of scanning is to extract specific information without reading the whole text. it is basically fast reading (mikulecky & jeffries, 2007). to do so, it involves moving your eyes quickly down the page seeking specific words or phrases (sutz & weverka, 2009). scanning is important to improve reading skill. the procedures of scanning technique are (olson & ames, 1972; thamrin, 2014):  keep in mind only the particular information to be found out.  make a choice, which clues would support the finding of the required information. irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 48  have a rush view and sweeps down the page quickly to find out the clues. if the clues are found out, read that section to get the information needed. while conducting the procedures above, readers should have full concentration while reading, be able to scan for the two or three search terms that describe the information needed and look for italicized, bolded or underlined words which may carry specific information in the text (sutz & weverka, 2009). table and index within the text can also lead the reader into the information needed. method this research used a quantitative approach with the experimental design. creswell (2003) concisely defines quantitative research as a type of research that explains phenomena by collecting numerical data and analyze them using mathematically based methods. the results are typically presented using statistics, tables and graphs. the design of the experiment is the “one group pretest-posttest design” (setiyadi, 2008, p. 118). it involves pre-test (o1), a treatment (x), and post-test (o2). the treatment was to teach the students reading comprehension of recount texts by using the sst. the selection of recount text refers to the national curriculum, syllabus, and lesson plans because this type of text is taught in the english subject for eleventh grade students in high schools (dewi, 2013). the population of this research was all of the eleventh grade students who were majoring in science at the high school, sman 1, meulaboh. as for the samples of this study, students were then purposely selected as the respondents of this study based on the results of reading test as mentioned earlier in the introduction of the paper. the students with the lowest scores were grouped and a number of 30 students became the samples of this experiment. data were collected from a pre-test and a post-test. the tests consisted of a set of multiple choice questions. since the difficulties faced most by the students were in identifying the main idea and finding the detail information, therefore, the treatment and tests also focused on improving the students’ comprehension on these aspects. there were 20 questions for each test; ten questions inquired about the main idea and another ten questions inquired about detail information. at the end of the day, the standard for senior high school students’ english competence is measured by the national examination (un). for that reason, the researchers selected and adapted the questions for the tests from the national examination (un) questions year 2012 until 2015, and were related to the topic learned by the students, which was report text. since the questions were deemed standard from the indonesia’s ministry of education, validity and reliability tests on the test instruments were not conducted. technique of data collection the pre-test was given to collect students’ reading scores prior to treatment. it was given in order to know their achievement of reading comprehension before the experiment, especially on identifying main idea and finding the detail information. the third researcher conducted the experiment in the classroom, and thus, was the teacher in this case. after a brief introduction in the first meeting of teaching experiment, she distributed the pre-test to irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 49 the students. it took about 90 minutes for the students to complete the test. the treatment took place in three class meetings. it started after the pre-test in the first meeting. the learning process began with a discussion about report text (function, general structure, main idea and detail information). then, the teacher presented the material about report text directly and asked the students to underline the main idea and to find the detail information needed in text. she further explained about speed reading techniques that can help students understand the text better and faster; they were skimming and scanning techniques. a short practice was done by using the skimming and scanning procedures as discussed in the previous section. this practice was done with the whole class. next, the students were divided into several groups in which each group consisted of 6 students. each group was given the same reading text on recount with ten questions to be answered. the students were given ten minutes to work on the answers by implementing the skimming and scanning techniques. they also had to make sure that all members knew and understood about the answers within the time given. afterwards, the teacher appointed one member from each group randomly to present the answers to the questions from the task in class. just before the class ends, the teacher concluded on what has been learnt in class during the meeting. moreover, the second and third meeting was also conducted similarly, but with different titles of reading texts given. finally, the post-test was given to measure the students’ reading comprehension after the treatment of sst was given in class. the teacher distributed the post-test to the students individually. these post-test questions were different with pre-test questions, but the difficulty level was similar. the students had to finish the test in 60 minutes. technique of data analysis in scoring the pre-test and post-test, the researchers used the following scoring system:  one correct answer : 5  the sum of the questions : 20  total score : 5 x 20 = 100  the sum of the students’ score : the correct answer x 5 students’ score = 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 x 100 the category for each range of scores is as shown in table 1. table 1. category for each score range range of score category 100 – 90 excellent 89 – 80 very good 79 – 70 good 69 – 60 bad 59 – 0 very bad irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 50 after the scoring was done, further statistics were conducted (i.e. mean, standard deviation, and t-test) to study the improvement of the students’ reading comprehension in identifying the main idea and finding detail information, before and after the treatment of sst were given to the students (hadi, 2004). the mean was calculated by using the following formula (sudjana, 2002): 𝑀 = ∑ 𝑋 𝑛 where: 𝑀 : mean ∑ 𝑋 : the sum of the scores 𝑛 : the number of sample next, standard deviation was calculated with the formula (sudjana, 2002) below: 𝑆𝐷2 = σ(x1 − x) 2 𝑛 − 1 where: 𝑆𝐷2 : standard deviation ∑ 𝑥1 : the sum of score ∑ 𝑥 : the sum of the scores 𝑛 : the number of sample t-tests was also conducted to find out whether both of the pre-test and post-test showed any significant difference in improvement. the kind of t-test used was paired sample t-test, because two data (i.e. pre-test and post-test) were compared (sudjana, 2002). the formula is as the following: t = 𝑀𝑑 √ ∑𝑑2 𝑁(𝑁−1) where: t : the significant of score md : 𝑆𝑢𝑚𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡−𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 ∑d 2 : the average value between pre-test and post-test n : number of student finally, to prove the hypothesis, the result of the limit score from pre-test and post-test was in the measurement table of t-score with a significant value of 5% (α = 0.05). results this research aimed to find out whether the skimming and scanning techniques (sst) can improve efl students’ english reading comprehension in recount texts, especially on identifying the main ideas and detail information, in a senior high school in meulaboh, irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 51 aceh, indonesia. figure 1 illustrates the scores of the experimental group in the pre-test. the y axis represents the total of students while the x axis represents the score of students. figure 1. the pre-test scores of the students figure 1 shows that the pre-test scores from 32 students which asked about identifying main idea and finding the detail information from the reading text given by the teacher. it can be seen that the highest score was 65 which was achieved by only three students, whilst the lowest score was 25 which was achieved by two students, and ten students achieved the score of 45. thus, none of the students reached the passing grade determined by the school, which was 70. it can be said that the students’ reading comprehension on these aspects were still low and needed improvement. the next figure, figure 2, illustrates the scores of the students from the post-test. the y axis represents the total of students while the x axis represents the score of students. figure 2. the post-test scores of the students 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 n u m b e r o f st u d e n ts students' scores 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 52 from figure 2, it can be seen that the highest score was 80 which was achieved by four students, meanwhile the lowest score was 40 which was achieved by two students, and a number of seven students achieved 70. the post-test also revealed that most of the students achieved better and higher scores in the post-test, in which 16 students have passed the passing grade determined by the school, compared to the pre-test, in which none of the students passed the passing grade. moreover, after the scores of the pre-test and post-test were obtained, the scores were compared to see the differences between both tests. figure 3 further illustrates the comparison of scores merely from ten identifying the main idea questions from the reading test. figure 3. comparison of scores in identifying the main idea questions between the pre-test and the post-test the total score for the main idea questions were seen to improve, from the score of 795 in the pre-test and improved to 1055 in the post-test. meanwhile, the next figure 4 displays the comparison of scores from ten finding the detail information questions from the reading test. the total score for the detail information questions were also seen to improve, in which the scores of 650 from the pre-test and was increased to 1030 in the post-test. figure 4. comparison of scores in finding the detail information questions between the pre-test and the post-test pretest (795) posttest (1055) pretest (650) posttest (1030) irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 53 afterwards, calculating the mean scores from both tests were conducted to further know the exact increase of scores between the pre-test and the post-test. the results show that the mean score of the pre-test is 45, and the mean score of the post-test is 65. moreover, the calculation of the average value between pre-test and post-test is 20. from these results, the t-test is counted and the results is t = 4.7. furthermore, the t-score is 4.47 and the critical value of t-score for 31 degree of freedom on the level significant of 0.05 is 2.04. from these statistical analyses, the t-score value of this study is higher than the critical value of t-table (t > tt). it means that the difference is significant; the alternative hypothesis (ha) is accepted and the null hypothesis (h0) is rejected (t = 4.7 > tt = 2.04). discussion while doing the research, it was primarily observed that students initially preferred to read the whole texts before answering the questions. this caused them to be slower in answering the questions and needed longer time to complete the task. when the sst was implemented, the teacher had to convince them that skipping some words would not harm their understanding of the texts. after a few practice on how to determined key words and phrases that could help them comprehend the text efficiently, they became more aware of the tips and tricks in answering the reading comprehension test by using skimming and scanning techniques. the results of the tests have shown that the sst succeeded in assisting the students to improve their reading comprehension on english recount texts. improvement was evidence after the students were taught reading comprehension on recount text by using the sst. these techniques are expected to support students while facing their examinations, especially, the national examination at the end of the school year, within a limited time that is given to them. sutz and weverka (2009) has in the same way claim that these techniques are useful when students do not have enough time to read the texts, particularly during examinations. the success of this experimental study is similar to the previous studies conducted by diaz and laguado (2015), sasmita (2013), and ulmi, sundari and sukmaantara (2015). the sst has also improved their students’ ability in reading comprehension. nevertheless, some setbacks in the implementation of the sst were also found during this study. despite these techniques can save time in answering questions from reading texts (sutz & weverka, 2009), students need to be in the state of high concentration in using these techniques. if they are distracted, they end up in not understanding the passage at all. this was found in this current research; when students were distracted, even just a little bit, they ended up re-reading the entire passage to understand it. to overcome this problem, the teacher had to control the classroom situation with great deal; students who were noisy or were distracting their friends had to be swiftly stopped and handled to get them back on tract. moreover, during classroom discussion, students were not able to tell all the details about the passage; their knowledge about the text can be said to be superficial. the information extracted from the process sst was just enough to provide a simple and accurate answer to the questions from the reading texts, but they were not able to explain the answer in more detail if the teacher asked them to do so. this is as what ngoc (2015, p. 197) says skimming is “a superficial reading, not an in-depth reading”. this problem was dealt by the teacher by discussing the text together with the class after every group task; students are expected to learn from each other on grasping all details of the text. all the same, more irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 54 practice at home on implementing the sst in their reading is needed continuously to better improve their reading comprehension because during tests or exams, they would depend entirely on their own reading skills to answer the questions correctly. as for the case of the teacher, she needed to be careful in allocating the time for the group practice and tests appropriately. this disadvantage was also mentioned by sasmita (2013). should a teacher give a time that is too limited based on their level of ability, the students struggled in answering the questions from the reading text by using the sst. this case was faced in the first meeting, in which she gave only seven minutes to answer the reading questions during group work and they students did not finish answering all ten questions within the allotted time. she had to add extra three minutes to get all the groups to finish the task. on the other hand, giving extra lingering time can also cause the students to get off track if they finish the task and much time is still left. therefore, efficient time allocation should be mastered by teachers if they want to implement the sst in class. conclusion after conducting the experiment, it was found that the mean score between the pre-test (45) and post-test (65) was significantly different. all of the students did not reach the minimum passing grade/kkm in the pre-test. thus, out of 32 students who participated in this study, 16 students reached over the passing grade after the treatments of sst were given, and another 16 students improved their scores even though not reading the passing grade. overall, the alternative hypothesis (ha) which said the sst can improve the students’ reading comprehension of the eleventh grade students was accepted. along the treatment in the teaching process, some setbacks was faced by the teacher in the classroom, they were such as to get the students have high concentration in the process of skimming and scanning while reading, not having the students know all the details in the texts after reading, and providing enough time for the task. nevertheless they were resolved by the teacher in the next meetings by learning from experiences in the previous meetings. however, this research was conducted not without any weaknesses. this study only focused on one class, and thus, the results cannot be generalized to all eleventh grade students in indonesia. future research are recommended to use more samples, provide and prepare more treatments, and give more tests to gain better understanding on the use of the sst in the classroom. the samples should also be conducted on other grades or levels of students; since every grade, school, and different environments have and provide different ways of learning, and thus, it may offer different results from this current study. inquiring for responses from the students on the use of sst in the classroom, and how it benefits or even weaken them in learning reading comprehension should also be explored in future related research. references achmad, d., & yusuf, y. q. (2014). activities to overcome efl learners’ pronunciation problems. rate issues (summer). retrieved from http://rate.org.ro/media/blogs/b/newsletter13.html?mtime=1434569609 http://rate.org.ro/media/blogs/b/newsletter13.html?mtime=1434569609 irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 55 abdelrahman, m. s. h. b., & bsharah, m. s. (2014). the effect of speed reading strategies on developing reading comprehension among the 2nd secondary students in english language. english language teaching, 7(6), 168-174. alvermann, d., & earle, j. (2003). comprehension instruction. in a. p. sweet & c. snow (eds.), rethinking reading comprehension (pp. 12-30). new york: guilford press. brown, f. a. (2010). vocabulary knowledge and comprehension in second language text processing: a reciprocal relationship? the asian efl journal quarterly, 12(1), 88-133. brown, h. d. (2003). language assessment: principles and classroom practices. san francisco, ca: pearson education. creswell, j. w. (2003). research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed method approaches. los angeles, ca: sage publications, inc. dewi, s. p. a. a. p. (2016). kemampuan menulis recount text dengan menggunakan teknik picture series pada kelas viii di smp angkasa kuta badung (master’s thesis). universitas udayana, denpasar. diaz, s., & laguado, j. (2013). improving reading skills through skimming and scanning techniques at a public school: action research. opening writing doors journal, 10(1), 133-150. gani, s. a., yusuf, y. q., & susiani, r. (2016). progressive outcomes of collaborative strategic reading to efl learners. kasetsart journal of social sciences, 37, 144-149. gunning, d.b. (2002). the teaching of history. london: cromm helm. hadi, s. (2004). methodology research. yogyakarta. penerbit: andi. hare, v. c., & milligan, b. (1984). main idea identification: instructional explanations in four basal reader series. journal of reading behavior, 16(3), 189-204. harmer, j. (2001). the practice of english language teaching (3rd ed.). essex: pearson education. hengari, j. u. (2007). identification of reading difficulties amongst grade 4 learners of the arandis primary school in erongo region, namibia. university of namibia, windhoek. king, r., & stanley, j. (2009). reading strategies and practices: a compendium 5th edition. needham heights, ma: allyn & bacon. komariah, e., ramadhona, p. a. r., & silviyanti, t. m. (2015). improving reading comprehension through reciprocal teaching method. studies in english language and education, 2(2), 87-102. liao, g. (2011). on the development of reading ability. theory and practice in language studies, 1(3), 302-305. mikulecky, b. s., & jeffries, l. (1996). more reading power. new york: addison-wesley longman. mikulecky, b. s., & jeffries, l. (2007). advanced reading power: extensive reading, vocabulary building, comprehension skills, reading faster. white plains, n. y.: pearson. natsir, y., & anisati. (2016). the matters in teaching reading comprehension to efl students. studies in english language and education, 3(1), 65-78. ngoc, n. t. m. (2015). the essential roles of skimming and scanning techniques in teaching reading comprehension. retrieved on july 4, 2017 from http://nnkt.ueh.edu.vn/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/20.pdf olson, v, a., & ames, s.w. (1972). teaching and researching reading in secondary school. atlanta: georgia state university. http://nnkt.ueh.edu.vn/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/20.pdf irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 56 sari, d. f., & yusuf, y. q. (2009). the role of attitudes and identity from nonnative speakers of english towards english accents. english as international langauge journal, 4, 110-128. sasmita, a. (2013). the effectiveness of skimming and scanning training on reading comprehension achievement in english. jurnal penelitian, pendidikan dan pembelajaran, 1(12), 34-39. setiyadi, a. b. (2008). metode penelitian untuk pengajaran bahasa asing: pendekatan kuantitatif dan kualitatif. yogyakarta: graha ilmu. sheng, h. j. (2000). a cognitive model for teaching reading comprehension. english teaching forum, 38(4), 12-15. sudjana, (2002). metoda statistika. bandung: tarsito sutz, r., & weverka, p. (2009). speed reading for dummies. hoboken, nj: wiley pub. thamrin, n. s. (2014). scanning technique in developing students’ reading comprehension. kreatif, 15(1), 31-35. torgesen, j. k. (2002). the prevention of reading difficulties. journal of school psychology, 40(1), 7-26. ueta, t. (2005). teaching reading: english for international students unit. birmingham: university of birmingham. ulmi, l. n. h., sundari, s., & sukmaantara, i. p. (2015). the effect of using skimming and scanning techniques on the eighth grade students’ reading comprehension achievement of recount texts at smpn 1 silo jember. artikel ilmiah mahasiswa, 1(1), 1-4. woolley, g. (2011). reading comprehension: assisting children with learning difficulties. dordrecht: springer netherlands. yusuf, y., & fauzan. (2016). efl students’ difficulties in comprehending english reading texts. proceedings of the 1 st english education international conference (eeic) in conjunction with the 2 nd reciprocal graduate research symposium (rgrs) of the consortium of asia-pacific education universities (capeu) between sultan idris education university and syiah kuala university (pp. 510-514). november 12-13, banda aceh, indonesia. biographical notes qismullah yusuf completed his bachelor’s degree in english education from syiah kuala university in 1980. in 1985 he earned a master’s degree in adult education, and followed in 1992 by a ph.d. degree in training and development, both from oregon state university. he received an honorary doctorate from deakin university in 2009 for his role in establishing schools in aceh with his colleagues (sma modal bangsa, ruhul islam anak bangsa, inshafuddin and darussa’adah), and for his noteworthy contributions to community services. he is a senior lecturer in syiah kuala university and was an exchange associate professor at the universiti pendidikan sultan idris in malaysia from 2012 to 2017. he has been providing consultancies for national and international companies since 1993. besides being an educator, he is also active in trading, and one of his other skills is tailoring. irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 57 yunisrina qismullah yusuf is a lecturer in the english education department, teacher training and education faculty. she completed her phd in phonology in 2013 and her master's in linguistics in 2006, both from the university of malaya. her bachelor's degree is in education, in which she received in 2002 from syiah kuala university. her articles have appeared in reputable journals such as language & linguistics, language & communication, language sciences, kasetsart journal of social sciences, among others. she also acts as a reviewer to a number of national and international journals, which are international journal of instruction, sage open, malaysian journal of elt research, pertanika journal of social sciences, among others. she is currently the editor-in-chief of studies in english language and education journal. her research interests include topics in the field of linguistics and education. burhansyah was born in banda aceh, indonesia. he completed his bachelor’s degree in the study program of english education of syiah kuala university in 2001. he then continued his master’s degree in applied linguistics at the university of liverpool in the united kingdom in 2007, and he was awarded the degree of master of arts from the university in 2008. he is a teaching staff member at the study program of the english education in the faculty of teacher training and education, syiah kuala university, indonesia. he has been teaching at the university since 2006. the courses he has taught include advanced grammar, critical reading, essay writing, academic writing, and translation. besides, in the past ten years he has been involved as an instructor at the language centre of syiah kuala university, where he teaches eap, toefl and ielts preparation classes to junior lecturers and postgraduate students of syiah kuala university. his main research interests are in elt, corpus-based and sla research, particularly in the acquisition of grammatical structures of english as a second language. he is currently conducting a longitudinal research project investigating the development of english morphological structures in child learners learning l2 english in an instructional context. afla nadya is from west aceh, aceh province, a land with thousands of wonder. she was born in a family in which she has two siblings of one brother and one sister. she spent her life and education for almost seventeen years in west aceh, and then moved to banda aceh where she studied as a student at the english education department in syiah kuala university. during her college life, she has met many people, involved in organizations, and participated in youth events. it gave her many experiences to learn from. she completed her bachelor’s degree in education in 2016. now, she works as a presenter, host, and also reporter for a national networking television in banda aceh. she also loves to meet and greet people by being the master of ceremony in some events. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 498 the key determinants of social media use in teaching during the covid-19 outbreak: indonesia case lia yuliana 1 , lantip diat prasojo 2 , widia murni wijaya 3 abstract this study aims to provide empirical evidence on how higher education institutions (heis) teacher educators use sm in teaching during the corona virus disease (covid-19) outbreak. evaluation of the factors that are the key to implementing the use of sm in education during the covid-19 outbreak is essential. we used a survey aiming to answer the research questions of the study. the study participants are 297 faculty members from all over the indonesian faculty of education and teacher training. the findings of the study reported that all hypotheses are significant. facilitating condition (fc) significantly predicts perceived ease of use (peu) and perceived usefulness (pu). similarly, peu is positively related to pu and intention to use (iu). pu also significantly determines iu. in addition, iu is significantly correlated with actual use (au). the highest path coefficient is achieved by the relationship between the fc and pu. peu and pu are the lowest relationship. suggestions and recommendations are offered for the betterment of teaching and learning processes during the covid-19 outbreak. keywords reliability, social media, teaching, validity 1. faculty of teacher training and education, universitas negri yogyakarta, yogyakarta, indonesia; e-mail: lia@uny.ac.id 2. *faculty of teacher training and education, universitas negri yogyakarta, yogyakarta, indonesia; corresponding author e-mail: lantip@uny.ac.id 3. faculty of teacher training and education, universitas negri yogyakarta, yogyakarta, indonesia; e-mail: widia@uny.ac.id mailto:lia@uny.ac.id mailto:lantip@uny.ac.id mailto:lia@uny.ac.id mailto:lia@uny.ac.id mailto:widia@uny.ac.id asus typewriter widia murni wijaya4 asus rectangle asus rectangle asus typewriter wiwik wijayanti3 asus typewriter 4. faculty of teacher training and education, universitas negri yogyakarta, yogyakarta, indonesia; e-mail: widia@uny.ac.id asus rectangle asus typewriter wiwik_wijayanti@uny.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 499 introduction while covid -19 caused many communities to quit and stay at home for some time, schools and colleges have entered into uncharted territory. during this period, it is important to make teacher educators continue the teaching and learning process. fortunately, some evidence-supported strategies can help support teaching activities to keep educational activities going. one way is to utilize social media (sm) in the teaching and learning process in schools and universities. sm has been popular. research on sm potential for higher education is important, especially in situations where educational institutions such as schools and colleges are temporarily closed (chick et al., 2020). particular concerns have been paid to the use of tools like instagram, whatsapp, youtube, facebook, and twitter. several studies have reported positive impacts of sm use in higher education that guide to a good relationship between old generations and new generations (karvounidis, chimos, bersimis, & douligeris, 2014). the attitude and the use of sm emphasize the ambivalent results on these tools’ benefits and challenges in higher education. besides, the improving role of sm in academic staff’s professional trainings, including lecturers, is also being continuously researched. the way sm technology changes work patterns in the academic world has also been widely discussed. however, apart from the claims of the advantages of using sm in education, it is still questionable whether and why the lecturers use or not the technology in their teaching and other professional activities. if they use sm, what factors influence the integration of sm. in this context, an article was written by (manca & ranieri, 2016), whose research was abruptly in italy became the reference for this research. in their investigation, manca and ranieri, (2016) reported the lack of use of sm in professional teaching work. the lecturers’ technophobic attitude from their research can be used as one of the reasons why lecturers do not use sm in research. this reluctance was not merely because of technophobic attitudes but also the beliefs of the lecturers as a trigger for the lack of use of sm by university lecturers. besides that, the attitude they have about teaching and learning also determines the lecturers to innovate in teaching is still a big question, especially during distance learning. the lack of research on the use of sm in developing countries with the subject of teaching staff is the finding of previous researchers. therefore, this study was conducted aiming to elaborate on factors that affect the use of sm in teaching during distance learning due to covid-19 pandemics. literature review covid-19 (corona virus disease-19) armed conflicts, forced displacement, disasters caused by climate change, and other crises have caused disruption the education of children and young people across the world. the number is increasing in a way that is unprecedented with the emergence of covid-19. education was hit extremely hard by the covid-19 outbreak, with more than 1.54 billion students dropping out across the countries, affecting 87.6% of the world’s enrolled irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 500 students. dropout rates worldwide are likely to increase due to this major disruption to access to education (caplan, clements, chadwick, kadirgamar, morgan, & rao 2020). while other critical needs are being addressed, the need for education cannot be overlooked, and this has the same detrimental impact if left unresolved. in the time of the covid-19 global pandemic, the disruption of education can have prolonged implications. a risk of regression emerges significantly for children whose basic learning (reading, math, and language) is not strong. the millions of students were deprived of their right to education, especially girls, are more prone than boys to health and well-being risks during covid-19. these are the children and youth should be prioritizes in education. therefore, solutions are sought for distance learning that involves blended learning, including the use of sm (mahaffey, 2020). use of total personal and professional sm one of the most highlighting phenomena in the history of digital technology was when a global survey reported an increase in the use of sm applications among adults, particularly in the usa and in europe. sm tools are depicted as driving internet utilization, as more and more people create and share their content via sm platforms. the use of sm applications is also influencing current academic practice, including general or specific social networking sites (facebook or researchgate), sharing applications (youtube), and content creation services (blogs or wikis) (halic, lee, paulus, & spence, 2010). traditional dimensions have expanded to include integration in teaching practices. this implies that education practitioners enable sharing with the public and opportunities for application and evaluation by others. from this perspective, sm can facilitate public to provide general and special public social demands (chick et al., 2020; hall, 2014). however, adoption rates for educational purposes lag behind compared to personal utilization. facebook has been informed to be the most seen sm site for personal use more than half of higher education lecturers visit at least every month (kirschner & karpinski, 2010; kross et al., 2013; steinfield, ellison, & lampe, 2008). the usage of facebook expands the daily, weekly and monthly usage of compared to other sm for personal use. challenges the use of sm in the activities of teaching pleanty of studies have been conducted and informed the positive impact of sm in higher education level (deandrea, ellison, larose, steinfield, & fiore, 2012; gikas & grant, 2013; kirschner & karpinski, 2010). however, the disadvantages of using sm were also informed by other researchers (hew & cheung, 2010; selwyn, 2009). indeed when considering practice-based teaching regarding the integration of sm applications, university lecturers must face some problems related to their prior experiences with technology, their expectations, and their pedagogy, beliefs and practices (ajjan & hartshorne, 2008; kimmons & veletsianos, 2014). ajjan and hartshorne (2008), for example, reported that most of the respondents had a good attitude on the adoption of sm as a instructional tool. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 501 framework and hypothesis tam is one of the most significant new versions ajzen and fishbein’s tra or theory of action research in the source of literature. tam is the most widely used model of technology use and acceptance (venkatesh, morris, davis, & davis, 2003). tam was developed by davis et al. (1985) replacing many of tra’s measures—ease of use and usefulness. tra and tam refer to the situation when someone delivers an intention to act. they will be having no limited activities (davis, bagozzi, & warshaw, 1989). in this study, tam’s main variables, perceived usefulness (pu) and perceived ease of use (peu) were included to be hypothesized to predict intention to use (iu). in addition, the facilitating condition (fc) is added as an external variable (figure 1). pu has been evaluated to be useful in teaching, namely to foster students’ achievement, improve information and knowledge sharing, provide good facilitation to learn and improve teachers’ productivity and creativity (montero perez, peters, & desmet, 2014; zacharis, 2012). plenty of studies have reported about the role of peu in technology integration (ma & liu, 2004; schepers & wetzels, 2007). if technology was perceived to be easy to use, the pu would improve and produce more comprehensive iu technology (liaw & huang, 2003; saeed & abdinnour-helm, 2008; teo, lee, & chai, 2008). fcs could be supported by addressing appropriate infrastructure, professional improvement, technical support, and policies supporting technology integration in education (koh, chai, & tsai, 2010). hypothesis 1: fc will significantly affect pu hypothesis 2: fc will positively influence peu hypothesis 3: peu will positively influence pu hypothesis 4: peu will positively affect iu hypothesis 5: pu will be significant in predicting iu hypothesis 6: iu will be positive in affecting actual use (au) figure 1. conceptual model h1 h3 h4 h5 h6 h2 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 502 methodology the study of technology integration and pedagogical innovation in higher education is a very complex process. we used a survey aiming to answer the research questions of the study. creswell (2014) states that the survey design is a design study that differs from experimental research. they do not involve the care given to the participants by the researcher. because survey researchers do not experimentally manipulate conditions, they cannot explain cause and effect as well as experimental researchers can. participants an online survey with google form was distributed to three universities, school of education in two indonesian provinces, jambi and yogyakarta. the explanation of sm technology was included within the factors influencing sm use during pandemics distance learning. the respondents involved in this study are 297 members. ninety-three of them are males, and 204 of the participants are females. two hundred and seventy-seven of the participants have five years or more teaching experience, while 93 faculty members have experience of fewer than five years. instruments for the current research, the items were adapted from related previous studies. the items were in relation to tam and sm integration in education. the questionnaire was utilized to create the information in regard to the five factors informed in the proposed model (fig. 1) in the context of sm integration during distance learning. the factors of pu, peu, iu, and au were adapted from the original tam framework (davis, 1985) and other previous studies (mukminin, habibi, muhaimin, & prasojo, 2020; prasojo, habibi, mukminin, sofyan, indrayana, anwar., 2020). the five-factor questionnaire included 13 items, a 5-point likert scale from strongly agree (5) to strongly disagree (1). the survey instrument is divided in double sections. section a is demographic information, where the respondents are asked to give information in relation to their gender, age, and teaching experience. the second section was the measurement items. smartpls3.0 software was used to elaborate the hypotheses through the use of procedures of a partial least squares structural equation modeling (pls-sem). data analysis data analysis was done within two steps of assessment; measurement models and structural models (habibi, yusop, & razak, 2020b, 2020a; hair, matthews, matthews, & sarstedt, 2017). for the measurement mode, the researchers used smartpls 3 and assessed indicator loading, internal consistency reliability, convergent validity, and discriminant validity (hair et al., 2019). the descriptive report was evaluated. the structural model was reported through coefficient path value, tvalue, and p-value (hair et al., 2019). irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 503 findings measurement model and descriptive statistics two systematic approaches, namely measurement and structural modeling, were implemented to analyze data (habibi et al., 2020b; hair et al., 2020). pls-sem was chosen because it can be used to refine models and create complex models to accurately predict the relationship between variables. reliability and validity of variable measurements were tested through reports of four measurement approaches, namely reflective indicator loading, internal consistency reliability, convergent validity, and discriminant validity (hair et al., 2016). the loading of reflective indicators is suggested to be higher than .700 (hair et al., 2016). table 1 provides the complete final result of the reflective indicator load. to achieve the final result, one indicator (pu3 and fc3), which obtained a loading value lower than .708, was removed (hair et al., 2020). the data show that all indicators after deletion exceed the recommended limit values; the data loading values range from .876 to .944. figure 2. measurement model irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 504 internal consistency reliability is used to evaluate the consistency of results between indicators. we report cronbach’s alpha values and composite reliability (cr). alpha and cr values are measured in the range 0 to 1. values should be above .700 and below .950, as suggested by hair et al. (2020). table 1 provides the complete results of the alpha and cr values. the values of most of the variables have good internal consistency reliability, exceeding the value offered above .700 and below the value of .95. for cr, the lowest score was for fc (α = .889), and the highest was for pu (α = .940). for the cronbach’s alpha value, fc gets the lowest score (cr = .750) and pu achieves the highest score (cr = .871). descriptive results computed through the measurement model evaluation in the pls-sem are also satisfactory with mean ranging from 4.046 to 4.537. the complete results of this research measurement model can be seen in table 4.1. table 1. measurement model loa d α rho cr av e m sd kur t. skew. fc fc1 ―i will have the resources necessary to teach with the sm technologies during pandemics distance learning‖ .899 .750 .751 .889 .800 4.05 8 .834 -.54 -.486 fc2 ―training for using sm technologies in teaching will be available for me during pandemics distance learning‖ .890 4.04 6 .759 .176 -.521 iu iu1 ―i will use sm technologies in my future teaching during pandemics distance learning‖ .891 .858 .859 .914 .779 4.41 4 .696 1.49 1 -1.13 iu2 ―i plan to use sm technologies often in my future teaching during pandemics distance learning‖ .881 4.32 2 .751 .79 -.978 iu3 ―i intend to use sm technologies as much as possible in my future teaching during pandemics distance learning‖ .876 4.43 5 .734 2.37 9 -1.408 peu peuo1 ―learning to use sm technologies in teaching will be easy during pandemics distance learning‖ .886 .882 .882 .927 .809 4.36 8 .706 3.08 5 -1.282 peuo2 ―using sm .918 4.53 .671 5.25 -1.822 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 505 technologies in teaching will be clear and understandable during pandemics distance learning‖ 7 6 peuo3 ―using sm technologies in teaching will be flexible to interact with during pandemics distance learning‖ .894 4.45 5 .705 3.69 9 -1.53 pu pu1 ―using sm technologies will improve my teaching performance during pandemics distance learning‖ .939 .871 .872 .940 .886 4.26 6 .749 .846 -.91 pu2 ―sm technologies will enhance my teaching effectiveness during pandemics distance learning‖ .944 4.23 1 .732 .473 -.731 use use1 ―i use sm technologies during pandemics distance learning‖ 1.00 0 1.00 0 1.00 0 1.00 0 1.00 0 3.83 1 1.03 4 .262 -.806 convergent and discriminant validity average variance extraction (ave) values should be deciphered for convergent validity. each construction must have a value> .500 or higher, which explains 50% or more of the variance of each indicator. in this study report, the ave values of all constructs exceed .500 (sukendro, habibi, khaeruddin, indrayana, syahruddin, makadada, & hakim, 2020). iu has the lowest value of ave (.779), while pu archives the largest portion of ave (.886). the data is shown in table 1. discriminant validity problems arise if htmt is higher than .900 (habibi et al., 2020a). htmt above .900 carries out limited discriminant validity (hair et al., 2020). informed in table 2, all htmt is below .900 or different from 1, establishing the discriminant validity between variables. after the measurement model process, it is calculated for the structural model assessment. apart from using htmt evaluation, discriminant validity can also be checked by understanding cross-loading data. if an indicator of the loading value of a construct is higher than the loading value of other constructs, then there is no cross-loading problem (hair et al., 2016). table 3 informs that there are no problems related to cross-loading in this study. we report that the outer loading for all constructions (bold) is higher than the cross-loading. in addition to htmt and cross-loading reports, fornell larcker’s criteria are calculated in smartpls. the distributed variance for constructs should be lower than that of their ave (fornell & larcker, 1981). in view of table 4, 2 value ave of all irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 506 construction is higher than variance with them. of the three evaluations of htmt, cross-loading, and fornell larcker criteria, the discriminant validity of the study is reported. table 2. htmt fc iu peu pu fc iu .860 peu .455 .570 pu .817 .736 .441 use .402 .301 .267 .305 table 3. cross loading fc iu peu pu use fc1 .899 .619 .305 .685 .280 fc2 .890 .616 .358 .626 .343 iu1 .593 .891 .451 .531 .257 iu2 .613 .881 .409 .571 .228 iu3 .622 .876 .455 .583 .253 peo u1 .339 .437 .886 .332 .264 peo u2 .310 .468 .918 .341 .209 peo u3 .348 .435 .894 .370 .202 pu1 .674 .591 .341 .939 .253 pu2 .706 .607 .387 .944 .283 use1 .348 .279 .250 .285 1.00 0 table 4. fornell-larcker fc iu peu pu use fc .895 iu .690 .883 peu .370 .497 .899 pu .733 .637 .387 .941 use .348 .279 .250 .285 1.000 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 507 assessment of the structural model before reporting data for the structural model assessment, the collinearity of each predictive relationship was analyzed. the variance inflation factor (vif) evaluates that the value must be below 3. multiple regression calculations were carried out to determine the vif value (kock, 2015; lowry & gaskin, 2014). all vif values were reported to be lower than 3 or at a satisfactory level. table 5. vif value fc iu peu pu use fc 1.000 1.158 iu 1.000 peu 1.176 1.158 pu 1.176 path coefficients of all structural model hypotheses are reported. we run the data through a bootstrap step with 5,000 subsamples. the results show the path coefficients, t-values, and p-values, as well as the statements of significance for all hypotheses, h1-h6. assuming a significance of 5%, all hypotheses are reported to have a significant relationship and the other one is revealed to be insignificant. the complete results of the coefficient test can be seen in figure 1 and table 6. fcs significantly predicts peu and pu. similarly, peu is positively related to pu and iu. pu also significantly determines iu. finally, iu is significantly correlated with au. the highest path coefficient is achieved by the relationship between fc and pu. meanwhile, peu and pu are the lowest relationship. table 6. the relationship between variable hypotheses h path β mean stdev t value p values significance h1 fc -> pu .684 .683 .033 2.722 .000 yes h2 fc -> peu .370 .378 .059 6.309 .000 yes h3 peu -> pu .134 .135 .033 4.066 .000 yes h4 peu -> iu .294 .299 .050 5.915 .000 yes h5 pu -> iu .523 .518 .043 12.285 .000 yes h6 iu -> use .279 .279 .043 6.452 .000 yes coefficient of determination (r2) and predictive relevance (q2) r-square value (r 2 ) shows the value of variance elaborated by the exogenous construct. on the other hand, the structural model quality is reported through predictive relevance (q 2 ), that is utilized to address an examination process of the predictive relevance for the structural (streukens, wetzels, daryanto, & de ruyter, 2010). the display of the values was shown in table 7. r 2 values varied ranging from 0 to 1, a higher value has an indication of a higher level of predictive accuracy. the r 2 value of .75 is considered irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 508 substantial, while .50 is moderate, and .25 is weak (hair, sarstedt, & ringle, 2019). table 7 performs the r 2 values; iu (.479, moderate), peu (.137, weak), pu (.553, moderate), and use (0,078, weak). it can be described that the results are a good level of predictive accuracy. further, the model’s predictive relevance through the stone-geisser’s q 2 value was done. when the model informs predictive relevance, the accuracy in predicting the data points of model’s items is very important (prasojo, habibi, wibawa, hadisaputra, mukminin, muhaimin, &yaakob, 2020). in this study model, a q 2 value higher than 0 have an indication that the model’s predictive relevance is obtained (.02 as small; .15 as medium .35 as large). the procedure for q 2 reports was conducted through blindfolding steps. results for q 2 are elaborated in table 7. the results provide the predictive relevance of the study. table 7. r 2 and q 2 r square r square adjusted sse q² (=1-sse/sso) iu .479 .477 943.613 .367 peu .137 .135 1328.393 .109 pu .553 .552 512.564 .484 use .078 .076 46.727 .073 effect size effect size (f 2 ) aims to evaluate the change in the r 2 when a special factor is eliminated from the model. the cut-off values of effect size: .02 (small effect), .15 (medium effect), and .35 (large effects). the computation findings of the f 2 are informed in table 5. concerning table 8, the effect size of h1 and h2: fc > peu (.158, medium & .903, large). the effect sizes for h3 and h4 are (.141, medium & .035, small). pu has a large effect size to iu (.477). finally, the f 2 of iu is .084 (small). in sum, the research’s model results informed that all factors qualify for measurement and structural model; thus, the model is valid and reliable, demonstrating a good level of validity (nakagawa & cuthill, 2007; ruppert, 2004). table 8. f 2 iu peu pu use fc .158 .903 iu .084 peu .141 .035 pu .447 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 509 figure 3. final result discussion there is a growing development of literature on sm use for various purposes in higher education to support the learning process, student support and engagement, scholarly communication, and build communication and connections (al-aufi & fulton, 2015; manca, 2020; sheer & rice, 2017; sobaih, moustafa, ghandforoush, & khan, 2016). however, studies were focusing on sm integration during distance education is still limited. therefore, this study aims to provide empirical evidence on how higher education institutions (heis) teacher educators use sm in teaching during covid-19 outbreak. in exploring factors influencing the use of sm, the tam framework included in this research has been successful in explaining the process of the adoption of sm during covid-19 perceived by indonesian teacher educators. the survey instrument validation would be considered to address a significant contribution to the improvement of structural equation research. the data analysis informed valid and reliable scale. similarly, previous studies also used a similar method in validating their scales (muhaimin et al., 2019; mukminin et al., 2020; prasojo et al., 2020). the main goal of this study was to examine factors influencing indonesian faculty members’ iu and use of sm during pandemics distance learning. the main framework applied in this study was tam (mugo, njagi, chemwei, & motanya, 2017), supported by the fc as an extended variable. the results informed that the model is an adequate fit. all exogenous constructs have significant positive influences on all endogenous constructs. the significant irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 510 predicting power of fc to pu and peu is informed within the results of this study. these reports are similar to what koh, chai, & tsai, (2010) reported that fcs was a significant predictor of pu. the supporting condition like proper infrastructure, professional improvement, technical support, and policies supporting technology can strongly influence indonesian teacher educators’ perceived benefits and ease to use sm in their teaching. similarly, peu is also a significant predictor for pu and iu. further, pu also significantly determines iu. similar tam results indicate the importance of perceived benefits and ease to improve users’ willingness to use certain technologies in teaching and learning (ma & liu, 2004; montero perez et al., 2014; schepers & wetzels, 2007; zacharis, 2012). finally, iu is significantly correlated with au, proving that when teacher educators have a good level of intention to use sm in their teaching (sukendro et al., 2020). conclusion exploration has been widely applied to explore the use of sm. this large study is evidence that sm in learning has been applied in various countries. nevertheless, only a few studies have done an investigation on the use of media in a pandemic, such as covid-19. thus, the current research addresses enrichment to the literature on the comprehension of the current conditions of distance learning during pandemic school closures, an important guide to academics who are interested in conducting similar types of studies. at present, because of school closures, technology acceptance and use have been more complicated and not been able to be avoided than normal conditions. thus, it is important to maximize investment for long-distance purchases at higher education. an evaluation of the influencing factors of technology use during an outbreak, such as covid-19, must be applied to a variety of contexts and settings. besides, this research aims to understand the aspect of access where not all teaching staff have sufficient technological resources related to the conditions of facilitation, particularly internet access. the findings of these studies require support from future academics who have interests in conducting similar research. stakeholders must have proper preparation for better distance learning that occurs because of the outbreak. despite the availability of statistical support, this study has several limited resources. respondents included withi this study were only from teacher educators; more different background respondents should be recommended for further studies. another 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(2003). user acceptance of information technology: toward a unified view. mis quarterly: management information systems, 27(3), 425–478. https://doi.org/10.2307/30036540 zacharis, n. z. (2012). predicting college students’ acceptance of podcasting as a learning tool. interactive technology and smart education, 9(3), 171–183. https://doi.org/10.1108/17415651211258281 biographical notes dr. lia yuliana, s.pd., m.pd. is a lecturer at faculty of teacher training and education, universitas negri yogyakarta, yogyakarta, indonesia. lantip diat prasojo lantip diat prasojo is a professor in educational management and information system and working as the head of institute of educational development and quality assurance of universitas negeri yogyakarta. he completed his bachelor degree form gajah mada university in 2001 and finished his master degree in 2005 at univeristas negeri yogyakarta. finally, he did his doctoral degree in 2015 from univeristas pendidikan indonesia, bandung. he has published more than 20 books and 15 articles in reputable journals such as heliyon, quality access to success, current science, and data in brief. widia murni wijaya, s.s.t., b.tech., m.pd. is a lecturer at faculty of teacher training and education, universitas negri yogyakarta, yogyakarta, indonesia this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 345 does leadership effectiveness matter for indonesia vocational teacher performance? the mediating role of work motivation etta mamang sangadji 1 , sopiah 2 , and bagus shandy narmaditya 3 abstract enhancing teacher performance is a global challenge and understanding managerial sides, and motivation can be used to deal with this issue. the purpose of this study aimed at examining the impact of leadership effectiveness and teacher performance in vocational school, as well as investigating the role of work motivation. a quantitative method was adopted to improve understanding of this phenomenon. the participants of this study were recruited from the vocational school teachers in east java by distributing online questionnaires employing whatsapp. the findings of this study showed that effective leadership positively influenced both work motivation and teacher performance. indeed, work motivation can explain the relationship between effective leadership and vocational teacher performance. based on the results, it is recommended to the education office, school principals, vocational teachers to pay more attention to the effectiveness of leadership, and work motivation to improve teacher performance. this study recommends that school principals and educational policymakers pay attention to the matters of leadership and work motivation as the essential factor in driving teacher performance. keywords educational quality, leadership effectiveness, teacher performance, work motivation 1 graduate program of economic education, universitas pgri wiranegara pasuruan, indonesia: sangadji_23@yahoo.com 2 faculty of economics, universitas negeri malang, indonesia: sopiah.fe@um.ac.id 3 faculty of economics, universitas negeri malang, indonesia: bagus.shandy.fe@um.ac.id mailto:sangadji_23@yahoo.com mailto:sopiah.fe@um.ac.id mailto:bagus.shandy.fe@um.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 346 introduction in the recent few decades, teacher performance has gained attention among scholars as its role in guiding students (suratman et al., 2020; wulandari et al., 2021). some scholars believe that teachers play a strategic role in the driving education goal in a nation (kohli, 2019; al kadri & widiawati, 2020). teacher performance includes all activities shown by the teacher in carrying out the mandate to educate, guide, direct and facilitate the teaching and learning process (louws et al., 2017). the implication of the teachers who have high performance is that they are more likely driving into better knowledge in guiding learners to achieve their accomplishment and vice versa (suswanto et al., 2017; muazza, 2021). some of the works of the literature showed a robust correlation between the teacher performance and the students’ achievement (heck, 2007; harris & sass, 2011; ojimba, 2013). for this reason, owning a high-staging teacher is essential for improving the standard of education in a nation (irmayani et al., 2018; noaman et al., 2017). considering this matter, the indonesian government has provided a certification program for the teacher to secure the grade of education. the teacher certification consists of four components, including personal, pedagogical, professional and social competence that need to be mastered by the teachers and those components reflects to the teachers’ performance (harjanto et al., 2018; kusumawardhani, 2017). however, in the implementation, almost a half participant of the teacher certification program of vocational school teacher failed in the first final test (wijaya et al., 2021). in particular, the teacher performance is being an issue which predicts the cause of the students’ achievement, which has experienced a downward trend, particularly in the vocational school in east java of indonesia (wulandari et al., 2021). the vulnerable teacher performance unquestionably concerns some parties, including parents, educators, headmasters, and principal of city/municipality education offices, as well as policymakers. therefore, there is a need for a greater understanding of what factors affecting teacher performance to overcome to this issue. some literature on the study on this theme is associated teacher performance with the leadership of school principals (sukmawati et al., 2019; hanipah et al., 2020; wulandari et al., 2021). in the context of the school, the principal has a crucial role in managing the school and has high effectiveness (leithwood et al., 2020). the principal, as a leader, have good administrative skills, high commitment, and create a conducive environment to support teacher performance and student achievement (ford et al., 2019). effective principal leadership can be seen from the ability to empower teachers to carry out the learning process well and improve their performance (shulhan, 2018; hartiwi et al., 2020). from the management study perspectives, the study on teacher performance is often linked with employee performance and it has examined by scholars in both developed and developing countries with various subject studies. for example, buil et al. (2019); pawirosumarto et al. (2017) have investigated the role of leadership on the hotel employee performance. furthermore, jiang et al. (2017) and li et al. (2015) pointed out a robust correlation between transformational leadership and sustainable employee performance in china. in the banking sector, siahaan (2017) showed that leadership plays an essential role in employee job irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 347 satisfaction in indonesia. other studies indicated that employee performance is associated with the effectiveness of leadership (chen & silverthorne, 2005; lekka & healey, 2012; zeb et al., 2018). in addition, some studies found a correlation work motivation can predict employee performance (widagdo et al., 2018; prabowo et al., 2018). work motivation is a potential force within a human being, which can be developed by several external forces that revolve around monetary rewards and non-monetary rewards that can affect their performance results positively or negatively depending on the situation and conditions faced by the person concerned (osabiya, 2015; rida & siddiqui, 2019). motivation can come from a person or what is often known as internal motivation and external motivation (locke & schattke, 2019). a preliminary study by dartey-baah and amoako (2011) provides several indicators affecting motivation, including achievement, recognition, responsibility, progress, the work itself and the possibility of growth. when workers have high motivation to achieve their personal goals, then it drives to performance as well as increase organizational performance. thus, increasing the motivation of workers will improve the performance of individuals, groups, and organizations so that they can achieve the organizational targets that have been set (idowu, 2017; andriani et al., 2018). since the escalating studies on employee performance, however, a small number of studies which focuses on teacher performance, particularly in indonesia. the majority study focused on the teacher certification program as the factor in increasing teacher performance (kusumawardhani, 2017; habibi et al., 2019; suratman et al., 2020; wijaya et al., 2021). therefore, raising the theme of teacher performance as a central theme and critical research variables, such as leadership effectiveness as antecedent variables and work motivation as mediating important and relevant variables. adapting concepts that are generally used in management for education will provide another perception in understanding the factors that affect teacher performance. this study aimed at understanding the role of leadership effectiveness and work motivation in determining teacher performance. this study proposed three contributions. first, this research provided an insight into the current literature on management studies by establishing teacher as the subject of the research, which largely missing in the prior studies. second, the study provided a model of teacher performance by testing the antecedent factors that influence it both directly (e.g., organizational justice, and leadership effectiveness) or indirectly through internal motivation. with the creation of a teacher performance model, this research was forecasted to impart to the school headmasters, the city/municipality and provincial policymakers, so that they can make the right policies for performance improvement. literature review the literature on leadership has been highlighted among scholars as having a crucial role in managing and determining success in an organization or institution (eliyana & ma’arif, 2019; swanson et al., 2020). a contingency model by fiedler (1978) explained that effective leadership is showing by the interaction between organizational situations and circumstances with the tendency of the relationship between leaders and employees. a more effective leader is task-oriented leadership, while the most preferred leadership of employees irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 348 is human-oriented leadership (tabernero et al., 2009). silverthorne (2001) pointed three primary components which show leadership effectiveness, including task structure, and position power. additionally, pillai and williams (1998); lone and lone (2018) remarked that leadership effectiveness consists of three dimensions, namely developing followership, achieving results, and team playing. according to michaud et al. (2020), leadership effectiveness has three main variables that are very influential, namely the nature of the task, the relationship between leaders and subordinates, and the power inherent in the position of leader. from the previous literature, effective leadership can be concluded as an activity in forming interactions to influence others through a systematic mindset, effective in decision making and communicating the results of thought (kurucay & inan, 2017; huguet, 2017). additionally, it can increase participation in problem-solving and being able to increase morale and be able to explore the creativity of employees. this makes an employee want and motivates to work together to achieve the goals that have been set together. several studies also confirmed a relationship between leadership effectiveness and work motivation (asrar-ul-haq & kuchinke, 2016; buble et al., 2014; gooraki et al., 2013). in the school context, the principal has a crucial role in managing the school and has high effectiveness (liu & hallinger, 2018). the principal as a leader must have good administrative skills, high commitment, and create a conducive environment to support teacher performance and student achievement (ford et al., 2019). effective principal leadership can be seen from the ability to empower teachers to carry out the learning process well and improve their performance (shulhan, 2018; hartiwi et al., 2020). in more precise, some preliminary scholars by fisher and robbins (2015); cragg and spurgeon (2018) noted several competencies of a leader should be able to: (a) create a vision, (b) define a strategy that is to have a comprehensive understanding of strengths, weaknesses, work performance. (c) set professional standards of work performance, (d) delegate authority, (e) freedom and resources, (f) lead the collective management process, (g) set standards for reciprocal information systems that are natural, (h) create a superstructure success and setting roles and goals and recruiting and training and pooling individual strengths. furthermore, lourmpas and dakopoulou (2014) prove that leaders in educational institutions, especially principals, influence most teachers, especially in teacher research performance. in this term, the government policies can assist the development of innovative activities by supporting leaders and equipping them with the necessary knowledge on how to exploit motivation for best results in the school community (clarke & higgs, 2016). the factors that influence a person’s work motivation in carrying out work are influenced by several factors, both internal and intrinsic factors originating from psychological processes within a person and from external and extrinsic factors originating from outside one’s self. in addition to work motivation, a recent systematic literature review concluded that leadership effectiveness is associated with employee performance. for example, chen and silverthorne (2005) showed a correlation between leadership effectiveness and employee job satisfaction in taiwan. additionally, pradeep and prabhu (2011) mentioned that leadership effective could enhance job performance in public and private sector enterprises. buil et al. (2019); pawirosumarto et al. (2017) have investigated the role of leadership on hotel employee performance. other studies showed that employee performance is associated with the effectiveness of leadership (lekka & healey, 2012; zeb et al., 2018). irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 349 in addition, some studies found a correlation work motivation can predict employee performance (widagdo et al., 2018; prabowo et al., 2018). leadership effectiveness has a significant influence on employee work motivation. organizations must encourage their leaders to continue to apply styles that encourage motivation to obtain the best results from employees. in addition, conchie (2013) identified that work motivation mediates the relationship between leadership and employee behaviour. the mediating role of intrinsic motivation depends on the level of employee confidence in their leader. intrinsic employee motivation is essential for the effectiveness of the leader’s efforts to promote some but not all forms of behaviour. therefore, the hypotheses are: (1) h1. leadership effectiveness influences vocational teacher performance, (2) h2. leadership effectiveness can explain vocational teacher work motivation, (3) h3. work motivation has an impact on vocational teacher performance, (5) h4. work motivation mediates the link between leadership effectiveness and vocational teacher performance methodology research design, site, and participants a quantitative method was adopted to conduct this exploratory study. the participant of this study was recruited from the vocational school teachers in east java. the concerned study in east java of indonesia is reasonable, giving consideration to the vocational schools in east java that have abundant educational prerequisites instead of other areas. the work was conducted from january to may 2020 by using online questionnaires. the initial sample was about 400 participants; however, approximately 350 valid questionnaires can be used for further analysis. from the returned questionnaires, it was known that the respondents were slightly dominated by female teachers (51.42%) instead of male teacher (48.58%) and with the primary education was graduates from a bachelor degree. additionally, the respondents had about 10 to 20 working experiences. the respondents engaged in this study were the vocational school teachers who had at least five years working experience. participants were asked to respond using a 5-point likert scale ranging from 1 for “strongly disagree” and 5 for “strongly agree”. the framework of the study was developed from prior literature review and preliminary relevant research. the detail of this research is provided in figure 1. figure 1. research framework data collection and analysis there are three variables in this study, namely leadership effectiveness as an independent variable, work motivation as a mediator variable and teacher performance as a work motivation (z) leadership effectiveness (x) teacher performance (y) irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 350 dependent variable. in this study, teacher performance was measured according to law no. 14 of 2005 on teacher and lecturer. it consists of four components, including personal, pedagogical, professional and social competence that need to be mastered by the teachers (bakar, 2018). in detail, to measure teacher performance includes six items for pedagogical competence, three items for personal competence, two items for social competence and two items for professional competence. in addition, work motivation was measured by three-dimension including work and external motivation with eight items adopted from herzberg et al. (1959); sopiah (2008). lastly, to measure the leadership effectiveness, we adopted items from pillai and williams (1998) which pointed on three dimensions, including developing followership (four items), achieving results (five items) and team playing (four items). in detail, the collected data were analysis undergoing descriptive analysis and inferential analysis (with path analysis). this study also followed several stages of test of the classical assumption calculation, covering normality estimation, multicollinearity calculation, and heteroscedasticity test. ethical consideration in this study, to ensure the ethical issues, our respondents were asked for their anonymity while filling the questionnaires. we asked our respondents not to mention their real identities in filling the questionnaire. findings and discussion table 1 illustrates the summary of the hypothesis estimation undergoing regression analysis. according to table 1, the value of standardized beta coefficient of the first variable (x1) is 0.713, with a sig t-value = 0.000 < 0.05. it implies that the first hypothesis is accepted. the second and third hypotheses showed the standardized beta coefficient 0.678 and 0.208, respectively. the findings indicated that the variables involved in this study could elucidate the dependent variable. in addition, leadership effectiveness had a positive and significant indirect effect on performance through teacher work motivation of 0.148. in this case, work motivation played as a partial mediating because the indirect effect of leadership effectiveness on performance through work motivation is smaller than the direct effect of leadership effectiveness on teacher performance of 0.678. table 1. the summary of results analysis variables direct impact indirect effect total sig. decision h1 le  wm .713 .713 .000 confirmed h2 le  tp .678 .678 .000 confirmed h3 wp  tp .208 .208 .000 confirmed h4 le  wp  tp .713 .078 .148 confirmed note: le = leadership effectiveness; wm = work motivation; tp = teacher performance irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 351 the results of the study proved that the leadership effectiveness of principals was highly perceived by vocational school teachers. leadership effectiveness is proxied by followership, achieving results, and team playing (pillai & williams, 1998). developing followership has several characteristics, including the existence of increased employee knowledge, maintaining employee enthusiasm, leaders can move employees, leaders can control emotions well. also, achieving results were indicated by achieving targets set, using authority to achieve goals, being able to control employees well, being able to push employees to achieve targets set, setting high targets on others. lastly, the teams playing were explained by several indicators, namely accepting other people’s input as consideration, able to communicate well with everyone, leaders can build close relationships with employees, leaders support or motivate employees well. on the other hand, motivation was measured by two dimensions: intrinsic motivation (achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility, advancement) and extrinsic motivation (interpersonal relations, company policy and administration, supervision, salary, working conditions. the study showed that the teacher had a high work motivation which showing by an excellent emotional relationship among co-workers, between teachers and leaders, and between teachers and students, including with students’ parents; school administrations that support teacher performance did not actually hinder teacher performance; intended to help teachers grow and develop not supervision to look for mistakes, teachers feel adequate with salary and other income besides the salary earned, teachers are satisfied with working conditions, working conditions include physical (work facilities or infrastructure) and work climate or psychological atmosphere conducive (external motivation dimension). the characteristics of teachers who have high internal motivation, including proud of work as a teacher, proud of work achievements obtained, proud of having received recognition from leaders, co-workers, students, proud of being given responsibilities in accordance with the position, proud of being given the opportunity and being supported to enhance teachers’ personal and professional competency. teacher performance is perceived high by school headmasters and they have good personal, pedagogical, social, and professional competencies. leadership effectiveness and work motivation an initial objective of this study was to investigate the role of leadership effectiveness toward work motivation of vocational teacher in indonesia. the current study confirmed the findings of prior studies by asrar-ul-haq and kuchinke (2016); buble et al. (2014); gooraki et al. (2013); mihrez and thoyib (2015), that leadership effectiveness positively influences work motivation of teachers. leadership effectiveness tended to have power over certain traits and show certain leadership behaviours or styles. effective leadership is a key analyst of success or failure in organizational performance (madanchian et al., 2017). additionally, the principal as a leader has good administrative skills, high commitment, and create a conducive environment to support teacher performance and student achievement (ford et al., 2019). effective principal leadership can be seen from the ability to empower teachers to carry out the learning process well and improve their performance (shulhan, 2018; hartiwi et al., 2020). these results indicated that the effective irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 352 leadership was an activity in shaping interactions as an effort to influence others, through systematic thinking, effective decision making, communicating thought results, increasing participation in problem-solving and being able to increase work morale and be able to explore employee creativity so want to work together to achieve the goals set together. leadership effectiveness is the achievement of leaders in completing one or several tasks, and leadership effectiveness can also be seen from the satisfaction obtained by the followers (gibson et al., 2016). additionally, michaud et al. (2020) revealed that the effectiveness of leadership has three namely the nature of the task (what must be done), the relationship between leaders and subordinates, and the power inherent in the position of leader. work motivation and teacher performance the findings of this research indicated that work motivation could explain teacher performance. motivation can primarily come from a person or what is often known as internal motivation and external motivation. these motivational factors can have a positive or negative impact on a teacher. according to prior studies by dartey-baah and amoako (2011) documented that several indicators affecting motivation, including achievement, recognition, responsibility, progress, the work itself and the possibility of growth. this implies that teachers who have high motivation to achieve their personal goals will lead to better performance, as well as enhance organizational performance. thus, increasing the motivation of workers will improve the performance of individuals, groups, and organizations so that they can achieve the organizational targets that have been set (idowu, 2017; andriani et al., 2018). this result is in agreement with some antecedent studies in the management field which proves that the motivation influences employee performance (widagdo et al., 2018; prabowo et al., 2018; shazadi et al., 2014; khan et al., 2013). markovits et al. (2007). in detail, haryono et al. (2020) remarked that performance is determined by ability, motivation, and environmental factors. there are three characteristics of teacher work motivation, such as business, teachers who have high work motivation show the maximum strength of teachers’ work behaviour in their workplace, which involves a variety of activities both tangible and visible. the real effort made by the teacher can provided in the form of starting of designing learning, implementing learning using approaches, strategies, methods, models, teaching materials, appropriate learning media, and evaluating learning accurately. job aspects includes intrinsic motivation: achievement (recognition, work itself, responsibility, advancement) and extrinsic motivation (interpersonal relations, company policy/administration, supervision, salary, working conditions), both intrinsic and extrinsic that affect performance. if the teacher feels these two aspects are fulfilled, then the teacher will perform optimally. leadership effectiveness and teacher performance the results of the study prove that leadership effectiveness has a significant positive effect on performance. the more effective the leadership of vocational school principals, the better the teacher performance. the result supports numerous previous studies, for instance, madanchian et al. (2017), danisman et al. (2015), which mentioned that leadership irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 353 effectiveness is the key to successful organizational performance. other studies showed that employee performance is associated with the effectiveness of leadership (chen & silverthorne, 2005; lekka & healey, 2012; zeb et al., 2018). effective leadership of school principals has the characteristics of increasing teacher knowledge. the teacher is always updated with his knowledge so that it always grows and develops, adjusting to the development of student characteristics and environmental demands, including advances in technology and knowledge. in addition, the principal plays a role in maintaining teacher enthusiasm. finally, the headmasters can promote the teacher to perform optimally. if these dimensions are met, then the teacher’s performance will be maximal. leadership effectiveness, work motivation and teacher performance the results of the research proved work motivation as partial mediating in the relationship between leadership effectiveness and vocational school teacher performance. the findings of this research support the research of lourmpas and dakopoulou (2014), which remarked leaders in educational institutions, especially principals, influence the majority of teachers, especially in teacher research performance. national policy can help the development of innovative activities by supporting leaders and equipping them with the necessary knowledge about how to exploit motivation for the best results in the school community indeed, mihrez and thoyib (2015) proves that leadership behaviour has a positive and significant influence on intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and employee performance. similarly, schwarz et al. (2016), work motivation mediates the effect of servant leadership on employee performance. the results are consistent with theoretical predictions that altruistic behaviour displayed by servant leadership raises a higher level of altruistic behaviour that characterizes public service motivation, which in turn increases employee performance. thus, it can be concluded that effective headmaster’s leadership drives teacher performance undergoing their work motivation. the variables of work motivation and leadership effectiveness of school headmasters are both crucial variables and should be considered to improve teacher performance. conclusion and recommendations/implications this present paper was designed to examine the impact of leadership effectiveness and teacher performance as well as understand the role of work motivation. the most prominent finding to emerge from this study is that leadership effectiveness is categorized as high. the more effective the leadership of vocational school principals, the better the teacher’s performance. the work motivation of vocational school teachers is categorized high. in this study, vocational teachers perceived satisfied with their intrinsic and extrinsic needs. additionally, vocational school teacher performance is categorized as high. teachers are considered principals to have good professional, personal, social, and pedagogical competencies. the findings of this study showed that effective leadership positively influence both work motivation and teacher performance. indeed, work motivation can explain the relationship between effective leadership and teacher performance. work motivation in this study takes role as a partial mediating connection between leadership effectiveness and irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 354 vocational school teacher performance. this study lies some limitations in the term of geographical research studies, and further research can elaborate in the wider study area. additionally, future scholars can also involve other relevant variables that can enhance teachers’ performance either in the vocational schools or in senior high schools. based on the findings and discussion previously, it is recommended to school principals, city/regency/provincial head offices and ministries related to the vocational education of the republic of indonesia to pay attention and improve leadership effectiveness and work motivation of teachers so that teacher performance will improve for the better and eventually will increase student learning achievement. disclosure statement no potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors. references al kadri, h, & widiawati. 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(2018). leadership effectiveness and organizational performance: exploring gaps in the existing literature. business and economic review, 10(1), 95-106. https://doi.org/10.1108/ijem-08-2017-0218 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 359 biographical notes etta mamang sangadji is an associate professor at graduate program of economic education, universitas pgri wiranegara pasuruan, indonesia. sopiah is an associate professor at department of management, faculty of economics, universitas negeri malang, indonesia. bagus shandy narmaditya is an assistant professor at department of economic education, universitas negeri malang, indonesia. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 107 the kindergarten teachers’ pedagogical competences: a case study muhamad taridi 1 and amrin dono 2 abstract the study aimed to find out the pedagogical competence of teachers to carry out the interactions of the teaching and learning processes and to assess the development of the cognitive aspects of the children in one indonesian kindergarten. this study used a qualitative method with the case study tradition. we highlighted the analysis of the data through transcription, coding, and thematic analyses. findings of the study focused on three major themes including teachers’ competence for planning teaching and learning programs (planning activities for teaching and learning processes and care and protection programs), teacher competence in implementing interaction or managing teaching and learning processes (learning from various resources and doing evaluation on the method used in teaching), and teachers’ competence for conducting learning assessment and evaluation (test assessment and evaluation and non-test assessment and evaluation). some recommendations for the betterment of indonesian kindergarten education are proposed. keywords case study, kindergarten, pedagogical competence, teachers 1. *corresponding author: universitas islam negeri sulthan thaha saifuddin, jambi, indonesia; taridi@uinjambi.ac.id 2. universitas islam negeri sulthan thaha saifuddin, jambi, indonesia mailto:taridi@uinjambi.ac.id irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 108 introduction teachers possess the utmost significant contribution to student learning and effective educational processes (gholami & qurbanzada, 2016). therefore, teachers are considered the most important factor to improve human values as well as improve educational values. while learners play roles as the center of the process of teaching and learning, teachers have significant roles to guide learners and facilitate the processes (ghorbani, jafari, & sharifian, 2018). currently, when the world is dealing with many threats of war, injustice acts, and violence, teachers cannot be parties to claim that education as the only way to improve human value; educators should be evaluated for their competence to become the ones who promote the moral responsibility for teaching universally and for sharing human values which are conducive to a culture of peace (lawale & bory-adams, 2010; spector, klein, reiser, sims, grabowski, & de la teja, 2006). however, the challenges faced by nowadays teachers are to have a good design of teaching plans in order to diversify educational materials and approaches that are appropriate for the needs of students in line with the physical and psychological developments of the students’ characteristics. the improvement of the teachers’ competence in pedagogy for teaching demands that teachers have a preparation in an entirely encouragement and emphasis (blazar & kraft, 2017; makarevics, 2008). therefore, teachers should help young students feel great within a good emotion, have high self-confidence and respects as well as responsibility for everything they have done. current teachers are demanded to be flexible and have a vision for the future education with broad-minded and interdisciplinary perspectives (unesco, 2002). the current world commission on teaching under the organization for economic co-operation and development (oecd, 2011) stressed out that teachers around the world, in order to assist their students, should not only have the skills in teaching and doing evaluation to the process of teaching and learning or having a good examination easier, but also, improve ways of thinking such as the value of creativity, critical thinking, problem solving, decision making, and learning; develop ways of working (communication and collaboration); adapt with tools of working (digital technology or ict); apply the teaching skills in the area of citizenship, skills for life, and responsibility for success in the modern world. although, there have been many educational studies about teachers’ competence in the current era (e.g., blazar & kraft, 2017; eslamian, jafari, & neyestani, 2018; gholami, sarkhosh, & abedi, 2016). however, few studies have been done for indonesian context (sofwan & habibi, 2017). even, fewer studies revealed the pedagogical competence of indonesian teachers of young children. therefore, this current study focused on indonesian teachers’ pedagogical competence in teaching young children in one indonesian kindergarten. to achieve the purpose of the study, one major question guided this study: what is the teachers’ pedagogical competence in teaching young children in one indonesian kindergarten? literature review teachers’ beliefs, practices, and attitudes are considered to have a close relationship with teachers’ strategies in coping with challenges faced within their profession as well as the irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 109 influence they bring into their classroom for learning environment, motivation, and achievement for their learners (awang et al., 2013; gholami et al., 2016). applying some historically educational strategies and approaches e.g., the application of good questions, choosing appropriate educational subjects, teaching for students meta-cognitive improvement, triggering activities for critical thinking, providing more learning opportunities, facilitating valid sources, giving opportunity for comparison of ideas, discussions about the subject, and communication with students in a collaborative and cooperative environment is the way to improve the quality of education by teachers (costa & lowery, 1989; driscoll, 2000; hewson, 1996; marzano, 2013; meichenbaum, 1986). having the consideration that teachers are a very important part in education that play a very significant role for youth sustainable development (unesco, 2008), teachers should achieve pedagogical competences in teaching. eslamian, jafari, and neyestani (2018), korsun, (2017), and reid and hovrathora (2016) stated that in order to achieve learners’ development, educational institutions need competent teachers in pedagogy. becoming competent in teaching as a profession shows a person to have used particular information, analysis and decision making, creativity, ability to work in a team, effective communication, and good adaptability skills. many studies (e.g., aleinikov, 2002; castro, kelly, & shih, 2010; cheetham & chivers, 2004; cochran-smith & susan, 1999; darling, hammond, & bransford, 2005; hoffmann, 2006; rohani, 2004; schmoker, 2006; zhu & wang, 2014) have informed the pedagogical competence criteria. each study classifies the competencies into different categories and differently assesses them from its own perspectives. in childhood context, referring to indonesian ministry of education, diknas (2006,) the standards for early childhood education for the teachers' pedagogical competences are: 1) planning activities for education, care and protection programs; 2) carrying out the process of education, care and protection and 3) carrying out an assessment of the process and results of education, care and protection. meanwhile, rohani (2004) found that the pedagogical competence of teachers in developing cognitive aspects of kindergarten children is planning education, caring and protection program activities. planning is a thought or preparation to carry out the work or to take a decision on what will be carried out by someone to achieve certain goals as determined by a procedure or steps that are systematic by paying attention to the principles of carrying out the task/work and specifying goals and visualizing the results to be achieved. planning involves the ability to know how to system work and to find the resources and information. this is also the same as schmoker's (2006) statement, “the professional learning community requires teachers to establish an important and concise joint curriculum, and then teach it to students in a mutually agreed schedule (p. 102). additionally, carrying out assessment and evaluation on the processes and outcomes of education, as well as care and protection is also one of the teachers’ responsibilities (graff & karsten, 2012; orr, pecheone, snyder, murphy, palanki, beaudin, & buttram, 2018). diknas (2006) defines assessment as the process of gathering and processing information to determine the level of achievement of a child's development which includes assessment techniques namely observation, assignment, performance, anecdotal recording, conversation/dialogue, parental reports, and documentation of children's work (portfolio) as well as descriptions of children's profiles. kunandar (2007) also informed that assessment irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 110 relates to information about a person in an activity, time or certain stimulants. information is obtained comprehensively and based on certain rules. this information is not only useful for individuals who are assessing but also for other related parties such as parents. assessment of learning includes making considerations about services, values or benefits of a program, process and learning outcome assessment is a systematic process that contains information in order to analyze and interpret the information to make decisions. methodology research design, research site, sampling, and participants for this study, a qualitative case study approach was applied (forrester, & sullivan, 2018; creswell, 2014) to examine the experiences and voices of indonesian teachers of kindergarten related to their pedagogical competence in one indonesian kindergarten since the quantitative approach e.g. surveys and experimental may not address in-depth information in order to obtain the objectives of this study. creswell (2014) and hancock and algozzine (2016) state that a case study includes the study of an issue or a topic that is done through one or more cases in the circle of a bound system. furthermore, ridder (2017) noted that a qualitative case study was a holistic exploration, explanation, and analysis as well as elaboration of a bounded system or phenomenon such as a person, a program, an institution, and a process as well as a policy. in this study context, the focus of the research was on the exploration of some indonesian teachers. additionally, we focused on exploring the experiences of indonesian teachers in teaching young children in one indonesian kindergarten related to their pedagogical competences. we did the current research at one indonesian kindergarten that has more than 210 students. the participants of the interview in this study were chosen using a convenience sampling strategy (moser & korstjens, 2018; schreier, 2018) that consisting of the head of the kindergarten, classroom teachers, and subject teachers. we obtained permission from the ministry of education, jambi province. the names of the research objects such as people, places, and research sites involved in this research were masked through the use of pseudonyms; it is related to the protection of the participants’ rights. in this study, a purposeful sampling with a convenience case strategy was applied which is defined as convenience cases representing sites or individuals where researchers can access and do data collection to collect the data (creswell, 2014). the five participants were a headmaster (hm), two class teachers (t1 & t2), and two subject teachers (st1 & st2). data collection the collection of the main data of this study was conducted through a semi-structured interview (palinkas, horwitz, green, wisdom, duan, & hoagwood, 2015) done individually with each teacher from forty-five minutes to one hour at the research site from september to december 2018. the interview series were not done for once at the same set of situation; the series were done through the agreement with the participants’ time and place they were willing to be interviewed. during the interview, we began asking participants irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 111 to talk about their experiences related to their teaching activities from the planning process to evaluation process. we, then, interviewed them to answer more specific questions related to our research inquiry, including their capacity in conducting teaching in their classes and the ways they evaluated the teaching and learning process. all teachers were interviewed using bahasa indonesia. the interviews were then audio-taped, and directly transcribed verbatim. we also applied a demographic background survey to obtain participants’ backgrounds including age, gender, major, and other related information. data analysis we first analyzed the demographic information data in a descriptive way. in addition, the interview data were subsequently transcribed for each participant. following the step, the data were then analyzed through the constant comparative approach (glaser & strauss, 1967). the analysis was done in the circle of the five participants’ transcripts. the analysis also covers the area of similarity and difference comparison. the transcripts were carefully read line-by-line to find regularities and themes as well as subthemes emerged among the data. when all the data have been through all codification and analysis process, the identification was begun in order to recognize the themes and sub-themes in favoring us explaining the research. when the process of theme and sub-theme recognition, we also eliminated and reduced repetitive data. we used a pattern coding to find mostly repetitive patterns of statements and consistencies among participants. this approach was chosen as it helped us to find patterns and regularity of the talks and statements from the participants. to ensure “trustworthiness” (lincoln & guba 1985, p. 300) of this study, the interview results were returned to the participants to be cross checked as part of member checking procedure (mukminin, 2012; mukminin, ali, & ashari, 2015). ensuring the participants’ agreement of the data that would be elaborated was done to assess the trustworthiness. as a result, the participants agreed and allowed the use of the data for this study. the checking procedure was also conducted with some colleagues of ours. findings we divided the results of the study into themes three major; teachers’ competence for planning teaching and learning programs, teachers’ competence for implementing teaching materials and managing teaching and learning process, and teachers’ competence for conducting learning assessment and evaluation. table 1. themes and sub-themes themes sub-themes teachers’ competence for planning teaching and learning programs planning activities for teaching and learning process care and protection programs teachers’ competence for implementing teaching materials and managing teaching and learning process, learning from various resources doing evaluation on the method used in teaching irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 112 teachers’ competence for conducting learning assessment and evaluation test assessment and evaluation non-test assessment and evaluation teachers’ competence for planning teaching and learning programs the pedagogical competence of teachers in the development of cognitive aspects is carried out by planning activities for teaching and learning process and care and protection programs. to plan the activities for the activity of teaching and learning is defined as planning at a specified time period that contains the activities that will be done by the teachers in their instructional activities. the planning is done to coordinate the learning components. regarding to this issue, hm stated, "as i always observe, in planning the activity for the teaching and learning process, teachers in this school always prepare several things namely doing lesson plan for daily, weekly, and monthly schedule.” teaching preparation is an effort to estimate actions to be taken in learning activities. for the success in implementing a curriculum or syllabus, the teacher continues to manage the program starting from the planning of learning, the identification of the standards of competence, basic competences, subject matters, learning activities, tools and sources of learning as well as assessment of learning. one of the participants said, “to do learning in the classroom, i prepare several things such as doing preparation for standard competences, basic competences, subject matter, learning activities, tools and learning resources as well as assessment of learning.” regarding care and protection programs in the kindergarten, the teachers according to the headmaster have treated their students according to the stage of development. kindergarten education is given to children as preparation for the children before entering primary education. "many teachers here already understand the foundations of education; legal, historical, economical, philosophical, socio-cultural and psychological foundations. however, few teachers have difficulties in completely comprehending the foundationd. it is related to care and protection programs that should be carried out in providing good education for the young children.” (hm) from the explanation of the principal above, it is known that there are still teachers who do not understand the foundations of education for kindergarten students in order to give a full protection to the young children they teach. irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 113 teacher competence for implementing materials and managing teaching and learning process the planning should be well-implemented. teachers’ competence in implementing or managing teaching and learning process is a complex ability (cochran-smith & susan, 1999). in relation to this issue, some teachers said that they have done maximal efforts to conduct the planning effectively and efficiently by implementing some strategies that they learned from various learning resources as it is quoted by two of the teachers, “i used the internet mostly to know more about how to teach young children as it is planned in the lesson plan.” (st1) “trainings conducted by the ministry of education is quite effective for us, in-service teachers, in implementing the lesson plan we have. i am saying that it is effective; however, it is not many as i remember i only attended little training during my working time here, around 5 years.” (t1) students can learn in different ways in every level of development. learning modalities and styles concern over the different ways of teaching or different teaching strategies where individuals learn on their most comprehensive ways. for instance, the visual learners can have better performance from learning experiences including the use of visual images and watching than from listening speech. the kinesthetic learner benefits active teaching and learning process while the auditory learner responds maximally to verbal commands. one of the participants (st2) informed that the ability to implement appropriate strategies during teaching and learning process in the kindergarten classroom determine the success of the teaching. in addition to the implementation of the teaching and learning in the kindergarten classes, the teacher has also realized that methods used in teaching and learning process influence the implementation of the lesson planning. this has led the teachers to do evaluation on the methods they used while teaching. two participants in the interview reported, “a lot methods that can be applied in my teaching activities, for example, when i teach iqro [alqur’an reading], some spelling methods offered by the internet. as i teach it for almost two years, i always do evaluations on the best way to teach iqro in my class.” (t1) “the method used by the teachers should always be evaluated. this is not only the teachers’ responsibility but also other stake holders’ including me as the headmaster. this, therefore, relates to the teachers’ competences in implementing the planning into the action.” (hm) in addition to the method evaluation, the participants of this study also reported that some problems emerged in implementing learning materials and managing teaching and learning process namely limited learning materials and access to the internet as well as lack of irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 114 training. specifically, one of the participants said that no initiatives had been made to minimize the problems such as lack of art media for the students to learn while they need the media to keep active in the classroom. teachers’ competence for conducting learning assessment and evaluation assessment and evaluation especially in kindergarten education are very significant components of teaching and learning activities. assessment is the process of information documentation and collection on individual student learning. meanwhile, evaluation is the analysis, reflection and summarizing process in order to make decisions based on the documentation and collection of information. the purpose of assessment aims at informing teaching and improves learning. therefore, assessment of learning and assessment for learning are fundamental parts in the kindergarten classroom. regarding to this process, this study proposes this as important theme within the two sub-themes; test and non-test assessment and evaluation. the evaluation of the teaching and learning activities can be done using test and non-tests. tests can be done with oral tests, written tests, and deed tests, while non-test evaluations can be carried out through attitude scales, rules check lists, questionnaires, and portfolios. t2 stated that it is important to have the most appropriate test to evaluate students teaching and learning process and it can be done through various method; however she prefers non-test such attitude scales and portfolios. strategies in doing the assessment and evaluation is also reported to be very important; two participants reported, "doing the assessment and evaluation in my class is not easy since it needs strategies. we need to check their scores and their attitudes weekly and monthly. i believe if we can manage to report a good quality of assessment and evaluation. " (st2) “i think assessment strategies should be a tool to encourage students to address their knowledge and skills, rather than focusing on their weaknesses. focusing on children’s thinking rather than a particular answer or solution provides valuable information about a child’s learning. therefore, our greatest assessment tool is a sustainable process of documenting and observing the learning process because young children perform their understanding by doing, showing and telling.” (t2) teachers should understand that many factors affect learning and achievement through the process of assessment and evaluation. pupils’ success in performing rating what they knows or is able to do can be various. their level of success may rely on some factors namely the time of day, situation, type of questions, familiarity with the content and their willingness to demonstrate their skills and abilities. the headmaster said that children need ample time to perform their achievements using various ways in various opportunities that are essentially appropriate and through activities that they can do independently and individually. she continued, “the rate and depth which individual child gets engaged in the kindergarten curriculum is different from beginning to end.” irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 115 furthermore, the access for teachers to see and understand students’ profiles should be kept in a convenient location for the teacher to access regularly. the data of the assessment for all students should be collected by the kindergarten teacher on an on-going basis and it informs instruction throughout the year. these activities require patience, tidiness, and understanding as informed by t1 in the interview. she said that the assessment should be sustainable and the data should always be available for teachers to access and it needs our patience and tidiness as teachers. discussion children or young students learn by doing and actively engaging with materials, equipment, and people in the process of teaching and learning. planning and creating a physical room in order to recognize the needs of development of five years olds facilitates a context for optimal teaching and learning. the management and option of classroom and specifically teaching materials in the learning environment affect the way teachers guide the development of the students and the expectations for student engagement in learning (eslamian et al., 2018). the ways teachers prepare or plan the teaching and learning process matter; it is one of the many significant pedagogic competences in teaching activities. the findings of this study regarding teachers’ competence in planning teaching and learning programs show that most teachers have conducted preparation before teaching. however, some of them still have no full understanding on the foundations of education for kindergarten students (korsun, 2017). teachers’ competence in implementing materials and managing teaching and learning process is an important factor in addressing the success of teaching and learning activities. their ability and wisdom in conducting the process of teaching and learning activities have a direct impact on students’ active involvement in the process. therefore, the attempt in order to develop teachers’ competence should involve the efforts of fostering positive attitudes (awang et al., 2013). in the indonesian context, the teachers of kindergarten have done the effort to fulfill the set of specific standards in determining the implementation of quality education for kindergarten institution (diknas, 2006). according to the standard (diknas, 2006) which include education curriculum, competences of teachers, educational infrastructure, organization of learning activities and educational assessment, teachers should be professional managing their class. however, based on the findings of this study, particular attention should be considered especially problems with learning material and access to the internet that are still limited. the kinds of strategies and tools should be applied in assessing and evaluating children’s learning on an ongoing basis in the context of everyday classroom experiences. in this study, the respondents reported that test and non-test based assessment and evaluation were conducted as also reported by some previous studies (ghorbani et al., 2018; rohani 2004). additionally, the strategies should be an encouragement for the teacher to support their students to show what they know and what they can do, not focusing on what they do not know or cannot do. focusing on children’s thinking rather than a particular answer or solution provides valuable information about a child’s learning. the students’ thoughts are proofs through their dialectics or it can be performed using their behaviors. the teacher’s irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 116 best assessment and evaluation tool is a continual process of observation and documentation of learning (aleinikov 2002; orr et al., 2018). therefore, they should utilize the strategies of observation and documentation in the assessment and evaluation process in kindergarten institution. conclusion children attend schools as active thinkers, owning their own natural curiosity and eagerness to search for information. the main purpose of education is to establish students to become independent, creative, and critical thinkers. teachers as the core of education have a vital role to support this development through making capitalization on children’s natural desire to explore, manipulate, and discover. teachers are the key holders of the scientific ideas of the values and responsibilities for students and are the first parties to train them to become valuable human beings. the present study aimed at informing the pedagogical competence of teachers to carry out the interactions of the teaching and learning process and to make assessment in the development of the cognitive aspects of the children in one indonesian kindergarten. the findings of the study revealed indonesian kindergarten teachers perspectives about their pedagogical competences. the teachers involved in this study reported their focus and did maximal efforts to the three activities or themes (teachers’ competence for planning teaching and learning programs, teacher competence for implementing interaction or managing teaching and learning processa and teachers’ competence for conducting learning assessment and evaluation). based on the interview, some problem might disturb their teaching and learning activities. those problems revealed including namely limited learning materials and access to the internet as well as lack of training, lack of art media for the students to learn while they need the media to keep active in the classroom, and teachers’ comprehension of factors affect learning and achievement through the process of assessment and evaluation. indonesian government should be more attentive to these problems. acknowledgments special thanks to the research center, universitas islam negeri sulthan thaha saifuddin, jambi, indonesia for the funding through the basic study program development research cluster of the islamic higher education, the ministry of religious affairs republic of indonesia. references aleinikov, a. g. 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(2014). key competencies and characteristics for innovative teaching among secondary school teachers: a mixed-methods research. asia pacific education review, 15(2), 299-311. doi: 10.1007/s12564-014-9329-6. biographical notes muhamad taridi works as a lecturer at universitas islam negeri sulthan thaha saifuddin, jambi, indonesia. email: taridi@uinjambi.ac.id amrin dono works as a lecturer at universitas islam negeri sulthan thaha saifuddin, jambi, indonesia. http://it.coe.uga.edu/itforum/paper89/itforumpaper89.pdf mailto:taridi@uinjambi.ac.id this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 279 the readiness of learning processes during the new normal era of the covid-19 pandemic anwar sewang 1 and muhammad aswad 2 abstract many studies have suggested that online learning that is so sudden and takes months is not effective. the unpreparedness of facilities and infrastructure becomes the main trigger in hindering the efficiency and effectiveness of the teaching and learning process. parents and students miss face-to-face teaching and learning processes at school. this study aimed to investigate the readiness of parents and children for face-to-face learning during the “new normal” period. this study applied a quantitative design. the population in this study was the parents of students in banggae, majene, west sulawesi. samples were selected using the non-probability sampling technique; in this case, it was an accidental sampling. the instrument used to obtain data was a questionnaire. data were then processed in three stages, namely editing, coding, and tabulating. data were also analyzed with a descriptive analysis using a percentage formula. the results of this study indicated that parents were ready for face-to-face learning for their children at school. however, the children had not been able to get used to obeying the health protocols that have been established for the „new normal‟ period. keywords covid 19, investigation, face-to-face, new normal, readiness, study 1associate professor in education technology, stain majene, west sulawesi, indonesian; sewanganwar@yahoo.com 2ph.d student in applied linguistics, universitas sulawesi barat, west sulawesi, indonesia; aswad@unsulbar.ac.id mailto:sewanganwar@yahoo.com mailto:aswad@unsulbar.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 280 introduction the indonesian government has quickly implemented large-scale social restrictions (indonesian: pembatasan sosial berskala besar (psbb) since the increasing number of people was infected by the covid-19 in the early 2020. this psbb is an effort to anticipate the spread of the covid-19 to the wider community. this psbb has brought enormous changes in all aspects of people‟s lives such as in business, tourism, or education. psbb demands people to carry out activities from home only. all activities that can trigger large gatherings of people should be avoided for a mutual safety. the implementation of psbb also created a new trend in people's lives (harahap, 2020). the activities carried out so far are no longer limited by space because most of them can be carried out in a virtual form. the productivity of many affected sectors has greatly decreased due to the implementation of this psbb, including the education sector. the teaching and learning process is disrupted because of changes in communication patterns between teachers and students from offline to online. this affects the psychological condition of students and makes the quality of their skills decrease (syah, 2020). the transition from learning at school to learning at home is a bitter pill for some parties. in large cities, home learning such as homeschooling is a common thing. however, in many regions, home learning is something that is not familiar. some students are confused about learning from home because they are used to communicating face-to-face with their teachers when they encounter problems during the learning process. this confusion is not welcomed when their parents are so busy, making them not have sufficient time or knowledge to accompany the students to study. parents are required to do many things during the implementation of the rules of learning from home. they must provide online learning facilities, such as gadgets or internet access (yoenanto, 2020). every parent has a different financial condition, while the facilities and infrastructure for learning from home are not cheap in the middle of a shattered economic condition. parents must also be good at managing time to divide their working time which must also be carried out from home and the time accompanying their children to learn from home. the synergy of parents, teachers, and children for the teaching and learning process is the key to success in this condition. however, it cannot be denied that some parents are not ready to be “teachers” at home for their children. parents with a background in the teaching profession are more psychologically ready to assist their children to learn from home (yoenanto, 2020), but those with other professions is another case. this surprising change must be faced by all those responsible. innovation is the key to surviving this new phenomenon. all innovations carried out will go through a process of trial and error to find a formula that is ideal enough to apply. for the teaching and learning process to continue even from home, optimizing the use of technology in learning is considered an effective solution. pakpahan and fitriani (2020) stated that the rapid development of current technology can help the process of distance learning (indonesian: pembelajaran jarak jauh (pjj). there are many digital platforms that can be utilized for supporting distance learning. they vary widely. there are many interesting and useful features. in fact, the role of technology in the learning process becomes very urgent when irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 281 the psbb is implemented for a long time such as during the occurrence of the covid-19 pandemic. teachers, students, and parents must improve their technological literacy to make the distance learning processes successful. various digital platforms can be used as a means for the distance learning process. the skills to use those platforms are absolute things to have. otherwise, the platform will be nothing more than an accessory. it is not only teachers who are obliged to know the use of the digital platform, but students and even parents are obliged to know it as well. chalim and anwas (2018) argued that parents play an important role in the use of ict in the learning process because they are responsible for children's activities in the family environment. the role of parents in the distance learning process is very important because they are teachers at home for their children. lestari et al. (2018) in their research found that parents from the cognitive dimension have used ict for their daily needs quite well. however, from the technological dimension, some of them have not optimized the function of the technological devices as their needs. the results of this study indicated that digital platforms, such as whatsapp, youtube, or others, are also often used by parents for communication or entertainment purposes. however, these platforms have not been optimized by them as a learning resource for their children. during the implementation of learning from home, whatsapp becomes the most popular medium used for teaching and learning purposes (afnibar & fajhriani, 2020). whatsapp offers easy interaction to communicate with specific individuals or to communicate in a group of people. in the period of learning from home, parents must learn to use the type of digital platform applied by teachers to interact with their children and optimize its use as a learning resource. distance learning is not a new thing in the world of education. however, the presence of the covid-19 pandemic makes many people difficult to face sudden distance learning. its presence is like a storm that comes suddenly and destroys many things. the education sector is not ready to accept the arrival of the storm of the covid-19 pandemic. teachers as the spearhead of the learning process at schools do not prepare the distance learning process in full. planning made at the beginning of the semester does not match reality. teachers have planned their non-distance learning process for one semester. then, they suddenly have turned their plan to distance learning. most of them think it is hard to adapt to this distance learning in the middle of various limitations, such as facilities, infrastructure, and skills. the distance learning process which is not well planned certainly hinders the optimization of learning. in the teaching and learning process, planning has a very strategic role. jufri (2016) defined learning planning as an effort to make learning go well by including anticipatory steps to avoid things that will happen unexpectedly to achieve predetermined goals. if distance learning is not included as an anticipatory form of teachers‟ learning planning in the even semester of the 2019/2020 academic year, then it is different from the teaching and learning process in the 2020/2021 academic year. the extension of the psbb period due to the covid-19 emergency is still ongoing; therefore, distance learning must be planned before the new academic year takes place. many studies have been conducted to evaluate the various aspects that support the distance learning process. rigianti (2020) found that elementary school teachers in banjar negara experienced several obstacles during the online learning process, namely as follows. (1) there are problems with devices and internet irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 282 networks. not all students have compatible devices to support online learning. on the other hand, some other students have devices; however, internet access at their residence is not strong enough. (2) teachers are not able to manage the learning process optimally. to achieve the predetermined basic competencies, teachers will set organized learning steps, but the problem on point one often becomes an obstacle. for example, a teacher begins to explain the learning objectives to students, but only three to ten students can access the explanation promptly due to limited internet access. other students only joined when their internet network access is better. therefore, the teacher must repeat the explanation. (3) teachers have difficulty in providing grades to their students because the assessment in face-to-face learning depends on the direct interactions conducted by students, but during online learning, communication patterns, socialization, and student interactions are difficult to observe. (4) teachers also consider that low parental supervision also hinders the online learning process. hutauruk and sidabutar (2020) also encountered obstacles similar to those found by rigianti (2020). students experienced many difficulties in the online learning process during the pandemic period. the difficulties come from various aspects such as internet network accessibility, limited features of online learning applications, and learning services provided by teachers. these findings basically divide the constraints of online learning into two things, namely learning infrastructure constraints and learning service constraints. after going through online learning for one semester, namely in the even semester of the 2019/2020 academic year, each element involved in the educational sector must better prepare for online learning in the odd semester of the 2020/2021 academic year without neglecting the results of the evaluation and existing research findings. the results of previous studies have emphasized the evaluation of online learning or distance learning that has been implemented since the implementation of the psbb due to the covid-19 pandemic. it is different from this study. the researchers intended to investigate the readiness of parents to accompany their children and the readiness of students in facing the teaching and learning process during the new normal period at school. this study was expected to contribute to stakeholders and all parties involved in deciding or making policies related to the teaching and learning process that will take place during the new normal period. literature review the new normal after the presence of the covid-19, a new term emerged, namely „new normal‟. the use of this term has sparked debate both among linguists and others. however, in general, people use the term „new normal‟ to describe changes in human behavior patterns due to covid-19 pandemic. president joko widodo through the cabinet secretary‟s twitter account said that to live side by side with the covid-19, we must have a new life order (or new normal). one example of a new normal is the use of a face mask when leaving the house or when interacting with other people. the use of this face mask was previously only used by sick people so as not to infect other people. however, during the new normal period, the face masks must be used by everyone to protect each other. this change in irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 283 behavior pattern is called the new normal. pamungkas (as cited in habibi, 2020) defined new normal as a new way of life, in this case, it is new methods used to carry out life activities when the covid-19 pandemic has not yet ended (habibi, 2020). habibi (2020) defined the term „new normal‟ as a condition or habit carried out by people or individuals when the covid-19 pandemic was over (habibi, 2020). new normal exists as a solution to solve problems that arise during the covid-19 pandemic. this new method is a form of adaptation due to existing changes. if considering charles darwin's theory of evolution, then this new normal can be classified as a form of how living things survive so that they do not go extinct. new normal is considered as a new way that becomes a habit, not a new way that is incidental. maltz (2015) stated that people need twenty-one days to make an action become a new habit. gardner et al. (2020) had a different opinion. they argued that to change habituation into a habit, it takes about sixty-six days. many new habits due to the covid-19 pandemic have arisen because the pandemic has approximately occurred more than one hundred and fifty days. the number of days has exceeded the standard based on the statements from those two experts. therefore, it can be said that the new normal is a new way that has become a habit in responding to the changing world. in indonesia, the new normal is implemented as a response to the previous psbb in which everyone is asked to do activities from home. to recover the social and economic conditions that collapsed due to the impact of the covid-19 pandemic, the government has begun to permit citizens under 45 years old to do activities outside the home by implementing highly strict health protocols, such as prohibiting handshakes, limiting distances and the number of people at one time, and wearing a face mask. these are new ways for reducing the transmission of the covid-19 disease. these strict health protocols must be obeyed by everyone. the government even carries out raids to make people stick to the protocols. adherence to health protocols is the key to implementing the new normal. from a demographic point of view, some people in indonesia are considered not ready to welcome the new normal. the dissemination of information about the impact of the spread of the covid-19 in various regions has experienced many obstacles. regions that have good information technology systems can spread information well. the presence of social media and features that can be used to monitor information about the development of the covid-19 can help people to be aware of them. however, it is different from areas where the it system is inadequate (sampurno, kusumandyoko, & islam, 2020). in addition, information literacy is also important so that people do not easily believe hoaxes in society. the lack of valid information makes some people neglect this covid-19 pandemic. the government, through the letter no. m/7/as.02.02/v/2020 concerning business continuity during the covid-19 and the implementation of health protocols to prevent the spread of the covid-19 in companies emphasized that health protocols must be strictly applied to avoid risks concerning the fast spread of the covid-19 during the new normal period. disobedience to the rules set by the government concerning these health protocols indicated that people are not ready yet to accept the new normal effectively and efficiently (marpaung, 2020). collaboration between government and society is the key to facing the new normal. the implementation of the new normal is certainly very risky if the community does not comply with health protocols, considering that social interactions carried out by the community are a source of transmission of the covid-19. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 284 the learning models to facilitate the teaching and learning process, there are many terms used, such as learning approaches, strategies, methods, techniques, and models. the terms „approach‟, „strategy‟, „technique‟, and „method‟ have existed since the end of the 19th century, while the term learning model has just emerged in the post-method era (sundari, 2015), where the methods are no longer solely made by researchers. teachers can create a method for themselves concerning what they teach in the classroom. all of these terms are born in line with the development of the teaching and learning process in the world. according to isjoni (2012), the learning model is a strategy used by teachers to increase students‟ motivation, learning attitudes, critical thinking skills, social skills, and learning outcomes. the learning model emphasizes the strategies employed by the teacher to achieve certain goals. in a broader view, huda (2014) defined a learning model as a complete description of the complex learning process accompanied by learning procedures and techniques as important parts. by considering those two statements, the learning model can be concluded as a linked learning tool that includes procedures, techniques, and methods. the learning model is an umbrella for a series of terms in teaching and learning activities. learning models evolve from time to time according to demands and circumstances. there are three learning models that are very popular, namely face-to-face, online, and blended learning models. at first, when technological devices were not yet developed, the learning process was fully carried out face-to-face by teachers in schools. the interaction between teachers and students is carried out directly. in fact, if students do not attend the class, the learning process can be hampered. however, after technological developments penetrated the world of education, a distance learning model was created by utilizing technological sophistication. students and teachers no longer have to be in one place to carry out the teaching and learning process. technology can mediate these problems. it is undeniable that the two models have their respective shortcomings so that it is modified by the emergence of a blended learning model or a mixed learning model. although we have entered the 21st century where technology is increasingly sophisticated, the face-to-face learning model, which is the oldest learning model, is still used currently. furthermore, the results of a study conducted by dyla et al. (2020) indicated that most students prefer to study face-to-face compared to studying online. those students admitted that they experience psychological problems when they study online continuously. the face-to-face learning method builds good psychological conditions for students because they can interact directly with each other. in addition, students‟ concentration during the learning process is higher because the teacher directly supervises learning activities. students are also not distracted by other communication tools that can break concentration. however, it cannot be denied that there are many deficiencies in this face-to-face learning model so that an online learning model is developed. the online learning model comes from anxiety over the limitations of face-to-face learning, such as time and space. this online learning model is a solution if the learning process is to be carried out remotely, for example, students in indonesia can have a guest teacher from japan. this model is also very appropriate to use when there is force majeure, irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 285 such as during the covid-19 pandemic. in these circumstances, the learning process is expected to be continued so as not to hinder the running of the academic calendar. sadikin and hamidah (2020) in their research found that the online learning model improves students‟ learning independence. this is the positive side of applying the online learning model. online learning has been implemented in several schools and universities. the open university (indonesian: universitas terbuka) is one of the universities that are actively implementing the online learning model as a form of distance learning offered. schools have also taken advantage of e-learning applications for distance learning. there are many benefits offered by this online learning, but there are also many drawbacks that they have. an example of the drawbacks in online learning found by hutauruk and sidabutar (2020) in their research is internet network accessibility. the internet network is a part of the online learning facilities and infrastructure. if the online learning facilities and infrastructure are ready as in international schools, then online learning can be run smoothly. however, if basic things such as online learning facilities and infrastructure are not ready, then it can be confirmed that the continuity of the online learning process can be hampered. to improve the quality of the learning process by utilizing the role of technology in learning, a blended learning model is created. educators combine face-to-face learning models with learning models that utilize computers or other similar devices, in this case, online learning models. heinze et al. (2007) defined blended learning as a combination or mixture between online learning and face-to-face learning coherently and harmoniously. from several studies, there are many benefits from the implementation of a blended learning model, including (a) changing teacher-centered learning into student-centered learning, (b) achieving learning objectives, (c) motivating students to be disciplined in learning, and to balance students' independence (dziuban, hartman, & moskal, 2004). as a combination learning model, the proportion between face-to-face and online learning must be ideal by considering the characteristics of students and teachers. sudarman provided the ideal percentage that could be applied in the learning process, namely (1) 50% face-to-face learning, (2) 25% offline learning with independent learning through interactive media, and (3) 25% web-based learning (sudarman, 2014). however, this percentage proportion is not absolute. the teacher has the right to determine the right proportion by paying attention to the situation and condition of each student. different classes have different student characters so that the percentage of mixed (blended) learning can also be different. methodology this study applied a quantitative descriptive design. the quantitative data obtained in this study were described in a detailed explanation based on the variables in this study. this study was a survey conducted students of senior high school in banggae, majene, west sulawesi. the instrument used in this study was a questionnaire. the questionnaire consisted of seven aspects of assessment with eight question items. furthermore, the examined aspects were (1) parental information literacy related to the covid-19, (2) the vulnerability of children towards the covid-19 transmission, (3) children‟s new normal habits, (4) the factors concerning face-to-face learning permits from parents, (5) a means of transportation to and irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 286 from school, (6) the forms of a packed meal for children to avoid the covid-19 transmission, and (7) willingness to support schools. the researchers visited the respondents‟ house one by one to distribute the questionnaire assisted by enumerators. the distribution of questionnaires was carried out for approximately one month from february to march 2020. the population in this study was the parents of students at the elementary school, junior high school, and senior high school levels. the nature of this population was unlimited. to get representative samples, the researchers used a sampling technique that is suitable to be used in this covid-19 situation. samples in this study were selected using the non-probability sampling technique; in this case, it was accidental sampling. in other words, all people, who were met accidentally and suitable as data sources, were selected as samples in this study. the number of samples in the study was greater than the minimum requirement for respondents, where the minimum n is 30. meanwhile, the total number of respondents in this study was 33 parents of students. primary data from this study were obtained from questionnaires that had been answered by respondents. the data processing techniques in this study consisted of three stages, namely editing, coding, and tabulating. at the stage of editing, the researchers checked the data obtained from the questionnaire. furthermore, at the stage of coding, the researchers classified the data based on the respondents‟ answers by giving the code and score according to the existing criteria. at the last stage (tabulating), the researchers processed the data into table form and calculated the frequency of each response using microsoft excel. data in this study were analyzed with descriptive analysis using a percentage formula. findings based on the tabulation and analysis of data obtained from the questionnaires, in this section, the researchers will describe in detail the percentage results of the respondents' answers to each question item. table 1. what do you think about the following information about the covid-19? statements correct (%) wrong (%) do not know (%) a. splashes of saliva or fluids from the nose or mouth can transmit the covid-19. 79 6 15 b. fever, dry cough, feeling tired, and shortness of breath are indications of contracting the covid-19. 94 0 6 c. people without covid-19 symptoms can transmit the virus to others. 85 3 12 d. maintaining hand hygiene and wearing a face mask are important to prevent covid-19 transmission. 97 0 3 e. people with comorbidities (such as high blood pressure, heart disease, lung disease, diabetes, or cancer) have the potential for more serious illness. 94 0 6 f. children do not have the potential for covid-19 transmission. 48 27 24 of the six points above, 75% of respondents or more answered correctly on each point. this indicates that most respondents have good literacy for information about the covid-19. however, there are still several respondents who also do not have good literacy about irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 287 information concerning the covid-19. some of them answered incorrectly and some even admitted they did not know about the covid-19 information points asked. this indicates that socialization about the covid-19 to parents of students still needs to be encouraged. table 2. does your child have the following vulnerabilities to the covid-19 transmission? aspects yes (%) no (%) a. having confirmed positive for the covid-19 0 100 b. having a history of contact with a person confirmed positive for the covid-19 27 73 c. having uncontrolled comorbidities 0 100 based on those three points in question number 2 above, it shows that so far there have been no children from the respondents who have tested and confirmed positive for the covid-19. most of them also do not have a history of contact with those confirmed positive for the covid-19. furthermore, none of the respondents' children have comorbidities. this shows that the children in banggae, majene were not susceptible to the covid-19 transmission. table 3. does your child get used to doing the following things? habits yes (%) no (%) a. washing hands with soap for 20 seconds with running water 45 55 b. using a face mask when leaving the house 45 55 c. applying the ethics of coughing or sneezing (e.g., covering the mouth with the upper arm/elbow). 45 55 d. avoiding the crowd 3 97 e. maintaining physical distance when interacting with other people 6 94 based on those five points in question number 3 above regarding the habits of children during the new normal period, it shows that 50% children of the respondents have not implemented health protocols during the new normal period. most of them are not used to washing their hands with soap for 20 seconds with running water, are not used to using a face mask when leaving the house, are not used to applying coughing or sneezing ethics, are not used to avoiding crowds, and are not used to maintaining physical distance when interacting with other people. these habits have the potential to trigger the transmission of the covid-19, especially if the face-to-face learning process in schools is implemented. table 4. what factors did you consider allowing your child to study face-to-face at school? options percentage a. cleanliness and health facilities in schools are adequate (e.g., hand washing facilities, hand sanitizers, and disinfectants). 4 b. schools can implement health protocols (e.g., limiting the number of students in the class, setting spacing, and limiting crowds). 23 c. transportation access from home to school is safe. 0 d. the school has cooperation with the closest health facility (e.g., health centers, clinics, or hospitals). 0 e. it is to make students catch up on learning material. 31 f. parents do not have the time and ability to accompany children to study at home. 42 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 288 of the six factors in question number 4 above, 42% of parents allow their children to return to face-to-face learning at school because they think that they do not have the time and ability to accompany their children to study at home. 31% of parents permit face-to-face schooling to their children so that their children can catch up with learning materials. 23% of parents permit because they believed that the school can implement health protocols. furthermore, 4% of parents believe that school health and hygiene facilities have been adequate. no parents make excuses because transportation access from home to school is safe and because the school already has cooperation with the closest health facility. table 5. if the face-to-face learning process is implemented at school, what means of transportation will your child use to go to school and go home? options percentage a. using a private vehicle 20 b. using school transportation facilities 0 c. walk or using bicycles 58 d. using public transportation (minibus, bus, motorcycle taxi, etc.) 22 of the four options regarding the means of transportation used by children to go to school and go home, 58% of parents answered that their child walks or uses a bicycle. 22% of parents answered that their child uses public transportation. furthermore, 20% of parents answered that they drive and pick up their child using a private vehicle. none of the parents stated that their child goes to school and goes home using school transportation facilities. table 6. if face-to-face learning in schools is applied, what do you prepare for your child? options percentage a. health and hygiene equipment (face masks and hand sanitizers) 64 b. packed meal from home 30 c. knowledge to prevent the covid-19 transmission 3 d. no special preparations 3 of those four options in question number 6 above regarding the assumption that face-to-face learning takes place at school, 64% of parents will provide health and hygiene equipment in the form of face masks or hand sanitizers to their children. 30% of parents will provide their children with a packed meal from home. 3% of parents will provide their children with the knowledge to prevent covid-19 transmission. furthermore, 3% of parents stated that they do not have special preparation. table 7. are you willing to support schools to prevent the spread of the covid-19? options percentage a. yes 100 b. no 0 the responses from parents to question number 7 above show that 100% of them are ready to provide support to schools to prevent covid-19 transmission. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 289 table 8. if yes, what support can you provide the school? options percentage a. providing sanitary facilities (clean water, toilets, or hand washing stations) 12 b. providing medical equipment (face masks, hand sanitizers, or disinfectants) 36 c. regular cleaning on shared facilities and classrooms 0 d. providing healthy food and supplements (vitamins) for students 0 e. disseminating the prevention of the covid-19 52 from those five points in question number 8 above related to the forms of support that parents will provide to schools to prevent the covid-19 transmission, 52% of parents are ready to provide support in the form of socialization of covid-19 prevention. 36% of parents are ready to provide health equipment, such as face masks or hand sanitizers. furthermore, 13% of parents are ready to provide hygiene facilities, such as clean water. discussion based on the results of respondents' answers to several question items, it shows that most parents consider that they and their children are ready for face-to-face learning for the 2020/2021 academic year in the new normal period, in order that the students and parents knows how to prepare learning in this pandemic era. the findings in this study indicated that the respondents (i.e., the parents of students) have good literacy regarding information about the covid-19. they know how the covid-19 is transmitted. this adequate knowledge is in line with a study conducted by juditha (2020). she found that the public had sufficient knowledge to sort out hoax information regarding the covid-19. knowledge of information regarding the covid-19 is very important for parents because they are companions for their children. through this knowledge, they can educate their children concerning the face-to-face learning process in school during the new normal. the results of this study also indicated that students do not have a high risk of contracting the covid-19 because they do not have a very risky congenital disease and a history of contact with sufferers who are confirmed positive for the covid-19. however, the readiness of the children in implementing the health protocol during the new normal period is not very good. nearly 59% of the respondents' children ignored the applicable health protocols. this has the potential to trigger the transmission of the covid-19, especially if the face-to-face learning process at schools takes place. a study conducted by wiranti et al. (2020) indicated that someone with higher education has a good level of adherence. therefore, it is not surprising that children have a fairly low level of adherence to health protocols. the factors that become the reason why parents are ready to allow their children to return to face-to-face learning at school are dominated by the inability of parents to accompany their children to study at home. they do not have enough time to become teachers for their children at home and also do not know their children's learning materials. these constraints are in line with an analysis conducted by wardani & ayriza (2020) that parents are busy working so that they are not able to optimally accompany their children learning from home. some of the parents also admit that their children have missed learning materials during learning from home. therefore, they supported their children in taking the face-to-face learning process at school to catch up with their learning materials. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 290 the means of transportation generally used by the children of the respondents are also less at risk of massive transmission. most of the children go to school and go home by bicycle or on foot. only a small proportion of them use the minibus as a means of transportation to go to school or go home. to prevent the transmission of the covid-19 to their children when the face-to-face learning process takes place at school, most parents choose to prepare medical supplies for their children in the form of face masks or hand sanitizers. this provision is a form of parental vigilance and shows their readiness to protect their children from contracting with the covid-19. all respondents in this study expressed their willingness to provide full support to schools to prevent covid-19 transmission in schools when the face-to-face learning process takes place. furthermore, the form of support provided by parents varies. however, most of them provide support in the form of participation in socializing covid-19 prevention to their children and the community in the school environment. only a small proportion of them are willing or able to assist in the form of items, such as clean water facilities, and health facilities, such as face masks or hand sanitizers. this is quite reasonable because most of the parents of students have poor financial conditions due to the covid-19 pandemic. conclusions after months of going through online learning due to the covid-19 pandemic and after reviewing research related to the effectiveness of online learning, this study investigates the readiness of parents and children towards the face-to-face learning process for the 2020/2021 academic year in the new normal period. based on the results of data analysis on respondents' answers to the questionnaire that were distributed accidentally, it can be concluded that parents in banggae, majene, west sulawesi are ready to allow their children to take face-to-face learning at school during the new normal period. all respondents even admitted that they are ready to provide support to the school for the face-to-face learning process. the form of readiness is not only in the form of a desire to help socialize the prevention of the covid-19 but also in the form of equipping their children with knowledge about the spread of the covid-19 and preparing health facilities for their children in the form of face masks and hand sanitizers. meanwhile, the factor that strongly encourages parents to allow their children to study face-to-face at school is their inability to accompany their children to learn from home. they do not have enough time and do not master their children's learning materials. therefore, when reviewing their children's habits in terms of adherence to health protocols, they still often ignore those health protocols. children still tend not to wear face masks, keep their distance, etc. this indicates that children are not ready to physically interact with the health protocol rules in the new normal. therefore, based on the results of this study, the face-to-face learning process for the 2020/2021 academic year in the new normal period can be carried out in collaboration with parents, children, and schools to commit to complying with the applicable health protocol rules to minimize the covid-19 transition. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 291 disclosure statement the authors declare no conflict of interest in the design of the study; in the collection, analysis, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results. references afnibar & fajhriani, d. n. 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(2020). kesiapan orangtua menjadi‘ guru’ di rumah. departemen psikologi pendidikan dan perkembangan fakultas psikologi universitas airlangga. https://psikologi.unair.ac.id/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/13-kesiapan-orangtua-m enjadi-„guru‟-di-rumah.pdf biographical notes anwar sewang is an associate professor in education technology, stain majene, west sulawesi, sewanganwar@yahoo.com. muhammad aswad is an ph.d student in apllied linguistic, universitas sulawesi barat, west sulawesi, aswad@unsulbar.ac.id mailto:sewanganwar@yahoo.com this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 358 filipino students’ preferred motivational strategies in science: a cross-sectional survey danilo v. rogayan jr. 1 and jocelyn r. bautista 2 abstract a multitude of strategies are being utilized by the teachers to engage students in the classroom activities and foster critical thinking which can ignite their interest in the lesson. however, very few researches have been conducted on students’ preferences in these different motivational strategies. this cross-sectional survey research explores the preferred motivational strategies in science instruction among 106 high school students in a public secondary school in zambales, philippines. the motivational strategies were classified based on howard gardner’s theory on multiple intelligences. the study found out that the students moderately preferred visual-auditory (m=2.88), logical-mathematical (m=2.70) and kinesthetic (m=2.60) motivational strategies. science trivia, picture presentation, and mini labwork are the most common motivational strategies used by science teachers. the study recommends that teachers may utilize engaging, relevant, and learner-centered motivational strategies to make science instruction more alive and more effective. the use of varied strategies to arouse students’ interest may also be observed to cater the students’ multiple intelligences. keywords cross-sectional survey, motivational strategy, pedagogical enhancement plan, philippines, science teaching 1. faculty of the college of education, arts, and sciences (ceas) of the president ramon magsaysay state university, a lone state university in zambales, philippines; danrogayan@gmail.com 2. faculty of the schools division of zambales, department of education, philippines; jocelynbautista825@gmail.com mailto:danrogayan@gmail.com mailto:danrogayan@gmail.com irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 359 introduction a functioning method for learning through persuasive methodologies incorporates a wide cluster of exercises. the students are profoundly energetic and increasingly engaged with the learning procedure if they enjoy what they do. a large number of techniques are being used by the instructors to stir students’ interest and motivation in the classroom activities. these techniques can be visual-auditory in nature, logical-mathematical or kinesthetic. moreover, the use of technology is being utilized by science teachers to arouse generation z students’ interest in the pedagogical cycle. through motivational strategies utilized by the teachers, the students see better ideas and see learning as a pleasant endeavor (hampden-thompson & bennett, 2013; mcneal, petcovic, & reeves, 2017;). previous literature has focused on identifying teachers’ motivation to teach in science (mcneal, petcovic, & reeves, 2017), motivating factors of different instructional strategies in science (abrahams, 2009; abrahams, & millar, 2008), and student motivation in science (barmby, kind, & jones, 2008; dewitt & osborne, 2008; maltese & tai, 2010; osborne, simon, & collins, 2003; porter & parvin, 2008; shirazi, 2017). however, very few studies have been conducted to explore the preferences of students on the different motivational strategies employed in science instruction. in the philippines, the k12 science curriculum stresses that science and innovation should be put in ordinary human issues. it coordinates science and innovation in the social, financial, individual and moral parts of life. the science educational programs advance a solid connection among science and innovation, including indigenous innovation, subsequently protecting the nation's social legacy. science content and science processes are entwined in the k to 12 curriculum. without the substance, students are experiencing issues using science process abilities since these procedures are best learned in setting. organizing the curriculum around situations and problems that challenge and arouse learners’ curiosity motivates them to learn and appreciate science as relevant and useful. as opposed to depending entirely on course readings, fluctuated hands-on, minds-on, and hearts-on exercises were utilized to build up students' advantage and let them become dynamic students (k to 12 science curriculum guide, 2016). rogayan (2019) reiterated that the science education in the philippines confront a myriad of changes in terms of curricular approach brought about by globalization, new industrial era or the industry 4.0, association of southeast asian nations (asean) integration, and k to 12 full implementation. with these multitudes of challenges, science educators are expected to make science learning more relevant and more engaging. documenting the different motivational strategies in science teaching will facilitate better designing of learning plans for implementation. understanding the students’ preferences on this pedagogical aspect may further enhance the delivery of content in science. thus, selection of innovative and appropriate strategies for arousing the students’ interest is deemed indispensable. dornyei (2001) expressed that motivation concerns about the bearing and extent of human conduct, that is first the decision of a specific activity, second the determination with it, and the third the effort exhausted on it. motivation is a standout amongst the most significant instrument to help an individual towards personal growth. it is something students need once a day. irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 360 without motivation, students will not be able to fully grasp the content they are learning. exceptionally motivated students are completely occupied with the classroom assignments, participative in class dialogue and dynamic in the learning exercises. consequently, educators must engineer fitting motivational techniques that would suit both the learning style and interest of the students. further, motivational strategies help the learning process of the students to maintain balance while studying at the same time with fun in some sorts of activities. this method is used to make the students more attentive and not to get bored. also, it helps to motivate students to perform their utmost interest in science and other subjects and to deepen their thinking. due to the gaps presented, the present study explores the different motivational strategies preferred by the science students as well as their observations on the common motivational strategies employed by their teachers. the study will serve as baseline information for science teachers for them to design engaging and fun learning activities through employing effective motivational strategies. the research questions of this study are the following: (1) what are the preferred motivational strategies (visual-auditory, logical-mathematical, and kinesthetic) of students? (2) what are the common motivational strategies of the science teacher as observed by the respondents?; and (3) what are the pedagogical implications of the study? literature review conceptual framework this study is based on the maslow’s theory of motivation (maslow, 1943) which posits humans are motivated by a hierarchy of needs in which a person must meet one need to move to the next need. maslow’s (1943) theory argues humans are motivated in achieving certain needs, thus as one of these is fulfilled the person was seek to fulfil the next need. likewise, the study is anchored on multiple intelligences theory introduced by gardner (1991 as cited in gardner & hatch, 1989). gardner (1991) pointed out; the multiple intelligences theory is a psychological theory of the mind. it is a critique of the notion that there is a single intelligence which we are born with, which cannot be changed, and which psychologists can measure. it is based on a lot of scientific research in fields ranging from psychology to anthropology to biology (gardner & hatch, 1989). this means that this theory is based on findings of the study of the mind. it gives importance to the abilities-intelligences in each individual. the theory of multiple intelligences has an important role in the field of teaching and learning. this is because there is a relationship between each part of multiple intelligences and the learning process. this relationship can help teachers to illustrate their opinions in curriculum, instruction, and assessment. the following intelligences were identified by gardner (1991): verbal-linguistic, logical-mathematical, visual-spatial, bodily-kinaesthetic, musical, interpersonal and intrapersonal. in the context of the study, the motivational strategies were divided into three multiple intelligence groups such kinaesthetic, visual-auditory and logical-mathematical (figure 1) irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 361 figure 1. the research paradigm figure 1 shows the preferred motivational strategies in science in terms of three aspects, the visual-auditory, logical-mathematical, and kinesthetic, which serve as a basis for the pedagogical enhancement plan towards a high-quality science education. motivational strategy motivational strategy is an approach by which a teacher employs at the start or even during the instruction. it is an essential part of any lesson specifically in science. as indicated by ryan and deci (2000), to be motivated intends to be moved to accomplish something. an individual who feels no driving force or motivation to act is along these lines portrayed as unmotivated, while somebody who is stimulated or actuated toward an end is viewed as propelled. in the classroom setup, student motivation alludes to how much a student places efforts into and centre on learning so as to accomplish effective results. motivation and engagement are very important for sound student learning. in an investigation of sabroso and mina (2013), they referenced that interests and motivation are the ideal student qualities which are the significant determinants of learning. this examination concentrated on the favoured learning motivation system of grade six pupils as a reason for educational modules upgrade. a distinct technique was utilized to decide the reasons for poor execution of students in the national achievement test (nat) for the 6th graders led by the department of education-national educational testing and research centre or netrc and the learning motivation of the pupils. the investigation uncovered that a portion of the reasons for the poor achievement of pupils were because of absence of inspiration on account of the flimsy harmony and request circumstance, destitution, lacking instructor student proportion and the restricted learning assets in some government funded schools. an investigation in the local community that plans to discover an answer on the most proficient method to raise the consideration of the pupils as a learning motivation methodology through dynamic support, variability, humour, incongruity and conflict, a particular model and inquiry is much prescribed. the findings of this study could give teachers better ideas to come up with a more appropriate, more learner-centred and more relevant motivational strategies that could arouse students’ interest in science. irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 362 pedagogical enhancement the success of any curriculum lies in its implementation or in the actual pedagogical process. the pedagogical enhancement is always at the core goal of each teacher. pedagogy was for quite a while generally connected with the process of educating students. learning should be transmitted to the students, and academic inquiries hovered around reasonable ways for educators to train the students. during the 1970s, academic research interest emerged concerning how students learn (entwistle, 2009). lueddeke (2003) demonstrated that educators who instruct in the hard disciplines, for example, the physical sciences, building and medication, were bound to apply an instructor-focused way of teaching, while educators from delicate disciplines (for example, sociologies and humanities) adopted a more learner-focused strategy to instruction. hence, teachers must be able to employ learner-centred approach to teaching and one way to do that is to apply innovative, engaging and fun motivational activities in science instruction. methodology research design this study used a cross-sectional survey design to describe the preferences of the students on different motivational strategies employed in science instruction. a cross-sectional study describes a group of subjects at one particular point in time (campbell, machin, & walters, 2007). the cross-sectional survey design was used to easily determine the students’ most and least preferred motivational strategies on science learning. this design is usually comparatively quick and easy to conduct. the results of the survey were triangulated through random informal interview to select respondents on why they prefer a certain motivational strategies. respondents and locale of the study the study involved a total of 106 students from a government-run secondary school in the schools division of zambales, department of education philippines. the study employed the multi-stage sampling technique wherein the researcher selected 5 sections in grade 7 classes and chose 10 students per section using random sampling. the respondents of the study must meet the following selection criteria: (1) current enrolled in the school for ay 2016-2017; (2) bona fide grade 7 student; (3) enrolled in a science course; and (4) willing to take part in the study. the respondents are composed of 50 males and 56 females, aged 11-14, residing in southern zambales, philippines. an informed consent was secured among the respondents before the actual data gathering. research instrument the researchers utilized a researcher-developed survey questionnaire as a primary tool for gathering data. the tool has three parts. the first part contains the simple irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 363 demographic profile of the respondents in terms age, sex, and residence. the second part contains the different motivational strategies employed in science classes. this part is composed of 20 items which were determined during the pre-survey conducted in one public secondary school. the motivational strategies were divided by the researchers into three categories based from gardner’s (1991) principles which include visual-auditory (6 items), logical-mathematical (7items) and kinesthetic motivational strategies (7 items). the third part of the tool asks the respondents to enumerate the most common motivational strategies employed by teachers in their science classes. the researchers formulated the questionnaire and requested the assistance of experts for its content and construct validation, and tried it to the group of non-respondents for the purpose of testing the reliability of the items. modifications and further improvement of the items were done with the assistance of the experts before the reproduction of the final copies of the questionnaire. the cronbach alpha value of the tool was 0.890 which indicates high reliability. data gathering procedure and analysis pre-survey. the researchers gave a formal letter to the school principal requesting permission to conduct the study. prior to the administration of the survey questionnaire to the students, an informed consent was secured for ethical purposes. survey proper. the survey questionnaire was personally administered by the researchers to the student-respondents. the researchers explained the different motivational strategies before they indicate their degree of preference. post-survey. the retrieval of the questionnaires was done immediately after 20 minutes. the statistical tools used in the study include frequency counts, percent, weighted mean, and standard deviation. the rating scale interpretation is as follows: table 1. the rating scale interpretation scale interval qualitative interpretation (qi) 4 3.50 – 4.00 highly preferred 3 2.50 – 3.49 moderately preferred 2 1.50 – 2.49 slightly preferred 1 1.00 – 1.49 not preferred all the data were run through ms excel tool pack kit 2013 and statistical package for social sciences (spss) v. 22. findings and discussion the study determined the preferred motivational strategies of grade 7 science students in terms of visual-auditory, logical-mathematical, and kinaesthetic. these motivational strategies are employed by science teachers prior to or during the actual teaching-learning process (table 2). irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 364 table 2. motivational strategies employed by science teachers classification motivational strategy description of the strategy visual-auditory 4 pics 1 word students will identify the science word represented by the four pictures displayed using the set of letters given below the pictures. video clips/short film allows students to watch a short motion picture or short film about any science topic then share their reflections and personal insights afterwards. science jingle /science song students are given the opportunity to listen to or compose a short science jingle or science song and perform it in front of the class. narration it allows the teacher or the students to tell a short science story, science article or science information to the class. picture presentation students show, describe, or explain their understanding of the given photo to the class. puzzle allows students to put pieces together in a logical way, in order to arrive at the correct solution of the puzzle which tests their ingenuity or knowledge in scientific facts, concepts or information. logical-mathem atical brainstorming allows students to engage in a production of a scientific idea or way of solving a problem by holding a spontaneous group discussion. crossword puzzle students are tasked to solve a puzzle by forming a word or phrases being described in the question. quiz bee type it provides an engaging platform for students to a form of game in which a group of students (usually two to five) attempt to answer science questions correctly. riddles/brain teasers/logic a form of puzzle which allows students to think critically and logically to come up with the answer. science trivia students are given a piece of information or facts about science which are of interest to them. text twist students are tasked to construct words from the jumbled letters which are usually twist and turn. thought-provokin g question refers to a challenging question which allows students to think deeper, especially about things they have not thought about before. kinesthetic bingo students engage in a card game which they need to complete based from a certain form or pattern. charades/pinoy henyo allows students to engage in a word-guessing game by acting out each syllable of a word or phrase in order, followed by the whole phrase together, while the partner or rest of the group guess the word. manipulation refers to the skillful handling, controlling or using of laboratory equipment, tool or material in class. matching object allows students to match the given objects, items or examples, correctly. mini labwork students engage in a form of a mini-experiment performed in the laboratory. relay (pass the message) refers to an act of passing something, like object or message, along from one person, group, or station to another. role playing/skit students are given the opportunity to apply science principle as they are put in a short acting or role performance. irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 365 table 2 shows the different motivational strategies used in science instruction in the philippine setting. these strategies were identified by the researchers in a pre-survey conducted in in select schools in the schools division. the classifications of the strategies were made by the researchers based on gardner’s multiple intelligence principle. these motivational strategies are limited only to the pre-survey conducted. other motivational strategies may be further document in the next studies. tuan, chin, and shieh (2005) averred that research in science teaching and learning should address not only student cognition, but also the affective component to cognition such as motivation. teachers in science must have the proficiency to select appropriate strategies to motivate students to engage in the daily science lessons. students’ preferred motivational strategies in science the students were asked to rate their degree of preference in the three-category motivational strategies employed in their science classes through a four-point survey tool. visual-auditory motivational strategies, as shown in table 3, the visual-auditory motivational strategies are “moderately preferred” by the students with the overall mean of 2.88 and standard deviation of 0.05. under this category, puzzle (m=3.32) ranked first among the different motivational strategies followed by 4 pic 1 word (m=3.24) and video clips/ short film (m=3.04). this suggest that students are fond of completing visual puzzles, working on picture-word activity and watching motion picture such as short videos. these strategies stir their interest to engage in their science classes. meanwhile, students slightly preferred science jingle/science song (m=2.29) and narration (m=2.40) as motivational strategies. table 3. students’ preferred motivational strategies motivational strategies mean sd qi visual-auditory 4 pics 1 word 3.24 1.01 mp video clips/short film 3.04 1.03 mp science jingle /science song 2.29 1.09 sp table 3. continued… narration 2.40 1.02 sp picture presentation 2.97 1.05 mp puzzle 3.32 0.91 mp mean 2.88 0.05 mp logical-mathematical brainstorming 2.56 1.09 mp crossword puzzle 3.06 0.97 mp quiz bee type 2.75 1.01 mp riddles/brain teasers/logic 2.94 1.01 mp science trivia 2.53 1.07 mp text twist 2.77 1.03 mp thought-provoking question 2.32 0.98 sp mean 2.70 0.04 mp irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 366 table 3. continued… kinesthetic bingo 1.86 1.02 sp charades/pinoy henyo 2.92 1.04 mp manipulation 2.00 0.99 sp matching object 3.01 1.06 mp mini lab work 2.58 1.04 mp relay (pass the message) 3.13 1.00 mp role playing/skit 2.71 1.05 mp mean 2.60 0.02 mp overall 2.72 0.04 mp legend: highly preferred (hp) 3.50-4.00; moderately preferred (mp) 2.50-3.49; slightly preferred (sp) 1.50-2.49; and not preferred (np) 1.00-1.49. teaching and learning process should be accentuated by students’ engagement specifically in science learning. the student has the probability of taking all procedures to be a scientist (gamanik, sanjaya, & rusyati, 2019). with appropriate motivational strategies, students will be able to master the content and eventually apply it to their daily lives. logical-mathematical motivational strategies. the table 3 shows that the respondents “moderately preferred” logical-mathematical motivational strategies with the overall mean of 2.70 (sd=0.04). the crossword puzzle (3.06), riddles, brain teasers and logic (m=2.94), and text twist (m=2.77) are the most preferred motivational strategies by the students under the logical-mathematical category. however, students least preferred the thought-provoking question (m=2.32). this connotes that the students love to work on crossword puzzle and text twist which involves science terms and concepts. they also enjoy solving riddles, brain teasers, and logic activities which are very relevant and congruent to science lessons. the logical-mathematical strategies are seen by the students to be good for their brain, thus they perceive them as exercise for their brain and help enhance their intelligence quotient (iq). the least preferred strategy under this category was the thought-provoking question which implies that students need to understand better that critical questions and high-order thinking questions are essential in the deeper understanding of science concepts and principles. science teachers are encouraged to promote critical thinking in science classes through the use of divergent questions. this corroborates gardner’s (1991) findings that that numerical knowledge comprises of the capacity to recognize designs, reason deductively and think sensibly. this intelligence is frequently connected with logical and scientific reasoning. further, viable utilization of consistent scientific knowledge would empower kids to conceptualize augmentation's relationship to different tasks, to be specific, as repeated addition and as the reverse of division. this knowledge additionally underlies the advancement and verbalization of reasoning methodologies (kaput, 1989). kinesthetic visual motivational strategies. the table shows that the kinesthetic visual motivational strategies are “moderately preferred” by the students with the overall irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 367 mean of 2.60 (sd=0.02). most preferred strategies are relay (m=3.13), matching object (m=3.01), and charades/ pinoy henyo (m=2.92). this suggests that students love to use their body to learn science concepts. they easily retain the lessons if they use their body in the process. one respondent shared, “these strategies are easy to play and very helpful for my learning.” some said that they learn new things from the different motivational strategies employed by their teacher. meanwhile, bingo was the least preferred by the students. they slightly preferred bingo because it is time-consuming and they perceive it as not age-appropriate. the vast majority of the educational games that are out there today are really flash-cards. they are celebrated drill-and-practice. they don't have the profundity and rich account that really captivating computer games have (carr-chellman, 2010). the findings of the study support the study of sarmiento (2010) that hands-on in kinesthetic learning experiences was appeal to the visual-auditory senses as a natural subject in teaching science. youngsters with solid substantial sensation utilize their bodies in exceptionally separated approaches to create and express ideas. kinesthetic or tactile learners like movement and work with touchable objects. they appreciate customary breaks and move around the room (oxford & celce-murcia, 2001). in the same vein, drama-typed activities such a role play can support the learning of cognitive, affective and technical objective especially higher-order thinking skills related to analysis, synthesis and evaluation (anderson, 2001). the findings of the support is also parallel with the claim of the national research council (1996) that the use of the physical, pictorial and symbolic examples can be integrated into a multi-sensory approach to teaching students, in addition, hands-on scientific experiments reinforce appropriate scientific concepts which attracts students’ attention and interest. common motivational strategies used by science teacher as observed by the respondents the common motivational strategies used by science teacher as observed by the respondents are presented in the table 4. science trivia (26.77%), picture presentation (11.02%), mini labwork (8.66%), video clips (8.66%), and quiz bee type (8.66%) are the most common motivational strategies used by science teachers. this suggest that the teachers are employing multisensory motivational strategies from cognitive like science trivia and science quiz bee, to psychomotor such as mini lab work, and affective type like the video clips where students can process the lessons they learned from the material. osborne and collins (2000) found that without exception, learners expressed a greater interest in work that included opportunities for experimentation and investigation like the mini labwork. the same findings were obtained by cerini, murray, and reiss (2003) which stated that when it came to doing a science experiment, 71% reported that they found this teaching and learning method enjoyable. irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 368 table 4. common motivational strategies used by science teachers motivational strategies frequency percent rank 4 pics 1 word 3 2.36 12 bingo 0 0.00 17 brainstorming 5 3.94 9 crossword puzzle 7 5.51 7 jingle song/science song 2 1.57 13 manipulation 1 0.79 16 matching object 1 0.79 16 mini lab work 11 8.66 3 narration 4 3.15 10 picture presentation 14 11.02 2 puzzle 9 7.09 6 quiz bee type 11 8.66 3 riddles/brain teasers/logic 4 3.15 10 role playing/skit 2 1.57 13 science trivia 34 26.77 1 text twist 6 4.72 8 thought-provoking question 2 1.57 13 video clips/short films 11 8.66 3 the least employed motivational strategies by the teachers as observed by the students are bingo, manipulation and matching object. this suggests that these strategies are not commonly used because they may not be appropriate to the lessons or they are time-consuming. the most preferred motivational strategy by the students is not similar to the common motivational strategy used by science teachers. however, the least motivational strategy of the students is similar to the least employed motivational strategy by the teachers. in the same vein, the european commission (2007) emphasized that concentrating on high-quality teaching is a key pre-requisite for high-quality education and training. this also accentuates the school’s obligation to provide young citizens with the skills they have to adjust to globalized, complex conditions, where imagination, advancement, activity, business enterprise and responsibility to continuous learning are as important as knowledge. since not all the learning of educators advances professional development in practice and school improvement, existing literature gives a few signs about key proficient learning exercises that empower instructors to handle quick changes: keeping updated; experimentation; reflective practice; information sharing and development (geijsel, sleegers, stoel, & kruger, 2009). the present study determined the students’ preferences in terms of motivational strategies employed in science courses in the high school level. identification of the most preferred strategies by the students may inform science teachers in their selection and utilization of such strategies. since the study is exploratory in nature, the study may serve as a baseline study in exploring further the preferences of students in the different motivational strategies employed by teachers prior to instruction. motivation to learn science is often irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 369 defined as an internal state that arouses, directs, and sustains science-learning behavior (glynn, brickman, armstrong, & taasoobshirazi, 2011). motivation plays a gargantuan role in science learning, promoting academic achievement, and provoking more help-seeking behaviors and commitment (schunk, pintrich, & meece, 2008). further, this study also contributes to the local literature in the philippines in terms of the preferred strategies by the students in fostering motivation in science classes. future research may also explore other motivational strategies that can enhance learning in science not only in the philippine context but in other countries as well. conclusions and recommendations the study ascertained the preferred motivational strategies of students in their science subject. based from the results, the study concludes that the students moderately preferred visual-auditory motivational strategies, logical-mathematical motivational strategies, and kinesthetic motivational strategies. the most preferred motivational strategies are 4 pics 1 word, puzzle and relay while the least preferred motivational strategies are bingo and manipulation activities. the students chose their most preferred motivational strategies because they are fun and enjoyable however they do not prefer some motivational strategies because they are unfamiliar. science trivia, picture presentation, and mini labwork are the most common motivational strategies used by science teachers. the study has important implications in science education specifically on pedagogy and assessment. the study may inform the science teachers on what appropriate and most preferred motivational strategies in science they can employ in the pedagogical process. the students’ preferences may be used as a guide in the selection of the strategies without compromising its relevance, appropriateness and congruence to the specific lessons. students’ feedback is also an important indicator to ensure learner-centered science education. in view of the results and conclusions, the researchers recommend that the teachers may differentiate their motivational strategies to cater the multiple intelligence of the students. the most preferred motivational strategies found in this study may be considered by teachers to be used in select and appropriate topics in science. the least preferred motivational strategies may be modified or customized to make it more appealing and fun for the students. also, teachers may explore other motivational strategies and must be reminded on the basic tenet of these strategies which is to engage learners in the teaching-learning process. teachers should be careful in choosing motivational strategies so that the students will really be motivated to participate in class. they may also use the classic motivational strategies like pictures, science trivia, and mini labwork. the proposed pedagogical enhancement plan may be used. further research may be conducted to validate the results of the study. since the present is limited only to grade 7 students, other grade levels may be involved in the next study. likewise, larger population may be involved to get more valid results. the foregoing study may serve as baseline information in the crafting of the pedagogical enhancement plan for science grade 7. irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 370 disclosure statement this work did not receive any support from any funding agency, and the authors have no financial interest or intent to benefit from this study or its direct application. acknowledgments the authors would like to extend their profound gratitude to the school head of the respondent-school for allowing the conduct of the study, the grade 7 science students for the willingness to participate in the study, and to the schools division of zambales and the college of education, arts & sciences of the president ramon magsaysay state university – san marcelino campus for the support. the authors are also indebted to the journal editor and peer reviewers for the suggestions in the enhancement of this research article. references abrahams, i. 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(2010). teaching strategies to enhance science learning among diverse and multicultural learners. jpair multidisciplinary research journal, 4(1). schunk, d. h., pintrich, p. r., & meece, j. l. (2008). motivation in education. theory, research, and applications. upper saddle river, nj: pearson/merrill prentice hall. shirazi, s. (2017). student experience of school science. international journal of science education, 39(14), 1891–1912. doi:10.1080/09500693.2017.1356943 tuan, h. l., chin, c. c., & shieh, s. h. (2005). the development of a questionnaire to measure students' motivation towards science learning. international journal of science education, 27(6), 639-654. doi:10.1080/0950069042000323737 biographical notes danilo v. rogayan jr. is a full-time faculty of the college of education, arts, and sciences (ceas) of the president ramon magsaysay state university, a lone state university in zambales, philippines. his research interests include steam (science, technology, engineering, arts, agri/fisheries, mathematics) education, environmental science education, preservice and teacher education, materials development, gender equity in education, classroom-based action reseach, and indigenous people. he served as the college research coordinator and now serves as the university director for communications and public relations. he has presented numerous papers in local, national, and international fora and has published a number of research articles. e-mail: danrogayan@gmail.com jocelyn r. bautista is a faculty of the schools division of zambales, department of education philippines. she is interested to investigate research areas such as science education, classroom-based action research and teacher pedagogy. e-mail: jocelynbautista825@gmail.com mailto:danrogayan@gmail.com mailto:danrogayan@gmail.com this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 394 a case study of parental involvement in fostering their child’s english-speaking skills bunga ayu wulandari 1 , reny heryanti 2 , rizki dwiki reza usman 3 , ahmad ridha* 4 , and fortunasari 5 abstract this research investigates how parents support their children's english language development. interviews with the parents of a nine-year-old indonesian girl named acha (pseudonym) were conducted to learn more about how they perceived their involvement in their daughter's development of english-speaking abilities. when the research was conducted, acha was a third grader at an elementary school with 364 subscribers on her youtube channel. her competence in speaking english is exhibited in her youtube videos. this research indicates that acha‟s english language acquisition process has involved her parents‟ interventions directly and indirectly. this research reveals several helpful practices performed by acha's parents, including early exposure to simple vocabulary, a positive home literacy environment (hle) situation, encouragement of acha to use english, and facilitation of acha's access to english-language youtube content. according to the results of this research, acha's parents' practices are mediated by their educational experiences, socioeconomic status, and digital literacy skills. this research demonstrates the beneficial effects of parental participation on children's language development. keywords incidental learning, parental involvement, second language learning article history received 20 june 2022 accepted 15 november 2022 how to cite wulandari, b. a., heryanti, r., usman, r. d. r., ridha, a., & fortunasari (2022). a case study of parental involvement in fostering in fostering their child‟s english-speaking skills. indonesian research journal in education |irje|, 6(2), 394– 408.https://doi.org/10.22437 /irje.v6i2.24340 1&3, 4 faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, indonesia 2 student-faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, indonesia *3faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, indonesia; corresponding author: ahmad.ridha@unja.ac.id https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v6i2.24340 https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v6i2.24340 mailto:ahmad.ridha@unja.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 395 introduction this case study aims to examine parental involvement in developing english-speaking skills of a nine-year-old indonesian girl, acha. the little girl has her own youtube channel, where she had uploaded 139 videos by the time this research was conducted. acha and her parents live in the provincial capital city of jambi in indonesia. the videos are primarily about her daily activities. interestingly, as displayed in her videos, she speaks english instead of indonesian language. identifying the object of this research, acha‟s ability to speak english fluently, this research explored how acha has acquired the skills. in particular, the researchers examined her parents‟ roles in fostering her english-speaking skills. informed by the critical period hypothesis, it has long been acknowledged that young children learn a second language more productively (cameron, 2001). the supporters of this hypothesis believe that the effects are due to children‟s brains still using the mechanism that facilitated them acquiring their first language. this hypothesis, to some extent, is supported by the theory of the golden age (between 4-11 years old), conceived by scott and ytreberg (1990), as the period of fundamental years of children's development. however, snow and hoefnagel-höhle (1978) revealed that young children learning a second language before puberty do not automatically pick up the language as effectively as the first language acquisition. even brown (2007) argued that it is merely a myth that learning a second language earlier guarantees better results than learning it later. he said that adults had developed notable cognitive faculties and abstract thinking capacity to grasp instruction and conception, which helped them acquire the new language. the dichotomy of the effective age to learn a second language has informed the researchers of this current research in portraying the findings of this research. mclaughlin (1987) asserted that children have the potential to attain a native-like accent because they work out the target language phonology better than adults. it is also possibly because children do not hesitate to utter foreign words, unlike adult english learners who are cautious about pronouncing them. however, harley et al. (1995) argued that children learn l2 grammar slower than older learners. instead, for children, spoken language facilitates them to experience, comprehend, exercise, and acquire the new language (cameron, 2001). furthermore, research by mitchel and martin (1997) showed children produced different types of languages depending on teachers‟ beliefs and styles. cameron (2001) explained further that children learning a second language through immersion acquire it more effectively than children learning it as a subject lesson at school. understandably, children who begin to learn english early will acquire the language through the spoken form of the language. therefore, a new language is mainly presented orally, comprehended orally and aurally, exercised, and utilized orally. assuming acha, who was in the third grade of elementary school at the time this research took place, had english as a subject for less than two hours a week, the researchers pursued her parents' involvement in fostering her ability to speak english fluently. as a result, the researchers believed her english-speaking fluency had developed beyond her formal english classes. based on vygotsky's theory that other people have an impact on irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 396 children's cognitive development in their environment, this research looks at acha's parents' attitudes and behaviours concerning their capacity to have an impact on acha's life and aid in her learning to speak english. this research, therefore, focuses on exploring: 1. how do acha‟s parents present english to acha? 2. why do acha‟s parents support acha in acquiring english? 3. how do acha‟s parents support acha in developing her english-speaking skills? the importance of this research lies in its illustration of helpful parenting practices for developing children's english-speaking skills. as a result, the situation of acha's fluency in english merits further investigation, which is what this research did. the relevant research on parental engagement and the variables influencing parental involvement in children's education is reviewed in the section that follows. literature review parental involvement according to brito and waller (1994), parent involvement can be conceived as parents‟ participation in various school-related activities, such as once or regular visits to parent-teacher meetings or school events. tomlinson (1991) described four forms of parental involvement: exchanging information, engaging personally in educational issues, and informal and formal engagement. epstein (1995) proposed inclusive types of home and school relationships consisting of parenting, communicating, volunteering, learning at home, decision-making, and collaborating with the community. śad and gürbüztürk (2013) revealed that parents preferred to talk directly with their children, provide supporting facilities at home, encourage their children‟s improvement, and help out with homework rather than doing volunteer jobs at school. three decades ago, several academics emphasized the positive correlation between parental involvement and students‟ academic achievement. henderson (1987) stated that parental involvement promotes school achievement. similarly, eipstein (1992) contended that students whose parents are attentive, well-informed, supportive, and engaged would likely have better academic work and positive attitudes at school. al-mahrooqi et al. (2016) suggested that parents‟ engagement influences children‟s academic achievement and social, emotional, psychological, and interactional development. kalayci and öz (2018) explained that family, school, and community have their part in supporting children‟s development. parents, as the first teachers of their children, prolong their roles when their kids begin their educational journey by collaborating with teachers at school. in the previous research conducted by georgiou (1997), it was indicated that parents who emphasize achievement and personality improvement positively related to children‟s achievement at school. on the contrary, parents who emphasize pressure have an adversarial relationship with children‟s academic achievement. therefore, it should be highlighted that psychological support will contribute to good achievement, while over help and pressure from parents could result in unexpected outcomes. the researchers in this research do not find the efforts to describe parent engagement satisfactory because the definition restricts involvement in school-related irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 397 activities rather than all activities in children's lives. the purpose of the current research is to examine the english fluency of nine-year-old acha, as demonstrated in her youtube videos, without focusing solely on her academic performance. the researchers broaden the scope of parents' involvement in this current research beyond the school accomplishment criterion to explore acha's capacity to speak english fluently. factors affecting parental involvement in children's education this current research also addresses the factors affecting parental engagement. it has been reported that socioeconomic status, parents‟ education, teaching staff, administrative staff‟s attitudes, and culture had influenced parents‟ choices to be involved in their children‟s education. for example, calzada et al. (2015) declared that parents of low social-economic status exhibited less engagement in their children‟s education. idris et al. (2020) argued that educated fathers and mothers positively correlate with their children's academic achievement. they explained that parents‟ educational background contributes to their children‟s attainment of intelligence and values. educational experiences that parents have had help their children to form their performances which direct them to thrive in an educational pathway. parents and children‟s interactions, such as parents‟ support, sharing, communication, and help to decide educational decisions, contribute positively to students‟ academic achievement (idris et al., 2020). harb and el-sharawi (2006) even stated that students‟ educational accomplishment was influenced by home organizations informed by their understanding and educational experiences. muraina and ajayi (2011) declared that the higher accomplishment of parents in their educational journey, the higher they will be aware and conscientious of their children's education. interestingly, jeynes (2007) claimed that parents with low educational backgrounds do not strongly influence their children's educational attainment because of their lack of psychological factors. however, wati (2015) revealed that parents with lower education and income were more enthusiastic about supporting their children‟s education. yet, as her research revealed, they could not provide foreign language resources for their children due to financial restraints. methodology utilizing a qualitative approach, this research obtained information about parents' involvement in fostering acha‟s ability to speak english fluently. creswell (2017) stated that a qualitative research design is an approach to delve into and comprehend personal experiences. this research is a case study by the nature of its inquiry. brown et al. (2009) illustrated a qualitative case study as a study of an individual‟s experiences. therefore, this case study provided more extensive insights into parents' involvement in developing their child's language acquisition. the participants of this research are the parents of acha (a pseudonym), a nine-year-old girl who speaks english fluently, as demonstrated in her videos on her youtube channel. the parents confirmed their acceptance to participate in the research by signing a consent form, and they also acknowledged that the research could result in the release of their daughter's identity and youtube videos. both acha‟s parents hold bachelor's irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 398 degrees, her father graduated in economics, and her mother graduated in computer science. her father works as a civil servant while her mum stays at home. acha is the first daughter of two children in the family. the second child is a boy born a few months before the data for this research was collected. thus, acha and her brother are eight years apart. when this research was taking place, she was in the third grade at a private elementary school. the researchers collected the data by interviewing acha‟s father and mother individually for about 60 minutes each at their home. the interviews were conducted in the indonesian language, bahasa indonesia, and audio recorded. the researchers prepared a set of guiding question for the semi-structured interview. it consisted of primary inquiries about acha‟s parents‟ educational backgrounds, their contribution in presenting english to her, their intention to have her speak english, and their practices to facilitate her development of english-speaking skills. the researchers listened to the audio-recorded data collected from the interviews three times to get familiar with them. the data were then transcribed into verbatim transcription manually. the researchers then read the transcription three times before organizing the coding process to answer the inquiry of this research. according to saldańa (2015), coding is a more accurate way to organize a particular and realistic perspective from the interviews. next, the data was organized into keywords and crucial responses. finally, the data that was considered unrelated to the research inquiry was removed before the researchers interpreted the data. the constant comparative method, recommended by glaser (1965), was used in this research to compare incidences from the data, distinguish the elements, examine the correlation, and put them into a representation to explain the issues researched. findings and discussion the central inquiry of this research is to examine parental involvement in fostering their child's english-speaking skills, a case study of acha‟s ability to speak english fluently. the discussions below centered around parents‟ contribution in presenting english to their child, their intention to have their child speaks english, and practices to help their child develop her english-speaking skills. theme 1: parents’ contribution in presenting english to acha both acha‟s parents graduated from university. her father works as a civil servant while her mum chooses to stay home. they reside in a nice home in a peaceful neighbourhood. acha attends a prominent private school. she was the only child of her parents for around eight years. just before the research was taking place, her mum gave birth to her baby brother. a brief examination of the family has given the researchers hints that the parents have sufficient resources and time availability to provide acha with facilities and support to develop her potential. acha‟s mother does not have any formal english language education background. however, although acha first acquired bahasa indonesia when she was an infant, her mother irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 399 used to greet acha in english and introduced acha to basic vocabularies, such as colours and things around us. she said, “since she was a baby, i‟ve used to speak simple english with her, for example, saying hello or good morning, and i‟ve used some daily vocabulary, for example, colours and things around us.” acha‟s parents also bought her children's storybooks in english. acha‟s mother confessed that she introduced acha to english programs on youtube. “we showed acha the english educational videos we had found on youtube, which included common words and phrases. i think that's when she first started learning to speak english.” a lot of research validated that parents have contributed to children‟s linguistics and social skills development (harris & goodall, 2008). mooij et al. (2014) also suggested that parents‟ education influences their children‟s learning achievement. this current research corroborates the previous research because the participants are educated so that with their academic experiences, they can provide proper support for acha. idris et al. (2020) also argued that educated parents communicate with their children at home using sound vocabulary, good pronunciation, and logical arguments in discussion contribute to children‟s language development. as acha was once the only child of her parents for eight years, there was sufficient room for her parents to spend time with acha. her mother has preferred to stay home and contributed to developing acha‟s self-esteem. as indicated by idris et al. (2020), educated mothers have high self-esteem, which in turn nurtures their children‟s confidence. the researchers agree that a mother is a fundamental part of children‟s lives, and she can inspire children‟s lives. at home, acha has been facilitated by a learning-friendly environment supported by their parents informed by their educational experiences. her parents have provided basic facilities, including a wi-fi connection, for acha to explore the potential beyond the school curriculum. jeynes (2007) explained that educated parents‟ views reflect in the educational facilities they provide for their children. hanafi (2008) said educated parents adopt innovative academic environments for their children at home. educated parents are also claimed to be motivating and assisting in children‟s educational tasks, which in turn build children‟s beliefs about their parents and increase their self-confidence (idris et al., 2020). acha‟s father confirmed that they started introducing simple vocabulary to acha early. he said, “at the age of 4, she spoke english fluently as if it was her mother tongue.” cameron (2001) believed that starting to learn english very early benefits children in terms of native-like fluency attainment. acha, in this research, has the benefits of learning and using english at an early age. thus, it is reasonable to say that acha has the fluency to speak english as if it is her mother tongue. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 400 we have mentioned that acha‟s mother contributes significantly to assisting her in developing her english-speaking skills and promoting her self-confidence. meanwhile, as the sole breadwinner, acha's father contributes directly to providing facilities at home. he affords a lovely home in a good environment, basic daily needs, books, toys, and extra facilities for acha. for example, by attaining digital literacy, acha‟s father has cared enough to record acha‟s activities and upload them on youtube. it justifies parents' role in direct assistance for their children's computer-mediated assignments (buckingham & alpaslan, 2017). as lancker and parolin (2020) stated, home circumstances mediate students‟ learning. the privilege acha has with digital technology has been possible due to her parents‟ help. acha‟s father said, “we set up a youtube channel and posted acha’s video for keeping family memory. it turns out she really likes it and now she wants to produce at least one video every week. sometimes, she begs me to buy her toys and film her unboxing the toys. there were times when she recorded herself without our assistance, but we always remind her that before uploading it on youtube, she needs to provide it to us so we could review the stuff she created.” acha could be seen in several videos unwrapping brand-new toys that her parents had bought for her. suleman et al. (2012) stated that parents who earn large salaries have flexibility in supporting their children's needs and providing extra facilities for a positive influence on their children's academic achievement. kuchah (2018) found that parents' socioeconomic status (ses) is correlated with the resources they provide to help their kids acquire a second language. butler (2015) previously mentioned that the connection could also be due to more out-of-class chances to use a second language. acha‟s fluency in speaking skills and her parents‟ socioeconomic status corroborate previous studies by butler (2013) and huang et al. (2018), which reported positive connections between children‟s interest and success in learning a second language. the research also informed that students with high socioeconomic status parents surpassed their friends with low socioeconomic status parents in terms of speaking skills. as acha in this research, the children also had the high motivation and practical approaches to learning the second language (shin & so, 2018). theme 2: parents’ intention to have acha knows english the interview with acha‟s parents revealed that they are both aware of how good english proficiency opens a wide range of potential opportunities for acha‟s professional and personal life in the future. most parents today believe that facilitating their children in acquiring english is one of the best preparations they give them. acha‟s mother, in particular, said, “we are now living in a digital age. therefore, kids must learn technology, and the primary language of technology is english. we introduced english to irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 401 acha as early as possible because, for example, she could use a laptop at an early age so she could find resources to support her study. it will be beneficial for her academic life and her future. acha‟s parents are concerned that good english competence will help acha thriving in a digital environment because they understand most visited websites are in english. in fact, according to web technology surveys, english is used by 61.7 % of all the websites whose content language we know (https://w3techs.com/technologies/overview/content_language retrieved on 15 july 2022). therefore, acha‟s parents‟ opinion is justified. these concerns initiate them to support and assist acha in nurturing her english. acha‟s father mentioned that he did not push acha to learn english. knowing that acha had used english as a means of communication instead of learning english formally, they facilitated acha to develop her competence in english speaking skills. “i am aware that in the future, wherever she goes, whatever she does if she has good english, she will find it very helpful.” acha‟s father relates his opinion to the opportunities that acha might have, for example, for her future education, job opportunities, and traveling to foreign countries. acha‟s father understands that even in indonesia, universities expect their students to have a certain level of english indicated by the english unit that should be taken and the english test at the end of the study period. like any other parents today who have realized that many scholarships are offered to pursue education in foreign countries, acha‟s parents also hope their daughter has the fortune. employers frequently state in current job postings that they are looking for individuals with strong english communication skills, as well as the ability to comprehend it software, user guides, and other documentation, which is frequently written in english. this research illustrates acha's parents' favourable attitudes toward english, which, as several studies have demonstrated, play a significant role in defining language acquisition achievement (berowa et al., 2018). their attitudes eventually shaped acha‟s positive attitude toward english. with parents‟ awareness of the potential use of english for their kids today and tomorrow, many parents are inspired to support their kids in acquiring english. however, young english learners still need help from their parents because, as tao and xu (2022) argued, this group of learners lacks self-regulated learning capacity. the current research also indicates that acha, nevertheless her inclination to learn english, and her parents‟ rationales for having her ability to speak english have regulated her english skills development. theme 3: parents’ practices to help acha developing english-speaking skills as mentioned earlier, acha‟s parents explained how they have helped acha attain english from an early age. initially, they provided acha with simple vocabulary related to daily activities such as colors, fruits, and household appliances. then, they purposely use some english in their daily conversation. in the interview with acha‟s mother, she preferred acha to learn english enjoyably. acha‟s mother said, https://w3techs.com/technologies/overview/content_language irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 402 “i have wanted acha to like speaking in english and find it thrilling. i purposively used some english in our regular talk. she is now more interested in english than bahasa indonesia because she has grown so fond of it.” the advantages of learning english for acha's academic, personal, and professional lives are well known to acha's parents, but they have never fully conveyed them to acha. maybe it was acha's age. up until now, their inspiration for acha has only come from a sense of enjoyment that speaking english is awesome and thrilling. acha has been introduced to english literature and multimedia resources at home, where she has spent most of her time learning the language. acha's parents confirmed that they had set up english movies or videos, for instance, for acha to learn the language, even though most of these were not formal english education programs. as a result, acha has undergone incidental learning or en passant. acha gained vocabulary and a better understanding of grammatical structure from watching youtube videos. since english is currently the most widely spoken language, children have the opportunity to learn the language before enrolling in formal english classes. huckin and coady (1999) defined this process as a “by-product, not the target, of the main cognitive activity” (p. 182). in addition, borrowing terms from kuppens (2010), acha‟s way of acquiring english is termed “incidental foreign language acquisition from media exposure” (p. 65). from acha‟s case, it can be learned that providing digital learning resources has proven helpful in exposing children to english. this finding supports uchikoshi‟s research (2006), which reported that watching educational tv programs is positively associated with children‟s development of oral language and literacy skills. however, it should be noted that, as mentioned before, acha watched more entertaining videos instead of educational videos. acha's father said, “we initially helped acha by providing her with english-language children's movies. then, we also got her english-language books because it is so easy to find bilingual english-bahasa indonesian books these days.” the home literacy model recommended by sénéchal and lefevre (2002) suggested that the activities of a home literacy environment fall into two independent dimensions, namely informal literacy experiences and formal literacy instruction. the activities practiced by acha‟s parents are categorized as informal home literacy experiences. yeung and king (2015) explained that informal home literacy activities influenced listening and speaking development. when acha was younger and unable to read, her parents read aloud to her from books. some research has justified that parent-child reading supports young children's language and literacy skills (bus et al., 1995; scarborough et al., 1991). in addition, chiu and mcbride-chang (2010) explained that children‟s oral language and literacy skills were associated with books available at home. another research by johnson et al. (2008) informed that children with more than 30 books have a higher vocabulary than those with fewer books at home. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 403 acha's parents encouraged acha by telling her stories about people who were fluent in english, which inspired her. acha formerly wished to produce youtube videos. her parents encouraged her to create the videos in english. acha‟s mother said, “we asked her whether she could create english-language videos when she wanted to create a video for youtube. i said to her, making a youtube video was something that many indonesian children did, but if you did it in english, it would stand out and be cool. she enthusiastically agreed and was eager to accomplish that.” göktürk (2016) stated that video recording benefits second-language learners‟ speaking competencies, such as pronunciation, vocabulary, and fluency. self-recording videos have also been suggested by several researchers to promote second language learners‟ paralinguistics use skills, self-confidence, and enthusiasm, and to moderate students‟ anxiety, as well as to increase students‟ skills in information and communication technology (hakim, 2016; menggo et al., 2019; muslem & abbas, 2017). this research suggests a self-recording video for acha has facilitated her speaking skills development and confidence. acha‟s mother explained that she realized perhaps she made mistakes in pronouncing some words, “we use english children's movies or content on youtube to familiarize acha with proper and correct pronunciation because we realize that ours perhaps are not accurate.” she continued, “acha watched many english children's movies and videos on youtube, and we also gave acha lots of english books.” lefever (2010) investigated 182 children‟s english skills and revealed that participants in his research showed a basic understanding of spoken and written english and were involved in simple english conversations before they started formal english instruction. lefever (2010) was confident that the variety and quantity of language input children received in a naturalistic environment supported their english skills. acha has mainly watched videos on youtube daily for entertainment, providing her natural environment to acquire english. additionally, maness (2004) argued that learners can have positive input when they watch authentic situation videos. some research has suggested that multimedia such as video is effective for learning (zahn et al., 2011; zahn et al., 2010). one of many social media platforms that provides viewers with videos and has been acknowledged as an appealing social medium that has influenced education is youtube (bonk, 2009). duffy (2008) noted that the use of youtube by english instructors is growing. it is due to easy and fast access to various videos needed by the instructors for their students. moghavvemi et al. (2018) recommended youtube as an effective learning instrument that instructors can integrate into the courses by using relevant videos to the subject. some research has proven the effectiveness of integrating youtube into traditional classroom settings (clifton & mann, 2011; dupuis et al., 2013; johnson & irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 404 mayer, 2009). the research was mainly conducted in a higher education setting. meanwhile, the discussion of the effectiveness of using youtube in learning english for children was still under-researched. although this research indicated the positive contribution of utilizing youtube as a medium for enhancing english speaking skills, parents‟ supervision towards the use of youtube by their children is highly required. parents are suggested to download youtube kids app for their children and use a family link to create a google account, set up parental controls, and turn on restricted mode either on youtube or in the gadget. therefore, parents can monitor their kids‟ access to youtube and screen time. conclusion from the findings and discussion about acha‟s ability to speak english fluently, the researchers suggest that the home literacy environment (hle) aspects have influenced acha‟s speaking skills. indonesian students learn english as a foreign language as a school subject and rarely practice english for daily communication. however, many indonesian students have undergone informal experiences of learning and using english. in this case, acha, whose parents practiced shared reading and home-teaching to help acha acquire english. acha‟s parents have positively portrayed english to acha so that acha has acquired english without hesitance. growing up, acha then had the second language input dominantly from videos she watched on youtube. acha‟s parents‟ role is crucial in monitoring acha‟s access to youtube. acha has not been immersed in the english language environment, but she has been exposed to english from media exposure, which has facilitated her acquiring english. from the findings of this research, there is an underlying premise of the benefits of using youtube to foster children‟s self-regulated learning. declaration of conflicting interests the authors declared no potential conflicts of interest. funding the authors had no funding for this study. human participants participant and research place were masked to protect their confidentiality. references al-mahrooqi, r., denman, c., & al-maamari, f. 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(2011). digital media in the classroom: a study on how to improve guidance for successful collaboration and learning in student teams. cscl, 152-159. biographical notes bunga ayu wulandari, phd. is working at the english education department, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, indonesia. reny heryanti is working at the english education department, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, indonesia. rizki dwiki reza usman was a student at the english education department, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, indonesia. ahmad ridha, ma. is working at the english education department, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, indonesia. dr. fortunsari is working at the indonesian education department, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, indonesia. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00417 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2021.102718 this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 6 the development of scientific hybrid learning model by using the brilian application for the science field bambang hariadi 1* and m.j. dewiyani sunarto 2 abstract scientific learning is a learning process that leads students to a science-based learning experience. scientific learning implements specific methods for students to discover concepts and theories. this research was intended to develop a hybrid learning model which can be implemented for scientific learning. this was a research and development which aimed to develop a suitable learning model to be implemented in moodle-based lms named brilian. scientific hybrid learning (shl) model tests were conducted in terms of validity and practicality. the results showed (1) that the score for the content validity test on average was 3.71 statistic rα = 0.25 and α = 0.81, the construct validity score on average was 3.82 statistic rα = 0.20 and α = 0.75. (2). the practical validity test score on average was 3.63 statistic rα = 0.91 and α = 0.99. the conclusion is that the shl model is qualified in terms of the validity of contents and constructs and practicality for students. the research implied that a good shl model can be implemented to increase students learning outcomes based on science. the continuation of this research can focus on monitoring the shl model's effectiveness in improving students' learning outcomes on science-based subjects. keywords hybrid learning, learning model, scientific hybrid learning article history received 27 february 2023 accepted 2 april 2023 how to cite hariadi, b., & sunarto, m.j.d (2023). the development of scientific hybrid learning by using the brilian application for the science field. indonesian research journal in education |irje|, 7(1), 6–22. https://doi.org/10.22437/irje .v7i1.23965 1*faculty member, universitas dinamika, indonesia; corresponding author; bambang@dinamika.ac.id 2faculty member, universitas dinamika, indonesia https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v7i1.23965 https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v7i1.23965 mailto:bambang@dinamika.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 7 introduction education plays a primary role in producing excellent human resources for complying with the job market, especially in the era of the fourth industrial revolution. the curriculum's demand for the growth of the fourth industrial revolution forced educational institutions to innovate and facilitate 21 st century skill-based education (pandiangan et al., 2017; suyidno et al., 2018). the required skills in the 21 st century include literation, critical thinking, scientific creativity, collaboration, communication and information technology, and problem-solving skills (erika et al., 2018; sunarti et al., 2018). improving the quality of processes and learning outcomes for graduates is closely related to data literacy and critical thinking skills, which should be done in the learning process (jatmiko et al., 2018; sunarti et al., 2018). data literacy skill relates to data reading skills, data writing skills, and data archiving skills, which are crucial for avoiding plagiarism, duplication, falsification, and fabrication when presenting data in scientific writing. critical thinking skills as thinking logically and systematically to solve problems. critical thinking and literacy skills training should be inserted into the learning process in the university because it is suspected that most university students still do not master these skills. this statement also supports the findings by pithers and soden (2000). furthermore, pithers and soden (2000) also found that there are lecturers who do not understand how to teach critical thinking effectively. it influenced the learning outcome, specifically in the critical thinking domain, as found by martin et al. (2011), which shows that average indonesian students can recognize basic facts but are still unable to communicate and link several topics in the application of complex and abstract concepts. this finding also supports the finding by pithers and soden (2000) that indonesian students' critical thinking skills are low. the increment of learning outcomes is influenced by conditions, which consist of three aspects: student characteristics, environmental characteristics, and learning are unchanged by lecturers. lecturers can develop suitable learning approaches which will enhance learning outcomes (hariadi, 2015). the mentioned learning approaches can be divided into three categories, namely: organizing strategies, delivery strategies, and management strategies. organizing strategies include content selection, arrangement, and development of content diagrams, while delivery strategies include delivery approaches and learning media. lastly, management strategies include structuring learner interaction with organizing strategies and delivery strategies (borg & gall, 1983; budningsih, 2011; trianto, 2010). the students’ low data literacy and critical thinking skills are related to the implemented learning approaches. most lecturers still use conventional learning approaches, so they cannot facilitate the development of data literacy and students' critical thinking skills. it is what ultimately results in low student achievement (jatmiko et al., 2018). therefore, efforts to enhance the learning process are done by developing a learning model that can facilitate organization, management, and knowledge delivery. a suitable learning model for students, which includes student characteristics, environmental characteristics, and learning goals, is predicted to enhance the learning outcome (gay et al., 2012). therefore, a learning irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 8 model development that accommodates scientific learning phases is necessary. scientific hybrid learning (shl) is a learning model that applies scientific phases, which are implemented in the brilian learning management system and combined with the conventional learning model. brilian is a moodle-based learning management system implemented in learning at univrsitas dinamika. literature review learning models a model is a conceptual framework that is used as a guide in carrying out activities. in learning, the terms "model" can be described as a conceptual framework that illustrates a systematic procedure in organizing learning experiences to achieve a specific learning outcome. a model serves as a guide in planning and implementing learning activities. a learning model is a term that describes the implementation of the teaching and learning process. a learning model already compromises the implementation of an approach, method, technique, or learning tactics simultaneously (haerullah & hasan, 2017; helmiati, 2012). moreover, nurdyansyah and wahyuni (2016) also defined a learning model as a plan or pattern that can be used to shape the curriculum (long-term learning plans), design learning materials, and guide the learning process in other classes. when developing a learning model, it should have characteristics such as referring to education theories and specific learning theories; having a mission to achieve certain goals; serving as a guide for improving teaching and learning activities in class; having syntax, reaction principles, social systems, and support systems; and there is an impact, resulting from implementing the model (nurdyansyah & wahyuni, 2016). scientific learning scientific learning is a learning model that adopts scientific steps in developing knowledge through scientific methods (haerullah & hasan, 2017). scientific learning is a learning process designed so students can actively develop concepts, laws, or principles by observing, formulating problems, posing hypotheses, collecting data by implementing various techniques, analyzing data, creating conclusions, and presenting them (musfiqon & nurdyansyah, 2015). hence, a learning model is required to form the ability to learn. it means not only the acquisition of knowledge, skills, and attitudes but also how knowledge, skills, and attitudes are acquired by students (haerullah & hasan, 2017). science learning in indonesia is designed so that students can fulfill the skills and abilities needed in the 21 st century. it is due to the nature of science learning material tha can make humans always curious about their surroundings and then provide conclusions based on scientific studies. this statement is supported by prahani et al. (2022) who stated that science learning is related much to natural phenomena and experimental activities. moreover, according to sumo et al. (2022) , science learning consists of three main elements, namely knowledge, attitudes, and skills. because of the thoroughness of the elements in science learning, students can be accustomed to conducting investigations into problems and irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 9 determining their solutions independently. so, science learning is learning that can train students to make observations, do experiments and create a decision, and develop theories openly and honestly. learning by using a scientific approach means learning is done scientifically. therefore, the learning process can be equated with a scientific process (musfiqon & nurdyansyah, 2015). . scientific learning models as described before, the scientific learning approach mainly consists of scientific steps for building knowledge through scientific methods. the scientific approach consists of at least three learning models that can be implemented, such as the project-based learning model, the problem-based learning model, and the inquiry-based learning model (musfiqon & nurdyansyah, 2015). all learning models implement scientific steps that belong to scientific learning models. those steps are formulating problems, proposing a hypothesis, collecting data, processing and analyzing the data, and concluding (pahrudin & pratiwi, 2019). haerullah and hasan (2017) stated the steps for scientific learning are first to observe a phenomenon, formulate problems related to the phenomenon, deliberate to propose hypotheses, design experiments to collect data, collect data using various techniques, analyze data for testing hypothesis, conclude the truth of the hypothesis, communicate the results, and validate conclusion to avoid misconceptions. thus, social sciences learning and exact sciences learning can implement scientific learning models by inquiry, problem-based or project-based. data literacy and critical thinking data literacy is the ability to read, analyze, and utilize information (big data) in the digital world (camilleri, 2018). data literacy is the ability to use data as information and turn it into knowledge for solving problems. the harvard business review stated that the most attractive job in the fourth industrial revolution is data scientist. it shows that data literacy is a skill that will be very useful in finding a job in the era of the industrial revolution 4.0 (davenport & patil, 2012). therefore, data literacy skill is an urgent skill to be trained through learning models. data literacy skills in research are manifested as data reading skills, data writing, and data archiving skills in everyday life. facione (2011) stated that critical thinking is self-regulation in judging something, which produces interpretation, analysis, evaluation, inference, and explanation using proofs, concepts, methodologies, criteria, or contextual consideration on which a decision is made. critical thinking is paramount as an inquiry tool. critical thinking skill is an intellectual potency that can be developed through the learning process. everyone has the potential to grow and become a critical thinker since thinking activity relates to the self-organization pattern that exists in every creature in nature, including humans (zubaidah, 2010). some scientists explain that critical thinking skills are cognitive skills that consist of activities like interpretation, analysis, evaluation, inference, explanation, and self-management in solving problems (bean, 2011; cheong & cheung, 2008; mundilarto & ismoyo, 2017; siew & mapeala, 2016). irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 10 brilian brilian is a moodle-based learning management system (lms) for hybrid learning developed at universitas dinamika. the purpose of brilian is to improve the quality of learning. this lms was built using the concept of hybrid learning, which means that learning is not only carried out in the classroom but also cyberspace so that students can learn anywhere and anytime. in the brilian application, lecturers function as facilitators, mentors, and consultants so that students are required to study actively (tim brilian, 2015). the brilian logo is presented in figure 1. figure 1. home interface of brilian application to develop a learning process that accommodates lecturers to act as facilitators and can make students learn actively in the classroom, and cyberspace, this application provides opportunities for lecturers to optimize various models of teaching and learning interactions, as shown in figure 2. figure 2. learning activities that can be developed irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 11 figure 2 shows that in the brilian application, there are 32 icon options that lecturers can use to make learning interaction patterns with students. the determination of these icon options is adjusted to the learning objectives, learning strategies, and the characteristics of the teaching materials applied in achieving the learning objectives. the ability to master the application and the skills of lecturers in optimizing brilian applications is very influential in achieving learning objectives and improving student learning outcomes. the application of the learning activities in figure 2 above in learning managed by the lecturer is divided into several meetings or weeks according to the semester learning plan (rps) for each subject, as shown in figure 3. figure 3. implementation of learning activities for one semester in the brilian application figure 3 shows the detailed implementation of learning activity icons for each meeting based on the lesson plans. meanwhile, figure 4 shows examples of learning content for the first meeting. figure 4. example of learning content for the first meeting irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 12 students can take utilize all the learning activity facilities that have been designed by lecturers in the brilian application. as an example, figure 4 shows students and lecturers can carry out synchronous learning online through the google meet link. in addition, several learning tools, such as lecture materials and student activity sheets, can be downloaded by students and submitted again to the brilian application for scoring. methodology research design development of the shl model refers to the design of the generic design research model (gdrm) development research model by wademan. according to nieveen (1999) and plomp (2013), gdrm development steps consist of problem identification, tentative identification of product and design principles, tentative theory and product, developing prototypes and assessing products, and improving product quality. the development stage of the shl model by modifying the gdrm from plomp (2013) is in figure 5 below. figure 5. development research phases of generic design research model (wademan's adaptation in plomp & nieveen, (2013)) product quality assessment is carried out through expert validation regarding the content and construct of the shl model draft and its feasibility for use by students. content validity means that there is a need for a learning model and its design based on current knowledge. furthermore, construct validity is the fulfillment of a logically designed learning model (nieveen et al., 2007). the results of this expert's assessment were used as a reference to revise the shl model draft. literature & field study (theoretic & empiric study) problem identification problem resolution and advancing theory model shl tentative products and theories identification of tentative products and design principles prototyping and assessment of preliminary products and theories e v a lu a tio n irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 13 data collection this research uses a questionnaire adopted from nieveen et al. (2007) as an instrument to collect data from expert and student respondents. the questionnaire for experts consists of two parts, namely questionnaire to measure content validity and a questionnaire to measure construct validity. student questionnaire to measure the feasibility or attractiveness of learning tools and activities for the shl model. the research procedure consists of preliminary research, which is carried out to obtain related data, such as student learning outcomes, pbl and hybrid learning models, factors that support learning, student, and lecturer opinions towards learning; shl model draft design, including formulating the shl model syntax; validity testing and feasibility of the shl model draft; revision of the shl model according to the results of the questionnaire. data analysis an analysis was carried out using descriptive statistics, namely the average score of the questionnaire that had been filled in by experts. the average score criteria use single measures interrater coefficient correlation (icc) and cronbach's coefficient alpha (malhotra, 2011; pandiangan et al., 2017). table 1. learning model validity assessment criteria interval score assessment criteria description 3.30 < p < 4.00 very valid applicable without revision 2.30 < p < 3.30 valid applicable with little revision 1.80 < p < 2.30 less valid applicable with several revisions 1.00 < p < 1.80 invalid not applicable and still requires consultation adopted from erika et al. (2018) these criteria are also used as an analysis of the quality of the shl model that has been developed. findings and discussion shl model characteristics using the brilian application the scientific hybrid learning (shl) model is a learning model that integrates the hybrid learning model with the pbl model. the development of the shl model is supported by several learning theories and empirical experiences. supporting learning theories such as constructivism theory, learning through observation, discovery learning, cognitive processes, metacognition, and multiple representations. furthermore, the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 14 development of the shl model is also supported by empirical foundations from the latest research publications. the shl model developed refers to the characteristics of the learning model proposed by arends (2012) namely the logical theoretical rationale for its design, learning objectives, lecturer behavior in teaching, and supportive learning environment to achieve learning objectives. succinctly, the characteristics of the shl model are as follows. theoretical rationale the shl model is developed from several fundamental theories, such as constructivism theory, observational learning theory, discovery learning theory, cognitive process theory, metacognition theory, and multiple representation theory (hariadi et al. 2018). these theories form the basis for compiling the steps of the shl model, which consists of the orientation phase based on lms and big data, the investigative, the analysis phase, the presentation phase, and the evaluation phase, in which each phase is carried out using the brilian application. the five phases in detail are expected to achieve the learning goal because widodo and nurhayati (2015) stated the phases in constructivist learning consist of introduction, exploration, restructuring, application, and review and evaluation. meanwhile, according to siswanto et al. (2017), the phases of learning through observation consist of orientation, investigation, multiple representations, application, and evaluation. according to al-mahiroh and suyadi (2020), the phases in learning cognitive process theory are motivational, recognition, acquisition, retention, calling, generalization, performance, and feedback. the phases in metacognition learning according to adi (2013) are the collaborative group formation phase, the initial schemata activation phase, the creation of cognitive conflict, the concept construction planning phase, the concept construction phase, the class presentation phase, the individual test phase, and group recognition phase. finally, according to siswanto (2019), the phases of multi-representational learning are orientation, investigation, multi-representation, application, and evaluation. based on the fundamental theories and phases in the learning model, the developed shl model has five phases. learning goal the development of the shl model aims to improve data literacy and critical thinking skills. in addition to these two objectives, there are several objectives, such as generating motivation, activity, and student responses in learning. to achieve these goals, the shl model is carried out through collaborative and cooperative activities, a scientific approach, hybrid learning, integration of the brilian applications, social interaction through independent and group learning experiences, and the presentation of contextual problems based on lms and big data. literacy skills are paramount in science learning. based on research by greenleaf et al. (2011), science learning designed by the teacher for ten days effectively can improve students' problem-solving and reasoning abilities. likewise, during the final exam, students in the control class showed better results than the regular class. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 15 meanwhile, according to kazmi (2000), critical thinking skills are abilities that can be trained in science subjects because they are already included in science lessons, even though they have not been applied explicitly by lecturers. lecturer's teaching behaviour to optimize the instructional impact and increase data literacy students' critical thinking skills, the model implementation related to the lecturers’ way managed the learning process should include planning tasks, interactive tasks, learning environment and task management, and evaluation. matters to be taken care of in the planning tasks are formulating objectives, selecting content, performing task analysis, and planning time and space. the behavior of educators in teaching must be well-planned. research by noori et al. (2021) stated that students had positive perceptions of lecturer behavior in teaching, regardless of sex. study environment and assignment management in teaching and learning activities using the shl model, lecturers plan activities in a structured and strict manner through the brilian application. the success of this learning model is determined by the preparation of a good learning environment and learning media, in this case, the brilian application. lecturers and students can interact with the help of the brilian application through one of the 24 icons in the brilian application while paying attention to the pattern of interaction and scheduled deadline. research by gopo (2022) stated that technology cannot be separated from students' lives today. even though there were some negative impacts, the two researchers stated that the positive effects outweighed the negative. therefore, in this shl model, the learning environment and assignment management cannot be separated from technological superiority. shl model syntax formulation the syntax can be interpreted as the steps or plans that must be carried out in learning, which are detailed in the lesson plan. five phases are carried out when implementing the shl model in learning, which are lms and big data-based orientation phase, the investigation phase, the analysis phase, the presentation phase, and the evaluation phase (hariadi et al., 2018). the description of the five phases is as follows. the first phase is an lms and big data-based orientation, which aims to attract students' interest by focusing attention and motivating students using the brilian application. in this phase, the lecturer's ability to operate the brilian application is needed for offline classroom management. this phase is paramount for the success of the following phases. the second phase is the investigation, which aims to gather information related to the achievement of learning objectives. in this phase, students are assisted by using student activity sheets (sas/lkm) and guided by lecturers in carrying out step-by-step irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 16 investigations through the brilian application. this phase also builds literacy skills and critical thinking skills through the ability to find answers that are relevant to the questions and scientific steps in the lkm. the analysis or analyzing phase has the aim of guiding students in carrying out an analysis which is continued with discussion and making conclusions from the results of the investigations that have been carried out previously. in this phase, students are trained to optimize data literacy skills and think critically in solving problems that have arisen in the second phase. after drawing conclusions based on the analysis in the third phase, it continues with a presentation in the fourth phase. this fourth phase aims to assist and guide students in planning, preparing, and presenting the work that has been done in the third phase. presentations can be held both online and offline to optimize hybrid learning. presentations can also use offline data that has been generated from the previous phase of the analysis process or by utilizing online data in real terms, such as big data and the internet of things from the cloud. this phase also accommodates the process of increasing students' data literacy skills and critical thinking. the fifth phase is an evaluation that aims to evaluate the problem-solving process of the investigations that have been carried out by students in the previous phases. lecturers see the results of students' work as evidence of learning outcomes and facilitate follow-up learning by distributing structured assignments. all these activities are carried out through the brilian application as an implementation of hybrid learning that has been designed to optimize learning outcomes. shl model assessment result the shl model has fulfilled the validity model test and the feasibility model test assessed by education experts. the results of the research are in table 2 and table 3. table 2. the analysis result of the shl model's validity assessment content validity validity score score criteria necessity of shl model development 3.75 very valid state of the art of the shl model 3.68 the framework for the creation of the shl model 3.69 shl model description 3.70 construct validity shl model development consistency 3.95 very valid the framework for the creation of the shl model 3.61 shl model learning description 3.90 table 2 shows that the content and construct validity of the shl model are considered very valid. the content validity of the shl model, which includes the necessity of developing the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 17 shl model, the state of the art of the shl model, the framework for the creation of the shl model, and the description of the shl model, has an average validation score of 3.75, 3.68, 3.69, and 3.70. these scores are classified as very valid. the construct validity of the shl model, which includes the shl model development consistency, the framework for the creation of the shl model, and the shl model learning description, has an average validation score of 3.95, 3.61, and 3.90. these scores are also classified as very valid. according to ghazali et al. (2018), content validity refers to the process of determining how well the dimensions and elements of a concept can be successfully defined, while the function of content validity is to validate each item in the instrument that represents the measure built. by obtaining the content validity value for the shl model with an average of 3.71. that the conclusion is the model development, the novelty of the model, the frame of mind, and the description of the model have met the implementation criteria. furthermore, the feasibility of the shl model is in table 3. table 3. the analysis result of the shl model’s feasibility assessment advisability validity score score criteria formulation of learning objectives 3.53 very valid syntax clarity and suitability 3.82 clarity and linkage of the support system 3.55 clarity and association of the social system 3.52 clarity and capability of the reaction principle 3.72 after conducting a feasibility test of the shl model that includes the formulation of learning objectives, syntax clarity and suitability, clarity and linkage of support systems, clarity and association of social systems, and clarity and capability of the reaction principle, an average validation score of 3.53, 3.82, 3.55, 3.52, and 3.72 are obtained. these scores are classified as very valid. hence, the shl model is feasible to be implemented in the field of science in higher education. the feasibility analysis of the shl model is supported by the theories and findings of previous studies. the first reference, as in table 3, is effectiveness which is measured by achieving objectives. the learning model is said to be effective if it can achieve the main objective as an instructional impact of learning. the instructional impact of the shl model that wants to be achieved by using the brilian application is an increase in student learning outcomes. in addition, there are also the expected accompanying effects with the application of the shl model using the brilian application, which are mastery of the concept, technological literacy, positive student activity towards learning, and positive student response to learning. the shl model syntax consists of five phases, namely the orientation phase based on lms and big data, the investigation phase, the analysis phase, the presentation phase, and the evaluation phase (hariadi et al., 2018). each phase is described and carried out in learning according to the lesson plan by using the brilian application. hence, the learning irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 18 activities carried out by lecturers and students must be following the learning phases of the shl model. the support system for a learning model is all facilities, materials, and tools for implementing the shl model using the brilian application. the implementation of this learning model is also equipped with a support system consisting of learning tools according to the needs of the shl model, which include rps, rpp, student activity sheets (sas/lkm), student teaching materials (stm/bam), and learning outcomes evaluation instruments; brilian application which is the primary support in learning; and learning media in virtual form along with internet networks for access to data literacy. these support systems become part of the learning tools that provide a conducive atmosphere for teaching and learning activities and could improve learning delivery. as described above, the shl model social system refers to vygotsky's constructivist-based learning model (chamaz, 2011; stigligz, 2014). . it is described in the syntax of the shl model, including the relationship between fellow students and between students and lecturers. the emphasis on this social system is the construction of knowledge that is carried out by each student actively. this construction will be stronger if done collaboratively. hence, building collaborative groups will have a positive impact on learning outcomes. based on the syntax that has been prepared, the suggested social system is each student is proactive in learning activities by contributing to study groups. the role of the lecturer is as a guide, moderator, facilitator, consultant, and mediator in learning, and shl model implementation divided into 70% the job experience, 20% of mentoring and coaching, and 10% of classroom, course, and reading (watson, 2008; woolf, 2010). the latter is the clarity and principle of reaction. the principle of reaction can be described as how students pay attention to and treat their friends and students respond to questions, answers, responses, or what other students do. as previously described, the implementation of this shl model uses the brilian application. afterward, communication, teaching, and learning interactions are carried out through the brilian application. therefore, lecturers should motivate and remind students to always emphasize higher order thinking by utilizing data literacy and technology literacy. lecturers should also always give feedback, praise, and opportunities for students to ask questions, argue and criticize the lecture process so that higher-order thinking-based learning outcomes can increase. lastly, lecturers should emphasize the implementation of the shl model by strengthening more on-the-job experience (70%) (watson, 2008; woolf, 2010). conclusion the results showed that the shl model had an average of 3.71 in content validity and an average of 3.82 in construct validity. thus, based on expert judgment, the quality shl model is valid in content and construction. the average score on the feasibility test (practically used by students) is 3.63. therefore, students agree that the shl model is feasible to use. the results of this research imply that a quality shl model can be used to improve science-based learning outcomes. further research can be focused on examining the effectiveness of the shl model in improving student learning outcomes in science-based courses. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 19 declaration of conflicting interests the author declared no potential conflicts of interest. acknowledgments appreciation goes to the chancellor, head of p3ai, and head of p3km of universitas dinamika who have encouraged and provided the opportunity to conduct research and write this article. references adi, p. b. 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(2008). blended learning: the converegence of online and face-to-face education. florida: nacol. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 22 widodo, a., & nurahyati, l. (2015). tahapan pembelajaran yang konstruktivis: bagaimanakah pembelajaran sains di sekolah? (stages of constructivist learning: how is science learning in schools?) seminar nasional pendidika ipa, 10, 1-11. woolf, b. p. (2010). building intelligent interactive tutors: student-centered strategies for revolutionizing e-learning. massaqusetts, amherst : morgan kaufmann. zubaidah, s. (2010). berpikir kritis: kemampuan berpikir tingkat tinggi yang dapat dikembangkan melalui pembelajaran sains (critical thinking: higher order thinking skills that can be developed through learning science). optimalisasi sains, 16(1), 1-14. surabaya: universitas negeri surabaya. biographical notes dr. bambang hariadi, m.pd is working at universitas dinamika, indonesia m.j. dewiyani sunarto is working at universitas dinamika, indonesia this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 261 re-conceptualizing the construction of political education for women’s party cadres based on gender competences and needs al rafni 1 , suryanef 2 , cici nur azizah 3 * abstract political education for women cadres is a primary concern for the low quality (performance) of women's politics in the public world. especially, for women’s party cadres, it is necessary to reconstruct the conception of political education so that occurs in politics. researchers also targeted 45 informants from academics, practitioners, and the party's women cadres. the method used is a grounded theory approach to obtain field data as the basis for theory construction/conceptualization of the resulting theory. the research results indicated that the reconceptualization of the political education construction must be carried out on a philosophical, juridical, sociological, and practical basis. three things that need to be reconceptualised, which are (1) the meaning of the essence of political education; (2) the process of implementing political education; and (3) the competencies that must be possessed by women’s party cadres. recommendations are also discussed for political parties, government, and women political groups. keywords competence, gender, reconceptualization, political education, women's party cadre article history received 16 september 2022 accepted 14 december 2022 how to cite rafni, a., suryanef, & azizah, c. n. (2022). re-conceptualizing the construction of political education for women's party cadres based on gender competence and needs. indonesian research journal in education |irje|, 6(2), 261– 273.https://doi.org/10.22437 / irje.v6i2.20614 1faculty member, fakultas ilmu sosial, universitas negeri padang, indonesia 2faculty member, fakultas ilmu sosial, universitas negeri padang, indonesia 3faculty member, universitas bung hatta, indonesia, corresponding author, e-mail: cicinurazizah@bunghatta.ac.id https://doi.org/10.22437/%20irje.v6i2.20614 https://doi.org/10.22437/%20irje.v6i2.20614 mailto:cicinurazizah@bunghatta.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 262 introduction as one of the democratic institutions, political parties have a paramount role in empowering women in politics through competency-based political education implementation for women party cadres. competencies that will be realized are candidates for legislative members, party administrators, or government institutions leaders whose political skills are not based on charity . women at the practical political level have (ferreira & gyourko, 2014) different political backgrounds and performances from men. the findings of the research indicate that political education carried out by political parties for women party cadres tend not to pay attention to the needs of women (alrafni, 2013; hariyanti, darmawan, & masyitoh, . as a result, many women are not ready to occupy political positions. 2018; rafni 2015) ) revealed portraits of women legislators in areas that are far from expectations. sastriyani (2009 there is a persistent gender gap that affects women's abilities and qualifications in politics (fox ). the abilities and qualifications of woman in & lawless, 2014; kanthak & woon, 2015 political need to reconceptualize by presenting the construction of political education for woman’s party cadre based on gender competencies and needs. according to , olitical education for women’s party cadres has the muslimat (2020) following objectives: (1) cognitive aspects of building knowledge of basic political concepts, (2) the practical aspect of forming the character of citizens in favor of democratization and identity as the holder of people's sovereignty and (3) psychomotor aspects to build intellectual and moral skills in realizing a more democratic life. furthermore, suharto (2011) stated that the purpose of political education for women is not to seize the dominance of political power from men but to build a balance of roles in practical politics so it can accommodate he interests of both parties fairly and proportionally. he also explained that women whose self-awareness should not be infiltrated by capitalist politics that positions women to compete with men in the power struggle. therefore, explained the need for predescu and darjan (2010) competence in carrying out practical political activities so that what is done is not trivial. meanwhile, emphasized six knowledge competencies must be mastered kontu (2017) by women’s party cadres, such as (1) the indonesian state and government system, (2) the general election system, (3) self-image building, (4) political communication, (5) fundraising, and (6) network building. additionally, ) mentioned five competencies needed rothwell (1999 by a person in carrying out his duties and responsibilities, such as (1) technical competence, (2) managerial competence, (3) social competence, (4) strategic competence, and (5) ethical competence. technical competence is the skills and abilities to carry out their duties. whereas managerial competence is competence related to managerial ability in planning, organizing, mobilizing, and supervising. in addition, social competence is a person's ability to interact with other parties. last, strategic competence is the ability to look far ahead to formulate various strategic policies. at the same time, ethical competence carries out its duties and responsibilities with ethical and moral considerations. political education for women’s party cadres based on gender competencies and needs can motivate women in political activities and prepare qualified candidates for legislative and government members and party administrators. the experience of other countries proves that the representation of women in decision-making institutions has a role in realizing policies irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 263 that care about women's interests. the high political representation of women in the united states parliament correlated with the low infant mortality rate in 1990-2012 . in (homan, 2017) india, women politicians care deeply about promoting the advancement of public health on the other hand, revealed that the high (kumar & prakash, 2017). york and bell (2014) quality of women's representation in politics has implications for the high priority of the community towards health services. the research revealed that the political education for women’s party has implications for their success in displaying their competence well. therefore, it is necessary to describe how political education for women’s party cadres is based on gender competencies and needs. concept exploration and theory formulation are built from a philosophical, juridical, sociological, and practical view of the internal dynamics of the party. methodology this research is qualitative research with a grounded theory approach. the grounded theory assumes that the data obtained in the field becomes the basis for theory construction/conceptualization of theories carried out by researchers as an essential instrument in qualitative research . however, in general, this research follows (charmaz, 2014) a systematic research flow as suggested by creswell (2014), which are (1) researchers collected information (from observational interviews, documents, and so on), (2) the researcher used open-ended questions to the participants and took field notes, (3) researchers analysed data based on themes and categories, (4) researchers look for general patterns, generalizations, or theories from the themes or categories created, and (5) the researchers proposed generalizations or theories from the literature and research experience. research informants were determined purposively, which included: (1) political party administrators who were selected based on the representation of women in the dprd of west sumatra province, namely the gerindra, golkar, and pdi-p party, (2) national and political unity agencies (kesbangpol) as an institution for fostering political parties in west sumatra province, (3) academics and practitioners of education and political education, (4) women members of the people’s consultative assembly (mpr) of west sumatra province, (5) women executives who sit in the ranks of the government of west sumatra. all informants were 45 people. the data were collected through in-depth interviews, focus group discussions (fgd), and documentation studies. to ensure the validity of the data, the researchers carried out credibility, transferability, and dependability. credibility (trust is also called internal validity) is done through data triangulation techniques and theoretical triangulation. meanwhile, transferability is the extent to which research results can be transferred in other contexts. furthermore, the data were analysed qualitatively with the stages of data reduction, data presentation, data verification, and drawing conclusions. findings the construction of political education for women’s party cadres based on gender competencies and needs begins with laying the philosophical, juridical, sociological, and irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 264 practical foundations. the philosophical foundation concerns the basis of the state, which is translated into the vision-mission, statutes and by laws of the party. meanwhile, the juridical basis has been explicitly stated in article 11 of law number 2 of 2011 that political parties are a means of political education for party members and the wider community. furthermore, political parties also get funding sources through the budget income state expenditure (apbn) and budget income regional expenditure (apbd) to implement political education. research findings indicate that party fund is inadequate for political education. according to administrator, the careful party revealed the interview results that generally party experience problem funding in carrying out the political education process. as stated by one woman administrator party is as following, “the party has many programs to reach the primary destination that wins the general election, at a time preparing the cadre party to occupy crucial positions in temporary government. the political education process only carried out on once or twice a year for society, while for cadre by importance and the right moment. it is because of party funds for political education is limited.” the sociological basis of women’s party cadres is highly dependent on the internal environment of the party and the culture of the society in which the political party is located. first, it concerns the party's internal environment. second, regarding the culture of the community where the party is located, it is also a concern and contribution to the existence of women politicians. furthermore, from the practical aspect, it explains that political parties carry out political education for women’s party cadres which consists of two things, namely internal political education, and external political education. the party's internal political education attended by women cadres is no different from what is carried out by the party for male cadres. the research findings show that the three parties studied have standardized the implementation of political education for their party cadres without distinguishing between female or male cadres. standardization is only limited to the norms contained in the articles of association and by-law of each party. article 88 and 89 of the articles of association (ad)/(art) of (pdip) explain that political education for party cadres is carried out based on levels that consist of first-level, middle-level, and main-level cadres. for the interests of political parties and party regeneration, the central leadership council (dpp) of the pdi-p has also established party cadre schools and party schools. party schools aim to provide political education and national education. whereas the party’s cadre school aims to: (1) form party cadres who have ideological, organizational, political, and environmental awareness and an understanding of the socio-economic aspects of the community and (2) educate and prepare candidates for party, nation, and state leaders, and (3) convey bung karno's thoughts. like the pdi-p, article 15 of the golkar party's articles of association (ad)/ by-laws (art) contain levels of cadres, namely primary cadres, intermediate cadres, and main cadres. meanwhile, the explanation of golkar cadres is contained in article 6 of the party's by-laws (art), which are (1) golkar party cadres are party members who are the core and movers of the golkar party, (2) party cadres are members who have attended cadre education, training and have been screened based on mental-ideological criteria, appreciation of the party's vision, mission, and platform, achievements, dedication, discipline, loyalty and blamelessness irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 265 (pd2lt), and leadership, militancy, and independence. whereas, the articles of association (ad)/by-laws (art) of the gerindra party also mentions party cadres in article 10, which the members of the gerindra party are the core and movers of the party? party cadres have attended cadre education and training and have been screened with almost the same criteria as golkar party cadres. based on the philosophical, juridical, and sociological foundations, as well as the practical ones that have been built, a reconceptualization of the political education construction is carried out regarding (1) the meaning of the essence of political education, (2) the process of implementing political education, and (3) competencies that must be possessed by women’s party cadres. another thing revealed about the factors influencing the reconceptualization of political education for women’s party cadres based on gender competencies and needs. several factors greatly influence the political education organized by the party. the research results indicate four primary factors influencing the construction of political education, (1) gender-responsive political party policies, (2) party governance for political education, (3) party institutionalization in optimizing the function of political education, and (4) external political education network. these four things are the result of thinking based on findings in the field. each explanation is below. gender-responsive political party policies political education for women’s party cadres is a crucial issue for two reasons: (1) increasing women's participation in politics, and (2) increasing the capacity of women's party cadres to take part in public positions, both in the legislature and the executive. the issue of increasing women's participation in politics is global and national. the experience of other countries proves that the representation of women in decision-making institutions has a role in realizing policies that care about women's interests. some research related to gender and politics stated that special treatment is needed for women in political education carried out by parties because women at the practical political level have different political backgrounds and performances from men. therefore, parties need to support internal party policies, such as incorporating gender-responsive policies into the vision and mission, articles of association (ad), and by-laws (art). the management of party funds for political education the provision of political education for women’s party cadres is also greatly influenced by the availability of funds. article 34 paragraph 3a of law number 2 of 2011 concerning political parties states that political parties receive funds from the state budget (apbn) and regional government budget (apbd). this budget allocation is used with a priority to conduct political education for party members and the public. the amount of funds allocated is regulated in government regulation number 1 of 2018 concerning financial assistance to political parties. the provisions in article 5 state the amount of financial assistance to political parties as follows: irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 266 a. financial assistance to political parties at the central level that obtains seats in the dpr as referred to in article 2 paragraph (3) in the amount of idr. 1.000.00 (one thousand rupiahs) per valid vote, b. financial assistance to political parties at the provincial level that obtains the provincial dprd as referred to in article 2 paragraph (3) in the amount of idr. 1.200.00 (one thousand two hundred rupiahs) per valid vote; c. the value of the financial assistance to a district/city level political party that obtains a seat in the district/city dprd as referred to in article 2 paragraph (3) is idr. 1.500.00 (one thousand five hundred rupiahs) per valid vote. with these various regulations, why do many political parties not carry out their role as instruments of political education even though financial assistance is available? nurdin (2019) stated the state has a weak role in providing sanctions to political parties that do not carry out the function of political education to cadres and the public. he further explained that the instrument of sanctions is a preventive and repressive measure in the supervision of political parties. it is crucial to consider that without sanctions, there is a possibility that political parties will deviate from the predetermined path. if it happens, the credibility of political parties in the eyes of the public will be increasingly threatened, so political parties are no longer trusted to carry out their functions. regarding the application of sanctions and obligations of political parties as regulated in article 47 and article 13 of law number 2 of 2011 concerning amendments to law number 2 of 2008 of political parties, which essentially regulates: a. violation of the provisions as referred to in article 13 letter h, namely "keeping the books, maintaining a list of contributors and the amount of donations received, and being open to the public", is subject to administrative sanctions in the form of warnings by the government. b. violation of the provisions as referred to in article 13 number i, which is "submitting an accountability report on financial receipts and expenditures sourced from apbn assistance financial and regional expenditure revenues periodically once a year to the government after being audited by the state audit board" is subject to sanctions. administrative assistance in the form of termination of apbn/apbd assistance until the report is received by the government in the relevant fiscal year. based on the provisions, the application of sanctions to political parties that do not carry out their obligations, one of which is to provide political education to the community, does not provide a deterrent effect. therefore, it is necessary to have a model for implementing sanctions aimed at making political parties carry out their obligations in providing political education to the public and party cadres ( nurdin, 2019). party institutionalization in optimizing the function of political education well standardized political parties will carry out regeneration and political education for their members on an on-going basis. the cadre and political education are to improve the quality of its members so that later they can face the problems and challenges that always develop in political, national, and state life 2). party institutionalization is a necessity (rush, 200 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 267 that cannot be avoided considering that will make the party run in the proper corridor and function. defined institutionalization as strengthening political parties processes in scully (1995) structural and cultural aspects. these aspects are manifested in patterns of behaviour, attitudes, and culture. meanwhile, according to , the basedau and stroh (2008) institutionalization of political parties is an organizational process and procedure to obtain definite values and stability. when a political party has succeeded in formulating and internalizing its values and internalizing internal stability, it can be properly institutionalized. regarding the context of political education, the theories of institutionalization of political parties can explain how optimally political parties are to organize political education. the more standardized the values that will be implemented in political education, the more optimal the party will be in carrying out the function of political education. besides the need for institutionalization of political parties, the modernization of political parties is also a must. revealed the theory of political hofmeister and grabow (2009) party modernization through the following ten indicators, such as (1) membership and organization, (2) party members, (3) political recruitment, (4) cadre education and training, (5) the existence of a party program, (6) internal and external communication, (7) the realization of internal democracy, (8) conflict and conflict resolution, (9) the existence of quotas for women and minorities, and (10) party financing. the implementation of these ten indicators can only be achieved through the commitment of the political parties themselves. therefore, it is necessary to reconceptualise how the institutionalization and modernization of political parties can be carried out to improve the implementation of political education for women’s party cadres. external political education network besides internal party of political education, women’s party cadres also receive political education from external parties, such as non-governmental organizations (ngos), the ministry of women's empowerment, community organizations, or traditional groups. an interesting example from australia is the electoral commission's on-going collaboration with indigenous people through indigenous electoral participation programs. the program involves civil society in learning political education with party cadres. the women's political resource center (wprc) regularly provides political education for women politicians in georgia. in europe and latin america, one of the specialized institutions that provide political education for women is the women and cities political training center. this institution is in barcelona, spain. it has a mission to make women politicians have a huge influence in making decisions in a more democratic society . from the various factors that influence the (dewi, 2010) construction of political education and based on research findings in year i and ii, a proper construction of political education for women’s party cadres can be conceptualized based on gender competencies and needs. its construction is in the following diagram. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 268 figure 1. construction of political education for women’s party cadres based on gender competences and needs construction of political education for women’s party cadres based on gender competencies and needs philosophical base: pancasila uud 1945 vision and mission of party articles of association (ad) and by-laws of party the nature and purpose of political education based on the philosophy of the party juridical base: uu no. 2/2011 pp no.1/2018 fulfillment of sanctions enforcement juridical provisions program accountability sociological base: party internal environment community culture political system culture practice base: internal political education external political education general competencies: material related to state and national politics as well as ethics special competencies: the material is related to the fulfillment of the qualifications of cadres as party administrators, and legislative gender competencies and needs: materials on women’s empowerment in gender-responsive politics professional and gender responsive women’s party cadres genderresponsive party policies management of party financial for political education institutionalization of parties in optimizing the function of political education external political education networking irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 269 discussion one of the efforts to achieve gender equality in politics that can be done by political parties is to prepare women’s party cadres to compete in the public sphere with good quality. hence, parties are obliged to carry out political education by paying attention to women’s particular needs. unfortunately, the implementation of political education by political parties tends to be gender neutral. as a result, many women feel less confident in appearing in public spaces, which impacts their political performance. the research results sastriyani (2009) revealed that the performance of women's representatives in an area was far from expectations. there is a gender gap that continues to affect women's abilities and qualifications ( ) fox & lawless, 2014; kanthak & woon, 2015 definite actions from internal parties in carrying out political education are strategic steps to improve the process of developing women cadres themselves. according to soeharto , the purpose of political education for women is not to seize the dominance of political (2011) power from men. however, it aims to build a role balance in practical politics, so it accommodates the interests between men and women moderately and proportionally. squires revealed the need for special treatment for women because women have different (2013) political backgrounds and performances from men. when discussing policy issues, women's political performance tends to pay attention to social needs that are full of services, education, and health. stated that the competencies possessed by women ferreira and gyourko (2014) would impact their skills as party administrators, legislators, or government leaders. according to women make a difference. they are "present" in democracy and hoecker and fuchs (2004), bear democracy (bringing different styles and values to politics). according to , there are many reasons why women need to hoecker and fuchs (2004) be involved in politics. the first is justice. justice refers to the fact that democracy involves women and men in determining and making policies. equality refers to political participation as a paramount criterion for assessing or measuring the political process in a gender-democratic democracy. second, the argument about “women's interests”. it is good if women are championed as representatives to have women-friendly policies. meanwhile, the third is emancipation and change. it concerns the changes made by women to become the new driving force in society and political participation that is not only in terms of women's rights but also in terms of needs. then fourth, women make a "difference". women are not only present in democracy but also gender democracy. women are expected to “carry different styles and values into politics. it means that women bring different views, perspectives, and talents to formal politics. it relates to (1) leading and encouraging efforts against gender-based violence, (2) promoting and ensuring issues of old age, childcare, gender equality, and electoral laws/regulations to strengthen women's access to parliamentary legislative processes, (3) the responsibility to represent women in general, (4) the importance of advocacy for the wider community, and (5) promoting the “women's agenda” into broader political discussions. finally, mean that women become role models or motivations and encouragements for other women. three things are very urgent and must be built conceptually, (1) regarding the meaning of the essence of political education, and (2) the process of implementing political education, irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 270 and (3) competencies that must be possessed by women’s party cadres. in addition, the foundation of political education itself was reconstructed, namely the philosophical, juridical, sociological, and practical foundations. furthermore, to present women’s party cadres who are professional and gender responsive, supporting factors are needed, such as (1) gender responsive party policies, (2) governance of party funds for political education, (3) party institutionalization in optimizing the function of political education, and (4) external political education network. the research findings indicate that the party does not yet have a standard operating procedure (sop) to carry out political education operationally or procedurally. although there have been instructions from the dpp empirically at the district/city level, there are no firm rules regarding the pattern of organizing political education. hence, it is necessary to strengthen party institutions in carrying out political education. the institutionalization of political parties to strengthen political parties structurally and culturally is to build patterns of behaviour and culture. the party institutionalization process consists of internal-external aspects and structural-cultural aspects (randall & . they also explained, if the two aspects are crossed, four criteria will emerge in svasand, 2002) looking at institutionalization, such as (1) systemic criteria, which is the process of implementing the functions of political parties carried out according to agreed, procedural rules. requirements, and mechanisms, (2) value identity criteria (value infusion), which is political parties have value identities that are different from one another and become a representation of the pattern and direction of their struggle, (3) independence criteria, which is political parties have decision-making autonomy which determines the level of party authority in making decisions, and (4) criteria for public image (reification) which is the depth of public knowledge about the existence and movement of parties. furthermore, it is necessary to build a network with the government, the community, and the private sector. political education within the party needs to be supported by external party education. parties must build networks and cooperate with various parties to optimize political education for their cadres. in this case, women are party cadres. the research results indicate that there have been partnerships between women's party cadres with several institutions such as the women and children empowerment agency in terms of gender mainstreaming (pug), indonesian women's political caucus (kkpi) by holding counselling and socialization, including: (1) women's empowerment development program in the political field, (2) a strategy to increase women's ability to gain public sympathy, (3) tips for building political communication between women politicians, and (4) smart strategies to win election campaigns and so on. meanwhile, the material provided by non-governmental organizations is also not much different in providing counselling for women’s party cadres, including (1) determining seat allocation, (2) technical guidelines for drafting laws, and (3) gender-responsive budgets. referring to the counselling material provided, the political education from external parties provides more insight or gender perspective for women activists or party cadres. if we learn from other countries, such as australia, in improving the quality of democracy, cooperation with local communities is built in a program called indigenous electoral participation . in this program, the local community continues to (setiawaty, 2014) have a network to create a better political life. revealed their campbell and niemi (2016) irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 271 research results in the american political science review by describing the national assessment of educational progress (naep) program by continuously evaluating the level of political knowledge of young people (18-24 years) during the period 2006 2010 for the sustainability of political education patterns. thus, the party needs to expand the network of cooperation with various parties. political education is a necessity in a democracy. lippman that there is no democracy without politics and no politics without parties. and rossiter (1982) therefore, political education programs in political parties must be based on gender-responsive party policies. conclusion and recommendations the reconceptualization of the construction of political education for women’s party cadres based on gender competencies and needs consists of (1) the foundations that form the basis for the implementation of political education, which are the philosophical basis, juridical basis, sociological basis, and juridical basis, and practical basis, (2) the meaning of political education, (3) the process of providing political education, and (4) the concept of competence that must be possessed by women’s party cadres. our main factors that influence the construction of political education for women’s party cadres based on gender competencies and needs, which are (1) gender responsive political party policies, (2) party governance that supports the political education process, (3) party institutionalization in optimizing the function of political education, and (4) external political education network. political parties should create an applicable political education model for support enhancement competence of women cadre party based on gender. also, government areas give relatively sufficient budget for the process of organizing political education so that the representation of women could increase at a time increase capacity as people's representative. disclosure statement no potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors. acknowledgments the authors' gratitude goes to the chancellor of universitas negeri padang and the institute for research and service to the community (lppm) that have facilitated the implementation of research for this article. references alrafni, a. 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(2014). life satisfaction across nations: the effects of women’s political status and public priorities. social science research, 48, 48-61. biographical notes al rafni is faculty member, fakultas ilmu sosial, universitas negeri padang, indonesia. suryanef is faculty member, fakultas ilmu sosial, universitas negeri padang, indonesia. cici nur azizah is faculty member, universitas bung hatta, indonesia, corresponding author, e-mail: cicinurazizah@bunghatta.ac.id mailto:cicinurazizah@bunghatta.ac.id this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 417 english teachers’ strategies in managing large classes: a case study lenny marzulina 1 , dian erlina* 2 , muhammad holandyah 3 , kasinyo harto 4 , deta desvitasari 5 , and dessi angreini 6 abstract this study aimed at finding (1) english teachers’ strategies in managing large classes, and (2) students’ perceptions towards their english teachers’ strategies. the design of this research is qualitative with a case study approach. this study involved four english teachers and ten students at one state madrasah tsanawiyah in palembang, indonesia. the data were collected through observations, interviews, and document review. thematic analysis was conducted across a data set. the findings demonstrated that planning the lesson, organizing and controlling the students, managing classroom communication and talking time, then giving written and timely feedback on students’ works were the strategies applied by the english teachers. the use of these strategies was positively perceived by the students that they could have a better understanding, practice mutual-respect, and enjoy the lesson. therefore, it might be a good idea to review teachers’ strategies in this study to address the difficulty of teaching english in large class settings. keywords english teachers’ strategies, classroom management, large classes, madrasah tsanawiyah 1 faculty of teacher training and education. state islamic university of raden fatah, palembang, indonesia, lennymarzulina_uin@radenfatah.ac.id 2* corresponding author and faculty of teacher training and education. state islamic university of raden fatah, palembang, indonesia, dianerlina_uin@radenfatah.ac.id 3 faculty of teacher training and education. state islamic university of raden fatah, palembang, indonesia, muhammadholandyah_uin@radenfatah.ac.id 4 faculty of teacher training and education. state islamic university of raden fatah, palembang, indonesia, kasinyoharto_uin@radenfatah.ac.id 5 faculty of teacher training and education. state islamic university of raden fatah, palembang, indonesia, detadesvitasari_uin@radenfatah.ac.id 6 faculty of teacher training and education. state islamic university of raden fatah, palembang, indonesia, dessiangreini@gmail.com mailto:lennymarzulina_uin@radenfatah.ac.id mailto:dianerlina_uin@radenfatah.ac.id mailto:muhammadholandyah_uin@radenfatah.ac.id mailto:detadesvitasari_uin@radenfatah.ac.id mailto:dessiangreini@gmail.com irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 418 introduction english plays very important roles in many fields of human life. it can be used in education and business to get information, job, and entertainment (reddy, 2016). richards (2015) also adds that english may be required for social survival and employment for new immigrants in english-speaking countries, an essential tool for education and business for some learners, the language of travel and related activities of sightseeing for others, and a popular language for the media, entertainment, the internet and other forms of electronic communication. it can be concluded that english holds prominent functions in many aspects of human life. learning english is essential for today’s generation to adapt to global communication, literature, media, and work in the present and future. therefore, in indonesia, english is included as a subject in the school curriculum. this is supported by lie (2007) which states that english is taught and used as a foreign language in indonesia. it is the first foreign language learned as a compulsory subject at school (panggabean, 2015; hingne, 2013) to widen the students’ understanding of english as a foreign language (mahu, 2012, p. 374). thus, english is the first foreign language officially taught as a compulsory subject to students from junior secondary school in indonesia. in teaching english as a foreign language (efl), teachers as the facilitators of student learning take a variety of roles within the classroom. one of the important roles of a teacher in the teaching and learning process is being a classroom manager (r. marzano, j. marzano & pickering, 2003). as a classroom manager, a teacher should have a set of skills and techniques to create a positive and productive learning environment for the students (habibi, mukminin, najwan, sofwan, haswindy, marzulina, sirozi, & harto, 2018). teachers cannot successfully teach their students if they are not in control of the class (ababneh, 2012, p. 301; low & ang, 2011). the control of students by the teachers in the classroom tends to be regarded as the goal of classroom management (gujjar & naoreen, 2009). in summary, effective english teaching and learning cannot take place in a poorly managed classroom. class size is one of the influential matters in managing the classroom. moluayonge and park (2017) argue that it can impact classroom management significantly. the size of a class may affect the teacher’s classroom management (koenig, gray, lewis & martin, 2015). it can make and influence the success or failure of classroom management. class size relates to the number of students in a class. it refers to the actual number of students taught by a teacher (ehrenberg, brewer, gamoran & willms, 2001; yusuf, onifade & bello, 2016). there is no exact size for small or large classes (haddad, 2015). however, according to brown (2001), for effective language learning, a class should have not more than twelve students. a classroom with too many students often presents some problems for the teacher, such as lack of individual teacher-student attention, fewer opportunities for students to speak, and insufficient teacher’s feedback on students’ written work. in addition, large class is usually hot, crowded, and noisy (al-obaydi & al-bahadli, 2017). it affects the teaching process and student academic performance. it also reduces effective classroom control (yusuf, onifade & bello, 2016). to overcome the problems of a large class, teachers need to have strategies to improve students’ learning achievement with optimal classroom management. several studies irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 419 investigated pedagogical strategies that teachers used in teaching in large classes to create positive student-teacher interactions. solis and turner (2016) report that self-disclosure, caring leadership and making the class feel smaller are the strategies to promote positive instructions in large classes. haddad (2015) claims that teachers should move around the class to reduce physical and social distance and help the students in learning. in short, strategies have to be used by teachers to resolve large class management problems. the problems of large classes are also faced by the english teachers at one of the state islamic junior high schools (madrasah tsanawiyah) in palembang. this school is also likely to have classes of large size. based on our preliminary study results, a teacher had to teach 42 to 45 students in each class. it was really an overcrowded class and difficult for the teachers to control. the students were very noisy. discomfort and lack of individual attention were the other problems in the class. however, the english teachers had their strategies to manage the classroom and make the students feel comfortable in learning. we conducted this research to know more detail about english teachers’ strategies in managing a large class and students’ perceptions of the strategies used by their english teachers in managing a large class. in specific, this research was aimed at; (1) exploring english teachers’ strategies in managing large classes and (2) exploring the students’ perceptions towards the strategies used by their english teachers. literature review teaching english as a foreign language teaching is a way to convey knowledge to students. teaching may be defined as a process to help students learn how to do something and understand what knowledge is given (brown, 2000). likewise, the work of teaching includes broad cultural competence and relational sensitivity, communication skills, and the combination of rigour and imagination fundamental to students’ effective practice (ball & forzani, 2009). thus, the students can get knowledge from the teaching process by the teacher. teaching english is an important job (baker & westrup, 2000). the objectives of teaching english are basically related to the cognitive and psychomotor domain that the students can understand the english grammar, speak, read, and write english correctly (hingne, 2013). teaching english as a foreign language requires teachers to deliver the english language articulately and interestingly to encourage students to improve their english skills through listening, speaking, reading, and writing activities. the role of teacher in managing the class as the facilitator of student learning, a teacher takes on a variety of roles within the classroom. one of the most important roles of a teacher is being a classroom manager (marzano, marzano & pickering, 2003). richards and rogers (2000) explain that the teacher is responsible for determining the content of what is taught, setting the interactional patterns of classroom activities, and keeping the students organized and focused on the lesson. this indicated the important role of a teacher in determining students’ success in learning (habibi, irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 420 mukminin, sofwan, & sulistiyo, 2017). a teacher with strong classroom management can create an environment for students to learn and behave in new and different ways without distractions (cooper, 2011; copland, garton & burns, 2014). the ability of teachers to organize classroom and manage the behavior of their students is critical to achieving positive educational outcomes (oliver & reschsy, 2007). effective learning can begin with the creation of an exciting learning atmosphere; therefore, classroom management is very important. in the teaching-learning process, the teacher has to give the students facilities to make the teaching-learning process easy, active, and more comfortable. classroom management strategies management refers to skill in the organization and presentation of lessons so that all pupils are actively engaged in learning (smith & laslett, 2002). classroom control and classroom discipline are the most commonly used concepts to refer to classroom management during teaching (merç & subaşɪ, 2015). management strategy is a way that is applied by the teacher in the classroom with various aspects and goals to get an achievement in the learning process. according to eisenman, edwards and cushman (2015), the management strategy is to redirect the student back to the lesson to not interrupt all students learning. by this definition, management strategy focuses on the process of learning goal setting, policy development and planning to achieve objectives. it can control the aim of learning itself. classroom management is what teachers do to ensure that students engage in the task in hand (wragg, 2002). moreover, cooper (2011) states that classroom management refers to the actions teachers take to create an environment that is respectful, caring, orderly and productive and supports and facilitates academic and social-emotional learning. the ability of teachers to organize classrooms and manage the behavior of their students is critical to achieving positive educational outcomes (oliver & reschsy, 2007). effective learning can begin with creating an exciting learning atmosphere; therefore, classroom management is clearly very important and needs serious attention (tauber, 2007). the teachers should apply appropriate strategies to manage their classroom so that content and student learning can occur. large classes the definition of large classes may differ in different contexts. according to unesco (2006), in some countries, 25-30 students per teacher is considered large, while in other countries, this is seen as normal or even quite small (as cited in trang, 2015, p. 76). at the same time, brown (2001) emphasizes that for language learning, a class is considered large when it has more than a dozen of students. this implies that the class occupied by more than twelve students can lead to some difficulties in dealing with individuals in the classroom. the teachers often perceive large classes as troublesome, difficult, and problematic as compared to smaller classes. the large classes have more students than available facilities can support (ara & hossain, 2016). trang (2015) argues that teaching in such large classes is really a burden to teachers. they ind it difficult to engage the students in learning, and learners can feel that it is hard to participate in classroom activities. it means irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 421 that in a large class, both teacher and student can face challenges. baker and westrup (2000) describe the challenges encountered by the teachers and students in large english classes. the challenges are the difficulty of teachers in keeping everyone’s attention, lack of students’ motivation in learning english, the difficulty of students in hearing the teacher explanation, lack of opportunity of teachers in helping weaker students, attendance can be poor and irregular, leading to lack of continuity, time-consuming in taking the register, teachers can have too much marking to do, and few resources to make learning interesting. teachers’ strategies in teaching english in large classes in teaching large classes, teachers should prepare some strategies to deal with various students with different abilities and personalities and provide them with the opportunity to achieve the learning objectives. some researchers have conducted studies about english teachers’ strategies in managing large classes. solis and turner (2016) investigated teachers’ pedagogical strategies to create positive student-instructor interactions to counter students and instructors’ challenges. they reported that several strategies like self-disclosure, caring leadership, and making the class feel smaller have positive implications for the students’ learning performance. in addition, baker and westrup (2000) mentioned that the teachers’ strategies in managing large classes such as (1) planning, (2) classroom management (3) organization, (4) group and pair work, (5) teacher talk consist of balancing teacher and student talking time, giving clear instructions, reasons for using the students’ first language in the classroom, using consistent language, questioning techniques, (6) managing classes with mixed abilities that are dealing with weak, average and stronger students, (7) correction and marking, (8) marking and self-evaluating. these strategies are required for successful large class handling. methodology research design, participants, and locale of the study in this study, we used a qualitative research design with a case study approach. case study is one of the approaches used to investigate an issue that happens in one place. creswell (2007) explains that a case study is the study of an issue explored through one or more cases within the bounded system or multiple bounded systems over time, through detailed, in-depth data collection involving multiple sources of information. we used this approach because the major data collections were in the form of qualitative data to find out strategies of english teachers in managing a large class and perceptions of students on strategies used by their english teachers. additionally, a qualitative case study was used in this study because the findings of this study might not be generalized to the other state islamic junior high schools (madrasah tsanawiyah) in indonesia. in selecting the participants of this study, we used a purposeful sampling technique. we relied on our judgment in choosing the teachers and students to participate in this study. purposeful sampling is the way researchers intentionally select individuals for study (creswell, 2012). this research used a maximum variation sampling strategy to develop many irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 422 perspectives (creswell, 2012) and identify important common patterns (creswell, 2007). our research participants consisted of four english teachers and ten students at one state madrasah tsanawiyah in palembang, indonesia. qualitative research does not need to have a large number of participants (creswell, 2014). therefore, the participants were selected because they were likely to generate useful data for this research. the english teachers were selected based on a set of characteristics. they had to possess a degree in english language education and have been teaching english for at least five years as an important attribute of teacher quality (jacobs, gregory, & hoppey, 2009). the students were selected solely based on the teachers’ experience with their classes. we masked the participants’ real names and personal data to protect their identities, and we informed all participants regarding this issue. thus, the names of all research participants were initials. data collection and analysis interviews, observations with note-taking, and document review were employed to collect the research data. note-taking during observations is necessary to support the data from interviews (abrar, mukminin, habibi, asyrafi, makmur, & marzulina, 2018). the observation sheet consisted of seven indicators about teachers’ classroom management strategies adapted from baker & westrup’s theory (2000, p. 106). each indicator consisted of several items with a total of 24 items to identify english teachers’ strategies in managing large classes. direct observations were conducted in each classroom to get field evidence. then, each participant was interviewed to obtain information about teachers’ strategies in managing large classes and students’ perceptions towards those strategies. we applied one-on-one interviews with open-ended questions. we recorded all interviews by using a smartphone. we also reviewed several documents such as teacher’s lesson plans and course books for additional information. the data gained from the observation and interview were analyzed by using thematic analysis to determine information about the english teachers’ strategies in managing large classes and students’ perceptions of the strategies used by their english teachers in managing large classes. first, we prepared, organized, and read the data from observations and interviews. in this process, we read all transcriptions and coded the data related to this study’s research questions. then, we used the coding process to generate a description from the data. we made themes from the code that interconnects the themes. interconnecting themes mean that the researcher connects the themes to display a chronology or sequence of events when qualitative research generates a theoretical or conceptual model (creswell, 2012). lastly, we made personal interpretations from the themes and codes as the final summary of this research concerning the research questions. ethical considerations in this research, we used triangulation to validate the accuracy of our research finding gained from data collection. triangulation is a corroborated evidence process by different individuals (creswell, 2012). subsequently, there are six techniques of triangulation such as investigator triangulation, combined level triangulation, methodological triangulation, theoretical triangulation, time triangulation, and space triangulation (cohen, manion, & irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 423 morrison, 2007). we applied a technique of methodological triangulation in this study in which we used a different method on the same object study to obtain more comprehensive data and provide confirmation of findings. thus, the data from observations were confirmed by the data from interviews and vice versa. finally, those data we combined to corroborate each other to enhance our understanding of english teachers’ strategies in managing large classes and students’ perceptions f their english teachers’ strategies. findings the research findings answered the two research questions of this study; (1) what were the english teachers’ strategies in managing large classes at one state madrasah tsanawiyah in palembang?, and (2) what were the students’ perceptions on the strategies used by their english teachers in managing large classes at one state madrasah tsanawiyah in palembang? english teachers’ strategies in managing large classes based on the results of data analysis, we found that english teachers in managing large classes used several strategies. themes and codes gained from the thematic analysis can be seen in table 1. table 1. themes and codes of english teachers’ strategies in managing large classes themes codes 1. planning the lesson a. all of the teachers prepared lesson plan before teaching. b. most of them prepared their course books to add the materials in the textbook. c. they also used other english learning sources such as other printed materials, videos, and songs. 2. organizing and controlling the students a. all of the teachers set their own classroom rules; for example, dictionary use in learning the words, rewards and punishments for better learning motivation, and classroom discipline practices in learning. b. some of them changed the students’ seating arrangement to control learning distractions and maintain students’ learning engagement. c. some of them moved around the classroom to give individual learning attention or assistance and make them accessible to all the students. d. most of them attempted to remember the names of students in the class. 3. managing classroom communication and talking time a. all of the teachers used both english and indonesian language to communicate with their students to avoid misunderstandings. b. all of them delivered the lesson with clear instructions. c. all of them encouraged the students to ask questions about the lesson to ensure their understanding of the materials. 4. giving written and timely feedback a. some of the teachers marked and corrected students’ works to help them improve their works. b. one of them provide examples of what requires revisions and return the works timely to the students. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 424 the themes and codes described in table 1 above were explained as follows. based on the data obtained from observations and interviews, we found that one of english teachers’ strategies in managing large classes was associated with the scheme of teacher’s work. in this case, the teachers prepared lesson plans and course books before teaching to list the structure for a lesson. the data gained from the interview, the first english teacher (et1) said, “i prepare everything necessary before teaching.” meanwhile, et2, et3, and et4 also shared similar answers. they explained that their lesson plans helped them teach as they provided the outline of the learning objectives and means to accomplish them with specific english classroom activities. they described that they prepared course books for teaching. they also used other sources of english language learning. for example, et2 stated, “to complete my explanation, i use my course book and other sources such as other printed materials, videos, and songs to add the materials which are not available in the textbook.” et1 and et4 also supported this by providing similar information. in organizing and controlling the classroom, the teachers set classroom rules, managed the students’ seating arrangement, moved around the classroom, and remembered students’ names. all english teachers set their own classroom rules. for example, the students have to use a dictionary in learning unfamiliar words. one of the teachers named et1 said, “yes, i always ask my students to bring and use a dictionary to learn the correct spelling, pronunciation, and definition of the unfamiliar word.” moreover, et2, et3, and et4 expressed the same information. besides, et4 stated, “i will give punishment to the students when they have spelling errors if they do not bring dictionary, do not do their homework, or if they do not come to the class on time. the punishment will educate them as well as beneficial to students, such as; they have to memorize some words or write learning reports.” meanwhile, et1 also had a similar opinion. from observations, we found that some english teachers asked their students who did not bring the dictionary, and the students spontaneously lifted the dictionary up to show their teacher that they had the dictionary. for instance, the teacher assigned the students who did not bring a dictionary to come forward and memorize some english words; once they had finished the assignment well, the teacher gave them applause and appreciation for their efforts in learning. also, they made students disciplined in classroom. they asked their students to be neat and wear tidy school uniforms, come to class on time, not eat, chat, and disturb other students during the lesson. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 425 incorporating explanation and movement during the class was another strategy applied by the teachers in managing large classes. they assumed that their students who were at the back seating position might not have attention. for example, one of teachers et4 reflected that, “in large class, i always give attention to all of my students by moving around the classroom. sometimes, the students are talking to each other during the lesson, so it is important for me to move around to control my students.” subsequently, we asked them the purpose of moving around the classroom, a teacher, et4 said, “i do that so all of my students could see and listen to my explanation clearly.” besides, et1 also argued that, “moving around the classroom allows me to see and help my students in learning, instead of just explaining the lesson from my desks.” we found that when the students made a noise during the lesson, the teacher walked towards them and rearranged their seating arrangement to maintain their learning engagement. we also found that english teachers attempted to remember their students’ names in checking students’ attendance by calling their names. for instance, one of the english teachers et2 said, “teaching in large class can be easier when i remember the names of students; i could call and ask the student easily and quickly without wasting time to look at the attendance list.” meanwhile, the teachers, et3 and et4, also explained that calling students by their names could indicate respect and make the students feel recognized as individuals in a large class. managing classroom communication was also the strategy used by the english teachers in managing large classes. they used both english and indonesian language to communicate with their students to avoid misunderstandings. for example, one of the teachers named et3 stated, “in teaching english, i cannot use full english because the students cannot understand it well. i use english when the words or sentences are simple and familiar to the students. sometimes, i use english first and then i translate them into indonesian.” we observed that when the teacher delivered the materials in english, the students seemed difficult to understand, and they just stayed silent, but when the teacher used indonesian, most of the students showed reactions and gave responses such as nodding their heads, giving comments or asking questions. managing talking time was also a means of communication management by the teachers during the lesson. talking and questioning were viewed as key to helping the students learn and practice their english. one of the teachers, et3 told, irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 426 “i explain the materials in front of the class to make my students understood the lesson easily.” in addition, et2 also argued that, “i have a target for students to make them speak in the classroom. so, the talking time between teacher and student must be balance, such as i encourage the students to speak about the lesson which has already been explained from the simple thing around them in the classroom. if i spend the whole lesson talking, my students will have less opportunity to learn and practice communication.” english teachers used the questioning technique to have the students talk. for example, et4 said, “when i have explained the subject matter, i ask the students if they have some questions. if there is no question from the students, i will ask them some questions related to my explanation.” marking and correcting students’ works could help students recognize, diagnose, and revise their assignments. some of the english teachers marked and corrected all the students’ works. english teachers named et2 answered, “although my class consists of many students, i always check my students’ works, mark their mistakes, give the right answers on their works, and return the works timely and ask them to correct their mistakes.” this indicated that the teachers realized that their written feedback on students’ assignments was important to enable the students to evaluate and improve their works. students’ perceptions of the teachers’ strategies in managing large classes referring to the results of data analysis, we found that the majority of the students positively perceived the strategies used by their english teachers in managing large classes. themes and codes gained from the thematic analysis were described in table 2. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 427 table 2. themes and codes of students’ perceptions on their english teachers’ strategies in managing large classes themes codes 1. enhancing the understanding of the lesson a. the majority of the students understand the lesson when the teachers explained the materials in two languages, english and indonesian. b. most of them understand the lesson when the teachers explained the materials in a simple and concise manner. c. all the students understand the lesson when the teachers explained the materials in a loud voice. 2. practicing mutual respect a. some students obeyed the classroom rules because they do not want to disturb their friends. b. some other students obeyed the classroom rules because they respect their teachers. 3. creating learning comfort a. most of the students were comfortable when their teacher approached them to provide individual attention and assistance in learning. b. some of them were enjoyed learning english with their friends in several types of seating arrangements. in the learning process, teachers used some strategies to make students understand and be interested in the lesson. for example, they used two languages in teaching, english and indonesia. they used english at the beginning of the lesson to motivate the students to practice their english and activate their background knowledge related to the materials to study. then, for further explanation, the teachers mostly talked in indonesian. most of the students claimed that they could understand the materials when their english teachers explained in two languages, english and indonesian. for example, the students named ctq claimed, “i do not understand my teacher’s explanation when she (et4) speaks english too much.” meanwhile, other students with initial oe, aa, ar, ica, mz and da shared similar opinions. in addition, one student, oe, also said, “i just keep quiet when our english teacher (et1) mostly talks in english. i can respond to her explanation when she translated into indonesian.” moreover, other students with initial aa, cm, and arl gave similar answers. most of the students said that it was easier for them to understand the lesson if the teacher explained the lesson simply and concisely. for example, one student named aa said that, “my english teacher (et2) gives a brief explanation and clear example of the lesson. i can understand the lesson with her example and explanation, and then i directly do the exercise given.” another student, ar, also gave a similar answer. meanwhile, the student named ctq stated that, “when my english teacher (et1) explains a lesson in a loud voice, i can focus on her explanation.” other students oe and ak shared similar information. on irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 428 the other hand, the students with initial ica argued that, “my english teacher’s (et3) sometimes speaks in a soft voice, i find it difficult to understand her explanation, especially when the class is noisy.” other students also supported this opinion. the relationship between students and teachers in the classroom was established with mutual respect. students listened to the teacher and obeyed the classroom rules. based on the results of interviews, we found that the students could learn mutual-respect of others from the rules of the class. student ar claimed that, “we have to obey the rules by our english teacher (et1); for example we may not come late to the class, have to bring our dictionary, and be polite to others.” another student, aa described, “when i come late to class, i might disturb my teacher and friends, so it is better to come early.” other students named cm, da and arl gave a similar answer. we found that the students felt comfortable learning english in the classroom. the data gained from the interview, students named aa stated, “my english teacher (et2) always moves around the classroom and approaches individual students, so i can easily ask her if i do not understand the lesson.” the student with initial ar said similar thing. the students enjoyed learning english in several types of seating arrangements such as circle, semicircle, horseshoes, and groups of four or five. the student named ctq argued that, “i enjoy learning english with my friends in a circle or semicircle seating arrangement as we can see each other, talk, and move easily during learning activities.” other students, ica, mz, and oe, also shared similar opinions. discussion in managing large classes, the teachers conducted several classroom management strategies. all of the english teachers claimed that they used the lesson plan strategy to manage the large class. the teacher used this lesson plan as a guide in determining what and how the lesson will be taught as well as how learning will be evaluated. lesson plans also enable teachers to manage large classes effectively with a detailed outline of teaching and learning activities during the class. weinstein and mignano (2007) state that lesson plan is an important aspect that must do by the teachers. also, good classroom management starts with planning the course book and syllabus (baker & westrup, 2000). in this research, most of the teachers prepared their course books and used other sources of english learning sources such as other printed materials, videos, and songs, to add the materials in the textbook. another strategy used by the english teachers in managing large classes was organizing and controlling the classroom. the actions related to organizing classroom management strategy were remembering students’ names, moving around, setting classroom rules, and using the appropriate seating arrangement. according to baker and westrup (2000), the best way to maintain control and discipline is to memorize and use students’ names. solis and turner (2016) emphasize that moving around the classroom enables the teacher to get closer to the students, allowing them to know their problems in learning english. they explained the same material to all of their students, but sometimes they gave more attention to the weak students. haddad (2015) argued that teachers move towards irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 429 students to reduce physical and social distance among them. besides, the seating arrangement is pivotal for classroom control and management, interaction, socialization, and ease of teaching. the seating arrangement should match the activity (wannarka & ruhl, 2008). baker and westrup (2000) also explain that classroom rules are necessary to establish good discipline. managing classroom communication and talking time was done by the teachers in managing large classes. classroom communication exists for giving and receiving messages through verbal and nonverbal languages. effective communication makes learning easier and strengthens the connection and interaction among people in the classroom (shamossi, 2014). therefore, the teachers used both english and indonesian language to communicate with their students to provide clear instruction and avoid misunderstandings. subsequently, managing the talking time was also the strategy used by the english teachers. to make the talking time balanced, the english teachers explained the materials simply and concisely and then asked several questions to the students to respond. they also encouraged the students to ask questions about the lesson to ensure their understanding of the materials. this was supported by baker and westrup (2000), who reported that students need opportunities for speaking practice and the best way to learn to communicate, is to speak. marking and correcting students’ works was another strategy applied by the english teachers to help students revise their assignments. some of the english teachers marked and corrected all the students’ works. students can learn from their mistakes, will make fewer mistakes in the future, and think about what they have written (baker and westrup, 2000). therefore, the teacher’s written feedback on students’ assignments was important to enable the students to improve their works. effective written feedback provides students with an explanation, example, and suggestion of what they are doing well and what requires improvement. this also needs to be timely and understandable to the student to make the revisions. the majority of the students positively perceived the strategies used by their english teachers in managing large classes. they found that the strategies were helpful for them in learning english. they could have better understanding, practice mutual-respect and enjoy the lesson. additionally, it was obvious that the students respected and obeyed their teachers and the classroom rules. listening to and respecting the teachers is important for students to realize knowledge and attitude (wilhelm and pei, 2008). this indicated that teachers’ strategies could create a good learning atmosphere for the students. conclusion english teachers in managing large classes used several strategies. the strategies were planning the lesson, organizing and controlling the students, managing classroom communication and talking time, giving written and timely feedback on students’ works. the majority of the students positively perceived towards the strategies used by their english teachers in managing large classes. they found that the strategies were helpful for them in learning english. these perceptions should be considered a determinant of students’ attitudes towards learning and reflect teachers’ teaching practices in large classes. although irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 430 there is no best way to teach large classes, it might be good to review teachers’ strategies in this study to address the difficulty of teaching english in large class settings. disclosure statement no potential conflict of 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(2002). class management in primary school. new york, ny: routledge falmer. yusuf, t. a., onifade, c. a & bello, o. s. (2016). impact of class size on learning behavioral and general attitudes of students in secondary schools in abeokuta, ogun state nigeria. journal of research initiatives, 2(1), 1-16. biographical notes lenny marzulina, m.pd. is an associate professor at faculty of teacher training and education. state islamic university of raden fatah, palembang, indonesia. dr. dian erlina is an associate professor at faculty of teacher training and education. state islamic university of raden fatah, palembang, indonesia. muhammad holandyah, m.pd. is an assistant professor at faculty of teacher training and education. state islamic university of raden fatah, palembang, indonesia. kasinyo harto, prof. dr. is a full professor at faculty of teacher training and education. state islamic university of raden fatah, palembang, indonesia. deta desvitasari is a lecturer at faculty of teacher training and education. state islamic university of raden fatah, palembang, indonesia. dessi angreini is a student at faculty of teacher training and education. state islamic university of raden fatah, palembang, indonesia. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 274 the effect of the art-themed activities on mathematics achievement and student views berna yildizhan 1 and ozlem cezikturk 2 abstract this study was aimed to examine the effect of teaching with art-themed activities on students' mathematics achievement and to examine students' attitudes on the teaching process. the research was carried out with a total of 52 fifth grade students studying in istanbul (turkey). the research has a hybrid design in which qualitative data are used to support quantitative data. in the study carried out with the quasi-experimental research method, the experimental group was taught with art-themed mathematics activities, while the control group was taught with the activities in the ministry of education textbook. as a result of research, it was found that teaching mathematics with art-themed activities was more effective in increasing math achievement than teaching with the ministry of education textbook. students considered teaching as fun in general through art-themed activities and expressed that they learned better by having fun. findings are discussed with a reference to relevant and recent literature. keywords art-themed activity, attitudes towards mathematics, mathematics achievement, mathematics education, quasi-experimental method article history received 9 march 2022 accepted 18 november 2022 how to cite yıldızhan, e., & cezikturk, o. (2022). the effect of the art-themed activities on mathematics achievement and student views. indonesian research journal in education |irje|, 6(2), 274-289, https://doi.org/ 10.22437/irje.v6i2.17433 1 ahmet kelesoglu faculty of education, necmettin erbakan university, konya, turkey, e-mail: berna.yldzhnn@hotmail.com 2 ataturk faculty of education, marmara university, istanbul, turkey, e-mail: ozlem.cezikturk@marmara.edu.tr mailto:berna.yldzhnn@hotmail.com mailto:ozlem.cezikturk@marmara.edu.tr irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 275 introduction mathematics is seen as a difficult lesson to learn for students. when the timss data of 2015 and the last 10 years of the pisa exam are examined, it is observed that turkish students' math scores have lagged behind in the country rankings and their level of math literacy has gradually decreased (taş et al., 2016; yıldırım et al., 2016). many personal, social, and environmental factors influence students' mathematics success. one of them is that the students don’t like mathematics and therefore mathematics course. as interest in mathematics increases, students' mathematics success also increases (yıldırım et al., 2016). in the current curriculum, activities are used to increase students' interest in the course (milli eğitim bakanlığı [meb], 2018). however, the functioning and activities in textbooks may not provide sufficient motivation for the student and may not attract the attention of the students. in order to achieve effective teaching, it is important to enrich the teaching process with remarkable activities aimed at developing skills (nolan, 2009). art is an important context for students to develop their mathematical skills as well as spatial understanding and proportional thinking skills associated with artistic skills. there is a reciprocal relationship between mathematical learning and artistic learning (edens & potter, 2007). kim (2018) states that combining art with different disciplines can improve students' creativity. music-integrated teaching can help students learn at many levels and broaden participants' intellectual horizons (overland, 2013). johnson and eason (2016) examined the impact of participation in music programs on students' attendance and academic achievement. as a result of the study, the amount of music participation was found to have a significant impact on both students' participation and academic achievement. such activities have positive effects on the development of students' multiple mathematical abilities (modeling, strategy development and implementation) (an et al., 2013); on their academic achievement, attitude, and knowledge persistence (topçu & bulut, 2016; yağışan et al., 2014). teachers who engage in music-integrated mathematics in their classrooms say that this teaching will help students to understand concepts more deeply (still & bobis, 2005) and enable them to see mathematics from different angles (an et al., 2016). the inclusion of art in the curriculum also encourages students to transfer what they have learned from art to non-art areas (catterall, 2005). for teachers and teacher candidates in designing math activities integrated with music, it appears that the activities are based mainly on four areas of music content (an & tillman, 2014): (i) listening and singing, (ii) composition and performance, (iii), musical notes, and (iv) the design of musical instruments. another area that comes to mind when we talk about music is dance. music and dance are two inseparable areas. dance can therefore be used in music integrated teaching. what mathematics and dance have in common include concepts such as direction, model, combinations, sequence, symmetry, transformation, communication, and problem solving (rosenfeld, 2013). there is a close relationship between mathematics and visual arts (kaplan et al., 2015). for example, with the help of islamic patterns, teachers can teach symmetry, rotation, reflection, simple mathematical shapes and their relationships at all levels from kindergarten to university level. it is even possible to switch to group theory with the help of islamic irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 276 patterns (abas, 2004). from an academic point of view, there is a significant difference in attitude and mathematics achievement of the students who receive mathematics education supported by visual arts course compared to the students who receive traditional education (ozder, 2008). drama based instruction students' academic achievements (cakır, 2012), self-motivation, self-sufficiency and self-concept (campbell, 2013) increases, and helps you learn mathematical concepts better (masoum et al., 2013). students who experience the use of drama in geometry teaching find it the method fun and useful. drama-based teaching increases the attractiveness of the course and offers students the opportunity to learn together, show what they have learned and increase their confidence in each other (günhan & özen, 2010). regardless of the grade level, most students regard mathematics as a difficult and boring course. therefore, the low level of internal motivation of the students causes the course to be inefficient and reduces success (bozkurt & bircan, 2015). it is important to transform the formal and abstract structure of mathematics into fun with the help of activities, as making the lesson fun increases the students' interest and motivation. activities included in mathematics textbooks are prepared in accordance with the current curriculum (meb, 2018). but it's noteworthy that there aren't enough art-themed events in textbooks. it is therefore thought that the work will contribute to the world of education and fill the current gap. in this context, the aim of the research is to examine the effects of mathematics teaching enriched with art-themed activities on student mathematics achievement and to determine the students' views on the teaching process. accordingly, the sub-questions of the study are as follows: 1. what is the scope of the impact of teaching with art-themed math activities on math achievement? and 2. what are students' views on teaching with art-themed math activities? methodology research design the present study was designed in accordance with the quasi-experimental research model. there are two groups in the study, the experimental group and the control group. while the experiment group was taught mathematics with art-themed activities, the control group was taught with the activities in the textbook of the ministry of education. the work consists of two parts. quantitative method was used to determine the impact of art-themed activities on students' math achievement. in order to support the findings obtained from quantitative data, qualitative methods were used to determine student views through journals. therefore, hybrid design was used, with more emphasis on quantitative division and supported by qualitative data. while the quantitative data obtained from the research are the students' mathematics achievement, the qualitative data are the opinions obtained from the student journals. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 277 participants for the study, fifth grade students studying at a secondary school in istanbul(turkey) in the 2017-2018 academic year were selected as sample. a total of 52 students (26 experimental groups and 26 control groups) were included in the sample. the universe of research covers all fifth-graders. since both groups were trained for three weeks, accessibility was taken into account in school selection. therefore, the easily accessible state sampling technique was used. with this method the researchers gained speed and practicality in the application process (yıldırım & şimşek, 2018). data collection tools in the scope of the study, “mathematics achievement exams” and semi-structured student journals were used to collect data. for the application, 5th grade “geometry and measurement” learning area and “basic geometric concepts and drawings” sub-learning area were chosen as the subject topics. the ability of the subject to be integrated into more than one art field has been the focus of attention when choosing the subject. three experts, one of whom is an measurement and evaluation specialist and two of whom are experts in mathematics education, were consulted to determine the parallelism, degree of difficulty and suitability of the achievement exams. the final version of the tests was given according to the opinions received. during the application, reflective journals were used to take notes and learn the feelings, thoughts and views of the students instantly. semi-structured journal forms were prepared taking into account the presence of students who do not want to write or talk about their experiences in general. it was also thought that the space left in journals for students would give students the power to think about things they found useful and unhelpful. a framework has been drawn specifically to comments and emotions with questions added to their daily forms. this, in turn, helped students communicate with the researcher. thus, unnecessary information to be added to the students' journals was prevented and the data became more functional. examples of expressions in the journals are as follows: 1. course passed fun / boring. because………… 2. i have understood the subject in the course very less / less / very good. because………… 3. the most interesting part of the course ……….. because………… 4. this course is different from the previous mathematics courses. because………… irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 278 data collection and analysis within the scope of the research, 11 art (painting, music and drama) themed activity plans were designed by the researchers in accordance with the meb (2018) curriculum, covering the objectives in the "basic geometric concepts and drawings" sub-learning area. it has been prepared by considering contemporary approaches such as reflective thinking. according to gardner (1991), multiple intelligences include linguistic intelligence, logical-mathematical intelligence, musical intelligence, spatial intelligence, bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, interpersonal intelligence, intrinsic intelligence (smith, 2002). but later existential intelligence was also added to the theory. in the activities created within the scope of the application, different branches of art were included and it was aimed to ensure the participation of students with different types of intelligence (appendix 1). with multi-intelligence activities, students become aware of their abilities and take their own learning responsibilities (sünbül, 2014). for detailed information about the activities, see the thesis of author yıldızhan (2019). the activities included activities requiring group work. group work not only draws attention to the lessons of the students with social intelligence type, but also provides the opportunity for cooperative learning. with cooperative learning, students are not only responsible for their own success but also for the success and learning of the team (sünbül, 2014). to this end, the students become aware of their responsibilities and perform their duties. the activities prepared within the scope of the research were applied to the experimental group for three weeks. in the control group, the lesson was taught based on the activities in the ministry of education textbook. during this period, one of the two researchers took part in the class and observed the process. the points found to be remarkable about the process were noted by the researcher and presented in the study findings. also, pre-test and post-test were applied to both groups to determine the success levels of students before and after the teaching process. students were asked to fill in their journals at the end of each lesson in order to learn their views and feelings about the course process. while the data obtained from the pre-test and post-tests were analyzed with the spss 21 program, the student journals were analyzed with the help of the nvivo program. approval the present study was carried out as a master's thesis at marmara university. at the time of the study, all stages of the study are carried out under the control of the university and ethics committee approval is not required. application permission was obtained from the ministry of education in order to apply to the students. also, since the students were under the age of 18, consent was obtained from the parents of the students for their children to participate in the study. in order to document this, the parents signed a petition declaring that the students voluntarily participated in the study. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 279 findings the effect of teaching with art-themed mathematics activities on math achievement the findings of this study are presented on the basis of research questions. the first research question focuses on the impact of arts-themed activities on students' math achievement. in order to test this question, it was first determined whether the scores of the control and experimental groups were normal distributions. since the number of students in the groups was less than 30, the shapiro-wilk normality test was performed and the results of the analysis were given in table 1. table 1. the results of the shapiro-wilk tests groups n parameters z p ̅ ss pre-test scores experimental group 26 ,3397 ,17308 ,918 ,040* control group 26 ,3974 ,18304 ,887 ,008* post-test scores experimental group 26 ,5833 ,27988 ,922 ,049* control group 26 ,4679 ,26675 ,884 ,007* *p<0,05 it was found that preliminary test scores and post test scores from the experimental and control groups did not show normal distribution (p<0,05) (table 1). therefore, the data from the groups were analyzed using nonparametric statistical tests. in order to determine the mathematics achievement of the selected experimental and control groups before the application, the pre-test scores of the groups were compared using the mann whitney-u test, one of the non-parametric tests. table 2. mann whitney-u test results for pretest group n s.o s.t. u z p pre-test scores experimental group 26 23,77 618,00 267,000 -1,355 ,17 control group 26 29,23 760,00 total 52 as a result of the analysis (table 2), there was no significant difference between the math achievement preliminary test scores of the experimental group and the control group (p>0,05). this information was an indication that the initial levels of the groups were equal and therefore the study would provide reliable results. or in other words, the result of the post test can be entirely attributed to the effect of the experimental design prepared for the study, since the groups were equal before the study began. preand posttest scores of the two groups were analyzed with the wilcoxon sign test to determine the impact of irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 280 mathematics teaching with art-themed activities and mathematics teaching based on textbooks prepared according to the ministry of education curriculum on success. table 3. wilcoxon marked ranks test results group rank n s.o. s.t. z p post-test score – pre-test score experimental group negative rank 4 8,75 35,00 -3,484 ,00* positive rank 21 13,81 290,00 equal 1 total 26 control group negative rank 9 10,72 96,50 -,995 ,32** positive rank 13 12,04 156,50 equal 4 total 26 *p<0,05 as a result of the analyses (table 3), there was a significant difference between the achievement scores of the students who were taught mathematics through art-themed activities at the end of the course and at the beginning of the course (p <0,05). there was an increase in the success of about 80% (21 people) of the students. in the course taught according to the textbooks prepared according to the ministry of education curriculum, there was no significant difference between the post-teaching and pre-teaching success scores of the students (p>0,05). it was observed that only 50% (13 people) of the students increased their success. considering that the scores of the students in the two groups are similar before starting the lesson, it is understood that arts-themed activities and mathematics teaching affect student achievement more positively. to test whether this effect was significant, the mann whitney-u test was performed on the post-intervention (post-test) scores of the experiment and control group. table 4. mann whitney-u test results for posttests group n s.o s.t. u z p post-test scores experimental group 26 29,63 770,50 256,500 -1,516 ,13 control group 26 23,37 607,50 total 52 as a result of the analysis (table 4), there was no significant difference between the post test scores of the experimental group and the post test scores of the control group (p>0,05). the post test scores of the students in the experimental group were higher than those in the control group. however, this difference was not statistically significant at the p <0,05 significance level. student views on art-themed math activities data from the semi-structured math journals of the students in the experimental group were analyzed to reveal the students' views on this intervention (teaching with irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 281 art-based activities). students were given a journal form at the end of each course and analyzed. the total number in the analysis of qualitative data varies because the journal forms of students who did not attend classes are missing. the findings obtained from the journals are classified as main title and justification appropriate to the title (table 5). the titles in the students 'reflective math journals were “the state of being fun”, “understanding of the lesson”, “an interesting chapter” and “differences with other math lessons”. it has been observed that there is a constant emphasis on the entertainment factor in the diaries of students. it was understood that students found the activities fun and therefore did not consider math as a boring and difficult lesson. it is also seen that they find this lesson much more understandable and interesting because they have fun. the reason why they describe this course as a different course than other mathematics courses is that it is also enjoyable. table 5. titles and justifications revealed in the journals the state of being fun understanding of the lesson as an interesting part difference with other mathematics courses to be fun activities new teacher easy and straightforward topics not writing learning new things old topics enjoyable beautiful expression activities new teacher noise activities the subject itself enjoyable teacher writing everything nothing enjoyable activities teacher no difference not enjoyable educational games the subject itself learn without writing the importance of mathematics when student opinions about the course being fun or boring were examined, 95,08% of students found the course enjoyable (table 6). the codes obtained from student reasons were to be fun (40,98%), lesson with activity (31,15%), new teachers (13,11%), unanswered (6,56%), easy and clear topics (3,28%), not writing (1,64%), learning new things (1,64%) and old topics (1,64%). table 6. student views on how the course should be fun being fun n % reasons n % enjoyable 58 95,08 to be fun 25 40,98 boring 3 4,92 lesson with activity 19 31,15 total 61 100,0 new teacher 8 13,11 unanswered 4 6,56 easy and clear topics 2 3,28 not writing 1 1,64 learning new things 1 1,64 old topics 1 1,64 total 61 100 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 282 sample sentences taken from 26 student journals who find the lesson enjoyable: student3: “the lesson was a lot of fun. because we both laugh and understand much better and faster in the lesson.” student12: “we did very good things. the lesson was fun. we learned new things. it makes me so happy.” student24: “the lesson was fun. because we had fun, we did activities. and we learned from the activity.” when the student opinion on the teaching level of the course was examined, 88,52% of the students stated that they understood the course very well (table 7). the codes obtained from student reasons were to have fun (32,79%), good lecture (22,95%), activities (11,47%), new teacher (3,18%), did not listen (1,64%) , very good understanding (1,64%) and noise in the classroom (1,64%). 24,59% of the students did not provide any reason. table 7. students' opinions about the teaching level of the course for understanding the course n % reasons n % very good understood 54 88,52 to be fun 20 32,79 little understood 3 4,92 not responded 15 24,59 very little understood 3 4,92 good lecture 14 22,95 unanswered 1 1,64 activities 7 11,47 total 61 100,0 new teacher 2 3,28 i did not listen 1 1,64 very good understanding 1 1,64 noise in the classroom 1 1,64 total 61 100,0 sample sentences taken from 26 student journals that express their understanding of the courses very well; student7: “i understood the subject very well. because we work in class while having fun.” student10: “i understood the lesson very well. because when i play with fun, i understand better.” student18: “i understood the lesson very well. because i learned by having fun.” student20: “it went very well. because it piqued my interest.” when student opinions about the interesting part of the course were examined, 65,57% of the students stated that the sections about the activities were interesting (table 8). the themes that emerged from the explanations of students about the reasons for finding them interesting were activities (65,57%), the subject itself (13,11%), having fun (8,20%), teachers (3,28%), writing (1,64%), everything (1,64%) and nothing (1,64%). 4,92% of the students did not respond. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 283 table 8. students' views on the section that attracted the most attention in the course reasons n % activities 40 65,57 the subject itself 8 13,11 enjoyable 5 8,20 teacher 2 3,28 writing 1 1,64 everything 1 1,64 nothing 1 1,64 unanswered 3 4,92 total 61 100,0 sample sentences taken from 26 student journals who find the course interesting; student4: “the most interesting part of the lesson is the vibration of the guitar and seeing the fluctuating sound up close.” student11: “the part that caught my attention in class was the symmetry in the last castle we built.” student14: "activity, drama and entertainment. it's beautiful and i like it very much.” student22: “the part i was most interested in in the course was finding the upright sections in the film.” when students' opinions on the difference of the course from previous mathematics courses are examined, the reasons the students present in their journals are as follows: enjoyable (31,1%), activities (28,9%), teacher (17,8%), no difference (9,0%), not enjoyable (4,4%), educational games (2,2%), the subject itself (2,2%), learning without writing (2,2%), the importance of mathematics (2,2%). table 9. students' views on comparing art-themed teaching reasons n % enjoyable 14 31,1 activities 13 28,9 teacher 8 17,8 no difference 4 9,0 not enjoyable 2 4,4 educational games 1 2,2 the subject itself 1 2,2 learning without writing 1 2,2 the importance of mathematics 1 2,2 total 45 100,0 sample sentences taken from 26 student journals; student8: "it was different from previous math classes. because we did a lot of activities and it became a very fun course. i had a lot of fun and learned a lot by doing activities like this.” irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 284 student17: "it was different from previous math classes. because we had normal education in the normal lesson, but in this lesson we learn by having fun.” student19: “this course was different from previous mathematics courses. because in this we play games, we learn by writing.” student23: “this course was different from previous mathematics courses. because we did activities and taught lessons in a fun way.” data from researcher observations that support research findings in this section, situations observed by the researcher are covered during activities with 5th grade students. it has been observed that the activities used in the process offer students the opportunity to create creative thinking and creative work. in the drawing activities, the students painted their drawings the way they wanted to and took the event to a different dimension with what they added to their drawings. at the events with music, some of the students turned the song into rap music as an alternative to the melody presented. and that's how they sang. in this way, original and creative thinking students were offered the opportunity to present their work to the class and the students were supported. the drawings made by two students at the drawing event during the teaching process are given below: figure 1. drawing of (a) student13 (b) student21 the drawing made by student13 is exactly the same as the form expected to be created within the activity. to add something from himself/herself to the event, the student simply wrote the name of the football team she supports and tried to color him/her drawing using the team's colors. it is noteworthy that student21 added a lot of detail to the drawing. the student added clothes and shoes to the human figure. when he/she made these additions, he/she thought of everything down to the smallest detail. laces on shoes, zippers on pants, buttons on shirts and suspenders are among the details that the student added to the drawing. the student not only added dress details to the shape, but also saw and added the folds of his ear missing. the student who finished the drawing showed the teacher his/her picture and explained all the details one by one: irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 285 student21: "teacher, this person was a firefighter. there was a fire in the house next door. the orange lines on the roof of the house indicate the fire. the firefighter also went to the scene of the fire and tried to put out the fire by spraying water. the firefighter's left hand is a firefighter's hose. he/she was fighting the fire by spraying water with it.” also, it is noteworthy that the shape in the painting gives an aesthetic state by incorporating arrows showing the starting points placed by the teacher into the student's story. the student21 explained this to his teacher as follows: student21: "teacher, i did not leave the arrows you drew blank. i wrote the fireman's name on the first arrow. i drew the water towards the arrow to interpret the second arrow as if it was pointing at the point where the firefighter was spraying water.” given these and similar examples encountered during the teaching process, it is seen that teaching with art-themed activities supports the development of creativity towards the interests of the students. this finding is also supported by the phrase “i think this lesson is useful for me because it improves my painting skills and math." in a student's journal. therefore, it is understood that the imagination and its products that occur simultaneously while students are doing math during teaching with art-themed activities are important to encourage and support teaching. it has been observed that students use many skills such as spatial and proportional thinking as well as creative thinking when dealing with art-themed math activities. spatial and proportional thinking is part of mathematical thinking as well as being associated with artistic skills. math activities enriched with art allow students who are not yet in 5th grade to use these skills without realizing its findings respond to the purpose of the study, and are presented systematically. findings are supported with sufficient and relevant quotations, examples, tables and diagrams. discussion the aim of this study is to determine the effectiveness of teaching with art-themed activities. for this reason, while lessons were taught according to art-themed activities in one class, teaching was carried out in another class by adhering to the textbooks prepared according to the ministry of education curriculum. as a result of the research, more than half of the students increased their mathematics achievement as a result of teaching with artistic activities. therefore, there was a significant difference in the success of these students. as a result of the education carried out in accordance with the ministry of education textbook, only half of the students were able to increase their mathematics achievement. therefore, no significant difference was observed in the achievements of these students. in light of this information, it can be said that the increase in student achievement is due to well-chosen, created and organized rich content activities. when the comparison was made between the groups, unexpectedly, there was no significant difference between the post-test achievements of the group that was taught with art-themed activities and the group that was taught by adhering to the ministry of education textbook. all these results are interpreted as both methods are effective in increasing student success, but the course prepared with art-themed activities is more effective in increasing irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 286 success. this positive but not significant result suggests that more research is needed to enrich mathematics with art-themed activities. since research is limited to 3 weeks of education, teaching for a longer period may be the solution. deeper enrichment activities rooted in more understanding oriented could be another solution. however, the study also revealed some interesting results. students who were educated with art themed activities evaluated the process as “fun” in general. they stated in their journals that they found the lesson fun because they played games and did activities throughout the process. they stated that they understood the subject very well because they had fun and did activities in the lesson. the sections that attracted the most attention of the students in the course were not related to the subject content but related to the activities carried out. the fact that the course is fun and the activities are accompanied by activities has made the course different from the previous mathematics courses in the eyes of the students. the findings of atasay and erdoğan (2017), and support the students' views. özder (2008), özsoy (2003) özsoy (2007) as a result of the research, it has been shown that mathematics teaching with art-themed activities is more effective in increasing success than teaching based on ministry of education textbook. the results of this study show that teaching mathematics with songs ; drama-based mathematics teaching (halperin, 2011; topçu & bulut, 2016) (duatepe & and visual arts supported mathematics teaching ubuz, 2007; inoa, weltsek & tabone, 20140 is consistent with the results of many studies showing that it (katipoğlu, 2016; özder, 2008) increases student achievement. furthermore, as a result of the researcher's observations, it was observed that art-themed activities supported students' creativity. this conclusion is supported by statements from kim (2018). conclusion and recommendations/implications under this heading, suggestions were made to researchers, educators and book authors who wanted to study the subject based on the results of the research. the present study is limited to 5th grade students. researchers who want to work on teaching mathematics with art-themed activities can conduct similar studies at different grade levels. in the present study, student journals were used to shed light on the process. researchers who will carry out similar studies can videotape the teaching process to examine student views and analyze the process in detail. in the research, it was observed that artistic activities supported the creativity of students. by investigating this situation, researchers can examine the effect of teaching enriched with artistic activities on students' creativity levels. also, new studies can be designed to show the relationship between artistic activities and enriched teaching and multiple intelligences. as a result of the research, it is seen that art-themed activities not only increase the mathematics achievement of the students, but also affect the affective characteristics of the mathematics lesson positively. therefore, it may be suggested to our teachers to use activities in which art and mathematics are intertwined in their classrooms, or where a work of art emerges as a result of an extracurricular activity. workshops can be organized so that our teachers can design effective, useful and creative art-themed activities related to mathematics teaching. also, it is recommended that mathematics teachers collaborate and exchange ideas irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 287 with art lesson (painting, music, physical...) teachers during the design, planning and implementation stages of mathematics lessons with art-themed mathematics activities. finally, suggestions can be made to textbook authors in line with the findings obtained from the research. it is recommended that the activities in the mathematics textbook be organized as artistic activities that will increase the interest and motivation of the students. disclosure statement no potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors. references 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(2010). prizmalar konusunda drama yönteminin uygulanması. dokuz eylül üniversitesi buca eğitim fakültesi dergisi, (27), 111-122. retrieved from https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/deubefd/issue/25435/268391 halperin, m. (2011). exploring the relationship between music participation on math scores and high school retention [master thesis, university of central florida]. inoa, r., weltsek, g., & tabone, c. (2014). a study on the relationship between theater arts and student literacy and mathematics achievement. journal for learning through the arts: a research journal on arts integration in schools and communities, 10(1), 1-21. doi: 10.21977/d910123495 johnson, c. m., & eason, b. j. (2016). evaluation of the impact of music program participation on students’ musical and academic success, and school engagement in the metropolitan nashville public schools: a comprehensive test of pathways and contextual factors. the university of kansas. kaplan, a., öztürk, m., & ferahoğlu, n. s. 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(2013). making math and making dance: a closer look at integration. teaching artist journal, 11(4), 205-214. doi: 10.1080/15411796.2013.815542 smith, m. k. (2002). howard gardner and multiple intelligences. the encyclopedia of informal education, 15(2012), 96-132. still, k., & bobis, j. (2005). the integration of mathematics and music in the primary school classroom. in proceedings of annual conference of the mathematics education research group of australasia. building connections: theory, research and practice (pp. 712-719). https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/deubefd/issue/25435/268391 https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/baunfbed/issue/24783/261833 https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/deubefd/issue/25430/268317 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 289 sünbül, a. m. (2014). öğretim ilke ve yöntemleri. eğitim yayınevi. taş, u. e., arıcı, ö., ozarkan, h. b., & özgürlük, b. (2016). pisa 2015 ulusal raporu. milli eğitim bakanlığı. topcu, h., & bulut, n. (2016). şarkılarla yapılan matematik öğretiminin 6. sınıf öğrencilerinin başarılarına etkisi. ahi evran üniversitesi kırşehir eğitim fakültesi dergisi, 17(1), 535-553. retrieved from https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/kefad/issue/59448/854060 yağışan, n., köksal, o., & karaca, h. (2014). i̇lkokul matematik derslerinde müzik destekli öğretimin başarı, tutum ve kalıcılık üzerindeki etkisi. i̇dil, 3(11), 1-26. doi: 10.7816/idil-03-11-01 yıldırım, a., özgürlük, b., parlak, b., gönen, e., & polat, m. (2016). timss 2015 ulusal matematik ve fen ön raporu: 4. ve 8. sınıflar. milli eğitim bakanlığı, ölçme, değerlendirme ve sınav hizmetleri genel müdürlüğü. yıldırım, a., & simsek, h. (2018). sosyal bilimlerde nitel araştırma yöntemleri (11. baskı), seçkin yayıncılık. biographical notes berna yildizhan completed her bachelor's degree in elementary mathematics teaching program of marmara university in 2016 and her master's degree in elementary mathematics teaching department of the same university in 2019. she started her doctoral education at necmettin erbakan university, department of mathematics education in 2019. at the same time, she started working as a research assistant at the department of mathematics education of necmettin erbakan university. areas of interest; use of art in mathematics education, geometric patterns in islamic art, eye tracking and visuospatial ability. özlem çeziktürk with a phd from university at albany, suny in usa of mathematics education, she has been teaching as assistant professor at marmara university, since 2015. she has been thesis advisor for berna yıldızhan and this manuscript is froım her thesis. her research interests are; mathematics and art, technology in mathematics education, and mathematics thinking https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/kefad/issue/59448/854060 this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 85 the effect of entrepreneurship education on students’ entrepreneurship intention in vocational school ahmad abdun salam 1 , ibnu siswanto 2 , and mar’atus sholikah 3 abstract entrepreneurship education is crucial for students to learn knowledge around entrepreneurial skills, attitudes, and stimulates entrepreneurial intentions. this study aims to analyze the influence of entrepreneurship education program on student’s entrepreneurship intention in vocational schools with gender as moderation. there were 198 respondents from seven vocational schools in yogyakarta province participated in this quantitative study. the analysis technique used is pls-sem with the help of smartpls software. the result revealed that entrepreneurship education programs are positively related to student’s entrepreneurship inspiration and intention. extracurricular entrepreneurship activity is also positively related to entrepreneurship education inspiration and student’s entrepreneurship intention. however, the result displayed that gender insignificantly moderates the relationship between entrepreneurship education program and student’s entrepreneurship intention in vocational high school. besides, schools and teachers need to present learning programs and extracurricular activities that can inspire and intend to generate interest in student entrepreneurship in the future. keywords entrepreneurship education, entrepreneurship intention, extracurricular entrepreneurship activity, gender 1. graduate student in educational management, faculty of education, universitas negeri yogyakarta, indonesia; corresponding author: ahmadabdun.2019@student.uny.ac.id. 2. lecturer in automotive engineering education, faculty of engineering, universitas negeri yogyakarta, indonesia. 3. graduate student in the economic education department, faculty of economics, universitas negeri yogyakarta, indonesia mailto:ahmadabdun.2019@student.uny.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 86 introduction previous studies show that entrepreneurship is a vital factor influencing economic development (galvão et al., 2020; mcmullan et al., 1986; tödtling & trippl, 2005). entrepreneurship is considered as an innovative and creative process, which has a potential role in enhancing the value and quality of goods, upgrading productivity, creating new employment opportunities, revitalizing and diversifying markets, increasing social welfare, and developing the country’s economy (guerrero et al., 2008). furthermore, wilson et al. (2007) revealed that women have a crucial role in entrepreneurship around the world. in an advanced market economy, women entrepreneurs hold 25% of all businesses and extend speedily over time in africa, latin america, eastern europe and even in asia (jalbert, 2000). however, the present trends indicate that women are more passive in entrepreneurship than men worldwide (wilson et al., 2007). recent data showed that there was a significant distance among men and women from the global entrepreneurship monitor in entrepreneurship. specifically, 33% of men are more active in entrepreneurship in high-income states, 41% in low-income states, and 75% in middle-income states (langowitz et al., 2005). it shows that gender has a big impact on entrepreneurship. gender is an individual characteristic to give several explanations of the different effects on results (indartono & chen, 2010). many aspects definitely influence the distinction among men and women to attract their intention to become entrepreneurs (wilson et al., 2007). in particular, entrepreneurship education, extracurricular entrepreneurship activity, and entrepreneurial inspiration create entrepreneurial intentions in a person in the beginning. entrepreneurship education is very crucial for students to learn knowledge about entrepreneurial skills, attitudes, and stimulates entrepreneurial intentions (cui et al., 2019). moreover, entrepreneurship education is an activity that involves a mindset, influences a person’s attitudes, beliefs, and values to trigger and hone entrepreneurial intentions (iwu et al., 2019). this mindset, attitude, belief, and values possessed by a person create entrepreneurial intentions and influence new ideas and new business (fayolle & klandt, 2006). furthermore, entrepreneurship education also provides real experiences by involving a successful entrepreneur to become a speaker or by providing real case studies in entrepreneurship arranged to inspire learners and to offer entrepreneurship’s positive aspects as their future career (ahmed et al., 2020). entrepreneurship education can reinforce or drive student inspiration to be entrepreneurs (vaizler b, 2011). so, we can take the hypothesis from all studies explained that entrepreneurship education is affected the student’s entrepreneurial inspiration and intentions. moreover, there were several studies that entrepreneurship education has a different effect on both men’s and women’s intentions to become entrepreneurs in their future. the researchers found that women need more entrepreneurship education than men to increase entrepreneurial intentions (wilson et al., 2007). like scherer et al. (1990) argued, women participating in business need more confidence and expectations for success than men. in addition, empirical evidence indicates that women tend to have lower expectations of success at work than men (eccles, 1994). other studies directly state that the entrepreneurial irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 87 intention is identical to the men (ahl, 2006; t. gupta, 2009; lewis, 2006). moreover, ratten and usmanij (2020) said that future studies must explain that there are different gender impacts in entrepreneurship education, especially if female students are more likely than men to become entrepreneurs. we are motivated to explore different gender, entrepreneurship education, educational inspiration, and entrepreneurial intentions. we believe that there is an interrelated relationship between these variables. is there an effect of entrepreneurship education on student’s entrepreneurial inspiration and intention? are there differences in the effect of entrepreneurship education between male and female students on the intention to become entrepreneurs? this article explores the role of entrepreneurship education in vocational schools. we took vocational schools because they have special courses for entrepreneurship education to prepare students to become entrepreneurs. in addition, entrepreneurship education in vocational schools is the main gate to shape students to become entrepreneurs in the future (wilson et al., 2007). this is very crucial for vocational schools, especially those that prioritize practice in their learning. it leads to the following hypothesis: 1. hypothesis 1.1: entrepreneurship education program (eep) is positively related to entrepreneurship education inspiration (eei) 2. hypothesis 1.2: entrepreneurship education program (eep) is positively related to entrepreneurship intention (ei) 3. hypothesis 1.3: extracurricular entrepreneurship activity (eea) is positively related to entrepreneurship education inspiration (eei) 4. hypothesis 1.4: extracurricular entrepreneurship activity (eea) is positively related to entrepreneurship intention (ei) 5. hypothesis 1.5: entrepreneurship education inspiration (eei)) is positively related to entrepreneurship intention (ei) 6. hypothesis 1.6: gender moderates entrepreneurship education and entrepreneurship intention in a vocational school literature review entrepreneurship education program and entrepreneurship intentions the entrepreneurship education program has established rapidly, with many studies conducted in that field (ratten & usmanij, 2020). previous studies revealed that entrepreneurship education has a positive impact on entrepreneurial outcomes. peterman and kennedy (2003) declared that students who attended entrepreneurship education had a stronger desire and were worthy of pursuing a career as entrepreneurs. in addition, student participation in class has been observed to develop entrepreneurial abilities and increase opportunity recognition of entrepreneurship (detienne & chandler, 2004). the research was done by galloway and brown (2002) also found that students who have taken entrepreneurship education have a higher intention of entrepreneurship than those who haven’t taken it yet. moreover, kolvereid and moen (1997) observed that students who had taken entrepreneurship education classes were much better prepared to start their business irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 88 than those who had not. presently, schools and colleges have encouraged entrepreneurship education program to support students start an entrepreneurial career (ilonen & heinonen, 2018). in accordance with the consortium of entreprenuership education (2013), entrepreneurship education aims to set up graduates to become entrepreneurs and assist in their sustainable economic development. besides, entrepreneurship education educates students to think creatively, be innovative, confident, and have strong discipline in starting and running their business. mapfaira and setibi (2014) also confirm that entrepreneurship education forces students to start a business. palalić et al. (2017) conclude that entrepreneurship education might increase the intention of prospective entrepreneurs. moreover, there were some methods in entrepreneurship education to amplify students’ entrepreneurial intentions (nabi et al., 2017). in the first method, students are offered the opportunity to be involved repeatedly in an entrepreneurial task such as arranging market analysis, creating ideas, or making a business plan as part of entrepreneurship education (ahmed et al., 2020). this aims to develop a stronger self-efficacy and self-confidence in students so that they are accustomed to running a business and equipping them to become successful entrepreneur in the future. the second method, entrepreneurship education, must be designed by involving role model like a successful entrepreneur as a guest speaker to share their inspirational journey in starting a business in order that students get positive experiences to become entrepreneurs in the future (ahmed et al., 2020). this method also increases self-efficacy for students to overcome their obstacles and difficulties when starting their business. additionally, entrepreneurship education programs are classified into two forms, firstly, classroom learning that has been arranged in the curriculum and focus on theoretical, and the second is extracurricular activities that give students the freedom to develop themselves and learn from real experiences such as starting a small business, internships in industry, participating in entrepreneurial competitions and so on (cui et al., 2019). this extracurricular activity helps strengthen the knowledge and skills of entrepreneurship education programs taught in the classroom. so, more extracurricular activities that are held, such as industry visits, internships in companies, selling directly, will direct real experiences for students to be entrepreneurial. besides, extracurricular activities by presenting speakers from successful entrepreneurs, participating in business plan competitions, following business projects will further motivate students to become entrepreneurs (souitaris et al., 2007). this has been proven by previous researchers that extracurricular activities have a significant impact on the learning process if applied correctly (claudia, 2014).furthermore, arranz et al. (2017) found that entrepreneurship education and entrepreneurship extracurricular activities have a role in bridging entrepreneurial student’s intentions and competencies in schools. entrepreneurship education and gender preceding researches represented that men perform higher entrepreneurial intentions than women (kelley et al., 2013). studies have presented that in the us, entrepreneurial intentions gives a positive orientation in men (ozaralli & rivenburgh, 2016). related irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 89 research also argued that men are more open in choosing their careers than women because women feel a lack of confidence in their abilities (bandura, 1997) and women, especially, avoided becoming entrepreneurs because they felt a lack of skills in that field (chen et al., 1998). several researchers recognized that the gender stereotypes differentiate between men and women in entrepreneurship and effecting society’s cognition and behavior (v. k. gupta et al., 2005). entrepreneurship is conservatively assumed a men’s job, so women tend to have lower intentions in pursuing careers as entrepreneurs (nan langowitz & maria minniti, 2007). from those studies, we can indicate that there were gender differences that affected entrepreneurial intention between men and women. to promote entrepreneurial intention for men and women, the government and academics in spain designed an entrepreneurship education program that is claimed to increase the intention and performance of entrepreneurship (liñán et al., 2011). entrepreneurship education is regarded as a critical approach for stimulating both young men and women in entrepreneurship. this approach provides changes for students to equip themselves with the knowledge, attitudes, and skills to start and run their business in the future. many students argued that entrepreneurship education is the key to encourage entrepreneurial intentions (dutta et al., 2011; solomon et al., 2008). from this study, it was concluded that entrepreneurship education is considered very crucial things to encourage students, males and females, to become entrepreneurs in the future. from several existing types of research, it seems very relevant if gender differences get more attention from researchers, especially in the effect of entrepreneurship education on entrepreneurial intention (nowiński et al., 2017). besides, contreras-barraza et al. (2021) argued that gender is basic elements of the sociocultural, and it can possibly determine entrepreneurship more broadly and entrepreneurship intention especially. methodology research design, site, and participants this study occupied a quantitative method by means of a survey approach. the data were in the form of students’ perceptions about the impact of entrepreneurial education both in learning and through extracurricular activities on entrepreneurial inspiration and intentions with gender as a moderating variable in vocational students. data were collected from 7 vocational schools in yogyakarta province, indonesia. data were collected from students during the implementation of learning with the permission of the subject teacher. this research is voluntary and confidential, so students can fill in freely without coercion and the data that has been collected is well preserved. this was conveyed to students before the questionnaire was distributed. the sample for this research consisted of 198 vocational students enrolled in any majors from 7 vocational schools in yogyakarta. respondents were students in the vocational schools who have received entrepreneurship education subjects consisting of 5 students from 10 th grade (2, 52%), nine students from 11 th grade (4, 54%), and 184 students from 12 th grade (92, 9%). there are four public schools and three private schools and three schools in the city and four schools in the countryside. 122 of 198 respondents were male irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 90 (61, 6%), and 76 were female (38, 4%). furthermore, respondents were from various majors, 27 students from office administration (13, 63%), 28 students from the technical light vehicle (14, 14%), seven students majoring in hospitality, 28 students majoring in culinary art (14, 14 %), 29 students majoring in the technical business of motorcycle (14, 64%), and 79 students majoring in network and computer engineering (39, 89%). figure 1. research model data collection and analysis ten items of entrepreneurship education program were adjusted from questionnaires developed and validated by iwu et al. (2019) and were used to measure students’ perceptions of how entrepreneurship education can attract student’s entrepreneurial intention in their future, such as “entrepreneurship education promotes self-employment among people,”. ten items of extracurricular entrepreneurship activity were adopted and validated by cui et al. (2019) and were used to measure student participation in entrepreneurship extracurricular activities, such as joining entrepreneurship clubs, internships in industry, competition for business plan, and entrepreneurship conferences, etc. three items of entrepreneurship education inspiration were used to measure where students get entrepreneurial inspiration from, such as from teachers, visiting entrepreneur, motivator of entrepreneurship and was adopted and validated by ahmed et al. (2020) and five items of entrepreneurship intention were used to measure how much students want to be entrepreneurs in the future, such as “my goal is to become an entrepreneur” and was adopted form questionnaire developed by iwu et al., (2019). the research used a five-point rating scale. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 91 findings questionnaire result and measurement model there were 198 questionnaires analyzed, and the results of respondents’ answers to the questionnaire showed that each variable used influenced one another. furthermore, we analyzed the statistical data on the results of the questionnaire that had been distributed. statistical analysis in this study uses the measurement model (outer model) and the structural model (inner model) contained in pls. the outer model implies how each indicator relates to its latent variable. in the data analysis technique using smartpls, there are three criteria for analyzing the outer model. the first criterion is convergent validity. the second criterion is discriminant validity or using the average variant extracted. the third criterion is the construct reliability measured using cr and cronbach’s alpha. convergent validity convergent validity is believed to be basic processes in measuring the survey instrument. testing validity is performed to determine whether all research instruments proposed to measure research variables are valid. the validity test in pls is assessed by assessing the convergent validity of each indicator. convergent validity can be evaluated in three steps; indicators of validity, construct reliability, and the value of average variance extracted (ave). the validity indicator can be seen from the loading factor value. the loading factor is the correlation between these indicators and their constructs. the higher the correlation, the higher the validity is. if the loading factor of an indicator is more than 0.5 and the t-statistic value is more than 2.0, it is said to be valid. each item loads of the factor should exceed the 0.50 value to achieve convergent validity (sun & teng, 2012). convergent validity is also determined by the value of average variance extracted (ave) and composite reliability (cr). to obtain the convergent validity, the ave value should be > 0.50, and cr has to be > 0.7 (bagozzi & youjae yi, 1988; hair et al., 2017) or exceed 0.80 (guo et al., 2011). the processed data results to see the validity and reliability of research using smartpls software can be checked in table 2 and figure 2. table 2 displays the results of the analysis: table 1. the convergent validity results construct items loadings cr ave entrepreneurship extracurricular activity eea01 0.850 0.954 0.677 eea02 0.870 eea03 0.846 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 92 eea04 0.776 eea05 0.794 eea06 0.811 eea07 0.804 eea08 0.857 eea09 0.839 eea10 0.772 entrepreneurship education inspiration eei1 0.872 0.904 0.758 eei2 0.884 eei3 0.856 entrepreneurship education program eep01 0.716 0.940 0.611 eep02 0.729 eep03 0.787 eep04 0.882 eep05 0.873 eep06 0.728 eep07 0.749 eep08 0.756 eep09 0.777 eep10 0.800 entrepreneurship intention ei1 0.758 0.901 0.649 ei2 0.782 ei3 0.702 ei4 0.887 ei5 0.881 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 93 gender gender 1.000 1.000 1.000 gender* entrepreneurship education program gender * eep01 0.851 0.950 0.658 gender * eep02 0.772 gender * eep03 0.856 gender * eep04 0.944 gender * eep05 0.937 gender * eep06 0.794 gender * eep07 0.798 gender * eep08 0.826 gender * eep09 0.846 gender * eep10 0.836 the loading factor values were surpassed more than 0.70 for all items. the ave for all items exceeded more than 0.60, and the composite reliability (cr) were above 0.80, which is more than the minimum level of the cr (>0.70). from this, we can take the conclusion that all indicators meet convergent validity and have sufficient validity. discriminant validity discriminant validity is the degree to which measurement items of a specific factor reflect this factor instead of other factors in the specific model (hulland, 1999). the discriminant validity test can be identified by comparing the root of the average variance extracted (ave) for every construct on the correlation between one construct and the other constructs in the research model. suppose the ave roots for each construct are more significant than the correlation between constructs and other constructs in the research model. in that case, it is called that the model has good discriminant validity. discriminant validity in this study is shown in table 3. table 3 shows that the ave value for all variables is above 0.500, so it can be said that all variables are valid. table 2. fit index of latent variables and fornell-larcker criterion ave eea eei eep ei gender gender*eep eea 0.677 0.823 eei 0.758 0.578 0.871 eep 0.611 0.709 0.517 0.782 ei gender gender*eep 0.649 1.000 0.658 0.709 0.104 0.459 0.512 0.049 0.299 0.752 0.021 0.352 0.805 0.107 0.299 1.000 -0.012 0.811 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 94 figure 2. loading factor results constructability (cr) cr is the indicator’s consistency if the scale measurements are carried out at different times, locations, and populations. cr is measured by composite reliability and cronbach alpha (internal consistency reliability) of indicators measuring constructs. the construct is declared reliable if the cr value is more significant than 0.7 and cronbach’s alpha is above 0.6 (ghozali, 2014; nunnally et al., 1967). based on table 4. the value of cr and cronbach’s alpha exceeds the standard to be valid and highly reliable. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 95 table 3. cr and cronbach's alpha results variable composite reliability (cr) cronbach's alpha eea 0.954 0.947 eei 0.904 0.841 eep 0.940 0.928 ei gender gender*eep 0.901 1.000 0.950 0.862 1.000 0.942 structural model (inner model) the structural model represents the construct relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable, which is formulated in the model hypothesis (kline, 2011). this analysis aims to receive or reject the proposed hypotheses. furthermore, (hair et al., 1998) explained that the involvement of the set of relationships between the hypothesized factors is emphasized in this analysis. the structural model establishes the direct and indirect connections among the factors and explores the amount of (explained/unexplained) variance in the model (wang, 2003). to evaluate the structural model, four assessment procedures have been employed below; 1. assess the r2 coefficient of determination values or r square: (guo et al., 2011) explored that r2 represent the productiveness of the theoretical model. three levels were suggested to gauge the power of r2: above 0.67 high, from (0.33 to 0.67) medium, and less than 0.33 low (chin, 1998). 2. assess the path coefficient: this measure shows the strength of the relationships between independent and dependent variables (guo et al., 2011). (sridharan et al., 2010) suggested three levels to measure the path coefficient: when path coefficient less than or equal to 0.2, weak; between (0.2 and 0.5), moderate; > 0.5 then path coefficient is strong. 3. evaluate the effect size (f2): this indicator measure of the changing in the r2 value when a particular factor is deleted from the model. the cut-off of effect size ( f2) is: 0.02 and above = small; 0.15 and above = medium; and 0.35 and above is considered large effects (henseler et al., 2009). the criteria for the structural model are displayed in table 5.19. coefficient of determination (r square) the coefficient of determination (r2) is considered one of the main indicators that utilize to evaluate the paths in pls structural model; r2 indicates the amount of variance explained by the dependent variables. the r square value of the dependent variable used in the model can be checked in table 5. table 5 presents that the r-square value is weak and medium. thus, the structural equation that exists is getting better. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 96 table 4. the values r square according to table 5, the r square for entrepreneurship education program is 0.292, which means that all of the two factors: entrepreneurship education program and entrepreneurship extracurricular activity explain 29.2% of the variance in entrepreneurship education inspiration. the value of r square less than 0.33 recommended the low model (chin, 1998). besides, the r square value for entrepreneurship intention is 0.644, between (0.67 and 0.33), so it suggested the moderate model for three factors: entrepreneurship education program, extracurricular entrepreneurship activity, and entrepreneurship education inspiration. all of these factors are explaining 64.4% of the variance in entrepreneurship intention. path coefficients (hypothesis test) path coefficients or hypothesis test is performed by looking at the value of p-values using a significance level of 0.05. it is said to be influential if the p-value is less than 0.05. the results of hypotheses testing can be checked in table 6. table 5. path coefficient no. hypothesis β value standard error t-statistic p-value status h1 eep eei 0.363 0.088 4.056 0,000 received h2 eep ei 0.467 0.469 6.978 0,000 received h3 eea eei 0.210 0.079 2.830 0.005 received h4 eea ei 0.331 0.068 5.010 0,000 received h5 eei ei 0.123 0.055 2.225 0.027 received gender ei -0.057 0.045 1.246 0.213 rejected h6 gender*eep ei -0.052 0.061 0.932 0.352 rejected referring to table 6, the variable independent of entrepreneurship education inspiration are: entrepreneurship education program (β= 0.363, p=0.000<0.05) and entrepreneurship extracurricular activity (β= 0.210, p=0.005<0.05) were all significantly related to entrepreneurship education inspiration. hence, the hypotheses (h1 and h3) were received in this study. furthermore, the variable independents of entrepreneurship intention are: entrepreneurship education program (β= 0.467, p=0.000<0.05), entrepreneurship extracurricular activity (β= 0.331, p=0.000<0.05), and entrepreneurship education inspiration (β= 0.123, p=0.027<0.05), were all significantly related to entrepreneurship construct relationship r square result (r square) entrepreneurship education inspiration (eep) eep -> eei eea -> eei 0.292 low entrepreneurship intention (ei) eep -> ei eea -> ei eei -> ei 0.644 medium irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 97 intention. so, the hypotheses (h2, h4, and h5) were received. while the gender to entrepreneurship intention (β= -0.057, p=0.213>0.05) and gander as variable moderation between entrepreneurship education program and entrepreneurship intention (β= -0.052, p=0.352>0.05), were insignificantly related to entrepreneurship intention, so these hypotheses were rejected. effect sizes (f2) effect size (f2) is utilized to assess the change in the r2 value when a particular factor is removed from the model. the cut-off values of effect size: 0.02: small; 0.15: medium; 0.35: large (henseler et al., 2009). table 7 shows the results of the effect size analysis. table 6. effect size (f 2 ) results according to the table 7, the effect sizes of h2 (f 2 = 0.278) and h4 (f 2 = 0.151) had a medium relationship which much higher than the other factors. this indicate that entrepreneurship education program and entrepreneurship extracurricular activity best related to the entrepreneurship intention. while the effect sizes for h1 eep-> eei (f 2 = 0.090), h3 eea-> eei (f 2 = 0.035) had relationships with small effect sizes. nevertheless, the effect size for h6 gander as variable moderation between entrepreneurship education program and entrepreneurship intention (f 2 = 0.008) had no effect sizes. discussion the entrepreneurial intention must be grown from an early age because it will determine the number of entrepreneurs in a country in the future. entrepreneurship intention can be grown in many aspects. one of which is by holding entrepreneurship education. one of the special school taught entrepreneurship lessons is a vocational school because one of the visions of vocational schools is to create entrepreneurs who are ready for work. besides, vocational schools are also a starting point for students to get inspiration in entrepreneurship (wilson et al., 2007). entrepreneurial inspiration can be obtained from knowledge gained informal entrepreneurship education, inspiration from entrepreneurial extracurricular activities such as internships, visiting victory, meeting with successful entrepreneurs, and obtained by attending various entrepreneurship seminars. therefore, it hypotheses relationship effect sizes (f 2) effect sizes h1 eep -> eei 0.090 small h2 eep -> ei 0.278 medium h3 eea -> eei 0.035 small h4 eea -> ei 0.151 medium h5 eei -> ei 0.030 small gender -> ei 0.009 not effect h6 gender*eep -> ei 0.008 not effect irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 98 can be deduced that there is a positive effect between entrepreneurship education and entrepreneurial extracurricular activities on entrepreneurial inspiration, forming a person’s intention in entrepreneurship. in this study, it was found that there was a positive influence between entrepreneurship education, entrepreneurial extracurricular activities, and entrepreneurial inspiration on the entrepreneurship intention in vocational school students. this result is referring to the hypotheses test and shows that the p-value of each variable of entrepreneurship education (0.000), entrepreneurial extracurricular activities (0.000), and entrepreneurial inspiration (0.027) <0.05. previous research has also shown a positive influence between entrepreneurship education (iwu et al., 2019), entrepreneurial extracurricular activities (cui et al., 2019), and entrepreneurial inspiration (ahmed et al., 2020) on entrepreneurial intention. so, this research strengthens the results of previous research and is also consistent with past research. besides, in this study found that entrepreneurship education program and entrepreneurship extracurricular activity have best related to the entrepreneurship intention, by reason of the variables had a medium relationship which much higher than the other factors. previous research also shows differences in entrepreneurship education’s effect on entrepreneurial intention in schools between males and females to become entrepreneurs in the future. research shows that women need more entrepreneurial education than men to foster entrepreneurship (wilson et al., 2007). another research shows that female students have a lower intention in entrepreneurship than male students (kelley et al., 2013). however, this study shows that there is a insignificant gender effect between entrepreneurship education and entrepreneurship intention. it shows from the result of the hypotheses test that the p-value of gander as variable moderation between entrepreneurship education program and entrepreneurship intention (β= -0.052, p=0.352>0.05). hence, we can conclude that males and females in vocational schools have the same entrepreneurial intention to become an entrepreneur. thus, it contradicts previous research that there is no gender effect between entrepreneurship education on entrepreneurship intention. conclusions entrepreneurship education is one of the programs that cannot be seen directly because it is a long-term investment. entrepreneurship education is also the basis for a person to choose an entrepreneurial career in the future. therefore, schools and teachers need to present learning programs and extracurricular activities that can inspire and intend to generate interest in student entrepreneurship in the future. real activities that are theoretical will also provide inspiration and a great intention to become entrepreneurial. nevertheless, there is an insignificant influence between entrepreneurship education on entrepreneurship intention with gender as a moderation variable in the study’s findings; schools must present all male and female student activities. disclosure statement no potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors of this manuscript irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 99 acknowledgments we wish to thank for lpdp ri scholarships from ministry of finance, indonesia as the sponsorship. thanks as well to prof. setyabudi indartono for guiding and providing ideas for me to research this topic, to prof. lantip diat prasojo as my supervisor. thanks also to 198 students from different 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(2007). gender, entrepreneurial self-efficacy, and entrepreneurial career intentions: implications for entrepreneurship education. babson kauffman entrepreneurship research conference, 617, 387–406. biographical notes ahmad abdun salam is a graduate student in educational management, faculty of education, universitas negeri yogyakarta, indonesia; email: ahmadabdun.2019@student.uny.ac.id ibnu siswanto, ph.d. works at the department of automotive engineering education, faculty of engineering, universitas negeri yogyakarta, indonesia. mar’atus sholikah is a graduate student in the economic education department, faculty of economics, universitas negeri yogyakarta, indonesia. mailto:ahmadabdun.2019@student.uny.ac.id this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 58 are trainee language teachers autonomous in developing their own language skills? claudia molnar 1 abstract this study presents the findings of a mixed method study exploring how autonomous 33 inservice and 10 trainee efl teachers were in the amount of exposure to authentic english language they present themselves. this study investigated the extent to which l2 english tts were autonomous in their exposure to the target language and how they valued such exposure. ten university teacher trainees took part in the project. the amount of time they exposed themselves to authentic english was measured using an input application developed specifically for this study. the exposure had to be outside of their teaching and learning domain. the research question was: how autonomous are trainee language teachers in developing their own language skills? data were collected from an in-service teacher questionnaire, a trainee teacher two-month study, and a focus group discussion. the focus group discussion data were analyzed qualitatively while the quantitative data were analyzed using the spss software. the main findings of the study showed that the participants did expose themselves to authentic english but were not aware of the learning value of this exposure. implications and recommendations are also discussed. keywords autonomy, confidence, language maintenance, training 1 multilingualism doctoral school, the university of pannonia, hungary; claudia.molnar13@gmail.com mailto:claudia.molnar13@gmail.com irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 59 introduction the idea of the autonomous individual was associated with liberal political traditions over two hundred years ago (raya, 2017). the concept of learner autonomy first appeared in language teaching in the early 1970‟s and was initially linked to self-access learning, learner training, learnercenteredness, self-management and self-assessment. autonomous learning within the field of language education has now emerged within the „mainstream of research and practice‟ (benson, 2011). for the purpose of this study, the focus was on aspects of the learners‟ assuming greater control over their own learning (holmes & ramos, 1991 as cited in james & garrett, 1991, p.198). holec (1981) suggested that autonomy is the ability to take charge of one's own learning. his report was a contribution to the council of europe‟s work in adult education, which strove to develop the abilities of the learner, in order to „enable them to act more responsibly in running the affairs of the society in which they live” (holec, 1981). in the context of this study, society can be considered as that of english language education, a global domain with more non-native than native english speaker teachers, as it exists predominantly in non-english speaking environments. with this in mind, teacher training, being part of adult education acts as an instrument for increasing a sense of awareness and independence in its learners, and, in some cases, for changing the learning environment itself. learner autonomy, thus, belongs to the notion that „one of the functions of (adult) education is to equip learners to play an active role in participatory democracy‟ (little, 2007). understandably, the hungarian learner may not be prepared for the situation in which the learner is totally responsible for all the decisions concerned with his [or her] learning and the implementation of those decisions (dickinson, 1987). this is the first study of its kind in hungary; therefore there is little literature to fully support the arguments. thus, this is considered an exploratory study in order to pave the way for more research into learner autonomy within a teacher education context, beginning with the research question: how autonomous are trainee language teachers in developing their own language skills? the rationale for the study came about from feedback received from teachers during workshops and training sessions across the country. this mainly referred to why the teaching of pronunciation and micro and macro skills, particularly within the domains of listening, was so avoided in many of the language classrooms in hungary. the same answer kept recurring: „we don’t have the confidence to do it’. ‘we don’t have the knowledge of how to’. many of these teachers had very good, if not native like pronunciation. in her 2016 plenary speech at iatefl international conference, silvana richardson stated that “more than 8o% of the efl teachers in the world are non-native english speakers” many of whom do not shy away from the teaching of pronunciation, it motivated the onset of this study. the question arose whether it was the teachers‟ learning and training that lay behind this phenomenon rather than their language competence. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 60 literature review learner autonomy is a contemporary theme, with it being placed within the 21 st century required skills. in the hungarian context, autonomous learning is often viewed as being a „teacher free‟ approach to learning. benson (2011) suggests that learner autonomy is “the learner‟s approach to the learning process” (p. 2). however, holec (1979) describes the autonomous learner as „taking responsibility for the totality of his learning situation‟ and being able to carry out by himself the various steps in the learning process. if this is the case, there is a greater demand for the need to support trainee teachers (tts) in higher education (he) and teacher education programs, in hungary, in actively engaging with their interdisciplinary subject material as a source of their own language development. due to hungary‟s dominating didactic, frontal teaching methods, which include directing, rather than facilitating learning (morrison & navarro, 2014), learners are continuously dependent on their teachers. with the additional “severely systematic constraints on autonomy in compulsory education systems” (benson, 2011, p.56), little engagement with the broader aspects of learning and an overly strong focus on assessment criteria, limits the learning outcomes to merely achieving a qualification. what is at stake here is the nature of higher education itself (boud, 2005), as he is the sector which further develops critical thinking and independent learning (research) skills. as it is the assessment grade itself that has the greatest influence on the students‟ motivation for learning, and which additionally acts as a directive for more or less study requirements, it remains the directive of highest importance. assessment grades also play a significantly decisive role in what students do as they communicate learners‟ abilities and areas for improvement, while building their confidence for future employment, for many others it reveals how inadequate they are as learners and undermines their self-confidence in their future potential (boud, 2005). mccombs and whisler (1997) posit that these traditional approaches refuse students the opportunity to be “enriched by teaching materials” as they are unable to find any connections with their own lives. roger‟s (2013) theories on teaching and learning approaches also stem from the field of humanistic psychology and urges the notion of teacher as facilitator stating that “…teaching is a vastly overrated function and only the facilitation of learning is important” (p. 17) in order for learners to become self-realizing in their pursuit of achievement. he suggests that a curious, secure environment, where learners can make mistakes will evoke a nostalgic natural approach to learning as within childhood. vygotsky‟s (1987) „zone of proximal development‟ (zpd) theory, clearly defined as “the distance between the actual development level as determined by independent problem solving and the level if potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with capable peers.” vygotsky (1987) assumes that “learning begins from the starting point of the child‟s existing knowledge and experience” ( p.86). shabani et al (2010) offer a notion of vygotsky‟s zpd within the field of language teacher development and suggest “an operational view of the learners‟ actual level of development” (p.1) as well as the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 61 measurement of any emerging growth in learning stating that “the learner‟s zone of proximal development is assessed through interaction or collaboration with a learner because it provides an opportunity for imitation” (shabani et al., 2010, p.1). vygotsky (1978) posited that learners will be able to do in the future, what they can collaboratively or independently, with support, do today‟. in order to reach autonomy learners must go through a complex and difficult process, both cognitively and affectively. throughout this process learners will, at some point during the stages of reflection, recognize that a shift in attention towards the learning process itself is required, in order to become „self-organizing‟ (little, 1991, p.21). this is reflected in boud‟s (1988) statement pointing out that “as long as autonomy remains an abstract concept, {} it can be an ideal to which we can aspire” (boud, 1988, p. 20), however, in reality, this is not what we would expect to naturally occur from any course of study. therefore, learner autonomy is unlikely to occur without the assistance and in collaboration with a skilled teacher (benson, 2011). nunan and lamb‟s (1996) concept of learner centeredness highlight the importance of shared teacherstudent power‟ emphasizing the continuous and collaborative engagement of learners in all spheres of their democratic life in the classroom (cirocki, 2016). however, the sharing of this power within the classroom is essential. with the gradual shifting of learning responsibility from the teacher to the learner (guskey & anderman, 2008), and an additional necessity of selfassessment, which can take the form of teacher led then selfdirected reflective journals and targets, autonomy thus, becomes a pivotal aspect of classroom practice. learners will then evolve into true judges of their own output (cirocki, 2016). this practice encourages reflective awareness, a fundamental aspect of learner autonomy. boud (1995) states that “the act of questioning is the act of judging ourselves and making decisions about the next step” (p.1). benson (2007) suggests that autonomy be recognized as the rights of learners within educational systems. this would then give rise to the recognition of students having the right to lessons which interest them and fit in with their lifestyle and not just their learning styles (morrison & navarro, 2014). additionally, the implementation of student generated study skills, which enable students to actively engage with their access to authentic and academic materials, and their language development away from the teacher and the classroom setting, can only foster widened participation and enhanced communication skills. activities based on authentic texts also enhance learning potential through the promotion of “intellectual, aesthetic and emotional engagement, stimulating both hemispheres of the brain” (cirocki, 2016, p.66). fundamentally, knowledge gained within and through a learner‟s lifestyle becomes the learner‟s own, or what benson (2011) calls “action knowledge” (p. 40) and then informs the foundations of the learner‟s continued life choices and lifestyle, which, when made through selfassessment, also allow for the possibility of seeing oneself and the options which lay before one in a radically different way (boud, 1995). all of these experiences then contribute to the semantic memory, which is reflected in the mental lexicon, which is not strictly linguistic since it contains the mental representation of the individual‟s knowledge of the world (navracsics, 2007). this exploratory study investigated the extent to which l2 english tts were autonomous in their exposure to the target language and how they valued such irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 62 exposure. this study is unique to this context as there have been no similar studies in this field in hungary. methodology research design, participants, and locale of the study an exploratory study was compiled, examining two groups; one of 33 inservice teachers‟ active engagement in maintaining and developing their english language skills. in order to obtain this information, a diverse group of hungarian inservice, primary, secondary, private and tertiary sector teacher participants, completed a questionnaire asking about the amount of time they actively exposed themselves to authentic english, via the four skills (reading, writing, speaking, and listening) outside of their teaching domain. the results acted as an indicator of the commonality of intentional continuous development of target language skills. the second group was 10 tts, on a hungarian higher teacher education program. the study examined how actively and consciously they took measures to develop their own target teaching language skills, in order to be more confident teachers and how much of an emphasis is placed on teachers to develop these skills during training, and, to what extent they are supported in this. the research question was: how autonomous are trainee language teachers in developing their own language skills? two groups of participants were invited to take part in the studies. in study 1, the group consisted of 33 non-native in-service english language teachers, practicing in hungary, across many sectors with a range of qts (some with the hungarian m.ed. tefl, some with the master‟s plus a celta and or delta, although this was not specified during the study). in study 2, the group consisted of 10, final year tts, on the hungarian m.ed. tefl, from a transdanubian (td) university of hungary. these groups were selected on the basis of them being graduating tts about to embark on their in-school practice the following semester. permission of participation and the sharing of the data were asked from all participants prior to the study and it was agreed that only their initials would be used as opposed to their full names or numbers. the in-service teachers were asked to complete a questionnaire (appendix 1) measuring the amount of exposure they had to authentic english, outside of their professional domain. 33 teachers took part in the study and the data received serves purely as an indicator. below is a sample of the questions the participants were asked. please note all these questions refer to exposure not related to your work or studies: how many books in/translated into english have you read in the last 6 months? how often do you read english magazines, newspapers articles etc. (including online) how often do you listen to english speaking radio broadcasts (including online radio)? and how often do you have real time conversations in english? (including skype video call, messenger video etc.) the tts were graduating tts, on a m.ed. tefl at the same td university in hungary. they were 5 th year students, comprising three years of english and american studies (literature, history, culture and international communications), with 2 x 90 minutes of irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 63 language improvement per week in the first and third years. this was then followed by two years on the master‟s program, comprising of pedagogy subjects and research methodology. see table 1 for a clearer breakdown of the participant information. table 1. participant information no. of participants hours of english per week program of study expected language level on exit 10 final year tts. 4 (2 x 90 minutes) in first and third years of study 3 years of english and american studies (bachelor‟s level) c1 2 years of pedagogy and research methodology (master‟s level) they completed their ba studies with a supposed c1 (according to the cefr) level language exam. including their compulsory education, they would have been learning english for a minimum of 9 years. participants were asked to input the amount of exposure they had to authentic english, outside of their teaching and studying domain. 10 learners took part in the study and the data was measured using an input data application created by kovacevic and kovacevic (2015), over a 2month period with a minimum data input target of twice weekly (appendix 2). figure 1. flow chart of procedure researcher met participants to discuss research participants record amount of exposure to authentic english (in minutes)in all four skills areas paricipants record their supposed learning value of the exposure( in minutes). researcher accessed data twice weekly no reminder was sent in the event of no input focus group discussion discussion recorded data analysed using spss software figure one presents the procedure of the study. prior to the study, the participants and the researcher met to discuss the process of the research. the application has two scales, one for minutes of exposure for each skill (reading, writing, listening, and speaking), and the second scale is for participants to record the considered value of that exposure. the researcher had access to their data through the „master‟ application and was able to monitor who input data when and how often. the data was monitored twice weekly, on wednesdays and sundays. no reminders were sent to the participants throughout the twomonth research period. if any participant failed to input, fell out of the study or chose to input more than twice weekly, this was considered a measure of their motivation. participants were also asked to calculate the value, on a scale of 1 to 10 (ten being the most valuable) of each irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 64 exposure session in terms of their own language learning potential (appendix 3). the conditions of the study were that this exposure had to be outside of their teaching and learning domain and had to be to authentic, english language; that being material not designed for language learning purposes. following the exposure research period, the participants took part in a focus group, carried out in english, in small groups (one participant was alone) to discuss the amount of language development they had received as part of their teacher training and how supported they had felt during that time. the participants were asked six questions (appendix 4). data collection and analysis this section presents the finding of the above preliminary study exploring whether tts expose themselves to authentic english outside of their teaching and learning domain. data was collected through the modes of a questionnaire, input data from an online application and through focus group discussions. this application was specifically designed for this purpose and had previously been piloted and used in 2015 by kovacevic and kovacevic. all the recorded quantitative data results were calculated using spss software and the focus group discussions were recorded, with the consent of all participants, and transcribed. the audio recordings are available. findings in -service teacher exposure to authentic english the results for the in -service teacher exposure to authentic english is presented in figure 2 below, which presents the outcomes for the 33 participants on a fourpoint likert scale. figure 2. exposure to authentic english materials or usage 4. daily 3. a couple of times a week 2. once a week 1. less than weekly scale of scores 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 read listen film tv speak write irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 65 receptive exposure, in terms of listening and watching television and films, dominated at more than once a week. however, reading, at once a week, was slightly lower than speaking at a couple of times a week. written exposure proved to be the lowest at between less than and once a week. it is also not clear in what capacity this exposure took place and the familiar and lifestyle choices of the participants, which could be considered variables in another context. trainee teacher exposure to authentic english table one presents the number of times the tts input data over the measured two month period. as can be seen, there is a range of inputs from 9 to 26 with a mean of 14.1 inputs. table 2. number of inputs per participant participants number of inputs ns 9 ag 10 at 10 ds 12 vp 12 dv 13 vs 13 jt 15 pv 21 tk 26 the results of the tts reveal a pattern of more exposure to receptive rather than productive language. figure three presents the number of minutes of exposure over the twomonth period. figure 3. number of minutes of exposure over twomonth period 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 jt vp tk pv dv at ns vs ds ag 1270 3410 1985 2890 2165 1450 1320 2995 1060 385 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 66 the three highest figures are from those students who input more often than the others. however, the participants who input the highest number of times (tk) only had the sixth highest number of minutes of exposure. table three presents the correlation between exposure time and presumed value. table 3. correlation between exposure and presumed value r p n rt and rv .411 .238 10 wr and wv .584 .076 10 lt and lv .519 .124 10 st and sv .541 .106 10 table three clearly demonstrates that there is no correlation exposure time (r) and presumed value (p). table four presents the number of minutes of exposure, over the twomonth period, by skill and the value on language improvement potential, from 1 to 10, of that exposure. table 4. the number of minutes of exposure, over the twomonth period by skill, and the value on language improvement potential writing time writing value reading time reading value listening time listening value speaking time speaking value jt 50 1 360 3 850 4 10 2 v 580 5 950 6 1085 7 795 6 tk 365 7 125 7 1075 9 420 10 pv 150 9 550 6 1920 8 270 10 dv 135 6 360 8 1415 9 255 4 at 100 1 275 1 970 2 105 3 ns 165 5 625 7 500 7 30 7 vs 360 8 655 10 1655 10 325 8 ds 0 0 500 10 560 10 0 0 ag 30 2 125 2 210 1 20 2 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 67 table 5. mean times of exposure wt rt lt st n 10 10 10 10 mean 193.50 452.50 1024.00 223.00 median 142.50 430.00 1022.50 180.00 sd 184.437 256.723 531.856 251.022 min 0 125 210 0 max 580 950 1920 795 the statistics in table 5 reveals that participants time spent on productive skills was significantly lower (193.50) than receptive skills (223). the mean reading time was 452.50 minutes and listening time was 1024 minutes. writing time was 193.5 minutes and speaking time was 223 minutes over the 2 month period. focus group discussion following the twomonth exposure period, all 10 participants took part in a focus group discussion. the first three discussion points posed questions around the participants‟ exposure to real language use and the final three to the support and guidance they had received on their training course. some answers included: “i am always conscious about learning languages. with this app i was more conscious-1 day i did the listening and then i realized i needed to do the reading and writing” i need to be exposed to language day by day” and “on this training, our language abilities are not taken into account only our teaching skills.” the full transcript can be found in appendix 4. in answering to the first question, regarding the consciousness of their exposure, 6 of the students commented that although they felt that their exposure was adequate, they were not conscious of it. however, the study raised their awareness of the need for this. when discussing the benefits of the study, which for them was the exposure, 7 of the students commented on awareness raising of the skills they needed to spend more time on, plus the fact that they were not actively engaging in the exposure in order to develop their own language skills. the third discussion point was the difficulties that participants encountered throughout the study. the first noted difficulty was in how to rate the value of the exposure as well as becoming more aware of how to find the right level of exposure to meet their needs. the second most salient factor was that of remembering to input, which is also evident in the data, in terms of number of inputs over time of exposure. when analyzing the feedback on the importance of language teachers‟ development of their own target teaching irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 68 language skills, it was evident that the participants had a clear understanding and recognition of the importance of this factor. eight of the students stated that their own language competence was rarely considered and that it was a „neglected area‟, with not enough guidance and most of it “focusing on receptive language skills.” all participants unanimously recognized a need to develop their own language skills to levels above those of their students, who proved, in the main, to be the driving force behind their motivation. the extracts support dörnyei and kubanyiova‟s (2014) claims that „l2 motivation, in terms of language identity, (in this case as a language teacher) offers a new perspective on motivational teaching practice‟ (p.22). discussion the main objectives of the study were to determine whether tts actively and autonomously work on developing their own (english) target language teaching skills and the learning value they placed on the exposure they had to authentic english language use. an initial questionnaire was completed by 33 in -service teachers, to discover the amount of exposure to authentic english language they present themselves. following this, a two month investigative study of the amount of time trainee teachers exposed themselves to authentic english language followed and how much they valued this exposure. yin‟s (2015) study of the effects of exposure to authentic language on listening skills discovered a positive relationship between metacognitive awareness and self-efficacy and considered this to be an important contributor to language development. the results of the tt study were not surprising insomuch as there was an ample exposure to authentic english but it is not known how much of this was „useful‟. the reason for this was that it is also not clear in what capacity this exposure took place and the familiar and lifestyle choices of the participants, which could be considered variables in another context. in future studies this would also be pertinent to measure, in order to act as a true control variable. in terms of why written exposure presented as the lowest time exposure, it is only possible to speculate, as reasons for the amount of exposure in each field was not measured. again this would prove a valid variable in future, more detailed research. it is possible that the participants do not write in english, outside of their studies. at the time of the study, there had been no similar studies conducted in this field and in this context to compare the results with, hence the need to view this as an exploratory study. the two month exposure study was then followed up by a focus group, discussing the amount of support and encouragement the tts had received as part of their teacher education, in terms of their own language development. the reason for combining these two methods was to use the qualitative insights to shed light on the quantitative data (wallace, 2008, p.38). it is clear from the discussion that, within the context of these tts‟ education, they are motivated to develop their language skills but are not conscious about the extent to which they are required to, are able to, and do, do this. additionally, tts did expose themselves to the target teaching language, which came as no real surprise, however they were not actively engaging with it in order to develop their own language. in their eyes, the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 69 teacher education course did not explicitly encourage autonomous language development. additionally, not only is there no correlation between the time spent and the perceived value but the participants themselves did not see the value in their exposure. what was striking from the data, was that from the 40 incidents of exposure, 13 were deemed non valuable (scoring >5) and 6 as only mildly valuable (scoring 5 or 6). again, it is only possible to speculate on why this occurred, perhaps due to a lack of implicit learner training in this area, yet again, this is a limitation of this study and recommended for deeper probing in future research incidents. in one case, the participant stated that there had been no productive exposure throughout the study at all, which is an unfortunate outcome, particularly as the university in question has english speaking clubs, events and activities, not to mention a number of international students, with whom communication in english is possible. kozhevnikova (2013) states that “language learners hardly ever interact with people from other countries,” (p.1) making their language teacher their only source of input, which is not the case in this context. considering that teachers play “a crucial role in mediating ideas on language learning to their students” (benson, 2011, p.185), it is evident that this aspect of learner training is absent from this course and the implementation of support and guidance on how students can effectively use their exposure to their target teaching language, outside of the classroom, in order to develop their own language skills would be a valuable and welcome addition to the program. the results of the focus group discussion were the most indicative from the entire study. some limitations to the study include the lack of knowledge about at which point some of the participants chose to leave the study and their reasons for doing so, and as mentioned earlier on in the chapter, the familiar and conditions within which the in service teachers expose themselves to their target teaching languages was also not examined and would have yielded results pertaining to the scope and effectiveness in their own language maintenance. it is known that improving receptive skills strengthens productive skills; however, by not activating the production it is not possible to measure the effectiveness of the reception. the implications are that changes are required for the teaching of methodology and course design modules of this teacher education course, beginning with the implementation of the development of learner autonomy through learner training, reflection and target setting. results will be measured through the feedback given during peer teaching, the teaching of all four skills, use of reflection during teaching and levels of confidence. conclusion and recommendations this section presents an overarching conclusion to the above study and offers implications and considerations for future teacher education program. the outcomes of this exploratory study demonstrate that tts do expose themselves to authentic language, although they did not always see the learning value in that exposure. this is concerning as they would be language teachers themselves and would be required to develop autonomous irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 70 learning skills in their future students. teacher education programs do not place enough emphasis on the importance of a high level of language proficiency and do not explicitly encourage and train learners in autonomous practices of this development. moreover, the tendency towards teaching proficiency seems to lack a 21 st century approach. in today‟s 21 st century language learning world, where foreign language learning (fll) is high on both educational and employment agendas, not to mention english‟s place as the lingua franca, communicative competence must take precedence over „native like‟ accuracy. native english speakers are in the minority and as language evolves at a rate of knots, saying what is really accurate, and by whose‟ standards, in today‟s world is becoming more and more difficult. we need to develop classrooms, which foster safe learning environments, which expose our learners to real language use and encourage them to learn from their mistakes and communicate with one another. teacher education courses need to be remodeled to ensure that, in addition to the pedagogical aspects of the program, the language improvement aspects are also delivered in a more communicative manner. greater emphasis needs to be placed on meeting the needs of the learners; encouraging and demonstrating how they can engage with the material and teaching them how to learn in the most effective manner, in order for them to reach their full potential. by implementing learner training to encourage and support autonomous language development, teacher education programs can then prepare tts to implement these strategies in their own future language classrooms. i would suggest that modifications be implemented into all language teaching programs, not just english, in order to create a form of standardization and a firm focus on the importance of language development as well as pedagogical competencies. disclosure statement no potential conflict of interest was reported by the author. acknowledgments i would like to thank the head of the doctoral school of multilingualism, professor judit navracsics and my supervisor professor marjolijn verspoor for their on-going support and guidance. i would also like to thank dr. szilvia bátyi for all her help and advice. finally, i would like to thank my children for allowing me the freedom to carry out this research. references benson, p. (2011). teaching and researching autonomy. uk: pearson education limited. benson, p. (2011). what‟s new in autonomy? the language teacher, 35(4). boud, d., keogh, r., & walker, d. (eds.) (2005). reflection: turning experience into learning. london: rutledge flamer. cirocki, a. (2016). developing learner autonomythrough tasks. uk. linguabooks. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 71 council of europe. (2000/2004). european language portfolio (elp): principles and guidelines. with added explanatory notes. strasbourg: council of europe. (dgiv/edu/lang (2000) 33 rev.1). council of europe. (2001). common european framework of reference for languages: learning, teaching, assessment. uk. cambridge: cambridge university press. dickinson, l. (1987). self-instruction in language learning. uk. cambridge: cambridge university press. dörnyei, z., & kubanyiova, m. (2014). motivating learners, motivating teachers. uk. cambridge university press. guskey, t. t., & anderman, e. m. (2008). students at bat. educational leadership, 66(3), 8-14. holec, h. (1981). autonomy and foreign language learning. uk. oxford: pergamon. holec, h. (1979). autonomy and foreign language learning. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ed192557 retrieved on: 2 nd november 2019. holmes, j. l., & ramos, r. (1991). talking about learning: establishing a framework for discussing and changing learning processes. in james, c. and garrett, p. (eds.). language awareness in the classroom. (1991, p. 198212). kovacevic, c. k., & kovacevic, m. (2015). monitoring speakers‟ l2 maintenance effort. in navracsics, j. and bátyi, sz. (2015). first and second language: interdisciplinary approaches. studies in psycholinguistics 6. hungary, budapest. tinta könyv kiadó. kozhevnikova, e. (2013) exposing students to authentic materials as a way to increase students` language proficiency and cultural awareness. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 116( 2014 ) 4462 – 4466. elsivier ltd. little, d. (1991). learner autonomy 1: definitions, issues and problems. dublin: authentik. little, d. (2007). learner autonomy: drawing together the threads of self-assessment, goal setting and reflection. (http://archive.ecml.at/mtp2/elp_tt/results/dm_layout/00_10/06/06%20supple mentary%20text.pdf) retrieved on: 22 nd february 2018 mccombs, b.l., & whisler, j. s. (1997). the learner-centred classroom and school: strategies for increasing student motivation and achievement. san fransisco: jossey-bass. in raya, m.j., ramos, j,j. and tassinari, m.g. (eds.) (2017). learner autonomy in higher education: perspectives from modern language teaching. germany. peter lang. morrison, b., & navarro, d. (2014). the autonomy approach. uk: delta publishing. navracsics, j. 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(2016) the native factor. https://iatefl.britishcouncil.org/2016/session/plenary-silvana-richardson https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ed192557 http://archive.ecml.at/mtp2/elp_tt/results/dm_layout/00_10/06/06%20supplementary%20text.pdf http://archive.ecml.at/mtp2/elp_tt/results/dm_layout/00_10/06/06%20supplementary%20text.pdf https://iatefl.britishcouncil.org/2016/session/plenary-silvana-richardson irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 72 rogers, c. r., lyon, h. c. jr., & tausch, r. (2014). on becoming an effective teacher: person-centered teaching, psychology, philosophy, and dialogues with carl r. rogers and harold lyon. routledge/taylor & francis group. shabani,k., khatib,m. and ebadi,s. (2019). vygotsky's zone of proximal development: instructional implications and teachers' professional development (10) (pdf) vygotsky's zone of proximal development: instructional implications and teachers' professional development. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/47807505_vygotsky's_zone_of_proxim al_development_instructional_implications_and_teachers'_professional_develop ment retrieved on: 2 nd nov 2019. vygotsky, l. s. (1987). thinking and speech. in r. w. rieber & a. s. carton (eds.)., the collected works of l. s. vygotsky. vol. 1. problems of general psychology (pp. 39-285). new york: plenum. wallace, m. j. (2008). action research for language teachers. uk. cambridge university press. yin, m. (2015). the effect and importance of authentic language exposure in improving listening comprehension. culminating projects in english. paper 33. biographical notes claudia molnár was born and raised in north london and moved to hungary. she did her initial celta training in 1998 and has been teaching efl/esol since then. she went on to study for delta, pgce and a master‟s in education (tesol). she is currently studying for a phd in multilingualism through instruction with the main area of her research being developing confidence and learner autonomy in a teacher training context. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/47807505_vygotsky's_zone_of_proximal_development_instructional_implications_and_teachers'_professional_development https://www.researchgate.net/publication/47807505_vygotsky's_zone_of_proximal_development_instructional_implications_and_teachers'_professional_development https://www.researchgate.net/publication/47807505_vygotsky's_zone_of_proximal_development_instructional_implications_and_teachers'_professional_development irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 73 appendix 1. exposure to authentic language questionnaire please note all these questions refer to exposure not related to your wok or studies. 1 how many books in/translated into english have you read in the last 6 months? a. 0-2 b. 3-4 c. 5-6 d. more than 6 2 how often do you read english magazines, newspapers articles etc. (including online) a. daily b. a couple of times a week c. once a week d. less than weekly 3 how often do you listen to english speaking radio broadcasts (including online radio)? a. daily b. a couple of times a week c. once a week d. less than weekly 4 how often do you watch english speaking films (with or without subtitles)? a. daily b. a couple of times a week c. once a week d. less than weekly 5 how often do you watch english speaking television films (with or without subtitles)? a. daily b. a couple of times a week c. once a week d. less than weekly 6 how often do you have real time conversations in english? (including skype video call, messenger video etc.) a. daily b. a couple of times a week c. once a week d. less than weekly 7 how often do you write in english? a. daily b. a couple of times a week c. once a week d. less than weekly irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 74 appendix 2. application data over 2 month period © 2016 | developed by matej kovačević http://prowebex.com/ irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 75 appendix 3. participants and number of inputs © 2016 | developed by matej kovačević http://prowebex.com/ irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 76 appendix 4. results of the focus group discussion (audio files available) 1. how conscious were you of the amount of exposure you have to english before the project? i am always conscious about learning languages. with this app i was more conscious-1 day i did the list and then i realised i needed to do the reading and writing my exposure hasn’t changed because of the project just i am more conscious of it now before the project i wasn’t that conscious i wasn’t either but since the project i have become more so 2. how have you benefitted from taking part in this project? i realised that one day i have to use more skills or maybe i can concentrate on one skill but with more time. i can only meet my language teacher so the interaction was only once a week but after a while i inputted daily i personally think i have as when i input after a few days i realised i hadn’t read enough or spoken enough and it made me then read more or interact more i feel the same i hadn’t been conscious through all of this stuff before i watched a movie in english and just enjoyed it whereas now i think this is a good way of practicing eng. i also realised that i don’t really use the language outside the classroom only watching filme or series and no interaction at all so now i got conscious and i think i should do this or find a way to 3. what difficulties did you have with this study and why? the listening was hard to find the level. remembering to input same for me if i forgot i tried to catch up after a while it was easier because at the start at the end of the day i had to remember how much i had spoken etc…. 4. how important is it for language teachers to continue to develop their own language skills and why? from my point of view i always know that if i don’t use the language day by day i just forget the grammar, vocab… and i need to be exposed to language day by day. one of the most important parts irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 77 very as language is a changing system and if we don’t catch up we won’t be modern teachers and we won’t know our students will always have new language and new words you won’t know and then you cannot help them and you can always extend your knowledge if you think you have no more to learn you can learn better english or esp 5. do you feel you receive enough guidance on your own language improvement during your teacher training and if so how and if not wha not?? it’s a not, throughout this training session i didn’t have the method how to teach ps or pc-or how i should improve their vocabulary to reach the b2 level and it was hard for me to find a balance and a method for that and i just feel that only the history or the background of how we teach efl is the only source of my help. on this training our language abilities are not taken into account only our teaching skills we don’t have enough lessons to improve our language-we only learn about teaching qualities and our language and competencies are not at the same level we are studying in the pasti feel that i listen to the theory of lt every day all day long but i can’t take advantage of it as we don’t practise enough-the past is important 6. what do you do to develop and retain your own language skills and what motivates you to do that? my students-some of them are really motivated and they come up with new ideas, words and topics and they boost me. that is how i motivate myself in order to help them improve their skills and i should be on the upper level of them. i read articles that are interesting for me or if i see an article which is one of my students topics. i read authentic text books too and i only watch movies in the original language. i usually just do everyday stuffwatching series, reading consciously, if there is an option between hungarian and english i always choose englishi can get it from my personal life not through the university but in our own way there are several applications, resources for this like ‘5 minutes english’ or through my smartphone and now it is erettségi (matura exam) time and so i downloaded the tacks. i think the students are the maximum motivation for us as if they have a problem i can’t explain. i always check it and make sure i know it properly so during practice we can pick up on this. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 175 in search of quality human resources in education: professional competency, compensation, working climate, and motivation toward vocational teachers' performance muazza* abstract this study aimed to find out the effect of professional competency, compensation, working climate, and motivation on the performance of vocational teachers in muaro jambi regency. the data were collected through an empirically validated questionnaire from 212 respondents. the variables consisted of professional teacher competency (x1), compensation (x2), and working climate (x3), and one moderator variable; motivation (y), and one bound variable; teacher performance (z). descriptive and inferential analysis technique was used to analyze the data through spss and smart pls 3.2.7 applications. the results of descriptive analysis illustrated that teacher performance, teacher professional competency, working climate and working motivation in the very high category. at the same time, compensation fell into the good category. the statistical analysis results revealed that teacher professional competency, compensation, and working climate affected teacher working motivation, while professional teacher competency, working climate, and motivation involved teacher performance. compensation was predicted not to affect teacher performance where p-value 0.810 was greater than 0.05. teacher professional competency, compensation, and working climate affected teacher performance through motivation as moderator variables to teacher performance. professional teacher competency, compensation, and working climate were predicted to have a simultaneous effect on teacher working motivation. professional teacher competency, compensation, working climate, and motivation were predicted to have a simultaneous effect on teacher performance. it is recommended that vocational school teachers in muaro jambi regency improve their performance for better student learning achievement. keywords compensation, motivation, vocational school, teacher professional competency, working climate * associate professor, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, indonesia; muazza@unja.ac.id mailto:muazza@unja.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 176 introduction the national exam in 2019 attended by 1,361 vocational school students in muaro jambi regency was declared to pass 100% with an average score of bahasa indonesia 56.55 (moderate category), english 35.43 (low category), mathematics 30.76 (low category) and vocational theory 40.80 (low category). these showed the low competitiveness of vocational school graduates who planned to continue their education to college. there are no vocational school graduates in muaro jambi regency who obtained lsp-p1/professional certificates in terms of skills. an lsp-p1 certificate is a form of recognition from professional certification bodies for one's competency. this shows the lack of competitiveness of vocational school graduates in competing for jobs available in the industrial world as well as opening independent businesses. several facts are inseparable from the duties and roles of teachers who are expected to contribute significantly in efforts to improve student achievement. teachers should improve the quality of their learning through sustainable professional development activities to improve learning management skills. the increasing professional competency of teachers is expected to have a positive impact on their performance. some of the teachers' weaknesses in vocational schools in muaro jambi regency included skills to develop a learning program plan, skills to stretch the learning process, and skills to assess the learning process. according to madjid (2016), teacher performance is not optimal among others due to displeased and lazy work, leaving teaching hours before the end, poor working performance, low quality in teaching, undisciplined, and others. considering the position of teachers as the main element in the school, a solution should be sought. in addition to the professional competency of teachers, according to madjid (2016), teacher performance is influenced by compensation, working climate, and motivation. the results of teacher supervision in vocational schools in muaro jambi regency obtained the following information; low wages of contracted teachers, unconducive working climate, such as the idea of authoritarian principals, and lack of opportunities to develop, such as training activities dominated by certain teachers. if these continue, they will affect the progress of the school. the fact that the working climate occurred in muaro jambi regency based on the author's observations relates to the relationship between superiors and subordinates, which is not harmonious. there are duplicate positions, unfair rewards as a cause of poor relations between teachers, and depressed feeling by leadership that is not focused on students. the preliminary data revealed that compensation received by teachers in the vocational school in muaro jambi regency based on the author's observations related to low wages, the payment system of contract teachers is late, lack of welfare resources in addition to teaching salaries, such as health benefits, uniforms, and transport assistance, and long distance from the provincial capital of civil servant teachers' lives makes difficult when they manage promotions and periodic salaries. furthermore, madjid (2016) stated that teachers who work well would perform well. good performance can encourage moral teachers to act with more achievement. this is supported by the findings of wuandari and purwanto (2018), kurniasih (2018), ningsih (2017), and zulkefi et al. (2017), which stated that teacher irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 177 professional competency has a positive and significant effect on teacher performance. however, sadili (2006) argues that the school's success is affected by several factors, including compensation. the leadership's attention to compensation arrangements in schools rationally and independently is necessary to attract applicants and retain existing teachers to motivate themselves to perform well. similarly, if teacher compensation does not refer to education, competency, position, and tenure, it can lead to decreased motivation and working performance. widayati (2019), marsita and imaniyati (2018), and mutakin (2017) showed a positive and significant influence between compensation for teacher performance variables. however, purwanto et al. (2019) research stated that the compensation received by teachers did not affect their performance. there are differences in the results of research (research gap) from researchers. hence more studies on teacher compensation need to be carried out. another variable highlighted is about working climate. suharsaputra (2010) argues that working climate is an effective environment expected to affect performance through the working behavior of members in carrying out tasks in a conducive and efficient communication atmosphere. schools with an excellent working climate will have a good impact on performance. this is supported by the research of purwanto et al. (2019), vahim et al. (2019), and maesaroh (2018), which stated that working climate has a positive and significant effect on teacher performance. in contrast to carudin's research (2011), he stated that working climate does not affect teacher performance. the last variable outlined in this study is motivation. mangkunegara (2005) concluded that motivation of achievement has a positive relationship with performance achievement. this means that the motivation to perform well by teachers will lead to high performance. on the contrary, underperforming teachers are due to poor working motivation. this statement is supported by madi and kalimin (2019), sari (2018), maesaroh (2018), yulia (2017), and ardiana (2017) which stated that motivation has a positive and significant effect on teacher performance. based on the problems related to teacher performance and lack of research on teacher performance in vocational schools in muaro jambi regency, it is interested in conducting particular research discussing the effect of teacher professional competency, compensation, working climate, and motivation on teacher performance in vocational schools in muaro jambi regency. literature review teacher performance some experts interpret performance as the result of work or working performance. according to wibowo (2010) has a broader meaning, not only as a result of work but including the procedure of work is organized. according to rowley and jackson (2012), performance relates to the term evaluation (performance), assessment or review. therefore, performance can be measured and improved at various human resource management activities such as organization, team, or individual. thus, performance refers to the degree of completion of employee duties and in indonesia, based on permeneg pan-rb no. 16 of 2009, teacher performance covers planning, implementation, and learning assessment. according to anoraga (2006), some factors that affect performance include salary system, job attractiveness, irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 178 job security and comfort, management system, physical and social environment, career path, and leadership. by understanding the factors that can affect the performance of teachers or employees, various problems can be found solutions to be obstacles to improve its performance. based on expert opinion, teacher performance can be concluded as a comparison between the work obtained by teachers and the work objectives agreed together with the supervisor based on the main tasks and functions inherent to a person in carrying out daily tasks according to the authority responsibility. more specifically, the performance measures used in this study is the result approach of teachers/teams, assuming subjectivity can be eliminated. according to uno (2013), teacher performance gauge can be seen from speed or accuracy of work, quality of work, initiative in work, working ability, and proficiency in working communication. professional competency, compensation, working climate, and working motivation wibowo (2010) notes competency is a person's ability to do work based on knowledge, skills and working attitudes that become the demands of his work. madjid (2016) emphasizes that competency has three meanings; (1) competency (n) is being competent, ability (to do the work), (2) competent (adj) refers to persons having ability, power, authority, skill, knowledge, etc. (to do what is needed), and (3) competency is a rational performance which statisfactority meets the objectives for the desired conditions. besides, yamin and maisah (2010) argue that teacher competency is a certain measure determined and required in the form of an assignment to behave like a person who occupies the functional position of a teacher following the field of duty, qualifications, and educational level. according to hasibuan (2017), compensation represents the entirety of income in the form of money and goods directly or indirectly received by employees in return for services provided by the company. similarly, wibowo (2010) said that parties should provide compensation using personnel or services (individuals or business organizations). sastrohadiwiryo (2005) defines compensation as the reward of services provided by the company to employees because it has provided services for the company's advancement to achieve the goals set. from the exposure of the experts, compensation can be concluded in return for services provided by the company to workers for the contribution of services from their work, to maintain and improve their motivation and performance. it can take the form of direct compensation in the form of salaries, benefits, incentives, and indirect compensation in financial benefits such as housing allowances, health insurance, and holiday allowances. according to robbins (2007), working climate is a term often used to string together behavioral variables based on values, beliefs, and basic norms that serve as a guide to the management system of the organization. hardiana (2006) argues that working climate is a typical personality of the organization differentiating with other organizations to guide the perception of members in looking at the organization. additionally, daryanto (2015) strengthens that working climate is a relationship between personnel, social and cultural factors to affect individuals and groups in the school environment. in brief, the measurement of the working climate in this study includes dimensions of; (1) the relationship of superiors with subordinates; (2) relationships with school members; (3) personal responsibility; (4) fair irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 179 reward; (5) control, structure, and logical bureaucratic system; and (6) the involvement and participation of teachers/ employees. motivation comes from the word movere (latin), which means the same as to move (english) which means to encourage or move (kadarisman, 2012). wibowo (2010) argues that motivation is one's desire to act. the motivation that arises can come from a lot of strength. therefore, the leadership should affect the work to adjust its motivation to the interests of organization. shortly, motivation is a process that allows producing intensity, direction, and continuous effort (persistence) from the individual to achieve goals. hasibuan (2007) adds the objectives of motivating employees included stimulating the passion and spirit of work, improving morale and job satisfaction, increasing productivity, maintaining loyalty, improving discipline, building a good atmosphere and working relationship, improving the level of well-being, maintaining and enhancing creativity and participation, and increasing the employee's sense of responsibility for their duties. research hypotheses the following hypotheses would be the focused of the study: h1: there is a partial effect of teacher's professional competency on motivation of vocational school teachers. h2: there is a partial effect of compensation on the motivation of vocational school teachers. h3: there is a partial effect of working climate on motivation of vocational school teachers. h4: there is a significant effect of teacher professional competency on the performance of vocational school teachers. h5: there is a significant effect of compensation on the performance of vocational school teachers. h6: there is a significant effect of working climate on the performance of vocational school teachers. h7: there is a significant effect of motivation on the performance of vocational school teachers. h8: there is a significant effect of professional competency on teacher performance through the motivation of vocational school teachers. h9: there is a significant effect of compensation on teacher performance through motivation of vocational school teachers. h10: there is a significant effect of working climate on teacher performance through motivation of vocational school teachers. methodology research design, site, and participants to answer research problems and questions, this study used the quantitative research method to develop variables studied by using mathematical models, theories and testing hypotheses to produce statistical data. creswell (2011) states that one of the main characteristics of quantitative research is collecting numerical data from many people using instruments with predetermined questions, associating variables using statistical analysis and comparing research results with previous predictions. moreover, a quantitative research method was used to test the proposed hypothesis. creswell (2011) that in this scenario, the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 180 researcher tests a theory by specifying hypotheses and the collection of data to support or refute the hypotheses furthermore, quantitative research consists of two types of approaches/ designs, experimental and non-experimental such as survey (creswell, 2012). following the problem studied, this study used a non-experimental research design. the survey research process is a social phenomenon in education that attracts researchers' attention. the use of survey methods in this study was more suitable for finding out the perception picture of the variables studied by asking the same question to the sample of the selected population. in addition, a survey was chosen to ensure participants' perception of the variables. this study was conducted in vocational schools muaro jambi regency. the population of this study was all teachers in vocational schools muaro jambi regency with a number of 450 teachers subjects, both civil servants and contract teachers in public-private vocational schools. possible errors should be addressed as little as possible with a level of error 0.05 which means a confidence level of 95% of the samples count in this study was as many as 212 participants. data collection and analysis the pls-sem technique was used to analyze data and proposed hypotheses by using smart pls software (carrión, henseler, ringle, & roldán, 2016; hair, hult, ringle, & sarstedt, 2017; ratzmann, gudergan, & bouncken, 2016). pls-sem as a variance-based technique has enjoyed increased popularity in various disciplines, including entrepreneurship (hernández-perlines, 2016). many studies to date have explored various factors that affect an individual's intention to enter business, primarily using regression methods (shirokova, osiyevskyy, & bogatyreva, 2015; shook & bratianu, 2010). in this study, a more comprehensive view to analyze the entire set of reciprocal relationships. findings the reliability aimed to assess whether the latent variable measurement indicator was reliable or not. the trick was to evaluate the outer loading results of each indicator. loading values above 0.7 indicated that the construct could explain more than 50% of its indicator variances (heir et al., 2017). in this study, all loading values were above 0.7 and only one below 0.7 and can be displayed above 0.7. internal consistency reliability measures how capable indicators can measure their latent constructs (heir et al., 2017). the tools used to assess were composite reliability and cronbach's alpha. composite reliability values of 0.6 – 0.7 were considered good reliability (heir et al., 2017), and cronbach's alpha value was expected to be above 0.7 (ghozali & latan, 2015). the validity of convergence is determined based on the principle that the gauges of a construct should be highly correlated (ghozali & latan, 2015). the convergent validity of a construct with reflective indicators was evaluated with average variance extracted (ave). the ave value should be equal to 0.5 or more. ave value of 0.5 or more means the construct can explain 50% or more variance of the item (heir et al., 2017). irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 181 table 1. construct reliability and validity alpha rho_a cr (ave) working climate 0,909 0,909 0,923 0,645 teacher performance 0,913 0,914 0,944 0,677 compensation 0,942 0,943 0,943 0,755 working motivation 0,834 0,887 0,942 0,811 professional competencies teacher 0,874 0,875 0,923 0,666 the reliability test in pls can use two methods, cronbach'salpha and composite reliability. according to hair et al. (2017), the composite reliability and cronbach alpha values were examined accompanied by the mean of variance extracted (ave) to check the reliability of the assessment model. all cronbach's alpha coefficients and composite reliability should be greater than 0.7, although a value of 0.6 was still acceptable. however, the internal consistency test was not necessary if the construct validity has been fulfilled because a valid construct was a reliable construct. on the other hand, a reliable construct was not necessarily valid (hair et al., 2017). composite reliability varied from 0.902 to 0.932. in addition, the ave value ranged from 666 to .811. all values in this study included cronbach's alpha, composite reliability, and ave was acceptable. therefore, the data can be inferred as valid and reliable. descriptive validity individual reflective measure is high if it correlates more than 0.70 with the construct to be measured. however, in the early stages of developing a measurement scale, the loading value of 0.50 to 0.60 was considered sufficient (ghozali, 2015). discriminant validity aims to determine whether a reflective indicator is a good measure for its construct based on the principle that each indicator should be correlated. in the smartpls 3.2.7 application, the discriminant validity test used the value of fornell-larcker criterion and heterotrait-monotrait (htmt) ratio (henseler et al., 2015). table 2. fornell-larcker criterion working climate teacher performance compensation motivation work teacher professional competency working climate 0,822 teacher performance 0,662 0,747 compensation 0,629 0,557 0,817 working motivation 0,581 0,523 0,701 0,901 teacher professional competency 0,345 0,322 0,189 0,186 0,816 in this case, the square root value of ave in each construct was greater than the correlation value between the construct and other constructs in the model tested; then, the model can be inferred to have a good discriminant validity value (fornell-arscher, 1988). irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 182 table 3. heterotrait-monotrait ratio (htmt) working climate teacher performance compensation motivation work working climate teacher performance 0,716 compensation 0,692 0,611 working motivation 0,644 0,580 0,784 teacher professional competency 0,395 0,353 0,213 0,212 some experts argue fornell-larcker criterion is less sensitive in assessing the validity of discriminants. htmt is an alternative method recommended for assessing the validity of discriminants. this method used a multitrait-multimethod matrix as the basis of measurement. the htmt value should be less than 0.9 to ensure the validity of the discriminant between the two reflective constructs (henseler et al., 2015). based on the results of the data, all values were less than 0.9. therefore, it can be inferred that the research instrument used was valid. table 4. mean, stdev, t-values, and p-values hypothesis 1, the p-value of 0.000 or less than 0.05, mean a significant effect of professional competency of teachers on working motivation. hypothesis 2, the effect of compensation on teacher working motivation was 29.1% and p-value of 0.005 or less than 0.05. this meant that there was a significant effect of compensation on working motivation of the teachers. hypothesis 3, the effect of working climate on teacher working motivation by 18.3% and the value of p-value 0.017 or smaller than 0.05 meant that there was a significant effect of working climate on motivation of teachers in vocational schools in muaro jambi. hypothesis 4, the effect of professional competency of teachers on the performance of 68.8% and the value of p-value was 0.000 or less than 0.05. this meant that there was a significant effect of teacher professional competency on teacher performance. hypothesis 5, compensation has no significant effect on teacher performance in vocational schools in muaro jambi regency. hypothesis 6, the effect of working climate on teacher performance by 12.8% and the value of h path β t value p values h1 teacher professional competency -> working motivation 0,417 4,730 0,000 h2 compensation -> working motivation 0,291 2,792 0,005 h3 working climate -> working motivation 0,183 2,401 0,017 h4 teacher professional competency -> teacher performance 0,688 13,879 0,000 h5 compensation -> teacher performance -0,016 0,241 0,810 h6 working climate -> teacher performance 0,128 2,451 0,015 h7 working motivation -> teacher performance 0,262 3,785 0,000 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 183 p-value 0.015 or smaller than 0.05, which meant that there was a significant effect of working climate on teacher performance in vocational schools in muaro jambi regency. hypothesis 7, the effect of motivation on teacher performance by 26.2% with a value of p-value of 0.000 or less than 0.05 meant that there was a significant effect of working motivation on teacher performance in vocational schools in muaro jambi regency. table 5. mean, stdev, t-values, and p-values on x -> y-> z hypothesis 8, the effect of professional competency of teachers through moderation or indirect with motivational moderator variables on teacher performance with a value of p-value 0.035 or smaller than 0.05 and an original sample of 0.109 meant that there was a significant effect of teacher professional competency on teacher performance through motivation moderation. hypothesis 9, there was an effect of compensation through moderation or indirect motivation as a moderator variable on teacher performance with the original sample of 0.076. it meant that the effect of compensation on teacher performance was 7.6%, with a value of p-value of 0.022 or less than 0.05. hypothesis 10, the effect of working climate through moderation or indirect motivational variable on teacher performance with the original sample of 0.048 meant that the effect of working climate on teacher performance was 4.8% with a p-value of 0.035. discussion teacher professional competency affects teacher motivation, according to mcclelland's theory (achievement motive theory), action is carried out by someone driven by the need to achieve the best in order to achieve goals (kadarisman, 2012). this theory believes that achievement has a very important role in a person's success to achieve his goals. a teacher will mobilize or encourage all the best knowledge, behavior, and skills (competency) to achieve the best. this means that a teacher who has competency will foster self-confidence due to the belief that other people will respect his appearance. moreover, the higher professional competency of the teacher will increase the working motivation of the teacher. this is in line with kasman's study (2018) on the effect of teacher competency on student learning motivation at sma negeri 10 makassar, which states that there was a significant effect between teacher competency on student learning motivation at sma negeri 10 makassar. the results of the study had a positive effect on teacher working motivation. compensation affects teacher working motivation, the results of this study support vroom's theory of expectation motivation in kadarisman (2012) which views that a person works in order to realize his hopes from his job. thus, an employee will be more enthusiastic about h path β t value p-values h8 teacher professional competency -> working motivation -> teacher performance 0,109 3,021 0,003 h9 compensation -> working motivation -> teacher performance 0,076 2,304 0,022 h10 working climate -> motivation work -> teacher performance 0,048 2,118 0,035 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 184 working well when they believe that their achievements will get a big reward. someone sees opportunities for rewards, such as increases in salary and position if he works actively. it becomes an incentive (stimulus) for employees to work more optimally. rivai (2013) states several aspects that affect working motivation, such as feeling safe, getting a fair and competitive salary, a pleasant environment to work for, appreciation for achievement and fair management. in brief, it can be predicted that the higher or greater the rewards given to teachers by the school will increase their work motivation as well as the more balance between direct compensation and indirect compensation received by teachers predicted to increase their work motivation. the results of this study were in line with a study conducted by hardiyana, iskandar, and nurlaila (2013) regarding the effect of organizational culture and compensation on working motivation and its implications for teacher performance. therefore, there was a partial effect and compensation had an effect on working motivation by 19.18%. this was in line with the results of lubis' study (2018). working climate affects working motivation, the results of this study support mcclelland's theory in kadarisman (2012) which states that the need to be affiliated (need for affiliation) becomes an individual driving force to utilize the energy that stimulates individuals to complete work because of their desire such as accepted by colleagues and the environment, respected because they feel important, and going forward and not failing. in short, working climate is more conducive or better predicted to further increase teacher working motivation. teachers as social beings who cannot be denied. there are mutually respectful and positive interactions. the opposite will happen when working climate in schools is less conducive, and it is predicted that it will have an impact on the decrease in the enthusiasm or motivation of the teacher's work. teacher professional competency affects teacher performance, the results of this study support the theory of madjid (2016) which states that teacher performance is related to their level of competency. a teacher who has high performance should be supported by high competency. yamin and maisah (2010) argue that teacher competency is a certain predetermined measure required in the form of an assignment to behave like someone who is in a functional teacher position in accordance with the field of duty, qualification, and level of education. therefore, to do a job requires certain competencies, the completion of the work becomes faster, easier, cheaper and of high quality. previous study conducted by patarai, mustari and azis (2018) on teaching motivation, professional competency and education level on teacher performance found that the professional competency of teachers has a significant effect on teacher performance in a vocational school negeri 4 soppeng. this result was in line with a study conducted by mutakin (2017). compensation affects teacher performance, compensation according to werther and davis (2010) relates compensation to employee performance. in this case, compensation given to employees as a form of reward refers to performance and is not based on seniority or the number of hours worked. rivai (2013) states that if it is managed properly, compensation will help the company to achieve its goals and obtain, maintain, and look after employees properly. conversely, the result of a feeling of dissatisfaction with less payment will reduce performance. the result of this study was in line with riyadi's study (2011) on the effect of financial compensation, leadership style, and working motivation on employee performance. the results showed that there was no effect of financial compensation (x1) on work irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 185 motivation (z), leadership style (x2) had a significant positive effect on motivation (z), there was no effect of financial compensation (x1) on employee performance (y), leadership style (x2) has a positive and significant effect on employee performance (y), and finally working motivation (z) directly had a significant positive effect on employee performance (y). these results implied that financial compensation did not significantly affect employee motivation and performance. this was also stated by purwanto et al. (2019) concerning the effect of work climate and motivation on the performance of vocational school teachers in kendari city. the results showed that the compensation received by teachers had no effect on their performance. this result was predictable because the compensation did not reflect his performance. thus, performance is not the basis for payment of teacher compensation in vocational schools in muaro jambi regency. therefore, it was predicted that compensation did not affect teacher performance. the results will be different if the compensation payment system is determined based on work performance, it is almost certain that compensation will affect teacher performance. working climate affects teacher performance, the results of this study supported a study conducted by purwanto, ahiri and momo (2019), which stated that the working climate should be quiet, comfortable, and conducive condition or atmosphere around the school able to support the learning process to improve student achievement. in the end, a conducive working climate was expected to have a positive impact on teacher performance in vocational schools in muaro jambi regency. the results of this study implied that the better the working climate in schools, the higher / better the teacher's performance would be. these results were consistent with previous study conducted by hadi (2016). motivation affects teacher performance, the results of this study were in accordance with the theory of marthis and jackson (2000), who stated that many factors affect the performance of a company, including working behavior, employees, motivation, support received, the presence of work they do, organizational culture and their relationship with the organization. thus, it can be predicted that there was an increase in working motivation of teachers in vocational schools in muaro jambi regency and had an effect on improving teacher performance at a low level. this happens because motivation is the moderating variable of the study, where the amount is affected by supporting factors for the emergence of motivation itself, such as the desire for power, desire for affiliation, desire for achievement, and others. thus, the amount of motivation is determined by the supporting factors which will have implications for positive performance behavior. these results were consistent with ardiana's study (2017) regarding the effect of working motivation on the performance of accounting teachers in a vocational school in ponorogo city which concluded that working motivation had a positive impact on accounting teacher performance with a contribution of 80.6%. teacher professionalism competency affects teacher performance through motivation as a moderating/ indirect variable on teacher performance, efforts to make teachers have good professional competency will motivate teachers to work. it is believed that the professional competency of teachers will be able to motivate teacher work expected to have implications for reducing disciplinary action and improving performance so as to improve service quality and student learning achievement. a teacher who has high professional competency through positive stimulus or motivation from school leaders is predicted to be able to improve teacher work performance. thus, teachers who have high professional competency and have strong irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 186 motivation are predicted to perform higher. likewise, teachers who have high competency but are not balanced with high work motivation are predicted to not affect their performance. therefore, the results of this study were in line with syamra's study (2016), who stated that several factors affect performance according to including salary system, job attractiveness, security and comfort in work, administration and management systems, physical and socio-cultural environment, career paths, and leadership. by understanding the factors that can affect teacher performance, these various problems can be found for solutions to not become an inhibiting factor in efforts to improve teacher performance. compensation affects teacher performance through motivation as a moderating or indirect variable on teacher performance, motivation is a function that links compensation to employee performance and is indirectly determined by the overall compensation received by employees—paying rational and fair compensation as a school effort to stimulate teachers to strengthen their performance. it is believed that compensation will motivate teachers to strengthen morale, generate initiative at work, and reduce disciplinary action. thus, an increase in the amount of compensation is predicted to strengthen teacher performance through strengthening work motivation. on the contrary, if the amount of compensation is not rational, it will weaken the work motivation of the teacher. the results of this study supported handayani's study (2015) that the overall compensation received by workers had a positive effect on their behavior. however, this did not directly affect employee motivation to work in many ways. additionally, this study was in line with research conducted by soedarsono (2014), regarded the effect of compensation and motivation on the performance of employees. the results revealed that the magnitude of compensation and motivation variables on employee performance was 63.10%, while other variables were 36.90%. this meant that in affecting performance, the compensation and motivation variables played a role of 63.10%. working climate affects teacher performance through motivation as a moderating or indirect variable on teacher performance, the social environment of the school such as relationships between individuals at school, motivation, teacher attitudes, responsibility, and individual participation in decision making, as well as mutual respect among school members. therefore, the results of this study supported hardjana's statement (2006). he emphasized that the elements of school climate were physical and social. the school's physical environment includes building conditions, classrooms, cleanliness, load and number of students in the class, light and temperature settings. moreover, this study was in line with sari's study (2019), which regarded compensation as affecting teacher motivation and performance due to path analysis's direct and indirect effects. this showed that compensation had a positive and significant effect on motivation directly. motivation had a positive and significant effect on teacher performance, and compensation negatively affected teacher performance. the indirect relationship showed that compensation had a positive but weak effect on teacher performance through motivation as an intervening variable. teacher professional competency, compensation and working climate affected working motivation, teachers' high professional competency will motivate the teacher to work, improve service quality and student achievement, and reduce disciplinary action. the professional competency of teachers can be used as a factor that affects working motivation. balanced compensation between the two types of compensation is believed to stimulate work motivation. the physical and socio-cultural environment in schools as the forming factors of working climate is irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 187 predicted to affect teachers' working motivation. therefore, the professional competency of teachers, compensation, and working climate are predicted to affect teacher working motivation. the result of this study was in line with the results of susanto's study (2012) on the factors that affected the performance of vocational high school teachers. therefore, there were positive and significant effects; (a) teacher competency and principal leadership on working motivation in vocational school teachers in hulu sungai selatan, south kalimantan, either individually or together with a significance level of 0.038; 0.045; and 0.001, (b) teacher competency, principal leadership, and teacher working motivation on the performance of smk teachers in hulu sungai selatan regency, either individually or collectively, and directly or indirectly had significance level of 0.036; 0.003; 0.036; 0.000; (0.038 and 0.036); (0.045 and 0.036). teacher professional competency, compensation, working climate, and working motivation affects teacher performance, anoraga (2006) notes several factors that affect performance: salary system, job attractiveness, job security and comfort, management system, physical and social environment, career path, and leadership. by understanding the factors that can affect teacher performance, these problems can be found solutions so that they are no longer an obstacle to efforts to improve their performance. shortly, the result of this study was in line with a study conducted by hadi (2016) regarded the effect of organizational climate and teaching motivation on the performance of the vocational school, senior high school and islamic high school teachers of muhamadiyah in kudus regency. more specifically, the effect of organizational climate variables (x1) and teaching motivation variables (x2 ) on the professional performance of teachers (y) was 0.73 or 73.0%. it can be inferred that there was a positive and significant effect between organizational climate and teaching motivation together on the performance of the vocational school. the organizational climate created by the principal can be formulated as a series of efforts to assist teachers in the form of professional services provided by the principal to improve the quality of teaching and learning processes and outcomes. additionally, the organizational climate and teaching motivation also had a significant effect on teacher professional performance. conclusions the performance of teachers in schools is affected by various internal and external factors. the professional competency of teachers is one of the determining factors for the success of learning. efforts to improve teacher professional competency are expected to improve student achievement through enhanced motivation, methods, and working ethic. teachers with high professional competency are expected to have better performance. rational and fair compensation is believed to have an effect on teacher performance. therefore, the compensation given to teachers should be able to motivate their performance. besides that, it needs to be supported by a conducive working climate to strengthen motivation and improve teacher performance. in this case, working motivation is the spirit or drive in a person to do work in order to achieve goals that can have a positive effect in achieving better performance. suppose the teachers have good professional competency and are provided with rational and reliable compensation in a conducive working climate. in that case, it will generate high motivation, which is expected to improve their performance. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 188 disclosure statement the author declares that there is no conflict of interest in relation to the publication of this article. acknowledgments the author would like to extend his sincere appreciation and gratitude to the indonesian research journal in education (irje) for serving as an avenue for the publication of this article. references anoraga. 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(2017). pengaruh kompetensi profesional dan pedagogik terhadap kinerja guru akuntansi pada madrasah aliyah negeri di kota palu. e jurnal katalogis, 5(3), 67-77. biographical note muazza is an associate professor at faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, indonesia. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 317 efl teacher’s code switching in the social emotional learning context lingga agustina suganda 1 , ismail petrus 2 , and zuraida 3 abstract the use of indonesian, besides english, in an english as a foreign language (efl) classrooms is common in indonesia. this case study investigated the code switching used by the efl teacher in the social emotional learning (sel) context. it was conducted in the english sel model class at a secondary school in indonesia. the data were collected using observation, interview, social emotional competence questionnaire (secq), and a sel self-reflection tool. the results highlighted that (1) code switching is the medium of instruction used by the efl teacher to accommodate all the teaching and learning activities in the social-emotional learning context, (2) using code switching in the efl classroom discourse is one of the teacher social emotional competencies, and (3) code switching has a positive role to build teacher and students‟ social-emotional skills. teachers who code switch can strongly support the growth of academic and social-emotional skills in efl learning context. keywords code switching, efl, social-emotional learning, teacher 1 faculty of teacher training and education, universitas sriwijaya, palembang, indonesia: linggasuganda@fkip.unsri.ac.id 2 faculty of teacher training and education, universitas sriwijaya, palembang, indonesia: ismailpetrus@fkip.unsri.ac.id 3 faculty of teacher training and education, universitas sriwijaya, palembang, indonesia: zuraida@fkip.unsri.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 318 introduction lack of systemic support and flexibility and limited or ineffective use of resources, including staff, make the challenges of low performing disadvantaged schools difficult to meet (oecd, 2017). there is no common understanding or definition across oecd countries of which schools are disadvantaged and performing at low levels. as each national, and even regional, context is unique, the criteria used are very diverse. for example, in indonesia the data of the quality map from the educational profile of south sumatra for junior high school level (2018) highlighted the low standards of learning process, evaluation, and learning results of the educational quality in 2016. meanwhile, in 2017 the standard of graduate and the standard of teachers and educational staffs are two among the lowest standard quality, in which only 38% teachers are certified while 62% are not. this shows that both teachers and students are facing problem in relation to the national education quality standard. moreover, schools nowadays are challenged to educate students coming from the multicultural and multilingual environments with much more complex social-emotional experiences. student coming from different social and cultural background tends to struggle to accept and to be accepted by his/her surroundings. therefore, teachers and students nowadays need social-emotional skills to overcome these challenges. in school context it is necessary to build students‟ social emotional competence to increase their learning, achievement and characters as good social and emotional skills help students to gain quality of life which includes a good academic achievement during school (wirajaya, suganda, & zuraida, 2019; alzahrani, alharbi, & alodwani, 2019). moreover, teachers‟ social emotional competencies may also important. according to jennings and greenberg (2009), these skills help teachers to reduce their stress and burnt out in the classroom context. teachers who are skillful socially and emotionally will develop and encourage positive relationships with their students, design lessons to build students‟ strengths and abilities, build and implement positive characters to promote intrinsic motivation, train students to handle conflict, encourage cooperation among students, and become role models for creating a prosocial environment. moreover, teachers also make important contribution for their students‟ social emotional development, which is hoped to have long lasting effects until adulthood as teachers teach their students social emotional skills which are related to their cognitive development to be focused, fully attentive, motivated, engaged, and to enjoy their work (zins, weissberg, wang, & walberg, 2004). therefore, to successfully implement these practices for students, teachers must also have appropriate social emotional skills. one of the social emotional skills that teachers should have can be focused on how they handle depressing situations that can happen in classrooms and how they communicate with students effectively (brackett et al., 2009). how teachers communicate with the students, which can be referred as teacher language, is believed to be one of the important social teaching practices for accommodating students‟ social, emotional, and academic skill development in the classroom (yoder, 2014). schools nowadays need to support appropriate culture and climate for both teachers and students in developing their social-emotional competence by implementing social emotional learning (sel) in the school. sel ideally irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 319 takes place in schools that collaborate actively with family and community environments to support and provide chances for students to develop and apply these social and emotional competencies. the collaborative for academic, social, and emotional learning (casel), a non-profit organization that shares knowledge of highly qualified evidence based sel, has identified five important sets of interconnected cognitive, affective, and behavioral competencies or the types of social and emotional skills for students from preschool to secondary school to develop (durlak, weissberg, dymnicki, taylor, & schellinger, 2011). these five skills include the ability to understand feelings and have self-confidence (self-awareness); respect and understand others, including respect the differences between people (social awareness); manage emotions and be able to set goals and stick to them (self-management); choose wisely and thoughtfully (responsible decision making); and work together, communicate, make friends, and resolve conflicts (relationship skill). in short, sel involves the processes where students and adults develop fundamental social and basic competencies for identifying and managing emotions, setting and achieving positive goals, feeling and showing empathy for one another, building and keeping positive relationship with one another, and making responsible decisions. it is inevitably necessary for schools to integrate the strategies of social emotional learning into the curriculum used nowadays due to the growing awareness about the significance of social and emotional development for the beneficial effects on students and teachers‟ practice (martinez, 2016). sel programs even in short term can enhance students‟ self-confidence, improve their involvement in school, including their test results, and decrease behavioral problems while promoting desired behaviors (greenberg, domitrovich, weissberg, & durlak, 2017). moreover, teachers‟ belief about sel is related to their perceived efficacy for classroom management and engagement with students (goegan, wagner, & daniels, 2017). therefore, it is believed to be necessary to have a well-planned and well-implemented sel program in indonesia. meanwhile, indonesia is known as a multilingual country, where most of the people are bilingual, in which they use their mother tongue and indonesian language as their second language. the third mostly used language in indonesia is english since it is one of the compulsory subjects in the classroom discourse although it is still seen as a foreign language in indonesian context (suganda, loeneto, & zuraida, 2018). the english teachers and their students usually use the switching and/or mixing between english, indonesian, and the mother tongue in the classroom discourse. this presents the fact that the use of code switching occurs as a natural phenomenon in the english as a foreign language (efl) classroom discourses in indonesia (suganda et al., 2018). code switching refers to “the mixing, by bilinguals (or multilinguals), of two or more languages in discourse, often with no change of interlocutor or topic” (poplack, 2001, p. 2062). thomason (2001, p. 262) argued that code switching is “the use material from two (or more) languages by a single speaker with the same people in the same conversation that includes both switches from one language to another at sentence boundaries (intersentential switching) and switches within a single sentence (intrasentential switching). the latter is sometimes called code mixing.” code switching and code mixing are generally defined as the alternating use of two languages and have often been used vice versa (anastassiou & andreou, 2017). therefore, in this study the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 320 term code switching also refers to some discourses claimed by other researchers as code mixing. in teaching and learning context lin (2008) defines classroom code switching as using more than two linguistic codes alternately by any of the participants in the classroom, such as teachers and students. it can be referred as “the alternate use of the first language and the target language as means of communication by foreign language teachers” (üstünel, 2016, p. 29). in indonesian efl context, the use of code switching as a medium of instruction can serve as a beneficial conversational strategy to facilitate learning (suganda et al., 2018) as caparas and gustilo (2017) also believe, “allowing code-switching in class can promote greater interactivity because it widens comfort zone for students to participate more, aiding their second language learning (p. 357)”. code switching has been found to play an important role in giving positive contribution for english language teaching and learning process (jingxia, 2010; bhatti, shamsudin, & mat said, 2018). the teachers‟ use of code switching can be related to their social-emotional competence as yoder (2014) declares, “teachers should use their language to encourage students‟ effort and work, restate what the student did and what he/she needs to do for keep improving. teachers‟ language should encourage students how to monitor and regulate their own behavior, rather than just telling students how to behave,” which are similar to the affective function of code switching (muttsson & burenhult, 1999). the scarcity in the literature on code switching related to social emotional competence and the significance of findings that could increase the understanding of language use in relation to the social emotional skills in indonesian educational context justify the need for this study, which aims to examine (1) the phenomenon of code switching used by the efl teacher in the efl model classroom that implemented sel strategies and (2) how it relates to building the teacher and students‟ social emotional competencies. literature review code switching code switching can be defined as “the alternation of two languages within a single discourse, sentence, or constituent” (jamshidi & navehebraim 2013). it is a usual phenomenon that happens in bilingual societies in which people have the chance to use two or more languages for communicating. as those who can speak more than one language, bilinguals can switch code and use their languages as resources to find better ways to convey meaning. bullock and toribio (2009, p.2) point out several functions of code-switching namely, to fill linguistic gaps, express ethnic identity, and achieve special discursive aims in the classroom of foreign language teaching, code switching refers to teachers‟ choice of languages, which are the foreign language being taught and the society‟s language (simon, 2000, p.312). the teachers in such situation who macaro (2005) called as bilingual teachers are usually non-native speakers of the target language, and they have the same mother tongue as their students‟. muttsson and burenhult (1999) categorize the functions of teacher code switching as topic switch, affective functions, and repetitive functions. topic switch usually occurs because the teacher switches the language due to the topic being irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 321 taught, such as when teaching grammar or new knowledge to students. affective functions happen when the teacher declares his/her emotion to form a relationship with the students. while, repetitive functions are used by the teacher to clarify the meaning of words, while emphasizing on the content for better understanding (sert, 2005). the act of code switching is believed as resources to scaffold students‟ learning in a foreign language classroom (choi & leung, 2017). many studies consistently find that using first language in foreign language classrooms is beneficial for students in terms of both cognitive and emotional development. first, it helps students to engage with complex tasks at a deeper level and with more self-regulation of learning (anton & dicamilla, 1999), and it functions as a scaffold for understanding a lesson when students have limited english ability (hall & cook, 2012). second, it lowers the affective barriers of students with lacked confidence in using the foreign language and empowers them if their mother tongue is marginalized in the wider social context outside of the classroom (canagarajah, 2013). mahboob and lin (2016) even demanded to integrate students‟ first languages into theorization and practice of foreign language teaching. therefore, in efl teaching context, teachers usually switch code in class because they consider their students‟ not fully fledged language proficiency, and the first language is mostly conducted when teaching grammar and abstract concepts (cheng, 2013). code switching was found beneficial for both teachers and students in making clarification, repetition, recapitulation, and socialization (adriosh & razi, 2019) to bridge the communication during teaching and learning process (nurhamidah, fauziati, & supriyadi, 2018), in which different frequency of code switching employed by teachers and students also occurs for social and pedagogical functions (muslim, sukiyah, & rahman, 2018). however, some researchers disagreed with the use of code switching in the classroom context. macaro (2005) believed that code-switching should be banned as the efl teaching usually aims at maximizing both the teacher‟s input and the students‟ output (target language acquisition) as well as to reduce out-dated methods like the grammar-translation method. in sociocultural context, code switching has been viewed as a sign of laziness and sloppiness, even attributed as language deficiency (hussein, 1999; iqbal, 2011). social emotional learning social emotional learning (sel) refers to the process of integrating thoughts, feelings, and behaviors to be aware of oneself and others, make responsible decisions, and manage the behaviors of oneself and others (elias et al., 1997). students‟ ability to learn well depends not only on instruction, but also on factors such as the school climate, sense of belonging with peers, positive relationships with educators, and the feedback they receive. therefore, schools nowadays are increasingly implementing school-wide sel policies and curricula to foster teacher and student caring relationships, student cooperation and conflict reduction, a greater sense of school safety, and the social-emotional skills development in students, teachers, and school leaders (greenberg et al., 2003; zins, weissberg, wang, & walberg, 2004). meanwhile, teachers who play the most important role in classroom settings have a significant opportunity to influence their students‟ positive development using not only the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 322 content of their instruction but also their social interactions and relationships quality with them, such as how these teachers manage the behavior in the classroom and model social and emotional processes (e.g., hamre & pianta, 2001; jennings & greenberg, 2009). larasati, suganda, and jaya (2019) also found that teachers‟ social emotional competence (sec) had a significant positive correlation and contribution to their students‟ learning motivation. methodology this experimental case study was done in the seventh grade english class that was served as a classroom model implementing the social emotional learning (sel) in a junior high school in south sumatra, indonesia. there were three main steps in the implementation of sel strategy in the classroom model. first, students practiced „silent sitting‟ by sitting in a relaxing posture and eyes closed, while at the same time the teacher would read a story with positive moral value to set them prepared for the lesson. second, in the whilst activity teacher mostly used balanced teaching and collaborative learning strategies, such as asking open-ended questions, giving variety of possible answers for students to select, having students to repeat for checking their comprehension, having students to work in groups (large or small), in pairs, or individually, having role-plays and games. third, students were asked to write reflective journal after they finished their class every week. the three social-emotional learning strategies were integrated with the materials from the indonesian 2013 national curriculum. the sel strategy was implemented to enhance the students‟ five social emotional skills. self-awareness and self-management were assumed to enhance from silent sitting and writing reflective journal because in these two activities each student was asked to work individually to calm their minds and reflect silently, so that they could comprehend their own feelings, have more confidence, and appropriately control their emotions. in addition, social awareness, responsible decision making, and relationship skills were assumed to be gained from in the collaborative learning activities where students kept interacting with their teacher and peers. they practiced social awareness by cooperating, working in groups, and taking turns. they also practiced decision-making and teamwork cooperation skills through discussion activities. the data of this study were taken from classroom observation, students‟ social emotional competence questionnaire (secq), teacher interview, and teacher self-reflection tool developed by yoder (2014). these instruments were analyzed qualitatively and quantitatively. the qualitative procedures were used in the data analysis from the classroom observation and interview to describe the code switching used in the classroom in relation to the social emotional competence to explain the study results. the teacher‟s use of code switching found during the observation was transcribed and grouped based on the use, and each extract was analyzed by associating them with the concept of social and emotional competence. the results from the interview were also transcribed and grouped. meanwhile, the data from the questionnaire and self-reflection tool in the quantitative procedures were also used to support the qualitative analysis. they were described statistically to indicate the degree of both the students and teacher‟s social emotional competence. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 323 the english teacher (t1) recruited for this study agreed to participate and involve in the total of 16 meetings of 80 minutes implementation of the english social emotional learning strategy. she was teaching the class model using the procedure that included the three main steps explained before. the classroom observations were conducted for three times 80 minutes. the first observation was conducted in the first meeting and used to indicate the students‟ characteristics and attitudes before sel strategies implementation. the second and third observations were conducted in the 8 th and 16 th meetings respectively. the results from the three observations were used to identify the code switching used by t1 during her teaching, and they were compared to distinguish any changing of attitude or behavior after experiencing sel classroom discourse. a semi-structured interview with t1 was used to obtain her perceptions and reasons of using code switching in relation to her own and her students‟ social emotional skills. the secq was administered to the students to identify their level of social emotional competence after using sel strategies in the class. meanwhile, the teacher‟s self-reflection tool from self-assessing social and emotional instruction and competencies: a tool for teachers (yoder, 2014) was administered to know how t1 reflects her social and emotional skills. the issues of validity and reliability of the instruments were gained through triangulation of multiple data sources including the observations, questionnaires, interviews, and self-reflection tool. findings the results of the classroom observation the results from the classroom observations indicated that t1 used both indonesian and english, and she mostly switched and/or mixed the two languages when communicating with students in her class. table 1. the frequency of the languages used by the teacher languages classroom observations 1 2 3 average code switching 48.37 46.86 36.6 43.94 full indonesian 46.27 41.11 42.07 43.15 full english 5.36 12.03 21.33 12.91 table 1 presents the average of a more dominant use of full indonesian (43.15%) and code switching (43.94%) between english and indonesian than the use of full english (12.91%). t1 mostly spoke and explained in indonesian and used english only to recall (1) the specific utterances as part of the teaching materials, (2) the vocabulary from the previous meetings, irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 324 and (3) the general everyday expressions for greetings, parting, complimenting, such as „good afternoon‟, „goodbye‟, „keep quite‟, „any questions?‟, „thank you‟, and „good job‟. moreover, the motivational stories read by t1 in the „silent sitting‟ session were all in indonesian. code switching was found mostly during the whilst-activity involving the collaborative learning strategies in the classroom. t1 used code switching for communicating with the students while they were having large or small group discussions, as well as individual exercises. figure 1. functions of code switching figure 1 shows that t1 switched from english to indonesian for topic switch (68.62%), affective function (21.33%), and repetitive function (10.05%). in terms of purpose t1 mostly code switched for topic switch, which is to explain the content of the material discussed as seen in the following extract: “my brother sama my sister its family … anggota keluarga.” [t1] [my brother and my sister are members of family … family member.] meanwhile, the other main factor t1 code switched from english to indonesian language was the affective function. she wanted to warn and/or remind the students about their behaviors in the class. the affective function is directly related to the social-emotional competence of both the teacher and the students. extracts 2, 3, and 4 are some examples of the affective function conducted. “next, s11.” [t1] [being quite because he was afraid to speak in front of the class] [s11] “s11, tidak ada yang tidak bisa. mengerti kata doki tadi kan? dia melompat. kawannya mati, dia masih brush… ayo cepat, s11!” [t1] [s11, nothing is impossible. did you understand what doki said? he kept hopping. his friend died, but he kept trying… come on, s11!] [t1] [talking and whispering to one another] [ss] 10.05 68.62 21.33 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 325 “yang lain… kalau mau dihargai, hargai teman kalian. [t1] [class, if you want others to appreciate you, appreciate your friend. [silence] [ss] [talking about the bubble gum stuck on the chair in the classroom] [ss] which chair? bangkunya mana? saya tidak mau ada yang memakan permen karet di kelas ini ya… siapa lagi yang memakan permen karet? permen karet itu ada bungkusnya kan? bungkusnya itu kamu simpen di saku. nanti kamu pake lagi buat buang permen karetnya. bukan ditempel di bawah meja. [t1] [which chair? where is the chair? i don’t want any of you to eat bubble gum in the class, okay. who else ate bubble gum? the bubble gum has its plastic wrap, right? keep the wrap in your pocket. use it again later to wrap the bubble gum that you want to throw away. don’t stick it on the table!] [t1] [silent] [ss] the switch from english to indonesian in extract 2 showed t1 encouragement to s11 for trying to practice speaking in front of the class and reminding other students to appreciate s11 and not to be ignorant with their surroundings. while, in extract 3 the code switching was used by t1 to teach and warn her students for keeping their classroom clean. in brief, the classroom observation results showed that t1 dominantly code switched between english and indonesian for having a better communication with her students especially when delivering the material/topic of discussion. she always used general english expressions but switched and/or mixed english and indonesian when trying to ensure about the students‟ comprehension on her explanations. then, giving warning and advice is the second dominant attempt from t1 for communicating positive values to her students in which she chose to switch to indonesian language every time she got angry, gave warning, or motivated the students. t1 switched mostly to indonesian language as a medium to communicate with the students. it was to give feedback and motivation. comparing the first to the third observation, the switching between english and indonesian occurred slightly the same in which t1 used english to express the vocabulary related to the topic and/or material and she used indonesian language to mostly maintain their interaction, like when having simple conversation and joking. in relation to sel context, the first to the third observations showed that t1 had become very used to the teaching procedure in the sel classroom model. she walked around the class and communicated in indonesian language with some switching to english to most of the students while they were discussing in groups. the students looked enthusiastic as they kept responding to t1 in both english and indonesian and they voluntarily raised their hand to answer questions. moreover, the warm and friendly interactions occurred among teacher-students and students-students were identified ast1 kept giving encouragement and motivation for her students. she provided feedback, motivation, and warmth smile to the students; and the students showed more positive attitudes, such as being more focused, braver to ask and talk to t1, and more motivated. it irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 326 was different from the first observation, in which the students mostly kept quiet and t1 had to keep calling their names and force them to answer questions. the results of the teacher interview and self-reflection the semi structured interview with t1 showed that the main reason causing her to use code switching is the students‟ english competence, so she used more indonesian and code switching for topic switch to give instruction and teach the material and/or topic more effectively and efficiently. she stated that her students become more enthusiastic and have higher spirit to study compared to her previous experience where her students mostly felt burdened by english lessons because they were afraid of not understanding the english language used by their teacher. moreover, t1 believed that indonesian language must be used for making her students more focus and enabling them to comprehend the content of the motivational stories in the „silent sitting‟ session because there were always moral values available from each of the story. t1 worried that this main purpose could not be gained if she chose to read the motivational stories in english. in addition, t1 also admitted that her indonesian language was specifically used when she wanted to remind or warn her students. she wanted to make her statements more precise, so that her students would directly understand her intention. moreover, she gave advice and reminded her students using positive utterances and avoided using high pitch and negative utterances. table 2. some extracts from the interviews questions response do you code switch during the teaching and learning process in the class? yes, i mix english and indonesian language. when do you switch from english to indonesian language? explaining topic/material of the lesson clarifying words or instruction showing emotion and building relationship with students (anger, happiness, and reminding students‟ mistake) what is the effect of your code-switching use on students‟ comprehension on the lesson? students can understand the given material. when given exercises, they can grasp the material faster. what is the effect of your code-switching use on students‟ characters/attitudes? students become more enthusiastic and have higher spirit. the teacher self-reflection tool was used as the instrument to collect the data of the teacher‟s social-emotional competence. it consisted of a list of statements served as the teacher self-assessment test, followed by a follow-up written interview questions for gaining more information on her perception towards her social-emotional competence. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 327 table 3. teacher self-reflection on her instructional practice no. instructional practice score/total score mean score 1. youth-centered problem solving 27/36 0.75 2. teacher language 13/12 1.08 3. responsibility and choice 16/16 1 4. warmth and support 21/28 0.75 5. cooperative learning/group learning 19/20 0.95 6. group discussions 12/20 0.6 7. self-reflection and self-assessment 28/24 1.17 8. balanced program practices 15/20 0.75 9. encouraging grit and persistence 13/16 0.81 10. competence building-modelling, practicing, feedback, and coaching 18/20 0.9 total score 8.76 the results of the self-test as presented in table 3 showed that t1 had an average mean score of 8.76 in the implementation of sel-based instructional exercises. she got 'self-reflection and self-assessment' and 'teacher language' as the highest scores because she assumed that they were related to social skills, especially in relation to the language of instruction used. for example, t1 always gave motivation to her students including in the activity of writing journal. according to t1, after experiencing sel in the class model, the students behaved better, more polite, and more respectful. she also assumed that students had seen her as a teacher who was quite pleasant and understanding. she also believed that the use of diverse learning strategies with more communication and feedback for students would be able to facilitate the improvement in the implementation of sel in her class. table 4. teacher’s social emotional competence score social emotional competence score/total score mean score self-awareness 13/16 0.81 social awareness 8/16 0.5 self-management 12/16 0.75 relationship skills 11/16 0.69 responsible decision making 11/12 0.92 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 328 table 4 shows that t1 obtained the highest score in responsible decision making (m=0.92) and self-awareness (m=0.81) skills, but the lowest score in self-management skill. reflecting on the score, t1 claimed that her social-emotional skills were still not too good. she did not consistently filter out her own personal goals; and her emotional control techniques were still ineffective. t1 assumed that having better and efficient reflection on her previous learning activities could facilitate the improvement of her self-management skill. t1 also acknowledged that some of the implementation of this social emotional learning was still less optimal, especially on the practice of emotional control (silent sitting) and the large group activities because they were not regularly carried out. it happened because of the demands of the curriculum to complete the material and to conduct the conventional periodic evaluations (written tests and quizzes). the results of students’ social-emotional competence questionnaire table 5 showed that the mean score for the students‟ sec is 83.86 with the standard deviation of 14.554, and most of the students (71.4%) were in moderate category. the data merely reflect the students‟ existing sec during the study or when data were taken. table 5. the students’ sec score distribution interval category number of students percentage mean std. 25 – 71 low 5 14.3% 83.86 14.554 72 – 97 moderate 25 71.4% 98 – 125 high 5 14.3% in relation to the five types of sec, table 6 shows that the highest mean score was self-awareness (m = 3.69), followed by responsible decision making (m = 3.51), self-management (m = 3.23), relationship skills (m = 3.19), and social awareness (m = 3.13). most students had higher self-awareness and responsible decision-making skills than the other three skills. table 6. students’ sec overall mean score social emotional competence mean self-awareness 3.69 responsible decision making 3.51 self-management 3.23 relationship skills 3.19 social awareness 3.13 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 329 discussion this study indicated that the percentage of the teacher‟s use of full indonesian (43.15%) and code switching (43.94%) is very similar or almost equal. her focus of using the certain medium of instruction was to explain the topic or material of the lesson, to clarify her words or instruction, and to show her emotion (i.e. anger, happiness, and reminding students‟ mistake) and build relationship with students as brock-utne (2007) claims, “students engage in meaningful conversations and build on prior knowledge through the use of a familiar language in which english as the only medium of instruction inhibits effective english learning and interaction, but using the first language to clear misunderstanding, reduce confusion and thus facilitate learning can be considered a valuable communicative and pedagogical strategy.” furthermore, these results highlighted that the teacher consciously chose which language to use during her teacher-student interaction. in relation to the social emotional competence, this study showed that the teacher possessed appropriate responsible decision making and self-awareness skills as seen in the results of her self-reflection assessment. teachers‟ code-switching is one of the teacher‟s positive efforts because they have a special responsibility to support student motivation and learning including through the provision of warmth and engagement, optimal structure, and autonomy support (furrer, skinner, & pitzer, 2014). meanwhile, this study‟s results also showed that the teachers‟ second dominant reason for her code switching was affective reason, which is specifically for building a positive teacher-students relationship. to make students feel safe and comfortable with her, the teacher should build a strong relationship with the students from time to time by showing respect, listening to, talking to, and making eye contact with them during daily communication (alzahrani, alharbi, & alodwani, 2019). regarding to the teacher-students relationship as the aspect of a positive learning environment, code switching assists teachers to foster a better relationship with students (moghadam, samad, & shahraki, 2012) meaning that teachers can build positive relationships with individual and groups of students in diversity, communicate clearly, work together, resolve conflicts, and seek helps from one another. bhatti et al (2018) also claim, “teacher code-switched to maintain discipline, translate new words and build solidarity and intimate relationship with the students before, during and after the lessons” (p. 93). the affective reason of code switching is believed to be closely related to two among the five sec, namely social awareness and relationship skills. social awareness covered how to take perspective, empathy, respect diversity, understand social and ethical norm for behavior, and recognize family, school, and community supports. while relationship skills involved how to build relationships with various different individual and groups, communicate clearly, work cooperatively, resolve conflicts, and seek for help. moreover, using positive encouraging utterances and statements in the affective reason is assumed to be more effective than using high pitch and negative discouraging utterances and statements. by doing so, the teacher was also building the students‟ positive characters as the teacher who performs code switching is choosing certain cultural and linguistic behaviors to build social emotional competence with their students (hollie, 2011). irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 330 a good teacher was responsible to build students social emotional competencies by giving warning and reminder to students for behaving well, and the teacher intentionally code-switched while doing them. it means that the teacher‟ use of code-switching leads to the teacher‟s own social emotional competencies that contribute in building the students‟ social emotional competencies, too. therefore, the teacher‟s use of code switching in the classrooms is believed to play a positive role to build teacher and students‟ sec within the classroom discourse. meanwhile, the result of the sec questionnaire showed that the majority of the students (71.4%) had moderate social-emotional competence. self-awareness and responsible decision making were two among the competencies with the highest mean score meaning that most of the students were good enough in understanding and managing emotions, setting and achieving positive goals, feeling and showing empathy for others, establishing and maintaining positive relationship, and making responsible decisions. it is assumed that the students could recognize their emotions, emotional patterns, and tendencies and know how to produce and use emotions such as joy and enthusiasm to motivate learning within themselves and others, and they demonstrate prosocial values and make responsible decisions based on the assessment of factors including how their decisions might affect themselves and others (jennings & greenberg, 2009). moreover, the results also showed that students had enough competencies in self-management, relationship skills, and social awareness meaning that they had enough skills in knowing how their emotional expressions could affect their interaction with others. therefore, they knew how to manage their emotions, behavior, and relationships with others. overall, these five skills are believed to help students in creating a conducive and effective learning english environment. this shows that the social emotional learning classroom model worked well to provide better environment for students to enrich their social emotional competence including for developing understanding and empathy (husaj, 2016) and coping with difficulties more successfully by improving skills and mindset (yeager, 2017). furthermore, the use of code switching in the classroom discourse can be considered as one of the teacher‟s social emotional competencies because t1 recognized her tendencies to code switched while interacting with her students as the high 'self-reflection and self-assessment' and 'teacher language' scores in her self-reflection assessment result showed that she knew how to reflect and assess her social skills including the skills related to the language of instruction she used. she was aware that her use of code switching can affect her interaction with the students, including in managing the behavior and relationships among them as “teachers‟ social and emotional skills influence student behavior, engagement, attachment to school, and academic performance, and teachers who are skilled at regulating their emotions report less burnout and more positive affect when teaching” (durlak, et al, 2011). conclusion this study indicated that code switching is the medium of instruction used by teacher to accommodate all the teaching and learning activities in the social-emotional learning context. using code switching during the teaching and learning process is one of teachers‟ irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 331 social emotional competencies. building a positive and warm relationship with students is an important function of code switching made consciously by the teacher in the social-emotional learning context to build the students ’social emotional skills. moreover, this study also provides support that teachers‟ use of code switching in the social emotional learning contexts can be a promising strategy to promote students‟ social emotional, behavioral, academic outcomes, and positive classroom climate. academic and social emotional learning has become the new standard as the basics in education that students should obtain during their school experiences nowadays. caring relationships and challenging but warm classroom and/or school environment are the foundation of an effective, sustainable academic and social-emotional learning. therefore, the switch between indonesian and english in the efl classrooms plays a positive role to build the social emotional competencies of teachers and students. the teachers conducting code switching can be particularly supportive for the growth of academic and social-emotional skills in efl context. however, it should be part of a deliberate and balanced approach, in which teachers design and plan clearly for when to use each language and what specific goals they want to obtain. when using code switching in the context of sel, teachers insist on having a better communication, reminding, and motivating the students to have good sec. however, this initial study is still incomplete and needs to be extended to understand how it might give impact on the students ’social-emotional competencies if conducted in regular classes that do not implement social emotional learning strategy. these are also essential next steps to pursue if we think of the benefits in implementing social-emotional learning strategy for supporting students‟ positive learning in terms of academic and characters/personalities. therefore, it is suggested for other researchers to conduct more qualitative and quantitative studies on this topic. disclosure statement the authors declare that there is no potential conflict of interest in relation to the publication of this article. acknowledgments the authors would like to acknowledge the assistance and cooperation from the english teacher, students, and staffs in the school participating in this study starting from the process of pre-survey to the data collection; and the financial support (sriwijaya university science, technology, and arts 2019 grant) from sriwijaya university research and public service institution. references adriosh, m., & razi, o. 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(2004). building academic success on social and emotional learning: what does the research say? new york, ny: teachers college press. biographical notes lingga agustina suganda is a faculty member of english education study program, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas sriwijaya. ismail petrus is an assistant professor in english education study program, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas sriwijaya. zuraida is an assistant professor in english education study program, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas sriwijaya. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 45 unveiling the problems of student teachers during practice teaching in nueva ecija, region iii, philippines leila m. collantes 1 abstract using purposive sampling, 386 student teachers were profiled and investigated on the problems they met during their deployment to 63 schools under four teacher education institutions in region iii for the conduct of their practice teaching. data were collected using a two-part survey questionnaire consisting of the student teachers’ profile and problems they met then analysed through descriptive method using frequency, percentage, and rank. the study revealed that the problems encountered by student teachers include cooperating teachers do not hold regular class observations, noisy and talkative students, students’ difficulty in expressing themselves in english, too much assignment given by school administrators and student teaching supervisor, uncooperative fellow student teachers, and lack of time and resources in preparing instructional materials keywords problems, student teachers, practice teaching/student teaching, teacher education institutions (teis) 1. college of sciences, central luzon state university, science city of muñoz, philippines; leilacollantes@clsu.edu.ph mailto:leilacollantes@clsu.edu.ph irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 46 introduction teacher education institutions (teis) play a vital role in uplifting the quality of education in the philippines. it is responsible in producing high caliber teachers who handle different subjects and mold the future leaders of philippine society. to keep pace with the changes in society brought by technology and globalization, teis which consist of the pre-service education of teachers (pet) and the in-service education of teachers (inset), collaborated by establishing a great partnership with the main stakeholders – commision on higher education (ched), professional regulations commission (prc), department of education (deped), civil service commission (csc), towards the improvement of both pre-service and in-service training as another move to keep the teaching profession abreast with the changing demands of society. student teaching is required for students who are not yet certified to teach. it lasts about the length of a semester, long enough to fulfill the college’s assigned tasks. the student teaching program is designed to provide student teachers the opportunities to apply the principles and strategies of teaching and evaluation in actual teaching-learning situations, utilization of appropriate teaching techniques and instructional materials. during practice teaching, a pre-service teacher experiences the rudiments of teaching in a cyclical process of planning, actual teaching and evaluating learning. it is a college-supervised instructional experience, usually the culminating course in a university/college program leading to teacher education. for cohen, manion, and morrison (1996 in koross, 2010), student teaching in one form or another has remained an unchallenged, essential element in the preparation of generations of teachers since the establishment of teis in the middle and late 19 th century. ganal, andaya, and guiab (2016) underscored the known fact that student teachers lack the skills and capability to effectively and efficiently perform the role of a teacher. student teachers are prompted with the problems and difficulties in terms of instruction, classroom management, evaluation, school, learners, teachers and other stakeholders among others. laruan (2006) enumerated the problems and difficulties encountered by the student teachers. these include problems on personal and emotional aspects, teachers’ preparation, class participation, class management, instruction, evaluation, learners, workload, and guidance. for manion, keith morrison and cohen (2003), student teaching creates a mixture of anticipation, anxiety, and apprehension among student teachers as they begin their teaching practice. though there are studies that focused on the problems encountered by student teachers, there is a need to further explore on these problems and validate if those problems still exist in the present context. likewise, previous studies conducted were from the perspective of cooperating teachers and academicians, none so far were from the perspective of student teachers themselves. hence the present study investigated the profile and analyzed the problems encounter by the student teachers from 63 cooperating schools of the four teis in region 3. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 47 literature review/theoretical frameworks the preparation of pre-service teachers requires sincerity and steady effort on the part of teacher educators. the task is made daunting by the fact that the need for new teachers is great – greater than the number of teachers’ education colleges can produce (soslau & raths, 2017). according to okubia, augustine, and osagie (2013) teaching practice is a vital aspect of teacher preparatory program in teacher training institutions. it serves as an opportunity for student-teachers to be exposed to the realities of teaching and professional activities in the field of education. for henry (1989), student teaching is one of the most important aspects of any pre-service program, if not the main event. according to perry (2004), student teaching is also time for excitement and challenges. according to haigh, pinder, and mcdonald (2006) practice teaching in educations is still a challenge since it does not fully prepare student teachers for the actual classroom teaching. samson et al. (2007) revealed in their study that the problems and difficulties encountered by the student teachers were related to teacher’s preparation, class participation, class management, instructional, emotional, adjustment to students and school and over-extended schedules or workload. the importance of identifying the problems met by the student teachers has been explored in the literature. in fact, numerous studies were conducted about the problems met by the student teachers which include the studies of ganal (2016), koross (2016), okubia et al. (2013), prastomu and listyani (2016), samson et al. (2007), saricoban (2013), soslau and raths (2017), tok (2010), and ula (2016). the gap is widened by the fact that almost half of the teachers recruited into the profession leave after only five years of practice. the second thread is the general dissatisfaction found in the public and the profession itself with respect to the requirements and the outputs of teacher education programs. many critics see the process as unneeded, soft in its implementation, and weak in its conception of the needs of beginning teachers. wrigth (1988) cited in saricoban (2010) mentioned that in the classroom, teaching and learning can be considered as social activities that involve relationships between not only the teacher and students, but also between these parties (teacher-students) and materials, equipment classroom, thus student teachers have to adapt themselves to the new environment. cooperating schools are committed partners of teis in making and producing student teachers to become excellent, dedicated and highly spirited educators, imbued with enough knowledge, wisdom, skills, and attitudes to face the dramatic and relentless world of teaching. the cooperating teachers are wise, trusted and significant persons who play vital roles to student teachers in differing degrees for a different length of time. as experienced teachers themselves, sharing their experiences with student teachers would likely inspire them to meet the challenges that await them in the world of real teaching. these statements from education authorities stress the importance of experiences student teacher will gain during their student teaching, which could serve as strong determinants for their love for the profession. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 48 methods research design, site, and participants this study particularly utilized the survey research in gathering the problems encountered by the student teachers from different teis deployed in different cooperating schools in nueva ecija. adanza (1995) defined survey as method with the intent to gather a relatively limited data from a relatively large number of subjects. it serves the purpose of describing current or prevailing conditions, opinions, attitudes, impressions, perceptions of a group of people, or description of objects. it is essentially getting data or information from a variety of subjects. it was used to measure existing phenomenon without inquiring why it exists. in this study, it was used to determine the problems encountered by the student teachers during the conduct of their practice teaching. data were gathered from 63 cooperating schools under the four different teis in nueva ecija, two of which are state universities (nueva ecija university of science and technology (neust), cabanatuan city; and the central luzon state university (clsu), science city of munoz; and two are private institutions (wesleyan university-philippines and the araullo university, both located in cabanatuan city. the respondents were composed of student teachers from selected public and private teis in nueva ecija. the 383 student teachers who participated in the study were deployed to 63 cooperating schools. majority of the respondents were single females; in their early adulthood stage in life; tagalogs with both parents having attained secondary education as their highest educational attainment and had average fair grades in all their subjects prior to practice teaching. purposive sampling was used in this study. martinez (1994) emphasized purposive sample as a deliberate sampling technique where the researchers select a particular group or groups based on certain criteria or purposes or variables. it is a sample selected by a researcher which in his judgment is a representative sample. this sampling technique was utilized to realize the purpose of investigating the problems encountered by the student teachers during the conduct of their practice teaching. data collection and analysis the instrument used for the study consisted of two parts and were answered as follows. part i dealt with the profile of the student respondents and was answered by supplying the needed information on the different items under profile variables. part ii items dealt with the problems met by student teachers. some pre-surveyed problems were enumerated, and the participants were asked to check as many items as applicable. they were also given the opportunity to add some problems which had not been included in the list. the different responses were counted and ranked according to their frequency. the content validity of the questionnaire was determined through consultations with experts who were knowledgeable on the topic and scope of the study. all their suggestions for the improvement of questionnaire were incorporated in the final copy. to establish the reliability of the questionnaire, pilot-testing was done in one of the teis in nueva ecija. the test-retest method gave a value irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 49 of 0.81, which indicated that the instrument was reliable. the researcher did a pre-survey prior to the conduct of the study. during the pre-survey, the researcher sought the permission of the deans of the different teis. in treating the data on profile variables, frequency and percentage were used. on the problems encountered by the student teachers during the conduct of student teaching program as well as their recommendations to solve such problems, frequency, percentage, and rank were utilized. findings this section presents the findings of the study. it begins with the problems they met with their cooperating teachers and students. these were followed by the personal problems encountered, problems met with the administrators, principals and department heads, and problems met with their fellow student teachers. the last part presents the problems met by the student teachers in preparing the instructional materials and their cooperating teachers. tables 1-7 present the problems met by the student teachers with their cooperating teachers, students being handled, administrators or principal and area chairs, fellow student teachers, instructional materials production and student teaching supervisor. problems of student teachers with their cooperating teachers table 1 shows the problems of student teachers with their cooperating teachers. ranked one with 48 or 14.59 percent indicated that greatest problem was their concern over cooperating teacher “who do not hold regular class observations”. table 1. problems met by the student teachers with their cooperating teachers problems f % rank cooperating teacher 1. cooperating teachers do not hold regular class observations. 48 14.59 1 2. inability of cooperating teachers to give clearer instructions and directions in teaching strategies. 41 12.46 2 3. cooperating teachers do not accept use of varied teaching methods. 5 1.52 7 4. cooperating teachers do not hold post conference /feedback as often as possible. 36 10.94 4 5. cooperating teachers do not offer suggestions towards the betterment of teaching-learning process. 23 6.99 5 6. cooperating teacher is often absent. 3 0.91 8 7. cooperating teacher is often late. 17 5.17 6 8. poor relationship with cooperating teacher. 38 11.55 3 ranked second in the problems met by student teachers with their cooperating teachers was on the “inability of cooperating teachers to give clearer instructions and directions in teaching methodologies/strategies” with 41 or12. 46%. this problem was irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 50 followed by poor relationship with cooperating teachers as problems in the third rank with 38 or 11.55%; and the fourth problem with 36 or 10.94% was about the lack of post-conference or feedback by the cooperating teachers. the other problems identified were none acceptance of the cooperating teachers on the use of new strategies being introduced by student teachers, and on the attendance and punctuality of the cooperating teachers. problems of student teachers with their students table 2 shows the problems of student teachers with their students. topping the list or ranked one with 298 or 90.58% was on the noisiness and talkativeness of the students, followed by the absenteeism of their students with 155 or 47.11%. the tardiness of their students was the third outstanding problem of the student teachers with 136 or 41.34%. the fourth problem identified by the student teachers was students who were disrespectful with 121 or 36.78%. the other problems met by the student teachers who ranked fifth, sixth, and seventh were the following: slow learner students (111 or 33.74%), students not participating in the class (95 or 28.88%) and students who tried courting their student teachers (25 or 7.60%). table 2. problems met by the student teachers with students problems total % rank students 1. tardiness of students/pupils. 136 41.34 3 2. absenteeism of students/pupils. 155 47.11 2 3. noisy and talkative students/pupils. 298 90.58 1 4. students do not actively participate in class discussions 95 28.88 6 5. disrespectful students 121 36.78 4 6. students who try to court their student teachers 25 7.60 7 7. students are slow learners 111 33.74 5 personal problems met by the student teachers table 3 shows the ranking of the personal problems encountered by the student teachers. the first problem of the student teachers which they considered personal was their difficulty in expressing themselves in the english language with 124 or 37.69%. this was followed by the difficulty of instilling discipline among students when the cooperating teacher was not around with 118 or 35.85%. other personal problem was their lack of money in preparing instructional materials with 102 or 31 %. the last two problems which were identified ranked four and five respectively was their lack of confidence to face an audience (27 or 8.21%) and inadequate learning foundation on basic education principles (20 or 6.08%). irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 51 table 3 personal problems met by the student teachers problems total % rank personal 1. inadequate learning foundation on basic education principles. 20 6.08 5 2. difficulty in expressing oneself in the english language. 124 37.69 1 3. difficulty in instilling discipline among student when the cooperating teacher/mentor is not around. 118 35.87 2 4. lack of confidence to face an audience. 27 8.21 4 5. lacks money for preparation of instructional materials. 102 31 3 problems met by the student teachers with administrators/principals/chairs of cooperating schools table 4 shows that the greatest problem with the school administrators had to do with “too many requirements given by the principals/chairperson” which is ranked one with 33 or 10.03%. ranked second (27 or 8.21%) in the list of problems was on the strictness of the administrators. another problem encountered by the student teachers had to do with the strictness of the principals/chairpersons specifically the unapproachable style of the former which was also interpreted by the student teachers that they were not welcome in the department (19 or 5.78%). and the last problem they mentioned was the donations asked by the principals/chairpersons at the end of the student teaching with 4 or 1.22%. table 4. problems met by student teachers with administrators/principal/chairs of cooperating schools problems total % rank adm/principal/chair 1. administrators give a lot of requirements. 33 10.03 1 2. administrators are very strict. 27 8.21 2 3. unapproachable administrators 19 5.78 3 4. administrators who do not give them feeling of belongingness. 14 4.26 4 5. administrators asking for too much donations. 4 1.22 5 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 52 problems met by the student teachers with their fellow student teachers table 5 shows the problems met by student teachers with their fellow student teachers. ranked first with 31 or 9.42% was the lack of cooperation from their fellow student teachers. adjustment problems with their fellow student teachers ranked second with 19 or 5.78%. the third with 18 or 5.47 on the list of the problems had to do with “fellow student teachers who do not like to share their ideas or to extend help to co-teachers”. table 5. problems met by the student teachers with fellow student teachers problems total % rank fellow students 1. unfriendly fellow student teachers 15 4.56 4 2. student teachers using things without permission from fellow student teacher. 9 2.74 6 3. adjustment problems with fellow student teachers 19 5.78 2 4. uncooperative fellow student teachers 31 9.42 1 5. fellow student teachers who tell a lot of story which are not true. 11 3.34 5 6. fellow student teachers who do not like to share their ideas or extend help to colleagues 18 5.47 3 problems met by student teachers regarding preparation of instructional materials table 6 shows the problems encountered by student teachers regarding preparation of instructional materials. their first problem had to do with the lack of time in preparation of instructional materials (122 or 37.08%). the next problem dealt with the use of instructional materials (i.e., lcd, laptop computers, desktop) which could not be applied to their student because their cooperating schools lacked the facilities and equipment needed with 105 or 31.91%. this was followed by the lack of money to afford these teaching materials with 95 or 28.88%. too many teaching devices needed for lesson ranked 4 th with 67 or 20.36%. lack enough skill in preparing and using teaching devices with 32 or 9.73% and 16 or 4.86 %, respectively. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 53 table 6. problems met by the student teachers regarding preparation of instructional materials problems total % rank instructional materials 1. too many teaching devices needed for the lesson. 67 20.36 4 2. not having much time for preparation of instructional materials. 122 37.08 1 3. not enough money to purchase materials for use as teaching devices. 95 28.88 3 4. lacks enough skill in preparing teaching devices 32 9.73 6 5. lacks skill in using prepared teaching devices 16 4.86 7 6. teaching devices learned in the university cannot be applied because of limited equipment in the school like lcd projector 105 31.91 2 7. no available alternative teaching device in the community 39 11.85 5 problems met by student teachers with their student teaching supervisors table 7 shows the problems of student teachers with their student teaching supervisors. based on the data from table 7, their first problem was having too many requirements to accomplish such as action research, narrative reports, case study and journal in their everyday teaching experiences with 39 or 111.87%. student teachers also found too many deadlines a problem with 31 or 9.42%. next was inconsistent instructions given by their supervisors (25 or 7.60%). finally, student teachers find the meetings called by the supervisors time consuming with 13 or 3.95%. for them, the time spent attending in these meetings could have been devoted to preparing their instructional materials. table 7. problems met by student teachers with their student teaching supervisor student teaching supervisor total % rank 1. too many requirements to accomplish 39 11.85 1 2. keep on calling for a meeting which disrupts concentration in teaching 13 3.95 4 3. too many deadlines to meet 31 9.42 2 4. inconsistencies in giving instructions which confuse student teachers/mentees 25 7.60 3 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 54 discussion tok (2010) posited that practice teaching is a period of helping the student teachers to try out and make more meaningful use of the principles they learned while in the college or university. with the help of cooperating teachers, it is designed to provide opportunities and guidance in a school setting for student teachers to develop themselves. for ambrosettie (2014), practice teaching is a collaborative journey between the cooperating teacher and the student teacher, a good guidance and monitoring from the mentor teachers should be well-considered in order to better prepare the student-teachers become qualified teachers in the future. according to prastomo and listyani (2016), a cooperating teacher ideally helps studentteachers in their student teaching. a cooperating teacher is expected to give adequate feedback for student teachers about their teaching. however, this seems not properly observed as revealed in the findings given that the real root of the problems of the student teachers with their cooperating teachers was the irregular class observations performed by the latter. as a result, cooperating teachers could not hold regular post conference/feedback because they would not be able to give reliable feedbacks based on actual observations, and yet they begrudged their student teachers if the latter did not perform well. this situation resulted inevitably to student teachers’ lack of faith and trust to their cooperating teachers. they opted not to consult them anymore given the notion that their cooperating teachers would not know whether their student teachers implemented their suggestions or not due to their physical absence from the classroom. student teachers contended that without the rigid supervision of their cooperating teacher, they would not be able to determine whether they did the right thing in their methodology. this conforms to the study conducted by gokce and demirhan (2005) where cooperating teachers did not sufficiently support student teachers in the process of developing lesson plans. in the study of baslurk (2009) the same findings was revealed about pre-service teachers who did not do talking with their mentors about their lesson plans before teaching. likewise, the presence of cooperating teachers during class sessions enabled them to be more effective teachers because students give their attention/respect to them. otherwise, classes are reverted to a noisy congregation in the absence of their real teacher who gives them grades. the center of any educative process is the student. without the student there would be no need for teaching. it is the task of the teacher to guide the students in the learning processes. but each student is a unique individual who respond differently; hence, along the teaching and learning process and in guiding the students, problems might arise. the problems of student teachers with their students were on the noisiness and talkativeness of the students. this could be strongly related with the earlier problem of student teachers with their cooperating teachers as regards the non-observance of regular class observations. cooperating teachers play an active role in disciplining students. students chat with their seatmates and do not pay attention because of several reasons. first, they are not afraid or threatened with the presence of student teachers. second, they do not take seriously their student teachers because of the perception that they are not their real teachers and that they are just there to practice their profession. third, it is their way of getting attention to be recognized and pinpointed in the class. these are the so-called “ksp” students, or “kulang irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 55 sa pansin” (attention seeker) who intentionally create noise to catch student teachers’ attention. another source of this problem with students was probably the failure of the student teachers to properly motivate students and raise students’ curiosity, and this situation could be due to their lack of experience on handling energetic students. according to havighurst (1953), students who belong to ages 7-16 are generally active and attention seekers, thus it was not surprising if student teachers met such problem. the second problem met by the student teachers was on students’ absenteeism. this again can be related to student teachers’ problem with their cooperating teachers, who did not regularly hold class observations. cooperating teachers were supposed to serve as models to their student. as such, when students learned that their real teacher (i.e., cooperating teacher) was not coming to class regularly to oversee them, then they felt free to do what they wanted. they were not afraid to be marked absent because of their belief that it would not affect their final grades or that the grades given by the practice teacher will not have much weight on their marks. other students lose interest since majority of the class were noisy and unruly, so they preferred to be somewhere else, than in the classroom. the tardiness of their students was also identified as problems of the student teachers. students were not afraid to be reprimanded by their student teachers. student teachers themselves admitted that they were naturally soft-spoken and were always reminded not to impose too strict discipline to avoid complaints from parents. as a teacher herself, the researcher has not been exempted from their problem especially nowadays. even college students almost always commit tardiness, which seems to be irritating to teachers since late comers distract the attention of the class from listening to her lecture. likewise, latecomers are deprived of catching up with the lesson. as early as in the grade school, there is a felt need for students to be taught punctuality. the fourth problem identified by the student teachers was students who were disrespectful. this is similar to what prastomo and listyani (2016) surmised that student-teachers have to deal with various kinds of students’ behavior. according to student teachers, handling teenage schools’ students is not as easy as people think. they sometimes suddenly become frozen or nervous when they come to the real classroom with real students. students only give their respect to student teachers who excel academically or to those who are smart. they even test the intelligence and capability of the student teachers, and if the latter passed their acid test or challenge only then would they vow, recognize, respect, and obey their student teachers. so, student teachers need to struggle to earn respect and admiration from their students. it would only be possible if they had acquired mastery of the subject matter and were presentable in their physical looks. as emphasized in the preamble of code of ethics of professional teachers, “teachers should possess dignity and reputation with high moral values as well as technical and professional competence.” the problems mentioned above were similar to the findings of tok (2010), that the most important problems that student teachers experience are “motivating students, communicating with students and managing students”. the reason for this may be that student teachers are not viewed as real teachers by learner. it also conforms to the findings of saricoban (2010) that student teachers reported that their students lack interest in learning. the first problem of the student teachers, which they considered personal, was their difficulty in expressing themselves in the english language, which is also the first thing irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 56 noticed by their respective cooperating teachers. student teachers had strong desire to share all their ideas skills, or language barrier; it prevented them from bringing out new and brilliant ideas. also, this problem on communication was one because of their shyness. afraid of committing errors in english, student teachers admitted they just kept quiet. similarly, in 2013, rakasiwi found out that there were some student teachers who thought that their ability to teach english was insufficient. poor communication results in failure on the part of the pupils and feedback the student teachers receives for poor communication is very poor responses from his pupils. when this occurs, the pupils suffer a grave handicap because they become helpless in the face of unclear and complex messages. the price the student teacher pays for poor communication is exertion of more energy to make the pupils respond accurately to his messages (olaitan & agusiobo, 1981). the foregoing results strengthen the fact that the task of a teacher is multifaceted and demands variety of human traits, abilities, and competencies. it is a task that calls for an assessment of one’s own personal qualifications. in the genuine desire of student teachers to improve on them it becomes a source of their problem. the next problem they mentioned was difficulty of instilling discipline among students when the cooperating teacher was not around. cooperating teachers play a vital role in practice teaching. they are second parents to students. they really develop the moral character of their students. as cooperating teachers, they were expected to help student teachers build camaraderie with the students. they should make it sure that student teachers had already established good rapport with students before finally leaving the student teacher all alone in the classroom. cooperating teachers were also recognized as authority figure in the classroom and so their presence or absence had a great impact on the behavior of the students. this was recognized by student teachers whenever they would leave the class to them alone. another problem considered personal by the student teachers was their lack of money in preparing instructional materials. as shown in their profile, majority of them came from poor families and almost all of them were enrolled in public universities due to financial constraint, so they only had exact allowance for their basic school needs. although they were willing to provide best instructional materials to make teaching and learning effective and efficient, financial difficulty prevented them from doing it. the last problem they identified was their lack of confidence to face an audience and inadequate learning foundation on basic education principles. this is just a natural tendency since they were considered novice teacher in the world of teaching. their short exposure and little experience were not enough to give them confidence. their self-making process is not yet finished, since gaining enough confidence is almost a life time. and another contributory factor in not having enough preparation was their lack of mastery of the lesson. the school principal serves as the leader of an entire community within a school for he or she ensures that the organization runs smoothly as well as the facilities and staff. he or she is responsible for managing the major administrative tasks and supervising all students and teachers. even though student teachers did not have everyday contact with the administrators/principals and chairpersons of the department where they belonged, they still had few problems with them. student teachers had several duties and obligations they needed to accomplish in the classroom such as: preparing lesson plans, teaching, checking test papers, recording results of test, and preparing visual materials. their long and arduous irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 57 period of preparation for those activities mentioned above exhausted their energy. this was understandable in the light of their adjustment period as well as total and full immersion in the actual world of teaching. so as much as they would like to accomplish the activities assigned to them by their chairperson like, serving as substitute whenever a teacher was on leave, requesting them to label the different books in the department, and putting designs on the bulletin boards of the department where they belonged, became sources of their problems. ranked second in the list of problems was on the strictness of the administrators. as a leader, administrators took this stance of being strict in their desire of maintaining order and discipline in their area of jurisdiction, but student teachers distanced themselves from school leaders because they knew they were being assessed, hence their personal distance became even wider. as the interviews revealed, their chairperson required them to avoid too much familiarity with students, since “familiarity brings contempt”, and this even extended to school administrators. the shift from being college students to becoming real teachers gave them difficult time since they have not been familiar yet with the ways of superiors to subordinates. student teachers themselves also admitted that they were sensitive, easily discouraged and lacked emotional maturity, and these feelings contributed to their being intimidated by their chairperson(s). the third problem encountered by the student teachers associated with the strictness of the principals/chairpersons was the unapproachable style of the former which was also interpreted by the student teachers that they did not belong to the department. this was related to the findings of koross, (2016) where student teachers stated that some school rejected student teachers. and the last problem they mentioned was the donations asked by the principals/chairpersons upon leaving the school. student teachers came from poor families; they went through with several expenses in their practice teaching program and were facing many more expenses for their forthcoming graduation, and so donation for them became also a problem. according to an interview, student teachers were sent to their cooperating schools together with their fellow student teachers who came from different sections and with different major fields of specialization. their student teaching supervisors usually assigned a team leader and an assistant team leader in a respective cooperating school to facilitate in the monitoring and communication of one another. but during group meetings, some did not like to participate resulting to lack of consensus when decisions were reached. this same group of student teachers was the first to object or to question when a decision was being implemented resulting to misunderstandings between groups and/or individuals. interpersonal relationships became strained. adjustment problems with their fellow student teachers were the effects of student teachers’ individual differences, different perceptions, different beliefs, and different experiences. some adjustment problems also stemmed out of students’ behaviors and attitudes. while some assumed superiority, others showed inferiority but also refused to be sidelined. these functions in relationships were inevitable in close interactions among young people who were still unable to fully understand themselves. “fellow student teachers who do not like to share their ideas or to extend help to co-teachers” ranked as the 3 rd problem of the student teachers with their fellow student teachers. this situation was actually a result of individuals who were forced by circumstances to be part of one community with one common goal to achieve. considering that was the first time they met, it was expected that they be reserved in dealing with others who irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 58 belonged to another group. filipino culture played a big part in this problem. extending unsolicited assistance, advice, and being too familiar immediately after their first few meetings tended to turn off other people. however, these actuations were interpreted differently by young people. student teaching supervisors need to give proper orientation to student teachers along this aspect to make student teaching experiences more meaningful to them. instructional materials/media are integral components of almost all teaching strategies. they are often referred to as “sub strategies” since their role is as important as the preferred methodology to be employed. they never failed to arouse students’ curiosity in sustaining their interests especially when a new topic is being introduced. they serve as stimuli which can result to a lively classroom interaction. according to olaitan and agusiobo as cited by tok, (2016) leaning and teaching can be improved by effective selection and use of instructional materials because they appeal to human senses. lessons delivered with the use of suitable teaching aid motivate pupils to learn and remember what is learnt when there is a recall. when instructional materials are efficiently utilized by a student teacher, they help to stimulate the interest of the pupils, reduce number of verbal responses, make learning more permanent, and provide experiences not easily secured in other ways. when effectively used, they offer a reality of experience which stimulates individual activity and motivates pupils to investigate or explore, theyr increasing voluntary reding in pupils. but despite its importance, student teachers identified it as one source of their problems. this concurs with okoli and meziorle’s (2011 in okubia et al., 2013) findings that the lack of necessary equipment and materials is one of the problems faced by student teacher. student teachers faced very hectic schedules due to the different teaching assignments and extra assignments given by their respective cooperating teachers. because of their different tasks they found little time in preparing for their instructional materials. the teaching devices they learned in the university which could not be applied to their practice teaching days because their cooperating schools lacked the facilities and equipment needed, like lcds and computers. so as much as they wanted to apply the different modern instructional materials/tools they could not do it because of limited resources. thus, they resorted to the use of traditional instructional materials using pentel pens and manila paper, the preparations of which were very tedious and time-consuming. this is parallel to the findings of koross (2016) wherein students mentioned that some schools lack instructional materials that are needed for effective teaching. not having enough money was the third problem encountered by the practice teachers. materials used in preparing visual aids were expensive. as mentioned earlier, majority of the students came from poor families so they could not afford to buy expensive materials because their allowances were barely enough for their meals and fare expenses every day. student teachers revealed in interviews that these financial problems worsen their worries and anxieties. this was also identical to the findings of koross (2016) where the student teachers indicated that they face financial challenges during teaching practice and that majority of them stated that they lacked finances for their upkeep. student teaching supervisors oversee the various activities of student teachers. they provide support for the student teachers and cooperating teachers, clarify requirements and assist them in organizing, planning, reviewing teaching and scheduling class. as early as 1990, guyton and mcintyre found that student teachers’ supervisors may be the cause of the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 59 problems since they are not specialist, nor are they adequately trained to provide field instructions across several content areas and not to mention in the areas of supervision. as such, they may not have the proper training in terms of guiding the would-be teachers. based on the data, giving too many requirements to accomplish such as action research, narrative reports, case study and journal regarding their day to day teaching experiences becomes one of the sources of their problems. inconsistent giving of instructions was found by student teachers a source of their problem since they meant business. they wanted their student teaching supervisors to be consistent in. berchuke et al (2013) further revealed in their study that university assessors are not consistent in their duties as supervisors. lastly attending meetings and/or general assemblies with faculty, called by their student teaching supervisors, consumed much of their time, which could otherwise be devoted to completion of other requirements. they felt, anyway, that their opinions did not matter so the idea of attending such meetings seems irrelevant for them. on this regard, student teachers need to be reminded that meetings are part of life of a real teacher; hence there is a need for them to learn how to manage time effectively. conclusion as the adage goes, “no man is an island”. for student teachers to achieve his goal of becoming an effective and efficient teacher, he needs to hurdle the rigors of student teaching. during student teaching program, meeting significant people will play different roles to fully attain his/her holistic development and be prepared and competitive for the world of work. as part of his immersion, interactions to different people in the cooperating school are imperative and inevitable. these significant people are agents of change, channels of improvement and building blocks for them to transform from being novice to full-pledged professional teachers. they can also be likened to a coin; one side of it represents motivation and inspiration while the other side of it can be frustration and problems. the study revealed that the problems encountered by student teachers include cooperating teachers do not hold regular class observations; noisy and talkative students; students’ difficulty in expressing themselves in english; too much assignment given by school administrators and student teaching supervisor; uncooperative fellow student teachers; and lack of time and resources in preparing instructional materials. from these results, it can be concluded that the common problems that surfaced during the practice teaching of student teachers arise from the different sources such as: cooperating teachers, students, fellow student teachers, supervisors, principals/head, personal and instructional materials. for each of the said sources, student teachers identified the greatest and the least problem. the study revealed that all these sources contribute to the problems met by the student teachers. since the present study endeavored on the problems met by student teachers from the various individuals they encountered during the program, the findings offer a significant and peculiar contribution to the literature in education in general, and in student teaching in particular. exploring the problems encountered by cooperating teachers may lead to awareness among administrators, professional education professors, student teaching irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 60 supervisors, cooperating teachers and student teachers themselves on the kind of problems encountered by the latter while they are immersed in the program. in light of the foregoing results, teis may conduct orientation for cooperating teachers as regards their roles and responsibilities to the student teachers. regular class observation to track down the strengths, weaknesses and improvement of the student teachers so that they can improve themselves on the process of doing student teaching may also be done. cooperating teachers and supervisors may maintain open communication to address the needs and problems of student teachers in all aspects of the profession during practice teaching. cooperating teachers may help the student teachers establish camaraderie with the students so as to help them implement the plans made and gain a memorable and enjoyable experiences from their practice teaching. equipped the student teachers with knowledge and skills in dealing with the students effectively by providing a curriculum would enhance their social ability to interact with their students effectively. the business of communicating is the most basic tool employed by a teacher in his profession, and better ability on this area gives him the confidence to impart his expertise on the lesson to his students. thus, teis need to reconsider their admission policies with great emphasis given on communication ability. the student teaching supervisors and educators, therefore, may add specific courses in the curriculum to address the poor communication ability of the student teachers. the teacher education curriculum may be modified to address the incompetencies of the student teachers and the upcoming needs and changes in elementary and high school curricula. as tan, polong, collantes, and torres (2020) surmised, there is a need for language educators to strengthen the teaching of communication skills. teis may orient the cooperating school’s administrator on their roles and responsibilities as well as requirements that can only be retrieved from the student teachers. school administrators may also refrain from seeking financial donations or contributions from student teachers. likewise, deped may consider providing instructional materials to student teachers to help them carry out the task assigned to them without bothering themselves making and spending materials that are too expensive. teis may strengthen the curriculum specifically the course intended/responsible in developing student teachers ability and skill in the preparation and use of instructional materials. finally, there is a need for student teaching supervisors to be evaluated yearly to ensure that the experiences/activities they provide are still viable and contribute to the different dimensions of being a good teacher of the student teachers. disclosure statement no potential conflict of interest was reported by the author. acknowledgments the author would like to extend her sincere appreciation and gratitude to the indonesian research journal in education (irje) for serving as platform to the researcher and providing an avenue as well as opportunity to publish her scholarly works. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 61 references adanza, e. 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(2020). humor styles and perceptions of college students in central luzon. the asian esp journal, 16(2.1), 196-209. torres, j. m., & alieto, e.o. (2019b). english learning motivation and self-efficacy of filipino senior high school students. the asian efl journal, 22(1), 51-72. ulla, m. b. (2016). pre-service teacher training programs in the philippines: the student-teachers practicum teaching experience. the asian efl journal, 1(3), 235-250. biographical notes dr. leila m. collantes, a professor vi, is a faculty of the secondary education department, college of education, central luzon state university, philippines. she handles several courses related to education, both in the undergraduate and graduate programs. she has been in the academe for more than 23 years. in those years, she served as chair and member of the different examining committees, adviser, and member advisory committee of graduate students taking up their thesis and dissertation in the graduate program; leilacollantes@clsu.edu.ph https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/problems-and-difficulties-encountered-by-student-of-ganal-andaya/6d9ae426e37254fe413fc183bc409a9798506c82 https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/problems-and-difficulties-encountered-by-student-of-ganal-andaya/6d9ae426e37254fe413fc183bc409a9798506c82 https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/problems-and-difficulties-encountered-by-student-of-ganal-andaya/6d9ae426e37254fe413fc183bc409a9798506c82 mailto:leilacollantes@clsu.edu.ph this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 23 graduating from high school overseas and academic transition to indonesian university atmosphere nurul wahyuni 1 , soni mirizon 2* , and sary silvhiany 3 abstract this research aimed to explore the academic transition of indonesian university students who graduated high school overseas from qatar to indonesia, specifically speaking about their experiences and challenges in the academic transition. the research implemented a qualitative design with a narrative approach to get in-depth information on the lives of everyone. this research involved 5 indonesian university students who had stayed ten years or more in qatar and studied in indonesia. the data were collected through a semi-structured interview and documents of reflective writing as supporting data. the data were analyzed by using thematic analysis. the findings revealed that due to the academic transitions from one country to their homeland, the transition was difficult when comparing both education systems in qatar and indonesia. furthermore, no additional classes, or orientation programs were effective in preventing the challenges they faced. the challenges were emotional anxiety, loss of the english language, and peer pressure. fortunately, this transition phase was not static and could be fixed. keywords academic, challenges, experience, overseas, transition, and university student article history received 11 january 2023 accepted 16 april 2023 how to cite wahyuni, n., mirizion, s., & silvhiany, s. (2023). graduating from high school overseas and academic transition to indonesian university atmosphere. indonesian research journal in education |irje|, 7(1), 23–42. https://doi.org/10.22437/irje .v7i1.24609 1 graduate student, english education graduate study program, universitas sriwijaya, indonesia 2* senior lecturer, english education graduate study program, universitas sriwijaya, indonesia; corresponding author: smirizon@unsri.ac.id 3 senior lecturer, english education graduate study program, universitas sriwijaya, indonesia https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v7i1.24609 https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v7i1.24609 mailto:smirizon@unsri.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 24 introduction nowadays, it is easy for people to move from one place to another, especially to achieve a better life. it includes some expatriates that search for jobs outside of indonesia, such as in the middle east. over the past 20 to 25 years, the case of expatriates working abroad has shown high growth specifically, this has happened with (johnson, 2005). indonesia and the middle east, which according to have had a good istadiyantha (2021), relationship since the independence of indonesia. they have collaborated in various fields, such as economics, politics, and social culture. hence many indonesian citizens move to the middle east for job opportunities as expatriates. after getting a job, many expatriates spend their life there and grow in the host country’s customs and culture. thus, when expatriates have children, it will most affect the children during their development stages. afterward, stated that from an early age, children have extraordinary abilities to master a kendall (2013) language and have a relationship with language and culture in an environment. however, since work contracts have an expiry date, some expatriates have to move back from their host country to indonesia. this transition will not only affect the expatriates’ families but also the growth of their children, specifically, their adaptation process during their relocation in academic transition. this displacement is a process that involves many physical, social, and emotional variables that can be stressful for children it will have difficulty (rawls, 2016). adjusting without direction and guidance on how to adapt well to a new environment. researchers have shown that this will cause homesickness and deep culture shock due to relocation and impact on personality disorders and even emotional distress (minichiello, 2000). preparation, encounter, adjustment, and stabilization are the successive stages of a transitional process (nicholson & west, 1995). in other words, the academic transition can be the process students go through as they navigate various academic obligations in a new setting, such as when transferring from one high school to another. in this case, it is the academic transition from indonesian university students who have lived in qatar immerging in the indonesian education system. early immigrants, late immigrants, and unaccompanied international students were the three cohort groups of chinese children in eastern canada that were the subject of one quantitative research (kuo & roysircar, 2004). these researchers used questionnaires to identify between-group differences, discovering that international sojourners had lower levels of acculturation and higher levels of acculturative stress than the other two immigrant groups. additionally, they found overseas students displayed comparable characteristics and experiences to those of recent immigrants, which is not surprising considering the similarities between spatial dislocation and recent immigration to the new country. these same researchers used a survey methodology to investigate the adaptation of 201 unaccompanied sojourners from taiwan in different quantitative research. they found that teenage overseas students were a vulnerable group that was frequently unprepared before their trip and had trouble adjusting to the new environment (kuo & roysircar, 2006). the students claimed that in addition to not knowing much about the host culture, they also struggled to understand why they were there, which made transitioning to a new cultural reality even more challenging. in addition, 230 chinese undergraduate students irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 25 born abroad were subjected to a series of questionnaires by ying (2001). according to her research, unaccompanied international students maintained stronger ties to their past and traditional values by speaking their native language, remaining more connected to others from their home country, and retaining a connection to their home culture. based on some research above about foreign children settling for the academic transition in a foreign country, not much research has been done about indonesian university students that have long lived in a middle east country like qatar and transitioning back to their home country indonesia. therefore, there is a lack of research on indonesian university students from abroad settling for their academic transition in indonesia. hence, this research aims to establish a qualitative understanding of the experiences of indonesian university students who long lived abroad and the challenges concerning their academic transfer to indonesian universities. the research’s main objective is to offer suggestions to educators on how to support these students who have long lived abroad regarding their academic transition to indonesian universities more effectively. literature review schlossberg transition theory schlossberg developed the transition theory because she thought there was a need to create a systematic framework that would make it easier to understand adults going through a change and direct them to the support they needed to manage. according to goodman et al. (2006), understanding the change significance of a particular person necessitates considering the nature, context, and impact. schlossberg's theory describes three sorts of transitions, such as anticipated, unanticipated, and non-events are described by. transitions that are projected to occur include things like high school graduation. unexpected shifts take place without warning or any plans. such occurrences include getting fired, a family member passing away suddenly, or getting divorced. non-event transitions are those that a person anticipated happening but did not, such as the marriage that never happened or the unborn child. according to schlossberg's idea, a transition is only real if the person going through it defines the context as such. the context describes a person's relationship to the change (their own or another) and to the environment in which the transition occurs (work, personal relationships, and so forth). the impact of a transition, or how much it impacts a person's daily life, is also significant for those living through it. stress can be caused by positive and negative transitions, and coping with several transitions at once can be very challenging. people are initially captivated by their new role. they gradually start to distance themselves from the past and create new identities, connections, routines, and presumptions. both opportunities for growth and prospects for downfall can come from transitions. curriculum the curriculum is a collection of plans and agreements that specify the objectives, subject matter, instructional strategies, and supporting materials that should be used to carry out learning activities, especially in the language curriculum. the encyclopedia of curriculum studies defines curriculum theory as an interdisciplinary curriculum that irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 26 addresses the curriculum in terms of its historical, feminist, political, racial, international, post-modern, autobiographical, and religious elements (kridel, 2010). therefore, curriculum theory, which is strongly tied to our beliefs about what is significant about ourselves and our society, genuinely goes to the depths of our individual, social, and cultural depths (walker & soltis, 2004). for this research, the students had already learned from the cambridge curriculum in qatar. the cambridge curriculum impacted the world as an international curriculum that nations like qatar would likely use. the cambridge curriculum is a division of cambridge university that has made the cambridge international examination which offers a global curriculum that can be used in all nations. the largest international curriculum in the world for kids between the ages of 14 and 19 is offered through cambridge international examinations (cie), which are organized by cambridge university. according to oktaviani et al. (2013), more than 9,000 schools from 160 countries around the world—including america, asia pacific, europe, the middle east, north africa, south asia, and south africa—have implemented the cambridge program, which offers examinations from elementary to secondary level and provides a curriculum or framework. it includes the one that is used in qatar. four prerequisites for cie are cambridge primary (5–11 years), cambridge secondary 1 or cambridge lower secondary (11–14 years), cambridge secondary 2 (14–16 years), and cambridge advanced (16-18 years). green (2010) noted that many secondary schools abroad were working to expand their institutions through opportunities or the requirement to offer new courses or restructure existing ones. furthermore, from the information above, the concept of how both society in qatar and indonesia builds a curriculum according to each country’s beliefs and society. hence, that shift in the education system from the curriculum in qatar to indonesia will impact their beliefs, society, and social and cultural depths. assisting transition transitioning to different places often influences many factors of every individual, including sociocultural skills, self-efficacy, emotional intelligence and support, friendships, the internet, and transition programs (bredeman, 2015; hervey, 2009; ittel & sisler, 2012; , 2010; ). pollock & van reken, 2009; quick salovey & mayer, 1990 sociocultural skills sociocultural skill is the ability to have a verbal or non-verbal connection with people from everywhere and in every situation that does not depend on their background or where they are from. since we live in a heterogenous world, the presence of sociocultural competence is the key to understanding verbal and non-verbal behavior and the ability to regulate their conduct under this knowledge in real-life situations of communication that will remain essential to the students’ lives sociocultural skills are (pollock & van reken, 2009). particularly crucial during transition time moving from one country to another as they can assist with the adaptation to social and cultural change. the students from abroad developed a former sense of culture from a foreign country, and the changes they have experienced irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 27 may be the same feeling as when changing jobs, moving from one country to another, or even losing a loved one (cheng et al., 2015). hence, it all depends on how the students move passed and use their sociocultural skills to potential changes and challenges in university life, like when studying back in their home country in indonesian universities. self-efficacy confidence within an individual with a strong sense of self-value and identity has been acknowledged to manage the challenging situation better. ittel and sisler (2012) stated that students who live abroad with a higher self-efficacy tend to find it less difficult in the sociocultural adaptation process. therefore, confident individuals are more buoyant and resilient and can navigate their way from challenging situations. the responsibility to support individuals to develop a strong sense of self primarily lies with parents. regardless of this, the research did not confirm that the family relationship affected sociocultural adaptation. instead, they suggested these strong bonds may ultimately support a child’s sociocultural adjustment, as a strong sense of self-confidence, nurtured by the family, can assist the process of adjusting to a new culture. emotional intelligence they described that it is the ability to monitor one’s and others’ feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and actions. a person’s decisions and behaviors tend to be more inclined to feelings, which act as a deciding factor. therefore, a person does not only reply to the intellect but also uses their feelings and emotions to direct and guide them, particularly when facing tough times (salovey & mayer, 1990). consequently, individuals with well-developed emotional skills are more likely to be content and efficient in their lives (goleman, 2007). goleman (2007) argued it is because emotional intelligence assists people to deal with life’s challenges, and those who are emotionally competent are at an advantage during difficult times in any aspect of their life. therefore, emotional competence plays a significant role when people are faced with a transition; a person moves from one country to another for the first time and needs to have good emotional competence to achieve a balanced mind. those with developed emotional intelligence are more likely to have positive transition outcomes. friendship relationships with other individuals who had a similar experience growing up outside their passport country can impact transition positively. the social constructivist perspective would argue that individuals’ relationships are developed through their thoughts, feelings, and interactions with others (clandinin & connelly, 2000). consequently, the person is more likely to form friendships and find security with other international students with the same experiences (pollock & reken, 2009). however, even if they have shared similar cross-cultural experiences with international students, they are different, as irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 28 international students are not permanent citizens of the country. therefore, they will have varying needs (quick, 2010). time length of time is another contributing factor to a person that has moved to another country achieving successful transitions. according to bredeman (2015), these transition experiences are to have improved the longer the person stays in their new environments. the improvement over time was likely a result of individuals eventually being able to understand the culture and establish their identity within the new setting. therefore, family and friends need to be aware of assuming adjustment which is completed within a specific period. hervey (2009) added that providing ongoing support and understanding remained crucial to transitioning individuals. transition preparation and support now and then visits to the passport culture while living abroad may contribute to a more comfortable and easy transition for many children that have spent much time abroad (bredeman, 2015). programs can assist these transitions primarily because they introduce cultural values, trends, and norms of passport culture, so better-preparing individuals for them. transition programs are also a way to connect individuals who have shared similar experiences and provide environments to share their life stories with others who understand (hervey, 2009). huxur et al. (1996) showed that many policies should be made, such as having updated comprehensive information for the students, language preparation, social integration, academic assistance, learning pre-return assistance, and internalizing the curriculum. enculturation, acculturation and deculturation internalization of culture is deeply rooted in when a person has become a member of a culture. according to taft’s theory in hamers and blanc (2000), several processes take place in this process which are enculturation, acculturation, and deculturation. enculturation is part of a socialization process that begins when someone is socializing and then a person goes through a process with the first/primary culture. however, if the person encounters a second culture, acculturation will take place. in acculturation, the person must adjust the behavior from the first culture to a new one. it involves a combination of acquisition in competence and performing culturally relevant behavior. in this globalization era, where many people are free to move around, it is common for people to adapt to this process. since this exposure already has a well-established identity, the person has to move to another culture and acquire a new cultural element in their current culture. however, the older the person is, the harder it is to adapt to a new culture. if the form of adaptation is not well and causes distress, then the individual will have a deculturation phase. extreme deculturation can cause as severe as a first-language loss. if not, assimilation occurs in the host culture, and deculturation may lead to anomie which is a irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 29 complex psychological state with alienation and isolation vis-à-vis the society’s lives. spencer and markstrom-adams (1990) have several factors which indicate this deculturation, such as conflicts between cultures, lack of role models, the absence of culture-focused specific guidance, and the preponderance of negative stereotypes about minorities. in his story of a second-generation italian in the usa, the italian adolescent males faced a dilemma. the person then found that there are three modes of adjusting to this conflict where some rebelled against their italian background and assimilated the dominant culture, others rejected the american ways, and the last group displayed a withdrawal (anomie symptoms) and refused to think of them as an ethnic term either by avoiding the topic about cultural backgrounds or denying that italians and americans are any different. stages of cross-cultural adjustments some individuals who enter a different environment, whether they change from secondary school to university, move from one country to the other, or relocate from one part of the country to another, make several adjustments. when this move results in a change in environment, language, and an introduction to a different culture, the resulting adaptations are substantial and often hard to accomplish (minichiello, 2000). the term for a sudden change is the often-called culture shock. according to lopez (2021), culture shock is when an individual moves to a foreign country but does not successfully adjust to the new environment. hence many theories have been written such as lysgard’s theory about the double-u curve or w-curve adjustment pattern, which states the idea of cross-cultural progress through three main stages is the initial state of elation and optimism, replaced by a period of frustration, depression, and confusion then gradually followed by improvement leading to feelings of confidence and satisfaction with the new society. studies have shown many areas of student adjustment that focus on the common feelings associated with culture shock and difficulties attempting to cope with despair, isolation, alienation, and sadness in a new environment. additionally, oberg’s theory describes aspects of culture shock, such as honeymoon, crisis, recovery, and adjustment. methodology this section presents the research design, the participants, the method of data collection, the instruments used, and the data analysis technique. explanations and elaboration are also presented in this part. research design, site, and participants the research site is located according to the universities and the residency that the participants are currently residing in. it will be conducted and recorded via audio call or video call with each participant. the participants are 5 indonesian university students that had lived in the same community in a foreign country called qatar. the characteristics of the participants are 1) lived in qatar for ten or more years, 2) english as their daily language at school and home, (3) had enrolled in an indonesian university, and 4) south sumatra descendant which is claimed by the participants. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 30 research design this research was conducted using a qualitative research method with a narrative approach. cohen et al. (2018) stated that qualitative research shows several purposes, like explaining, describing, reporting, creating key concepts, and testing a theory generation. this research uses a narrative approach to gathering in-depth data and stories from individuals. according to dewey (1938), a narrative inquiry has origins that claim personal experience closely links to education. de fina (2015) argued that narratives are often seen as the primary vehicle to convey identity, and narrative analysts have gone so far as to claim that the stories we tell shape us into what we are. therefore, based on this reason, this research used this method. the idea of narrative research that was put forward fits best for this research to understand the experiences of indonesian university students who lived abroad to their academic transfer to indonesian universities. the participants in this research were chosen by purposeful sampling for students who meet the requirement through the justifications made. moreover, the research was conducted via phone through whatsapp or phone call or via video call through zoom with the students discussing their experience in language and cultural adaptation from english to the indonesian environment. data collection this research used an in-depth interview and analysis of reflective writing of their favorite picture in indonesia and qatar to obtain the data. the interview was conducted with semi-structured and open-ended questions via video or audio call with the participants through zoom or whatsapp. the interview aspects mainly talk about the adaptation process, academic comparisons, the adaptation obstacles, and how they overcome them. data analysis the data analysis method applied was thematic analysis following the six steps of data analysis from creswell (2012). the data from the interview were then analyzed through thematic analysis guided by creswell (2012). the thematic analysis started by transcribing the interview of the participants. after transcribing them, the interview transcripts were read and analyzed to establish tentative codes. similar codes were then grouped into categories. furthermore, the categories were checked for consistency and revised if necessary. the categories then were put into themes. thus, this process helped to articulate ideas about what the interview data consisted of and to see the challenges that were reflected by the students about language and cultural adaptation. ethical considerations all efforts were taken to address ethical concerns. participants were made aware of the ethical issues regarding their participation in the research. participants were encouraged to sign a consent form indicating their willingness to participate and permission to publish findings. participants were also informed that their participation was voluntary and that they could withdraw at any time. the interview session was audio-recorded with the participant’s irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 31 consent. all transcripts and research records are kept confidential, including the anonymity of participants in the published article. findings the findings in this research were based on the research questions to find out the experiences and challenges faced by indonesian university students with foreign educational backgrounds from qatar during their academic transition to indonesian universities. after carrying out the interview and documentation using thematic analysis, it was found that there were certain aspects of the student’s experience and challenges during their academic transition. the aspects are in table 1: table 1. themes and sub-themes about academic transition themes category examples 1. adjusting to the new academic life 1.1 comparison between education in qatar and indonesia ―for this pic, it reminds me of the difference between the curriculum in indonesia and in qatar because in qatar we implement things of what we learn so we most likely remember it in the long run and also they make learning fun, even though we all know that learning is boring‖ (amber documentation) 1.2 subjects adaptation ―the subjects here that is different from indonesia and qatar, so i needed time to learn the types of subjects, indonesia‖ (clyde’s interview) 2. student’s academic opportunities 2.1 first-hand english acquisition ―first is english, because a lot of people doesn't know how to speak english fluently, and i think that if i study abroad. (amber’s interview) 2.2 teachers and international friends ―having a coach from the uk felt like i was being coached by a professional coach at that time‖ (clyde’s documentation) 2.3 international certifications ―i did get achievement such as ar some exams like it's connected, it's about music, right so its music theory i did‖ (daisy’s interview) 2.4 competitions ―the opportunity is way bigger because i can join from provence to irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 32 international competitions‖ (ella’s interview) 3. student’s challenges in academic life in indonesia 3.1 emotional anxiety ―i have to physically prepare myself for everything before i actually could talk to people and emotionally open up to people‖ (daisy’s interview) 3.2 loss of english language ―i did kind of forget my english language a little bit, because i'm so used to engaging bahasa indonesia‖ (bianca’s interview) 3.3 peer pressure ―i knew i was bullied‖ (ella interview) adjusting to the new academic life in indonesia when moving from one place to another, participants experience adjusting from their former curriculum which is a cambridge-based curriculum to indonesia’s educational system. even though it is their own native country, some participants experienced dominant changes throughout their transition. amber mentioned her comparison between the two educational systems stating in her writing: ―for this pic, it reminds me the difference between curriculum in indonesia and in qatar because in qatar we implement things of what we learn so we most likely remember it in the long run and also, they make learning really fun, even though we all know that learning is boring. but in indo they make studying seems so boring and we mostly memorize things instead of implementing them so we tend to forget what we learn. in this picture as you can see, i was dressed up as a viking because we were learning about the history of vikings and what they wore and what food they ate.‖ ―for this pic, it reminds me of my school in qatar. where it is called school but it doesn’t look like school. it’s more of a place where other than studying; i can play, meet friends, explore, and etc. i think is really different depending on school in indonesia, where they mostly focus on the grade if what students get, instead of how they can implement things in real life. i really miss this place because i can find real friends here and they are like family to me, and also the teachers are nice, even though there are rarely kids that are naughty most of them are really obey with the teachers, but in indonesia teachers here are strict but there are a lot of naughty kids.‖ daisy also mentioned her time during the transition as follows, ―for creativity, i felt like i was more creative back there, i had access to a lot more instruments. i've had access to a lot more. things to do about things and. in here. i guess it's because i also don't have my own instruments.‖ irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 33 amber also noticed a big change experienced as follows: ―especially for university, i need to adapt and it's really hard, you know? because the curriculum and stuff in qatar and indonesia is quite different.‖ similarly, clyde also commented on the drastic change in his academic life, ―the subjects here that is different from indonesia and qatar, so i needed time to learn the types of subjects, indonesia.‖ bianca also commented on her lessons, “then even during lessons at my uni, i still struggle sometimes to make sentences that are baku (formal) but that didn't, that didn't stop me to like always improve and try and try and more.‖ ―umm yeah, my creativity got less. i used to love art so much but then after coming here, i wouldn't say my creativity is lost, but it's less than i thought it would be and i lost like my skill and arts. mm. so yeah, but i still like to do photos and stuff.‖ the data showed a drastic change in what the participants experienced and felt during their academic transition from their education in qatar and indonesia. most emphasized how difficult the transition is and shared their struggles during the lessons, whereas some made critical comments about the curriculum and education system as well as the student’s feelings towards them both. some universities tried to adapt additional lessons for these students like clyde and daisy. daisy stated, ―we had, we had that at the end of the first semester, yes, but it wasn't effective because they still would not teach in english, you know, like it would be the same thing what they were teaching in class.‖ clyde also stated: ―like mos in umb, to be honest, in my opinion, is my opinion, it doesn’t help because if we look at it, there is a lot of groups that only chooses the person who is asik (fun) and the people that is quiet not cool is left out. so, i think it is useless. that’s in my opinion, but i don’t know other people think.‖ the data above showed that even if some universities implement an orientation program or even additional classes, sometimes it isn’t directly implemented accordingly and is perceived as waste and useless to the participants. student’s academic opportunities indonesia and qatar, of course, have differences in both their opportunities and competition according to the availability and country’s policies. with those differences, qatar sometimes has the participants experience some opportunities that did not exist yet in irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 34 indonesia or vice versa. all the students had the opportunity to use english as their communication medium. it is stated by all the participants, such as amber, as follows, ―first is english, because a lot of people don’t know how to speak english fluently, and i think that if i study abroad. if i study abroad, i can learn english quite fluently. if. like. more preferred with the people that study in indonesia.‖ bianca also stated, ―umm going abroad benefited me in many ways. especially in english because i didn't know how to speak english before and when i moved there, i had to adapt and learn a new language which is it possible to do, especially when you're young and you've got lots of friends and it's really easy to adapt.‖ ―but like i did take spanish lesson in my uh in school i used to take languages and subject and i chose spanish, so i kind of learned a bit about spanish even though i forgot about it, but some of the words are still remember, like ―hola, como estas‖ and something like that.‖ followed by clyde who stated, “yeah yeah, i learned a few languages like english, spanish and arabic and many more languages.‖ then, daisy also stated, ―i believe that i speak better english than i do in indo.‖ ella also claimed, ―well, of course, one thing is that they actually put a specification of english. i mean, like they actually they gave me the english language or that english language grew inside me. and so now that the english language has always been my own language. like, i thought that the english language was my mother tongue and yeah.‖ the information above showed most participants had the opportunity to use english which was implemented directly in their daily lives and to earn other languages too. hence, most of the participants had the opportunity to socialize with different people from other countries. these were stated by ella as follows. ―i think i actually found well, other people there that lives in other countries, they were from india, philippines, malaysia.‖ the same statement comes from amber that stated, ―because i don't get the same friends in indonesia as in in qatar.‖ irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 35 the same goes for daisy who stated, ―it made me interact more with a lot more people internationally and with that i can get their point of view of the culture, of how you think. and it made me more open minded to be friendlier with other people as well‖. a similar point of view has been claimed by clyde as follows. ―umm by going abroad to qatar i learn new culture new environments, new people and then how different people live in different countries and yeah there is many mores many more and that’s it really.‖ ―having a coach from the uk felt like i was being coached by a professional coach at that time.‖ the students lived in a multicultural community with people from all over the world. thus, because all the participants were in one community and grew up in the same place, they could engage and interact in an international community which they do not get very much in indonesia. clyde also emphasized that being taught by a physical education (p.e) teacher from the u.k felt as if it was being taught by a professional. furthermore, the participants also expressed that they could access definite things they no longer have access to in indonesia. ella stated as follows, ―qatar is a very is a developed country and actually is the richest country. it's a country that's already developed. meanwhile, indonesia is a country that's still developing. so, um like the technologies in indonesia is still it's still primitive. so that it's very raw and rough here. and yeah, that's how like it's like a city girl living in a village area.‖ ella, in this part, expressed that she had a lot of opportunities in the technology aspect, but indonesia is not yet available for that. furthermore, daisy also stated, ―for creativity, i felt like i was more creative back there, i had access to a lot more instruments. i've had access to a lot more things to do. about things and. in here. i guess it's because i also don't have my own instruments and my parents didn't let me take any majors related to art or anything like that, so i felt less free and what i could do here. i do still do my hobbies, just not as much.‖ ella described qatar’s educational facilities as having more technology and access to things. therefore, it can be concluded that daisy had more access to certain instruments when she was in qatar rather than in indonesia. speaking of arts, bianca also experienced the same thing where she expressed as follows. ―umm creativity wise since i'm in the health department. umm yeah, my creativity got less. i used to love art so much but then after coming here, i wouldn't say my irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 36 creativity is lost, but it's less than i thought it would be and i lost like my skill and arts. umm. so yeah, but i still like to do photos and stuff.‖ all in all, both participants had the opportunity to express themselves through art in qatar, but when they came back to indonesia, they did not have the opportunity anymore with them. hence, they felt as if their creativity had decreased before. an interesting thing about competitions when in university is that some participants had the opportunity to participate and win, such as ella, that stated, ―yeah. and until now i actually do joint competitions for‖. ―i think indonesia had given me a lot of achievement because in qatar, i think they do give several small achievements and certificates but in indonesia, the challenge and the opportunity is way bigger because i can join from provence to international competitions.‖ however, it is not in line with daisy has stated as follows, ―i actually have not done any achievements here because the lack of info uh-huh like i'm still trying to understand how university works here and still struggling with myself identity.‖ comparing those two statements, the competitiveness in joining competitions lies within whether the participants have found their identity and have all of it figured out. when they have it all figured out, it created a positive outcome that ella encountered, which stated that during in indonesia, they could still win and participate in indonesia. exams standards in indonesia and qatar are different. hence some participants got a chance to do an international exam and receive certifications. it mostly happened to daisy that stated, ―i got more opportunities to do a lot more exams as well and like certifications and stuff like that and like competitions compared to when i was in here because of how limited i can speak indo here.‖ ―i did get achievement such as ar some exams like it's connected; it's about music, right so its music theory i did. i did robotics competitions and i felt like, you know, there was a lot of fun. it was very pressuring at first, but it's very worth the certification.‖ it concludes that daisy was very tightly connected still with her academic life in qatar. therefore, she could accomplish international certifications and achievements at the international level. student’s challenges in academic life in indonesia being part of a new social group in a different country, even if it is your home country, will cause a lot of social expectations and various styles of social interactions. some irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 37 of which the participants never had experienced in their life. hence, some challenges occurred for some participants. daisy stated, ―i have to physically prepare myself for everything before i actually could talk to people and emotionally open up to people.‖ ella also felt the same and stated, ―well, the feeling's itself, of course, i felt nervous. i there was overthinking, there was also some confusion and a very young age.‖ these participants did encounter a lot of waves of emotions and anxiety when they were transitioning. other than that, they also faced a lot of expectations and peer pressure regarding socializing with their peer members. it is in line with what bianca stated, ―even though it's still asian, it's they have like different cultures and stuffs, and you have to meet those expectation when you're in indonesia like salim (shaking hands) and stuff like that.‖ ella even stated that she experiences bullying, ―when i knew i was bullied even though i turn into an introvert, but i still have my inner self that’s an extrovert. so, at that time despite myself being knocked down at university. after some time, i i finally felt and i finally know and how to actually adapt the culture and in indonesia.‖ this peer pressure, expectations and hard time adapting might be challenging for the participants’ time adapting even in their own country. however, as time went by, they also learned and got used to the environment. when the participant got used to socializing and using the indonesian language, the former language which was english tended to lose to some degree. some participants have experienced this were amber, bianca, and ella. ella stated, “well, i remember at junior high school, i still have some of the english languages and some of the indonesian. but since at university, i think i can consider myself as an introvert, which i don't really communicate or use them a lot. so that's where i guess my english tend to disappear and i have to relearn it again.‖ “i am influenced by the indonesian english culture in pronouncing, several words. so yeah, i think my english word.‖ after being long in indonesia, she has claimed that she did lose her english at some point during her transition in indonesia and some pronunciation and intonation changes which tended to the standard english of those local indonesians rather than the standard english of a native english speaker. it is in line with what bianca says as follows, irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 38 ―i did kind of forget my english language a little bit, because i'm so used to engaging bahasa indonesia.‖ bianca also declared that during her transition, she lost some of her english. it was also agreed with a statement from amber: ―well, as you can see, my english is um. already decreased and um yeah, i think it's about my english, though. that's it.‖ the conclusion is that some participants after being in a long time in their home country after being abroad have lost their english language as well as their pronunciation at some point living in indonesia. discussion it is far more common for people nowadays to move from one place to another. however, moving from one place to another has its drawbacks in the transition phase of an individual due to adjusting to definite cultures, customs, and languages of another country. according to huxur et al. (1996), many adaptation processes involve cross-cultural adaptation, problems returning home, language adaptation to the motherland, and language loss. nevertheless, such difficulties are not static but tend to vary over time. this research focuses on the academic transition experiences and challenges of indonesian university students who graduated from qatar to indonesia. this research found several statements regarding the academic transition experiences and challenges in 3 themes. the first two themes elaborated on the adjusting phase to a new academic life, and the second theme explained the opportunities in academics during their time in qatar and indonesia. the third theme discussed more challenges faced during the transition, such as emotional anxiety, loss of the english language, and peer pressure. regarding the experiences of the academic transition of students graduated abroad from qatar to indonesia, the students encountered a great deal of comparison between the two education systems in qatar and indonesia. most of them had a once in a lifetime opportunity to implement english in an international community, to be taught by international teachers, to socialize with international friends from around the world, and to gain international certification and competitions. thus, the students had the most positive effect during their time in qatar because they had implemented how english should be used in the real world as the lingua franca of the international community that they are in. according to panda (2021), regional languages have been underutilized as english has become the de facto global network language. today, english is a universal language, and knowing it well is a must for success in the global marketplace. it is in line with dewi (2012), english should be permitted to expand to accommodate trends as a tool for communicating across borders. on the other hand, when students move from one country’s educational system to another, several programs are set by the university and several expectations are never met. the academic transition in this research shows that the orientation process and help from universities did not affect the participants at all. it shows that most academic institutions did not meet their students’ needs. according to huhta et al. (2013), needs analysis in a student irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 39 is highly important. it demands a one-to-one matching of means with the objective for language learners. it is in line with nunan (1988), who stated that needs analysis refers to a family of procedures for gathering information about learners for use in their teaching and learning process. hence, the university and teachers did not affect nor help the student’s transition process. furthermore, besides the curriculum differences, they had fewer opportunities to get exams and certifications and fewer facilities than in qatar. in the transition from one country to another, challenges are inevitable during their transition time concerning their academic life and environment that result in participants having trouble and hindering them when socializing with the teachers and their peers. some of the troubles did not understand the customs. in addition, the local students and students from qatar had different socializing styles. hence, some also feel pressured into cultural expectations that they did not know. it was similar to research from alkubaidi and alzhrani (2020) that stated that some co-workers that had to go back to their workplace had a hard time transitioning into the existing culture from different generations and that it was due to the gap and conflict to have their agenda. the research stated that the emotional distress caused by that feelings led some of them to feel disconnected and not belong to their home in saudi arabia. le and lacost (2017) stated that the participants who stayed in the u.s. and came back to vietnam had a hard time readjusting to things and felt as if the home did not feel like home anymore. in addition, walling et al. (2006) had participants denying their original american identity and pretending to have a canadian identity. another important aspect is the language which is used in every aspect of our academic life, where the participants are like having a loss of english during their transition. all participants had lost a significant amount of their english language as well. the language in most studies also showed they had a change in adaptation to their language and the host country’s language might foster a deeper immersion with the students ( gray & alkubaidi & alzhrani, 2020; savicki, 2015). research shows that the acquisition of a second language also includes a second culture, which may pose a threat to the first language and culture in a new country (colla & micaella, 2018) which in this case is a threat to the english language and the first culture in qatar. however, most of them managed to cope with language in a very slow process over time by practicing with the people in their environment. conclusions this research explored the transition experience of indonesian university students who spent their lives abroad in one community in qatar and their challenges during their academic transition process and their re-entry to indonesian universities. the research results showed many aspects and comparisons when they moved from the education system in qatar and indonesia. during their academic life in qatar, they had many opportunities to get international certifications, join competitions, and learn first-hand english acquisition. the students also compared a lot during their time in qatar and indonesia regarding the education system and subjects’ adaptations. even though universities had orientation programs and additional classes for these students, it did not help at all. hence, the students’ needs were not fulfilled. furthermore, they experienced a lot of challenges during their academic transition, such as emotional anxiety, loss of the english language, and peer irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 40 pressure. consequently, even though it is their native country, some transitional challenges still need to be addressed. fortunately, this transition phase was not static because, in the student’s progress, a silver lining could be seen as they got used to their new environment in indonesia. according to the conclusion described above, there are some suggestions related to the addressed matter about the academic transition of indonesian university students who graduated from qatar to indonesia. these suggestions are aimed at universities across indonesia and further research can be as consideration. firstly, for the universities in indonesia, it would be suggested to add an orientation program that specifically targets the needs of the students who had graduated abroad to make the students settle down easier and have a sense of what to expect in the country’s cultural, language, and academic system. it should be held to regulate the student’s sense of how education works in indonesia. in addition, this research can be used as a source for further research where other researchers can dig for more information about students’ transitions with different cultural backgrounds and ideologies from other countries. disclosure statement there is no potential conflict apparent that was reported by the authors. acknowledgments we would like to give our gratitude to the participants involved and irje editorial team for publishing our journal. human participants all participants and research place were masked to protect their confidentiality. references alkubaidi, m., & alzhrani, n. 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(1990). identity processes among racial and ethnic minority children in america. child development, 61(2), 290–310. walker, d. f., & soltis, j. f. (2004). curriculum and aims. teachers college press. walling, s. m., eriksson, c. b., meese, k. j., ciovica, a., gorton, d., & foy, d. w. (2006). cultural identity and reentry in short-term student missionaries. journal of psychology and theology, 34(2), 153–164. ying, y. (2001). migration and cultural orientation: an empirical test of the psychoanalytic theory in chinese americans. journal of applied psychoanalytic studies. 3(4). 409-430. biographical note nurul wahyuni is a graduate student, english education graduate study program, universitas sriwijaya, indonesia. soni mirizon, ed.d. is a senior lecturer, english education graduate study program, universitas sriwijaya, indonesia. sary silvhiany, phd. is a senior lecturer, english education graduate study program, universitas sriwijaya, indonesia. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 479 do conceptions of learning predict language learning strategies? evidence from indonesian efl learners dairabi kamil* abstract research has shown that information on students‟ conceptions of learning (col) and their language learning strategies (lls) are beneficial for understanding certain recurring phenomena of foreign language learning and outcomes. however, these two constructs have been separately studied from each other. this study sought to fill this void by investigating the relationship between the constructs and the extent to which col predicts lls. data were collected by administering the conceptions of learning inventory (coli) and strategy inventory for language learning (sill) to 210 pre-service efl teachers at an english department of a state higher education institution in indonesia. data were analyzed using the nonparametric spearma’s-rho test and regression tree (rt) analysis technique. the results show statistically significant positive correlations between the two constructs. further analyses show that col, to some extent, predicted lls. keywords conceptions of learning, efl, language learning strategies, regression tree * associate professor, institut agama islam kerinci, jambi, indonesia; drbkml@gmail.com mailto:drbkml@gmail.com irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 480 introduction studies on conceptions of learning (col) in different contexts repeatedly showed significant effects the construct had on teaching and learning processes. studies on teachers, for example, showed that col influences their teaching behaviors (martin, pozo, mateos, martin, & echeveria, 2014) in terms of teacher centeredness and orientation to professional practice (jacobs, wilschut, van der vleuten, scheele, croiset, & kusurkar, 2020), teacher efficacy beliefs (bahcivan & kapucu, 2014), technology acceptance (teo & zhou, 2016) and teachers‟ choices of teaching strategies (donche & van petegem, 2016). studies on students‟ col showed that the construct contributed to, among others, students‟ academic achievements (peterson, brown, & irving, 2010; alamdarloo, moradi , & dehshiri, 2012; lonka, ketonen & vermunt, 2021;),the quality of learning outcomes (chaleta, gracio & ramalho, 2012); learning motivation (negovan, sterian, & colesniuc, 2015), and study habits (heidarzadeh, tirgari, azizzadeh, forouzi, shafiean, vadiati, & saeid, 2020). furthermore, the relationships between students‟ col and their learning strategies in different levels of education and subjects have also been identified. col was found to be related to, among others; taiwanesse high school students‟ strategies in learning biology (shen, li, & lee, 2018; sadi, 2017), italian upper secondary school students‟ learning strategies (vettori, vezzani, bigozzi, & pinto, 2020), chinese secondary school students‟ strategies in learning science (li, zheng, liang, zhang, & tsai, 2018), iranian university students‟ strategies in virtual and real space learning (abbasi, pourshahriar, & fathabadi, 2017). all these studies suggest strong associations between col and learning strategies. similarly, studies on language learning strategies (lls) also suggested a strong association between the construct with language learners‟ achievements and other related variables. lls, for example, was found to be associated with efl learners‟ proficiency (magno, 2010; gerami & baighlou, 2011; tragant & victory, 2012; irgatoglu, 2021), self-efficacy (montaño-gonzález, & cancino, 2020), extraversion and introversion (taheri, sadighi, bagheri, & bavali, 2020), language learning motivation (ranjan & philominraj, 2020), academic self-concept (biyikl, 2021), personality traits (obralic & mulalic, 2017). in addition, researchers also found that efl learners‟ lls specifically predicted their mastery of the four language skills, i.e. listening (goh & vandergrift; 2021; caskun, 2010), reading (puspita, 2016; ghafournia, 2014; nasab & motlagh, 2015, nazurty et al., 2019), speaking (septikawati, kristina, nurkamto, 2019; cabaysa & baetiong, 2010) and writing (pitenoee, modaberi, & ardestani 2017; sabria, 2016; chand, 2014). however, although research findings suggested the significant effects of col and lls on various aspects of language learning and the associations between students‟ col and learning strategies in general, to date, research that explores the relationship between efl learners‟ col and their lls is still absent. in light of the absence, the current study seeks to fill the void by exploring the issue. the results of the study are important for a better understanding of language learning phenomena in general, and of efl learning in particular. specifically, the this study seeks to answer the following research questions:(1) do https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=ay2a5viaaaaj&hl=en&oi=sra https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=cscampuaaaaj&hl=en&oi=sra https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=dzjjrrqaaaaj&hl=en&oi=sra irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 481 indonesian efl learners‟ conceptions of learning (col) correlate with their language learning strategies (lls)?; and (2) do indonesian efl learners‟ conceptions of learning (col) predict their language learning strategies (lls)? literature review the current study sought to explore the causal relationship between two constructs, i.e. conceptions of learning and language learning strategies. in accordance with this focus, this section discusses theories that underpin the constructs explored in this study. conceptions of learning research of conceptions of learning was pioneered by saljo (1979) who studied the learning experience and techniques of swedish students‟. the participants of the study were asked to define what learning meant to them. the findings showed that the participants perceived learning in five different concepts, i.e. (1) an increase in knowledge; (2) memorizing; (3) an acquisition of facts or principles, which can be retained and used in practice; (4) an abstraction of meaning; and (5) an interpretive process aimed at understanding reality. the study further distinguished the conceptions into two categories, i.e. surfacelevel and deep-level processing. the concepts of learning as memorizing and as an acquisition of facts or principles, which can be retained and used in practice, were categorized as surface-level processing as they perceive new knowledge as a complete externality to be passively incorporated into one‟s knowledge repertoires. while, the concepts of learning as an abstraction of meaning and as an interpretive process aimed at understanding reality were categorized as deep-level processing as they perceive new knowledge needs to be actively related to one‟s existing knowledge and previous experiences in order to understand its meaning (saljo,1979). later on, following saljo‟s (1979) suggestions that “... learning does not exist as a general phenomenon. to learn is to act within man-made institutions and to adapt to the particular definitions of learning that are valid in the educational environment in which one finds oneself” (p. 106) and that “the meaning of the concept of learning is highly ambiguous and not susceptible to any analytically satisfactory definition” (p. 104), researchers had studied conceptions of learning of students from different cultural background. research by marton, dall‟alba, and tse (1993), for example, found both identical and different understanding of learning among chinese teacher educators when compared to western concepts of learning. the study showed that, contrary the western concepts that distinguish memorization from understanding; the chinese teacher educators saw that memorization was a mutual part of the process of understanding. different concepts were also reported from research on nepalese students (watkins & regmi, 1992; watkins, regmi, & astilla, 1991). the research showed that the students did not associate learning with memorization. to further explore research findings on cross-cultural conceptions of learning, purdie, hattie, and douglas (1996), conducted a qualitative research on conceptions of learning of japanese and australian students. the study identified nine conceptions of learning. learning was perceived as: (1) increasing one‟s knowledge; (2) memorizing and irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 482 reproducing information; (3) using information as a means to an end; (4) understanding; (5) seeing something in a different way; (6) personal fulfillment; (7) a duty; (8) a process not bound by time or context; and (9) developing social competence. based these findings purdie and hattie (2002) constructed a 112 item inventory that measure the nine conceptions of learning. the first administration of the inventory resulted in 45 items. while the second administration left 32 items that measure six conceptions of learning: (1) gaining information; (2) remembering, using, and understanding information; (3) duty; (4) personal change; (5) process not bound by time or place, and (5) the development of social competence. in order to check the validity, reliability, and the cross-cultural robustness of the inventory, purdie and hattie (2002) administered the inventory to 1694 students from five different ethnic backgrounds, i.e. non-aboriginal australian, aboriginal australian, malaysian, caucasian american, and african american. assessment of fit statistics showed that inventory, which is called conceptions of learning inventory (coli), could measure the construct well across the different cultural groups of student, with an exception for the australian aboriginal group due to high interscale correlation. in addition, the researchers reported that across groups internal consistency reliability indexes ranged from .45 to .92, with a mean of .74 and a median of .76 (purdie & hattie, 2002). ever since, a great number studies that used coli across different contexts and students‟ cultural backgrounds (e.g., mulyani, suherdi, & sundayana, 2020; pinto, bigozzi, vettori, & vezzani, 2018; chaleta, 2018; chan, 2011; peterson, brown, & irving; 2010) reported satisfactory psychometric properties of the inventory. the present used the conceptions of learning inventory (coli). language learning strategies theories and research on lls started to develop in the early 1970s. two of the earliest definitions of lls are “the techniques or devices which a learner may use to acquire knowledge” (rubin, 1975, p 43) and “...optional means for exploiting available information to improve competence in a second language” (bialystok, 1978, p. 71). later, oxford (1990) defines language learning strategy as “specific actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to new situations” (p.8). the present study refers to the last definition and used an inventory developed based on it. scholars have proposed different classifications of lls. bialystok (1978) suggested a fourcategory classification based on the types of practices and information processing in language learning: (1) formal practicing, i.e. learning a language by practicing language rules; (2) functional practicing, i.e. learning a language by using it for communication purposes; (3) monitoring strategies, i.e. learning a language through modification, examination, and correction of linguistic outputs; and (4) inferencing strategies, i.e. learning a language by guessing of unknown inputs or forms. fillmore (1979) proposed two categories of lls, i.e., cognitive strategies and social strategies. the former assumes that language learners actively identify patterns of the target language, while in the latter language learning is pursued through interacting with people. rubin (1981) suggested irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 483 an lls classification consisting of (1) direct strategies which is characterized by clarifying, memorizing, guessing, inductive inferencing, and deductive reasoning, and (2) indirect strategies which is characterized by use of linguistic performance competencies. the most widely referred to classification of lls has been oxford‟s (1990), which is also the classification used in the present study. the classification draws on six strategies, i.e.(1) memory strategies which include creating mental linkages, applying images and sounds, reviewing, and taking actions or responding to the target language; (2) cognitive strategies which include practicing, receiving and sending, analyzing and reasoning, and creating structure for target language inputs and outputs; (3) compensation strategies which include the use of intelligent guessing and finding ways to overcome barriers in speaking and writing ; (4) metacognitive strategies which deals with self-coordinating of learning process such as focusing, arranging, planning and evaluating learning; (5) affective strategies which focus on managing psychological issues such as anxiety, motivation, and emotion; and (6) social strategies which focus on collaborative learning. furthermore, oxford (1990) classifies the six strategies into two types, i.e. direct strategies and indirect strategies. direct strategies are subconscious, inherently learned and related directly to the target language. this type of strategy includes memory strategies, cognitive strategies, and compensatory strategies. indirect strategies operate under the learner‟s conscious control or acts and focus on organizing the overall language learning process. these include metacognitive strategy, affective strategies, and social strategies. based on her classification of lls, oxford (1990) constructed an inventory for measuring language learning strategies called strategy inventory for language learning (sill). sill comes in two versions; version 5.1, which was designed for native english speakers learning, and version 7.0 (henceforth, referred to as sill in this report) which was designed for non-english speakers who are learning english. sill consists of 50 items purported to measure the 6 categories of lls proposed by oxford (1990). assessments of the psychometric properties the inventory in different efl and esl contexts (e.g., nykos & oxford, 1993; oxford & burry-stock, 1995; hsiao & oxford, 2002) produced a very high reliability (α = 0.90.94). methodology research design, site, and participants this study is quantitative and ex post facto in nature. it draws on the correlational strategy and seeks to: (1) determine whether or not there is a significant correlation among the participants‟ col and lls, and (2) determine the extent to which their col as the independent variable or predictor predicts their lls as the dependent variable. this study involved 210 pre-service efl teachers who were, at the time of data collection, in their 1 st , 3 rd , 5 th , and 7 th semester at an english department of a state higher education institution in indonesia. students of higher semesters were not involved in the study as they were mostly unavailable on campus as most of them were in their thesis writing stage of their study completion. the demographic information of the participants is summarized in the following table: irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 484 table 1. research participants’ demography n % semester i 63 30 iii 56 26 v 50 24 vii 41 20 total 210 100 gender male 54 26 female 156 74 total 210 100 data collection and analysis data were collected by administering the indonesian version of conceptions of learning inventory (purdie & hatie, 2002) and strategy inventory for language learning (oxford, 1990) to the 210 participants through on-line survey forms. the coli consists of 32 items that measure 6 conceptions of the construct (table 2). for example, item 1, one of the items that measures conception of learning as gaining information, reads “learning is when i am taught something that i didn’t know about before”. the sill consists of 50 items measuring 6 strategies (table 2). the word “english” was added to the items for the focus of the study was on the learners‟ strategies in learning english. as an example, item 1, one of the items that measures memory strategies reads “i think of relationships between what i already know and new things i learn in english ''. in addition, considering the fact that the study was conducted in an efl context where participants‟ interactions with native speakers of english hardly happen, two items of the sill, i.e. item 46 and item 48, that contain statements on asking for native speakers‟ correction and assistance in english learning were considered irrelevant and, therefore, removed from the inventory. this left 48 items in the administered inventory for data collection. both inventories were assigned a five-category response for each of their items. for the conceptions of learning inventory the responses were coded as 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neutral, 4 = agree, and 5 = strongly agree. responses for the strategy inventory for language learning were coded as 1 = never, 2 = seldom, 3 = sometimes, 4 = often, and 5 = always. the higher or the lower a respondent‟s agreement with an item was respectively interpreted to reflect the more or the lesser his or her association with the conception of learning or use of language learning strategy being measured by the item. to ensure the accuracy of the indonesian translation of the inventories, back-to-back translation procedures were conducted and the results were evaluated by two competent english lecturers of english. both evaluators agreed on the accuracy and appropriateness of the translation to be used in the present study. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 485 table 2. dimensions and items of coli and sill predictors conceptions of learning (col) items learning as gaining information (lcinfo) 1, 7,13,19,23 learning as remembering, using, and understanding information (lcruu) 2,8,14,20,25,26,28,30,32 learning as a duty (lcduty) 3,9,15 learning as personal change (lcpers) 4,10,16,21,25,27,29,31 learning as a process not bound by time or place (lcproc) 5,11,17 6. learning as the development of social competence (lcsoc) 6,12,18,22 dependent variable language learning strategies (lls) items 1.memory (llsmem) 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 2.cognitive (llscog) 10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23 3.compensatory (llscomp) 24,25,26,27,28,29 4.metacognitive (llsmeta) 30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38 5.affective (llsafc) 39,40,41,42,43,44 6.social (llssoc) 45, 47,49,50 data analyses were conducted in four phases. first, the data obtained from the administration of the two inventories were analyzed for validity and reliability using rasch analysis on winsteps rasch analysis computer software (linacre, 2006). second, as the data resulting from the two instruments were non-linear and ordinal in nature, they were converted into interval ones using method of interval (msi) and analyzed for descriptive statistics. at this point of analysis, assessments of data properties in terms of normality and homogeneity were conducted and a decision on the choice of using either parametric or non-parametric data analysis techniques for the next analyses was made. third, in order to answer the first research question, the data were analyzed to determine the correlation between col and lls. the analysis was conducted using spearman’s rho non-parametric technique as the results of analysis in phase two showed that the data were not normally distributed. fourth, to determine the extent to which col predicts lls which is the second research question, regression tree (rt) analysis technique was used to suit the non-normally distributed data sets. rt is a non-parametric regression technique that models causal interactions between a dependent variable and predictor variables. rt is built based on recursive partitioning of the data space into smaller portions that identify the most significant predictors of a dependent variable. the divisions proceed with information provided by each predictor on the cut-off score for the maximum partitioning of the data. rt analysis outputs are presented in a hierarchical binary tree consisting of nodes and edges. the edges that connect the nodes indicate the relative level of the nodes within the tree‟s hierarchical structure each node presents the estimates of mean (m), standard deviation (sd), and number of observations associated with it (blanch & aluja, 2013). the second, the third, and the fourth phase of data analyses were conducted using ibm spss computer statistical analysis software version 26. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 486 findings validity and reliability to assess the validity of the instruments, examination of item polarity and item fit statistics (bond & fox, 2013) which respectively indicated by point measure correlation (ptmeacorr) and infit mean square (imnsq) values of winsteps rasch analysis computer software outputs was conducted. the results showed that all the items of the two instruments had a positive value ranging from .15 to .55 for the coli and .15 to .64 for the sill. while for imnsq, with an acceptable fit statistics values between 0,5 to 1,5 (linacre, 2006), two items of the coli, i.e. item 3 and item 15 and two items of the sill, i.e. item 26 and item 43 were found to have a value outside the range. however, as up to 5% of items may misfit by chance (smith, 1991), the misfitting items were retained for the data analyses and the instruments were considered valid. as for reliability, the reliability indices of item difficulty estimate of .94 for the coli and .98 for the sill are considered very high. this indicates a high probability that similar order of item difficulty would be produced if the set of questionnaires is administered to other comparable samples. descriptive statistics assessment of descriptive statistics (table.3) show that the means for lc range from 3.95 to 4.37, sd=.478 to .568. while the means for lls range from 2.88 to 3.37, sd= .499 to .647. the skewness values for lc indicate that the data were not normally distributed, p=< .001 while the skewness values for lls indicate that the data were normally distributed, p=>.05. as such, non-parametric techniques were used for the next data analyses. table 3. summary of predictors and dependent variables statistics col mean mean rank se sd skewness se p lcinfo 4.12 4 0.0339 0.492 -0.8807 0.168 < .001 lcruu 4.19 2 0.0330 0.478 -0.6998 0.168 < .001 lcpers 4.37 1 0.0334 0.484 -0.4940 0.168 < .001 lcduty 3.95 6 0.0389 0.563 -0.2109 0.168 < .001 lcproc 3.98 5 0.0389 0.563 -0.7498 0.168 < .001 lcsoc 4.17 3 0.0392 0.568 -0.7066 0.168 < .001 llsmem 3.37 2 0.0344 0.499 -0.2251 0.168 0.262 llscog 3.15 3 0.0366 0.531 -0.0385 0.168 0.701 llscomp 3.02 5 0.0389 0.564 -0.1467 0.168 0.452 llsmeta 3.71 1 0.0431 0.625 -0.2106 0.168 0.348 llsafc 2.88 6 0.0376 0.545 0.1443 0.168 0.198 llssoci 3.06 4 0.0446 0.647 -0.0193 0.168 0.080 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 487 examination of the means for lc and lls showed that the most held lc was lcpers, m=4, 37, se=.0334, sd= .484, and the least held lc was lcduty, m=3.95, se=.0389, sd=.563. the most used lls was llsmeta, m=3.71, and the least used lls was llsafc, m=2.88, se=.0376, sd=.545. the complete order of the participants‟ lc and lss are presented in the mean rank column of table 3. however, kruskal-wallis test showed that there was no significant difference among the means of both lc and lss, p= >.05. correlations among the participants’ conceptions of learning (col) and their language learning strategies (lls) as examination of the two data sets showed that they were not normally distributed, the non-parametric technique of spearman’s rho was used to explore the correlations among the participants‟ col and lls. the omnibus test showed a positive correlation between the two constructs, rs (208) = .20, p=.004. furthermore, computations of correlations among individual conceptions of learning and language learning strategies of the (table 4) also yielded significant positive correlations between: (1) lcinfo and llscomp, llsmeta, and llssoc; (2) lcruu and llscog ,llscomp, and llssoc; (3) lcpers and llscog,llscomp, llsmeta, and llssoc (4) lcproc and llsmem , llscog, and llsmeta; and (5)lcsoc and llsmem. however, no col was found to correlate with llsafc and no lls was found to correlate with lcduty. table 4. correlations among col and lls lcinfo lcruu lcpers lcduty lcproc lcsoc llsmem rs 0.084 0.225 0.127 0.067 0.091 0.188 -0.073 0.289 0.238 < .001 0.161 0.020 p llscog rs p 0.083 0.230 0.148 0.032 0.181 0.008 -0.104 0.133 0.237 < .001 0.105 0.129 llscomp rs p 0.176 0.011 0.214 0.002 0.146 0.034 -0.023 0.739 0.035 0.613 0.049 0.478 llsmeta rs p 0.180 0.009 0.121 0.079 0.210 0.002 -0.071 0.306 0.172 0.013 0.070 0.312 llsafc rs p 0.130 0.060 0.102 0.142 0.064 0.357 0.133 0.055 0.092 0.186 0.076 0.275 llssoc rs p 0.180 0.009 0.204 0.003 0.155 0.024 -0.097 0.162 0.094 0.175 0.086 0.217 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 488 conceptions of learning (col) predictors of language learning strategies (lls) to define whether or not and which col predicts lls, rts were conducted. a full model that comprised all the six predictors (col) was against each of the lls, and resulted in the identifications of the most important predictors (col) of lls shown in figure 1. the figure shows that rt analyses estimated 4 most important predictors for 4 lls. however, no significant predictor was estimated for llsmeta and llsafc. specifically, the figure shows that based on n=210 observations: (1) conceptpion of learning as a process not bound by time or place (lcproc) was the best predictor of memory learning strategies (llsmem) m= 3.372, sd= 0499, f=15.447, df2=208, p=.001. if lcproc values were <= the cut-off score of 3.653, then the estimated m of llsmem was 3.178, sd=0.508, n=66 (31.4%). if lcproc values were greater than 3.653, the estimated m of llsmem was 3.460, sd=0.471, n= 144 (68.6%); (2) conception of learning as a process not bound by time or place (lcproc) was best predictor of cognitve learning strategies (llscog), m=3.149, sd=0.531, f=14,649, df2=208, p=.002. if lcproc values were < = the cut-off score of 3.653, then the estimated m of llscog was 2.948, sd=0.510, n= 66 (31.4%). if lcproc values were greater than 3.653, the estimated m of llscog was 3.241, sd=0.516, n=144 (68.6%); (3) conception of learning as remembering, using, and understanding information (lcruu) was the best predictor of compensation learning strategy (llscomp), m=3.023, sd=0.564, f=7.962, df2=208,p=.047. if lcruu values were < = the cut-off score of 4.372, then the estimated m of llscomp was 2.395, sd=0.563, n=126 (60%). if lcruu values were greater than 4.372, the estimated m of llscog was 3.155, sd=0.542, n=84 (40 %). and (4) conception of learning as remembering, using, and understanding information (lcruu) was the best predictor of social learning strategies (llssoc), m=3.059,sd=0.647, f=7.983, df2=208, p=.047. if lcruu values were < = the cut-off score of 4.150, then the estimated m of llssoc was 2.907, sd=0.606, n=84 (40%). if lcruu values were greater than 4.150, the estimated m of llssoc was 3.160, sd=0.655, n= 126 (60 %). figure 1. tree-plots for the most important predictors of lls irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 489 figure 1. continued… discussion the study revealed that, despite the statistically insignificant mean differences, the respondents‟ most dominant conception of learning was learning as personal change. when confronted with surface and deep learning theory, it can be readily recognized that the learning conception falls into the deep learning category where learners aim for meanings, problem solving, connecting schemata to new knowledge, and relating theory to practice (walker, 2012). in fact, the order of dominance of the conceptions of learning identified in the present study reflects a partition that divides them in two halves of deep and surface learning respectively. the first three conceptions in the order, i.e. learning as personal change (lcpers), learning as the development of social competence (lcsoc), and learning as a process not bound by time or place (lcproc) are all related to deep learning. while the second three conceptions of learning in the order, i.e. learning as gaining information (lcinfo), learning as duty (lcduty), and learning as remembering, using, and understanding information (lcruu), are all related to surface learning that focuses on obtaining and reproducing information, task accomplishment, and memorizing facts and procedures (walker, 2012). these findings suggest that most of the respondents conceptualized learning in the deep learning realm. the findings are also in line with gan, liu, and yang‟s (2017) study on chinese pre-service efl teachers, and santosa‟s (2017) study on indonesian pre-service efl teachers in the context of the implementation of flipped learning, that found the dominance of deep learning approach among their respondents. a different finding, however, was recorded by hulreski, syatriana, and ardiana (2020) in their study on indonesian pre-service efl teachers‟ learning approach toward vocabulary acquisition where they found alignment to surface learning. this is understandable as vocabulary acquisition requires rote learning. to this end, a preliminary irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 490 theory could be proposed here that when dealing with the overall aims of learning, pre-service efl teachers perceive their conceptions of learning within a deep learning perspective. while, when confronted with specific tasks language learning, such as vocabulary acquisition, they perceive their conceptions of learning within a surface learning perspective. the descriptive statistics shows that the respondents‟ most dominant language learning strategies were metacognitive strategies (llsmem), and the least used strategies were social strategy (llssoc). these findings are similar to those of kamil, hartono, and vintoni (2017) who also studied the issue of indonesian pre-service efl teachers. however, although also finding the metacognitive strategies as the most used strategies, studies by lestari and wahyudin (2020), tanjung (2018), and rianto (2020) reported that their respondents‟ least used strategy was the affective strategies, memory strategies, and compensatory strategy respectively. the similarity of the finding of the present and other studies in terms of the most used language learning strategy seems to suggest a common pattern among indonesian pre-service efl teachers. the present study found a positive relationship between the conceptions of learning and the language learning strategies. although, studies in other fields such as medicine education (chiu, liang, hsu, chu, lin, chen, & tsai, 2019), education degree program (chan, 2007), biology education (sadi, 2017), high school students (shen, li, & lee, 2018) identified such a relationship with a varying magnitudes, as far as the literature is concerned, there has not been research that studied the relationship among conceptions of learning and language learning strategies. therefore, the finding of the present study regarding the issue is novice in nature. overall, the results of rt analysis show that, to some extent, col predicted lls. specifically, the conception of learning as a process not bound by time or place (lcproc) predicted memory strategies (llsmem) and cognitive strategies (llcog).the conception of learning as remembering, using, and understanding information (lcruu) predicted cognitive learning strategies (llscog) and compensation learning strategies (llscomp). these findings convergently concurred with the descriptive statistics that showed the two cols were the most held conceptions by the participants of the study, and with the results of the nonparametric test of correlation that showed the associations among the two cols with the four lls were the strongest, p=<.004. however, regarding the fact that none of the conceptions of learning predicted metacognitive strategies (llslmeta), which was the most used strategies, and affective strategies (llsafc), which was the least used strategies, the explanation is beyond the scope of the present study. conclusion and recommendations/implications this study identified significant positive association among efl learners‟ conceptions of learning and their english language learning strategies. the specific conceptions of learning that predicted particular english language learning strategies were also identified. the findings may add some new perspectives to the so far uncharted area between the constructs of conceptions of learning and language learning strategies. in particular, future studies on language learning strategies should consider conceptions of irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 491 learning as a factor that affect learners‟ uses of the strategies. in addition, the findings of this study also provide language educators with an additional lens through which learners‟ language learning strategies phenomena can be better understood. considering the delimitations of the current study in terms of focus, sample size, and method, further studies that explore the possibilities of the existence of mediating variables between the two constructs as well as ones that examine the contextual 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(1991). the-asianas-a-rote-learner stereotype: myth or reality. educational psychology, 17, 89-100. biographical notes dairabi kamil is an associate professor in teaching english as a foreingn language (tefl) at the faculty of education and teacher training, state islamic institute of kerinci, jambi, indonesia. he holds a phd from international islamic university malaysia (iium) in curriculum and instruction, an m.ed in tesol–international from monash university, australia, and ba in english education from universitas jambi. he received a jambi province government scholarship to pursue his phd and was a recipent of australian development scholarship (ads) for his master study. in 2013-2014, he received a sabbatical research grant from the government of the republic of indonesia for his sabbatical leave resarch on anti-corruption education at the education university of hong kong. his research interests include teaching english as a foreign language (tefl), language curriculum and instruction, teacher professional development and the use of ict in education. in 2011-2012, he was involved as a researcher in a nationwide program of analytical and capacity development partnership (acdp) on environmental education in indonesia, jointly funded by the government of the republic of indonesia and the asian development bank. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311983.2019.1710944 this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 153 the efl students’ perceptions on the plagiarism in writing thesis proposals: a case study lenny marzulina, 1* rizqy dwi amrina, 2 dian erlina 3 , muhamad holandyah 4 , raudhatul jannah 5 , herizal 6 , kasinyo harto 7 abstract this study aimed to investigate the plagiarism phenomenon in thesis proposal writing by efl students of uin raden fatah palembang through their perceptions. the data of this qualitative case study were obtained through interviews with the research participants. they were selected based on the results of the turnitin plagiarism checker for their thesis proposals. thematic analysis was carried out to analyze the research data. we found that the students had similar perceptions of plagiarism, both in general and academic writing contexts, but they had various perceptions of the forms of plagiarism. some of them were unaware of committing plagiarism in their thesis proposals. they were familiar with the term paraphrasing to avoid plagiarism, but they could not paraphrase the quotations properly in writing their proposals. unawareness about plagiarism, lack of knowledge and practice for proper paraphrasing, getting stuck while writing, laziness in writing, and easiness of getting information from the internet were the main contributing factors why they committed plagiarism in their works. keywords internet, students’ perceptions, plagiarism, thesis proposal writing article history received 20 april 2022 accepted 30 juni 2022 how to cite marzulina, l., amrina, r. d., erlina, d., holandyah, m., jannah., r., herizal., & harto, k. (2022). the efl students’ perceptions on the plagiarism in writing thesis proposals: a case study. indonesian research journal in education |irje|, 6(1), 153 169. https://doi.org/ 10.22437/irje.v6i1.17880 1*universitas islam negeri raden fatah palembang, south sumatra, indonesia; corresponding author: lennymarzulina_uin@radenfatah.ac.id 2,3,4,5,6 universitas islam negeri raden fatah palembang, south sumatra, indonesia. mailto:lennymarzulina_uin@radenfatah.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 154 introduction in today's world, the accessibility to find pieces of information is wide open so that theories from experts can be obtained through technological assistance. but unfortunately, it means the possibility of being a plagiarist is wider too. moreover, digital sources are a double-edged tip (robert, 2008). in this case, students are not only easy to find the supporting data that is provided from the digital sources but also it may facilitate the academic writing product to be detected as plagiarism. however, the internet has provided short-cut access in helping them collect their research data. therefore, the researchers must be knowledgeable in avoiding plagiarism as academic misconduct throughout their research writing project. in academic writing, dishonesty is considered one of the significant issues of academic dishonesty that might be widespread to be conscious or unconscious actions among the students. for example, bretag et al. (2011, as cited in orim, 2017) determined academic dishonesty as the acting of collusion, malpractice on examination, cheating on someone's task, taking other students' assignment, presenting incorrect data, paying another person service to finish the task, and taking an assignment from the online source. in this case, taking someone's work means stealing someone's ideas through their work which is part of plagiarism. furthermore, ampuni et al. (2019) research proved that plagiarism is the second most common type of academic dishonesty among university students. to this point, this phenomenon might be possible to be rampant unexpectedly in the students' writing works, with no exception, including among the efl undergraduate students. in brief, plagiarism is becoming the most prevalent challenge in academic writing. for example, when students construct their writing assessment, such as in the students' writing essays, papers, reports, thesis proposal writing, thesis, and dissertations. there have been several factors contributing to this behaviour happening all the time. equally important, devlin and gray (2007) argued in their finding of why university students in australia are becoming plagiarists and have discovered some supporting reasons such as inadequate admission criteria, less understanding about plagiarism, weak academic writing skills, and learning factors, laziness, and external pressure. all those results of the research give us the fact that the native speakers who speak and write english correctly as their mother tongue is possible to behave plagiarism. in other words, the native speakers are struggling and having some difficulties in the academic writing practice to avoid plagiarism in their task. as a result, it is not close to the chance of the same plagiarism factors that can also exist in the efl students' scope. besides, concerning the factors supporting the plagiarism attitude, there must be a problem faced by the efl students while constructing their research work. in this phase, language turns out to be a difficulty for the efl writers in academia. heitman and litewka (2011) argued that many non-native english speakers have problems with their writing because of plenty of english writing sources and articles (as cited in maimunah et al., 2018). therefore, the plagiarism attitude is potentially easier to capture in a higher percentage of the efl students' works since they have to avoid it due to their limited english proficiency skills. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 155 in connection with the plagiarism phenomenon in academia, we conducted a preliminary study at uin raden fatah palembang in the english education study program. the preliminary study aimed to confirm the plagiarism behaviours occurring in the students writing assessment, particularly the thesis proposal writing. in practice, it was conducted by having a personal, informal interview with one lecturer of english education major at uin raden fatah palembang, who is responsible for checking all the thesis proposal writing data by using the plagiarism checker turnitin. the checking process is obligated to all the efl undergraduate students as one of the requirements before they begin to perform the seminar proposal. in the interview, the efl lecturer mentioned that many efl undergraduate students checked their proposals in turnitin's plagiarism checker and were detected as plagiarists. the data showed that in the academic year 2020/2021, 46 percent of students submitted their proposals which got more than 30 percent of the maximum plagiarism allowed in that major. english education study program regulates the policy of 30 percent as the maximum percentage of plagiarism allowed. furthermore, some students can decrease the percentage of their plagiarism by having the checking process repeatedly (personal communication, june 28 2021). based on the interview results, it was assumed that many efl undergraduate students were not yet aware of the crucial issue of plagiarism in their thesis proposal writing. to ensure the lecturer's statement, english education major of uin raden fatah palembang about plagiarism in efl undergraduate students' thesis proposal writing. therefore, we randomly conducted the informal interview with two students who were still constructing their proposals. the interview questions explore the students' points of view on the concept of plagiarism in the writing context. the first interviewee stated that she knew the definition of plagiarism in general, but she had no strong feeling about the whole plagiarism concept in the writing field. furthermore, the second interviewee argued that she doubted the plagiarism concept. in addition, they could not ensure their work would be free from a higher percentage of plagiarism. (personal communication, march 17 2021). hence, in this research, we analyzed the perceptions of efl undergraduate students majoring in education major of uin raden fatah palembang about the existence of plagiarism in their writing proposals. the guiding question was: what were the efl students' perceptions of the plagiarism detected in their final thesis proposal writing? methodology research design, site, and participants we used a qualitative approach to answer the research question in this study. creswell (2014) described qualitative research as investigating and understanding the meaning of a particular issue in a human's life explained by the group or somebody's point of view. also, yin (2011) stated that the researchers represent and capture the participants' perspectives through the phenomenon in qualitative research. the qualitative method may describe someone's understanding of a specific thing or problem based on their experience. hence, we used the qualitative method in this research because it aimed at our need to investigate the students' perceptions of plagiarism in their thesis proposal writing. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 156 english education study program of uin raden fatah palembang was the site of this study. purposeful sampling was chosen to determine the appropriate participants for this research. cresswell (2013) argued that purposeful sampling enables the researchers to select the research site and participants to get specific information from the participant's understanding of the study's research question. raco (2010) argued the small scope of the individual as the sample will help collect in-depth analysis results of the study. it emphasizes that purposeful sampling acquires credibility, quality, and detailed information needed in this research. the participants were taken from the ninth–semester students of the english education study program of uin raden fatah palembang who have completed their thesis proposal for the seminar on research proposal. they were selected based on the random rate of plagiarism in their proposals. therefore, the researchers interviewed five students with more than 30% turnitin plagiarism detected in their proposals (the maximum plagiarism percentage allowed by the english education study program of uin raden fatah palembang) for this study. therefore, we investigated the students' perceptions of plagiarism in their final thesis proposal writing. data collection and analysis to conduct this research, we collected the data by interviewing efl students of the english education study program of uin raden fatah palembang. the interview questions saw the aspects of students' understanding of the plagiarism concept, such as their knowledge of defining plagiarism behaviour, their experience in the plagiarism action, and factor affecting plagiarism. furthermore, from their point of view about the plagiarism concept in general, there was also a link to see their perceptions about plagiarism in academic writing, which was detected in their final thesis proposal. a semi-structured interview was used to obtain the research data. galletta (2013) defined the semi-structured interview as the interview design in which the list of questions has already been organized. still, it does not close a chance of the interviewer to create some unplanned sub-questions which direct on the spot wisely and based on the theory. in a semi-structured design, the interview questions were used to collect the data needed about the students' perception of plagiarism in their thesis proposal writing. we used a mobile phone recorder to record all the discussions during the interview. besides, there was some documentation taken in the form of pictures. then, some experts interpreted and linked the data from students' answers to the basic concept theory about plagiarism. finally, thematic analysis was used to process the findings of this study. thematic analysis is the strategy of analyzing the data in detail by recognizing the themes to interpret the meaning of the data into descriptions (braun & clarke, 2006). maguire and delahunt (2017) explained six steps in thematic analysis: familiarizing with the data, coding the data, classifying the themes, reviewing the themes, and writing up the finding. therefore in analyzing the findings of this study, we used these six steps of thematic analysis. the first step was becoming familiar with the data. in this step, we became familiar with the data collected in the interview session. creswell (2014) argued the transformation of irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 157 data audio recording into text is called transcription. we wrote the transcriptions of the interview data recorded in the audio recording. we read the transcripts to identify the data as the preliminary ideas of the student's perception of plagiarism in their thesis proposal writing. the second was generating the initial code. in this step, we coded the data to point out the outline of each statement from the participants in the interview. rossman and rallis (2012) described organizing data by selecting chunks and putting data in the same category as coding procedures. therefore, through this step, we organized all the answers by giving the outline. we identified the idea of each statement from the participants. the codes given helped us to view at a glance the relation of the students' answers to the research questions of this study. the third step was searching for the themes. in this step, we separated the codes into the same theme categories that link to the students' perceptions of plagiarism behaviour. first, the theme perceptions about plagiarism were discussed in terms of the students' knowledge of the plagiarism concept, factors contributing, and the students' experiences with plagiarism. then, we gathered previous codes that link to the appropriate theme classification. the fourth step was reviewing the themes. in this step, we reviewed each theme classification provided in the previous step that has been clear to construct. then we ensured each element of the theme linked to the research questions of this study, and each code was associated with the appropriate theme. on the other hand, we also removed and added some other themes or sub-themes which were needed. besides, this phase determined the theme overview representing the data's deep meaning. the fifth step was defining the themes. in this step, the final themes provided were interpreted in detail. this step was aimed at understanding and identifying what the themes mean. it also indicated the data of each participant's perceptions of plagiarism in their thesis proposal writing. the last step was writing up. in this final step, we wrote up the result of the analysis as the report of this study. the findings were about all the participants' perceptions toward plagiarism in their thesis proposal writing. therefore, in this session, we wrote the perceptions in well-organized descriptions. trustworthiness trustworthiness was used to ensure the accuracy of the interpretation of the findings. bloomberg and volpe (2019) concluded that trustworthiness emphasizes the value and consequence of qualitative research. trustworthiness was used to convince the accuracy of the study's findings. creswell (2014) argued that validity strategies must be used to check the accuracy of the findings in the qualitative study. there are eight elements of strategies in terms of triangulation, member checking, thick description to convey the finding, clarifying the writer's bias in the study, presenting negative or discrepant information, spending prolonged time, peer debriefing, and the external auditor. in this study, we used the member-checking strategy to cross-check and interpret the validity of the finding. this term means the practice of the researcher's return back the summary of the interview result to the informant to check and confirm the interview session report (raco, 2010). in the same way, cresswell and creswell (2018) clarified that member checking enables offering the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 158 informant chance to ensure the meaning of the data interview's correctness and value along the analysis process. we used a member-checking strategy to interpret the findings of this study to become accurate and credible. findings based on the data gathered from the interview, we discovered some perceptions of the efl students about plagiarism detected in their thesis proposals. efl students' perceptions of the plagiarism detected in their thesis proposal we found some perceptions of the students about plagiarism detected in their final thesis proposal. thus, in analyzing the interview data, we classified the themes and codes as follows. table 1. themes and codes of efl students' perceptions of the plagiarism detected in their thesis proposal no themes codes 1 students' understanding of plagiarism most students had the same understanding of defining plagiarism in general and academic writing contexts. all of them agreed that committing plagiarism was considered an adverse action. some of them believed that in academic writing, plagiarism occurred with intention. however, some others said that it could occur without intention. 2. students' knowledge about plagiarism forms most had no idea and were doubtful about plagiarism in general and in-text forms. all of them agreed that copying and pasting were plagiarism of text forms. some of them were aware that they started conducting plagiarism when they started to work on their thesis proposal. most of them felt that they never conducted plagiarism in their works. most of them thought that the act of copying and pasting was a common plagiarism form in their works. most of them could clearly define the meaning of paraphrasing, but they could not paraphrase properly. most of the students had no idea about the patchwriting term. 3 students' perceptions of plagiarism factors most of them lacked awareness about plagiarism and knowledge of proper paraphrasing. most of them were lazy to do their writing work. most of them lack time to do their writing work. most of them got stuck during writing. most of them could get information or data from the internet quickly. 4 students' plagiarism experiences in writing their thesis proposal most of them admitted that they plagiarized in writing their thesis proposals. most of them realized that turnitin, a plagiarism checker, would detect the act of plagiarism in their thesis proposals. most did not paraphrase the quotations properly when working on their thesis proposals. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 159 students' understanding of plagiarism contexts it showed that the efl undergraduate students had the same understanding of defining plagiarism in general. most of them had the same idea to explain what plagiarism is. they delivered their understanding in various statements, as quoted from the interview session, yl: "in my view, plagiarism is the act of imitating an existing concept. there are few examples of plagiarism such as plagiarism that occurs in the writing field, composing the song, designing something, etc." se: "okay, i think that plagiarism, in general, is defined as the act of duplicating someone's work. it includes the act of copy-pasting and taking other people's work and claiming it as their own. we can consider that the action of someone duplicating a whole idea of somebody is called plagiarism." np, em, and nb had the same explanation. they had the same point in understanding and defining plagiarism. they considered the main idea of plagiarism as the act of imitating, copying, pasting, and taking the existing concept from others who claimed that idea as their own while putting aside the source. in addition, most of them could give several examples of plagiarism actions in various fields. it showed their understanding of plagiarism. plagiarism could occur in the academic writing field. most of the students had the same understanding of the definition and examples of plagiarism in academic writing. however, one of the students gave a clear answer about plagiarism in academic writing. np: "it is the same as my previous statement, but if the plagiarism in academic aspect may refer to the act of plagiarism that occurs primarily in the writing field. we could define it as the act of copy-pasting other's writing work and claiming it as our own without paraphrasing and giving credit to the real author. for example, it occurs in writing the thesis, journal, paper, and other academic writing products. a similar answer came from two students. they did not state the example of plagiarism in the academic writing context; they just mentioned the term plagiarism in the academic writing context as the act of copying and pasting or imitating without giving credit to the original. the student named yl said that, yl: "in my opinion, plagiarism issue in academic context refers to the plagiarism in the writing field. it is the act of copying and imitating someone's writing work without giving credit to the original author. for example, imitating a few lines or a whole work of others is considered plagiarism." the student, se, provided the same explanation. other participants only stated that the action of plagiarism in academic writing referred to the plagiarism that occurred in the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 160 writing works. they did not give a precise definition, but they gave some examples to support their vague statement about the definition. for instance, one student, em, said that, em: "i think plagiarism existed in the academic context refers to the plagiarism detected in someone's written work such as in thesis, journal, essay, or paper. it is terrible if there is a lot of plagiarism in our academic writing." furthermore, a similar answer came from a student called nb. from all of their answers in the interview session, we assumed that they understood the term plagiarism in the academic context enough. however, they were confused and doubtful to give a clear and complete explanation related to the definition and example of it. related to the act of plagiarism in the writing field, all students agreed and stated that plagiarism in the writing context is considered an adverse action. for example, student yl said, yl: "plagiarism is a negative behaviour that must be avoided. in addition, it is detrimental to the person who has the original written work. therefore, i believe that plagiarism actions in the academic writing context could be considered as the criminal acts of piracy and thievery." in addition, the students called em, se, nb, and np deal with the same point of view, the existence of plagiarism action in writing could not be justified. in another perception, two out of five students believed that plagiarism action in writing occurred only because of the intention of the writer. as the student called se said, se: "i disagree if plagiarism unintentionally occurs in someone's writing work. i think that the writer has realized what they write. they know that their contents are taken from many references, but they use quotations without paraphrasing them in their work. they are lazy to paraphrase and afraid that their paraphrasing will change the meaning. these reasons make me believe plagiarism occurs with the writer's full awareness and intention." in addition, the student's initial yl stated the same opinion as se. on the other side point of view, three out of five students believed that the action of plagiarism in the writing work might occur intentionally and unintentionally from the writer. for instance, the student, np said, np: "i disagree. i think we could consider this behavior to happen in both conditions. it could be with or without intention. we tend to get stuck in developing the idea in our writing. while seeing some references, we decide not to paraphrase a few lines or maybe in whole and directly put it in our writing. on the other case, plagiarism can also occur in our writing unintentionally. sometimes we have already tried our best to develop the idea in our writing, trying to do paraphrasing. we think it will not be detected as plagiarism. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 161 unfortunately, a plagiarism checker detects similarities between our writing to other people's work." further, em and nb also deal with the same idea. hence, it could be concluded that all the students had different perceptions about the existence of plagiarism in their writing works. students' knowledge about plagiarism forms based on the data gathered from the interview, only one student could mention the correct form of plagiarism in the general context. however, it could be seen from her answer that she was also doubtful about what they had stated. as explained by the student initially, yl. yl: "i do not understand the exact kinds of plagiarism. suppose i could say that the kinds of plagiarism are divided into two categories. it may be plagiarism that occurs in the writing context and plagiarising somebody's idea in all aspects."(personal communication, september 1, 2021). furthermore, most of the students did not make sure if the actions of plagiarism could be classified into several forms. as student em said, em: "i do not know if the plagiarism actions are classified into several forms. i know that plagiarism occurs in the writing context." on the other hand, another answer showed that two out of five students had stated that they indeed had no idea about the general forms of plagiarism. as the initial student, se said, se: "i am sorry; i think i have no idea that plagiarism actions could be categorized into several types." most students are only familiar with the form of plagiarism in the writing context. only one student could mention all of the plagiarism forms. in another issue about plagiarism in writing forms, the data gathered showed that all students agreed to mention that the act of copying and pasting is the form of plagiarism in writing. some of them could mention the forms of plagiarism in the academic writing context. as stated by the students, yl and em, yl: "perhaps, the categories of plagiarism of text include copy-pasting a few lines from the text, literal copying, and paraphrasing the text without the attribution to the real author." em: "the same idea as the previous question, i do not know if the plagiarism of text type is also divided into several categories. i think the action of copy-pasting a few lines of somebody's quotation and literal copying duplicates a whole statement without modifying them with or without citing the source." irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 162 furthermore, one student could mention the two types of plagiarism in writing. this student, np said, np: "i see. in my opinion, first is the act of copy-pasting a few or complete statements in somebody's written work without paraphrasing and giving the attribution to the writer. second, the act of taking a whole of somebody's work, publishing, and claiming it as our own." three students could mention only one form, copy-pasting term, without specific explanation. in short, the students' answers showed they had less knowledge of the exact forms of text plagiarism. we also discovered that most students admitted they committed plagiarism by copying and pasting their writings. the student yl argued, yl: "i will not deny that i did plagiarism through some of my writing tasks during my university year. i think that i frequently did the copy-paste type. i liked to copy-paste a few lines from someone's writing work which i got from my friend's work or the internet." in contradiction to the previous answers, one student did not think that she did plagiarism action within her all her writing projects. as argued by the student of em said, em: "i do not think that i did plagiarism in all my writing works. well, i have no idea about that." furthermore, three students admitted they had had plagiarism experience writing their thesis proposals, especially in chapters one and 2. they had difficulties in paraphrasing the quotations. thus, copying-pasting was the solution to help them out. they realized copying and pasting would cause high plagiarism in their proposal. the student named np said, np:" i start to realize myself doing plagiarism while constructing my thesis proposal, especially in writing chapter 2. i have difficulties in paraphrasing the theories from the experts. so, i decided to copy-paste the statements without doing the paraphrasing, but i still put the credit to the real author. as a result of what i have done, the plagiarism checker detects the plagiarism in my proposal." most of the students' answers showed the fact that most of them realized that they conducted plagiarism consciously in writing their thesis proposals. they admitted that they copied and pasted someone's statement directly through their projects. all the students had the same idea in defining the term paraphrasing, in which they focus on the keyword modifying somebody's, people, or expert statements to be quoted by stating into their sentences. on the other hand, all of them forgot to state putting credit to the source part of paraphrasing the term definition. for instance, the students yl and em said, irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 163 yl: "as far as i know, paraphrasing is modifying somebody's statements by using our sentences and new grammatical structure." em: "in my opinion, i could define paraphrasing as modifying the quotation to be quoted within our work without changing the meaning of the statements from the expert." the last, more complete explanation came from a student named nb, who said, nb: "paraphrasing is the action of the writer modifying the quotation from the experts or other writing work by changing the grammatical structure and some words into synonyms. paraphrasing is needed to avoid our work having the same content as others. we modify the quotation, but we need to keep the statements with the same point delivered from the source." patchwriting or improper paraphrasing had the same meaning as paraphrasing in the writing context. the interview sessions showed that most students had no idea and had never heard about the patchwriting term. for example, as yl and em said, yl:" this is the first time i hear about patchwriting. therefore, i cannot explain it." em: "i have not heard about that. well, i am sorry. i have no idea about that." similarly, se, np, and nb came up with the same arguments about the patchwriting term. thus, the students' answers concluded that they were unfamiliar with the term patchwriting as part of plagiarism of text form. students' perceptions of plagiarism factors based on the data gathered, one of the students mentioned three main factors that could be considered as the background of somebody to plagiarism in their work. such as being lazy to finish the writing work, lack of time, and being stuck to developing the idea for their writing content. the student yl said, yl: "if i could mention the factors why someone does plagiarism because they are lazy and like to postpone their writing task. therefore, the easiest thing they could do to finish their writing work by copy-pasting the information and data from others' writing. the other factors are lack of time to do the writing work and having no idea about the topic being discussed. so they take the data needed from the internet and put them on as their original writing." in addition, the internet, which provides a lot of data and sources, could be the factor that contributed to the plagiarism action. the student, se said, se: "the person doing the plagiarism is lazy to do the paraphrasing. we are afraid to modify the quotations. in this technological advancement era, the internet has provided us easy access to get data for our work." irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 164 lack of awareness and knowledge to paraphrase correctly could contribute to plagiarism. it was mentioned by em and nb that said, em: "perhaps lack of knowledge of how to do the proper paraphrasing, lazy to do their task, have no enough time to brainstorm about what is going to be discussed in their writing, and have no idea about the fatal risk of committing plagiarism." nb: "perhaps, we have a lack of knowledge about paraphrasing terms. we just know the term but do not know how to do it. one student had a complete and clear explanation of the plagiarism factors. it was explained in one student's statement. np: "i think it happens because we have less knowing how to do the proper paraphrasing and the concept of plagiarism in this technological advancement era. we are easy to find the data needed from the internet. but unfortunately, it makes us copy-paste directly when we get stuck in writing. we just directly take from many sources without paraphrasing." students' plagiarism experiences in writing the proposal most of the students admitted that they conducted plagiarism in writing their thesis proposals. they did not realize the impact of the plagiarism score percentage in their proposal. for instance, the student nb said, nb:" yes, i admitted it was challenging to paraphrase the theories for my proposal. i was afraid to change the points if i did not paraphrase them properly. i realized that the plagiarism checker would detect it. i felt guilty and disappointed when my proposal was getting more than 30% plagiarism." furthermore, in specific clarification, the student called np said, np: "to be honest, in writing my proposal, especially chapter 2, i did not paraphrase the statements from others. i was shocked and regretful when the plagiarism checker detected many plagiarisms in my proposal." em: "i was shocked when the plagiarism checker indicated that my proposal had many plagiarisms because, in the process of writing that proposal, i have tried my best to paraphrase the quotation to avoid plagiarism." most students stated that their lack of knowledge of proper paraphrasing could be the main reason behind the plagiarism detected in their works. the student's initial em said, em: "sometimes, i felt confused about paraphrasing the quotation within the writing process. therefore, if i got stuck in paraphrasing, i only changed some words irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 165 from the quotation by using the synonym and changed the grammatical structure." getting stuck to finding the appropriate word choice and changing the statement without modifying the meaning became part of the difficulty in paraphrasing the quotation. the students were afraid to paraphrase the statements from the expert, but they still put credit to the expert in the proposal. nb and se said, nb: "the first thing is that i was confused about how to paraphrase the original theory. i was getting stuck on finding the appropriate word choices while modifying them into my own." se: "i have difficulty paraphrasing the statements that i quoted. when i tried to paraphrase using my sentences, i was afraid to change the meaning of that statements." discussion the first perceptions deal with the student's understanding of plagiarism's meaning in general and academic writing. the students had various statements in defining plagiarism. generally, most students agree plagiarism is the action of imitating, copying, and stealing the existing concept of others' work without acknowledging the sources. this result was almost in line with morris et al. (2013), who that argued plagiarism presents the act of claiming somebody's work to be used by do not put the attribution, and this term consists of the written forms, photos, charts, and ideas that can be plagiarized. the research result also showed that most students agreed to state plagiarism in academic writing refers to the action of copying and pasting, imitating somebody's written work without giving credit to the source. concerning this understanding, however, it argued in different terminologies, and the result was in line with the experts' definitions of plagiarism in the writing context. pecorari (2008) stated plagiarism in writing context points as textual plagiarism, which means reproducing another person's ideas and words without attributing the proper source. park (2003) argued plagiarism is stealing another person's thoughts and publishing that work as their own without citing the source. those students' perceptions indeed were not having the same statements as the experts, but what the student tried to clarify was having the same point toward the experts. all of the students believe that plagiarism is an adverse action. some of them believed that plagiarism occurred in students' writing intentionally. some other students believed that plagiarism could happen with or without intention. regarding this result, carrol (2002) defined plagiarism as an action that is either on purpose or accidentally taking advantage of handing over someone's work. in short, plagiarism may happen in somebody's written work in both ways. most students stated that they did not know about the forms of plagiarism in general. it was in line with roig (2015) that two familiar categories of plagiarism must be recognized in the academic scope. first is the plagiarism of ideas. in addition, they discussed their understanding of the form of plagiarism in the writing field. most students were irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 166 doubtful and had no idea about that. they could only guess that copy, and pasting terms are part of plagiarism in writing. debnath (2016) stated that copying-pasting, literal copying, improper paraphrasing, and text recycling are part of plagiarism of text forms. thus, it showed that the students have less knowledge about the type of plagiarism, either in general form or in the form of text plagiarism. the findings revealed that most students defined paraphrasing as modifying somebody's, people's, or experts' statements to be quoted by stating them in their sentences. unfortunately, none complete their definition by inserting the phrase of putting credit to the source. forgetting the statement of putting credit to the source might refer to the type of plagiarism of text about improper paraphrasing. it was in line with debnath (2016), who stated one of the plagiarism of text form is improper paraphrasing which is slightly reproducing somebody's written work by having verbatim paraphrasing to the statement without any changing of the meaning and putting aside the credit to the original author. it was also explained by hirvela and du (2013) that proper paraphrasing is the activity of presenting the statement of someone's ideas by rewriting them with different phrases to create a new type of writing form while putting the original citation. most students had no idea about patchwriting terms. roig (2015) argued that restating statements from one or some sources, adding, removing, and changing some words in synonyms. however, building a new grammatical structure without any significant changes to the actual source is patchwriting. thus, it could be concluded that most students were confused about paraphrasing and had less knowledge about patchwriting. their ideas about these two terms might link to one of the leading causes of their high plagiarism rate. most of the students believed that they had a lack of knowledge to do proper paraphrasing, were too lazy to paraphrase their writing, lack of awareness about plagiarism and how to avoid it, lack of time to finish the writing, being stuck to developing the idea in their writing and easy to get the data from the internet were considered as the contributing factors of their plagiarism. some of the factors revealed were in line with husain et al. (2017), that concluded five factors influencing plagiarism such as institutional, academic, external, personal, and technological factors. in the explanation, lack of time, laziness, lack of awareness about plagiarism, and avoiding that plagiarism link to the explanation of the personal factors. in addition, easy to get the data from the internet refers to the explanation of the technological factors. most of the students were aware of the plagiarism existence in their proposals. some of them admitted that they committed plagiarism through their writing, but some other students were unaware of committing plagiarism. it indicated that plagiarism could happen consciously and unconsciously in the students' writing. it is in line with carrol's statement that plagiarism could exist on purpose or accidentally take advantage of handing over someone's work (2002). most students were shocked, knowing their proposal had a high plagiarism rate. in contrast to the previous perceptions that showed their awareness of plagiarism in their writing, they were still shocked knowing that their works got a high rate plagiarism score from the turnitin plagiarism checker. most students mentioned their paraphrasing strategies, such as omitting some words, changing the words to be quoted with synonyms, and modifying the grammatical structure. these were not the proper paraphrasing strategies. roig (2015) stated restating statements from one or some sources irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 167 while only adding, removing, or changing some words in synonyms. however, building a new grammatical structure without any significant changes to the actual source is patchwriting. copying statements from several different sources to be quoted with some modification on one or two is called inappropriate paraphrasing. to sum up, the perceptions of the students toward their difficulties in paraphrasing showed that they had a poor understanding of paraphrasing practice which led to the high rate of plagiarism scores in their thesis proposal. conclusion some conclusions could be drawn about students' perceptions of plagiarism in their thesis proposals. first, the students had similar perceptions about plagiarism in general and in academic writing contexts. second, most of them had various perceptions of plagiarism forms. third, some students were aware, while others were unaware of committing plagiarism within their thesis proposal. third, they were familiar with the term paraphrasing to avoid plagiarism in their writing, but they could not paraphrase the quotations properly. fourth, there were several contributing factors to plagiarism in the students' works, such as lack of awareness and knowledge about plagiarism and strategies for proper paraphrasing, getting stuck while writing, laziness in writing, and easiness of getting information from the internet. we pointed out some suggestions, such as the students should be more aware and knowledgeable about plagiarism and must learn how to paraphrase quotations properly in their writing. the lecturers should ensure the students' comprehension of plagiarism and paraphrasing and give strict punishment for those who have more than 30 % plagiarism in their works. future researchers interested in this study's topic could explore the forms of plagiarism in students' academic writings. thus, the findings would be more varied, and plagiarism studies would be more profound and developed. disclosure statement the authors reported no potential conflict of interest. references ampuni , s., kautsari , n., maharani, m., kuswardani , s., & buwono, s. b. 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(2016). undergraduate students' understanding on plagiarism in academic writing. consortium of asia-pacific education universities, 1. retrieved from http://jurnal.unsyiah.ac.id/eeic/article/view/15828 orim, s. m. (2017). conceptual review of literature on student plagiarism: world journal of educational research, 4(1), 216-217. retrieved from http://www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/wjer/article/view/825 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmc4878926/ https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ej764293 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/s1475158512000781 https://www.aishe-j.org/archives/2017-2/current-issue-vol-9-no-3/ http://eprints.radenfatah.ac.id/id/eprint/3951 http://jurnal.unsyiah.ac.id/eeic/article/view/15828 http://www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/wjer/article/view/825 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 169 park, c. 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(2015). the plagiarism in the theses of english education students at kabupaten bone. ethical lingua: journal of language teaching and literature, 2(1). retrieved from https://journal.uncp.ac.id/index.php/ethicallingua/article/view/146 yin, r. k. (2011). qualitative research from start to finish. new york: the guildford press. zhang, y. (2016). against plagiarism a guide for editors and authors. dordrecht: springer. biographical notes lenny marzulina is working at the universitas islam negeri raden fatah palembang, south sumatra, indonesia. rizqy dwi amrina is working at the universitas islam negeri raden fatah palembang, south sumatra, indonesia. dian erlina is working at the universitas islam negeri raden fatah palembang, south sumatra, indonesia. muhamad holandyah is working at the universitas islam negeri raden fatah palembang, south sumatra, indonesia. raudhatul jannah was a student at the universitas islam negeri raden fatah palembang, south sumatra, indonesia. herizal is working at the universitas islam negeri raden fatah palembang, south sumatra, indonesia. kasinyo harto is working at the universitas islam negeri raden fatah palembang, south sumatra, indonesia. https://www.lancaster.ac.uk/staff/gyaccp/caeh_28_5_02lores.pdf https://ori.hhs.gov/avoiding-plagiarism-self-plagiarism-and-other-questionable-writing-practices-guide-ethical-writing https://ori.hhs.gov/avoiding-plagiarism-self-plagiarism-and-other-questionable-writing-practices-guide-ethical-writing https://journal.uncp.ac.id/index.php/ethicallingua/article/view/146 this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 525 “they are english education graduates, but they teach science by using english”: a mismatch between policy and practice? eddy haryanto* abstract in response to the issue of mismatched teachers teaching in international-based curriculum schools, this exploratory case study investigated the implementation of english teachers’ background teaching science by using english as a medium of instruction (emi). data were collected from six teachers who taught science through multiple interviews in one international-based curriculum school in jambi city, indonesia. the data presentations were done by making the data tabulation and grouping it into themes and sub-themes. the data tabulation is narrated in paragraph form to draw the content of the data tabulations. the findings revealed that mismatched teachers had problems to implement emi in teaching science, such as lack of competencies in content knowledge, hard times to use english, and no training for curriculum changes. despite the weakness, emi creates international-minded and excels in english. portraying these findings, recommendations are also discussed in this study. keywords emi, international-based curriculum, mismatched teachers *associate professor and faculty member, universitas jambi, jambi, indonesia; eharyanto@yahoo.com mailto:eharyanto@yahoo.com irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 526 introduction the issue and problems of mismatch teachers occur over time in the teaching and learning process. it has become a major concern in educational reform and policy around the globe (ingersoll, 2003). most research on mismatch teacher practice in schools is concerned with teachers are hired for teaching subjects beyond their specialization (bayani & guhao, 2017; boco, & abadiano, 2020; harja et al., 2021; ingersoll, 2003; luft, hanuscin, hobbs, & törner, 2020). therefore, highly qualified teachers who teach according to the field of specialization will provide qualified student output. accordingly, darling-hammond (2000) argues that teachers who have high qualifications according to their knowledge will positively impact student achievement in school. similarly, harley, bertram and mattson (1999) suggest that the most important factor in students’ learning is a qualified teacher by their knowledge of specialization. this is in contrast with the policies in schools for some teachers to teach that are not in accordance with their field of knowledge. western australian state school teacher’s union (2008) reported that mismatched teachers or teaching outside their specialization tend to stress teachers themselves. thus, the phenomena might result from school management recruitment procedures to solve the shortages of teachers who could teach outside their area of specialization. the mismatch of teachers who teach beyond their area of specialization happens in both some private and public schools, particularly in bilingual schools in indonesia. teachers who are graduated from english education are assigned to teach science using english. looking back on language policy in school, indonesia had implemented a bilingual education program for public schools in 2006 through an international standard school program. however, the bilingual program had been closed due to a controversial policy issue in 2012. the indonesian curriculum for bilingual programs, particularly english as a medium of instruction for teaching science and mathematics, remains offered in private schools. meanwhile, some parts of the world in asia, such as thailand, japan, korea, and china, have been implementing a bilingual education program as their curriculum in public school as early as in primary level and continuing their program. additionally, being bilingual give more advantages to children and increasingly becomes global demand. crystal (2003) argued that almost two-thirds of children evolve in a bilingual background, 41 percent as bilingual in english and some other language. however, the enactment of english as a medium of instruction for teaching science and mathematics in some private bilingual schools in indonesia might not meet the ideal policy requirements that teachers are not in line with their specialization. in other words, teachers who teach science and mathematics in private bilingual schools using english are mismatched. this phenomenon is undeniable. it has become a common practice in educational policy. the widespread occurrence of mismatched teachers would have some impacts on quality education. some research consistently reported a significant correlation between teacher competencies and students’ achievement (goldhaber & anthony, 2003; ringstaff & sandholtz, 2002). therefore, it is a considerable problem for mismatched teachers to prepare their teaching materials and design curriculum because it assumes that teachers are unfamiliar irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 527 with the content subject and had no experience during their study in university. thus, it would affect teachers’ performance and their students. this research aims to answer the following research questions: 1) how do teachers teach science using english as a medium of instruction in a bilingual school? 2) what competencies do the teachers have in teaching science using english? 3) what are the challenges faced by the teachers in teaching science using english? literature review english as medium of instruction (emi) in indonesia context english as a medium of instruction (emi) in indonesia is the product implemented of the international standard school program. the concept of emi enactment in the international standard school program was from 2006 to 2012 for teaching science and mathematics. teachers were required to use english in classroom activities; however, the program ran only for six years, then the policy was discontinued due to controversial issues in the implementation. the adapting of the international standard curriculum using english as a medium of instruction for teaching science and mathematics continues for some private schools as their “brand” to promote their schools. since emi is a “brand” to promote international curriculum perspectives for schools, many parents are interested in sending their kids to that particular school. according to bishra and bhatt (2021), parents send their children to emi schools because of their global status. similarly, erling (2014) argued that emi schools promote skills development for children. therefore, the policymakers considered that emi would offer and create an international academic standard in the classroom and give an opportunity to open for the global community (dearden, 2015). according to kym and kym (2014), emi offers international job seekers a highly competitive student output. thus, implementing emi in schools would give many beneficial students’ growth, particularly their english proficiency (chang, 2010; wong, 2010; wu, 2006). furthermore, in indonesia, students who study in a school where english is as a medium of instruction show prestige and power in society. most people assume that if students are able to speak english fluently, they belong to high status in the community, such as from high economic status families. the power of english as a medium of instruction in school symbolizes superiority in the community. according to bourdieu (1977), language has symbolic power within society. thus, emi was implemented in some private or bilingual schools in indonesia as a vehicle to promote their schools as “better” and “superior” status. mismatching teacher in teaching the issue of teacher quality worldwide is becoming increasingly important to increase student output. teacher quality is one of the major priorities in every country because it has been admitted as the primary factor to students learning (hammond, 2000; irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 528 hattie, 2009). as the center of education, universities prepare their graduates to fulfill the workforce’s needs with the relevant and essential curriculum so that they are ready to cultivate the next generation based on their area of specialization. therefore, through government programs, universities offer quality assurance to maintain their graduates become more knowledgeable, high standard, and competent in their area of specialization. unfortunately, in some countries like indonesia, the shortage of highly qualified teachers, particularly teaching science and mathematics using english where english is not commonly used, becomes a more challenging policy. thus, a mismatch occurs to fulfill the demands of the scarcity of teachers in the particular school program. according to luft, hanuscin, hobbs, and tomer (2020), teachers who teach beyond their specialization are called mismatched teachers. furthermore, one of the implications of mismatch teachers might bring any discomfort and ineffective teaching strategies in classroom activities particularly teaching content, that teachers do not have adequate knowledge on it. besides, mismatched teachers might have problems with insecurity and frustration when they deliver the contents knowledge. according to hammond (2000), one of the most important factors in students’ learning growth is a competent teacher in their area of specialization. this is similar to shimon and brawdy (2001) that mismatch teachers lead to poor performance when they assign to teach outside their area of specialization. thus, goe (2007) argued that teachers’ quality is a passport to better predictor and outcome of students. methodology research design, site, and participants this exploratory case study was conducted in one private primary bilingual school which implemented english as a medium of instruction in jambi, indonesia. i selected this school because it has implemented and adopted an international curriculum using the singaporean curriculum as learning material for teaching science. besides, in the school applied english zone environment, students and teachers are required to speak english when they are in the school building. i got permission from the principal to have access to the school to interview six teachers from different levels of grade sections. i recruited teachers of grade one to grade six who were assigned as homeroom. the six teachers were responsible for teaching science by using english. in this study, the participants consisted of five female and one male teacher. finally, i asked them to fill up voluntarily the consents form for the interview. thus, for ethical consideration, the teachers’ name was a pseudonym, and they were coded as teacher a, teacher b, and so forth. the demographic profile of six participants shows in the following table below. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 529 table 1. demographic profiles of the participants demographic profile of the participants female teacher grade one female teacher grade two female teacher grade three male teacher grade four female teacher grade five female teacher grade six age 29 30 27 27 31 30 educational background bachelor degree with english major bachelor degree with english major bachelor degree with english major bachelor degree with english major bachelor degree with english major bachelor degree with english major teaching experience 3 years 3 years 4 years 3 years 5 years 5 years formal training attended for teaching science none none none none none none data collection and analysis in terms of conducting a qualitative case study, major procedural steps in collecting the data adopted from creswell (2007) are using multiple sources, such as interviews, observation, and documents artifact. additionally, the main data in this research used a semi-structured interview. the interview is one of the most commonly used tools in conducting qualitative research. an interview is oral structural communication with one or more participants, either directly or indirectly, to discuss and get information about the phenomena. in this research, the researcher conducted one-on-one types of interviews to get deep information. a one-on-one interview is a popular approach in educational research to collect the data. the researcher asks questions to one participant and records the answers in the study at a time (creswell, 2012). the interview was conducted based on the willingness of the participants’ time. the researcher gave an option to the participants to answer the interview question in bahasa indonesia or in english, but teachers chose bahasa indonesia. for the questions, firstly, the researcher gave a general question related to the participant then followed by sub-questions related to the teacher's professionalism and competencies related to the research topic. second, the question related to teachers’ points of view about teaching science by using english as the medium of instruction (emi). third, the questions related to what the teacher experienced and the challenges they faced in conducting english as the medium of instruction (emi) when teaching science subjects. all interviews recorded were transcribed one by one thoroughly by the researcher. the interviews were conducted in bahasa indonesia. the researcher translated it first before irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 530 presenting the result of the research. concerning the case study approach, categorizing similarities and differences the data is the way to code them in the themes to recognize the result of the data. the researcher needs a few times to read transcripts and develop them into themes and sub-themes to answer the research question. the researcher interpreted the data to make it clear and get the information to answer these research questions. it is as linked as with merriam (1998), who argues that data analysis is the process of making sense of the data collected. the data in the form of sentences and narrative were the steps of data display. it means the data reduced were shown in the data display in patterns. it beneficially helps the researcher to understand the data gathered. the researcher describes the data in a good sequence of narrative texts to make it easier to understand the information from the data. the data presentations were done by making the data tabulation and grouping it into themes and sub-themes. the data tabulation is narrated in paragraph form to draw the content of the data tabulations. then the researcher selected, identified, and focused on the data collected by signifying the research problem's formulation. secondly, the researcher displayed the data in good sentences. lastly, after displaying the data researcher took the conclusion from the data. trustworthiness the researcher needs to make sure that the interpretation and findings of the qualitative data are accurate. in terms of the credibility of the research result, the researcher used member checking. creswell (2012) states that to validate the qualitative data, the researcher needs to check the accuracy of their data by using member checking that refers to a process of asking one or more participants. afterward, the researcher allows the participants to check their responses from their interview transcription after transcribing the interview result. in other words, the researcher allowed the participants to review what they had said, and if they wanted to correct what they said, i allowed doing so. findings and discussion the finding of the research was to examine the implementation policy of emi in teaching science with english background in a bilingual primary school. the findings portray from a semi-structured interview that presents three emergent themes: 1) enactment of teachers of english background teaching science by using emi; 2) teachers’ competencies in teaching science using emi; 3) the challenges of teachers using emi in teaching science. the three findings are addressed the research questions. the emergent themes gave insight on policy enactment of teachers of english background teaching science using emi. the enactment of english as a medium of instruction the first theme that emerged from the interview data was the enactment of english teachers teaching science by using english. the sub-themes of my findings emerged from irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 531 the analysis of interview data to describe the enactment of emi, such as (1) the teachers’ view of emi in teaching science (2) international-minded and excel in english. table 2. sample data analysis emergent themes data sources teachers teach science using english english is fully implemented in the school environment; teachers and students are competent in english for daily communication. since this school required english to teach science, i implemented english in class (teaching science using english). then, the textbooks adapted from singapore, so we have to use english in teaching science (teach science using english). semi-structured interview teachers’ competencies teaching science using english actually, i have no formal professional competencies to teach science because my background is english, but since school is looking for teachers who can speak english fluently, so they recruit us to teach science in english. later, they will train us to teach science using english once accepted (competencies training). for informal professional training, we will attend kkg (science teachers’ forum) to discuss the issue of teaching strategies, methodologies, curriculum as well as content knowledge of science subjects every month regularly within primary schools in the city, but it used bahasa indonesia (competencies training). semi-structured interview challenges of teaching science using english and teachers’ cope with the challenges the biggest challenge in teaching science using english is that i do not really understand complex concepts of science at a higher grade level because i am not a science education background (challenge). it took sometimes to understand the content then i need to discuss or learn with science teachers during our meeting in kkg (challenge/cope). reading more science concepts in bahasa indonesia on the internet, then i translate it into english, so that’s the way how i cope with the problems (challenge/cope). then, if i have a problem with science terminology/concepts during teaching, i use bahasa indonesia to explain the contents to avoid misunderstandings (challenge/cope). semi-structure interview teachers’ views on english as a medium of instruction implementation the first theme is the teachers’ perspective on english as a medium of instruction for teaching science in bilingual primary schools shows different conceptions. the following response from the teachers shows in the scene on the implementation of english as a medium of instruction. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 532 teachers’ scene 1: teachers’ perspectives on english as a medium instruction “i think the use of english for everyday communication and studying in school is a very good policy initiative. english is implemented well in this school. most teachers and students do not have any obstacles using english for daily communication.” (teacher a, in-depth interview, 24 february 2021, researcher translation) “english is fully applied in school and classroom activities; i think we do not have any problems when we use english for daily communication. perhaps, teachers and students have little percentage using bahasa indonesia when they are in school, but if i use english for teaching science, i will face some difficulties in delivering the lesson.” (teacher b, in-depth interview 24 february 2021, researcher translation) “for me, english is really good for students’ growth, particularly to prepare for their future studies. we implemented english for teaching subjects that requires using english, such as science, mathematics, and english. so far, i do not have problems with english for communication. still, i have a problem when i need to explain the comprehensive concept of science.” (teacher c, in-depth interview 1 march 2021. researcher translation) “english is used as the main language in the school; i think english is really broadening teachers’ and students’ knowledge because we use international curriculum and textbooks, so our perspectives about knowledge and english improve well. however, teaching science with english, especially me from an english background, will create problems such as misconceptions when i don’t know the science concepts well.” (teacher d, in-depth interview, 1 march 2021. researcher translation) “i implemented english in classroom activities, particularly teaching science using english, but sometimes, we shifted to bahasa indonesia when we got confused with the contents. with this condition, the effectiveness of learning declines when we cannot explain well using english. one more thing is important when we shift our language from time to time, making learning slower, then students become less focused and more complicated. however, i think for the implementation of english, it works so far.” (teacher e, in-depth interview 3 march 2021, researcher translation) “since the school has the vision to implement english, i think the school prepares students to become global community and english as lingua franca, so we use english for our communication and study. so far, we really use english in classroom interaction, but there are times i have to use bahasa indonesia when i explain a bit complex concept of science; otherwise, misconceptions really occur in our activities irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 533 since i am english, not a science education graduate.” (teacher f, in-depth interview 5 march 2021, researcher translation) the data above indicated that the implementation of english as a medium of instruction in the school for daily communication and interaction is well between teachers and students. furthermore, the emerging themes from the interview show that there are three mains concerned need to take into consideration. firstly, it is important to note that there are obstacles when teaching science using english as a fairly complex concept that makes the teacher not fully use english. this is because the teachers have difficulties in explaining the concept well in english. the impact is that if the concept given is wrong, students will not get real information about the lesson and even mislead about the lesson. this is very important to consider for schools that teachers who are not in their field will have difficulty providing information in accordance with what teachers should provide in their field. secondly, english is indeed the main language in interacting and learning in the school, but the school should place the right people in the same field in the learning process. this will have an impact on the basic foundation of ”students’ knowledge, especially science. furthermore, the most important issue is the quality of teachers in teaching the lessons that are not in accordance with their fields will affect the effectiveness of learning. moreover, the use of language that shifts from time to time will make learning slower and even become more complicated in comprehending the concepts. as a result, if this condition continues, most probably that a poor teaching and ineffective delivery of the lesson leads to broadening the achievement gap for the students (jerald & ingersoll, 2002). thirdly, it might create a misconception during the delivery of the lesson. since teachers are not in line with their field of specialization, teachers would make common misconceptions in the lessons. a teacher who masters the learning material is a person who is in line with his/her specialization. however, it is found that teachers who teach science using english are not really mastered the concept. as a matter of fact, teachers would give worse and inappropriate information regarding the lessons. according to harley, bertram, and mattson (1999), teachers’ quality is one of the most important parts of learning. teachers’ quality is also influenced by teachers’ knowledge base, such as preparation, planning, and decision-making of the learning (de jong, veal, & van driel, 2002). furthermore, shulman (1987) argues that teachers’ knowledge is one of the important aspects in teaching and learning, including subject matter knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge. similarly, magnusson, krajcik, and borko (1999) claim that effective science learning is a teacher who fundamentally masters subject-specific knowledge and content-specific. therefore, every teacher who teaches any specific subject needs to consider the specific knowledge. in other words, every teacher should teach based on their area of specialization so that teachers might deliver their subjects effectively. thus, teachers who are not in line with their specialization would create limited knowledge-specific content during teaching and learning. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 534 international-minded and excels in english the second sub-theme in english as a medium of instruction implementation in teaching science is international-minded students and excel in english. the participants in this research respond that english as a medium of instruction is preparing students to be part of the global community. here are the following data with regards to international-minded and excel in english. teacher’s scene 2: international-minded and excel in english “for me, using english as a medium of instruction in school is a very good policy initiative because english is a lingua franca and is used globally. i think we are preparing students to become part of the global community, and for sure, they will excel in english.” (teacher a, in-depth interview, 24 february 2021, researcher translation) “international-minded and excel in english is the vision of the school. i hope this curriculum might be followed by other schools such as government schools. i think there are positive benefits if students excel in english; for example, they become part of the international community, and even they can study overseas and good career for them.” (teacher c, in-depth interview 1 march 2021, researcher translation) “i think the international mindset for students how to deal with the global community grows very well in this school. we are not only using english, but through the international curriculum, students learn a lot about global culture such as english. most important is students excel in english.” (teacher e, in-depth interview 3 march 2021, researcher translation) “as an english graduate who teaches science, i felt english as a medium of instruction is a good policy for our students. we prepare our students knowledgeable in terms of english.” (teacher f, in-depth interview 5 march 2021, researcher translation) international-minded and excel in english is a strong vision in this school. teachers strongly support the implementation of english as a medium of instruction. the data above revealed that teachers agreed and strongly supported the use of english as a medium of instruction in school. a growing global phenomenon, english has become a “brand’ for schools to be recognized as better schools that implement english as a medium of instruction. this is supported by dearden (2014) that the rapid expansion of english as a medium of instruction is moving toward a general trend in education. the internationalization of education is reported skyrocketing growth in most asian countries. according to isc research (2021) claimed that there were around 10,282 international schools around the world. it means that irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 535 the rapid growth of english worldwide through international school supports children to be more knowledgeable of using english. munoz (2006) suggests that international schools introduced students to speak in a natural setting. the more students are exposed to english in everyday life, the better their performance of using english because students achieve unlimited exposure in their school’s environment. teachers’ competencies teaching science using english the second theme in this research is teachers’ competencies in teaching science by using english. the sub-theme that emerged from the interview data were teacher has no professional training. data from teachers’ competencies teaching science using english shows that teachers still do not have formal training in teaching science. teachers still struggle to teach science, although they can speak english well. teacher scene 3: teachers’ competencies teaching science using english “actually, i am not confident enough to teach science, but because no science teacher can speak english, i applied for that position. anyway, schools provided training for teaching science for those who are not in line with specialization. so far, we need more training to teach science because we need basic concepts such as pedagogical knowledge or content knowledge.” (teacher a, in-depth interview, 24 february 2021, researcher translation) “i think i am not as competent as a science teacher background. we need more training in preparation, planning, and content delivery, although we have kkg (science teachers’ group). sometimes, kkg does not really make us competent in teaching because i take extra time to understand the contents. you know, kkg is really good for science teachers who are already familiar with pedagogical content knowledge.” (teacher b, in-depth interview 24 february 2021, researcher translation) “actually, when we are accepted as science teachers with an english background, we are already oriented to have training but the training only how to use the textbooks since the curriculum is from overseas. common training is like curriculum, strategies, and methodologies of teaching but not really specific to the content. so, i lack professional competencies in teaching science.” (teacher c, in-depth interview 1 march 2021, researcher translation) “for me, our competencies really need to take into consideration. otherwise, it will create problems during the teaching and learning process. the school and government need to collaborate to think about this mismatch. i think both parties must give us training for our competencies.” (teacher d, in-depth interview, 1 march 2021, researcher translation) irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 536 “in terms of english, i am professional enough, but i struggle to understand the concepts of science. i need extra time to understand and try to read and read more, and even i have to read in bahasa indonesia, then i deliver in english when i am in class. so, that is the weakness of me, but this is a mismatch.” (teacher e, in-depth interview 3 march 2021, researcher translation) “i think schools and governments must provide related training for teachers. i think the government should control this mismatch to make a good policy on what to do for the competencies of mismatched teachers like us.” (teacher f, in-depth interview 5 march 2021, researcher translation) portraying from the interview data, it was found that mismatched teachers need more training on the issues of pedagogical contents knowledge. effective teaching and learning are the responsibility of teachers; it can be said that teachers who are qualified and specialize in their area of specialization would make students more confident in studying. according to harley and mattson (1999), if teachers are specialized in their area of specialization, students will trust their teaching skills. furthermore, olson (2000) argues that the success of the students in learning is due to skilled and knowledgeable teachers. therefore, qualified, skilled, and competent teachers based on their specialization lead to effective teaching. the issue of teacher competence in teaching is fundamental. according to the republic of indonesia, number 20 of 2003, teacher competence includes learning management, academic mastery, personality, and potential development. whereas the republic of indonesia law number 14 of 2005 stated that teachers' competencies consist of four elements: personality competencies, pedagogical competencies, professional competencies, and social competencies. siri et al. (2020) suggest that teachers who have competencies based on their specialization are better than those not in line with their area of specialization. according to kumar and parveen (2015), teachers’ competencies significantly contribute to students’ performance. this is similar vein with zhang et al. (2018), teachers’ competencies influence teachers’ performance. schools and government could not neglect the mismatch of teachers; both parties should consider this phenomenon; otherwise, the problems on quality will remain unsolved. mismatch teachers will create a tremendous problem in the teaching and learning process because of a lack of professional training and competencies with regard to content knowledge. villaverde (2017) suggests that effective classroom teaching and learning processes happen when teachers possess broad knowledge based on their specialization. the challenges for teaching science with english background the third theme in the research found the challenges of implementing english as a medium of instruction in teaching science. the sub-theme from the interview data were unfamiliar content knowledge, hard times using english to teach science, and curriculum change. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 537 unfamiliar content knowledge is the first sub-theme in the challenges of teaching science with english background. as mentioned earlier, there is no specific professional training for teaching science with english background. the training carried out was only general training on how to use textbooks since the curriculum was adopted from overseas. the following data was gathered from the interviews. teachers’ scene 4: unfamiliar content knowledge “for me, it is difficult to teach science without knowing basic concepts, particularly the content. i think i have to prepare well to understand and comprehend the content; otherwise, learning is really stressful. sometimes, i am less confident, monotonous and traditional teaching, and less creative.” (teacher b, in-depth interview 24 february 2021, researcher translation) “i have to read more from the internet and do some research so that i can explain to my students, at least i minimize the stress from unfamiliar knowledge. so far, our meeting in kkg (teachers’ science club) does not really help us because in teaching science using english because we use international curriculum.” (teacher c, in-depth interview 1 march 2021, researcher translation) “unfamiliar content knowledge is an enormous issue for us who do not know the content well. you know, i am from english background; i am stressed when i start teaching science, especially the curriculum and textbooks from overseas; although we have kkg (teachers’ science group) every month, i think it does not help a lot for our professional competencies since we are english graduates.” (teacher d, in-depth interview, 1 march 2021, researcher translation) “the mismatch is really stressful; i know it is hard to teach if it is not in line with my specialization, but i have to do it. most of the time, i struggle to understand the content well. using english is no problem, but teaching science using english is a big problem (teacher f, in-depth interview 5 march 2021, researcher translation) most scholars agreed content knowledge is important for teaching. according to magnusson, krajcik, and borko (1999), pedagogical content knowledge helps students to understand the subject matter well through teachers’ understanding in organizing knowledge subject matter topics and problems. likewise, ball, thames, & phelps (2008) suggest that pedagogical content knowledge is important for teachers to understand and comprehend the concept that teachers need to teach to avoid misconception when delivering the content. furthermore, in his study, shulman (1987) suggests that the key to the profession of teaching is to know the content-specific technical knowledge. it means that teachers need to master their content knowledge to be said as professional in terms of pedagogical content knowledge. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 538 furthermore, unfamiliar content knowledge leads to stress to teachers, the traditional methods of teaching, and less creativity. childs and mcnicholl (2007) argue that unfamiliar content knowledge happens when teachers are teaching out of their specialization. it can lead to difficulty designing good teaching strategies, teachers feeling incompetent and inadequate, and lack of cognitive knowledge. this is important to consider for formulating good policy in school management because the quality of the output is an important issue in providing better education for students. hard times using english to teach science, the second sub-theme in teaching science with english background challenges is hard times using english to teach science. it is noted that teachers who teach science using english are from english, but they still have hard times using english because of the mismatch of the teachers in teaching. the following statement from the interview data describes as follows. teacher’s scene 5: hard times using english to teach science “i am really sorry to tell you that although i know english and am competent enough, i still have a hard time using my english. i think the situation happens because, personally, i lack knowledge about science. so, when i use my english, i have to be very careful and slow; otherwise, i will deliver misconceptions about the content. so, when i need to explain a complex concept, i’d rather use bahasa indonesia.” (teacher a, in-depth interview, 24 february 2021, researcher translation) “honestly, not all the time do i use english when teaching science? i consider that i am mismatched, so i use bahasa indonesia when i need to explain something quite complex concept. it is really hard to use a foreign language when you are not sure what to explain to your students.” (teacher e, in-depth interview 3 march 2021, researcher translation) “using english for daily communication is easy, but when i use english to explain the concept, it is really hard, particularly the complex terminology of science.” (teacher f, in-depth interview 5 march 2021, researcher translation). the problem in teaching science using english is that teachers are not familiar with the content knowledge or scientific terminology. it is really hard for english background to comprehend the term because they are not used to it. according to hudson (2009), some teachers are finding hard times to use english when they teach science using english. furthermore, he argues that some teachers teach science using english more comfortably if they use their mother tongue because it is easier and more understandable. similarly to therefore, these are the reasons why teachers with english backgrounds have hard times using english when they teach science using english. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 539 curriculum changes, in terms of curriculum changes, there should be training for teachers’ readiness in preparing the lesson. the training offered in school-related to curriculum that teachers have oriented only the use of textbooks include training on teachers’ guide. the following scene on the responses of the participants is as follows. teacher’s scene 6: curriculum changes “there is no further orientation and training on how teachers prepare the curriculum changes in teaching science using english. the textbook and curriculum used is an international curriculum, i think i need to adjust myself using that curriculum; otherwise, i cannot teach.” (teacher b, in-depth interview 24 february 2021, researcher translation). “we need a further orientation to use the international curriculum. the training is not only introducing the curriculum but also planning how to use techniques, strategies, and methodologies when we deliver the knowledge to the students. i think from the indonesian perspectives and singaporean curriculum, and they are different. so, curriculum changes a bit shocked us in preparing the lesson.” (teacher c, in-depth interview 1 march 2021, researcher translation) “curriculum changes lead to ineffective teaching, so i think schools need to consider how to introduce further training for effective teaching using english as a medium of instruction as well as content knowledge and how to design an effective curriculum for it.” (teacher d, in-depth interview, 1 march 2021, researcher translation). “poor preparation, such as planning the lesson, designing the materials, and implementing teaching methodologies in teaching, needs to be introduced in our curriculum training when we are assigned to teach science using english. this is really challenging when we teach subjects beyond our specialization because we need to do more research on aspects of teaching materials.” (teacher f, in-depth interview 5 march 2021, researcher translation). the mismatched teachers are trying to manage their capacity in teaching new subjects that they have never learned before. an ineffective way of teaching might happen in the teaching and learning process. it is important to consider that teachers who are not in line with their specialization need more training on managing, designing, and implementing the lesson well. ideally, effective learning happens due to effective curriculum implementation. experienced teachers sometimes find difficulties when they face frequent changes in curricula. the changes lead to an undesirable situation, such as a lack of motivation to prepare their lesson. furthermore, effective curriculum implementation requires skilled and knowledgeable teachers who are exposed to training related-subjects. this is in line with hall and hord (2015) suggest that individual educators will grow confidently and understand new ways when they are on a regular basis of training. according to octaviani (2019), teachers irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 540 need orientation and guidelines before they teach a subject using english as a medium of instruction. the guidelines are related to curriculum orientation for planning and implementing strategies and methodologies of teaching. furthermore, it is important to note that training is needed for curriculum orientation for new teachers, particularly in schools that use international textbooks and curriculum. curriculum changes would affect teachers’ performance that is not in line with their specialization and readiness. due to unfamiliar subjects and disorientation of using textbooks and curriculum, it leads to a poor teaching process. therefore, curriculum orientation training for curriculum changes helps teachers to identify their weaknesses and readiness to use the new curriculum for effective teaching. conclusion and policy recommendations i have to recognize that this research has limitations in terms of generalizability and transferability. the study displays only six (6) participants from one primary bilingual school in jambi, indonesia. this is impossible to generalize the result of the study. further research might be recommended to conduct with a large number of schools and participants to give more broadened perspectives of mismatched teachers who teach in bilingual schools. despite the limitation, the research administers an understanding of policy recommendation as a stepping-stone for larger research on the same issues. portraying from the data displayed earlier, the study offered recommendations for policymakers such as government and school managements with regards to policy on teachers’ recruitment in bilingual schools, particularly the shortage of teachers in teaching science using english. the recommendations include curriculum preparation for teachers to avoid mismatched teachers and supporting teachers’ development programs. curriculum preparation for teachers to avoid mismatched teachers, the rapid growth of internationalization of schools through english as a medium of instruction school program across the globe creates curriculum preparation for teachers. teachers need to equip with a more flexible, knowledgeable, and adaptive curriculum. a comprehensive program curriculum design for english teachers in universities needs to be conducted before teaching across the disciplines. the universities, particularly the english department program, should provide a specific curriculum subject such as teaching science for primary and secondary school. so, this is more specific than teaching english for specific purposes only. this curriculum will orient students to be more open-minded and ready for teaching across the discipline in an international-based curriculum particularly teaching science using english. this curriculum program is designed to minimize teachers from ineffective teaching, not knowing well content subject, and being less self-confident. supporting teachers’ development program, there is a need to support teachers’ competencies that are not science background but teaching science using english. the mismatched teachers are undeniable across the globe. however, there are many ways to support teachers in order to they are ready to teach. the government together with school management should have a teacher’s development program framework through senior mentoring from science teachers to train teachers who are not in line with their specialization. the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 541 development program trains teachers candidate in terms of basic concepts or knowledge that teachers will be assigned to teach science using english. the training program covers preparation, planning, 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(2018). a study of the employees’ professional competency on career commitment towards work performance in ecology industry. ekoloji, 27(106), 1785–1791. biographical notes eddy haryanto is an associate professor at faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, jambi, indonesia. he obtained his doctoral degree in development education at central luzon state university, the philippines. email: eddy-haryanto@unja.ac.id/eharyanto@yahoo.com this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 319 young agriculturists’ journey: the agricultural science and technology school tracer study regidor g. gaboy 1 , teodora t. battad 2 , soledad s. mina-roguel 3 , and rojelito f. sison 4 abstract this study traced the graduates of agricultural science and technology school (asts) in the philippines using survey research. majority of the 130 graduates were female and those who pursued college studies were taking-up agriculture-related courses. they oftentimes recognize the relevance of their learning from asts to their present undertakings. hands-on experiences in doing projects had influence on the present occupational status of the graduates. majority of the self-employed graduates are into agriculture-related endeavors. work independence was considered the primary competency that they have gained from asts. they also strongly agreed on the competencies of the teacher as well as the facilities and equipment of the school. agriculture is strongly important to the graduates and learning agricultural science in high school helped them get a good job. the field of agriculture was also found attractive for female students in the high school level. students may also earn while studying. school administrators may adopt the curriculum being implemented by asts to maximize the opportunities of students to venture in the agriculture industry. keywords agriculture, education, graduates, occupation, retrospective evaluation 1. central luzon state university, college of education, science city of munoz, nueva ecija, philippines email; rggaboy@clsu.edu.ph 2. central luzon state university, college of education, science city of munoz, nueva ecija, philippines email; training_dir@yahoo.com 3. central luzon state university, college of education, science city of munoz, nueva ecija, philippines email; smroguel2017@yahoo.com 4. central luzon state university, college of education, science city of munoz, nueva ecija, philippines email; rojelito.sison@yahoo.com mailto:rggaboy@clsu.edu.ph mailto:training_dir@yahoo.com irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 320 introduction preparing students for challenging careers in crop production, animal production, agricultural engineering, and homemaking arts and technical skills are critical to adequately prepare agricultural students to be effective employees for the work force in a knowledge economy (zarafshani, knobloch, & aghahi, 2008). this has been the guidepost of the agricultural science and technology school (asts) of central luzon state university (clsu) in the philippines, a special laboratory high school which was opened in school year 1996-1997. the main objective of the school was to train future farmers the modern ways of farming applying new technological innovations to upgrade agricultural produce. the mission was for the school “…to develop competent farmer-entrepreneur for socio-economic and sustainable development in the countryside”, with its three-fold objectives, its targets were to: a) conduct science and technology orientation, b) use earn while you learn approach, c) involve parents in the educational process, and d) use the family farm concept. (clsu bor res. no. 57-95). the hope has been, students would more easily find work when they leave school and become more productive and trainable, by teaching vocational skills (lauglo, 2006). since the establishment of clsu in 1907, a vast area of its 653-hectare campus has been devoted to farming. the first group of students were admitted to learn an agricultural curriculum that was hands-on-learning and earning while learning. as regards agriculture, many programs have been tried out in the past. they range from introducing periods of productive work into the school curriculum to offering prevocational subjects so as to facilitate an early orientation into the working environment, including that of self-employment (hoppers, 1996). the asts has not undergone a comprehensive revisiting of its graduates since its establishment in 1996. thus, this tracer study was aimed at looking into the journey of the alumni of the said institution. tracer study is an approach which is widely being used in most organization especially in the educational institutions to track and to keep record of their students once they have graduated. through tracer study, an institution is able to evaluate the quality of education given to their graduates by knowing the graduate‟s placements and positions in the society which later can be used as a benchmark in producing more qualified and competitive graduates. further, more graduate tracer studies provide important information that could help educational institutions assess the attainment of its vision, mission and goals (banawan, 2014). tracer surveys are designed to find a group of individuals who have shared a specific type of training or educational background. they thus provide a basis to explore the impact of a common training or educational experience on labor market outcomes, and facilitate the collection of richer and more detailed information than generally provided in conventional household or labor force surveys. this allows for some important refinements to the specification of earnings equations; in particular, the independent role of parental background and schooling quality can be explored (al-sammarai & reilly, 2006). clearly, a tracer study should enable not only tertiary institutions but also specialized secondary institutions to get information from graduates and employers regarding the adequacy of the irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 321 educational training being provided (cañizares, 2015). making sense of its humble beginning and the prospects of the changing time, it is believed that asts through its graduates deserves a second look. the study generally aimed to trace the journey of the asts graduates. specifically, it aimed to: (a) describe the personal profile of the respondents in terms of age, gender, civil status, reason for studying within line of agriculture and reason for choosing asts, information sources, parents‟ occupation, parents‟ monthly income while studying in asts, specialization taken, year graduated, academic achievement, municipality of origin, amount gained and received after studying, how the amount gained was used, social role, most significant learning from asts, (b) describe the educational profile of the respondents in terms of highest educational attainment and course taken after high school, (c) assess the retrospective evaluation to asts by the respondents in terms of competencies gained from the school, teacher competencies, school facilities and equipment, and their attitude towards agriculture, and (d) describe the occupational profile of the respondents in terms of employment status, nature of work, relevance of learning to their present undertakings literature review according to alam (2008), the purpose of education is to provide adequate knowledge and social value. if education programs offered do not provide employment, parents will perceive that investment in education as not worthwhile. work orientation in basic education help prepare youngsters for working life. it concerns aspects of school life that are in one way or another related to work: such as certain work-oriented subjects, productive work activities, topics in „academic‟ subjects, and a variety of skills and attitudes intentionally or unintentionally promoted at school that may have a bearing on the way young people will participate in the economy (hoppers, 1996). a vocationalized secondary education refers to a curriculum which remains overwhelmingly general or „academic‟ in nature, but which includes vocational or practical subjects as a minor portion of the students‟ timetable during the secondary school course (lauglo, 2004). many secondary education graduates and those who did not continue their studies get engaged into agriculture. further, incentives for students taking agriculture courses are needed (alam et al., 2009). image of agriculture and lack of interest in towards it were just two of the many problems why students do not engage on agriculture programs. (dyer and breja, 2003) when efforts were made to introduce instructional materials about agriculture teachers were able to make relevant connections to agriculture with their students (pense et al., 2005). the computation of returns to education is important as it provides information on the benefits associated with investments made by both governments and individuals in education, and so can guide education policy (al-sammarai & reilly, 2006). conceptual framework this tracer study is anchored on the concept of program evaluation. as defined, program evaluation is the systematic collection of information about the activities, irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 322 characteristics, and outcomes of programs for use by specific people to reduce uncertainties, improved effectiveness, and make decisions with regard to what those programs are doing and affecting (patton, 1986). this is supported by morell (1989) who stated that the most important use of follow-up evaluation involves the study of how the effect of a given treatment or program changes over time. he also emphasized that the importance of follow-up evaluation lies in its ability to assess a program's effect within the context of a person's continuing life experiences. methodology research design and locale of the study the primary focus is to describe the graduates in terms of their personal, educational and occupational profiles, their reason for choosing to study at asts, and their attitude toward agriculture. the study was undertaken in the philippines, specifically the agricultural science and technology school (asts) of central luzon state university (clsu), science city of muñoz, nueva ecija. respondents of the study only 130 out of 350 graduates (2010-2015) have responded due to the following circumstances: (a) a number of alumni have transferred to another place of residence; (b) a number of respondents were traced abroad. while the social media is a viable means of communicating with them, they were not interested to participate in the research; (c) a number of female respondents have already changed their surnames when they got married. this made it difficult to track some of them; (d) some were either busy, on travel, or simply uncooperative; (d) a number of alumni have already passed away. research instrument a survey questionnaire consisting of three parts was prepared. part i dealt on the personal profile of the graduate-respondents, part ii dealt on the educational and occupational profiles, part iii focused on the retrospective evaluation of the school program. the instrument was pre-tested and it has obtained a reliability coefficient of 0.876 using cronbach alpha. data gathering procedure and analysis to gather the needed data, the study adopted the survey technique using self-administered questionnaire, and document perusal. permission was secured from the office of the asts principal though a written request sent. upon approval of the request, another letter request was made asking for the list of graduates from 2010-2015, together with their possible contact information such as addresses, cellphone numbers or social irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 323 networking sites. access to the secondary data such as school enrolment forms, graduation programs, and students‟ permanent records were also requested. all possible ways to communicate with the respondents were used. home visits were done to administer the questionnaires personally. permission and coordination with the barangay officials were first sought to gather data in the localities of the graduates. some questionnaires were sent via e-mail and the social media such as facebook. these social media, to include sms were also used to follow-up gathering the needed data. finally, for higher questionnaire turnout, the respondents were approached during programs and reunions in asts for the purpose. descriptive analysis using frequency counts, percentages, weighted means, standard deviation and ranking were used to characterize the respondents and analyze the gathered data. data were analyzed using microsoft excel program and the statistical package for social sciences (spss) version 21. findings and discussion personal profile of the respondents age, the mean age of the respondents was 22.71 (table 1). this result means that the graduates were relatively young since 74 (56.92%) of the respondents were graduates of 2010-2015. the overall mean age of 22 coincided with the school celebrate its 20 th founding anniversary. this period also was found to have the largest bulk of the respondents as young adults. gender, the number of male student respondents in this study was less than that of the female students. only 62 (47.7%) were male while 68 (52.3%) were female. this finding supported the result of earlier study conducted by velasques (2007) who found the dominance of female students in the secondary level. table 1. personal profile of the graduate respondents parameter respondents (n=130) f % age mean 22.71 sd 5.28 gender male 62 47.7 female 68 52.3 civil status single 110 84.6 married 18 13.8 widow 1 .8 separated 1 .8 municipal address science city of muñoz 38 29.2 carranglan 16 12.3 irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 324 table 1. continued… san jose city 14 10.8 licab 14 10.8 pantabangan 11 8.5 rizal 10 7.7 llanera 8 6.2 talavera/cabanatuan 7 5.4 other towns of nueva ecija 7 5.4 towns outside nueva ecija 5 3.8 parent‟s monthly income below 5, 000 34 26.2 5, 001 – 10, 000 46 34.6 10, 001 – 15, 000 27 20.8 15, 001 – 20, 000 15 11.5 20, 000 and above 9 6.9 specialization taken agriculture 70 53.8 home technology 60 46.2 in 1996, when asts started its operation, the school accepted only male students who were predominantly out of school youth. one of its admission requirements then was physical strength. the male applicants were tested first if they could lift one cavan of palay before admission. this was meant to prepare them for the rigors of farm works. however, this requirement was removed from the admission requirements when female students started to be admitted. also, home economics specialization in 1997, has paved the way for the increase in number of female students. civil status, the respondents were predominantly single (110 or 84.6%). this conformed to the findings on age that showed the respondents were mostly young who were in their early 20‟s. municipality of origin, the science city of muñoz was found to be the major feeder of students in asts with 38 (29.2%) students coming from the place. this was followed by the nearby municipalities of carranglan with 16 (12.3%), san jose city and licab, 14 (10.8%) graduates each. the rest were from pantabangan (8.5%), rizal (7.7%), llanera (6.2%), talavera and cabanatuan, (5.4%). there were also graduates (5.4%) from the other municipalities of nueva ecija. the least 5 (3.8%) was from towns outside the province. parents’ monthly income, more parents (34.6%) of the graduates were earning 5,001-10,000 pesos as their monthly income than those earning below 5,000 (26.2%). the rest (20.8%) were earning 10,001-15,000 while those who were earning 15,001-20,000 was only (11.5%). much more, monthly income of the respondents‟ parents was found below the average family income of p22, 000.00 set by the philippine statistics authority in its 2015 family income and expenditure survey. this finding showed that the parents who sent their children to asts monthly income had below the average family income. this showed that the objective of the school, “to help the poor but bright students to become future agriculture and homemaking arts entrepreneurs”, has been achieved. irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 325 specialization taken in, clsu-asts, while there was a greater number of female among the respondents, only (46.2 percent) enrolled in home technology as their field of specialization. majority of them enrolled in agriculture (table 7) (53.8%). this finding implies that while students of asts were predominantly female, more of them took interest in the rigid activities of farming as in the school. this goes along with the study of zarafshani, knobloch, and aghahi, (2008) which asserted that preparing students for challenging careers in the crop production, animal production, agricultural engineering, homemaking arts and technical skills is critical to adequately prepare agricultural students to be effective employees for the work force in the knowledge economy. amount gained while in asts table 2 shows that more than one-fourth (30.77%) of the respondents earned 10,001-20,000 in their stint in the school. these respondents who earned 1,000-10,000 (28.46%), only 7.69 percent earned 20,001-30,000 while (1.54%) of the respondents earned 40,001-50,000 or more. table 2. amount earned while studying in asts amount frequency % 1, 000 10, 000 37 28.46 10, 001 20, 000 40 30.77 20, 001 30, 000 10 7.69 30, 001 40, 000 2 1.54 40, 001 50, 000 or more 5 3.85 missing 28 21.54 total 130 100 the male students usually engaged in rice production, swine production, and goat raising while female their counterparts were engaged in food processing which like cooking of snacks foods as puto, siomai, lumpia, pan cake, turon, maja blanco, gelatin or dishes for meals like embutido, okoy. these activities would turn out smaller profits than rice production and swine and goat raising. some female graduates though as their specialization have ventured into agriculture as their specialization with rice production. use of money earned while studying in asts table 3 shows that tuition and allowance ranked first (44.62%) in the use of the money earned while studying. this means that a good number of the students went to school after finishing their studies in asts. the amount they earned as students helped them to pursue higher education. some of the respondents (13.85%) used their earnings in establishing agriculture and entrepreneurial pursuits such as swine production, cow raising, irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 326 and other related businesses, and for family or personal expenses (13.08%) such as personal allowance, in applying for a job. thirty-seven (28.46%) did not answer the question. table 3. how the amount gained from asts was used f % allowance/tuition 58 44.62 family/personal expenses 17 13.08 farming/agriculture 18 13.85 no answer 37 28.46 total 130 100 source of information about asts figure 1 shows that majority (55.4%) of the respondents indicated family as their major source of information about asts is their family followed by friends with 37 (28.5%) and alumni with 28 (21.5%). figure 1. sources of information about asts familiarity of their families about the school could be attributed to the popularity of clsu where asts is located. known for its agriculture expertise, families of alumni as well 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 1 family elementary school teachers local government officials friends media/advertisements alumni irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 327 as their friends are instrumental in promoting thru words of mouth the training the school could offer. meanwhile, local government officials were claimed by 3.1 percent while media/advertisements were claimed by 2.3 percent and elementary school teachers by 1.5 percent of the respondents. factors considered in choosing asts and agriculture as a course table 4 shows that obtaining quality education (x =4.49) is the primary reason why students chose to study in asts. this was followed by their interest in agriculture (x =4.21). this implies the high regard of students to the institution which also offers quality collegiate courses being a commission on higher education (ched) center of excellence in the field of agriculture. clsu has been primarily known as a premier agricultural school in the country. this was followed by affordable tuition, with a mean rating of 4.25. however, the fee being referred to by the respondents here is really not tuition but only miscellaneous fees since the school offers free secondary education pursuant to its mandate. table 4. reasons for choosing asts and agriculture as a course item (n=130) m sd verbal description interest in agriculture 4.21 1.00 strongly agree improving family business related to agriculture 4.02 .95 agree prospects for immediate employment 3.83 .97 agree affordable tuition 4.25 .97 strongly agree provision of scholarship 3.48 1.17 agree influence of parents 4.08 1.06 agree influence of friends 3.69 1.17 agree near to home 3.12 1.39 moderately agree quality education 4.49 .80 strongly agree average mean 3.91 agree legend: 1.00-1.79 strongly disagree 3.40-4.19 agree 1-80-2.59 disagree 4.20-5.00 strongly agree 2.60-3.39 moderately agree provision of scholarship has been second to the lowest among the factors with a mean rating of 3.48. while asts offers free secondary education, this has not been the primary reason of the respondents in enrolling to the said school. respondents moderately agree that the reason for studying in asts its nearness to home (x =3.12). this conforms to the data on municipality and origin that showed science city of munoz as the top provider of the students in asts. the distance of their residence to the school has never been a concern since students stay in the dormitory of the school. irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 328 academic achievement of respondents table 5 shows that majority of the respondents (56.2%) have graduated from asts with honors. also, majority of the respondents (53.8%) were involved in co-curricular activities in school. this could mean those in the honors list were active in co-curricular activities. this implies that the respondents have actively participated in the co-curricular activities. also, this is a good indication that the school strategies for developing students not only focus on the academic aspect but also on the activities that make the students well-rounded individuals. table 5. academic achievement of respondents parameter respondents (n=130) f % honors received with 73 56.2 without 57 43.8 co-curricular activities involvement involved 70 53.8 not involved 60 46.2 high school average high (88.41-94-85) 34 26.15 average (81-96-88.4) 74 56.92 low (75.5-81.95) 22 16.92 mean 85.3662 sd 4.30459 agriculture and home technology related contests have been undertaken in the school. these include marcotting, fertilizer computation, cooking and sewing among others. the revival of the future farmers of the philippines (ffp) in 1997, an annual gathering of agriculture students, has given students opportunities to join in various co-curricular activities. this activity was also undertaken in the university with other students from then other three laboratory high schools of clsu. considering the grade point average, majority (56.92%) of the respondents have obtained average level. meanwhile, 26.25 percent were on high level and 16.92 percent were on low level. it reveals that the respondents who have graduated from asts have good scholastic performance while studying in the school. this can be explained by the fact that even they work in the field and practicing agriculture and homemaking arts, their level of scholastic performance was not affected, and still have good grade. according to the proponent for the revival of the school, dr. fortunato a. battad, asts curriculum envisions to produce agricultural entrepreneurs and future leaders. the school holds irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 329 entrance examination for the incoming new students. most of the students accepted in the school were found to have academic honors in their elementary education. educational profile of the respondents highest educational attainment, table 6 shows that majority (55.38%), of the graduate respondents have not pursued higher education after high school. however, some (30.0%) became college graduates and finishers of vocational courses, (12.30%). these findings could be attributed to lack of financial capability of the parents to send their children to higher education. as showed earlier, majority of the parents had income below p15, 000.00 per month. however, according to rodriguez (2013), there were alumni of asts who did not pursue their higher education because the training they had from the school was sufficient to venture in entrepreneurship like operating and managing restaurant, operating sari-sari store, operating a computer shop, mushroom production, engaged in rice farming and crops and swine production. table 6. highest educational attainment parameter respondents (n=130) f % high school 72 55.38 vocational 16 12.30 college 39 30.00 graduate degree no answer 0 3 0 2.31 total 130 100 course pursued after asts, of the 44 respondents who were still studying, 29 (65.9%) were taking courses related to agriculture while 15 (34.1%) were taking-up non-agriculture courses. the former must have taken the opportunity of further specializing agriculture in the university. majority of those residing within the province could have taken advantage of their accessibility to clsu which is known for its prime agri-technology course offerings. figure 2. course being pursued by those still studying irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 330 occupational profile of the respondents occupational status, table 7 shows that 50 (38.5%) respondents are employed, 20 (15.4%) are self-employed while 44 (33.8%) are still studying. only 16 (12.3%) are unemployed. table 7. occupational status of the respondents item (n=130) f % employed 50 38.5 self-employed 20 15.4 unemployed 16 12.3 studying 44 33.8 total 130 100 nature of work/occupation, of the 50 respondents who are employed, 36 have answered the question on nature of work (fig. 3). only 12 (33.33%) are on agriculture-related occupation while 24 (66.67%) are on non-agricultural related occupation. while the primary aim of asts is to prepare the students in the field of agriculture, majority of its graduates who were employed were into non-agricultural related occupation. this result was similar that of rodriguez (2013) who found out that alumni of asts were employed in companies like food chain, factory, hospitals, security agencies and malls in the philippines and ofw as nurse, factory worker, seaman and security guard. this reality find support in the words of bagtang (2013) who said that “much of today‟s youth shun farming because of its perceived hardships, and many farming families are part of the country‟s poor sector.” figure 3. nature of work/occupation irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 331 extent of relevance of learning from asts to present undertakings the respondents rated oftentimes (x=4.36) the extent of relevance of their learning from asts to their present undertakings. this means the respondents have recognized the importance of their training in asts. this conforms to the findings of rodriguez (2013) who asserted that hands-on experiences in undertaking of projects had a greater influence on the present occupation of the graduates. further, such findings also claimed that whatever occupation they have is an indication that their past training in asts, through its curriculum, had helped them develop their potentials and inspired them to pursue that occupation. nature of work of the self-employed respondents the purpose of preparing the asts graduates to pursue agriculture and entrepreneurial ventures have been achieved by 70% of those who are on self-employment in agriculture related endeavors as shown in figure 5. only 30% of the self-employed graduates are on non-agriculture related endeavors. figure 4. nature of work of self-employed results of this present study supports the findings of rodriguez (2013) that one of the agriculture related self-employment of the female alumni was in mushroom production, while the male alumni were in swine production and rice and crop planting. retrospective evaluation competencies gained from asts, table 8 shows in general, that respondents strongly agreed (x =4.44) with the competencies they gained from the school. work independence was considered by the respondents as the primary competency they gained. as shown in table 10, respondents strongly agreed (x =4.66) with the statement, “studying in asts enhanced my ability to work independently”. independence is being developed in the school as early as the first year of the students. with its characteristic as a boarding school, students are being exposed to basic farm and household chores in their early stay in the school. basic bed fixing, early rising, breakfast preparation and other household chores are among the non-curricular activities undertaken in the dormitory by the students. being irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 332 trained to personally take care of themselves, they could deal with life‟s challenges in an easier way. the students‟ experiences to this kind of activities could be the primary the reason why the respondents also strongly agree (x =4.55) with the statement “it‟s easier to get along with the challenges of life because of what i learned from asts”. since asts is a basically an agriculture school, students have been “made more aware and responsive of environmental concerns” to which the respondents strongly agreed with (x =4.55). table 8. competencies gained from asts item (n=130) m sd verbal description time management was imbued to me by the rigorous schedule of academics and field works in asts 4.35 .74 strongly agree laboratory activities in asts equipped me with entrepreneurial skills 4.40 .72 strongly agree supervised farming/homemaking enabled me to develop needed specific skills 4.42 .74 strongly agree studying in asts enhanced my ability to work independently 4.66 .60 strongly agree lecture classes in asts developed my writing, critical thinking and problem-solving skills 4.46 .72 strongly agree it‟s easier for me to get along with the challenges of life because of what i learned from asts 4.55 .67 strongly agree i became inspired in initiating community activities 4.28 .82 strongly agree i can now take leadership roles in community activities 4.23 .87 strongly agree my training at asts made me more aware and responsive on environmental concerns 4.55 .64 strongly agree my high school experience in asts had prepared me well in my college education 4.53 .77 strongly agree average mean 4.44 .52 strongly agree legend: 1.00-1.79 strongly disagree 3.40-4.19 agree 1-80-2.59 disagree 4.20-5.00 strongly agree 2.60-3.39 moderately agree these findings could also be attributed to the university‟s distinctly agriculture characteristics promoting environmental friendly programs such as, waste segregation and other modes of farming. moreover, the forest-like stature of the school, hosting to various trees and animals may also be considered an influential factor for this strong agreement of the respondents. respondents also strongly agreed (x =4.53) that the kind of high school experience they had from asts had prepared them well in college education. they also strongly agreed (x =4.46) that lecture classes in asts had developed their writing, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills. it was also strongly agreed (x =4.42) by the respondents that supervised farming/homemaking enabled them to develop needed specific skills. laboratory activities in asts have also been helpful in equipping them with entrepreneurial irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 333 skills (x=4.40). moreover, the respondents also strongly agreed (x =4.35) that time management was imbued to them by the rigorous schedule of academics and field works in asts. however, two items were rated least by the respondents. these were “becoming inspired in initiating community activities (x =4.28), and taking leadership roles in the community (x =4.25). this meant participation in socio-civic activities was not prioritized by the respondents or this was not emphasized by the school. nonetheless, the respondents strongly agree (x =4.44) that they have gained the stated competencies from asts. teacher competencies in general, all the teacher competencies were strongly agreed with by the respondents as shown in table 9. rated with the highest mean (x =4.52) was the statement, “teachers were competent in agriculture and home technology”. this was followed by teachers of asts were supportive and kind to students (x =4.48) and teachers have also employed different teaching strategies to provide maximum learning opportunities to students (x =4.47). only one was of lower mean rating but still described as “strongly agree”. table 9. teachers competencies item (n=130) m sd verbal description a. teachers were competent in agriculture and home technology 4.51 .74 strongly agree b. different teaching strategies are employed by teachers to provide maximum learning opportunities to students 4.47 .75 strongly agree c. positive climate during lecture and laboratory sessions was always provided by the teacher 4.29 .74 strongly agree d. teachers were supportive and kind to students 4.48 .69 strongly agree e. teachers displayed dignified practice of the teaching profession 4.43 .71 strongly agree average mean 4.44 .58 strongly agree legend: 1.00-1.79 strongly disagree 3.40-4.19 agree 1-80-2.59 disagree 4.20-5.00 strongly agree 2.60-3.39 moderately agree according to rodriguez (2013), teachers must show openness and keen sense of humor and must understand the students‟ diversity in terms of ability to development of good relationship. with teachers who mostly graduated with degrees in agriculture and home economics, students believed to have been provided with quality instructions by their competent teachers. at present, two among the faculty of school have doctorate degree while the rest have master‟s degrees. this conforms to the hiring policy of the university that irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 334 the minimum educational qualification of teachers in the institution is a master‟s degree holder. this is further strengthened by the vertical articulation policy among higher education institutions which provides that courses finished by the teachers must be aligned to the department in which they belong. while the respondents still strongly agree (x =4.29) that “positive climate during the lecture and laboratory was always provided by the teacher”, this item was rated lowest by the respondents. further, the lowest rating may also be attributed to the students‟ physical and mental conditions brought by rigid actual farm and home training of the school. in general, the respondents strongly agreed (x =4.44) with the statements on the teachers‟ competencies of asts. this implies that students appreciate and highly regard the capability of the teachers. facilities and equipment facilities and equipment are essential provisions of quality education in an educational institution. appropriate management and utilization of these provisions are vital in the realization of the goals and objectives of the school. table 10 shows that of the five statements about facilities and equipment, the respondents rated strongly agree (x =4.28) only with the statement, “farms areas for experiential planting are enough for the students”. the rest received lower mean rating described as “agree.” this could be attributed to the university‟s vast area for farming. the school has been allotted 23 hectares to be used for its laboratory in agriculture activities. table 10. facilities and equipment of asts item (n=130) m sd verbal description a. the asts has adequate classrooms and laboratory rooms for the students 4.04 .98 agree b. agriculture and home technology subjects have the needed facilities and equipment for the lessons taken 4.16 .85 agree c. up-to-date technology such as farm tools, tractor is provided by asts to its students 4.08 .89 agree d. farms areas for experiential planting are enough for the students 4.28 .95 strongly agree e. the school has adequate dormitory facilities for students 4.13 .98 agree average mean 4.14 .78 agree legend: 1.00-1.79 strongly disagree 3.40-4.19 agree 1-80-2.59 disagree 4.20-5.00 strongly agree 2.60-3.39 moderately agree irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 335 the students indicated agreed (x =4.16) that agriculture and home technology subjects have the needed facilities and equipment for the lessons taken in asts. “up-to-date technology such as farm tools, tractor is provided by asts to its students” (x =4.08). the lowest mean rating but was still described as “agree”, was the statement “the asts has adequate classrooms and laboratory rooms for the students.” (x =4.04). this conformed with the data gathered that school has only six classrooms for lecture and discussion and one (1) laboratory room for home economics technology. somehow, difficulty is encountered when classes are divided for specific lessons in the fields of specializations. the asts administration resorted to maximizing the spaces available by using the dormitory mess hall as additional laboratory for he-related activities and the social hall for group undertakings. augmenting this particular concern has been the focus of the school‟s partnership with the parent-teacher association (pta). through this, additional teaching-learning equipment, like eight computer, three microscopes, refrigerator and additional sewing machines were provided. as such, the respondents agreed with the provision of facilities and equipment of the school (x =4.14). attitude towards agriculture as shown in table 11, the respondents rated strongly agree (x =4.62) on “agriculture is important to our life.” and “learning agricultural science helps me get a good job.” (x =4.20.) table 11. attitude towards agriculture of the respondents item (n=130) m sd verbal description learning agricultural science helps me get good job 4.2 .76 strongly agree the agricultural science that i learn is relevant to my life 4.19 .9 agree i am curious about discoveries in agriculture 3.95 .94 agree knowing agricultural science gives me career advantage 4.16 99 agree agriculture is important to our life 4.62 .61 strongly agree average mean 4.08 .75 legend: 1.00-1.79 strongly disagree 3.40-4.19 agree 1-80-2.59 disagree 4.20-5.00 strongly agree 2.60-3.39 moderately agree these manifest the respondents‟ positive regard to agriculture. being enrolled in a primarily agricultural school, could widen the understanding of the respondents to the importance of agriculture in terms of getting a job. the respondents agreed on the remaining indicators as shown in table 17. rated lowest but still described as “agree” was the statement “i am curious about discoveries in agriculture” (x = 3.95). these experiences had irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 336 been relatively meaningful to the students. as revealed in the study of rodriguez (2013), students consider planting rice and vegetables as one of the best experiences they had in asts. membership in organizations table 12 shows that only 17 (13.1%) of the respondents are active on their social role being members or affiliates of organizations in the community. most (86.9%), of the respondents were not affiliated with or member of any organization. the division of public secondary school association, philippine agricultural society, crop science society, and philippine society of soil science and technology were among the organizations to which the respondents were affiliated to. table 12. membership in organizations of the respondents item (n=130) f % affiliated 17 13.1 not affiliated 113 86.9 total 130 100 respondents‟ non-affiliation could be attributed to the least rated competency gained from asts about assuming leadership roles. while students have been developed for agriculture and entrepreneurial pursuits, participation or taking a lead in various socio-civic activities has been the least priority of the graduates. problems encountered and possible solutions while the need for additional classrooms and laboratories has already been mentioned in the earlier discussion, a marketplace, among others, for the commodities and products produced by the students in their laboratory was deemed necessary. also the incumbent principal mentioned, capital for the purchase of additional piglet for the swine production project of students is wanting. for this, asts has sought the help of the university administration for its provision. another concern was enhancing the research capability of the students by providing research subject. conclusions and recommendations this tracer study was limited only to the agricultural science and technology school (asts) of central luzon state university. it focused on its graduates‟ personal, educational and occupational profiles covering the period 2010-2015. this study also looked into the retrospective evaluation by the graduates in terms of competencies gained, teacher competencies, facilities and equipment and overall attitude towards agriculture. the following conclusions and recommendations are hereby presented: irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 337 a. the field of agriculture has also been more attractive to female students in the secondary level compared with other parallel curricular specialization such as home technology. thus, it is therefore recommended that further exposure and opportunities for female students in the field of agriculture may be provided in the form of co-curricular and extra-curricular activities to enhance further their interests in the field. b. it is possible for a student to earn even more than p50, 000.00 while studying in asts. thus, more entrepreneurial activities may be initiated by the school which could harness the marketing potentials of the students. further strategies and mechanisms also need to be implemented by the school administrators in exploring viable and systematic outlet for marketing the farm produce of the students. it is also recommended that administration of high schools with the same curricular focus adopt the asts curriculum to maximize the opportunities of students to venture in the agriculture industry. c. there was a low turnout of students who eventually got employed on jobs related to agriculture immediately after high school. thus, career advocacy campaigns may also be undertaken emphasizing the various opportunities and engagements in agriculture that students can enter into after asts. career progression and further specialization on agriculture may also be introduced as viable option for career development. while the curriculum of the asts is terminal in nature, students may be further encouraged to explore further trainings after high school. disclosure statement the authors of this research received funding from department of agriculture bureau of agricultural research (da-bar), philippines. there is no conflict of interest on the matter of submitting this article for publication. acknowledgement the authors would like to extend its sincerest appreciation to dr. nicomedes p. eleazar, ceso iv, of the da-bar and to the central luzon state university administration headed by dr. tereso a. abella, university president. gratitude is also extended to dr. fortunato a. battad, proponent of agricultural science and technology school (asts), as well as to its present and former principal of asts prof. josue t. tirante and dr. luzviminda c. vicmudo, respectively. references alam, g. m. 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(2005). comparative assessment of students agricultural literacy in selected agriculture in the classroom programs. journal f agricultural education, 46(3), 107-118. philippine department of agriculture [da]. (2012) food staples sufficiency program 2011-2016: enhancing agricultural productivity and global competitiveness. quezon city, philippines: da the manila times. (2013, june 22). aging filipino farmers to affect food security. retrieved from http://www.manilatimes.net/aging-filipino-farmers-to-affect-food-security/12166/ http://research.addu.edu.ph/university-funded-researches/the-ateneo-de-davao-university-graduate-tracer-an-online-tool-for-graduate-tracer-studies/ http://research.addu.edu.ph/university-funded-researches/the-ateneo-de-davao-university-graduate-tracer-an-online-tool-for-graduate-tracer-studies/ http://www.manilatimes.net/aging-filipino-farmers-to-affect-food-security/12166/ irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 339 orosa, r. l. (2013, april 14). agri workers among lowest paid – nso. the philippine star. retrieved from http://www.philstar.com/agriculture/2013/04/14/930285/agri-workers-among-low est-paid-nso rodriguez, t. g. (2013). tracer study of the agricultural science and technology school graduates: implication for curriculum improvement (unpublished master‟s thesis). central luzon state university, philippines. velasques, j. v. (2007). teaching and learning styles and academic performance of high school students of munoz national high school in mathematics, english and science and technology. education digest, 8(1), xx-xx. zarafshami, k., knobloch, n.a., & aghahi, h. (2008). general perceived self-efficacy of iranian college of agriculture students. journal of international agricultural and extension education, 15(1), 69-84. key informant dr. fortunato a. battad, president emeritus, central luzon state university (clsu), science city of munoz, nueva ecija, philippines biographical notes regidor g. gaboy is the present dean of the college of education of central luzon state university where the agricultural science and technology school (asts) serves as a laboratory high school for its teacher education programs. email: rggaboy@clsu.edu.ph teodora t. battad is the former dean of the college of education of central luzon state university. she was also the former director of the clsu training office. e-mail: training_dir@yahoo.com soledad s. mina-roguel is a former university professor and vice-president for academic affairs of central luzon state university. e-mail: smroguel2017@yahoo.com rojelito f. sison is a former research assistant of college of education of central luzon state university. e-mail: rojelito.sison@yahoo.com http://www.philstar.com/agriculture/2013/04/14/930285/agri-workers-among-lowest-paid-nso http://www.philstar.com/agriculture/2013/04/14/930285/agri-workers-among-lowest-paid-nso mailto:rggaboy@clsu.edu.ph mailto:training_dir@yahoo.com mailto:smroguel2017@yahoo.com mailto:rojelito.sison@yahoo.com this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 71 the covid-19 pandemic and students’ perception on the online case-based learning: the case of one online course shofia amin 1* , fitri widiastuti 2 , and sumarni 3 abstract case-based learning has been applied and proven to be effective in increasing students' class participation. however, studies on how this method is used through online learning are still limited. whereas online learning activities have been done during the covid-19 pandemic, but most students seem to become passive during an online class. this study investigated students’ perceptions of the case-based learning method and how this method could be effective. using a mixed-method design, the data were collected through questionnaires in google forms from 42 students of an online change management class and students were asked to write their thoughts and perceptions. the data, then, were analyzed using spss software. this study indicated that case-based learning is helpful for students’ academic and characters improvement. the students found the method beneficial because the lecturers implemented the method well. this study suggested that the key success of case-based learning in an online class depends on the lectures and the online learning facilities. keywords case-based learning, change management course, online learning, mixed methods article history received 9 february 2022 accepted 4 april 2022 how to cite amin, s., widiastuti, f., & sumarni. (2022). the covid-19 pandemic and students’ perception on the online case-based learning: the case of one online course. indonesian research journal in education |irje|, 6(1), 71–90. https://doi.org/ 10.22437/irje.v6i1.17216 1* associate professor, faculty of economics and business, universitas jambi, jambi, indonesia, corresponding author’s email: shofiaamin@unja.ac.id 2 lecturer, faculty of economics and business, universitas jambi, jambi, indonesia 3 lecturer, faculty of economics and business, universitas jambi, jambi, indonesia mailto:shofiaamin@unja.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 72 introduction the worldwide pandemic, covid-19, has affected every aspect of human life, including the educational field. due to the pandemic, the government established a regulation regarding the health protocol to prevent the spread of the virus that demanded citizens reduce any direct social interaction or face-to-face teaching (yulianti & mukminin, 2021). the regulation, then, demands universities to carry out online learning activities. in indonesia, online learning activities have been carried out for almost two years. unfortunately, online teaching and learning activities do not always run well. there are many challenges that lecturers must face when teaching students online: most students become passive and less active in online classes (hermanto & srimulyani, 2021). this challenge might happen because of the absence of the offline classroom atmosphere where lecturers and students can interact directly and spontaneously. when students are home, they might be more relaxed and pay less attention because they only interact through their computer screens (pelikan, korlat, reiter, holzer, mayerhofer, & schober, 2021). in addition, technical problems such as unstable internet signals and other technical problems related to students’ and lecturers’ electronic devices are also challenges in online learning (hadiyanto, failasofah, armiwati, abrar, & thabran, 2021). for this reason, lectures or teaching staff must be more selective in choosing suitable methods to enhance students’ participation during online classes. most of the learning practiced today is lecturing. when attending lectures, students mostly only listen and take notes (angela, tjun, indrawan, & krismawan, 2018). thus, lecturers should consider a learning method that can make every student willing to participate. one of the methods that might be the most suitable method to increase students’ participation is case-based learning (cbl). case-based learning is a constructivist-oriented learning approach with the active participation of students to form their knowledge (silva, bispo, rodriguez, & vasquez, 2018). in the cbl method, students are given a realistic problem scenario or a case to know how students interactively try to solve the case (sherwood, 2004). by the cases, students have opportunities to practice their abilities. cases are designed to be closely related to problems they learned and might face in workplaces (zabit, 2010). in addition, a case might link several concepts at once for students to practice their abilities. in this case, students could solve realistic problems from their field of professional practice rather than only being taught through lectures. students are expected to define problems, identify related gaps in their knowledge, collect relevant information, and propose solutions (wospakrik, sundari, & musharyanti, 2020). cbl has a strong history of successful implementation in medical, law, and business schools and is increasingly used within undergraduate education, particularly within pre-professional majors and the sciences (lee, 2012; mclean, 2016; mrudula, rajneesh, & challa, 2017). it has been used in higher education for more than 40 years to teach the practical application of knowledge in a real-world setting. some studies found this method effective in higher education, especially in the business and management departments (bossche, segers, gijbels, & dochy , 2004; silva et al., 2018). the method might fill the void irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 73 in business and management fields as the fields require multifaceted practices for real-world problems as much as or more than any other field. besides, the business and management departments have been increasingly criticized for being too theoretical, too specialized, and not developing the necessary expert knowledge in students over the past decades (wospakrik et al., 2020). the critics said most business and management department is not promoting the learning needed to build essential business knowledge and competencies and not preparing students for the realities of business life (bailey, sass, swiercz, seal, & kayes, 2005; scherpereel & bowers, 2006). it is found that most students become technically proficient within their discipline but never learn to effectively share, implement, and integrate the discipline-specific knowledge (falloon, 2020). markulis, strang, and howe (2005) also found that most business leaders report that graduates cannot apply the knowledge in the interdisciplinary environment. universities are continued to be demanded to meet the needs of real work-life (vohra, rathi, & bhatnagar, 2015). these demands of the real work-life that required graduates to understand theories of the knowledge and the knowledge of applying them in workplaces should make universities aware of preparing the students better. with this situation in mind, using a case-based learning method might be helpful to accomplish the demands and increase students’ participation during online learning. the method is deemed worthy of being applied in an online business and management class. however, studies of online case-based learning, specifically in the indonesian management field, are still limited. therefore, this study focused on students’ perceptions about learning by case-based learning method in an online class and how the method could be effective for online learning. the study intended to answer the following research questions: 1. what are students’ perceptions on case-based learning in the change management course? 2. how can the case-based learning method be effective in online classes? literature review case-based learning (cbl) case-based learning (cbl) is an instructional learning method oriented towards a learning problem-solving approach. this method involves guided inquiry and is grounded in constructivism, whereby students form new meanings by interacting with their knowledge and the environment (lee, 2012). cbl is also an active teaching strategy that allows students to take the lead and become responsible for their learning process (silva et al., 2018). it is an established approach used across disciplines where students apply their knowledge to real-world scenarios and promote higher levels of cognition. it uses cases – hypothetical or real-life problems – to supplement theoretical knowledge. students are given cases to solve in this learning strategy, allowing for practical application of the concepts learned in class (williams, 2005). students could have the opportunity to work collaboratively and develop the ability to learn (gwee, 2009; hmelo-silver, 2004; woods, 2006), solve problems through an investigative process, analyze data and propose solutions (silva et al., 2018). irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 74 cbl can encourage students to use their prior knowledge to make decisions focusing on problem-solving (silva et al., 2018), making them more reflective and responsible for their learning (hmelo-silver, 2004). cbl allows students to be exposed to a problem and develop a sense of self-direction in search of the knowledge required to solve it (silva et al., 2018). it is an educational strategy that considers the complex nature of learning (savin-baden & major, 2004) and values the practical experience of learning. there are several benefits of using cbl in the classroom. williams (2005) described that cbl is useful to: utilize collaborative learning, facilitates the integration of learning, develops students’ intrinsic and extrinsic motivation to learn, encourages learner self-reflection and critical reflection, allows for scientific inquiry, integrates knowledge and practice, and supports the development of a variety of learning skills. mutmainah (2008) also mentioned four advantages of using cbl:  improve problem-solving skills because cases allow students to experience dealing with various problems in organizations.  improve students’ understanding of the material because cases present a variety of relevant issues and provide incentives for students to be more involved in learning.  improve students’ ability to interpret something because cases require students to integrate various concepts of learning materials to solve a problem.  improve students’ contribution in learning because cases provide an opportunity to gain experience in presenting ideas to others and provide an experience that can be applied in workplaces. moreover, handoko (2005) mentioned that a case is a good case if it has the following characteristics: 1) the case describes a managerial situation in which a decision must be made (immediately), but does not reveal the result; 2) the cases are written to encourage the active participation of students in analyzing the situation; 3) the case materials are written to bring out various views and analyses developed by students; 4) the case consists of the central part that discusses other issues and information; 5) the cases usually do not ask questions because understanding what should be asked is important for case analysis. furthermore, lecturers can choose cases from existing sources or create their own. when creating cases, lecturers must ensure that cases are short, relevant, and interesting to students, based on factual information, provoke reflection, and have a learning purpose. lecturers are facilitators and supervisors during case-based learning, supporting and providing assistance as required. during group work, lecturers can ask groups questions to ensure that they focus on tasks to identify struggling groups. when cases provide a context for the improvement, students’ understanding can also be improved. as the strategy encourages learning through action and problem-solving, student retention of information is strengthened. cbl as a student-centered learning process it is still quite difficult to change students’ behavior by just being present, listening, and taking notes. ideally, a good learning process involves a discussion or question and answer section. hence, students must be prepared with the topics to be discussed before entering the class to achieve a good learning process. thus, they suppose not to use the class irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 75 only as a place to sit, listen, and take notes, but to ask questions and discuss the topic of discussion. this kind of process is an ideal process to be applied in lectures. the process requires students’ independence in seeking student-centered learning (scl) (slavin, 2008). student-centered learning can improve the quality of students as it encourages and motivates students to develop creativity and independent learning abilities (aliusta & ozer 2016). one method that embeds the scl process is case-based learning (wospakrik et al., 2020). case-based learning is a student-centered learning process where students learn through problem-solving. the problems are real-world problems, and students need to identify what knowledge is required to solve the problem (boud & feletti, 1997; peterson, 2004). the problems should be designed in a complex and ill-structured way so that students cannot solve them right away; the students need to find new information to analyze the situation and come up with possible solutions (hansen, 2006; milne & mcconnell, 2001). silva et al. (2018) emphasize that cbl can improve and optimize educational outcomes because it is student-centered and promotes reflective learning. cbl uses factors such as the subject matter, students, teachers, and organizations (savin-baden & major, 2004). the method allows the student to be the center of learning and facilitates the development of self-awareness. it encourages students to use critical thinking skills to identify and narrow an issue, develop, and evaluate alternatives, and offer solutions (nkhoma, 2017). furthermore, cbl is based on the assumption that students learn best in teams, engaging in cooperative and self-directed learning (hansen, 2006; kloppenborg & baucus, 2004). problem-solving as teamwork, especially in a case of a challenging and complex problem, requires all team members to participate in discussions and engage in information sharing. this process can be quite frustrating for students because they need to take an active role in learning (peterson, 2004). however, if successful, through the cbl process, students gain a deeper understanding of the subject and, afterward, will remember what they learned (silva et al., 2018). cbl in business and management education there has been great interest in the potential of case-based learning for business and management education (sherwood, 2004). the application of cbl can be seen as a response to criticism that business and management education is disconnected from practice and students have difficulties applying theories and concepts to complex real-world problems (kloppenborg & baucus, 2004; smith, 2005). most curricula at business and management now analyze real-world case studies. some lecturers have involved students with real-life data and provided opportunities for students to put themselves in the decision maker’s shoes (barkley, barkley, cross, & major, 2005). business and management students will ultimately grapple with problems within their professional lives, and thus a case-based learning method presents a close-bond relationship between student needs and pedagogy. the case-based learning method offers the potential for real-life experience and the opportunities to design relevant context for the problem-solving situation (pfeffer & fong, 2002). the use of cbl in business and management education allows students to experience the context of professional life by solving problems related to the issues that arise in a manager’s professional activity (hmelo-silver, 2004). irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 76 for management education, the most important cbl benefits are 1) the educational focus is on practice-relevant knowledge; 2) knowledge can be drawn from multiple disciplines that increase students’ abilities to combine knowledge from different business areas; 3) problems are solved in teams, which develops students’ teamwork, leadership, and interpersonal skills; and 4) students are motivated to learning (smith, 2005). cbl is one of the active teaching strategies to make management students’ learning more meaningful. it helps students reflect on their own needs (silva, 2016) and enhances their ability to develop independence as learners (gwee, 2009). moreover, there are some aspects considered to the cbl strategy that facilitate the understanding of its use in management education (sherwood, 2004; silva et al., 2018):  the studied problem. discussing a problem is the central focus of cbl, given that the search for possible solutions to a problem can contribute to the development of students’ skills.  curriculum. the curriculum for cbl can be structured to integrate with other disciplines, grouped by thematic blocks. in management programs, cbl can be implemented in an interdisciplinary manner in various courses during the same period or semester; however, it can also be used in a specific course, as is the case with the proposal presented in this paper. the professor or instructor of a certain course that employs the cbl strategy can collaborate with teachers from other courses to enrich the problem with information drawn from true-to-life professional situations.  students and teachers. unlike conventional teaching strategies, in which the student is a passive recipient of information from the teacher, cbl involves a change in these roles. the strategy requires the student to take an active role in his or her education. the teacher assumes the role of tutor and moderator, facilitating the group’s work and communication among its members.  process. the process considers a student-centered approach that encourages students to develop their independent research skills and directly connect what they learn and their needs as learners (macdonald & savin-baden, 2004).  assessment. in cbl, assessment “gives students a responsible role in analyzing their progress and that of classmates in their group, rather than focusing only on the teacher’s assessment” (silva et al., 2018). moreover, it is crucial to tailor the assessment process to the type of learning desired, which requires great care and attention to the relationship between teaching and learning (macdonald, 2005). when using this strategy, the teacher should define a teaching system focused on professional practice, considering broader principles, based on student performance according to well-defined criteria and relevant evidence (macdonald & savin-baden, 2004; woods, 2006). furthermore, an example of a case for business and management education can involve students working on a case study that presents the history of business success or failure. they could apply business principles learned in the classroom and assess why the venture was successful or not. therefore, by looking for its consideration, benefits, and examples, cbl is applicable in business and management classes. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 77 online learning online learning can be defined as a teaching-learning process that is more student-centered, more innovative, and more flexible (cojocariu, lazar, nedeff, & lazar, 2014; singh & thurman, 2019). it can also be defined as learning experiences in synchronous or asynchronous environments using different devices (e.g., computers, laptops, or mobile phones) with internet access (dhawan, 2020). there are real-time interactions between educators and learners in a synchronous learning environment, and instant feedback is possible. meanwhile, in asynchronous learning environments, learning content is not available in live lectures or classes, and instant feedback and immediate response are not possible. during the global pandemic covid-19, online learning is no longer an option but a necessity. the corona virus has made many universities go from offline mode to online mode of pedagogy. however, most universities might face some challenges in transforming all of their curricula into an online form. distance, scale, and personalized teaching and learning are the three biggest challenges for online teaching (dhawan, 2020). moreover, the technologies for online education sometimes create many difficulties, ranging from downloading errors, issues with installation, login problems, and problems with audio and video. personal attention is also a huge issue facing online learning (dhawan, 2020). most students might find online learning unengaging and boring because they want two-way interactions. sometimes, online content is theoretical and does not let students practice and learn effectively (parkes, stein, & reading, 2015). therefore, online learning should be creative, interactive, relevant, student-centered, and group-based (partlow & gibbs, 2003). regarding this, dhawan (2020) suggested that:  efforts should be made to humanize the learning process to the best extent possible;  personal attention should be provided to students so that they can quickly adapt to this learning environment;  the quality of the courses should be improved continuously, and teachers must try to give their best;  educators must spend much time making effective strategies for giving online instructions.  practical online instructions should facilitate feedback from learners, make learners ask questions, and broaden the learner’s horizon for the course content (keeton, 2004). institutions must focus on pedagogical issues and emphasize collaborative learning, case learning, and project-based learning through online instructions (kim & bonk, 2006). the effectiveness of cbl case-based learning is an effective learning approach that requires students to be active and creative in discussions of real-life events. it can increase students’ classroom participation because it requires students’ activeness. several studies found a positive effect of using cbl in classrooms. the studies (bansal & goyal, 2017; gholami, saki, toulabi, moghadam, pour, & dostizadeh, 2016; kantar & massouh, 2015; mclean, 2016; torreda et al., 2015) found that the cbl method is very effective and have a positive impact on irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 78 motivating students to improve their knowledge in identifying problems. the cbl method also improved students’ creativity and developed a positive attitude in learning to achieve better learning outcomes (cam & geban, 2016; hong & yu, 2016). in a review of the effectiveness of cbl, thistlethwaite et al. (2012) also found several benefits of cbl: 1) students enjoyed the method and thought it enhanced their learning, 2) instructors liked how cbl engaged students in learning, and 3) cbl seemed to facilitate small group learning. sherwood (2004) also found that learning through the cbl method can build and expand six critical thinking strategies: emotional restraint, research, questioning, distinguishing fact from fiction, searching for ambiguity, and listening. moreover, wospakrik et al. (2020) found that the motivation and learning outcomes of students became better after being given the case-based learning method. there is a significant influence in applying the case-based learning method on students’ motivation and learning outcomes. other studies have also reported on the effectiveness of cbl in achieving learning outcomes (bonney, 2015; breslin, 2008; herreid, 2013; krain, 2016). these findings suggested that cbl is a vehicle of instruction and facilitates an environment where students can construct knowledge. in conclusion, numerous research has proven that cbl effectively increases students’ participation, motivation, skills, and learning outcomes. however, research on the implementation of cbl in online classes is still limited. for that reason, this study focuses on students’ perceptions of using the cbl method in an online class, specifically in a change management class. methodology research design, site, and participants this study used a mixed-method design to investigate students’ perception of case-based learning and how the method could be run effectively. as creswell (2012) mentioned that mixed-method design can give more information than other methods. the researcher chose both qualitative and quantitative designs to give in-depth information to achieve the purpose of this study. both quantitative and qualitative data were collected concurrently through google forms that were divided into two sections containing close-ended questions for quantitative data and open-ended questions for qualitative data. the participants of this study were 42 students in a change management class of management department, faculty of economics and business, jambi university, in the 2021/2022 academic year. the students were in the fifth semester of 4 concentrations; human resource management, marketing management, financial management, and entrepreneurship. the participants were purposively chosen because the class was fully run online, and it was potential to implement the case-based learning method in the class. the participants were agreed to join the research, and their identity remains a pseudonym. data collection and analysis the data were taken based on the results from 16 meetings of cbl implementation in the online class. at the first meeting, there was an introduction between lecturers and students by asking their background of their chosen concentrations. the lectures also irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 79 explained the lesson plan, lecture rules, and assessment procedures. then, the lecturers asked the students to make six discussion groups at the end of the first meeting. each group was asked to choose, observe, and raise one case related to indonesia's business world’s changes. at the second until the seventh meeting, the lecturer gave a conceptual explanation about course materials of change management, which consisted of 1) the definition of change management; 2) the importance to make the change; 3) the change management theory; 4) the resistance to change; 5) the strategies to overcome the resistance. at the eighth meeting, the mid-semester was held. then, at the 9th meeting, the students presented the cases they chose until the 15th meeting. the presenting group chose a moderator from its members, while other groups that do not present are required to ask questions, provide comments, discuss, and give opinions. the discussed cases were from five companies. they are: 1) pt. telkomsel (persero); 2) netflix indonesia; 3) pt. unilever indonesia; 4) pt. garuda indonesia; and 5) pt. gojek. at the end of each discussion, the lecturer will provide a summary and conclusion of the case material discussed. the data were taken in the 15th meeting based on the class schedule. the students were asked to fill out google forms containing a close-ended and open-ended questionnaire. the questionnaire contains the students’ impressions and perceptions of the case-based learning method, perceptions of the lecturers and the class, and suggestions to improve the class in the next semester. the questionnaire was developed based on the actions during the classes. the closed-ended questions were 15 questions that required participants to answer yes or no and were scored based on likert-scale. on the other hand, the open-ended questions were 15 questions of the participants’ reason for their close-ended answers. furthermore, the quantitative data were analyzed by spss software to calculate the mean and frequency. meanwhile, the qualitative data were analyzed through stages based on the guidelines that creswell (2012) proposed: identify, classify the data, build descriptions, interpret findings, and find validation. then, the final analysis results were categorized according to the research questions. ethical considerations in our study, all participants’ information was masked in order to protect the confidentiality of their identity. findings students’ perceptions on case-based learning: helpful for academic and character development in learning this study investigated the students’ perceptions about the case-based learning method in the change management class and how the method can work effectively in the online class. this study showed that almost all of the students acknowledged the positive impact of the case-based learning method. based on the data, the students admitted that they got the benefits of the case-based learning method on their academic and character development in learning. the table below presents the results of the questionnaire analysis. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 80 table 1. students’ overall perceptions of case-based learning method perceptions n % yes no yes no 1. cbl method helps students to understand the course material of change management 42 0 100 0 2. cbl stimulates students to think and learn autonomously 39 3 92.9 7.1 3. cbl increases students’ interest in learning the course 39 3 92.9 7.1 4. students are happy and satisfied to learn by cbl method 39 3 92.9 7.1 5. cbl trains students to be brave in expressing their opinions 39 3 92.9 7.1 6. cbl increases students’ active participation through classroom discussions 38 4 90.5 9.5 7. cbl is helpful to expand students’ insights and knowledge 42 0 100 0 8. cbl method helps students to understand the aligning of theories and actual practices 41 1 97.6 2.4 9. after the 14 meetings, students’ understanding and level of mastery of the course materials have increased 41 1 97.6 2.4 the advantages of case-based learning on students’ academic development based on the findings, almost all participants admitted that the cbl method improves their academic abilities in the change management course. table 2 below shows students’ perceptions related to their academic development. table 2. students’ perceptions of the advantages of case-based learning on their academic development perceptions n % yes no yes no 1. cbl method helps students to understand the course material of change management 42 0 100 0 2. cbl is helpful to expand students’ insights and knowledge 42 0 100 0 3. cbl method helps students to understand the aligning of theories and actual practices 41 1 97.6 2.4 4. after the 14 meetings, students’ understanding and level of mastery of the course materials have increased 41 1 97.6 2.4 the data showed that all 42 participants (100%) admitted that the cbl method helped them understand the course material. the students stated that cbl helped their understanding because the cbl method encouraged them to read more to deepen their understanding of the discussed material. some students stated their reasons in the open-ended section of the questionnaire, “the case-based learning method made us read and search more references to help us easier understand the material and solve the case.” [student 1] irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 81 another reason was that the material discussed could be clearly understood and applied to the cases. “the material that has been explained can be applied directly to the specified cases in the groups.” [student 2] the other reason was that all students were demanded to share their opinions during the discussions. thus, they inevitably must think and study more to be able to participate and solve the cases. “we are required to speak, to give our opinions. that is why we become motivated to explore more, to understand the material.” [student 3] the data also showed that all of the participants (100%) agreed that case-based learning is helpful to expand their insights and knowledge, both in general and specifically about the course material. “with the method, we become more up to date on the news and phenomena happening today, especially any information about the case and the course material.” [student 4] this statement relates to the students’ reasons why case-based learning helped them understand the course material; they are required to read more sources. to join the discussions and follow the lessons, they must read many sources or references and be more updated about the latest information related to the discussed cases. therefore, all participants agreed that cbl helped them upgrade their insights and knowledge. moreover, the data showed that 41 students (97.6%) agreed that the cbl method helps students understand the alignment of theories and actual practices. “by learning with cases, students can find out how to apply the theories on the real practices, especially on the selected companies that we discussed.” [student 5] some students had mentioned this statement when they were asked why the cbl helped them understand the course material. they admitted that the cbl method made them more familiar with the material because the theories they learned were directly implemented in the cases that illustrated real problems in actual practices. they learned about theories and how to implement the theory into cases that they will face later in the workplace. in other words, they did not only learn the material through abstract things but also through real practices. this alignment between theories and practices is one of the advantages of the cbl method that has been proposed in some studies (kaur, rehncy, kahal, singh, sharma, matreja, & grewal, 2020; mclean, 2016; nkhoma, 2017). it turned out that the participants of this study also got that similar advantage. furthermore, the data showed that the 41 students (97.6%) agreed that after 14 meetings, students’ understanding and level of mastery of the course materials have increased. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 82 in other words, the use of the case-based learning method in this study was successful. students admitted that they understood and mastered the course material better after the 14 meetings by the learning method. the case-based learning method made the students more familiar with the course material, increased their knowledge, and was easier to link the learned theories and actual practices. particularly, the case-based learning method was beneficial for the students’ academic development. the advantages of case-based learning on students’ character development in learning the data indicated that the case-based learning method was beneficial for the students’ academic development and the students’ character development in learning. the findings showed that 92% of students agreed that case-based learning is beneficial for their character development in terms of how they think, give opinions, participate, and become enthusiastic in class. table 3 below shows the students’ perceptions related to their character development in learning table 3. the advantages of case-based learning on their character development in learning perceptions n % yes no yes no 1. cbl stimulates students to think and learn autonomously 39 3 92.9 7.1 2. cbl increases students’ interest in learning the course 39 3 92.9 7.1 3. students are happy and satisfied to learn by cbl method 39 3 92.9 7.1 4. cbl trains students to be brave in expressing their opinions 39 3 92.9 7.1 5. cbl increases students’ active participation through classroom discussions 38 4 90.5 9.5 92.9% (39) students agreed that the case-based learning method stimulates them to think and learn autonomously. as mentioned in the previous section, by learning with the case-based learning method, the students were required to read and learn more about the latest information related to the discussed cases. as a result, they become motivated to learn independently at home to prepare for the class discussions. “we are required to read more about the cases and news because we need to prepare for the discussions. it made us more critical and independent to learn by ourselves at home.” [student 6] the case-based learning method also trained students’ public speaking skills. the data showed that 92.9% of students agree that the cbl method trains them to be brave in giving opinions. by learning this method, all students are demanded to provide their logical opinions to solve irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 83 the cases. whether they like it or not, they should be brave to speak up their voices because their statements or opinions are one aspect that the lecturer assessed. “by case-based learning, i become braver in speaking and expressing my opinions during presentations and discussions. we need to prepare our discussion materials and present them. i am happy because i can improve my public speaking ability in front of the class.” [students 7] another benefit of case-based learning that the students found is the increase of their interest, pleasure, and satisfaction in learning the course. the data showed that 92.9% of the students agreed that the cbl method increases students’ interest in learning the course. 92.9% of students also agreed that they are happy and satisfied to learn by the case-based learning method. some students admitted that they were happy with the learning method because it was not boring. they learned the theories and the practices of how they were supposed to solve the cases. other students also admitted that the chosen cases were up to date, and the lecturers’ instructions and explanations were clear and detailed. thus, the method made them more enthusiastic about learning even though it was an online class. “it is exciting to learn by the cases. it has a wider scope of knowledge.” [student 8] “the case-based learning method made us think logically and theoretically. so we did not just listen to the lectures, but we need to think harder.” [student 9] “the learning process did not only focus on theories, but it also made students aware of new cases and latest news” [student 10] furthermore, the case-based learning method has increased the students’ participation in the online classroom. the 90.5% of students agreed that the cbl increases students’ active participation through classroom discussions. “the case-based learning method is great for people who are afraid or shy to speak up or give an opinion in front of the class. for example, we can ask the presenters about the material that we have not understood during the class. also, during the class, we are trained to be more active during the discussions, and we should be able to accept other students’ opinions.” [student 11] in other words, the case-based learning method could make the students more active and increase their participation. the method is beneficial for the students’ character development in learning, even in an online class. how case-based learning can be effective in the online class based on the data, the positive responses given by all participants on the case-based learning method in the online class happened due to some reasons. first, case-based learning is a method that has never been practiced before in the change management class. the students found case-based learning as a useful method for their learning. they became enthusiastic irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 84 about the cbl method because, besides its many advantages, it is also a new thing that is implemented in the class. second, the lecturers followed the procedures according to what the method offers. the lecturers gave a conceptual explanation about the material, gave an equal opportunity for each group to present and discuss, provided comments and feedback for each student, and ensured that each student has participated. in other words, the lecturer has provided the students with sufficient material and explanation before finally giving them full opportunities to discuss. table 4 below shows the students’ perceptions of how the lecturers handled the class. table 4. students’ perceptions of how the lecturers handled the online class perceptions n % yes no yes no 1. the lecturers always gave a review or conclusion of each discussion. 42 0 100 0 2. the lecturers were actively involved during the discussion process. 39 3 92.9 7.1 3. the lecturers always tried to make all students participate and give opinions. 39 3 92.9 7.1 how the lecturers have well handled the class is approved by the students. the data showed that 100% of the students agree that the lecturers always reviewed and concluded each discussed material in every meeting. it means that the lecturers did not just let the students take the total center of the class without guidance afterward. the lecturers always concluded the results of each discussion to clarify the students’ understandings. moreover, 92.9% of the students agreed that the lecturers were actively involved during the discussion process. the lecturers still monitored and kept an eye on the students to make the discussions run well. in addition, 92.9% of students also agreed that the lecturers tried to make all students participate and voice their opinions. the lecturers ensured that all students must speak in the class forum, and there was no student left behind. in other words, although the case-based learning method is a student-centered learning process, the lecturers still have to take their roles in guiding students. thus, all students’ discussions, presentations, and participation could run well. especially in online classes, lecturers must monitor the screen more often and mark students’ names to ensure that every student speaks their arguments. discussion the benefits of case-based learning for students’ academic development have been found in various studies (bossche et al., 2004; cam & geban, 2016; hong & yu, 2016; wospakrik et al., 2020). those studies also found case-based learning as a useful learning method for improving students’ knowledge and learning outcomes. although the related studies examined the case-based learning method in offline classes, the studies indicated similar benefits with this current study. it turned out that the benefits of the case-based learning method can also be acquired in an online class. this study proved that although the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 85 learning activities were carried out online, students still can get the advantages of the cbl method for their academic development. the advantages of the case-based learning method for developing students’ character in learning also have been found in several students. some studies (angela et al., 2018; lee, lee, liu, bonk, & magjuka, 2009; scherpereel & bowers, 2006; zabit, 2010) found similar benefits as this study indicated: cbl could stimulate students’ autonomous learning and critical thinking. several studies (bansal & goyal, 2017; gholami et al., 2016; kantar & massouh, 2015; thistlethwaite et al., 2012) also found that students were satisfied and happy with the case-based learning method because the method proposed a learning process that is not monotonous where students are required to discuss and solve different cases in every meeting. overall, the related studies shared similar findings that indicated case-based learning as a learning method that can increase students’ participation in a class. in conclusion, using the case-based learning method seems beneficial for students’ academic and character development through online and offline classes. furthermore, some studies also found that the effectiveness of the cbl method can be achieved if the lecturer guides the discussion in a good way (nkhoma, 2017; silva et al., 2018; thistlethwaite et al., 2012). lecturers stimulate students to become independent but still guide them (angela et al., 2018; mutmainah, 2008; zabit, 2010). specifically, lee et al. (2009) implied three aspects that should be considered on case-based learning in online environments: (1) lecturers’ instructional design for case development and delivery; (2) facilitation for student engagement in online learning; and (3) technology support for effective case-based activities (lee et al., 2009). hadiyanto et al. (2021) mentioned that online and offline learning possesses similar methods, structure, content, strategy, and learning activities. however, a lecturer is a crucial factor in successfully organizing online learning activities, and they play a very decisive role in motivating students. lecturers need to convey information on all aspects of learning activities. they also need to possess higher skills in operating online learning applications to optimize the facilities and features. in other words, the success of online learning depends on lecturers’ ability to adapt, develop and inculcate standard learning components and have technical skills in operating online stuff (ananga & biney, 2017). all in all, the findings of this study are similar to most related studies on case-based learning that implied students’ positive responses. it turns out that although this study was conducted through online learning, the students could still get the benefit of the method, and the lecturers could manage to implement the method well. however, still, the findings of this study showed that not 100% of students agreed with the benefit of the method. there were still 1-2% of students who did not enjoy the method. the negative responses might happen because of the online learning vibes that made students cannot interact face-to-face with their friends. future lecturers or researchers related to this topic might better consider consulting the students with negative responses on the method, especially if they could not follow the lesson at all with the method, and the method interfered with their understanding. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 86 conclusion and recommendations/implications the students agreed that case-based learning is very beneficial for their academic and character development. case-based learning is beneficial for the student’s academic development in understanding the material, expanding knowledge, and improving learning outcomes. case-based learning is also beneficial for the student’s character development in terms of how they think critically, act autonomously, speak in public, and participate in class. furthermore, this study also found that the key to implementing the case-based learning method in online classes depends on how the lecturer handles the class and adopts the method well. most importantly, students and lecturers need to own adequate facilities and technological skills to operate and access online learning. from the conclusion above, the researchers of this study would like to give suggestions for the following researchers in a similar topic of interest. first, examining students’ responses to case-based learning in different classes with different subjects is worthy to obtain different findings. second, it is suggested that lecturers ensure that students have adequate online learning facilities and abilities to operate online learning well. third, although using the case-based learning method in online learning is quite successful, the vibes of offline learning might be different because students have to discuss and speak in front of the class face to face with their friends. while in online learning, there is still a barrier between all students: distance and screens. for this reason, case-based learning indeed might be optimal if it is done in an offline class. however, the key success of the method still depends on how lecturers handle their classes. disclosure statement no potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors. acknowledgments the authors' gratitude goes to universitas jambi for funding this research through the scheme of learning innovation research. also, special thanks to the participants who helped the authors to finish this study. references aliusta, g. o., & özer, b. 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(2021). teaching and learning during covid-19 pandemic: a qualitative study on elementary school teachers in indonesia. the qualitative report, 26(12), 3900-3910. zabit, n. (2010). problem-based learning on students’ critical thinking skills in teaching business education in malaysia: a literature review. american journal of business education (ajbe), 3(6), 19-32. biographical notes shofia amin is an associate professor, faculty of economics and business, universitas jambi, jambi, indonesia, corresponding author’s email: shofiaamin@unja.ac.id fitri widiastuti is a lecturer, faculty of economics and business, universitas jambi, jambi, indonesia. sumarni is a lecturer, faculty of economics and business, universitas jambi, jambi, indonesia mailto:shofiaamin@unja.ac.id this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 340 ambivalent attitudes to regional dialects in hungary: investigating students and teachers andrea parapatics 1 abstract the paper presents two connecting studies on the linguistic mentality of the hungarian society to regional dialects. the focus of the study is to find an explanation of the problem that hungarians learn to respect diversity, although, misbeliefs and standard-based culture usually lead to debates in communication or even to linguicism. the main hypotheses are: white-collar-to-be students cannot apply what they learnt about dialects, therefore, many corrections are motivated by regionalisms of which they are not aware, and it is all rooted in problems of teacher training and practice related to language variability. 548 university students 170 teachers in middle and high schools were asked in questionnaires about their language attitudes and everyday experiences and practice. the results highlighted: while tolerant attitudes are represented theoretically, standard-based practice suggests negative lessons about dialects. keywords dialects, language attitudes, language awareness, public education, sociodialectology 1. faculty of modern philology and social sciences, university of pannonia, veszprém, hungary; email-parapatics.andrea@mftk.uni-pannon.hu mailto:email-parapatics.andrea@mftk.uni-pannon.hu irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 341 introduction having been a centralised country for decades, regional varieties of hungarian were expelled from school in order to teach the only official and prestigious standard. however, the latest version of the national curriculum was inspired by sociolinguistic approach and warns to tolerate regionalisms as traditional worth, stigmatization of regiolects (as „bad languages‟, cf. hudson, 2004) is still typical in the linguistic mentality of the hungarian speech community. teachers of public education have not got considerable and useful help to explain basic information on language variability for many decades, neither during their studies and trainings, nor in the text-books they use at school (in details see below). as richard hudson worded on the similar situation of education in the united kingdom: „in the uk at least, most teachers learned very little about language during their own education, either at school or at university, so it seems unrealistic to suggest that they should be teaching (and doing) linguistics in the classroom. how can they teach a subject that they don‟t know?” (hudson, 2004, no page number). due to this problem, among most members of the hungarian society, and even some non-sociolinguist linguists (cf. kiss, 2015), the term dialect evokes the picture of old village-ladies with scarf on their head, driving chickens in their garden, or workers in the vineyard, maybe transylvanian hungarian boys and girls in traditional folk costume dancing csárdás. due to the low level of language awareness most hungarians know nothing about the variability of languages and the diversity of their mother tongue, therefore, they know nothing about the dialect background of themselves and of other people. it leads to numerous, although unnecessary debates in everyday communication and restrains to undertake regional identity and to behave tolerant in real. the main purpose of this study is to prove the existence and the actuality of the problem by analyzing numerous data. the paper presents the results of two empirical research studies that were conducted by the author from 2015 to 2018. at first the paper investigates language attitudes of hungarian university students to regional dialects. in particular, present paper seeks to address the following questions: which kind of misbeliefs they have on language variability? which kind of features of their language use have already been corrected and/or laughed at? do they have negative experiences due to their mother tongue dialect among native speakers? who have already corrected their language use? what do they correct in other people‟s language use and why? the second study that is presented in this paper investigates teachers‟ knowledge and attitudes to regional dialects and their everyday practice in public education. this part of the paper aims at answering the following questions: what do hungarian teachers think about regional dialects and dialect speakers? how do they handle a student with dialect background? do they teach the topic of language variability at all? which kind of help they got for it during their training? the hypothesis that is tested in the first half of the paper is that most respondents represent tolerant attitudes to the variegation of language use as they learnt at school according to the national curriculum but answering other questions brings to light that all these theoretical attitudes cannot be applied in everyday communication. another hypothesis is that many corrections are motivated by regionalisms of which they are not aware, like they irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 342 are not aware of their own regionalisms as well. numerous personal stories suggest that students usually earn many negative experiences due to their mother tongue. by analysing answers of a vast number of participants, the paper provides responsible data not only on questions of perceptual dialectology but also on regional dialect features of the language use of well-educated youngsters. therefore, this study provides an important opportunity to advance the understanding of mechanisms of linguistic mentality and can also confute the myth that regional dialects can only be observed in the speech of low-educated, older village-people. the hypothesis that is tested in the second half of the paper is that most teachers in hungary believe the same myths of dialects as other members of the society; therefore, the main stereotypes that were mentioned above are also represented by them at school. another hypothesis is that most teachers present positive attitudes to dialects theoretically but many language forms they correct in their students‟ language use have regional background in real. discovering their language attitudes and teaching practices provides an explanation for the results of the first study. literature review the hungarian language area (that is not equal to the territory of present-day hungary since 1920) has ten main dialect regions that also divide into many smaller dialect groups. with the exception of the moldavian dialect region that is all spoken in the territory of romania (as well as two other regions that are closer to the contemporary border), hungarian dialects do not differ to a great extent from each other, therefore, the number of understanding problems is minimal (cf. mdial). although structural and pragmatic factors of dialect use are continuously changing (cf. hegedűs, 2005; kiss, 2017; for recent results cf. e.g., guttmann & molnár, 2007; hajba, 2012; czetter et al., 2016; kontra et al., 2016; bodó & fazakas, 2018), numerous regional language forms can also be observed among young speakers (cf. guttmann, 1995; koós 2017; parapatics, 2016). a considerable number of studies on hungarian dialects in a dimensional view of language (juhász, 2002) draws attention to historical priority and outstanding variegation of regional dialects (hegedűs, 2016; kiss, 2017), emphasizes their own rules, logic and complexity that make them independent language systems that are also correct in the light of their own language norm (péntek, 2015). these facts are all represented in the national curriculum of hungary, however, general stigmatization of hungarian dialects among native speakers will not change until language awareness of the speech community is not developed, until actual and science-based information of the diversity of the national language cannot be learnt in a convincing and clear way during public education. as nagy (2004) worded: „misbeliefs and stereotypes must be ruined at school, in society and sometimes also in science community in order to terminate discrimination and ignorance related to dialect speakers definitely” (nagy, 2004, p. 105). a recent study (jánk, 2018) reported that students with dialect background are discriminated by their teachers in the evaluation process through public education (for hungarian examples of linguicism see e.g., kontra, 2006). irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 343 literature of norwegian dialects suggests: the more centralized and dictatorial is/was a society the more common is to think hierarchic in language use (trudgill, 2008). røyneland (2009) suggests that the prestige of provinces and a growing self-esteem of provincial population could lead to positive attitudes to dialects in norway. however, counterexample of the neighbouring denmark and sweden is mentioned where a better economy is not coupled with respecting regional dialects (see also akselberg, 2005). the key of the difference lies, among others, in different methods of public education. norway has two official national languages: bokmål and nynorsk. nynorsk is a minority dialect that is spoken by 15% of the population (cf. e.g., trudgill, 2008). where nynorsk is spoken as a mother tongue, pupils must be trained to bidialectal literacy: teachers must respect their dialect and bokmål is added as a second dialect in public education. previous research findings not only in linguistics but also in psychology and neurobiology have indicated that bidialectism can bear the same advantages in cognitive development as bilingualisms (e.g., antoniou et al., 2014; antoniou & katsos, 2017; kirk et al., 2014; ross & melinger, 2016; vangsnes et al., 2017; hazen, 2001). no previous study has investigated advantages of bidialectism among the hungarian speech community, and present paper does not engage with this question as well, although evidence on the topic is needed. it is a well-known fact that language attitudes have undeniable effect on spread or retreat of language forms and variations, and also on linguistic judgements: when somebody, using a form that is or seems incorrect is regarded low-educated and/or illiterate (for hungarian examples cf. kiss, 1995). the presented characteristic of the hungarian linguistic mentality leads to the retreat of regional dialects, although they bear covert prestige (labov, 1966) due to their special functions of representing local identity and granting comfort in language use for their native speakers. in simpler words: regional dialect is the language of home. as labov (1964) found: the wider social network the speakers have and the more integrated they are in their groups, the more likely they accommodate to the pronunciation of the partners, even at the age of 5 (although the accommodation is rarely perfect, cf. wagner et al., 2013). even after attending public education for many years, a typical hungarian speaker always looks for the one and only correct form that, living in a “standard language culture” (milroy, 1999), equals to standard hungarian in every situation and context (on the effects of public education on language and dialect use see also kiss, 1989; kinzler & dejesus, 2013). in this prescriptive viewpoint everything seems incorrect that differs from standard, and regional dialects are considered lower-order, even beside so-called “glocalizational” processes of nowadays (cf. meyrowitz, 2005). some typical sentences from everyday life: “what a destruction of illusions when you see a nice lady then she tells something like a peasant!”; “where does this terrible dialect come from? since we are in hungary, can‟t you sing in hungarian? the songs are unbearable with this »aá« phonemes!”. positive attitudes to regional dialects connected to calm and happy provincial life of peasants are still connected to the lower level of education at the same time (kiss, 2017). what is not yet clear is the type of youngsters‟ language attitudes to regional dialects and the impact of public and higher education on developing language awareness in present topic. irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 344 as a secondary grammar school teacher of hungarian as a mother tongue for 10 years in a dialect region the author could earn hundreds of data (objective and subjective) of the everyday language use of her students, even examples of their dialect features and data on consequences of their dialect background. the main hypotheses of present study were motivated by 1) the experiences of her students who left their hometown to attend universities or begin their adult life in bigger cities and had to bear negative comments and behaviour due to their dialect speech and 2) by her own experiences among other teachers who present ambivalence between their attitudes and practice related to dialects. methodology research design in the first part of the study languages attitudes to regional dialects among hungarian university students are investigated. for this study both qualitative and quantitative methods were used in present study. quantitative data were collected by using an online survey in hungarian. the main reason of using the method of the online questionnaire was to be able to reach vast number of students of different universities in the country at the same intervallum. in addition, a google survey can be filled even on their smartphones that is an important advantage while collecting data from the members of the so-called generation z (also known as igen or the centennials) (cf. e.g., seemiller&grace, 2019). the survey was edited personally by the author in autumn 2017 and was shared among hungarian students of hungarian universities. the participants must have been full time bachelor or master students with an active status who study in a different city where they were socialized. the reasons of choosing the sample can be read in the next sub-chapter. having been a high-school teacher for a decade and a lecturer at a university for seven years (both in a dialect region), considerable amount of additional, qualitative data was collected by passive observing. this method resulted random data that are not analysed in present study; their function was to help sentencing hypotheses and to check reliability of vast number of survey data that had another kind of risks. in the second part of the study language attitudes and practice of hungarian teachers related to dialects are investigated. everyday experiences of many years as a lecturer at a university, that were proved by the first study, suggested that hungarian students leave public education with a low level of dialect awareness in general, however, tolerating language diversity is taught for them, theoretically. searching for the explanation of this ambivalence, attitudes and everyday school practice of teachers in public education were also examined. although, for investigating language attitudes indirect data collecting methods are usually used, like e.g., matched guise technique, present part of the paper uses the method of paper-based questionnaire. the main reason for applying this quantitative method was to be able to collect a considerable number of data by reaching participants from different places of the country and from different types of educational institutions from middle school to vocational and secondary grammar school. to win a teacher as a participant for a research is usually hard in hungary because they got irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 345 used to be on the questioning and not on the answering side. in fact, due to some governmental changes just before data collecting has begun, participants were afraid of being controlled and of the misbelief that their answers will have an effect on their professional progress; some uncomfortable situations were experienced when some of them refused to be asked. considering these problems paper-based questionnaire was the most useable method that could be filled anytime not only anonymously but also in a faceless way. the printed surveys were sent by the author to a contact person in each school who sent them back after filling it. the self-made questionnaire, just like the other one for theme one, contained a sentence that the research aims to investigate and describe reality and does not evaluate answers as good or bad ones. data collection and analysis the reasons of choosing the sample of the university students were as follows: 1) main part of the subjects took the school-leaving exam one or only a couple of years ago that included a comprehension exam of hungarian grammar, therefore, their answers provide information on the linguistic view of public education and on the content of mother tongue education as well. (91.4% of the participants was under the age of 25.) 2) attending a university is the first time to move to another milieu for most people that is much more heterogeneous, even linguistically. the most complex change is moving to the capital from the province that means new (linguistic) experiences either of the capital population or of the migrant population from other regions as a melting pot. also, many dialect-based differences can be experienced while studying in the same region and meeting students from other regions. 3) full time students with an active status spend most of their time among their schoolmates in a place that differs from their hometown which is a main factor of the present study. corresponding students and students with passive status usually not have (and need) the opportunity for living like this, although, it is not impossible. 4) investigating hungarian students‟ attitudes of universities in hungary was also important to avoid answers related to transborder contact phenomena and to majority languages of the neighbouring countries (e.g., romanian contact phenomena in hungarian universities of transylvania in romania). nota bene: present study can and should be followed by investigating language attitudes of hungarian university students in the neighbouring countries to hungarian dialects with a modified questionnaire. 5) participants of the study are future white-collar employees of the hungarian society. mapping their language behaviour and attitudes are essential while planning developmental strategies on language awareness and modification of the national curriculum. 6) observing and analysing reports on their own regionalisms that they (still) use every day provide important additional data to confute the myths of illiterate dialects speakers. members of the target group could be reached easily by sharing the online survey in social media. after getting shared and shared, it reached 548 subjects by “snowball-effect” in less than a week. optionally given comments at the end of the survey also proves outstanding interest in the topic: “linguistic discrimination is an existing phenomenon, it‟s important to discuss”; “instead of listening to each other‟s words (we could learn synonyms irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 346 and observe different speech styles, intonation) we laugh at each other, even if the other speaks in a more correct, only different way. so, this is what is disappointing”; “it‟s the first survey i‟ve filled because i‟m interested in the topic”; “should you have some specific and/or further questions i‟m delighted to answer”; “thank you for having the chance to fill it […] i‟m very curious what will the analyse show. i hope i won‟t be so sad”. it was also optional for the participants to give their e-mail address if they are interested in the results: this field was filled by 123 respondents (cf. labov, 1982 on the principle of error correction and the principle of debt incurred). the location of the universities where the respondents study shows colourful results. all well-known universities of hungary are represented; answers were given from 23 different institutions. half of them are located in the capital, but every part of the country is represented from the west to the east, from the south to the north. all the 19 counties of hungary appear as homeland of the subjects before attending a university, most respondents are from veszprém county (18.4%) and budapest (8.8%; the territory of pest county outside the capital was another option that was chosen by 8%). 5,1% came from the neighbouring countries (3.3% of them from slovakia, 25% from serbia, 17.8% from ukraine, 10.7% from romania, 1 respondent from austria and 1 from outside of the carpathian basin). 42.5% of the subjects moved to the city of the university from a small town, 27.9% from a village, 22.4% from a bigger city and 7.1% of them moved from budapest to another (smaller) city to study. one person would have added the option of “farm.” the participants were asked how far they study from their hometown. although, it is not relevant in connection with the borders of the dialect regions and with the isoglosses of the dialect phenomena without detailed information, it can be relevant in general, e.g., the closer the two places to each other the more often they can visit their hometown which is an important factor in the change of language use. 23.5% of the respondents‟ studies less than 50 kilometres far from their hometown, 61.7% of them between 50 and 200 kilometres from their hometown and 15% of them study more far than 200 kilometers. another factor is also relevant in the present investigation: in which kind of accommodation do the participants live. nearly half of them live in a dormitory, 31.2% of them in an apartment (rented or own), 19. 9% travels every day between home and the university. nearly half of the questionnaires were filled by students of humanities and teacher training. the remaining 53.7% of the subjects is attending programmes of agricultural, law, public administration, economics, it, technology, art, medical and healthcare studies, sport, social and natural sciences. (list of the options was edited according to the hungarian official university admission application website: https://www.felvi.hu.) 62% studies at bachelor level, 13% at master level, 25% in undivided teacher training. three-quarter of the participants are female. summing up the results of the personal background data: the sample is not only numerous but also stratified enough to conclude valid inferences. for investigating teachers‟ attitudes a self-made questionnaire was designed. it was filled by 170 hungarian teachers in the country between 2015 and 2017. the respondents were not only teachers of hungarian grammar and literature (57 = 33.5%) but of every other subject as well. 92 respondents teach students at the age of 7–14 in middle schools and 78 respondents at the age of 14–18 in secondary grammar schools and vocational schools. irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 347 nearly a quarter of the questionnaires (36) were got from budapest and 79% (134) from the other parts of the country: from cities, like pécs (south transdanubium), from smaller towns, like sárvár (west transdanubium) and also from villages, like kisnána (north-east hungary). most of the questions were closed (e.g., “do you teach the topic of dialects? if yes, why? you can choose more: it is not presented in the text-book. / children never meets this phenomenon in real life so i think it‟s unnecessary. / we don‟t have time for it. / other topics are much more important in preparing for secondary grammar school admission exam or for school-leaving exam. / other reasons”) but some answers were to be given by own words (e.g., “what do you call a dialect?”, “what do you think about it?”, “how and what do you teach about the topic of dialects?”). every closed question asked examples and own experiences, and the last one gave space for other comments. the reliability of the answers was also controlled by the author‟s experiences as secondary grammar school teacher of hungarian grammar and literature subject during the time of data collecting. all the data were processed to tables in microsoft excel and analyzed by the author. findings numerous factors allow numerous investigations of correlations. since analysing all correlations could fill an own monograph, present study provides overall results that test the hypotheses mentioned on language myths and stereotypes of dialect speech and low-level language awareness of youngsters. nearly half of the responding university students reported they had already been corrected since they live in another town. dialect pronunciation was corrected for 13.3% of all participants, dialect words for 34.1%, and 15.1% were warned to grammatical “mistakes” (more than one option could be chosen). those who indicated “yes” for this question were also asked to give examples that happened to them in order to filter out those who were not corrected due to regionalisms (the number of this kind of cases was trace). some examples of being corrected are presented in three categories as follows. at first, original answers in hungarian are cited with original orthography. punctuation was refilled where it was needed for interpretation; linguistic data are highlighted by italics. after an own translation of the examples is given in english, forms of hungarian standard are added in brackets if possible. 1) pronunciation: „néha nem ejtem ki az «l» betűt, ezt javítják ki néha” „sometimes i don‟t articulate letter «l», it is corrected sometimes‟; vót „it was‟ (volt); “hűttttttttő, repülllllő, esssssső” „fridge, plane, rain‟ (hűtő, repülő, eső); kinyullott „it craned‟ (kinyúlt); “az á hang időnként átcsúszik egy furcsa a hanggá” „(á phoneme sometimes slips through into a strange a phoneme‟; zsömle „bagel‟ (zsemle); “posta szót hosszú ó-val ejtem” „i pronounce the word posta („post office‟) with long ó‟ (posta); “nem hanyas, hanem hányas” „it‟s not hanyas („how much‟) but hányas’ (hányas); “borít/burít; törülköző/türülköző; furigázni/furikázni” „to empty, towel, tootle along‟ (borít, törülköző, furikázni). according to the whole list many unique dialect phonemes and dialect features like dropping out with stretching, intervocalic stretching, shortening vowels and using ö instead of e were corrected in pronunciation of participants (cf. mdial.). two suggestive comments are also cited: “rengeteg időt töltöttem irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 348 nagyszüleimmel és rám ragadtak régies kiejtésű szavak. se a kiejtésük, se a használatuk nem volt megfelelő iskolai körülmények között (elsősorban középiskola alatt szóltak meg miatta)” „i spent lots of time with my grandparents and word with an archaic pronunciation were stick on me. neither their articulation nor their usage were not suitable at school (i was scandalized due to them primarily at high school)‟; “szlovák nyelvű ismerőseim szokták kijavítani a ragozásom, vagy megszólják a kiejtésem/szóhasználatom (ha szlovákul beszélek), magyar nyelvű ismerőseim megszólják a falusi kiejtésem (ha magyarul beszélek)” „my slovakian speaking acquaintances used to correct my inflexion or they scandalize my pronunciation/words (if i speak slovakian), my hungarian speaking acquaintances scandalize my provincial pronunciation (if i speak hungarian)‟. 2) syntax: “e kötőszó rossz használata” „bad use of w conjunction‟; “alapvetően nem használtam az «az» szót, helyette csak annyit mondtam hogy «a»” „basically i didn‟t use the word «az», i only said «a» instead of it‟; aztat „that one‟ (azt); tányérat „plate in accusative) „tányért‟; rajt „on it‟ (rajta); “a fogy nem ikes ige” „fogy („to lose weight‟ or „run out‟) is not a verb with -ik‟; “motrot, lazsnak szavakra néztek furán, és elmondták, hogy azt nem így kell mondani” „they look strange on the words motrot („motor in accusative‟), lazsnak („canvas‟) and i was told they shouldn‟t be told this way‟ (motort, vászon); jösztök „you all come‟ (jöttök); pecál „he/she is fishing‟ (pecázik); folyott „it flowed‟ (folyt); jó fog lenni „it is going to be good‟ (jó less); innák „i‟d like to drink‟ (innék); “kijelentő mód helyett felszólító módot használtam. (suksük) de figyelek rá, ha magyarországon vagyok, tudom «helyesen» is használni a kijelentő módot. régebben «magyartalanabb» volt a kifejezés módom. de sok oda figyeléssel, belső kontrollálással, sikerül másképp beszélnem-gondolkodnom” „i used imperative mood instead of declarative. (suksük) but i pay attention to it, when i‟m in hungary, i can use declarative «correctly». long ago my form of expression was more «incorrect». but with many considerations, with inner control i succeed to speak-think in another way‟. 3) words: „sok szót nem ismernek amit én használok, pl. furik, tesznye, cserba” „many words are unkown that i use, e.g., furik („barrow‟), tesznye („ugly‟), cserba („chippy)‟ (talicska, csúnya, csorba); „sajnos a környezetemben sokan nem ismerik azokat a szavakat, melyeket én egy-egy hétvégi esemény elmesélésekor használok, így magyarázkodnom kell (ilyen pl. a stelázsi, a vájling, a pucok, illetve a mácsik)” „unfortunately many people around me don‟t know the words i use to tell a story of a weekend event, so i have to explain myself (like e.g., stelázsi „staging‟, vájling „bigger dish‟, pucok „mole‟ or mácsik „pastry‟)‟ (polc, tál, vakond, metélt tészta); “nem értették mit jelent az, hogy edzsanázok. sokszor parasztosan beszélek” „they didn‟t understand what does edzsanázok („i go away‟) mean. i often speak with a broad accent‟ (elmegyek); lánygyerek „girl‟ (lány); vánkos „pillow‟ (párna); patika „sneakers‟ (tornacipő); örökíró „biro‟ (golyóstoll); tixó „sellotape‟ (cellux); gömb fagyi „cream scoop‟ (gombóc fagyi); “építészkaron a faragó-hegyező kérdés örök vitákat szül” „at faculty of architecture the question of farrago or hegyező („sharpener‟) produces eternal quarrels‟. the long list shows that most corrections are motivated by using a word that is unknown by the partner. the participants were also asked whether they have already laughed at due to their speech since they study in another town. however, this question is in a tight connection with the previous one it was asked to inveigle more experiences from the memories of the respondents. while nearly every second subjects have already been corrected, not everybody irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 349 has been laughed at as well. 8% were laughed at due to dialect speech, 2.7%% due to grammar features and 17.5% because of dialect words. some typical sentences: „baranyában a kiejtésem miatt azt hitte valaki, hogy határon túli magyar vagyok” „in baranya county somebody thought that i‟m transborder hungarian by my accent‟. “azt a szót használtam, hogy «vásik» és nem tudták, hogy létezik ilyen és ezért kinevettek” „i used that word «vásik» („wear out‟) and they didn‟t know it is existing and they laughed at me‟. some other typical examples from those who have never been laughed at: “engem nem, jól ismerem a standard magyart” „i wasn‟t, i know standard hungarian well‟; “csak ritkán, akkor is budapesten, először kinevetnek, aztán megkérdezik honnan érkeztem” „rarely i was, when i am, it is in budapest, at first they laugh at me then they ask where do i come from‟. it is also important to consider the category of the persons who correct or laugh at the subjects. most notation of many options were given to the category of schoolmates (40.5%), then of roommates (28.1%). 17 participants earnt this kind of experience by his/her professor during a lecture or a consultation, 5 students were also corrected on an exam or in a test paper. some students marked the option of strangers (17 persons), during official routine (4) or at the supermarket, canteen, restaurant, bar etc. (8). they were also asked whether it bothers them or not. the answers on a linear scale were categorised into two groups: those who marked 1–3 and those who marked 4–5 (where 1 equals to the least and 5 equals to the most). correction bothers 18.1% of them and laughing bothers 24.8%. some options were given for how they react after getting corrected or laughed at. 29 students were ashamed, 14 never use a form since it was corrected and further 59 subjects indicated they try to get out of it, although they are still mistaken sometimes. 12 participants stated they taught the correct form to their family as well. this mechanism can be illustrated by the following citation: „én kisebb (3 éves) koromig éltem erdélyben és a nyelvhasználatom miatt inkább óvodás és elemista koromból vannak negatív emlékeim. elég hamar alkalmazkodtam az itteni beszédhez és már régóta nem hallatszik a tájszólás, amit pedig nagyon szeretek” „i lived in transylvania until i got 3 years old and i have negative memories due to my language use from the time of preand middle school. i could accommodate soon enough to the speech of this place and my dialect speech that i love very much cannot be heard long ago‟. 87 students indicated they still use corrected forms because they still think them correct. 30 participants state they could persuade others of their right. in light of results so far mentioned it is important to examine dialect awareness of the subjects: are they aware of having a regional dialect background? do they think of their corrected language form as a representation of their homeland? the participants were asked: are you a dialect speaker? the answers were also had to be given on a linear scale where 1 is equal to the least and 5 is equal to the most. 43.4% of the respondents marked the number 1, 28.5% number 2 and 19% number 3. only 9.1% indicated number 4 (31 students) and 5 (19 students). these results reveal the lack or the lower level of the participants‟ language awareness related to language variability. another important information is whether they have already corrected the language use of their partners, and which type of forms bothers them most. the sample is divided into two equal parts in this question exactly. the vast number of examples shows that a prescriptive viewpoint is followed in language behaviour of youngsters that is illustrated here irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 350 by some typical sentences (see also the above mentioned examples of similar regionalisms as being corrected): “édesanyám gyakran mondja, hogy «vót» és idegesít, mert minden mást a sztenderd nyelvhasználat szerint mond, ezért gyakran kijavítom” „my mother often says «vót» („it was‟) and it‟s annoying because she says every other thing according to the standard, so i often correct her‟ (volt); “«az» névelő használatára hívtam fel a figyelmét annak, aki csak «a»-t használt előtte” „i drew attention to the use of the article «az» for the one who only used «a» so far‟; “az innák és a hasonló «nák» os szavakat mindig kijavítom «nék» re. szerintem így helyes és sokkal jobban is hangzik” „i always correct innák („i would drink‟) and similar words with «nák» to «nék»‟. i think it is the correct form and also sounds better‟ (innék); “nagyapám magyar tanár volt, mindig kijavított, ha valamit rosszul mondtunk. pl. nincs olyan, hogy «kell legyen», csak «kell, hogy legyen» vagy «kell lennie» és hasonlók!” „my grandfather was a teacher of hungarian, he always corrected me if we said something wrong. e.g., there is no «kell legyen» („it must be‟) only «kell, hogy legyen» or «kell lennie»‟. “mamámat kioktattam, hogy a ma az ma, nem máma” „i indoctrinated my grandma that ma („today‟) is ma and not máma‟; „vas megyében minden táska, a nylon zacskótól, a szatyron és hátizsákon át minden. ez helytelen és az agyamra megy” „in vas county everything is táska („bag‟) from nylon sac through pouch and backpack to everything. it is incorrect and it hacks me off‟. the following ambivalent sentence as another example sums up the results on the low level of dialect awareness: “engem a helytelen nyelvhasználat egy kicsit zavar. a tájszólás és más ízes beszédek nem zavarnak, sőt tetszenek. az nem minősül a szememben hibának ha valaki «kell» helyett «köll»-t mond, vagy «itthon» helyett «itthol»-t. a struktúra a lényeg” „incorrect language use bothers me a bit. dialect speech and other nice accents don‟t bother me, thus i like them. i don‟t see as a mistake if somebody says «köll» instead of «kell» or «itthol» instead of «itthon». structure is the point‟. contradiction between the cited examples and answers to the next question is not already surprising. a well-known question of hungarian studies in perceptual dialectology was asked in the followings: where is the most beautiful version of hungarian spoken? similar answers to results that were found by previous studies (for the first and classic one in hungarian cf. imre, 1963) were expected and given: in transylvania, in highland, in subcarpathia, in palócland (all of them are behind the contemporary borders) which answers seek for the romantic lusciousness of language. of course, the own region of the respondents was mentioned as well (as a county) “because nothing sounds strange for me there”, as a subject explained. the other answers were: in cities, in the province, in bigger provincial cities, in budapest and in hungary which answers presuppose only one correct norm. a considerable number of answers proclaims sociolinguistic viewpoint and tolerance of language variation theoretically while all these students also corrected regionalisms in their partners‟ (maybe other participants‟) language use, as they stated at previous points of the survey, that are rated as incorrect forms (see also the above cited sentence that differentiates tolerated dialect speech from grammatical “mistakes” of structure). some other examples: “it is independent from location: there are people everywhere who pay attention to language use and there are people who don‟t”; “of course, it cannot be adjudged because mother tongue and the use of it is the most beautiful for everyone, it can be an old village lady in bakony or a high-stepper dude in budapest”; “everybody has a «dialect speech», but we can only perceive each irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 351 other‟s”; “i don‟t regard any variation of language at a higher level”; “everybody speaks hungarian in a nice way who is aware of grammar rules and use them correctly and express his/her message elaborately. i regard it independent from area”. the results of the second investigation among teachers provided one explanation to the ambivalence of youngsters‟ attitudes. although, each responding teachers answered that dialects are worth for being promoted as a national tradition and they all suggest and teach respecting it, they do not know what to respect particularly. a sociolinguistic viewpoint was written in every questionnaire as it should be presented according to the national curriculum but answering other questions (e.g., “are you a dialect speaker?”; “how do you react when your student uses a dialect phenomenon?”; “who do you think a dialect speaker is?”) showed the real lack of knowledge and awareness. 134 of them answered that they don‟t have a dialect background and 144 answered the same in connection with their students‟ language use. figure 1 shows that a considerable part of the participant connects the stereotypical characters of dialect speakers, and only 20 teachers of the 170 know that using regional language forms does not depend on age, on education or on the type of the settlement, while most respondents complained about stigmatization of dialect speakers as low-educated members of the society. figure 1. stereotypes of hungarian teachers on dialect speakers (n = 170) this kind of attitude leads to the everyday practice when dialect speech is corrected as an incorrect form of “the” hungarian language without being aware of its background. due to this linguistic mentality, all positive attitudes to dialects and tolerant language behavior remain theoretical in text-books and the national curriculum, in connection with an imagined traditional, archive form of hungarian. some typical examples are cited from the respondents in the followings: “it is a regional variation of language in which pronunciation, word stock and grammar differs from the norm” (budapest, male, 38, teacher of hungarian); “it doesn‟t disturb me personally, but if speech can hardly be understood due to it, i would correct it” (budapest, female, 26, teacher of maths and physics); “if the dialect speech is not disturbing, i don‟t think it has to be corrected” (middle transdanubium, 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 older villager transborder low-educated independent from everything independent from age independent from settlement independent from education irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 352 female, 36, teacher of english); “it doesn‟t have to be corrected but it can be left” (north-east hungary, female, 34, teacher of p.e.); “…it has to be corrected for the sake of reaching the mother tongue level” (middle hungary, female, 52, teacher at middle school); “it depends on its type. there are some that are nice, especially in a play or a song” (budapest, female, 35, teacher of maths, music, p.e.); “dialect speech is interesting. it only has to be corrected if the child speaks a very archaic language but in case of mixing phonemes it is not necessary” (middle transdanubium, female, 36, teacher of middle school); “hungary has regions where dialects are spoken. […] they can also speak hungarian properly if they want but in their homeland, they speak this way with pleasure that is, in my opinion, beautiful” (middle hungary, female, 48, teacher of middle school); and some more examples for ambivalent attitudes: “it is not ugly but it has to be corrected” (middle hungary, female, 39, teacher of middle school) and later the same respondent: “they [dialect speakers] should be proud of it!”; “dialect speech is nice and has to be preserved. unfortunately, most dialect speakers are discriminated. dialect speech is identified with lower level of intelligence, speakers may be mocked” (middle hungary, female, 41, teacher of english) and later the same respondent chose the category of the lowest level of education for the question who is a dialect speaker (illustrated in figure 1). in contrast only 3 of 32 who answered the question “how do you react when your student uses a dialect form?” answered that they (would) correct it and 20 of them answered they have positive attitudes to it (the remaining 9 thinks neutrally). one third of the respondents are teachers of hungarian as mother tongue (it is called hungarian grammar and literature). 60% of them (34 out of 57) answered they teach the topic of dialects within their subject. 40% of them highlighted they do not have time for it because other topics are more important. the admission process to secondary grammar school from middle school and the school leaving exam at the age of 18 asks for other knowledge and competences. the oral part of the school leaving exam can include topics on dialects but since the topics are chosen by the own teacher of the students it is usually missing from the list. a higher level of school leaving exam that is needed for some university training programs includes topics that are chosen centrally but the topic of language variability is also overshadowed there in general (cf. the website of the hungarian office for education: https://www.oktatas.hu/kozneveles/erettsegi/). one of the respondents even cannot remember whether she learnt about the topic at the university or not. dialectology and sociolinguistics have been compulsory courses in hungarian as a first language teacher training program for decades at hungarian universities and sociolinguistics, that emerged dialectology course in most universities, is still present in contemporary trainings (cf. kiss, 2009, 2015). also, more and more publications help in learning teaching material and methods related to the topic (cf. e.g., guttmann, 1995, 1999; pletl, 1997; kiss, 2000; mdial.; boda, 2011; for recent practical literature that could not have been used yet by the respondents at the time of data collecting see cs. nagy & n. császi, 2015; szentgyörgyi, 2015; koós, 2017, parapatics, 2018b, for the latest one that recommends digital communication technologies for teaching the topic see parapatics, 2019). most respondents of the present study have forgettable memories of their dialectology course. some examples: “it was a boring and unnecessary lecture. although, i was interested in the topic” (female, irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 353 34); “it was theoretical with less opportunities for observing” (graduated at szeged university, male, 37); “it was boring, i didn‟t go on a fieldwork, i wrote a theoretical paper instead of it” (male, 38) (for similar opinions of hungarian as a first language university students see kiss, 2009). another study reported that some official text-books for public education also included misbeliefs and stereotypes related to hungarian dialects (streli, 2009). discussion according to the results hypotheses of both studies were proved. most answers suggest that hungarian students of hungarian universities get familiar with sociolinguistic viewpoint during their years of public education and were trained to positive attitudes to variations of language, as a requirement of the national curriculum of hungary; however, this mentality could not be applied in practical communication. it is one thing they learnt at school about dialects and another one how they handle them in real life without being trained enough. it is proved again: language awareness of hungarian society has to be developed to be able to change former one-norm attitude and prescriptive viewpoint of language use (see also e.g., heltainé nagy, 2004; mdial). a significant part of the participants has been corrected and also a large group used to correct their partners due to regionalisms without being aware of it. by collecting living examples of being corrected or laughed at due to regional features of language the study presented that using regionalisms, even being aware of it or not, is not equal to being low-educated and old by all means. the hypotheses of teachers‟ stereotypes about dialects were proved by data of 170 respondents of present study. while only 12% of them answered that dialect background is independent from age, settlement and education, categories of advanced age (59%), transborder (59%) and villager (68%) lifestyle reached significantly higher marking (more than one category could be chosen). the results are similar to the findings of the latest hungarian studies in this topic (e.g., heltainé nagy, 2004; kiss, 2009; jánk, 2018). although, each respondent sees dialects as national treasures that is worth preserving and should be used proudly, even if it is corrected as a bad form of language. most participants cannot differentiate consequences of regional variability and incorrect grammar, and nearly two thirds of the responding teachers of hungarian as a first language do not teach this topic at school. however, more and more new pieces of literature help them now in teaching actual facts on dialects (see above), teachers who graduated many decades ago cannot change easily. conclusions and recommendations results of the two studies provide an explanation to negative mentality of the hungarian society to dialect speech and to the ambivalence between theory and practice when a person thinks about or faces a dialect speaker. attitudes and behaviour cannot be taught in a theoretical way without setting an example. teachers in hungary follow the rules of the national curriculum and place the same demands on their students; therefore, a tolerant and open-minded way of thinking could be acquainted during public education. but irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 354 teachers who have inaccurate or any knowledge about the variability of language can only perceive and evaluate regional language forms (not only phonemes but also syntactic features and word stock) as mistakes. numerous corrections of a student‟s language use are in contrast with the expectation of respecting language diversity and even with the theory of language variability. most students can only learn about “the correct” form of language use: the one and only standard, therefore, they will suggest numerous corrections as adults while listening to people from another dialect regions or they have to bear to be corrected due to it. according to the findings of the above mentioned international researches of the bidialectal advantages it would be very important to prove the existence of it among hungarian speakers as well. but without being aware of dialectal background and without differentiating it in different situations, without learning style-shifting between the mother tongue dialect and the standard, hungarian youngsters can only live their dialect as a disadvantage (see also guttmann, 1999; péntek, 2015; koós, 2017; parapatics, 2018a) and benefits cannot be realized, therefore, cannot be investigated and proved. the main lesson of the two connecting studies is as follows: dialect awareness of the hungarian speech community should be developed but it has to be started among teachers. because neither european nor consistent hungarian identity can be mentioned until regional identity, that concerns millions of hungarians, is not appreciated enough. disclosure statement no potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors. acknowledgement the author acknowledges the financial support of the project of széchenyi 2020 under the efop-3.6.1-16-2016-00015 “university of pannonia‟s comprehensive institutional development program to promote smart specialization strategy”. the project is supported by the european union and co-financed by széchenyi 2020. references akselberg, g. 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(2016). tények és tapasztalatok a dialektológiai ismeretek tanításáról. in i. czetter i., r. hajba & p. tóth (eds.), vi. dialektológiai szimpozion: szombathely, 2015. szeptember 2–4. (pp. 509-517). szombathely & nyitra: nyugat-magyarországi egyetem savaria egyetemi központ & nyitrai konstantin filozófus egyetem közép-európai tanulmányok kara. irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 357 parapatics, a. (2018a). regionalizmusok fiatalok nyelvhasználatában: tények, problémák, javaslatok. in g. balázs & k. lengyel (eds.), grammatika és oktatás – időszerű kérdések. struktúra, funkció, szemiotika, hálózat. (pp. 287-296). budapest: elte btk mai magyar nyelvi tanszék, inter nonprofit kft. & mszt. parapatics, a. (2018b). nyelvjárástani munkafüzet. budapest: tinta könyvkiadó. parapatics, a. (2019). dialektusok és modernitás: új módszerekkel a nyelvjárásokról az iskolában. anyanyelv-pedagógia, xii(1). péntek, j. (2015). nyelvünk táji változatosságának dicsérete. magyar nyelv, 111(1), 75-79. pletl, r. (1997). erdélyi helyzetkép az iskolai helyesírásról. székelyudvarhely: infopress. ross, j. & melinger, a. (2016). bilingual advantage, bidialectal advantage or neither? comparing performance across three tests of executice function in middle childhood. developmental science, 20(4), 1-21. røyneland, u. (2009). dialects in norway: catching up with teh rest of europe? international journal of the sociology of language, 196-197, 7-30. seemiller, c. & grace, m. (2019). generation z: a century in the making. oxon & new york: routledge. streli, z. (2009). a nyelvjárások témakörének megjelenése nyelvtankönyveinkben. in á. kuna & á. veszelszki (eds.), félúton 3. a harmadik félúton konferencia (2007) kiadványa. (pp. 274-286). szentgyörgyi, r. (2015). anyanyelvünk változatai. in á. antalné szabó, j. raátz & á. veszelszki (eds.), mozaikok a magyar nyelvről és a nyelvhasználatról. segédkönyv az anyanyelvi kritériumvizsgához (pp. 143-161). budapest: eötvös loránd tudományegyetem. trudgill, p. (2008). foreword. dialects and democracy. in o. husby (ed.), t. høyte, s. j. nefzaoui, i. c. nordli, s. robbins & å. øvregaard: an introduction to norwegian dialects. (pp. 9-12). trondheim: tapi academic press. vangsnes, ø. a., söderlund, g. b. w., & blekesaune, m. (2017). the effect of bidialectal literacy on school achievement. international journal of bilingual education and bilingualism, 20(3), 346-361. wagner, l., clopper, c. g., & pate, j. k. (2013). children‟s perception of dialect variation. journal of child language, 41(5), 1-23. biographical notes andrea parapatics is a hungarian sociolinguist whose researches concentrate on language attitudes to social and regional dialects and on their roles in public education. she earnt fieldwork experiences at dozens of inland and transborder research points of the hungarian language area as a research fellow of the geolinguistic research group that was funded by the hungarian academy of sciences. beside her papers she published a hungarian slang dictionary and two exercise books for students and she also makes efforts in science communication as invited expert on air and television. andrea parapatics is one of the founding editors of anyanyelv-pedagógia (hungarian journal of mother tongue education: www.anyp.hu). email-: parapatics.andrea@mftk.uni-pannon.hu http://www.anyp.hu/ mailto:parapatics.andrea@mftk.uni-pannon.hu 404 not found stack trace: file: /home/onlinejournal/public_html/pages/article/articlehandler.inc.php line 133 function: dispatcher->handle404() file: /home/onlinejournal/public_html/lib/pkp/classes/core/pkprouter.inc.php line 388 function: articlehandler->initialize(object(request), array(0)) file: /home/onlinejournal/public_html/lib/pkp/classes/core/pkppagerouter.inc.php line 231 function: pkprouter->_authorizeinitializeandcallrequest(array(2), object(request), array(2), false) file: /home/onlinejournal/public_html/lib/pkp/classes/core/dispatcher.inc.php line 143 function: pkppagerouter->route(object(request)) file: /home/onlinejournal/public_html/lib/pkp/classes/core/pkpapplication.inc.php line 279 function: dispatcher->dispatch(object(request)) file: /home/onlinejournal/public_html/index.php line 68 function: pkpapplication->execute() this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 362 the impacts of the fraud diamond dimension, religiosity, and misuse of information technology on student academic dishonesty netty herawaty 1 * and masbirorotni 2 abstract this research aimed to find out and analyze how the dimensions of fraud diamond, religiosity, and misuse of information technology affect student academic dishonesty in the covid-19 era. this research used primary data by distributing questionnaires. the population of this research was active students in the faculty of economics and business, in one public university in jambi. the sampling of this research used the slovin formula for a minimum of 98 respondents. the method of data analysis was done by using the multiple regression. the research results showed that the fraud diamond dimension affected academic dishonesty, however, religiosity did not affect academic dishonesty, while misuse of information technology affected academic dishonesty. keywords fraud diamond, technology misuse, religiosity article history received 21 september 2022 accepted 11 december 2022 how to cite herawaty, n., & masbirorotni (2022). the impacts of the fraud diamond dimension, religiosity, and misuse of information technology on student academic dishonesty. indonesian research journal in education |irje|, 6(2), 362– 375.https://doi.org/10.22437 /irje.v6i2.20707 1*universitas jambi, indonesia; corresponding author: netherawaty@unja.ac.id 2 universitas jambi, indonesia. https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v6i2.20707 https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v6i2.20707 mailto:netherawaty@unja.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 363 introduction the covid-19 virus that originated in wuhan, china, at the end of 2019 shocked the whole world. the covid-19 pandemic has changed the lives and activities of the world community, including indonesia. a life that was never imagined before was happening. covid-19 affected almost all fields, such as health, social, and education (from elementary to higher education). the world of education has also changed, from which schools and lectures were conducted face-to-face and shifted to online learning. at the beginning of the pandemic, everything felt different because the learning process that normally was done by direct interaction could only be done online. according to data from the ministry of communication and information (kemenkominfo), indonesia had 63 million internet users in 2020, which increased to 204.7 million people in 2022. based on this amount, 95% were using the internet for social networking. indonesia is on the 4 th rank for facebook and 5 th for twitter users in the world. internet use in indonesia during the pandemic increased by 40%. the use of technology is essential during the covid-19 pandemic, such as computerization and the internet. the use of an application like zoom for virtual meetings is paramount for the implementation of e-learning. e-learning is required to be conducted in universities. the usage and improvement of e-learning continue to be improved. lecturers try to combine several technological tools in the online learning process. technology has had a lot of positive effects in supporting the learning process during the pandemic. however, technology also has a negative effect on education, such as changes in behavior, ethics, rules, and morals in the school, university, and community environment (jamun, 2018). misuse of information technology is usually conducted to find, send and receive exam answers. the sense of students’ responsibility is decreasing with this technology misuse. students take advantage of technological sophistication to commit fraud to get higher academic scores. students must be given moral inculcation so that students do not use technology to violate the rules and ethics. one way to prevent misuse of technology for academic dishonesty is to have religious values given to students, for example, including religious values in the curriculum and during the teaching and learning process in class. tonasa and setyorini (2019) stated that a strategy is needed to reduce cheating in academics by incorporating religious and cultural values. based on law (uu) no. 12 of 2012 about higher education, a national education system is held that increases belief, devotion to god, and noble character to educate citizens’ lives and expand knowledge and technology by upholding religious norms. higher education has an essential task in advancing society and expanding knowledge and technology. the law on higher education requires a system that adheres to religious norms to prevent things that violate them, such as academic dishonesty. foul in accounting, especially auditing, is known as fraud. kurniawan (2014) stated that fraud is an act committed, such as lying or deceiving others for personal gain. in 2004, the fraud proposed by wolfe and hermanson (2004) was known as the fraud diamond. kurniawan (2014) explained four dimensions of fraud diamond, which are pressure, opportunity, rationalization, and capability. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 364 the results of research on the dimensions of fraud diamond, religiosity, and misuse of information technology have been carried out by previous researchers. the research results are still inconsistent among these researchers. research on the dimensions of the fraud diamond conducted by savilia (2020) stated that the fraud triangle has a significant effect on student academic dishonesty. murni and pratiwi (2020) and nusron and sari (2021) explained that simultaneously fraud diamonds have an effect on academic dishonesty, but partially the capability dimension does not affect academic dishonesty. the results of this research differ from juliardi et al. (2021), which showed that the fraud triangle did not affect academic dishonesty. dephiena (2020) stated a cheating culture that shapes students to commit fraud, and ambition is their motivation to cheat. nusron and sari (2021) explained that religiosity does not affect academic dishonesty, which is in line with the research by melati et al. (2018). a different result is shown by rahmawati and susilawati (2019), that explained that religiosity affects academic cheating. research on the misuse of information technology also has different results. melasari (2019) and juliardi et al. (2021) showed that information technology misuse affects academic dishonesty. the results of this research are different from research by ningsih and simbolon (2019), that the misuse of information technology does not affect academic dishonesty because academic regulations in universities where this research was conducted already have quite severe sanctions for students who commit academic dishonesty. this research by ningsih and simbolon (2019) was carried out before the pandemic when lectures were face-to-face, and the way students used technology to do assignments was different from what they do in online learning. based on the background that there was a change in online lectures during the covid-19 pandemic, which led to the often use of information technology, it was suspected that there was a misuse of the use of technology for academics, namely the pressure, opportunity, rationalization, and capability that also encouraged students to commit academic dishonesty. the value of a person’s religiosity is an essential thing that will affect behavior to commit academic dishonesty, so the researchers are interested in conducting the research entitled the effect of fraud diamond dimension, religiosity and misuse of information technology on academic dishonesty among students of the faculty of economics and business, universitas jambi, in the covid-19 era. this research aims to find out and analyze how the dimensions of fraud diamond, religiosity, and misuse of information technology affect academic dishonesty among students of the faculty of economics and business, universitas jambi, in the covid-19 era. the sample of this research was from the faculty of economics and business, universitas jambi, in various study programs of diploma 3 (d3), diploma 4 (d4), and bachelor degree (s1) levels are considered to be representative of sampling. literature review behavioral theory initially, accounting science only explained financial science, which told about numbers, but along with the development of accounting science, it was not only about finance but also non-financial. accounting science also examines the behavior of people irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 365 who carry out information related to these numbers. the development of behavioral accounting science is caused by several kinds of human behavior toward various information. according to kurniawan (2021), behavioral accounting explains many things, such as perceptions, values, motivations, attitudes, personalities, and shared behaviors that exist when individuals act in society. aspects of nature, personality, and perception affect the users of accounting information. behavior is the various forms of reactions that are done by people when they see, hear, or face several ways of internal and external stimuli. the first driver of behavior is the values that exist in a person in the form of religious, cultural to values contained in an organization that is used as guidelines in carrying out these behaviors (kurniawan, 2021). fraud diamond according to the institute of internal auditors (2011), fraud is all illegal acts characterized by fraudulent acts, disguises that are contrary to religion to receive a sum of money, assets, or services, prevent payments, and prevent losses or gain the benefit of each individual. the fraud triangle theory developed by cressey (1953) in kurniawan (2014) consists of 3 elements, namely: (1) pressure is a motivation that encourages each individual to cheat because of a tendency to lifestyle, financial inability, gambling conduits, trying to beat the system, and performance dissatisfaction. (2) opportunity is a chance that causes criminals to freely carry out their actions due to weak control, violation of discipline, the vulnerability in accessing information, lack of verification procedures, and indifferent behavior. (3) rationalization is an action that reflects behavior that uses justification for the action and refers to the behavior, personality, or values held by the perpetrator. rationalization leads to situational fraud. fraud diamond is a new theory about the incidence of fraud (wolfe & hermanson, 2004). this theory is an updated form of the fraud triangle theory by cressey in 1950 which added aspects of capability so that the fraud diamond consists of 4, which are pressure, opportunity, rationalization, and capability. religiosity religiosity originates from the term religion and the latin language, which is religio and etymologically comes from the word religure which means bond. the term religiosity originates from english, namely religion, and then becomes an adjective religious, which means pious, and becomes the word state of religiosity means religion or piety. muslichah (2015) described religiosity as how many people maintain and apply religious values and beliefs and use them in daily activities. it is believed that every individual with a religious character can judge the world through religious laws and incorporate religion into most of their lives. religious belief has five dimensions, namely (1) the ideological/belief dimension (the ritual dimension). this space contains meaning for a person to acknowledge the existence of god. (2) dimensions in worship/religion application (the ritual dimension). the dimension contains the meaning of information about how a person acknowledges the existence of god by praying according to his beliefs to fulfill the beliefs. (3) dimension of experience (the experiential dimension). this dimension explains that people who believe irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 366 in the existence of god are patient when they experience hardship and believe every failure has a lesson behind it. (4) the dimension of religious knowledge (the intellectual dimension). this dimension explains that religious people must learn about their religion by increasing their knowledge through reading the holy book. (5) the consequential dimension this dimension shows that religious people have commendable qualities. information technology misuse information has an essential role, so it needs to be handled properly to create quality information that can be used to make a decision. quality information must meet the requirements of relevance, timeliness, accuracy, and completeness (azhar, 2013). technology can be an element of material or immaterial objects created thoroughly through actions and ideas to obtain a norm. (kbbi, 2020). technology is created to support human civilization and has become a necessity and spreads in every field of human activity. however, if there is information technology misuse, it will result in dishonesty in people’s behavior of the people and lead to fraud. the use of information technology in learning, especially during this pandemic, is very beneficial for the education system at the elementary, middle, upper, and higher levels. the use of appropriate information technology helps add information and as a means of supporting accessing fast information. the use of information technology must still be monitored because misuse of technology makes students become individuals who are dishonest and irresponsible with their duties. research on the misuse of information technology had been carried out by juliardi et al. (2021), melasari (2019), and ningsih and simbolon (2019), who explained that information technology misuse affects student academic dishonesty. academic dishonesty the theory of reasoned action (tra) explains that the expectations or desires of each individual towards character are formed from two main factors, namely attitude toward the behavior and subjective norms. meanwhile, the theory of planned behavior (tpb) adds one more factor, namely perceived behavioral control (ikhsan & iskak, 2005). according to fontanella et al. (2020), academic dishonesty is usually carried out by students when working on personal assignments or group assignments by cheating, copying and also occurs during midterm exams or semester exams such as viewing notes, cheating, admitting a friend’s work as a result of his work and falsifying bibliography. there are three hypotheses in this research. the first hypothesis (h1) is that the fraud diamond dimension affects academic dishonesty. the second hypothesis (h2) is religiosity affects academic dishonesty. the third hypothesis (h3) is that misuse of information technology affects academic dishonesty. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 367 methodology research design, site, and participants this research aims to determine and analyze the influence of the fraud diamond dimension, religiosity, and information technology misuse on academic dishonesty. this research uses primary data by distributing questionnaires directly to respondents using google forms. the population is the generalization area determined by the researcher where the population consists of objects or subjects that have a particular level and uniqueness and draws conclusions (kuncoro, 2013). the population in this research is all active students of the faculty of economics and business, universitas jambi, majoring in economics, management, and accounting with diploma 3, diploma 4, and bachelor’s degree. table 1. research population department diploma 3 (d3) diploma 4 (d4) bachelor degree (s1) total economics 41 1226 1267 management 64 47 1020 1131 accounting 279 971 1250 total 3648 source: siakad unja even semester of 2021/2022 in determining the minimum sample size, the slovin formula is used, then the result is obtained 97.33 which is rounded up to 98. if the minimum number of samples is known, then the amount is allocated proportionally to each department with the formula n n ni ni  so that the sample is obtained as follows: table 2. research sample department total population sample economics 1267 34 management 1131 31 accounting 1250 33 total 3648 98 source: siakad unja even semester of 2021/2022 data collection and analysis data were obtained by distributing questionnaires, so the seriousness of the respondents when answering questions is essential in this research. for this reason, two kinds of tests were needed, they are validity and reliability test. the analytical tool used in this research is a multiple linear regression analysis tool that first converts the ordinal scale into an interval scale with the continuous interval method (method of successive). the analysis model assumption contains assumptions that must be met so that the model is irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 368 strong and unbiased. the tested regression model assumption is disturbance error (normality), multicollinearity, and heteroscedasticity testing. based on previous research and existing theories, the operationalization of the research variables, namely the fraud diamond variable (x1), is defined as all illegal acts characterized by fraudulent acts disguises that are contrary to religion to receive a sum of money, assets, services, prevent payments and to prevent loss or for the benefit of each individual (the institute of internal auditor, 2011). the indicators used are pressure, opportunity, rationality, and capability. the religiosity variable (x2) is a person who adheres to religious values and beliefs as long as he uses them in everyday life (muslichah, 2015). the indicators used are belief, worship, experience, knowledge, and consequences. information technology misuse variable (x3) is the knowledge that covers various things, which include computer hardware systems and computer software, lan (local area network), man (metropolitan area network), wan (wide area network), sim (system management information), telecommunications systems and many others (prasojo & riyanto, 2011). the indicators are the level of knowledge, skill, technological sophistication, duration of technology use, responsibility, and the culture of mutual trust and honesty. academic dishonesty variable (y) is an act of fraud or intentional dishonesty committed in the implementation or fulfillment of academic obligations, for example, cheating or copying others’ work during the midterm or semester exams (fontanella et al., 2020). indicators used for this variable are opportunity, intelligence, confidence in committing fraud, forcing others to hide their fraud, and lying. the scale used is a likert scale with five levels. ethical consideration researchers have maintained the confidentiality of respondents, such as names and other data and the respondents’ answers. findings a minimum of 98 questionnaires were filled out for this research. after being distributed for almost a month, 446 active students of the faculty of economics and business, universitas jambi filled out the questionnaire link. the respondent profiles are in table 3. table 3. characteristics of research respondents gender total percentage male 123 27.6% female 323 72.4% total 446 100 % department economics 107 24% management 49 11% accounting 290 65% total 446 100% irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 369 batch 2017 1 0.2% 2018 44 9.8% 2019 40 8.9% 2020 214 47% 2021 146 33% 2022 1 0.2% total 446 100% age ≤ 20 years old 241 54% >20 years old 205 46% total 446 100% source: data processing results, 2022 this research uses primary data obtained using research instruments in the form of a questionnaire containing questions to all respondents who are active students of the faculty of economics and business in the even semester of the academic year 2021/2022, which consists of 3 departments, namely the department of economics, the department of management and the department of accounting. each respondent answered 35 question items, consisting of 7 for fraud diamond, ten for religiosity, eight for information technology misuse variables, and ten for academic dishonesty variables. validity test based on the validity test of the returned questionnaire results, all statements are valid. a questionnaire is said to be valid if the questions on the questionnaire can reveal something that will be measured by the questionnaire. a questionnaire is said to be valid if t count > t table, but if t count > t table then the question item is declared not valid. questionnaire items can also be said to be valid if the significance level is < 0.05 and invalid if > 0.05. the validity test results for variables x1, x2, x3, and y all show a significance level of <0.05 and t count > t table. it means that all questionnaire items are valid. reliability test based on the reliability test of the returned questionnaire results, it can be seen that all statements are reliable. questionnaire items are declared reliable if there is consistency in the measurement. sekaran (2017) stated that the reliability test is intended to determine stability and consistency in measurement. data is considered reliable if the cronbach alpha value > 0.70 (ghozali, 2016). classic assumption test result the results of the multiple linear regression analysis for all statement items for each variable are in the following table: irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 370 table 4. multiple linear regression analysis results model unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t sig. b std. error beta (constant) 19.435 1.932 10.057 .000 fraud diamond .278 .048 .247 5.854 .000 religiosity -.002 .033 -.002 -.052 .959 information technology misuse .415 .042 .424 9.889 .000 source: data processing results, 2022 the regression equation uses unstandardized coefficients where the constant coefficient is 19.435, the fraud diamond dimension variable (x1) has a coefficient of 0.278, the religiosity variable (x2) has a coefficient of -0.002 and the information technology misuse variable (x3) has a coefficient of 0.415, so that the regression model formed is as follows: y = 𝛼 + β1x1+ β2x2 + β3x3 + e y=19.435 +0.278x1-0.002x2 +0.415x3+ ε description: y = academic dishonesty x1 = fraud diamond dimension x2 = religiosity x3 = information technology misuse e = standard error the multiple linear regression equation above can be interpreted that: the constant (𝛼) has a value of 19.435 which means that the dimensions of fraud diamond (x1), religiosity (x2), and misuse of information technology (x3) are assumed to be = 0, so academic dishonesty (y) is constantly worth 19.435. the regression coefficient on the fraud diamond dimension variable (x1) of 0.278 means that the fraud diamond dimension has increased by one unit. then, the academic dishonesty variable (y) will increase by 0.278, assuming other independent variables are fixed or constant. the regression coefficient on the religiosity variable (x2) of -0.002 means that the religiosity variable has increased by one unit. then, the academic cheating variable (y) will decrease by 0.002, assuming the other independent variables are fixed or constant. the regression coefficient on the variable of misuse of information technology (x3) of 0.415 means that the variable of information technology misuse has increased by one unit. then, the variable of academic cheating (y) will increase by 0.415, assuming other independent variables are fixed or constant. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 371 coefficient of determination test result the results of the coefficient of determination test are in table 5 below. table 5. coefficient of determination test result model summary model r r square adjusted r square std. error of the estimate 1 .560a .314 .309 3.691 a. predictors: (constant), total_x3, total_x2, total_x1 source: data processing results, 2022 based on table 5 shows that the result of the coefficient of determination obtained a value of 0.309 or 30.9%. it means that 30.9% of the independent variables (dimensions of fraud diamond (x1), religiosity (x2), and misuse of information technology (x3) can explain the effect on the dependent variable of academic dishonesty (y), while the rest is explained by other variables not included in this research. discussion hypothesis 1 (h1) testing of this research indicates that the fraud diamond dimension variable shows a significant value of. 0.00, which is smaller than the value of 0.05. it means that the fraud diamond dimension in this research affects the academic dishonesty variable, so these research results show that the fraud diamond dimension variable affects academic dishonesty. the results of the questionnaire distributed to respondents showed that from 4 (four) indicators, namely pressure, opportunity, rationality, and capability indicators, with 7 (seven) statements on the fraud diamond dimension variable. there is a statement that strengthened the fraud diamond dimension variable affected academic dishonesty. the statement which is “you had the opportunity to commit academic dishonesty” had a percentage of 19.5% or 87 respondents who answered that they had the opportunity to commit academic dishonesty. the statement that “you feel dishonest acts such as cheating are normal, not a fraud” had 22.2% of 99 respondents who said that they felt it was normal. the statement “you are indifferent to the people around you when committing fraud” was answered by 23.1% of respondents, or as many as 103 respondents said they had been indifferent. the statement “you have a habit of fraud such as cheating, opening the internet, and others” were answered by 167 or 37.9% of the respondents who had this habit. this research is in line with the research of savilia (2020), murni and pratiwi (2020), and nusron and sari (2021), which stated that the fraud diamond dimension variable affects academic dishonesty. however, this research is not in line with the research of juliardi et al. (2021), which stated that the fraud diamond dimension does not affect academic dishonesty. the results of hypothesis 2 (h2) testing show that the religiosity variable has a significance value of 0.959, where this number is more than 0.05. it means that religiosity does not affect academic dishonesty. the answers from the five indicators, which are belief, worship, experience, knowledge, and consequences consisting of 10 statements distributed irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 372 to the respondents contained statements that showed that the respondents already had a religious value, as seen in the statement “believing that god always sees your actions” which was answered strongly agree (ss) by 84.3% of respondents. the statement “you believe that prayer will affect success in work” was responded strongly agree (ss) by 84.5% or 376 respondents. the number of respondents answered 83.9% or 374 people for the statement “you believe in god’s destiny”. the respondent’s answer to the statement of the religiosity variable shows that the respondents already have the value of religiosity. however, this religiosity value has not been able to affect academic dishonesty. this research is in line with the research results by nusron and sari (2021) and melati et al. (2018), which stated that the religiosity variable does not affect academic dishonesty. however, it is not in line with research by rahmawati and susilawati (2019), which stated that religiosity affects academic dishonesty. hypothesis 3 (h3) testing of the information technology misuse variable has a significance value of 0.00 which is below 0.05. it means that the variable of information technology misuse affects academic dishonesty. the results of the respondents’ answers from six indicators, namely the level of knowledge, skill, technological sophistication, duration of technology use, responsibility, and honesty in eight statements regarding the misuse of information technology show that the statement “i am skilled at using information technology to find information related to lecture materials and exam materials” as much as 57% or 254 respondents answered agree and 28.5% or 127 respondents said they strongly agree with the statement. the further statement is that “i use information technology that can produce information in the form of reports, tables, graphs”, with 60.8%, or 271 respondents answered agree and 23.3%, or 104 respondents said they strongly agree with the statement. respondent’s answers to the two statements mean that the respondents of this research, who are the students of the faculty of economics and business, universitas jambi, can use technology to support them in carrying out tasks. in the statement “the information technology i use plays a role in my academic dishonesty” 15.2% or 68 respondents said they agree, and 3.1% or 14 respondents said they strongly agree with the statement. this result indicates that respondents use their understanding of the use of technology to do things that are not commendable. the statement “i use information technology to find answers during exams” was answered agree by 17.9% or 80 respondents, and strongly agree by 3.6% or 16 respondents. it means that the students use information technology to help them in exams without realizing they are committing dishonesty. the result of this research is in line with melasari (2019) and juliardi et al. (2021) that the misuse of information technology affects academic dishonesty. on the other hand, this result is not in line with ningsih and simbolon (2019) that the misuse of information technology does not affect academic dishonesty. the dependent variable of academic dishonesty has five indicators, namely intelligence, confidence in committing fraud, forcing others to hide their cheating, and lying as outlined in ten statements. respondents’ answers show that several statements strengthen that respondents from the faculty of economics and business, universitas jambi, committed a form of academic dishonesty. for academic dishonesty, such as using notes during exams, 50.4% of respondents answered that they never did it. meanwhile, the remaining 26.9% said they ever did it, 19.5% said they sometimes did that, 1.6% respondents said they often did it, and 1.6% answered that they always do it. another statement that also irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 373 strengthens the existence of academic dishonesty is the respondents’ answers to statements about giving answers to friends during the exam, where 41% of the respondents said they ever did it, 18.6% said sometimes, 3.1% said often, and the remaining 0.7% said they always answer their friends during the exam. conclusions and implications the results of this research show that the fraud diamond dimension variable affects academic dishonesty, meaning that the more pressure, opportunity, rationality, and capability possessed by the faculty of economics and business students, the greater the opportunity to commit academic dishonesty. the religiosity variable does not affect academic dishonesty. it implies that the value of religiosity possessed by students has not been able to affect behavior change in committing academic dishonesty. students who have fulfilled their religious obligations or who have not fulfilled their religious obligations have not shown any change in behavior in committing academic dishonesty. the variable of misuse of information technology affects academic dishonesty, which means that the more often students misuse information technology in lectures, the more academic dishonesty will be committed. the suggestion for lecturers in this regard the lecturers of the faculty of economics and business, universitas jambi, is to make a more effective teaching and learning process system, especially when using an online system because the opportunity to commit academic dishonesty is higher than in face-to-face learning. the online teaching and learning process system, for example, can be implemented by interacting more with students on zoom rather than asking written questions. by doing it this way, lecturers will know more about the students’ abilities. it will also encourage students to use technology appropriately in completing their assignments. the recommendation for students is not to misuse information technology in the learning process and to be aware that the purpose of learning is not just to gain good grades but also to change their behavior in the process of obtaining knowledge. furthermore, it is also about how to carry out the value of religiosity in which a person believes that god sees every action a person does. for further research, it is suggested to add other variables, for example, the effect of the role of quality assurance in the university, in this case, the quality assurance unit in each faculty. the theoretical implication is that there is a behavioral theory that influences someone to do something for the better. a person whose behavior is shaped by true religious and cultural values will affect his behavior in carrying out daily activities. the policy implications for the faculty of economics and business, universitas jambi, is that the faculty should implement a learning system that can prevent students from committing academic dishonesty. periodic revision of the curriculum by study programs can improve the quality of learning that is getting better. the learning method can also switch to the case method or other methods that allow students to be more creative in expressing their opinions and be able to think more critically. another policy implication for the faculty of economics and business, universitas jambi, in this case, the quality assurance unit (ujm, unit jaminan mutu), is to make a standard operating procedure (sop) on online learning irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 374 that can increase student creativity so that it does not cause students to misuse information technology in committing fraud. disclosure statement this research does not have a potential conflict of interest that the researcher wishes to convey. acknowledgments the researchers would like to thank all of our respondents, namely students of the faculty of economics and business who have been willing to fill out this research questionnaire. references azhar, s. 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(2019). pengaruh dimensi fraud diamond dan religuisitas terhadap perilaku kecurangan akademik mahasiswa (the influence of the dimensions of fraud diamond and religiosity on student academic fraud behavior). jurnal akuntansi trisakti, 5(2), 269-290. savilia. (2020). accounting students’ academic fraud: empirical evidence from indonesia. journal of accounting and business education, 5, 38–53. the institute of internal auditor. (2011). international standards for professional practice of internal auditing (standards). the institute of internal auditors south africa. tonasa, m., & setyorini, c. t. (2019). reasons for accounting students to commit academic fraud: qualitative interview studies. jurnal akuntansi, manajemen, dan ekonomi, 21(1), 23–31. wolfe, d., & hermanson, d. r. (2004). the fraud diamond: considering the four elements of fraud. the cpa journal, 38-42. biographical notes netty herwawaty is a lecturer at the faculty of economics and business universitas jambi, indonesia. masbirorotni is a lecturer at faculty of education, universitas jambi, indonesia. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 232 the effectiveness of the problem-based learning model to improve the students’ 21st century skills febri yanto 1 and enjoni 2* abstract the 21 st century learning must develop the students' 21 st century competencies, including aspects of knowledge, students' problem solving skills, and science process skills. these student skills need to be widely developed in science learning to face the challenges of the century. this study aimed to determine the effect of pbl on students' 21 st century skills. the study method was quasi-experimental; using a posttest only randomized control group design. data analysis used a comparison test of two sample groups and the mann-whitney u-test. the analysis results of student science process activities were 84% in the very active category, while problem solving skills were 0.001 < 0.05 and 0.000 < 0.05 at sma n 8 and sma n 9 padang. meanwhile, the analysis results of the knowledge aspect data obtained 0.000 <0.05 and 0.000 <0.05 at sma n 8 and sma n 9 padang with the conclusion that ho was rejected, and it means that in the problem solving aspect and the knowledge aspect there was an influence of pbl on student 21 st century skills in the aspects of knowledge, skills problem solving, and students' science process skills. keywords physics learning, problem solving, science process skills article history received 26 september 2022 accepted 18 november 2022 how to cite yanto, f., & enjoni, e. (2022). the effectiveness of the problem-based learning model to improve the students’ 21st century skills. indonesian research journal in education |irje|, 6(2), 232-.242, https://doi.org/ 10.22437/irje.v6i2.20786 1science education department, faculty of mathematics and science, universitas negeri padang, indonesia 2* faculty of teacher training and education, universitas bung hatta, indonesia, corresponding author: enjoni@bunghatta.ac.id mailto:enjoni@bunghatta.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 233 introduction in the last century there has been a significant shift from manufacturing services to services that emphasize information and knowledge (scott, 2015). knowledge itself grows and expands exponentially. information and communication technologies have changed the way we learn, the nature of the work we can do, and the meaning of social relationships. shared decision making, information sharing, collaboration, innovation, and work speed are very crucial aspects currently. students are expected to no longer focus on succeeding in manual work or routine machine-assisted work or jobs that rely on the cheap labor market. today, indicators of success are based more on the ability to communicate, share, and use information to solve complex problems, adapt and innovate in response to new demands and changing circumstances, and expand the power of technology to create new knowledge (muhaimin et al., 2019; hadiyanto et al., 2017). new standards are needed so that-students will have the competencies in the 21 st century. schools are challenged to find ways to enable students to succeed in work and life through mastering creative thinking skills, flexible problem solving, collaboration and innovation. several sources such as trilling and fadel (2009), ledward and hirata (2011) demonstrate the importance of 21 st century skills to achieve the transformation needed. delors (1998) from the international commission on education for the 21 st century proposes four visions of learning including, knowledge, understanding, competence to live, and competence to act. in addition to this vision, four principles, as the four pillars of education, are learning to know, learning to do, learning to be and learning to live together. this framework is considered still relevant to education interests today and can be developed according to the needs of the 21 st century (scott, 2015). problem-based learning is one alternative to make student easier to train to solve problems in learning physics. this learning model application can improve students' problem-solving skills in physics learning. the essence of problem-based learning is to provide students with various authentic and meaningful problem situations, which can serve as a springboard for investigation and improve problem solving skills in students (tan, 2009; muhaimin et al., 2020; syaiful et al., 2020). a problem-based learning model will increase students' knowledge, problem solving skills and science processes. this study aimed to investigate the use of problem-based learning in physics learning in the aspects of students' knowledge, problem solving skills and science process skills. the effect of the learning model in question is to positively affect the skills above, which is the target of this study. the pbl model used in this study is the pbl model proposed by (yanto, 2019) namely observation, problem formulation, problem analysis, data collection, hypothesis testing, developing and presentation as well as analyzing and problem solving processes. literature review in the modern world, increase students' capacity to solve problems and critical thinking is an educational goal in all fields (elder & paul 2012; olszewski-kubilius& thomson, 2015). technological advances have changed the style of teaching and learning activities from passive learning to active learning, from traditional to contemporary irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 234 innovative teaching, and producing students from passive listeners to active learners especially in science learning. physics is a branch of science that makes an essential and beneficial contribution to the development of science, especially in applied sciences such as technology, mechanics, medicine and marine science, therefore physics is an essential subject in junior high school. according to williams et al. (2003), physics is complicated for students to understand since it also considers how to find solutions and knowledge to solve problems related to learning. based on observations, the assignment of structured tasks in the form of calculations or questions occupies the highest percentage, which is above 70%. furthermore, the students’ motivation is hopes and aspirations of the future and the desire and desire to succeed is above 60%. however, it is not in line with the implementation of practicum, interesting activities in learning, encouragement and needs in learning which only occupy a percentage of less than 50%, even though teachers have implemented learning models or strategies (53%). in terms of the teaching materials used, printed teaching materials still dominate with a percentage above 60%, and the use of non-printed teaching materials is less than 30%. in general, learning outcomes of physics are not as expected. teachers are another reason for students' difficulties in learning physics because of their active role in the teaching and learning process (ekici, 2016). alptekin and colleagues (2009) revealed that students think that the teacher plays a paramount role in their understanding to learn physics. aycan and yumuşak (2003) stated that one of the possible causes of difficulties in understanding physics for students is the non-experimental and theoretical treatment of the subject. teachers take on the crucial task of managing the teaching process well (ekici, 2016). it requires more serious attention from various groups to find alternative solutions to improve the ability and competence of students in learning, especially physics. every effort has been made by the government to overcome various problems that exist in the world of education today. the government has made several standards in the field of education such as process standards, evaluation, assessment, funds, facilities and infrastructure as well as making changes to the education curriculum. at this time, indonesia has implemented the 2013 curriculum which focuses on a scientific approach. for implementing this approach into the learning process, the 2013 curriculum suggests choosing a model in learning, including; problem based learning (pbl), project based learning (pjbl), discovery learning (dl), inquiry learning (il) (hosnan, 2014).problem based learning (pbl) is learning that has essence in the form of presentation of various problems that authentic and meaningful to students, so it can work to carry out investigations and to be investigated (afdareza, yuanita, & maimunah (2020), utrifani and turnip (2014) revealed that pbl is a model learning that involves students solving a problem through stage of the scientific method so that students can learn the knowledge related to the problem and have the skills to solve problem. methodology the study used a quasi-experimental method. only a randomized posttest could be used to incorporate this study design into the control group design. the design consisted of experimental and control groups (johnson & christensen, 2019). the experimental group irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 235 used a problem-based learning model, while the control group used a conventional learning model. at the end of the activity, both groups were given a posttest to determine the effect of using the problem-based learning model. the stages of quasi-experimental study carried out were the same as the stages of experimental study by not controlling all variables strictly. the first stage was to conduct a literature survey related to the problem: learning models and aspects of knowledge, problem solving skills and students' science process skills. the stages were continued by identifying and analyzing problems in learning physics by conducting a preliminary study. the third stage was formulating hypotheses to estimate the effect of problem-based learning models on student competence. the fourth stage was to develop a study plan with the design of the experimental group and control group, pretest and posttest. the fifth stage was conducting experiments by giving treatment with a problem-based learning model to the experimental group, while the control group did not. sixth is processing raw data from instruments into data in the form of values. seventh, applying statistical tests according to the characteristics of students' knowledge, problem solving skills, and science process skills. the population of this study was students of sma n 8 padang and sma n 9 padang. the sampling technique in this study was purposive sampling, namely classes with the same characteristics. according to margono (2004), finding a way to determine the number of samples in accordance with the sample size that will be used as the actual data source, considering the characteristics and distribution of the population to obtain representative sample. this study was conducted in the experimental group and the control group. there were 30 students in the experimental group, and 30 in the control group. the pre-test was for to both groups of samples before being given physics learning material. this test aimed to determine the initial ability of the two groups. the average value of the experimental group was 60.50, while the control group was 60.98. the test results of the two sample groups had data that were normally distributed and had the same variance. the comparison test of the average group of independent samples obtained a value of t = 0.07. this test showed that the initial ability of the two sample groups is the same. the data collection instrument consisted of three parts, namely a written test, an observation sheet, and a performance appraisal sheet. students' knowledge is measured by using a written test related to the concept of changes in heat energy. the written test used 25 objective questions as a posttest in two sample groups. the questions are multiple choices with five choices and tested on classes outside the sample with the same grade level to determine questions that meet the criteria that can measure students' 21 st century skills. the reliability and correlation coefficient of the posttest questions were 0.92 and 0.85, respectively. inquiries were made online using google forms. the performance appraisal sheet is an instrument to measure students' problem-solving skills. the written test result data was in the form of a value scale. on the other hand, the data from the performance appraisal sheet with a likert scale was converted into a score scale to analyze this data using statistics. the indicators of assessing students' problem -solving skills consist of asking several questions, thinking in various ways, giving many answers, and giving various reasons. meanwhile, indicators to assess the skills of students' knowledge aspects were seen from competence at the level of understanding concepts to evaluate and compare. data from the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 236 aspects of knowledge, problem solving skills and students' science process skills were analyzed using a comparison test of the mean of two independent sample groups and the mann-whitney u test. before statistical tests, normality and homogeneity tests were carried out. for parametric statistics, a comparison test of the means of the two sample groups was used for data with the same normal distribution and variance. meanwhile, if the study has data without the same normal distribution or variance, then the mann-whitney u test is used for nonparametric statistics. findings and discussion the effectiveness of the problem-based learning model for learning physics is seen from three aspects, they are science process skills, knowledge and student problem-solving skills, meanwhile, the results of the analysis obtained are as follows. the results of the analysis of students' science process activities the following table shows the results of data analysis on student activities in the problem-based learning process containing authentic assessments in physics learning which can be described in table 1. table 1. student activities in learning physics using the problem-based learning model observed aspects average criteria science process activities make observations (observations) according to the student worksheets formulate the problem according to the prepared student worksheets make predictions according to the demands of the student worksheets formulate the hypothesis according to the problem posed collecting information/data through practicum activities/library study/ resource persons organizing data in the form of tables, diagrams processing data/information and drawing conclusions from the data/information obtained drawing conclusions from the data/information obtained communicating the acquired knowledge and skills group activities share the tasks that the group has to do participate in group activities listen when friends share opinions ask friends in the group activities in a scientific attitude thorough honest diligent average percentage of agreements 3.75 3.68 3.75 3.87 3.81 3.62 4 3.75 3.62 3.68 3.68 3.93 3.75 3.87 3.81 3.81 3.68 3.68 3.77 84% very active very active very active very active very active very active very active very active very active very active very active very active very active very active very active very active very active very active very good agreement irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 237 based on the data in table 1 that the students' activities in learning physics using the problem-based learning model are in the very active category both for problem solving activities, group activities and activities in scientific attitudes. the percentage of agreements between the two observers is 84% or is in the very good agreement category. under the established criteria, the learning model is effective if the student's activities meet the criteria above 3.1 (quite active very active), it mean that the problem-based learning model for learning physics is effective in terms of student activity. the results of the data analysis of problem-solving skills the effectiveness test of the problem-based learning model for learning physics is the learning outcomes in the form of problem solving. problem solving skills are tested after students take part in learning using a problem-based learning model. tabel 2. average of student problem solving skills learning outcomes schools classes n average pre test average post test average gain (δ) sma n 8 padang experimental 30 86 0,70 control 40 65 0,60 sma n 9 padang experimental 30 90 0,73 control 30 58 0,61 table 2 shows, the improvement in the learning outcomes of students' problem solving skills with the problem-based learning model is higher than the learning model commonly used by teachers. furthermore, the analysis prerequisite test was carried out for the analysis for normality using the mann-whitney and shapiro-wilk tests. the data criteria are normally distributed if the significance >0, 05. the data processing with kolmogorov-smirnova showed significance in the experimental class 0.227> 0.05 and for the control class 0.324> 0.05, as well as the analysis using shapiro-wilk; it means that the data for both classes were normally distributed. the results of the homogeneity of variance test showed the criterion for homogeneous variance is when sig > 0,05 the data processing results showed that at sma n 9 padang, the significance value obtained was 0.070 > 0.05, while at sma n 8 padang, the significance value was 0.033 > 0.05. it means the variance of the data on increasing aspects of student problem-solving skills was homogeneously distributed. so, it is homogeneous. based on the results of the normality test and the homogeneity of variance test results, the hypothesis test uses the t-test using spss 19. the t test results for problem-solving skills are in table 3. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 238 table 3.the t-test of improving problem solving skills of students at sma n 8 and sma n 9 padang schools classes n mean std.error mean std. deviation sig. (2-tailed) sma n 9 padang experimental 30 51.8000 1.76583 9.67186 0,001 control 30 46.3000 .73367 4.01849 sma n 8 padang experimental 30 54.8667 .35472 1.94286 0,000 control 30 43.7333 .84409 4.62328 criterion ho is rejected if the significance of (2-tailed) <0,05. the results of the analysis in show sig (2-tailed) <0.05 which means ho is rejected. it means that the improvement of students' problem-solving skills in each school taught by the problem-based learning model for physics learning is better than that are not taught. it proves that using a problem-based learning model is effective in improving students' problem-solving skills. data processing for problem solving skills is appendix 1.10. furthermore, figure 1 shows the gratification of the effectiveness test of the problem-based learning model, for learning physics towards improving students' problem-solving skills in each sample school. figure 1. results of the t-test of improving students’ problem-solving skills the results of the data analysis of the knowledge aspect the further effectiveness test of the problem-based learning model for learning physics is learning outcomes in the knowledge aspect. the knowledge aspect is tested after students take part in learning using a problem-based learning model. improving learning outcomes in the knowledge aspect is in table 4. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 239 table 4. average learning outcomes of knowledge aspects schools classes n average pre-test average post-test average gain (δ) sma n 9 padang experiment 30 53 90 0,78 control 30 30 75 0,63 sma n 8 padang experiment 30 52 85 0,74 control 30 27 75 0,60 based on table 4, the increase in learning outcomes in aspects of student knowledge with problem-based learning models for learning is commonly used by teachers. furthermore, the analysis prerequisite test was to perform a normality test using the t-test. the data criteria are normally distributed if the significance >0,05. the data processing result using kolmogorov-smirnova showed significance in the experimental class 0.163> 0.05 and for the control class 0.200> 0.05 as well as using shapiro-wilk. it means that the data for both classes were normally distributed. the homogeneity of variance test is shown. the criterion for homogeneous variance is when sig >0,05 . the data processing result at sma n 8 padang showed a significance of 0.294 > 0.05 mean-while, at sma n 9 padang showed a significance of 0.170 > 0.05. it means that the variance of the data on increasing aspects of student knowledge was homogeneous. based on the normality and the homogeneity of variance test, then the hypothesis test result the hypothesis uses t-test. the hypothesis tested is ho = knowledge competence of students who are taught with problem-based learning model for physics learning is significantly different from the knowledge competence of students taught without the problem-based learning model. the statistical hypothesis is: ho = 1 2 with the help of spss 19. the results of the t test for the knowledge aspect are shown in table 5. table 5. results of the t-test of knowledge aspect improvement schools classes n mean std.error mean std. deviation sig. (2-tailed) sma n 9 padang experiment 30 89.8667 1.67999 9.20170 0,000 control 30 75.6000 1.79245 9.81765 sma n 8 padang experiment 30 85.0667 1.48474 8.13224 0,000 control 30 75.6000 1.79245 9.81765 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 240 criterion ho is rejected if the significance (asymp. sig) < 0,05 . the results of the analysis obtained asymp. sig .000 < 0.05 for both schools means ho is rejected. it means that the increase in the knowledge competence of students who are taught the problem-based learning model for learning physics is better than the increase in the knowledge competence of students taught without the problem-based learning model. figure 2 shows a graph of the effectiveness of the problem-based learning model for learning physics in increasing students' knowledge competence in each sample school. figure 2. increasing students' knowledge competence the criteria set to declare the problem-based learning model for physics learning to be effective are (1) student activity is in the moderate to very active category, (2) increased learning outcomes in aspects of knowledge is higher than students in the control class, and (3) increased results learn problem solving skills is higher than the students in the control class. based on this, the problem-based learning model for learning physics is effective when it is set in learning where the increase in learning outcomes for both knowledge competence and problem solving skills is higher than the control class, and student activities are in the very active category. to see whether there is an interaction between the application of the problem-based learning model and student learning outcomes in aspects of knowledge in schools at different levels, then after testing the hypothesis, a two-way anova test is carried out. the analysis results shown interaction between the problem-based learning model and student activities (f=61.759; p<0.01). it means there is a line of intersection between these two lines, the data shows an interaction between the applications of the problem-based learning model with learning outcomes in aspects of student knowledge at different school levels. it means the problem-based learning model can be applied middle and low levels. the analysis results of student science process activities were 84% in the very active category while problem-solving skills were 0.001 < 0.05 and 0.000 < 0.05 at sma n 8 padang and sma n 9 padang. meanwhile the analysis results of the knowledge aspect data were 0.000 <0.05 and 0.000 <0.05 at sma n 8 and sma n 9 padang. it means ho is rejected and in the problem-solving and the knowledge aspect there is an influence of pbl on student 21 st irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 241 century skills of students in the knowledge aspects problem-solving skills, and students’ science process skills. problem based learning is learning that has essence in the form of various problem presentations that are authentic and meaningful to students so that it can work to carry out investigations and to be investigated (arends, 2008). utrifani and turnip (2014) revealed that pbl is a model learning that involves students’ to solving a problem through stage of the scientific method so that students can learn the knowledge related to the problem and have the skills to solve problem. conclusion the study results concluded that the use of problem-based learning models had a significant effect on three aspects of skills, namely knowledge, problem solving skills, and students' science process skills. this effect showed that the problem-based learning model was effective in developing students' knowledge skills, problem solving skills, and science process skills. the development of problem-solving skills, aspects of students' knowledge and science process skills could occur because in the implementation and application of this problem-based learning model students were motivated and actively involved in linking science learning materials with real-world contexts based on a theme, conducting scientific investigations, writing investigative reports, and solve the problem. as an implication of the results of this study, science teachers must motivate, direct, and guide students to construct problem solving skills, knowledge and students' science process skills through the application of problem-based learning models in learning processes and activities. disclosure statement no potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors. references arends, r. i. (2008). learning to teach. yogyakarta: pustakapelajar. afdareza, m. y., yuanita, p., &maimunah, m. (2020). development of learning device based on 21 st century skill with implementation of problem based-learning to increase critical thinking skill of students on polyhedron for grade 8 th junior high school. journal of educational sciences, 4(2), 273-284. aycan, ş., &yumuşak, a. (2003). a study on the levels of understanding of high school physics topics. journal of the national education, 159, 171-180. delors, j. (1998). leaning: the treasure within. paris: unesco. elder, l., & paul, r. (2012). critical thinking: competency standards essential to the cultivation of intellectual skills, part 4. journal of developmental education, 35(3), 30-31 ekici, e. (2016). why do i slog through the physics? understanding high school students' difficulties in learning physics. journal of education and practice, 7(7), 95-107. hadiyanto, mukminin, a., failasofah, arif, n., fajaryani, n., & habibi, a. (2017). in search of quality student teachers in a digital era: reframing the practices of soft skills in teacher education. turkish online journal of educational technology, 16(3), 70-77. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 242 hosnan, m. (2014). pendekatan saintifik dan kontekstual dalam pembelajaran abad 21: kunci sukses implementasi kurikulum 2013 (scientific and contextual approaches in 21 st century learning: the key to successful implementation of the 2013 curriculum). bogor: ghalia indonesia. johnson, r. b., & christensen, l. (2019). educational research: quantitative, qualitative, and mixed approaches. sage publications. ledward, b. c., and hirata.d.(2011). an overview of 21 st century skills. summary of 21 st century skills for students and teachers, by pacific policy research center. honolulu: kamehameha schools–research & evaluation. margono.(2004). metodologi penelitian pendidikan (educational research methodology). jakarta: rineka cipta. muhaimin, asrial, habibi, a., mukminin, a., & hadisaputra, p. (2020). science teachers’ integration of digital resources in education: a survey in rural areas of one indonesian province. heliyon, 6(8), e04631 muhaimin, habibi, a., mukminin, a., pratama, r., asrial, & harja, h. (2019). predicting factors affecting intention to use web 2.0 in learning: evidence from science education. journal of baltic science education, 18(4), 595-606. olszewski-kubilius, p., & thomson, d. (2015). talent development as a framework for gifted education. gifted child today, 38(1), 49-59. scott, cl. (2015). the futures of learning 1: why must learning content and methods change in the 21 st century? paris: unesco education research and foresight. syaiful, kamid, muslim, huda, n., mukminin, a., & habibi, a. (2020). emotional quotient and creative thinking skills in mathematics. universal journal of educational research, 8(2), 499-507. doi:10.13189/ujer.2020.080221 tan, o. s. (2021). problem-based learning innovation: using problems to power learning in the 21st century. gale cengage learning. trilling, b., & fadel, c. 2009.21 st century skills: learning for life in our times. san francisco: john wiley & sons, inc. utrifani, a., & turnip, b. m. (2014). pengaruh model pembelajaran problem-based learning terhadap hasil belajar siswa pada materi pokok kinetika gerak lurus kelas x sma negeri 14 medan t.p. 2013/2014. inpafi journal, 2(2), (1-8). williams, c., stanisstreet, m., spall, k., boyes, e., & dickson, d. (2003). why aren't secondary students interested in physics?. physics education, 38(4), 324. yanto, f., festiyed, f., &enjoni, e. (2021). problem based-learning model for increasing problem solving skills in physics learning. jurnal ilmu pendidikan fisika, 6(1), 53-65. biographical notes febri yanto is a faculty member at the science education department, faculty of mathematics and science, universitas negeri padang, indonesia. enjoni is faculty member at faculty of teacher training and education, universitas bung hatta, indonesia, corresponding author: enjoni@bunghatta.ac.id https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorid=57194016573 https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorid=36975091000 https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorid=57192920423 https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorid=55850809900 https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorid=57216542481 mailto:enjoni@bunghatta.ac.id this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 431 the actualization of character values in sumbang duo baleh by teacher training and education students syofiani 1* , hasnul fikri 2 , romi isnanda 3 , and yetty morelent 4 abstract this research aimed to describe the expression form of character values in sumbang duo baleh by fkip students at universitas bung hatta. it is quantitative research with a survey approach. the data consist of primary and secondary data. the research subjects are 402 female students of fkip universitas bung hatta in the academic year 2021/2022 who have a family background and have lived in a social environment with minangkabau culture for the last three years. the data are collected by distributing a questionnaire through google forms that contains an application of sumbang duo baleh in daily life. the results of data analysis show that the application of sumbang duo baleh has not been actualized in the form of character in fkip universitas bung hatta student’s life. from the twelve points of sumbang duo baleh, it is still in the category of often that shows females from minangkabau have not applied the twelve sumbang properly. keywords actualization, character, sumbang duo baleh, values article history received 1 july 2022 accepted 7 november 2022 how to cite syofiani, fikri, h., isnanda, r., & morelent, y. (2022). the actualization of character values in sumbang duo baleh by teacher training and education students. indonesian research journal in education |irje|, 6(2), 431–444. https://doi.org/10.22437/irje .v6i2.22119 1*faculty member, indonesian language and literature education study program, universitas bung hatta, padang, indonesia; corresponding author: syofiani@bunghatta.ac.id 2,3,4 faculty member, indonesian language and literature education study program, universitas bung hatta, padang, indonesia https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v6i2.22119 https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v6i2.22119 mailto:syofiani@bunghatta.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 432 introduction changes in the patterns of thinking and behaving in modern society bring positive and negative impacts in all circles. modern thinking brings every human being to live dynamically and progressively and think methodologically strategically with the hope of getting better and more prosperous economically. however, sometimes, modern thoughts and patterns of life impact behavior, especially among college students. students of fkip universitas bung hatta come from various circles and regions, both from the minangkabau area and outside minangkabau. with this diversity, there will also be diversity in behaving and communicating. the reflection of this diversity can be seen when they interact with friends or lecturers. the focus of this research is female students because, for minangkabau females, the reference in attitude and action cannot be separated from minangkabau advice which is summarized in sumbang duo baleh. the success of females in the education world cannot be separated from the hard work of high willingness. in addition, their success is also due to understanding and upholding traditional teachings and advice that exists in the community so that it can lead them to become successful females in struggling, learning, and working. one of the minang's customs and oral advice that is used as an ethical foundation that leads to females’ success is the petatah petitih sumbang duo baleh (12 things minang females should not do). the twelve pieces of advice contained in petatah petitih include duduak (sitting ethics), tagak (standing ethics), jalan (walking etiquette), kato (speaking ethics), caliak (seeing ethics), makan (eating ethics), pakai (dressing ethics), karajo (working ethics), tanyo (questioning ethics), jawek (answering ethics), gaua (social ethics), and kurenah (behavioral ethics). the twelve ethics are a primary part of character education since the overall of these twelve values leads a person to be emotionally intelligent. according to experts, dominant emotional intelligence leads someone to success. however, most minang people today are unfamiliar with the petatah petitih in the sumbang duo baleh. moreover, female students who are more contaminated with modern traditions and customs consider that sumbang duo baleh is an ancient tradition of advice that is no longer relevant to today's conditions. it has an impact on behavior, attitude, and communication. students cannot apply the character values in sumbang duo baleh in life, especially in the campus environment. most of them do not understand the character education values in the advice of sumbang duo baleh. research on the advice of sumbang duo baleh has been carried out by previous researchers, such as islami (2016), morelent et al., (2022), and suryana et al. (2021). however, this research has differences from previous research, especially in the research subjects. this research observes how to actualize character values through the sumbang duo baleh for students of fkip universitas bung hatta. literature review character education has a strong magnet when signs of degradation of the character quality of the nation's children appear. character education is a solution to the problem of irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 433 many ethical violations. a person is said to have character if he manages to absorb the values and beliefs that society wants and use them as a moral force in his life. character is a stable attitude, morals, and personality as a result of a progressive and dynamic consolidation process, the nature of a person in responding morally to situations; a person's moral, attitude, and personality that is formed from the internalization of various virtues that are believed and used as a basis for perspective, think, behave and act. thus, the character represents the identity of a person who obeys moral rules or standards and manifests in actions. character education can be interpreted as a conscious effort of a person or group to internalize character values as enlightenment so that students know, think, and act morally in dealing with every situation. it is also in line with lickona (2009) that character education is an effort to help students to understand, care, and act based on ethical values. lickona (2009) also defined a person with character as a person's original nature in responding to manifested situations morally in concrete actions in the form of good behavior, honesty, responsibility, respect for others, and other good characteristics. it is like what was expressed by aristotle, that character is closely related to habits that are continuously carried out. furthermore, the success of character education begins with understanding good characters, loving them, and imitating those good characters. these three are crucial to form moral maturity in living a life. thus, they can judge good and bad things and face pressure from the outside and temptations from within (lickona, 2009). character education must begin in the womb. the inculcation of values and norms is carried out through examples of the behavior of all family members. the data show that 50% of adult intelligence has occurred since the child was 4 years old. the further 30% increase occurs at 8 years old, and the remaining 20% in the middle or late second decade. character education is an activity that is carried out in a planned and conscious way to direct students to develop their potential. to be beneficial, besides cognitive and psychomotor competencies, the potential developed refers to the formation of attitudes (characters). furthermore, lickona (2009) divided universal noble values into nine pillars of character, such as (a) love of god and all his creations, (b) independence and responsibility, (c) honesty or trustworthiness, diplomacy, (d) respect and courtesy, (e) generous, helpful and cooperative, (f) self-confident and hard work, (g) leadership and justice, (h) kind and humble, and (i) tolerance, peace, and unity. the nine characters need to be instilled holistically with the method of knowing the good, desiring the good, and doing the good, so a person can understand, feel,, or love and at the same time implement the values of virtue. first, knowing the good, means that someone knows the values of goodness as a whole, learns to be responsible for themselves to build their good character, and then loves them consciously. second, loving the good, which is loving with the precise awareness and understanding that the values within contain positive and good things. therefore, motivating ownself and others to love culture is very important. it can be done by understanding it properly, and a commitment to preserve it and keeping the value together, so it becomes a good habit. third, acting the good is a good value that is understood and loved, embodied in daily behavior, so it becomes a habit to accept good things, reject good things and broaden the mind to improve not good character. character values can be applied through education, including higher education. most learning in educational institutions today only maximizes the cognitive aspect without paying irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 434 attention to the character values of students so that they lose their identity as religious, moral, and traditional human beings. it can be seen from the deteriorating behavior of students in learning; lack of fighting spirit, dishonesty, less ability to respect others' opinions, less democratic, undisciplined, not independent, and less creative, and in the minangkabau female students' understanding of the character education values in the sumbang duo baleh that contain moral values to maintain. character education is a way to encourage minangkabau female students to grow and develop with the competence of thinking and adhering to principles in their lives and having the courage to do the right thing even though they are faced with various challenges. it can shape a person's behavior or character to distinguish between good and bad and apply it in life. it is shown in the habitual ways of thinking and behavior that help individuals to live and work together as families, communities, and nations and help them to make responsible decisions. females in minangkabau society have a very high position. it is because there is a kinship system that adheres to a matrilineal system, which makes females have to be able to maintain themselves and their dignity according to minangkabau custom. for this reason, the importance of thousands of petatah, petitih because it collects all the rules, provisions, regulations, and laws relating to all aspects of social life and contains an indirect meaning. in the traditional teachings, it is mentioned bakato kieh, as well as sumbang duo baleh, which contains a very philosophical means that needs to be explained with raso, pareso, malu, and sopan. sumbang duo baleh contains twelve attitudes of females who are considered sumbang according to minangkabau custom. dignity as bundo kanduang is expected to not do anything wrong by staying away from sumbang behavior, actions, or temperament as contained in minangkabau custom that there are 12 for females and 16 for men. if sumbang is not shunned or accustomed to the social intercourse of minangkabau females, the shame that is a bulwark for the glory of a woman will be lost in herself, as well as invite various forms of actions that lead to forms of disobedience. sumbang duo baleh consists of twelve things that are considered taboo and forbidden by minang females, such as: (1) sumbang duduak, (2) sumbang tagak, (3) sumbang jalan, (4) sumbang kato, (5) sumbang caliak, (6) sumbang makan, (7) sumbang pfakai, (8) sumbang karajo, (9) sumbang tanyo, (10) sumbang jawek, (11) sumbang gaua, and (12) sumbang kurenah. the twelve sumbang above show how important minang females' customs and manners are in their daily lives so that their role as bundo kanduang is maximized and their honor is maintained. methodology this research is quantitative with a survey approach. according to creswell (2012), quantitative research is a method that consists of some processes, such as collecting, analyzing, interpreting, and writing research results. in addition, the survey approach is one approach in quantitative research where the researcher administers a survey to the sample or population of the research to describe the population’s attitudes, opinions, behavior even characteristics. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 435 (creswell, 2012). the researchers used this method to gain data about character values in sumbang duo baleh by students of fkip universitas bung hatta. research design, site, and participants the data in this research consist of primary data and secondary data. primary data were the behavior and habits of students when sitting, standing, walking, looking, eating, dressing, working, socializing, and the way students talk, ask and answer. meanwhile, the secondary data were data about female students' backgrounds obtained through the database of universitas bung hatta and other students' perceptions of the behavior and words of female students who are the research subjects. this research was conducted at fkip universitas bung hatta. the research subjects were 402 female students of fkip universitas bung hatta in the academic year 2021/2022 who have a family background and have lived in a social environment with minangkabau culture for the last three years. it means that the parents are minangkabau and live in a minangkabau-cultured environment. it can be seen from their biodata and high school background. data collection and analysis in collecting the data, the researchers used a questionnaire. the questionnaires were distributed to the respondent of this research which consisted of 402 female students of fkip universitas bung hatta in the academic year 2021/2022 who have a family background and have lived in a social environment with minangkabau culture for the last three years through google form that contains an application of sumbang duo baleh in daily life. this research used content analysis techniques. data on students' behavior and words were classified according to the type of sumbang. furthermore, data were described and interpreted based on the context of its appearance by referring to the sumbang duo baleh concept. the form and context tendency of the behavior and words' appearance was used as the basis to conclude research findings. findings and discussion sumbang duo baleh, as a minangkabau local wisdom in the form of unwritten rules in minangkabau customs that contain etiquette and politeness values, should remain the attention of all elements of society, including the world of education. if this is not paid attention to, it is feared that local wisdom will slowly disappear. the data obtained in the form of character values in sumbang duo baleh by the students of fkip universitas bung hatta which include: (1) sumbang duduak, (2) sumbang tagak, (3) sumbang jalan, (4) sumbang kato, (5) sumbang caliak, (6) sumbang makan, (7) sumbang pakai, (8) sumbang karajo, (9) sumbang tanyo, (10) sumbang jawek, (11) sumbang gaua, and (12) sumbang kurenah. below are the descriptions. statement 1: “duduak di ateh motor mengangkang” sumbang duduk.” irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 436 from the 402 respondents, 12,9% stated very often, 30,8% stated often, 19,9% stated less often, 31,8% stated occasionally, and 0% stated never. sangat sering: very often sering: often kurang sering: less often sekali-sekali : once in a while tidak pernah: never in this sumbang duduk, the conclusion was that 0% percent of female students answered that they sat on motorbikes like females sitting. sitting astride is not sitting for females in minangkabau because females must kneel. however, on the motorbike, they had to sit sideways. thus, the conclusion was that all students always sat straddled like a male on a motorbike. statement 2: “standing with non-muhram” sumbang berdiri.” from 402 respondents, 0% stated very often, 0% stated often, 0% stated less often, 12,2% stated occasionally, and 83,8 % stated never. sangat sering: very often sering: often kurang sering: less often sekali-sekali : once in a while tidak pernah: never in sumbang berdiri, 83.8% or 337 students answered that they never stand on the side of the road with non-mahram. in this case, the conclusion was that they had a sense of shame standing on the side of the road, especially with males. statement 3: “walking with female friends” sumbang berjalan.” from 402 respondents, 20,9% stated very often, 46% stated often, 10,9% stated less often, 19.2% stated occasionally, and 0% stated never. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 437 sangat sering: very often sering: often kurang sering: less often sekali-sekali : once in a while tidak pernah: never in this sumbang berjalan, 0% of students stated never. in other words, they were always accompanied by a male outside the house, which is not allowed according to religion and customs in minangkabau. in this case, sumbang berjalan was not actualized in their daily life. statement 4: “sumbang menyela pembicaraan orang” sumbang berbicara. from 402 respondents, 0% stated very often, 0% stated often 0%, 8,2% stated less often, 31,3% stated occasionally, and 5.3% stated never. sangat sering: very often sering: often kurang sering: less often sekali-sekali : once in a while tidak pernah: never in sumbang berbicara, the conclusion was that 31,3% or 125 female students occasionally interrupted people's conversations and did not even matter who they were talking to. it was a bad thing, especially for females. statement 5: “dealing with males, bowing their head” sumbang melihat. from the 402 respondents, 7,7% stated very often, 41,3% stated often, 20,6% stated less often, 23,4% stated occasionally, and 7% stated never. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 438 sangat sering: very often sering: often kurang sering: less often sekali-sekali : once in a while tidak pernah: never in sumbang melihat, there were various answers from the students. however, 41.3% or 166 female students stated often bow their heads when dealing with males who were not their relatives. however, 7% or 28 students stated they were never looked down on when dealing with males. statement 6: “eating while standing” sumbang makan. from 402 respondents, 0% stated very often, 9,2% stated often, 14,7 stated less often, 51,2% stated occasionally, and 24.6% stated never. sangat sering: very often sering: often kurang sering: less often sekali-sekali : once in a while tidak pernah: never sumbang makan, with the statement eating while standing and talking. 51.2% or 206 female students said they ate while standing and talking. according to the prevailing custom in minangkabau, if a person eats, he is not allowed to talk, especially while standing. for females, it is very inappropriate. statement 7: “dress modestly and not tight” sumbang pakai. from 402 respondents, 39,6% stated very often, 38.3% stated less often, 0% stated occasionally, and 11,9% stated never 11.9%. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 439 sangat sering: very often sering: often kurang sering: less often sekali-sekali : once in a while tidak pernah: never in sumbang berpakaian, 11.9% or 48 female students did not dress modestly and tight. it was influenced by their environment and habits when they were in their hometown. in addition, fkip, as an lptk that produces teachers, has been conditioned that they are prohibited from wearing tight clothes and long pants to campus. statement 8: “like to lift heavy things when working” sumbang kerja. from 402 respondents, 12,4% stated very often, 33,1% stated often, 17,4% stated less seldom, 31,% stated occasionally, and 6% stated never. sangat sering: very often sering: often kurang sering: less often sekali-sekali : once in a while tidak pernah: never in this sumbang kerja, the answers given by the respondents also varied. 33.1% or 133 students were in the category of often. it means that 133 female students often lift heavy things when working that should be done by males. one of the reasons for this was that in fkip, the ratio of the number of males to females was not balanced. there were more females than males, so if there were activities on campus, many students intervened to do them. statement 9: “ask politely” sumbang tanyo. from 402 respondents, 31,1% stated very often, 52.2% stated often, 0% stated less often, 0% stated occasionally, and 8.2% stated never. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 440 sangat sering: very often sering: often kurang sering: less often sekali-sekali : once in a while tidak pernah: never in sumbang tanyo, the highest percentage was in the category of often 52.2% or 210 female students answered it. it means asking a question is good because asking politely and not testing or demeaning others. it is because fkip, as prospective teachers, has been taught the values of etiquette by varying them in the bam (minangkabau natural culture) course. in addition, in lectures, lecturers instill character values in students. statement 10: “katiko manjawek dengan seperlunya” sumbang jawek. from 402 respondents, 18,7% stated very often, 59,2% stated often, 7,2% stated less often, 10,7% stated occasionally, and 0% stated never. sangat sering: very often sering: often kurang sering: less often sekali-sekali : once in a while tidak pernah: never sumbang jawek is one of the sumbang duo baleh in minangkabau. the custom in minangkabau is that when people ask questions, we have to answer as necessary, not at length. the highest percentage was the category of often, 59.2% or 238 female students have actualized the contribution and responsibility based on the advice in minangkabau. statement 11: “like to hang out with other girls” sumbang bergaul. from 402 respondents, 13,2 % stated very often,46% stated often, 19,9% stated less often, 15,2 % stated occasionally, 5,7 % stated never. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 441 sangat sering: very often sering: often kurang sering: less often sekali-sekali : once in a while tidak pernah: never in sumbang bergaul, 5,7% or 30 students were still hanging out with not only females friends but also male friends. meanwhile, the highest percentage was 46%, or 185 students often hung out with females friends compared to male friends. statement 12: “likes to cover his nose when sitting with people” sumbang kurenah. from 402 respondents, 0% stated very often, 8,5% stated often, 1,2% stated less often, 30,6 % stated occasionally, and 48% stated never. sangat sering: very often sering: often kurang sering: less often sekali-sekali : once in a while tidak pernah: never in this sumbang kurenah, 48%, or 193 female students stated they never behaved strangely when sitting with people. however, in the category of occasional, 30.6%, or 123 female students did something inappropriate, even if only once. it indicated that they sometimes whispered if they saw the other person acting strangely. the application of sumbang duo baleh in students' daily activities is in the following table: irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 442 table 1. the application of sumbang duo baleh percentage percentage of daily application (%) sumbang duo baleh very often often less often occasio nally never sumbang duduak “sumbang duduk” 12,9 30,8 19,9 31,8 0 sumbang tagak “sumbang berdiri” 0 0 0 12,2 83,3 sumbang jalan 20,9 46 10,9 19,2 0 sumbang kato “sumbang bicara” 0 0 8,2 31,3 5,3 sumbang caliak “sumbang melihat” 7,7 41,3 20,6 23,4 7 sumbang makan 0 9,2 14,7 51,2 24,6 sumbang pakai 39,6 38,3 0 0 11,9 sumbang karajo “sumbang bekerja” 12,4 33,1 17,4 31,1 6 sumbang tanyo “sumbang bertanya” 31,1 52,2 0 0 8,2 sumbang jawek “sumbang menjawab” 18,7 59,2 7,2 10,7 0 sumbang gaua “sumbang bergaul” 13,2 46 19,9 15,2 5,7 sumbang kurenah „sumbang tingkah laku” 0 8,5 11,2 30,6 48 average 13,1 30,4 10,8 21,4 16,7 table 1 showed that the largest percentage was 30,4% in the category of often. it means that in daily life, students often violate the rules of sumbang duo baleh in life, both at home and on campus. from this explanation, the conclusion was that the values of sumbang duo balehh in the daily lives of female students were still not actualized in their lives, both at home and on campus. islami (2016) revealed that the application of the sumbang duo baleh had begun to fade. it was due to assimilation with other ethnic groups that influence student culture. technological advances also impacted daily behavior and were less selective in accepting renewal. the same thing was also found in student activities at home and on campus. the diversity of regional backgrounds of fkip students affected the pattern of life, especially concerning the application of the sumbang duo baleh. the data analysis result showed that as minangkabau females, female students did not understand the nature of the twelve behaviors of sumbang duo baleh. it was also obtained from the questions given through the google form that their knowledge and understanding of sumbang duo baleh were still minimal. from the questions, the students stated they did not know about the rules of sumbang duo baleh and did not understand the rules at all. meanwhile, minangkabau females should understand the local wisdom of their culture. in addition, interviews were also conducted with several students who lived in a neighborhood. the daily life of female students did not reflect minangkabau females who were ethical and had polite manners. in behaving, they did not act like females with a sense of shame, such as when laughing. they always showed a loud voice while opening their mouths wide. in fact, according to minangkabau philosophy, females should not laugh out loud because it was inappropriate for others to see. the environment in which they lived also influenced the way to behave, so the rules in the form of prohibitions in minangkabau were not actualized in their lives. in their daily life, they sometimes hung out with friends who were not from minangkabau, so they were also influenced by the outside culture brought by their friends. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 443 regarding to this, iskandar and putra (2017) emphasized that the twelve prohibitions included: sumbang duduak, sumbang togak, sumbang jalan, sumbang kato, sumbang coliak, sumbang makan, sumbang pakai, sumbang korojo, sumbang tanyo, sumbang jawek, sumbang bogaua, and sumbang kurenah. if a minang woman has violated the rules set by tambo, then she is not classified as a parampuan. another finding by morelent et al. (2022) is that the current generation is very easily influenced by the assimilation of society and highly developed technology without selectively sorting it out. as a result, it impacts the formation of students' character. permana et al. (2018) stated that character education is an effort to educate children, so they can make wise decisions and practice them in everyday life to make a positive contribution to their environment. the role of parents in introducing the rules of sumbang duo baleh to children is no longer the main thing in the household, so children do not understand the prohibitions that should not be carried out that has an impact on the formation of their character when in the outside environment. conclusion based on the results of the data analysis, the conclusion is that the application of sumbang duo baleh has not been actualized in the form of character in the lives of students of fkip universitas bung hatta. from the twelve sumbang, which is a written rule in minangkabau, it is still in the category of often. it means as a woman who comes from minangkabau has not applied the twelve sumbang properly. the instruments given to the students also show their lack of concern regarding the rules of the sumbang duo baleh. there are even those who do not know that in minangkabau there are rules that can be seen from twelve kinds of attitudes and behaviors that approach mistakes that are unpleasant to hear and unsightly that also indicate violations of minangkabau ethics and customs. declaration of conflicting interests the authors declared no potential conflicts of interest. references iskandar, s. p., & putra, y. y. (2017). konsep sumbang duo baleh dalam tinjauan psikologi [the concept of sumbang duo baleh in a psychological review]. jurnal rap (riset aktual psikologi universitas negeri padang), 5(2), 180-191. islami, n. (2016). internalisasi nilai-nilai karakter dalam petuah sumbang duo baleh bagi mahasiswi asal minangkabau di kota purwokerto tahun 2016 [internalization of character values in the advice of sumbang duo baleh for female students from minangkabau in purwokerto city in 2016]. international conference of moslem society, 1, 44-59. lickona, t. (2009). educating for character: how our schools can teach respect and responsibility. new york: bantam. morelent, y., isnanda, r., gusnetti, g., & fauziati, p. (2022). pembentukan karakter dan implementasi budaya perempuan minang melalui aturan sumbang duo baleh di irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 444 sekolah menengah sumatera barat [character formation and implementation of minang female's culture through the rules of sumbang duo baleh in high schools of west sumatera]. jshp: jurnal sosial humaniora dan pendidikan, 6(1), 41-49. permana, d., inderawati, r., & vianty, m. (2018). portraying character education in junior high school textbooks of the 2013 curriculum. journal of english language studies, 3(2), 245-258. creswell, j. w. (2012). educational research: planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. pearson education, inc. suryana, d., mayar, f., & sari, r. e. (2021). pengaruh metode sumbang kurenah terhadap perkembangan karakter anak taman kanak-kanak kecamatan rao [the influence of sumbang kurenah method on the character development of kindergarten children in rao district]. jurnal obsesi: jurnal pendidikan anak usia dini, 6(1), 341-352. biographical notes dr. syofiani, m.pd. is working at the indonesian language and literature education department, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas bung hatta, indonesia. email: syofiani@bunghatta.ac.id dr. hasnul fikri, m.pd. is working at the indonesian language and literature education department, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas bung hatta, indonesia. email: hasnul.fikri@bunghatta.ac.id romi isnanda, spd., m.pd. is working at the indonesian language and literature education department, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas bung hatta, indonesia. email: romiisnanda@bunghatta.ac.id dr. yetty morelent, m.hum. at the indonesian language and literature education department, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas bung hatta, indonesia. email: yettymorelent@bunghatta.ac.id mailto:syofiani@bunghatta.ac.id mailto:hasnul.fikri@bunghatta.ac.id mailto:romiisnanda@bunghatta.ac.id mailto:yettymorelent@bunghatta.ac.id this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 455 the skills of high school mathematic teachers in utilizing the merdeka belajar plafform i wayan sumandya 1* , i wayan widana 2 , and i nyoman bagus suweta nugraha 3 abstract post-pandemic education recovery begins with breakthroughs according to changing times and technology. educators are required to be more creative and innovative and carry out learning appropriate to the characteristics of students. this research was to determine the skills of mathematics teachers in utilizing the merdeka mengajar platform and how the quality of mathematics learning. the researchers used mixed method research, which combined quantitative and qualitative methods. the population in this research consisted of 135 people, with a total of 27 schools (16 private schools and 11 public schools). this research used the cluster random sampling technique with a sample of 36 teachers from 12 schools (6 private and 6 public schools). the research results showed that the mathematics teacher's skills in utilizing the merdeka mengajar platform were in the "not good" category. the quality of learning did not increase, and more students obtained learning outcomes under the kktp (criteria for completeness of learning objectives). keywords learning quality, mathematics, merdeka mengajar platform article history received 16 october 2022 accepted 5 december 2022 how to cite sumadya, i. w., widana, i. w., & nugraha, i., n., b., s. (2022). the skills of high school mathematic teachers in utilizing the merdeka belajar plafform. indonesian research journal in education |irje|, 6(2), 455 464. https://doi.org/10.22437/irje .v6i2.22504 1*lecturer at universitas pgri mahadewa, bali, indonesia; corresponding author: iwayansumandya@mahadewa.ac.id 2,3 lecturer at universitas pgri mahadewa, bali, indonesia https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v6i2.22504 https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v6i2.22504 mailto:iwayansumandya@mahadewa.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 456 introduction the pandemic period has provided many valuable experiences for all sectors, including the education sector. before the pandemic, learning was carried out face-to-face in schools, and the utilization of information technology was not optimal. since learning from home was implemented, teachers have used various ways to carry out learning (collantes et . one of the examples is using al., 2022; velasco et al., 2022; yulianti, & mukminin, 2021) information technology. technology-illiterate teachers experience problems when learning online, so it cannot run as expected. the existence of this learning-from-home policy has not been matched by the ability of teachers to utilize information technology in learning, resulting in a learning loss. education is a valuable future investment, so it needs special attention (welsh et al. . the government has committed that education for future generations must begin and 2003) be prepared well . for this reason, the process of preparing future (marsound, 2020) generations must be accompanied by the preparation of professional teachers through a quality and accountable teacher education system . the teacher is the (suryadi, 2019) spearhead in the world of education and a role model for students (kismeina et al., 2021). over time, the pandemic changed its status to endemic. school activities are back to normal with strict health protocols. several policies in education were published in the merdeka belajar program. it aims to make the education unit can apply learning that is pro-student ( ). one of the programs launched by the government in the daniatun et al., 2022 implementation of merdeka mengajar is the merdeka mengajar platform. it was to determine the skills of mathematics teachers in utilizing the merdeka mengajar platform and how the quality of mathematics learning. the government's goal to develop the merdeka mengajar platform is to make teachers can learn independently without having to go through special training or workshops. teachers' creativity becomes paramount when learning independently through the merdeka mengajar platform. the awareness and commitment of teachers to genuine and consistent independent learning greatly influence the success of teachers in utilizing the merdeka mengajar platform. likewise, the support of school principals through the provision of learning infrastructure to provide space and time for teachers to learn as broadly as possible is in line with the concept of teachers being lifelong learners. this research was to determine the skills of mathematics teachers in utilizing the merdeka mengajar platform and how the quality of mathematics learning. literature review the merdeka mengajar platform is one of the government's efforts to overcome learning loss. this platform will become a teacher's friend in teaching, helping teachers innovate to create learning according to the challenges of the times. the merdeka mengajar platform is a platform for teachers that will develop into a platform that is not only ministry material and content but belongs to teachers, from teachers to teachers. in addition, merdeka mengajar encourages teachers to create and share learning methods to (dharma et al., 2020) become a reference for teachers to develop teaching practices. this platform has three irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 457 functions, which are helping teachers to teach, learn, and work in which there is also an assessment toolkit to measure student learning outcomes. the data can be used to analyze the students' competence in each class. the merdeka mengajar platform provides equal opportunities for teachers to continue learning and developing their competencies whenever and wherever they are. the learning feature on the merdeka mengajar platform provides independent training facilities with opportunities for teachers and education staff to obtain quality training materials by accessing them independently. another feature of learning is the inspiration video. this feature provides an opportunity for teachers and education staff to get a variety of inspirational videos to develop themselves with unlimited access, which in the end is to develop the quality of their competence in implementing the merdeka curriculum (widana, . 2020) the merdeka mengajar platform encourages teachers to continue working and provides a platform for sharing good practices. another feature is 'work' which provides "proof of my work", which is a practical best of the results of the implementation of learning, especially related to the best practice of learning in the independent curriculum. teachers and education staff can build portfolios of their work, so they can share inspiration and collaborate so that teachers can move forward together. in this feature, teachers can motivate each other to give appreciation for the real work that has been created by teachers from various regions. in addition, the merdeka mengajar platform can inspire teachers to continuously improve their performance quality to provide the best service to students. the merdeka mengajar platform developed is expected to be able to become a teacher partner in implementing the merdeka curriculum with a spirit of collaboration and sharing. the contents by the ministry of education and culture provide a better understanding of the implementation and learning in education units that have participated in the merdeka curriculum implementation. the features presented on the merdeka mengajar platform should be utilized optimally by teachers to increase their professionalism in carrying out the learning process. the learning quality can be improved through independent learning conducted by teachers through the merdeka mengajar platform. this merdeka mengajar platform will help teachers implement innovative mathematics learning in the classroom to achieve student-centered learning expectations. mathematics is a science or knowledge about learning or logical thinking that is needed by humans to live which underlie modern technology development mathematics has a crucial (siregar, 2017). role in various disciplines and advances human thinking mathematics is a (putri et al., 2019). learning material that must be understood and a conceptual tool for constructing and reconstructing the material, honing, and training the thinking skills needed to solve problems in life . learning mathematics can improve students' ability to think (nurhasanah et al., 2022) logically, analytically, systematically, critically, and creatively . these (rosnawati, 2021) competencies are needed so that learners can acquire, manage, and utilize information to survive in conditions that are always changing, full of uncertainty, and competitive (loviasari et al., 2022). mathematics subject provides students with ways of thinking, reasoning, and logic through definite mental activities that form a continuous flow of thinking, so it creates a flow of understanding of mathematics learning material in the form of facts, concepts, irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 458 principles, operations, relations, problems, and definite mathematical solutions which are formal-universal this mental process can strengthen the disposition (sumandya et al., 2021). of students to feel the meaning and benefits of mathematics and learn mathematics as well as moral values in learning mathematics, including freedom, skill, judgment, accuracy, systematism, rationality, patience, independence, discipline, perseverance, and toughness, self-confidence, open-mindedness, and creativity thus, its relevance (sumandya et al., 2020). to the profile of pancasila students, the mathematics subject is to develop students' independence, critical reasoning abilities, and creativity the (sumandya & widana, 2022). learning material for mathematics subjects at every level of education is packaged through the study of numbers, algebra, measurement, geometry, data analysis and opportunity, and calculus (sumandya, 2019). in this research, the measured aspect was the merdeka mengajar platform utilization. it is done under the new learning paradigm, where students have returned to school by utilizing technology and adapting to the characteristics of each school. this research used the tpack concept as a theoretical framework with three aspects, consisting of technology, pedagogy, and content, and how the three sources are applied according to the context. tpack (technological pedagogical content knowledge) is teacher knowledge about how to facilitate student learning of particular content through pedagogical and technological approaches several variables affect tpack, namely technological (innaha ruri, 2018). knowledge (tk); pedagogical knowledge (pk); content knowledge (ck); technological content knowledge (tck); pedagogical content knowledge (pck); and technological pedagogical knowledge (tpk) . (anugrahana, 2020) several relevant studies that have been carried out previously include research conducted by which aims to determine the tpack (technological innaha ruri (2018), pedagogical and content knowledge) capabilities of science teachers at inclusion schools of smp negeri 23 surakarta in the 2017/2018 academic year. the results showed the tpack ability of science teachers at the inclusion school of smp negeri 23 surakarta was 41.7%, which categorized the poor category. in addition, also kismeina et al. (2021) conducted research on the skills of mathematics teachers throughout kuningan regency in utilizing online learning platforms during the pandemic. researchers used the cluster random sampling technique with a sample of 25 teachers from 10 schools (5 public and 5 private schools). the research results showed that teachers' skills in the context of ict were in the "poor" category. the quality of learning tends to decrease, and character values decrease. the results of this research are the reason for conducting further research on the use of the merdeka mengajar platform developed for mathematics learning. based on the relevant research results above, the novelty of this research compared to previous research lies in the technological pedagogical content knowledge (tpack), which focuses on technological operations on the merdeka mengajar platform. this focus is to prepare teachers more regarding the use of technology in learning in line with the development of the industrial revolution 4.0. teachers should be able to present information technology-based learning through the learning media provision. this research was conducted at the high school level to measure the skills of mathematics teachers in utilizing the merdeka belajar platform in new paradigm learning. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 459 methodology this research used a mixed method, which is an approach that combined quantitative and qualitative methods. data collection was obtained from numerical information (through instruments) and text information (through interviews) so that the database or results represented both quantitative and qualitative information (emzir, 2013). the quantitative research phase was to obtain an overview of the skills of mathematics teachers throughout badung regency in utilizing the merdeka mengajar platform. the research was conducted in february-august 2022. this research focused on the skills of mathematics teachers in the context of ict so that they only used variables with a technological approach. the three variables used include technological knowledge (tk), technological content knowledge (tck), and technological pedagogical knowledge (tpk). these three variables will be used as operational variables to measure the teacher's ability level in utilizing the merdeka mengajar platform in learning which is used as a research instrument. with this tpack, teachers are expected to be able to make good use of technology so that learning can run better. in addition, it can be used as a teacher's assistant media in facilitating students' understanding of learning content, specifically abstract mathematical content by considering pedagogical aspects. the population in this research was high school mathematics teachers in badung regency, consisting of 27 schools with 16 private schools and 11 public schools with 135 mathematics teachers. meanwhile, the sampling technique used in this research was the cluster random sampling technique because it consisted of private and public schools. the sample used was 36 teachers from 12 schools (6 private and 6 public schools). this research used questionnaires, interviews, and documentation as the instruments. the data analysis technique used was descriptive quantitative. before being used, the instrument was tested for feasibility by testing validity and reliability. the validity test used the product moment correlation formula with rough numbers. the instrument validity showed that from the 35 questionnaire items, there were 9 invalid items and 26 valid items. the reliability test used cronbach's alpha formula with a result of 0.843 so that > 0.60, the instrument was declared reliable. before the teacher, student, and interview questionnaire instruments were used, expert judgment tests were also carried out by several experts in their fields. findings and discussion the research results showed the percentage of the mathematics teacher questionnaire to measure the skills of teachers in badung regency bali in utilizing the merdeka mengajar platform based on the features contained in the application. the most frequently used feature is the teaching device, which was 36%. the second was inspirational videos in 31%. the third was independent training in 16%. the community was 8%, student assessment was 5%, and last, proof of work was 4%. data on the use of the merdeka mengajar platform by high school mathematics teachers in badung regency are in the following diagram. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 460 figure 1. pmm feature percentage note: video inspirasi (inspirational videos), pelatihan mandiri (independent training), bukti karya (performance), komunitas (community), asesmen murid (student assessment), perangkat ajar (teaching media) various available features can help mathematics teachers to create differentiated and fun learning for students. however, the existing features have some advantages and disadvantages. based on the results obtained, the advantages of the merdeka mengajar platform were (1) the merdeka mengajar platform can be accessed via android devices and web browsers, (2) inspirational videos can inspire mathematics teachers in developing student-centered learning, (3) independent training can be done anywhere and anytime. additionally, it also contains benchmarks for the teacher's understanding of the material being studied, (4) proof of work provides a place to share documentation that describes performance, competence, and achievements while serving as a teacher or principal, as well as being a forum for sharing good practices in learning, (5) student assessments can assist teachers in conducting literacy and numeracy diagnostic assessments, so that they can find out which learning model is applied under the student achievement and development stages, (6) teaching kits contain teaching materials, teaching modules, project modules and textbooks that help teachers find references easily, and (7) community, beneficial for building relationships and collaboration spaces to create student-centered innovative learning. however, each platform has disadvantages. based on questionnaire data distributed openly to respondents. the disadvantages of the merdeka mengajar platform were: (1) not all teachers know how to access the merdeka mengajar platform, (2) not all teachers know how to apply the diagnostic assessments in the merdeka mengajar platform, (3) the available inspirational videos are general, not related to real problems that occur in every educational unit, (4) teachers sometimes feel bored when completing independent training, (5) the teacher has not maximized the use of proof of my work as a forum for expressing creativity, irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 461 achievements as a teacher, (6) teachers have not been able to take advantage of community features to build collaboration spaces in developing innovative learning, and (7) the available teaching tools are not diverse and still follow the previous teaching tools, so teachers feel confused as to what kind of teaching tools are good to develop. besides the advantages and disadvantages described above, the merdeka mengajar platform also has several obstacles when used by teachers, for instance: (1) not all teachers have adequate equipment, so it cannot be accessed, (2) there are still teachers who are technology illiterate, so they are not used to doing digital literacy, (3) there are still students who do not have adequate equipment so that the diagnostic assessment has not run optimally, (4) students have never been trained to work on a diagnostic assessment using the merdeka mengajar platform application, (5) lack of internet network, so they cannot carry out online diagnostic assessments. based on teacher and student questionnaires about the merdeka mengajar platform used by mathematics teachers in badung regency. mostly, they can use it, but it has not been optimally used to support learning. from the results of interviews with teachers and students, the merdeka mengajar platform has not had a significant effect on student learning outcomes. the merdeka mengajar platform was only socialized in february 2022, so it had not been fully utilized by mathematics teachers in high schools in badung regency. the learning style used by teachers still follows the old style. in addition, it is because there are still limited inspirational videos that make teachers have not found many references. teachers are still confused about developing appropriate teaching tools for the students' characteristics because valid examples have not been found in the merdeka mengajar platform. based on the results of these interviews, the quality of learning has not increased as expected. the learning outcomes obtained by students after online learning have not experienced a significant increase. there are still many students who get a score below the kktp that has been determined by the teacher. students are still carried away by the pandemic atmosphere, where students' interest and motivation are still low to take lessons. in addition, the learning model applied by mathematics teachers is less challenging, for example, the teacher explains a topic of study, but the answers to that topic already exist in books or on the internet. teachers have not been able to practice the theory in the merdeka mengajar platform fully. from the research results, the conclusion is that the skills of mathematics teachers in badung regency in utilizing the merdeka mengajar platform are in the "not good" category. conclusion the research results show that the skills of mathematics teachers in badung regency in utilizing the merdeka mengajar platform are in the “poor” category with a tcr index of 67.82. it starts with teaching tools, inspirational videos, independent training, community, student assessment, and proof of work. the existence of the merdeka mengajar platform has not had a significant impact on improving the learning process and student learning outcomes because of several obstacles. they are not all teachers know how to access the merdeka mengajar platform, not all teachers can apply diagnostic assessments, and the available inspirational videos not being miscellaneous and helpful in learning mathematics, irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 462 there is a feeling of boredom when completing independent training, proof of my work has not been utilized optimally, the learning community features have not been utilized optimally, and the available teaching tools have not varied. however, the research results also found positive things related to teaching skills in using the merdeka mengajar platform, for instance, the merdeka mengajar platform can be used anywhere and anytime, and there are innovative learning inspirations and learning community that is used by teachers to share an interesting story about learning. based on the research results about the skills of mathematics teachers in badung regency in the utilization of the merdeka mengajar platform, it is hoped that further research can be developed. declaration of conflicting interests the authors declared no potential conflicts of interest. acknowledgement acknowledgments to the directorate general of teachers and education personnel for providing funding through ppg activities in position category 2 of 2022 universitas pgri mahadewa indonesia, so this research can run well. thank you also goes to the rector of universitas pgri mahadewa 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(2021). teaching and learning during covid-19 pandemic: a qualitative study on elementary school teachers in indonesia. qualitative report, 26(12), 3900-3910. doi:10.46743/2160-3715/2021.5079 biographical notes i wayan sumandya is a lecturer at universitas pgri mahadewa, bali, indonesia i wayan widana is a lecturer at universitas pgri mahadewa, bali, indonesia i nyoman bagus suweta nugraha is a lecturer at universitas pgri mahadewa, bali, indonesia https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1360-3736.2003.00184.x https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1503/1/012045 https://doi.org/10.23887/jet.v6i1.4 this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 2 indonesian research journal in education (irje) | vol. 1 | no. 1|year 2017 the mission of the indonesian research journal in education (irje) is to serve as a vital and international forum for a different group of scholars and researchers who are of interest in exchanging ideas in order to enrich the theory, policy, and practice of education in indonesia and around the world and who can grasp a noteworthy voice in discussions and decision-making around issues of education. irje is a free, twice-yearly, open access, peer-reviewed, international, and e-journal, published in indonesia, which accepts unpublished, high quality, and original research manuscripts in english, resulting primarily from quantitative, qualitative, and mixed research methodology related to or associated with education. all research articles appearing in irje have undergone a thoroughly peer-review. editorial team lead editor amirul mukminin, jambi university, indonesia managing editors akhmad habibi, jambi university, indonesia dairabi kamil, state islamic university of kerinci, indonesia muhaimin, jambi university, indonesia mukhlash abrar, jambi university, indonesia assistant editors ferdiaz saudagar, jambi university, indonesia masbirorotni, jambi university, indonesia muhammad sofwan, jambi university, indonesia siti rahma sari, jambi university, indonesia failasofah, jambi university, indonesia international editorial board thomas f. luschei, claremont graduate university, usa shen chen, university of newcastle, australia tiago neves, university of porto, portugal saedah siraj, university of malaya, malaysia judit navracsics, university of pannonia, hungary pedro sanchez escobedo, universidad autónoma de yucatán (uady), mexico muhammad kamarul kabilan, university of science, malaysia jennifer elsden-clifton, griffith university, australia farrah dina binti yusof, university of malaya, malaysia florante p. ibarra, central luzon state university, the philippines abang ismail bin abang julhi, teacher education institute of malaysia damris m, jambi univeristy, indonesia yunisrina qismullah yusuf, syiah kuala university, indonesia https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=-jksvt8aaaaj&hl=en https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=ip8-bosaaaaj&hl=en https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=4lk2yumaaaaj&hl=en https://scholar.google.co.id/citations?view_op=list_works&hl=en&user=xjvxbasaaaaj https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=f_cpy30aaaaj&hl=en https://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=xgtcc34aaaaj&hl=id https://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=loz3nzkaaaaj&hl=en&citsig=amsthgq9kwnqe2vdher5bypelarkaiwj9q https://www.researchgate.net/profile/failasofah_failasofah https://www.cgu.edu/people/tom-luschei/ https://www.newcastle.edu.au/profile/shen-chen https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=ntezieyaaaaj&hl=en&oi=ao https://umexpert.um.edu.my/saedah https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=vv30x54aaaaj&hl=en https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=yepmnzwaaaaj&hl=en https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=k5skd70aaaaj&hl=en https://www.rmit.edu.au/contact/staff-contacts/academic-staff/e/elsden-clifton-dr-jennifer https://umexpert.um.edu.my/farah http://nsuworks.nova.edu/tqr/vol22/iss4/7/ http://www.ipbl.edu.my/skkkdp/hubungi_kami.cfm https://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=i0qbv_4aaaaj&hl=en https://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=8zqjgyuaaaaj&hl=en irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 3 nor azmi mostafa, sultan idris education university, malaysia hadiyanto, jambi university, indonesia muazza, jambi university, indonesia eddy haryanto, jambi university, indonesia urip sulistiyo, jambi university, indonesia layout editors robin pratama, jambi university robi hendra, jambi university focus and scope the indonesian research journal in education (irje) accepts unpublished, high quality, and original research manuscripts in english, resulting primarily from quantitative, qualitative, or mixed research methodology related to or associated with education. these issues include, but not limited to, practices, policies, and research in education from early childhood education to higher education which cover the areas of instruction, learning, teaching, curriculum development, educational policy, language education and policy, bilingual education, multicultural education, art education, teacher education, educational technology, educational developments, educational psychology, and international education in indonesia and other parts of the world. publication frequency irje is published 2 times per year (june and december) by jambi university, the graduate school, doctoral program in education. publisher indonesian research journal in education the graduate school, doctoral program in education jambi university jl. raden mattaher no.16, jambi indonesia 36113 issn 2580-5711 https://scholar.google.com.my/citations?user=ymw2ytkaaaaj&hl=en https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=runbfr4aaaaj&hl=en irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 4 content 5 editorial amirul mukminin 6 20 years of timss: lessons for indonesia thomas f. luschei 18 a model for evaluation of rural schools in developing countries pedro sánchez-escobedo and liz hollingworth 29 multilingualism, teaching, and learning foreign languages in present-day hungary judit navracsics and claudia molnár 43 skimming and scanning techniques to assist efl students in understanding english reading texts qismullah yusuf, yunisrina qismullah yusuf, burhansyah yusuf, and afla nadya 58 introduction of research articles in applied linguistics by indonesian and english academics udi samanhudi 72 measurement model of professional learning community: a malaysian teacher context mohd faiz mohd yaakob irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 5 editorial the first volume of the indonesian research journal in education (irje) brings together six articles that examine various issues on education. this volume begins with the article “20 years of timss: lessons for indonesia” by thomas f. luschei, an associate professor in cgu’s school of educational studies, claremont graduate university, usa. in his article, he argues that although indonesia has participated in every round of timss, there is very little published research in english drawing educational lessons from these data for indonesia. in the article, he describes indonesia’s performance on timss over time and relative to other countries by reviewing timss reports on mathematics and science. he offers both positive and negative lessons from indonesia’s participation in timss since 1995. for the second article, pedro sánchez-escobedo, the university of yucatan, mexico and liz hollingworth, the university of iowa, usa discuss about “a model for evaluation of rural schools in developing countries.” they argue that rural schools in developing countries present a unique opportunity to understand the factors required to create a successful learning environment for students with a specific set of challenges. their paper proposes a developmental model for evaluating rural schools, constructed with data derived from evaluation and research projects carried out in yucatan, mexico. another thought-provoking article proposed by judit navracsics and claudia molnár, is entitled “multilingualism, teaching, and learning foreign languages in present-day hungary.” they highlighted some of the facts and problems undermining real multilingualism of the present day in hungary. they elaborate based on previous academic research they cited that there have always lived representatives of other cultures and speakers of other languages in hungary. the fourth article “skimming and scanning techniques to assist efl students in understanding english reading texts” is authored by qismullah yusuf, yunisrina qismullah yusuf, burhansyah yusuf, and afla nadya. they used a pre-test and a post-test to collect the data. they prove that the techniques, skimming and scanning techniques (sst) improved the students’ reading comprehension. the paper also discusses some setbacks while implementing the techniques sst in the classroom where they conducted the research. this volume also presents an article, “introduction of research articles in applied linguistics by indonesian and english academics” by udi samanhudi, an english lecturer at sultan ageng tirtayasa state university, indonesia. he focuses on the textual analysis of the rhetorical structure of ten preliminary samples of research article introductions (five research article introductions for each) in the area of applied linguistics written by indonesian and english academics. the last article for this issue, “measurement model of professional learning community: a malaysian teacher context” is written by mohd faiz mohd yaakob. the main purpose of the study was to develop an empirical empirically measurement model for professional learning community (plc) among teachers in malaysia primary schools. structural equation modelling (sem) utilizing amos version 22 was employed to develop the model. exploratory factor analysis (efa) was utilized to identify the underlying factors, whereas confirmatory factor analysis was employed to test the construct of the plc. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 465 children’s story textbook and character education for the elementary students nazurty 1* , eddy haryanto 2 , and puti masurai 3 abstract this research aimed to develop textbooks containing short stories for young learners based on character education for the fourth grade students at one elementary school. the research subjects were elementary school students, while the research object was children's stories. children's stories are tales that narrate a story close to the world of children and use language that is easy to be understood by them. the children's story textbook developed in this research was a literary work that reflects the value of character education. the method used was research and development. the result was a textbook to teach the fourth-grade students in the state elementary school, which contains children's story based on character education values. the findings illustrated by the expert validation showed that the textbook was feasible. it was effective since the learning results increased. in the trial, the learning goal was achieved in the time allocated. the textbook fascination was described from the interview result with the teacher and students at the trial. in addition, the student's responses to learning with the textbook were reflected in their enthusiastic learning behaviors. the assessment conducted by the teacher revealed that the average score was 89%, while the individual trial was 84%, the small trial was 96%, and the field trial was 97%. in conclusion, the children’s story textbook book based on character education was considered very interesting, precise, clear, and appropriate. keywords development, textbook, short story, young learners, character education article history received 5 june 2022 accepted 12 november 2022 how to cite nazurty, haryanto, e., & masurai, p. (2022). children's story textbook and character education for the elementary students. indonesian research journal in education |irje|, 6(2), 465–478. https://doi.org/10.22437/irje .v6i2.22146 1*faculty member, universitas jambi, indonesia; corresponding author: nazurtynazurty@gmail.com 2 faculty member, universitas jambi, indonesia 3 teacher at sekolah menegah kejuruan 1 kota jambi, jambi, indonesia https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v6i2.22146 https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v6i2.22146 mailto:nazurtynazurty@gmail.com irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 466 introduction teaching young learners needs full attention from the government, schools, parents, and the surrounding community. it is because elementary school-aged children are a period of growth physically and mentally that will become the joints of their lives ( 2021; oktavia et al, 2022). national education functions to develop anggraini et al., capabilities and shape the character and civilization of a dignified nation in the context of the nation's intellectual life (mukminin et al., 2019; rakimahwati et al., 2022). indonesia’s national education's goal is to develop the potential of students to become human beings who believe and fear the almighty god, have a noble character, healthy, knowledgeable, capable, creative, independent, and become democratic and responsible citizens (depdiknas, 2003). the educational purpose of schools is to develop a complete human being with good character, independence, and responsibility (hadiyanto et al., 2022). soelistyarini (2011) stated that the national education goals mandated the development of the nation's character, not the responsibility of individuals or groups but a shared obligation for the indonesians. the development of children's character should start from an early age because it requires a long and continuous process for a long time rakimahwati et (oktavia et al., 2022; al., 2022). formal education starts from elementary school age. the character development of elementary school students can be applied to various learning methods, learning materials, and teaching materials. these must be carried out appropriately and effectively. literature appreciation learning material in elementary school is a children's literature. this material is beneficial for educating and fostering positive behavior in children. in addition, studying literary works can be enjoyed at the same time, because its appreciation is carried out in a fun way, and it accommodates entertainment and moral learning for students (failasofah et al., 2022). children's literature is a literary creation containing content about the familiar world to children and expressed in beautiful, interesting, and easy-to-understand language. in elementary schools, it is a tool to build students' character. the purpose of learning appreciation literature in elementary schools is to support children's competence in recognizing and interacting with creative literature closer. the implementation of appreciation in reading, understanding, and interpreting children's literary works is determined in the form of a textbook by the teacher. the type of literary creation that was designed in the form of fiction is a children's story. the selected stories must be children's literature by considering the content reflected in the picture of life and can be captured by the thinking ability of elementary school students. after all, the stories displayed should reveal the moral teachings that can build the positive character of the students. creating children's character can be done through stories that children read. therefore, developing children's story textbook was appropriate and should be done. for this reason, the researcher plans to develop a children's story textbook that contains character education values. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 467 methodology this research aimed to develop a children's story textbook based on character education. the result was a product in the form of a character education-based children's story textbook for the fourth grade in state elementary school. the method used in this research was the research and development model. this research produced a prose appreciation textbook that tested for feasibility and validity in fourth-grade students at elementary school. product presentation is crucial to know to what extent this book can be used effectively and efficiently (sugiyono, 2011). the development model is carried out in a work order, including the first assessment, work design, development, initial test, improvement preliminary results, product feasibility test, revision repeat, test field, product repair end, dissemination, and application products in form of character education-based children's story textbook (setyosari, 2016). research results had been tested in the fourth grade at one elementary school. textbook development process the development of the textbook was carried out through the following processes and steps: analyzing the needs, planning, production processes, validation, and testing. the textbook development was validated by expert validators of learning materials, learning design experts, teaching teachers, and students. the production process for textbooks started from pouring out ideas to producing products in the form of textbook prototypes. the textbook prototype was validated by learning materials experts and learning design experts. the validation of development products by learning materials experts and learning design experts determines whether or not the textbook development product is feasible. the validation results product that had been assessed as feasible by the expert was then assessed by the teacher. furthermore, the textbook was tested on students. material expert validation material validation was carried out by obtaining information from a material expert learning validator who provided input on product assessment. the discussion results of input from expert validators of learning materials were to revise and improve the quality of the textbook developed. the validation was carried out by an associate professor of the indonesian language and literature education at universitas jambi. validation by material experts was carried out twice. in the first validation of the material expert, from 20 assessment indicators, 18 indicators were considered good. the material description was interesting and appropriate to the characteristics of the fourth-grade students. furthermore, there was a match between the learning objectives and the textbook. material i and material ii were easy for students to understand. in addition, there was an appropriate between the summary and the textbook material. sample fiction stories for the children in the book taught were interesting enough and appropriate for the fourth grade of elementary school students. next, there was an irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 468 appropriate between the exercise and the description of the material in the textbook. the scope of the exercise was adequate, the summary was clear, and the practice questions supported students' understanding of the material description. the overall description of the material was easy to understand, and the presentation of the material was organized well. there was the appropriate level of development, knowledge, illustration, and students' experience. the language used was communicative because it used effective sentences and examples were based on the textbook, and the arrangement of writing styles was very interesting. the material expert in this assessment commented that two indicators in learning ii needed to be revised. it was necessary to add an explanation of the story characters based on the age of the children. furthermore, learning iv in the textbook needed to choose stories that reflect the value of understandable character education for students. this research was considered invalid and needed to be revised by learning material experts. comments and suggestions from the material experts were used to improve the children's story textbook based on character education. after the revision, validation ii was carried out by learning the material expert. based on the comments of the learning material experts on validation ii, all indicators were considered appropriate and good because they were the indicators of learning objectives. the validator commented that the textbook was feasible of being tested on students. learning design expert validation the learning design validation of the textbook was carried out by a professor of the master of english education at universitas jambi as a learning design expert. validation was carried out twice to obtain information and input to improve the quality of the developed textbooks. in the first validation, the learning design expert assessed that all indicators in the instrument were good. design experts commented and suggested that the textbook needed to complete the instructions for using the books. competency standards and basic competency needed to be written. design experts also suggested that the competency test should be equipped with an answer key. typing errors needed to be corrected, such as spelling errors, placement of spaces, or use of prepositions and punctuation marks. afterward, design experts suggested choosing a trustworthy internet source. after revising the textbook product based on the suggestions and comments of the design expert, it was handed back to the learning design expert. in this second validation, the design expert assessed that it was good, although there were still suggestions for improving the font size in the instructions for using the book. furthermore, everything was good, and the textbook developed was ready to be tested. teaching teacher trials after the material and learning design expert stated that the textbook was good and proper, a product trial was conducted. it was conducted on textbook users such as teachers irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 469 and fourth-grade students at one elementary school. there were three teachers who were involved in the study. data on responses or assessment results by teachers revealed that the size and shape of the letters in the book achieved a score of 100%. the material in the textbook was easy to understand by the teacher, and it was scored 93%. illustrations or pictures are in the interesting form with a score of 100%. the entire contents of the textbooks: preface, table of contents, introduction, material description, summary, exercises, competency test, and bibliography had been completed and got a score of 86%. the material in the textbook is under the competency standards and basic competencies, with a score of 93%. sample fiction stories were interesting and fun for students and got a 86%. the textbook was designed based on the students' needs and got a score of 86%. the appropriate summary with the description of the material in the textbook got a score of 80%. practice questions and competency test questions were clear and understandable, with a score of 80%. the textbook could make students effective in achieving learning objectives with a score of 86%. obtaining the average score of the assessment results of teachers who taught children's story based on education characters got an 89% score. by the rating scale and qualifications, an 89% score indicated that the textbook was categorized as very good, very interesting, and very appropriate, so it did not need to be revised again. based on the assessment and discussion results, the teaching teacher said that principally, character education-based children's story textbook did not need to be revised. however, the suggestions and comments submitted in the open-ended questionnaire still needed some considerations for improvement so that the character education-based children's story textbook can be more perfect. individual trial the textbook was revised based on input from material expert validators, learning design experts, and teachers. afterward, it was tested individually on the fourth-grade students at one elementary school as the target group of users in the field. the respondents in the individual trial consisted of three students from different classes. the trial data were collected by assessing the questionnaire. furthermore, the results were in a range of 1 to 5. a score of 5 meant very interesting, very appropriate, and very easy. a score of 4 meant interesting, appropriate, and easy. a score of 3 meant interesting enough, quite appropriate, and quite easy. a score of 2 meant less interesting, less appropriate, and less easy. a score of 1 meant not interesting, not appropriate, and not easy. each item of the questionnaire got a score based on a rating scale. afterward, it was transformed into a percentage form. furthermore, there was also a column for comments or suggestions. the results of individual trials in the textbook were as follows. the front cover was considered very interesting, with a percentage score of 100%. the illustrations or pictures were interesting and under the explanation. it obtained a percentage score of 80%. the material was easy to understand, and the percentage score was 80%. sample fiction stories were interesting and fun to read. it got a percentage score of 93%. the percentage score of understanding the material was 93%. the textbook applied easy and understandable language and obtained a percentage score of 86.6%. the presented exercise activities were irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 470 interesting and motivating to students. the percentage score was 80%. practice questions and competency tests were easy to understand. it got a percentage score of 100%. overall, the textbook was interesting, and the percentage score was 80%. it could also streamline students to achieve learning objectives. it obtained a percentage score of 100%. the average score of the percentage was 84%. it started from the data analysis results provisions that have been determined in the methodology. the average percentage of 84% was in the category of very good. based on the assessment results or individual test responses to children's story textbooks were included in the category of very good. thus, they did not need to be revised. small group trial small group trials were conducted after individual trials. it was carried out in class iv a at one elementary school with six students representing each class. the data on the results of small group trials were not only collected using questionnaires, but also an initial test (pre-test) and a final test (post-test) to determine student learning outcomes before and after using the textbook. small group trials were conducted for four meetings. in addition, the data were collected using a questionnaire, an initial test (pre-test), and a final test (post-test). the result of small group trials from the front cover of the textbook was considered very interesting, with a percentage score of 97%. the illustrations or pictures in the textbook were interesting and under the explanations. it obtained a percentage score of 93%. the material was easy to understand, and the percentage was 90%. sample fiction stories in the textbook were interesting and fun to read with the percentage was 100%. the language was easy and understandable for students. it obtained a percentage score of 97%. the presented exercise activities were interesting and motivated students to learn. the percentage score was 97%. practice questions and competency tests were easy to understand, and they got a percentage score of 97%. overall, the textbook was interesting, with a percentage score of 97%. it was also an effective medium for achieving learning objectives. it obtained a percentage score of 94%. from the overall percentage, the average percentage score was 96%. the average percentage score of 96% was considered a “very good” category. based on the assessment results or small group trial responses to the textbook, it was categorized as “very good” quality. this textbook did not need to be revised or improved, but the researcher tried to improve the character education value in the short stories to make it better. field trial after expert validation, individual trials, and small group trials, it continued to the field trials. the field trial was carried out on 20 students in the fourth grade at one elementary school to determine the fascination and usefulness of character education-based children's story textbook in learning. the data from the field trials were collected using a questionnaire, an initial test (pretest), and a final test (post-test) to determine students’ learning outcomes before and after using the textbook. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 471 the results of the field trial on the textbook were as follows. the front cover was considered very interesting, with a percentage score of 100%. the illustrations or pictures were interesting and under the explanation. it obtained a percentage of 99%. the material was easy to understand, with a percentage of 99%. sample fiction stories served in an interesting and fun form to read. the percentage was 100%. the textbook could make students easier to understand the material about stories and fiction, with a percentage of 92%. the language used was easy to understand. it obtained 97%. the presented exercise activities were interesting and motivated students to learn. the percentage was 97%. practice questions and competency tests were easy to understand. it obtained a percentage score of 93%. overall, the textbook was interesting, with a percentage score was 98%. it could also make students effective in achieving learning objectives, so the percentage was 99%. the average percentage was 97.6%. this 97.6% was categorized as very good. based on the results of the assessment and discussion of field trials on children's story textbook, they were included in the category of very good and did not need to be revised or corrected. findings and discussion development of children's story textbook based on character education the product in this research was developed based on the need analysis of the textbook needed by the teachers and students at one elementary school. the researcher found that the teachers were using the available book at school in teaching literary appreciation. the material covered all the competencies for fourth-grade students in elementary school. the book contained fiction short stories for young learners, but the discussion and examples are limited, whereas the character education should be reflected in various contexts. the more contexts were discussed, the more the students would understand character building in-depth. it also affected the students to be less interested in learning short stories from the book. thus, the researcher developed a children’s story textbook based on character education to meet the needs of the teachers and students at one elementary school. this product was expected to be able to help teachers achieve learning goals based on the curriculum. the current textbook was developed using the design model dick and carey (2005) which had been gradually refined. these stages were an assessment by a learning material expert, an instructional design expert, a friend of a teacher who taught in the fourth grade of elementary school and a trial of textbook products for fourth-grade students at one elementary school as the target user of this product. in general, the aspects shown had been revised, including the completeness and feasibility of components, accuracy of content, effectiveness, and fascination of textbooks. the results of the assessment and trial were the material for improving the development of the character education-based children's story textbook. the analysis of the textbook was from the material and the design. the material was classified into three parts. they were opening, content, and closing. the opening part consisted of a preface, table of contents, introduction, and instructions to use this book, standard competence, and basic competence. the content part consisted of material, irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 472 summary, exercises, and competency tests. the material was developed based on standard competence and basic competencies. the exercises and competency tests were expected to sharpen the students' comprehension and measure their understanding of the material. in the closing part, there were glossary, bibliography, and appendixes. the analysis of the design of the textbook includes shape, text, color, and illustration. overall, the physical appearance was visually interesting. the layout used a4-sized paper, space 1.5, times new roman letter size 12, and colorful illustrations. material expert validation results validation by learning material experts was carried out twice. in validation i, from 20 assessment indicators, 18 indicators were considered good. the material expert in this assessment commented that two indicators in lesson ii of the textbook needed to be revised. it was rather difficult for students to understand because it did not explain the theme appropriate to the student's age. it was also necessary to add an explanation of the story characters based on the age of the children in the textbooks. afterward, it was essential to choose stories that reflected the value of character education that was easy for students to understand. based on the assessment results in validation i, the product was judged not valid and needed to be revised by indonesian language learning material experts. comments and suggestions from material experts became a consideration to improve children's story textbook based on character education. after the revision, the second validation was conducted by the indonesian language learning material expert. the expert theory evaluated that all indicators were appropriate and good. the validator commented that the textbook was feasible of being tested on students. the explanation from the material expert listed as follows; (a) the product of children's story textbook based on character education was good, (b) the descriptions of the presentation of the material were interesting and orderly, (c) the material in the children's story textbook based on character education was in accordance with the characteristics of the fourth-grade elementary school students, (d) materials lesson i was easy for students to understand, (e) subject ii was easy for students to understand, (f) summary writing was good, clear, and in accordance with the material in children's story textbook based on character education, (g) examples of fictional stories in books were interesting and appropriate to the age of the fourth grade-elementary school students, (h) exercise was based on the material in the children's story textbook based on character education, (i) the scope of practice in the textbook was adequate, (k) the practice questions were sufficient to support students' understanding of the description material, (l) the description of the material was easy to understand and the presentation was well organized, (m) the material in the textbook was in accordance with the level of development, knowledge, and experience of students, (n) in the use of language, the material in the textbook used communicative language and effective sentences, and (o) the illustrations used in the textbook were in accordance with the description of the material. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 473 validation results of learning design experts validation by learning design experts was also carried out twice. in validation i, the design expert assessed that the textbook design was good. however, there were several suggestions for improving the textbook. design experts suggested that it needed to complete the instructions for using the book. competency standards and basic competencies needed to be written. the competency tests were equipped with answer keys. design experts also recommended correcting error typing, error spelling, spaces, and use of prepositions and italics on words that were not and choosing reliable internet sources. after revisions, in validation ii, the design expert assessed that the textbook was good even though there were suggestions for improvement for the font size in the manual. the rest of the textbooks were appropriate, and design experts commented that they were ready to be piloted. based on the data from the expert validation of learning design for children's story textbook, it showed as follows; (a) the textbook design was interesting, (b) the textbook was written neatly, (c) the textbook organization was correct, (d) the method of presenting the textbook and the formulation of learning objectives, materials, exercises, and competency tests were appropriate, (e) the arrangement of paragraphs was appropriate, (f)the pictures or illustrations in the textbook were appropriate, (g) the type and size of the letters used in the textbook were appropriate, (h) the language used in the textbook was easy to understand, (i) the appearance of the overall text in the textbook was neat and interesting, (k) the color composition was interesting, (l) the color on the cover was appropriate, (m) the summary was interesting, and (n) the title design, learning objectives, materials, exercises were appropriate. the assessment results of teaching teachers after the product had been developed and reviewed as good, and appropriate for students and teachers in the learning process, the next step was to do a test. the first trial was carried out on the teachers of the fourth grade at one elementary school. the data from the teacher validation was as follows: the letter size and form were good and 100% appropriate. the material in the textbook was understandable to the teacher. an assessment of the percentage of 93% showed that the material was understandable to the teacher. the illustrations were confirmed as interesting and obtained a percentage of 100% as an assessment. the entire textbook contents, such as the preface, table of contents, introduction, and description of the material, summary, exercises, competency test, and bibliography had been completed, and it obtained 86% as an assessment. it indicated that the textbook had been fulfilled. the material was under standard competence and basic competencies. it got a percentage of 100%. it showed that the material in the textbook was under the standard of competence and basic competence. the example of short stories in the textbook was interesting and fun, with a percentage of 86%. it showed that they were very interesting and fun for students. the textbook was designed based on the student's needs, and it obtained a percentage of 86%. it showed that it had been designed for the needs of students. the appropriateness of the summary with the material description irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 474 obtained a percentage of 80%. it indicated that the summary and description of the material were appropriate. the exercises questions and competency test questions were clear and understandable, and they obtained 80%. it indicated that the practice questions and competency tests were clear and understandable to students. the textbook made students effective in achieving learning goals. it obtained an assessment with a percentage of 86%. it indicated that the developed textbook could make students effective in achieving learning goals. from the questionnaire responses filled in by the teacher, the percentage level of textbook appropriateness was as follows: percentage answer = f/nx 100%; description: f is score acquisition from test results; n is the maximum score 134/150 x 100% = 89%. based on the calculations above, the percentage result was 89%. under the conversion table, the percentage level of achievement of 89% was in the proper qualifications, so this textbook did not need to be revised. it showed that the textbook was good and feasible to use. however, the researcher still paid attention and considered some of the comments or suggestions from the teachers as users of this character education-based children's story textbook for input to improve the product in the future. individual trial results individual trials were conducted on three students of the fourth grade at one elementary school with different academic abilities. one student had the average with a high category of bahasa indonesia score. one student was with a medium, and one more student was with below average. the ability level determination of the individual trial was to see whether the textbook could be used by students at all ability levels. the results were as follows. the fascination of the front cover of a children's storybook based on character education obtained an assessment with a percentage of 100%. the illustrations or pictures in the textbook were interesting and under the explanations. the score was 80%. the material was easy to understand, with an assessment percentage of 80%. an example of fiction stories in the textbook was interesting and fun to read. it obtained 93%. the textbook made the students easier to understand material about fiction stories with a percentage of 93%. it used easy and understandable language, with an assessment percentage of 86.6%. the exercise activities were interesting and motivated students, with an assessment of 80%. ease of understanding practice questions and competency tests obtained a percentage of 100%. the overall fascination with the textbook obtained 80%. the textbook made students effective in achieving learning goals and obtained 100%. based on the response to questionnaires filled out by three students, the overall percentage of the feasibility level of teaching materials were as follows: percentage answer = f/n x 100%; descriptions; f: test results score ; n: maximum score: 126/150 x 100%= 84% based on the assessment of individual trials, the total score was 84%. the level of achievement was at a decent qualification. it meant the product did not need to be revised. however, suggestions and comments submitted by students in the open-ended question questionnaire remained as input for product improvement in the future. the input was an effort to improve the resulting development product. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 475 small group trial results the researcher conducted a small group trial to receive references in suggestions, comments, and various opinions. the implementation of this small group trial was carried out on six students in the fourth grade at one elementary school. it took place in class iv a. the result of the small group trial was as follows. the fascination of the front cover obtained a percentage of 97%. illustrations used in the textbook were understandable, with a percentage of 93%. the material was understandable with a 90% assessment. the short stories were interesting and fun to read with 100% assessment. the language was easy to be understood. it obtained a 97% assessment. the activities and exercises were interesting and motivating with a 97% assessment. the convenience in understanding the questions and competency test obtained a percentage of 97%. the fascination with the textbook overall was 97%, while the effectiveness to achieve the learning goal was 97% based on the response questionnaires filled out by six students of the fourth grade at one elementary school. the overall percentage of the feasibility level of the textbook was as follows. percentage answer = f/n x 100%, description: f: test results score ; n: maximum score 290/300 x 100%= 96 %. the trial assessment from the small group obtained 96%. it indicated the textbook was feasible and did not need to be revised. field trials the results of field trials were as follows. the fascination of the front cover of the character education-based children's story textbook obtained an assessment with a percentage of 100%. it showed that the front cover was interesting. the illustrations were interesting and under the explanations, with a 99% on the assessment. the material in the textbook was easy to understand, with a percentage of 99%. it indicated that students understood the material. examples of fiction stories were interesting and fun to read. it obtained a percentage of 100%. it was easy for the students to understand the material, so the percentage score was 92%. the textbook used easy and understandable language, with a percentage of 97%. it showed that the language used was easy for students to understand. the exercise activities were interesting and motivated students, with a percentage of 97%. ease of understanding questions in exercises and competency tests obtained an assessment with a percentage of 93%. it showed that the questions in the textbook were easy for students to understand. the overall fascination with the textbook obtained a percentage of 98%. it showed that the textbook was interesting in general. it was effective in achieving learning goals and obtaining an assessment with a percentage of 99%. it showed that textbooks were very effective for students in achieving learning objectives. based on the response questionnaire filled out by 20 students, the overall percentage of the feasibility level of the textbook was as follows: percentage answer = f/nx 100%; description: f: test results score; n: maximum score 476/500 x 100% = 97.6% based on the field trial assessment, the assessment was 97.6%. the level of achievement was in the proper qualification, so the product was feasible and useable. the result showed the effectiveness and fascination of the textbook developed for fourth-grade irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 476 elementary school students, so it was feasible and can be used in learning activities. from the overall validation results, expert validation and trials of children's short story textbooks based on character education showed good results. thus, in general, the product development had met the eligibility qualifications and did not require to be revised. the fascination of character education-based children's story textbook the fascination of learning using the character education-based children's story textbook for the fourth-grade elementary school students could be seen from the interview results with the teachers and the students during product trials. according to the teacher, the students showed enthusiasm to study with the textbook. they also confirmed that they were motivated to read and study the material. furthermore, the teachers gave a very good response in assessing the textbook. the teachers were impressed by the product. they explained that it was beneficial in presenting the material, especially related to the fiction short stories. they believed there was no specific textbook about children’s fiction short stories based on character education even though this book was required to foster character building from a young age. one of the fascinations of the textbook was the fiction short stories presented. the students found it very interesting. they reviewed that they liked to read them many times. in addition, the colorful illustration was also interesting for the students. it affected the learning attitude, and it was beneficial to make the students focus on the material. therefore, the students were highly motivated to follow the teaching and learning process. this attitude caused the students to love indonesian language and literature subjects, especially fiction short stories. finally, the students could appreciate the moral values or character education from the fiction short stories they had read. the effectiveness and efficiency of character education based children’s story textbooks the textbook was effective if the learning results increased. the research was conducted by comparing the data obtained from pre-test and post-test results to measure the enhancement results. based on table 4.13, the results of pre-test and post-tests carried out on small group trials, from six students, only two students belonged to the category of finished by having scored above kkm. meanwhile, four students got a lower score than kkm and were considered unfinished. after learning with the character education-based children's story textbook, the post-test was carried out on all the students whose scores were above kkm. the result revealed that the highest score was 100, and the lowest score was 80. it indicated the increase in the research results using children's story textbook based on character education. in the field trial, at the time of the pre-test, four students scored above the kkm. meanwhile, the other 16 students scored below the predetermined kkm. after learning using the textbook, a post-test was conducted (final test). based on the post-test results, all students got scores above the kkm. the highest score was 100, and the lowest score was 80. the average score was 90. it indicated that there was a very good enhancement in learning outcomes from before to after using the product. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 477 the efficiency was measured through the compatibility of mastering the material with the time provided. the efficiency of learning by using the product could be measured by looking at the time it took to use the textbook during the trial. the research showed that learning goals could be achieved under the time allocation that had been planned. conclusion the development of character education-based children's story textbook in bahasa indonesia learning for fourth-grade students was based on the unavailability of a textbook that availability of this textbook so that it could foster the appreciation of children’s literature, particularly fiction short stories. this product had components such as (1) lesson titles, (2) learning objectives, (3) descriptions of learning content equipped with pictures and fiction short stories, (4) summaries, (5) exercises, competency tests, and semester exam questions. the last of the textbook was completed with a glossary. the product of the development of the character education-based children's story textbook had been gradually refined through revisions. the revision of this development product was not only based on the advice of material experts and learning design experts but also carried out based on the assessment of responses from field trials. these 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(2021). teaching english as a foreign language in pesantren-islamic boarding school and voices from non-english teachers. islamic quarterly, 65(1), 33-72. dick, w., carey, l., & carey, j. o. (2005). the systematic design of instruction. boston: pearson. failasofah, mukminin, a., masbirorotni, m., abrar, m., fajaryani, n., fortunasari, f., . . . habibi, a. (2022). culture, language, and multilingual education: foreign language teachers’ attitudes towards multilingual policy in indonesia. [culture, language et éducation multilangue : les attitudes des enseignants en langue étrangère envers les politiques de multilinguisme en indonesie; cultura, lengua y educación multilingüe: actitudes de los profesores de lengua extranjera hacia la política multilingüe en indonesia] bordon.revista de pedagogia, 74(3), 121-137. doi:10.13042/bordon.2022.90900 hadiyanto, h., sulistiyo, u., mukminin, a., haryanto, e., & syaiful, s. (2022). the effect of blended learning on efl students’ performance in research methodology and practice of 21st century skills. journal of educators online, 19(3) doi:10.9743/jeo.2022.19.3.8 ministry of national education. (2003). sistem pendidikan nasional [national education system]. jakarta: kementrian pendidikan. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 478 mukminin, a., habibi, a., prasojo, l. d., idi, a., & hamidah, a. (2019). curriculum reform in indonesia: moving from an exclusive to inclusive curriculum. [kurikularna prenova v indoneziji: prehod od izključujočega k vključujočemu kurikulum] center for educational policy studies journal, 9(2), 53-72. doi:10.26529/cepsj.543 oktavia, d., mukminin, a., fridiyanto, hadiyanto, marzulina, l., harto, k., . . . holandyah, m. (2022). challenges and strategies used by english teachers in teaching english language skills to young learners. theory and practice in language studies, 12(2), 382-387. doi:10.17507/tpls.1202.22 rakimahwati, ismet, s., zainul, r., roza, d., & mukminin, a. (2022). the development of the educational game to improve logical/ mathematical intelligence. journal of higher education theory and practice, 22(7), 11-19. doi:10.33423/jhetp.v22i7.5266 setyosari, p. (2016). metode penelitian pendidikan & pengembangan [educational research and development methods]. jakarta: pt fajar interpratama mandiri. soelistyarini, t. d. (2011). cerita anak dan pembentukan karakter [children’s stories and character building]. lokakarya pembentukan karakter bangsa melalui sastra anak, 22, 1-6. sugiyono (2011). metodologi penelitian kuantitatif kualitatif dan r&d [quantitative, qualitative, and r&d research methods]. bandung: alphabeta. biographical notes prof nazurty, m.pd. is working at the indonesian language and literature education department, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, indonesia. eddy haryanto, phd. is working at the faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, indonesia. puti masurai, spd., m.pd. is teacher at sekolah menegah kejuruan 1 kota jambi, jambi, indonesia this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 352 the interactive bahasa indonesia learning module innovation for the basic education level in the global computation era wirnita 1 * and nirwansyah 2 abstract this research aimed to produce bahasa indonesia learning modules to achieve educational goals efficiently and effectively. it was research and development (r & d) proposed by trianto (2009) with procedural implementation up to 3d, which consisted of the define stage, design stage, and development stage. the validators of the questionnaire were three expert lecturers. furthermore, the effectiveness test was the test result of the class ivb students at sdn 03 alai padang, while the practicality test was carried out on teachers and students. the limited-scale module trial stage was carried out on five students of class iva, and the small-scale module test was carried out on 28 students of class iv b. the results showed that the validity test of the resulting module was in the category of very valid with an average value of 91.23% both from the aspect of the content or material feasibility 90% and from the presentation and language 96% and design was 87.70%. the results of the module effectiveness test were in the category of effective (98%). the resulting module practical test was categorized as very practical by the teacher, with an average percentage of 95%, and very practical by students, with an average of 98.2%. the innovation of interactive bahasa indonesia learning modules based on science for the basic educational level in the global computing era meets the criteria of valid, practical, and effective. this interactive bahasa indonesia learning module based scientific can be used as a learning resource on poetry subjects for fourth-grade students in elementary school. keywords bahasa indonesia learning, innovation, module, scientific article history received 24 augustus 2022 accepted 11 december 2022 how to cite wirnita, w., & nirwansyah, n. (2022). the interactive bahasa indonesia learning module innovation for the basic education level in the global computation era. indonesian research journal in education |irje|, 6(2), 352– 361.https://doi.org/10.2247/ irje.v6i2.20350 1*universitas bung hatta, indonesia; corresponding author: wirnita.eska@bunghatta.ac.id 2 stih padang, indonesia. https://doi.org/10.2247/irje.v6i2.20350 https://doi.org/10.2247/irje.v6i2.20350 mailto:wirnita.eska@bunghatta.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 353 introduction innovation is a new thing from science and provides benefits to human life. in innovation development, knowledge is to run as it should. stated that luecke (2003) innovation is a process to actualize, combine, or mature knowledge or idea, which is then adjusted to get a new value for a product, process, or service. learning at the basic educational level requires teachers to be able to innovate in learning through the development of teaching materials, such as learning media or learning modules. at this time, teachers also faced an independent curriculum focused on essential content so that students have enough time to explore concepts and strengthen competencies (habibi et al., 2022; so far, in the learning mukminin et al., 2019; rakimahwati et al., 2022; velasco et al., 2022). bahasa indonesia process in the fourth grade at sdn 03 alai padang, teachers tend to use textbooks, such as material books, package books, and student worksheets (lks). other learning resources, such as learning media or learning modules, have not been used by teachers because making them requires time, effort, and thought. if teachers can create teaching materials in the form of modules, educational goals will be achieved efficiently and effectively and help students to understand the subject more. it can also improve student learning outcomes to achieve the minimum mastery criteria (kkm) with a score of 80 for bahasa indonesia in the fourth grade of the school. how to increase the value of student learning outcomes, it is time for teachers to create modules to help students and facilitate the learning process. according to daryanto (2013), a module is a form of completely packaged and systematic teaching material that contains a set of planned and designed learning experiences to help students master specific learning objectives. does the module consist of learning objectives, learning materials, and evaluation? it is because the module functions as an independent learning tool so that students can learn independently at their own pace. stated that a module is a susanti (2017) specifically designed, systematic, and equipped teaching material with instructions that include learning experiences by organizing subject matter that allows it to be studied independently or guided. it means creating a valid, practical, and effective bahasa indonesia learning module about writing poetry can increase the value of student learning outcomes. the material in the module uses the 2013 revised 2018 curriculum (mukminin et al., 2019) with basic competency 3.6. exploring the content and message of poetry presented orally and in writing for enjoyment with indicator 3.6.1., exploring the contents of the poetry text in writing form, and 3.6.2. for the poetry’s message. to be more dynamic, teachers use modules in bahasa indonesia learning, using a scientific-based approach. according to the scientific approach is the stage marjuki (2020), of learning activities to help students acquire knowledge and skills based on scientific procedures. added that it is a standard concept that accommodates, inspires, masnun (2016) strengthens, and underlies thinking about how learning methods are applied based on definite theories. the conclusion is that a scientific approach is an approach that emphasizes students' understanding and ability to understand learning materials. it focuses on students rather than teachers who only provide material. students must be active in learning, and irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 354 teachers must teach students to be more independent, especially in learning bahasa indonesia. bahasa indonesia learning is learning that helps students learn other subjects because it can be an introduction to the material that will be delivered (nazurty et al., 2019). according to khair (2018), learning bahasa indonesia means teaching students about good and correct bahasa indonesia skills according to their goals and functions. furthermore, hidayah (2015) stated that teaching bahasa indonesia can be interpreted as an educator's effort to change the students' behavior in using bahasa indonesia. it can be achieved if teachers teach students based on the objective of learning bahasa indonesia. susanto (2014) stated that learning bahasa indonesia in elementary schools aims to make students enjoy and utilize literary works to develop personality, broaden life horizons, and increase knowledge and abilities. in learning bahasa indonesia, there are four language aspects. they are listening, speaking, reading, and writing. writing is a form of thoughts and feelings by pouring heart contents into written form so that other people as readers can know the meaning (astrid et al., 2019; fajaryani et al., 2021). rosmaya (2018) stated that writing is a process of delivering information in symbols that can be read and understood by the author and others. furthermore, according to khulsum, hudiyono, and sulistyowati (2018), writing is to express opinions, ideas, and thoughts through written media so others can read. for someone who will write, ideas and ways are needed so that they are conveyed to the reader. mujianto, pangesti, and sudjalil (2019) stated that someone who wants to write must at least master what to write (content/ideas) and how to write (writing techniques). in writing poetry, it is necessary to interpret the content and know the elements. according to tiarina (2012), poetry is making an entertaining work of art because writing poetry means creating a world. additionally, oktavia (2013) stated that poetry is an expression to evoke feelings in which it contains elements in the form of emotions, imagination, ideas, and figurative words. thus, poetry is a work of art that uses words, rhymes, and rhythms as a place to convey emotions, feelings, and messages and create expressions and imagination. people can show what they feel, think, and imagine to others through poetry so that they bring expressions when reading. in poetry, there is a mandate. it is a message, idea, or advice that someone wants to convey to others, both orally and in writing. it is very closely related to cause and effect. writing poetry can make students actively express their ideas and feelings. firmansyah (2020) stated that in creative writing and poetry, the students are expected will be sensitive and empathetic to their environment and act the best in their lives. based on observations in class ivb at sdn 03 alai padang on the 9 th of march 2022, the teacher dominates in providing bahasa indonesia learning and looks conventionally one-way. it resulted in students only listening to what the teacher said, and they found it difficult to write poetry even though it was only one stanza. the data on the writing poetry score in class ivb with 28 total students, and minimum mastery criteria of 80, 19 passed, and nine students did not pass. the highest score was 87, and the lowest score was 71. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 355 methodology this research used a 4d development model (define, design, develop, and disseminate). under the flow of thiagarajan named 4-d (four-d models). according to trianto (2009), thiagarajan's development flow is a model that consists of 4 stages of development, such as define, design, develop, and disseminate, or adapted into a 4-p model consisting of definition, design, development, and deployment. however, this research was carried out only up to 3p due to limited ability and time. the define stage consists of curriculum analysis, needs analysis, student analysis, and concept analysis. the purpose of this analysis is to define the details of the program or design. the design stage prepares a scientific-based bahasa indonesia learning module on theme six and sub-theme one about exploring the content and message of poetry. presentation of the module in the form of printed teaching materials made using microsoft office word 2007 with the comic sans ms font type and font size adjusting. the development stage includes the validity of scientific-based modules through a questionnaire given to three expert lecturers in material, language, and design modules. the module practicality was carried out through a questionnaire to students and teachers of class ivb sdn 03 alai padang. for the effectiveness of the module, it used evaluation test questions. this interactive bahasa indonesia learning module innovation based on science at the basic education level in the global computing era is practical and effective. it also helps students in learning without being accompanied by a teacher. this module is limited to the standard competencies discussed in the 2013 curriculum with basic competencies 3.6. exploring the content and message of poetry presented orally and in writing for enjoyment with indicator 3.6.1. exploring the contents of the text of the poetry presented in writing, and 3.6.2 for the message of the poetry. findings the result of the validity, practicality and effectiveness test of the bahasa indonesia learning module on poetry subject at sdn 03 alai padang was as follows. module validity test results the validity test was carried out by three expert lecturers consisting of two colleagues, lecturers from the indonesian language and literature study program, and a lecturer from the informatics and computer engineering education study program. the results of the validity test are as follows. table 1. results of module validity analysis no validator score category 1 material 90 % very valid 3 language 96 % very valid 2 design 87,70 % valid average 91,23 % very valid irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 356 table 1 shows that the percentage of module validity, in general, was 91.23% in the category of very valid. from the content or material feasibility aspect, the scientific-based bahasa indonesia learning module developed was very valid by the validator with a value of 90%. in terms of presentation and appearance (design), the module was valid by the validator with a percentage value of 87.70%. it was also stated as very valid in the language aspect, with a 96% validity percentage. based on the validity results of the three validators for the scientific-based bahasa indonesia learning module, it obtained 91.23% with the category of a very valid. module practicality test results the practicality test of the scientific-based bahasa indonesia learning module was carried out on teachers and students of class ivb at sdn 03 alai padang. it was to determine the level of practicality of the resulting module. the results of the practicality test of the module were carried out on the teacher briefly as follows: table 2. analysis results of module practicality test on teachers no assessment aspects practicality percentage (%) criteria 1 ease of use 98 % very practical 2 learning time effectiveness 90 % very practical 3 benefits 95 % very practical average 95 % very practical based on table 2, the percentage of the practicality of the scientific-based bahasa indonesia learning module in sub-theme one about exploring the content and message of poetry by the teacher was 95% in the category of very practical. it was based on the indicators assessed by the teacher that the modules developed were easy to use and beneficial for learning bahasa indonesia in the fourth grade at sdn 03 alai, padang. in addition, besides being assessed by the teacher, the module practicality was also assessed by the fourth-grade students at sdn 03 alai padang. the results of the practicality test of the module were carried out on students briefly as follows: table 3. analysis results of the small-scale student module practicality test no assessment aspects practicality percentage (%) criteria 1 student interest 98 % very practical 2 usage process 96,75 % very practical 3 increased student creativity 96,25 % very practical 4 benefits 100 % very practical 5 evaluation 100 % very practical average 98,2 % very practical irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 357 table 3 shows the percentage of the practicality of the scientific-based bahasa indonesia learning module in sub-theme one about exploring the content and message of poetry by fourth-grade students at sdn 03 alai padang on a small scale of 98.2% in the category of very practical. module effectiveness test results the module effectiveness test is carried out by analyzing the data obtained from the student test results. student mastery is measured based on the individual score obtained by students. the module is effective if the student reaches 75% of the minimum mastery criteria. if the individual completeness is greater than or equal to the minimum mastery criteria, the student means complete. the minimum mastery criteria of bahasa indonesia determined by sdn 03 alai padang was 75. the results of the effectiveness test of the scientific-based bahasa indonesia learning module are as follows: table 4. module effectiveness test results through small scale pretest and post-test no learning outcomes number of students completed not completed percentage of classical completeness 1 pretest 28 9 19 40% 2 post-test (module) 28 28 0 100% table 4 shows the learning outcomes of class ivb students at sdn 03 alai padang was 40% with a percentage of classical completeness to improve student learning outcomes. hence, the module was in the bahasa indonesia learning process. student learning outcomes were fantastic after using the module tested through the post-test. it obtained a classical completeness percentage of 98% from 100% completeness. discussion the discussion of the scientific-based bahasa indonesia learning module in the fourth grade was carried out after there were data on the results of the effectiveness test, practicality test, and module effectiveness test as a product produced in this research. the results of the validity test of the bahasa indonesia learning module based on the three validators described that the module developed was very valid, with an average of 91.23%. this learning module is suitable for the learning process. the content or material feasibility aspect was better because the results of the data analysis of the validity of the scientific-based bahasa indonesia learning module by expert lecturers were based on three aspects of assessment consisting of content or material feasibility, presentation, design, and language aspects. analysis based on the results of the module validity test describes that the developed module is appropriate and beneficial for the learning process. the module is very valid by the material validator with a value of 90%. it shows that the material in the module is appropriate for the 2013 revised 2018 curriculum, can support the achievement of standard competencies, has been suitable for students’ needs, developed self-reliant students, and helps students' understanding. in the language aspect, the percentage of validity is 96%. it indicates that the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 358 module developed has an easy-to-read font and size, the information conveyed is clear, uses good and correct bahasa indonesia rules (based on ebi), uses effective and efficient sentences, and is easy to understand by students. in terms of presentation and appearance (design), the module developed is valid by the validator with a percentage value of 87.70%. it shows that the module has an identity and clarity of objectives to be achieved, a concise presentation sequence, attractive presentation and appearance, appropriate images presented in the module with the poetry material, and appropriate colors and sizes. the analysis based on the results of the practicality test of the module by the class ivb’s teacher at sdn 03 alai padang obtained a practicality percentage of 95% in the category of very practical. practicality is the level of ease experienced by the teacher in learning for students who use a product or teaching material and by students when absorbing learning material. the practicality of teaching material can be seen from the questionnaire filled out by students after learning to use the teaching material. the practicality test is to determine the extent to which students' understanding and implementation of the teaching materials were made. in this research, the module is under the teachers’ views through a questionnaire that developed module has ease of use and is beneficial for learning bahasa indonesia in the fourth grade of elementary school. it is based on the teacher's view through a questionnaire that the developed module is easy to use and appropriate for learning bahasa indonesia in the fourth grade of elementary school. the analysis is based on the results of the practicality test of the module assessed by class ivb students at sdn 03 alai padang, with a percentage of 98.2%, in the category of very practical. it describes that the module is good, attractive, and beneficial in learning bahasa indonesia about exploring the content and message of poetry. this learning module supports the achievement of standard competencies based on students' needs, empowers students, and motivates students in bahasa indonesia learning. it means the module is practical to use as a learning resource on poetry for fourth-grade students at elementary school. analysis based on the module effectiveness test result through student test results is 100% in the effective category. furthermore, effectiveness is a measure that states how far the target in quality, quantity, and time form has been achieved with the principle that the greater the percentage of the target achieved, the higher the effectiveness is. the effectiveness test is carried out on students through tests in the form of questions based on the material in the module. after carrying out the module effectiveness through a test to answer questions related to the module material, the student's score is above or equal to the minimum mastery criteria for bahasa indonesia of the fourth-grade elementary school students at sdn 03 alai padang. it shows that the science-based bahasa indonesia learning module has a very good feasibility level. it means this module is beneficial in the learning process for fourth-grade elementary school students. conclusions based on the development of the research results of the scientific-based bahasa indonesia language learning module on theme six of sub-theme one about exploring the content and message of poetry. the testing process of a scientific-based bahasa indonesia module is the define stage through curriculum analysis, needs analysis, and student analysis. the design stage is preparing a scientific-based learning module under standard irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 359 competencies and indicators in the 2018 revision of the 2013 curriculum. the design is created as attractive as possible by adding pictures and color. the development of scientific-based bahasa indonesia learning modules is carried out through validity, practicality, and effectiveness process. furthermore, the module can be used as teaching material for fourth-grade students in elementary school. teachers are expected to be able to use this scientific-based bahasa indonesia learning module as a learning resource than the main book and worksheets on poetry material in the fourth grade. teachers use this module under the integrated scientific teaching steps of the module. students should read this module at school and home for a better understanding of the poetry material. other researchers can use this research as a reference in developing bahasa indonesia learning 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(2022). the readiness on the implementation of the special program for information and communication technology. journal of higher education theory and practice, 22(3), 79-89. doi:10.33423/jhetp.v22i3.5083 biographical notes dr. wirnita is a lecturer in the elementary school teacher education study program, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas bung hatta, indonesia. nirwansyah is a lecture at stih padang, indonesia. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 404 written corrective feedback for students’ research proposal in english: what do students and lecturers prefer and why? fortunasari* 1 , nunung fajaryani 2 , bunga ayu wulandari 3 , and khairunnisa 4 abstract the purposes of this study were to describe types of written corrective feedback applied by the lecturers on students‟ research proposal and to find out the favorable types of written corrective feedback for the students of english study program at a public university in jambi. this research used a questionnaire to collect the data from students and lecturers. the results of this research revealed that there were three types of written corrective feedback that were often used by the lecturers. they were direct corrective feedback, grammatical description, and electronic corrective feedback from metalinguistic feedback. additionally, there were four types that sometimes were used by the lecturers. they were indirect corrective feedback, error codes by metalinguistic feedback, unfocused and focused feedback. the last type was reformulation. it was rarely used by the lecturers. the results also showed that direct, electronic, and unfocused corrective feedbacks were very favorable for students while a brief grammatical description (metalinguistic), focused feedback, error codes (metalinguistic), and reformulation feedback were somewhat favorable. the last type was indirect corrective feedback which was very unfavorable for the students. implications and recommendations are discussed. keywords perception, research proposal, written corrective feedback 1* corresponding author and senior lecturer at the english education department of the faculty of education and teacher training, universitas jambi, indonesia; fortuna@unja.ac.id 2senior lecturer at the english education department of the faculty of education and teacher training, universitas jambi, indonesia 3senior lecturer at the english education department of the faculty of education and teacher training, universitas jambi, indonesia. 4student at the english education department of the faculty of education and teacher training, universitas jambi, indonesia. mailto:fortuna@unja.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 405 introduction in english teaching and learning process, many students produce errors or mistakes. this also happens in the process of writing. some common errors may include problems in their content, organization of their writing, vocabulary and especially in their grammar. grammar plays an important role in writings. because the shortage of grammar knowledge, the grammatical errors are still made by the students in their writing. when this occurs, the students need feedback from others to make their writing better. students need feedback to increase their writing and to reduce their problems that they face in the process of writing. so, this is the reason why grammar correction is needed for the students. feedback is information that is given to the students about their performance of their learning task, and the objective is to improve their performance (ur, 1996). written corrective feedback (wcf) is important in the learning process. when students fail to perform good writing, feedback is necessary to help them take the right action about their writing in order to enhance it. the students need the feedback from the lecture to understand the materials and improve their writing. other than that, giving feedback to the students will make students feel that they are getting attention and cared for by their lecturers or teachers. so, they will be more careful and serious when they get tasks from the lecturers to write something. feedback is needed for students to make their writing better. it is relevant with the finding of the research that conducted by (listiani, 2010) she found that most of the students in her research claimed that feedback on their writing (organization, content, mechanic, and vocabulary) helped them to improve their writing. there are many kinds of writing practices that should be taken by english students in some universities, namely paragraph writing, essay writing, academic writing, and thesis. in the last semester, a student needs to write a thesis when she/he wants to get their bachelor degree. it is a kind of a research that must be done by the students. before they conduct the research, they should write a proposal. the proposal consists of three chapter, those are introduction, literature review, and methodology. a research proposal is needed and it is the step that will help them on how to conduct and finish his or her research (sugiyono, 2012). the importance of wcf related with the efficacy of learners‟ grammatical improvement was an issue in writing. the most common mistake that students do in their writing is grammar consisting of three kinds of errors. they are grammatical, syntactical, and mechanic substances (pescante-malimas & samson, 2017). so, corrective feedback is needed for them to help them write their proposal. three reasons why grammar corrective feedback should not cease have been presented (ferris, 1999) including students‟ desire to be corrected, contents that instructors need to correct grammar, and learners‟ development of self-editing skill. there has been several studies (kim, 2013; maleki & eslami, 2013; pakbaz, 2014; shintani, ellis, & suzuki, 2014; diab, 2015; frear & chiu, 2015; sarvestani & pishkar, 2015; salimi & valizadeh, 2015; shintani & aubrey, 2016; sia & cheung, 2017; nurie, 2018) which focused on the effectiveness of wcf in enhancing capability of students‟ l2 writing in terms of errors and mistakes and the importance of wcf in terms of l2 the teaching and learning of writing. however, the previous studies were mostly concerned with describing the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 406 effectiveness of wcf for l2 students through a comparison between wcf and other teaching and learning techniques in terms of students‟ writing correction. nevertheless, little study has been undertaken in terms of exploring types of wcf perceived by students and lecturers and their favorable wcf during thesis proposal writing. the purposes of this study were to describe types of written corrective feedback applied by the lecturers on students‟ research proposal and to find out the favorable types of written corrective feedback for the students of english study program at a public university in jambi. this study was expected to give some benefits to english teachers, because it can be references for them when providing written corrective feedback for students‟ research proposal. overall, this study was conducted to explore these research questions: (1) what are types of written corrective feedback applied on students‟ research proposal writing? and (2) what are students‟ most favorable wcf during research proposal writing? literature review written corrective feedback “feedback is a key component of foreign language writing programs around the world, with product, process and genre approaches all employing it as a central part of their instructional repertoires” hyland & hyland, 2006, p. 15). the indication of the incorrectness of students‟ the target language and including all kinds of responses that students‟ receive is the meaning of corrective feedback (lightbown & spada, 2006). so, a technique of a teacher in giving corrections to the target language used by the students and in indicating an error exists on their target language is called corrective feedback. from corrective feedback, the students will be aware with their errors. it is an important part of the writing process. so, feedback is beneficial to be provided for students to improve their performance from what they have learnt. corrective feedback is divided into two types; those are oral corrective feedback and written corrective feedback (wcf). the teachers‟ way of providing correction by saying what is wrong. one distinction between oral corrective feedback and written corrective feedback (wcf) is that oral cf is mostly provided as part of the instruction within the classroom (balachandran, 2017). wcf, on the other hand, is usually written responses provided by the teacher after reviewing student writings, which is not an immediate response as oral feedback. (balachandran, 2017). there are many kinds of written corrective feedback that used by the teachers in process of teaching and learning. there are two related studies that reviewed in this study. first, wulandari (2017) found that from six types of corrective feedback, there were four types that used by the teachers in students‟ writing. those were direct, indirect, metalinguistic, focused and unfocused feedback. then, electronic and reformulation feedback were not found in students‟ text. another study was done by pratama (2018), he found that the type with the highest score (71 feedback or 43.35%) that utilized on students‟ research proposal is direct corrective feedback. the second is focused feedback with 52 feedbacks (31.90%). the third is indirect with 35 feedbacks (21.47%). and the fourth is unfocused feedback with 5 (3.06%). then metalinguistic feedback, electronic feedback and irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 407 reformulation are not included in the research proposal. types of written corrective feedback have been classified into six categories (ellis, 2008). the types are direct cf, indirect cf, and metalinguistic cf, the focus of the feedback, electronic feedback, and reformulation as presented in the following table. table 1. types of written corrective feedback (ellis, 2008) types of corrective feedback description direct corrective feedback the teacher provides the correction with the correct form. indirect corrective feedback indicating only indicating the specific location the teacher only indicate that an error exist without provide the correct form an error is indicated in the margin or a line an error is underlined metalinguistic cf brief grammatical description error codes providing metalinguistic clue of the error teacher writes a grammatical description of the errors in a text and numbered teacher uses abbreviation in the margin of the error the focus of the feedback unfocused cf focused cf the correction is given for all (most) of the students‟ error or select it a. the correction is provided for all (or most) of the error b. the correction is provided only on single types of error electronic feedback the correction is given by using computer to point out the error and provide the example of correct usage reformulation it is including native speaker reworking of the text to make it seems like native but still keep the original text. direct corrective feedback is the way the teachers provide a correction with the correct form. example of using direct cf: a dog stole (a) bone from (a) butcher. he escaped with having (the) bone. when the dog was going (over)through bridge over (a) the river he (saw a) found dog in the river. indirect corrective feedback is the teacher only indicates that an error exists without provide the correct form: example of using indirect cf: a dog stole x bone from x butcher. he escaped with x having xx bone. when the dog was going x through x x bridge over x the x river he found x dog in the river. x= missing word``` x__x = wrong word irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 408 metalinguistic cf is the way to give feedback to students‟ writing tasks by providing them with some forms of explicit comments about the nature of the errors that they make in their writing. there are two ways in providing explicit comments. the first is by using error codes. it means that the teacher uses abbreviation labels as a clue for every different type of errors. to be taken as an example is that teachers might write „art‟ for article, „ww‟ for wrong word, „prep‟ for preposition, and etc. example of using codes: art. art. ww art. a dog stole bone from butcher. he escaped with having bone. when the dog was prep. art. art. going through bridge over the river he found dog in the river art, x3; ww a dog stole bone from butcher. he escaped with having bone. prep. ; art. when the dog was going through bridge over the river he art found dog in the river example of using metalinguistic explanation: (1) (2) (3) a dog stole bone from butcher. he escaped with having bone. when the dog was going (4) (5) (6) through bridge over the river he found dog in the river. (1), (2), (5), and (6) – you need ‘a’ before the noun when a person or thing is mentioned for the first time. (3)you need ‘the’ before the noun when the person or thing has been mentioned previously. (4)you need ‘over’ when you go across the surface of something, you use ‘through’ when you go inside something (e.g. ‘go through the forest’ focused versus unfocused cf, when the teacher corrects all of the students‟ errors in their writing, this is called unfocused. but, when the teacher only selects specific types of errors that happen in students‟ writing to be correction, this is called focused cf. electronic feedback is the fifth type of corrective feedback. in this type, teacher provides feedback by using a computer as a tool to point out the students‟ errors. it means that the teacher provides feedback for students‟ writing through technology, such as via irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 409 email. the teachers make a use of electronic media to provide comments for students‟ writing texts. reformulation feedback, the sixth type of corrective feedback is reformulation feedback. it is a way of correcting the errors through rewriting students‟ entire texts to make their writing like a native while keeping the content to the original text. methodology research design, participants, and locale of the study this study employed a descriptive quantitative approach as a systematic investigation of phenomena by gathering numerical data of analysis. survey design was used in this study. creswell (2010) stated that a survey design provides quantitative or numeric description of trends, attitudes, or opinions of a population by studying a sample of that population. the purpose of survey design is to generalize characteristic, attitude, or behavior from a sample to a population. in this case, this study sought to determine types of wcf as perceived by both students and lecturers and most favorable wcf for students in dealing with their research proposal writing. the participants of this study consisted of thirty students and twenty lecturers from english department of a state-owned university in indonesia. the students were selected as they were taking thesis course and finished writing their research proposals. regarding the students, their age ranged between 20 and 23 years old. there were 3 (10%) students from semester seven and 27 (90%) students who were in the ninth semester. the number of female (93.3%) students outperformed male (6.7%) students who participated in this descriptive study. as for lecturers, their age ranged between 38 and 47 years old. there were 11 (55%) female lecturers and 7 (35%) male lecturers participating in the study. the questionnaire was used in this study as the instrument to collect the data from respondents. the type of the questionnaire was closed-ended questionnaire. a closed-ended questionnaire is a set of questionnaire and option that already settled by researcher (sugiyono, 2012). the questionnaire consisted of two parts. the first was focused on various types of written corrective feedback that utilized on students‟ research proposal and the second one was the types that most favorable for the students. in this questionnaire, there were about 16 questions which the form was checklist. the choices for the first were never, rarely, sometimes, often, and always. then, the second were extremely unfavorable, very unfavorable, neutral, very favorable, and extremely favorable. table 2. the interpretation of five-likert scales (jackson, 2006) mean interpretation 1,00 – 1,80 never/extremely unfavourable 1,81 – 2,60 rarely/very unfavourable 2,61 – 3,40 sometimes/somewhat favourable 3,41 – 4,20 often/very favourable 4,21 – 5,00 always/extremely favourable irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 410 data collection and analysis the questionnaire was previously designed and validated by two experts to determine its validity and reliability. to collect the data, the questionnaire was delivered online to the participants and the data were collected via google forms. online app was employed due to its easy access and covid-19 regulation which ordered people to abide by physical distancing issue. we sent thirty questionnaires to the students and twenty questionnaires to the lecturers during the study. fortunately, we received the thirty and twenty questionnaires after being completed for one week by all of the participants via google forms. the data were transferred and analyzed by using spss program. then, we analyzed the data by using spss and find out the frequencies, percentage, and mean. after that, we found out the value of mean. the interval length of five points scale is 0.80. the means is very significant, from 1 to 1.80 it means never/extremely unfavorable. from 1.81 to 2.60, it means rarely/very unfavorable. from 2.61 to 3.40, it means sometimes/ somewhat favorable. from 3.41 to 4.20, it means often/very favorable. from 4.21 to 5, it means always/extremely favorable. the mean score of five likert scales will be interpreted into the following mean score level. the interpretation of the mean score is adapted from (jackson, 2006). ethical considerations regarding ethical consideration of this study, we asked the participants to read an informed consent describing their readiness to participate in volunteered work during the study, including sharing their responses to be analyzed, disseminated, and published in a scientific journal. to complete, the participants signed in the informed consents and returned them back via online app such as email and whatsapp. findings written corrective feedback’s types applied on students’ research proposal an analysis of written corrective feedback types through the questionnaire revealed that the three top items from students and lecturers were the same, even though there is a little bit difference. the three top items of written corrective feedback types were direct, electronic, and a brief grammatical description (metalinguistic). the mean score was between 3.43 and 4 which means that these types were often used by the lecturers. table 3. types of written corrective feedback that often used by the lecturers types of written corrective feedback percentage mean level n r s o a students direct 26.7 46.7 26.7 4 o electronic 13.3 20 53.3 13.3 3.66 o metalinguistic 3.3 50 46.7 3.43 o lecturers direct 40 4 20 3.8 o electronic 20 15 65 3.45 o metalinguistic 5 45 50 3.5 o legend: 4.21-5.00 always (a); 3.41-4.20 often (o); 2.61-3.40 sometimes (sometimes); 1.81-2.60 rarely (r); 1.00-1.80 never (n) irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 411 the data from questionnaire showed that four kinds of written corrective feedback existed with the mean score between 2.9 and 3.36. it means that these types were sometimes used by the lecturers when providing written corrective feedback. the finding from students and lecturers were also similar and only differed in the ranking order. table 4. types of written corrective feedback that were often used by the lecturers types of written corrective feedback percentage mean level n r s o a students indirect 26.7 46.7 26.6 3.36 s unfocused 70 30 3.3 s focused 16.7 53.3 30 3.13 s error codes 13.3 40 43.3 3.3 3 s lecturers indirect 40 30 30 3.35 s unfocused 25 40 35 3.1 s focused 15 50 35 3.2 s error codes 65 35 2.9 s legend: 4.21-5.00 always (a); 3.41-4.20 often (o); 2.61-3.40 sometimes (sometimes); 1.81-2.60 rarely (r); 1.00-1.80 never (n) the last type of written corrective feedback is reformulation with the lowest mean score. it can be interpreted that this type is rarely used. the lowest mean score of the types‟ written corrective feedback from students and lecturers was also similar and only differed on the means‟ value. table 5. types of written corrective feedback that were rarely used by the lecturers types of written corrective feedback percentage mean level n r s o a students reformulation 43.3 53.3 3.3 2.6 r lecturers reformulation 45 55 2.55 r legend: 4.21-5.00 always (a); 3.41-4.20 often (o); 2.61-3.40 sometimes (sometimes); 1.81-2.60 rarely (r); 1.00-1.80 never (n) written corrective feedback’s types that are most favorable for the students this study also found written corrective feedback‟s types that were most favorable for the students. the mean score from the data showed that there were three types that were very favorable for the students including direct, electronic, and unfocused feedback. direct feedback has the highest mean. so, direct corrective feedback can be said as the first preference of the students. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 412 table 5. written corrective feedback’s types that are very favorable for the students types of written corrective feedback percentage mean level eu vu sf vf ef direct feedback 20 50 30 4.1 vf electronic feedback 26.7 53.3 20 3.9 vf unfocused feedback 10 26.7 46.7 16.7 3.7 vf legend: 4.21-5.00 always (a); 3.41-4.20 often (o); 2.61-3.40 sometimes (sometimes); 1.81-2.60 rarely (r); 1.00-1.80 never (n) from the analysis of the questionnaire, four kinds of written corrective feedback were revealed by the data as somewhat favorable for the students. they are grammatical description (metalinguistic), focused feedback, reformulation, and error codes. each type has a different mean score as shown in the following table. table 6. written corrective feedback’s types that are somewhat favorable for the students types of written corrective feedback percentage mean level eu vu sf vf ef grammatical description 16.7 50 26.7 6.7 3.2 sf focused feedback 20 60 20 3 sf reformulation 33.3 36.7 30 2.9 sf error codes 26.7 66.7 6.7 2.8 legend: 4.21-5.00 always (a); 3.41-4.20 often (o); 2.61-3.40 sometimes (sometimes); 1.81-2.60 rarely (r); 1.00-1.80 never (n) the lowest mean score was on the indirect type of written corrective feedback. from the mean score, it can be interpreted that this type is very unfavorable for the students. table 7. written corrective feedback’s types that is very unfavorable for the students types of written corrective feedback percentage mean level eu vu sf vf ef indirect 10 30 60 2.5 vu legend: 4.21-5.00 always (a); 3.41-4.20 often (o); 2.61-3.40 sometimes (sometimes); 1.81-2.60 rarely (r); 1.00-1.80 never (n) discussion these research findings revealed that the direct corrective feedback was the first type that was mostly applied for students‟ research proposal. it is the same with the finding of previous study which found that the direct corrective feedback was the most dominant type that teachers used (wulandari, 2017). she found out the teachers using four kinds of written corrective feedback when providing comments on students‟ text. the types are direct, indirect, metalinguistic, and focused and unfocused feedback. the first type that teachers‟ irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 413 preference was the direct feedback because students gained an accurate correction form in order to increase their writing (sari, 2020). in this current study, we found that a direct, a brief grammatical description (metalinguistic), and electronic feedback were three tops of written corrective feedback‟s types that were mostly provided on the research proposal of the students. these were categorized as often used by the lecturers. the present study also found four types of written corrective feedback that was sometimes used by the lecturers. those are indirect, error codes, unfocused and focused feedback. advisor‟s preferences on using indirect written corrective feedback was very low because it made students confused and sometimes did not know what they should do (syam, 2019). then, the last of corrective feedback‟s types that were rarely utilized by the lecturers in this study was the reformulation feedback. reformulation feedback was the lowest because most advisors did not know what the reformulation was (syam, 2019). in this current research, the results of our study indicated the students‟ favorable types of written corrective feedback. the results showed three top types that were very favorable for the students. the first type that was the most favorable for the students was the direct corrective feedback. students preferred a direct corrective feedback instead of indirect because students believed that this type was easier to understand the nature of errors that had been corrected (mubarak, 2013). students felt that direct corrective feedback really helped them in their writing improvement because there were correct forms directly (sari, 2020). the second type that was very favorable was electronic feedback. electronic feedback was the mainly used by the advisors in correcting students‟ proposal because it used less paper, students should not print out the paper for just small mistakes and waste their time and money (syam, 2019). the third type that was very favorable for the students was unfocused feedback. students liked their lecturers to provide written corrective feedback on all the types of errors that they made in their research proposal. while the result of this study also showed four types of corrective feedback were at somewhat favorable. those are a brief grammatical description of metalinguistic, focused feedback and reformulation. the last type was indirect corrective feedback which is very unfavorable for the students. students showed negative responses to indirect corrective feedback because it was confusing and it was not understandable (paubun, 2015). conclusion the purposes of this study were to describe types of written corrective feedback applied by the lecturers on students‟ research proposal and to find out the favorable types of written corrective feedback for the students of english study program at a public university in jambi. the conclusions can be drawn as regards to describe the types of written corrective feedback applied on students‟ research proposal and the most favorable types of it. there are three various kinds of written corrective feedback that were mostly used by the lecturers in correcting students‟ research proposal. they are direct feedback, electronic feedback, and grammatical description from metalinguistic feedback. then, there are four types that are sometimes used by the lecturers, those are indirect corrective feedback, error codes by metalinguistic feedback, unfocused and focused feedback. the last type is reformulation. it irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 414 is rarely used by the lecturers. the first favorable type of written corrective feedback for students is a direct feedback. the other types are electronic feedback and unfocused feedback. these types are also categorized as a very favorable one for students. additionally, a brief grammatical description (metalinguistic), focused feedback, error codes (metalinguistic), and reformulation are categorized as somewhat favorable for students. the last type is indirect corrective feedback. this type is categorized as a very unfavorable one for the students. disclosure statement no potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors. acknowledgments i would like to thanks all participants of this study for their participations. references balachandran, a. 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(2020). investigating teachers’ written corrective feedback at senior high school 1 kampar [master‟s thesis], uin suska riau. http://repository.uin-suska.ac.id/id/eprint/25923 sarvestani, m. s., & pishkar, k. (2015). the effect of written corrective feedback on writing accuracy of intermediate learners. theory and practice in language studies, 5(10), 2046-2052. shintani, n., & aubrey, s. (2016). the effectiveness of synchronous and asynchronous written corrective feedback on grammatical accuracy in a computer‐mediated environment. the modern language journal, 100(1), 296-319. shintani, n., ellis, r., & suzuki, w. (2014). effects of written feedback and revision on learners‟ accuracy in using two english grammatical structures. language learning, 64(1), 103-131. https://doi: 10.1111/lang.12029 sia, p. f. d., & cheung, yl. (2017). written corrective feedback in writing instruction: a qualitative synthesis of recent research. issues in language studies, 6(1), 62-80. sugiyono. (2012). metode penelitian kuantitatif kualitatif dan r&d. bandung: alfabeta. syam, a. r. (2019). advisors' written corrective feedback on undergraduate students' thesis [master‟s thesis], universitas negeri makasar. http://eprints.unm.ac.id/id/eprint/14972 ur, p. (1996). a course in language teaching. great britain: cambridge university press. wulandari, a. s. (2017). an analysis of teacher's corrective feedback in writing skills at eights grade students of mts n sumberlawang in academic year 2016/2017 [master‟s thesis], iain surakarta. http://eprints.iain-surakarta.ac.id/1272/1/full%20text%20untuk%20pusat. pdf http://repository.uksw.edu/handle/123456789/10597 http://digilib.uinsby.ac.id/27167/ http://repository.uin-suska.ac.id/id/eprint/25923 http://eprints.unm.ac.id/id/eprint/14972 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 416 biographical notes dr. fortunasari is a senior lecturer at the english education department of the faculty of education and teacher training, universitas jambi, indonesia. dr. nunung fajaryani is a senior lecturer at the english education department of the faculty of education and teacher training, universitas jambi, indonesia. bunga ayu wulandari, phd. is a senior lecturer at the english education department of the faculty of education and teacher training, universitas jambi, indonesia. khairunnisa is a student at the english education department of the faculty of education and teacher training, universitas jambi, indonesia this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 450 the effect of locus of control on learning achievement during the covid-19 pandemic nasir, s., 1* sriyanti mustafa 2 , sulvianti 2 , and nur azizah 2 abstract learning during the covid-19 pandemic is a challenge for students and has an impact on learning achievement. this study aimed to determine the effect of locus of control on learning achievement during the covid-19 pandemic. this research was conducted at one state junior high school, soppeng riaja, south sulawesi by using a quantitative approach. data were obtained by using a questionnaire and documents of learning achievement data in the form of report cards. the collected data were then analyzed using descriptive statistics and inferential statistics. descriptive statistical data analysis showed that the average score of student learning achievement was in the moderate achievement category, meaning that during the covid-19 pandemic, students’ learning abilities did not significantly decrease in achievement. therefore, it was considered that students could still learn properly even though it was done online. furthermore, the results of the analysis of the inferential data indicated that the locus of control had a positive effect on the learning achievement of students. thus, it can be concluded that the locus of control of students while studying during the covid-19 pandemic was quite good and had a positive influence on the progress of learning achievement. keywords achievement, locus of control, learning, , junior high school, covid-19 1faculty member of non-formal education study program, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas muhammadiyah parepare, indonesia; corresponding author: nasirumpar1999@gmail.com 2 faculty member of mathematics education study program, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas muhammadiyah parepare, indonesia. mailto:nasirumpar1999@gmail.com irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 451 introduction learning is an acquired skill, and the most effective strategies are often counterintuitive (brown, roediger, & mcdaniel, 2014). the learning process occurs because of the interaction with the environment, meaning that learning can happen anytime and anywhere, causing changes in behavior which include aspects of changes in knowledge (cognitive), skills (psychomotor), and related attitudes (affective). the process of understanding and optimizing learning requires a thorough understanding of how learning can be facilitated and supported and how various factors can influence learning (wei, macfadyen, cutler, & shirazi, 2019). learning and studying are both components integrated into a series of activities that cannot be separated. a good learning process is one of success keys in education. therefore, the teaching and learning process and the environment must be well-organized. there must be an interaction between teacher and students in the learning and teaching process. teachers as educators have various strategies or methods to deliver materials for students in the conventional classroom and in online classes. each use of strategy or method will certainly get different feedbacks from the students. on the initial observation, there were students who were really interested in the materials presented to actively participate and study well. some students passively accepted the materials, and some of them despised the materials provided by the teachers. also, few students preferred to use any tricks in effort to avoid the tasks. judging from the current situation, the covid-19 pandemic has occurred, it can be a cause why students did not take the initiative to complete the tasks and only depended on their friends to finish it. however, there are also highly motivated students that were able to complete the given tasks well. students who had the initiatives to finish the tasks were usually highly motivated in learning and gaining achievement in the study. according to data from the educational, scientific, and cultural organizations of the united nations (putri et al., 2020), there are at least 290.5 million students worldwide whose learning activities are disrupted due to schools being closed, including schools in indonesia. the learning process is conducted online by utilizing various media as learning tools, such as whatapp, zoom, google meet, and various other applications. this condition requires teachers and students to master how to use learning media so that the learning process can also run smoothly. the learning process during the covid-19 pandemic was carried out according to the circular letter of the minister of education and culture number 4 of 2020 regarding the implementation of education policies during the spread of coronavirus disease (covid-19), which recommended carrying out the learning process from home through online learning. various student responses to online learning are indicated to have an impact on learning achievement. pratiwi (2015) explained that the meaning of achievement is the results that have been achieved, carried out, or done, while study achievement itself is defined as the achievements accomplished by a student for a certain period and recorded in a school report. the type of achievement to be expressed or measured according to syafi’i, marfiyanto, dan rodiyah (2018) can be observed from three aspects (1) cognitive in the form of observation, memory, understanding, application, (2) effective in the form of acceptance, respect, deepening and (3) psychomotor skills in the form of action, and verbal and non-verbal expression skills. based on that statement, the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 452 researcher concluded that learning achievement is the result that someone has achieved; the learning process has been assessed in the form of numbers based on students’ cognitive, affective, and psychomotor aspects. literature review student achievement can be measured by looking at cognitive, affective and psychomotor aspects through the minimum completeness criteria (mcc), which is determined in accordance with the applicable curriculum regulations in schools. additionally, mulyani, (2013) explained that the achievements accomplished by students are the result of the interaction between the factors can influence it, both internal (in a person) and external (in one’s environment). similarly, the researcher concluded that internal and external factors influence students' learning achievement. both of these factors are contained in a person’s locus of control. the concept of locus of control was first put forward by rotter (1966) that a social learning theorist. locus of control is one of the personality variables (personality), defined as an individual’s belief in his or her own ability to control (kreitner & kinicki, 2005). rotter in 1996 (bety, 2013) stated that locus of control is a concept that explains whether a person feels that the control of their life is in their own hands (internal locus of control) or it is in the grasp of someone’s hand or something else (external locus of control). furthermore, syatriadin (2017) argued that locus of control is individual characteristics based on the person’s belief and it is determined by a combination of internal and external forces. in line with the previous opinion, rotter (1966 as cited in syatriadin, 2017) draws the following conclusions that locus of control is one of the personality variables, which is defined as an individual’s belief whether they can control events in their life by themselves (internal locus of control) or an individual’s belief that the environment is capable of controlling events in their life more than themselves (external locus of control). it can be concluded that locus of control is a personality trait in interpreting success and failure experienced from students' internal and external factors. an important point that can be revealed in this paper is that students with an internal locus of control have a perception that the achievements achieved, both success and failure come from within themselves, the perception formed is that if you want to achieve success, you must make an effort. on the other hand, students with an external locus of control do not like to try because they believe that the success and failure experienced are determined by fate, luck, or things outside of the students. furthermore, in this study, locus of control indicators are determined by namely 1) internal locus of control including (a) confidence in their ability to solve problems or assignments, (b) like to work hard and have more effort in solving problems or tasks and achieve achievements, and (c) have self-satisfaction in completing tasks without the help of others. 2) external locus of control includes (a) lack of effort in achieving achievements and solving problems or tasks, (b) lack of initiative, and (c) having the belief that success and achievement are influenced by external factors (fate), luck, environment). sumawan (2005) explained that a student is said to have an internal locus of control orientation if he or she believes that the success and failure of everything he or she experiences are determined by his or hers efforts and abilities. at the same time, the external irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 453 locus of control tends to assume that life is determined by the learners' strengths such as fate, destiny, luck, and other people in power. several previous researchers have discussed the influence of locus of control on student learning achievement, among others, research conducted by dewi (2014) showed that students have a locus of control factor that can affect the achievement of high and better learning achievement so that it affects positively on student learning achievement. in addition, ardianto’s (2014) research also proves that locus of control affects learning achievement. the two previous studies have proven that locus of control influences student learning achievement. furthermore, in this study, locus of control analyzed explicitly the internal and external locus of control experienced by students, including their influence on learning achievement, and compared the two forms of locus of control, to obtain in-depth information regarding their significant influence on student learning achievement. the locus of control is an interesting issue to be discussed because it is assumed that these variables are factors that contribute to learning progress and student achievement. a genuine internal locus of control will provide a positive encouragement for students in achieving their achievements. on the contrary, an external locus of control that is not managed properly will harm student learning achievement. therefore, this study aimed to determine the significant effect of locus of control on learning achievement. methodology research design, participants, and locale of the study in this study, we used the ex post facto research method as the data source came from the learning processes that had been carried out previously. it was used as a basis to determine the factors that could influence the learning achievement of students. x = locus of control y= learning achievement our research participants consisted of 28 students at one state junior high school, soppeng riaja, south sulawesi. data collection and analysis the source of the data was taken from the seventh-grade students at one state junior high school, soppeng riaja south sulawesi while locus of control data were obtained using a questionnaire through a google form while learning achievement data were obtained based on the semester report cards. the questionnaire consists of internal and external indicators of the locus of control. the internal indicators of the locus of control cover three major items (figure 1) and the external indicators of the locus of control have three major items (figure 2). the data obtained were analyzed quantitatively using the descriptive statistical y x irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 454 analysis and inferential statistical analysis. after the data were analyzed, they were categorized to determine the level of locus of control that students had by using the following categories. 81 100 is categorized as very high 61 80 is categorized as high 41 60 is categorized as moderate 21 – 40 is categorized as low 0 20 is categorized as very low ethical considerations to deal with, the ethical consideration of this study, researchers asked their participants to read an informed consent describing their readiness to participate in voluntarily during the study, including sharing their responses to be analyzed, disseminated, and published in a scientific journal. all participants’ data were masked to protect their identity. findings and discussion the research was conducted during the covid-19 pandemic, where learning interactions took place online, so the data collection process was also carried out online by utilizing various learning applications or social media. the covid-19 pandemic has brought many changes to the learning process that has been done face-to-face. this condition raises a variety of student responses due to changes in routines which of course require a long adaptation to new habits following online learning. likewise, the research process carried out must adapt to the conditions of students whose activities are carried out by distance learning. researchers distributed questionnaires to students in the form of a google form. the questionnaire contains indicators of aspects of internal locus of control and external locus of control. the results of the google form questionnaire data analysis provided by students are presented in figure 1. figure 1. data indicator internal locus of control 0 20 40 60 80 100 having confidence in their ability to solve problems or assignments having happy in working hard and has more effort in solving problems or assignments and gain achievements having self-satisfaction in completing tasks without the help of others 82.14 72.62 62.48 locus of control internal irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 455 figure 1 above contains the scores of students' responses to the aspects of the internal locus of control indicators. in the confidence indicator, it was concluded that the average analysis result was 82.14 which is in the very high category. it showed that students had confidence in completing the given tasks. the very high category indicates that high self-confidence has an impact on the completion of gain tasks, namely students were responsible and full of confidence in completing the tasks given. this condition is excellent for student learning progresses because it contributes positively to the achievement of learning achievement. furthermore, the indicators like to work hard and have a business; the average acquisition of the analysis results was 72.62 in the high category. it showed that students had a high level of effort and hard work in achieving achievement and good grades. this condition was also considered good for students' learning progress because it contributes positively to the achievement of learning achievement. for the indicator of having self-satisfaction, the average score of 62.48 was in the medium category. it shows that the satisfaction obtained by students in completing their tasks can still be controlled, it means that students will be motivated to study harder with the achievement of learning outcomes. obtaining an average score for each indicator in figure 1 above gives a conclusion that the internal locus of control of students was quite good because it tended to show a hard effort and maximizing ability to achieve success. furthermore, the presentation of external locus of control data is shown in figure 2. figure 2. data indicator external locus of control data figure 2 above contains the scores of the student's responses to the external locus of control indicators. for the indicator of not liking to try, the average analysis result was 65.48 that is in the high category. it showed that students were less trying and working hard in completing the given task. this condition contributes negatively to the learning progress of students therefore it will have an impact on achievement. furthermore, the indicator of lack of initiative obtained an average score of 53.57 that was in the medium category. it showed that students lack the initiative in doing assignments. this condition has an impact on the 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 do not like to try to gain achievements and solve problems or assignment lack of initiative having a belief that success and achievement are influenced by external factors (fate, luck, and environment) 65.48 53.57 46.43 locus of control eksternal irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 456 achievement of mediocre learning achievement because it is not supported by high initiatives in learning. while the indicator of the confidence that is success influenced by external factors, it is concluded that the average analysis result was 46.43 in the medium category. it showed that students lacked self-confidence, even though high self-confidence will motivate students to progress in their learning so that it will have an impact on learning achievement. the data in figure 1 and figure 2 above give a conclusion that the average internal locus of control of 73.01 was in the high category while the external locus of control of 55.16 was in the medium category. this condition indicates that students with an internal locus of control try harder and maximize their ability to achieve learning success, while students with a medium external locus of control hope and effort to improve their failures because they feel unable. internal locus of control is very well developed for students because it contributes to learning achievement. obtaining the locus of control questionnaire scores can be used as materials for evaluating the development of students. feist and feist (2008) stated that too extreme scores on two dimensions (internal and external) are not good. an external locus of control that is too high can lead to hopelessness and apathy. at the same time, an internal locus of control that is too high can make a person feel responsible for everything, including those beyond their control. according to feist and feist (2008), a healthy locus of control is when the score is in the middle of both dimensions but leans towards internal. this statement is relevant to the acquisition score in this study, where the internal locus of control score is higher than the external locus of control score, thus placing the two in different categories, namely the internal locus of control is in the high category while the external locus of control is in the medium category. the difference between the two categories is not extreme. therefore, the locus of control of students can still be assumed to be good. furthermore, learning achievement data from student report cards while studying during the covid-19 pandemic were obtained as shown in table 1. table 1. data analysis descriptive statistics math achievement statistics learning achievement data sample size 28 ideal score 100 mode 79.00 median 78.50 average score 78.52 lowest score 71.00 highest score 87.00 score range 16.00 standard deviation 2.98 table 1 shows that the number of samples in this study amounted to 28 students with 100 as an ideal score. the average score of the data obtained was 78.52. this score was obtained irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 457 from the total score obtained by all students divided by the number of students. the highest score was 87.00, and the lowest score was 71.00. so, the range of student achievement data scores was 16.00. the mode obtained from the data was 79.00. it also showed that the highest frequency value of the data was 79.00. the data median showed that 50% of the data were below 78.50 and 50% of the data were above 78.50. the data standard deviation value of 2.98 indicated that it was not too varied. overall, the acquisition of statistical data indicated that the achievement of student learning achievements during the covid-19 pandemic was quite good, still under control but needs to be improved. classically 80% of the data in table 1 were assumed to be students who had mastered learning. if the students' learning achievement data scores were grouped into five criteria, the frequency distribution and the percentage of scores are obtained as shown in table 2. table 2. results of frequency distribution and percentage of learning achievement data score interval category frequency percentage (%) 90 – 100 80 – 89 65 – 79 55 64 0 – 54 very high high medium low very low 0 8 20 0 0 0 28.57 71.43 0 0 sum 28 100 table 2 supports the presentation of table 1, namely during the covid-19 pandemic, student learning achievement was quite good because the frequency distribution was in the “medium” category and the “high” category, although the most significant frequency was in the “moderate” category, which was 20 with percentage 71.43. the acquisition of learning achievement data did not conflict with the student’s responses to the questionnaire data analysis. the two data sources (questionnaires and report cards) were interrelated because they showed conformity, particularly good learning achievement was obtained because of a good locus of control. furthermore, to determine the effect of locus of control on learning achievement, we did first normality test which was conducted to determine whether the data under study came from a normally distributed population. for the normality test, we used the shapiro-wilk test using spss with the following test criteria: 1) if the significant value or probability is 𝑝 ≥ 𝑎 with 𝑎 = 0.05, it can be concluded that the data are normally distributed. 2) if the significant value or probability 𝑝 < 𝑎 with 𝑎 = 0.05, it can be concluded that the data are not normally distributed. table 3. tests of normality kolmogorov-smirnova shapiro-wilk statistic df sig. statistic df sig. learning achievement .150 28 .107 .937 28 .094 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 458 lilliefors significance correction, table 3 shows that results of data analysis using shapiro wilk, learning achievement in the second semester with sig p = 0.094 was greater than the significant level a = 0.05 (0.094> 0.05), so it can be concluded that the data are normally distributed, so that the normality test was fulfilled. linearity, this test was conducted to determine whether the two variables had a linear relationship or not. this test used a linear test (f test). if the value of sig> 0.05, then there is a relationship between the linear variables, and if the value of sig <0.05, then there is no relationship between the linear variables. table 4. anova analysis sum of squares df mean square f sig. student’s achievement * locus of control between groups within group (combined) linearity deviation from linearity 50.158 189.583 177.883 11.700 21 6 1 5 2.388 31.597 177.883 2.340 13.229 74.475 .980 .000 .000 .453 total 239.741 27 the results of the linearity test show that the sig (p) value is 0.453. this value is greater than the significance level a = 0.05 (0.453> 0.05). so, it can be concluded that the relationship between the independent variable (locus of control) and the dependent variable (students’ learning achievement) was linear. furthermore, simple linear regression test data determines the functional relationship between the locus of control (x) variable and the learning achievement variable (y). the regression test results are as follows. table 5. linear regression test model koefisien konstanta (α) 63.823 locus of control questionnaire score (β) 0.293 the data analysis showed the simple linear regression formula as follows: y = 63,823 + 0,293x the simple linear regression equation showed that the constant value α = 63.823 and β = 0.293, this means: a. if there was no locus of control (x) that affects, then the estimated value of students’ learning achievement (y) was 63.823. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 459 b. the locus of control (x) 0.293 positively affects students’ learning achievement (y). this means that for every one per cent increase in the locus of control variable, the student’s learning achievement variable increased by 0.293. because it is positive, it can be said that students’ locus of control has a positive effect on students’ learning achievement, so the regression equation was y = 63.823 + 0.293x. table 6. coefficients model unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t sig. 1 b (constant) locus of control std. error 63.823 .293 beta 1.724 .034 .861 37.014 8.647 .000 .000 a series of data analysis techniques in this study aimed to determine the effect of locus of control on student learning achievement during the covid-19 pandemic. internal locus of control indicators with an average of 72.34 were in the high category. the ability of students who had a high internal locus of control was accompanied by the acquisition of good achievements or success, as stated by syatriadin (2017) that success and failure experienced were determined by one’s efforts and abilities or factors from oneself. external locus of control indicators with an average analysis of 55.16 were in the medium category. the ability of students who had an external locus of control tended to blame their environment for believing that the failures that they had were caused by luck or other people around them, as stated by robbins and judge (2007) that external locus of control is an individual who believes that whatever happens to him or her is controlled by outside forces such as luck and chance. if the students’ internal locus of control is good, it is expected that it can be a driving force for increasing learning achievement. this can be achieved by having an attitude of wanting to try, having high initiative, and willingness to work hard in working on math problems. locus of control of students affects the achievement of higher and better learning achievement so that it has a positive effect on learning achievement. thus, students with a good internal locus of control will have a high achievement. during the covid-19 pandemic, at least 290.5 million students’ learning activities worldwide were disrupted due to closed schools. the action taken by many countries, including indonesia, was to close all school activities and provided an alternative educational process for students who could not carry out the process of education in educational institutions by working from home. one of the impacts felt by students in the case of this pandemic was that the learning process must be done online. the researchers concluded that by seeing the impact of the covid-19 pandemic, students who liked the online learning process, including the internal locus of control because they still had the initiative and effort to learn even though they faced a pandemic situation, while students who did not like the online learning process included external locus of control because the initiative to learn was reduced by blaming what is in the surrounding environment by not trying to find a solution to follow the learning process. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 460 conclusion locus of control is one of the factors that can have a positive influence on learning achievement. students are said to have an internal locus of control orientation if they believe that the success and failure of everything they experience are determined by their efforts and abilities. in contrast, students who have an external locus of control tend to assume that life is determined by their strengths, such as fate, destiny, fortune, and other people in power. the higher the locus of control, the higher the learning achievement obtained by students. conversely, the lower the locus of control, the lower the learning achievement obtained by students. the results of this study also serve as suggestions for other researchers to expand the 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[unpublished thesis]. universitas negeri malang. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 461 syafi’i, a., marfiyanto, t., & rodiyah , s. k. (2018). studi tentang prestasi belajar siswa dalam berbagai aspek dan faktor yang mempengaruhi, jurnal komunikasi pendidikan, 2(2), 115-123. syatriadin, s (2017). locus of control : teori temuan penelitian dan reorientasinya dalam manajemen penanganan kesulitan belajar peserta didik. fondatia: jurnal pendidikan dasar, 1, 144-164. wei, j., macfadyen, l., cutler, f., & shirazi, s. (2019). implementation of learning analytics to optimize learning and learning environments: tertiary ins. biographical notes nasir s. is a faculty member of non-formal education study program, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas muhammadiyah parepare. sriyanti mustafa is a faculty member of mathematics education study program, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas muhammadiyah parepare. sulvianti is a faculty member of member of mathematics education study program, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas muhammadiyah parepare. nur azizah is a student of mathematics education study program, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas muhammadiyah parepare. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 148 the students’ learning strategies in learning a foreign language through a controlled natural practice with a foreigners retno wahyu ningsih1*, diyan andriani2, and isra miharti3 abstract this research aimed to describe the english learning strategies of english education study program students inside and outside the classroom, how students used english in daily communication, and how students acted as tour guides in yogyakarta. this qualitative research obtained the data from interview protocol and audio-visual recordings. the results showed that students were not aware of the language learning strategies used. most students had difficulties in communicating by using english in the class because of their unsupported environment. however, they were able to communicate outside the classroom. they used memory and social strategies, followed by metacognitive and cognitive strategies. in these strategies, the participants gave a large second portion after the memory strategies. it showed that students still tended to be controlled by memory and awareness of the ability to use english. affective strategies took the third sequence. two strategies related to this social environment were applied by participants with different portions of the previous strategies. keywords controlled natural practice, english language, foreigners, learning strategies article history received 10 january 2023 accepted 8 june 2023 how to cite ningsih, r. w., andriani, d., & miharti, i. (2023). the students’ learning strategies in learning a foreign language through a controlled natural practice with a foreigners. indonesian research journal in education |irje|, 7(1), 148 – 157. https://doi.org/0.22437/irje. v7i1.26970 1universitas merangin, indonesia, corresponding author; sakti.rosadi@gmail.com 2universitas merangin, indonesia 3 stikes merangin, indonesia https://doi.org/0.22437/irje.v7i1.26970 https://doi.org/0.22437/irje.v7i1.26970 mailto:sakti.rosadi@gmail.com irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 149 introduction this research was related to the controlled natural practice of students’ communication outside the classroom. speaking practice activities were conducted by students at the practice location or the location of an english language internship, and it was compared to participants’ communication practice in the classroom. therefore, controlled natural practice is a communication where most speakers use english to convey thoughts, ideas, to entertain, or convince others. according to nunan and carter (2001), speaking is reciprocal. people can respond to each other immediately. they also indicated that people could participate in the same oral interaction and varieties of equal speaking rights. moreover, speaking is a physical situation of face-to-face interaction, and speakers must decide on their messages without taking time to check them over. students at stkip ypm bangko, especially in the english education study program, used english when studying english subjects only without practicing it directly in everyday communication. students’ courage in communication by using english was very low. they were afraid to be laughed at by other people if they mispronounced or did not use appropriate vocabulary. the low ability to communicate in english occurred because most students are schooling in small areas with limited facilities and lack support from the surrounding environment, even though english has been learned since they were in middle school. they only dare using english in class, and sometimes some spoke english passively. others preferred to be quiet than to communicate in english with each other. this problem was not only for middle school or high school students but also for english students at stkip bangko. they were afraid of practicing english, as they did not want to make any mistakes while communicating in english, and they felt shy using english during their interaction with another. in addition, embarrassment has arisen due to responses from the surrounding communities who did not support their desire to communicate using english. when they spoke in english with their friends, sometimes people assumed they were arrogant students who were deliberately communicating in english only to show their intelligence or to show off. it is an obstacle for students to hone their communication using english. the controlled natural practice is a practice of direct communication by using english with foreigners from other countries and excluding domestic tourists. this research did not only limit foreigners to english native speakers but also from abroad, except indonesian or domestic tourists. this research had been conducted in the interest of the researchers in the stkip bangko students’ ability of english education study programs in communication by using english and the strategies that students used when communicating in tourism training location in d.i yogyakarta. the controlled natural practice can be observed by looking at the students’ training videos. they contained the students’ recording of communication activities in the internship location during training. the researchers observed students’ english language learning strategies through their communication interaction with tourists using english by ignoring their grammar. moreover, the researchers gave much attention to language learning strategies that students used when they studied english for specific purposes for tourism inside the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 150 classroom and when they were at english for specific purposes for tourism training outside the classroom. the strategies observed include cognitive, metacognitive, memory, compensatory, affective, and social strategies. generally, this research aimed to see the students’ strategies when learning english. it has caught the researchers’ attention as one of the lecturers at stkip ypm bangko, where this research was conducted. it started with students' communication interaction in tourism training. students were in two locations and two spots of d.i yogyakarta province. they were both in tourist sites of borobudur and prambanan temple. the tourism apprenticeship is one of the courses that gives participants and all students an option in an english education study program where later they cannot only become a teacher but can also be another profession such as tour guide. it is in line with the kkni framework of presidential regulation of the republic of indonesia number 8 of 2012, which is an embodiment of the quality and identity of the indonesian nation concerning the national education system, the national job training system, and the national equality assessment system in which indonesia has to produce human resources from learning achievements, national equality owned by every indonesian worker in creating quality work and contributions in their respective fields of work. this course is also expected to make students more creative in finding employment besides becoming a teacher. this course also has the potential to work in hospitality and other tourism. in this current research, the researchers intended to discover the language learning strategies used by students of english education study program. it was different from oxford and cohen (1992) which only classified the terms of learning strategies and discussed differences of language learning terms in terminology. meanwhile, the research conducted by the researchers at this time emphasized the english learning strategies, where the researchers looked at what strategies were used when esp for tourism lectures in the classroom and when they communicate with foreign speakers at the training location. the language learning strategies in the classroom here mean how students used strategies in the esp for tourism lectures when learning english outside the classroom and how students learn english strategies while communicating with foreign speakers at the training location. literature review the acquisition of a second language or foreign language (english) student in this research was carried out by arousing the students’ motivation to be willing and interested in learning it. since english is not used daily to communicate with students’ community environment, language acquisition for students of stkip bangko is done by continuing to practice both inside and outside the classroom. esp for tourism training is one subject that is considered capable of helping students to master english as a foreign language. the training location is also a concern for students to get more opportunities to communicate with foreign speakers, so they are expected to get english faster. if there are many opportunities, fluency will be better (chaer, 2003). additionally, krashen (2002) is concerned with the monitor theory of adult language acquisition. in this theory, he said that adults have two independent systems for developing ability in a second language. the acquisition of subconscious language and conscious irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 151 language learning and the system is interconnected in a definite way. the acquisition of the subconscious seems much more important. this research was a statement about the theory and implications of monitor theory on acquiring a second language practice. in this research, he defines the language learning acquisition of a second language and presents the monitor model for second language learning for adults. the research investigated language learning strategies used in english for specific purposes context that focuses on hotel management students by zewdie (2015). the primary purpose of this research is to compare the language learning strategies used between high achieving students and underachieving students of hotel management students who attended the english for specific purposes (english for hospitality), and it develops some conclusions for educators who teach english on english for hospitality. the english for specific purposes proficiency test was to participants based on their proficiency test scores. in addition, the participants were divided into two groups where one group had a high-performing student, and the other was a low-performing group. the overall student outcomes showed that metacognitive strategies were used more frequently than other strategies. a compensation strategy was the second strategy used simultaneously with the social strategy. cognitive strategies and memory strategies were the fourth and fifth strategies used by each student. judging from the high and low achievements that show the same amount of english students' learning time per week while they were at school, high achieving students spent more wisely by being more active in generating language, as well as their second language use practices stand out when they showcase their speaking ability by using a second language / foreign language. the english for specific purposes context in this research was devoted to tourism. english for specific purposes in this research focused on practical activities carried out by students in the tourist locations where these locations were visited by tourists from abroad. the specific goal of english for specific purposes for tourism is to train courageous students in communicating with foreign speakers using english. students of english for specific purposes in stkip ypm bangko had similarities with english for specific purposes studied by burdova (2007), which are both focused on tourism activities. however, the participants of this research were not tourism and hospitality students but english education students who were prepared and expected to be english teachers. meanwhile, english for specific purposes for tourism subjects in higher education where researchers conducted the research are subjects that aim to provide different nuances to the students so that after completing the lecture later, they would not only focus on the teaching profession but can also move to tourism as a tour guide for foreign tourists. language learning strategies the language learning strategies of the students are how learners learn to master and understand the foreign language that they are learning. many adult learners who study english become desperate because they do not feel significant progress. they also often feel frustrated and lose the motivation to learn english because they are not satisfied with how the teacher teaches or the subject matter they are getting. afterward, the failure to communicate using english by students is often caused by them. in achieving success in irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 152 learning english, students must have strategies for achieving learning outcomes, especially in the acquisition of the english that they want. language learning strategies to acquire english are more attention to fostering interest in learning languages so that they can communicate using english with foreign speakers at tourism training locations supported by esp for tourism courses. ideally, language learning strategies refer to the discovery of language learning strategies themselves when students carry out tourism training, and problem-solving in the field is essential for learning the further language at stkip bangko, especially those who take esp for tourism training courses. the experience of students at stkip bangko who have conducted tourism training will be used as a reference for those who have not gone into the field. language learning strategies are an integral part that can influence learning outcomes achievement. the success or failure of learning objectives can be influenced by language learning strategies applied by students. language learning strategies consist of principles, methods, and techniques (procedures) to help the students to achieve learning objectives. the principle is also called a foundation. according to larsen-freeman (2000), the learning principle represented the theoretical framework of the method. in other words, the learning principle is the theoretical framework of a learning method. the theoretical framework is the theories that guide how a method is viewed in terms of 1) the material to be studied, 2) the learning procedure, 3) the teacher, and 4) the students. the learning principle comes from theories that develop in the relevant field. the language learning principle is sourced from theories relevant to language learning, such as 1) learning theory, 2) language learning theory, 3) language theory, and 4) psychological theory. the theoretical framework in this research is english for tourism which is a course in the sixth semester. this course is in the form of lectures that are carried out in the classroom, followed by training for tourism as a continuation course that is carried out in a tourist area determined by the program manager under the existing curriculum. the theoretical framework in this research is english for tourism, which is a course in the sixth semester. this course is in the form of lectures that are carried out in the classroom, followed by training for tourism as a continuation course that is carried out in a tourist area determined by the program manager appropriate with the english curriculum in stkip bangko. furthermore, discussing language learning strategies, lls is taken from oxford (1990). some things are discussed as described in the previous paragraph, such as direct strategies (memory, cognitive, and compensation strategies) and indirect strategies (metacognitive strategies, social strategies, and affective strategies. methodology research design, site, and participants this research used a qualitative research design. it aimed at describing data that arises from the research subjects studied. this research focused on english learning strategies used by students of english education study programs inside and outside the classroom (natural practice) in stkip bangko. according to creswell (2010), qualitative irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 153 research is a method for exploring and understanding the meaning of several individuals or groups of people related to social or humanitarian problems. the primary purpose of qualitative research is to understand phenomena or social phenomena by focusing more on a complete picture of the phenomenon being studied than to describe it into interrelated variables. it is expected to obtain a deep understanding of phenomena to produce a theory subsequently. this research starts with students' skill problems in communicating using english in class on esp for tourism. meanwhile, based on the experience and monitoring of several batches of students who have participated in tourism training in yogyakarta, the training participants could communicate with foreign tourists, and it was very contradictory to the situation when they were in english class. data collection and analysis in this research, the researchers conducted research on a group of students in the seventh semester who took english for specific purposes for tourism training in the tourist area of yogyakarta for 35 days. the qualitative data were obtained from direct observations inside the classroom, observations through audio-visual outside the classroom, and audio-visual students during training in the field. the researchers conducted a guided interview. the researchers who became the interviewers had a detailed list of questions that would be asked to participants through interview protocol. there was a total of twenty questions that have been prepared by the researchers for the six english learning strategies. one participant needed approximately 30 minutes to answer all the questions in the interview. the interview session started at ten in the morning to twelve. the interviewers interviewed three or four participants every day, and this session started at ten in the morning to twelve. data collection through recording devices was carried out by the researchers in the field. the data contained the activities of participants who acted as tour guides, especially guides for foreign tourism/tourism from europe. the recording was obtained from the training participants. therefore, the researchers only collected the audio-visual recordings from them and did not go to the field where the student worked. each participant had a different number of recordings and duration. the participants consisted of six male and eight female students. there were no special provisions to choose these participants. in this research, the researchers more easily determined participants because the class consisted of only one class. participants in this research were students in the seventh semester. as a requirement, the students studied were those who had taken english for specific purposes for tourism courses in the sixth semester and graduated. the analysis of the data used in this research was based on questions and research objectives. analysis was carried out through data collection, data reduction, data presentation, and data storage or verification. the purpose of this research specifically was to discover the students’ learning strategies who learn esp for tourism in the classroom and outside of the classroom (training for tourism course), and also wanted to understand what problems were encountered and faced by students in learning esp for tourism both inside and outside the classroom (training tourism) and explored what students did in overcome irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 154 the problems in esp for tourism they faced inside and outside the classroom (tourism training). these english learning strategies referred to the oxford classification of learning language strategies. they were cognitive strategies, metacognitive strategies, memory strategies, compensation strategies, affective strategies, and social strategies. the researchers used a sampling technique. it was a non-random sampling / a non-probability sampling. here, the researchers used a purposive sampling to determine the participants to be analyzed by using the sample selection criteria, namely inclusion, which is the criteria that were desired by the researchers based on the research objectives and exclusion is the specific criteria that cause prospective participants who met the inclusion criteria must be excluded from the research group. the participants in this research were students in the sixth semester who took english for specific purposes for tourism courses. these participants were chosen because their characters matched the type of research. this research aimed to find out the strategies for learning english inside and outside the classroom for english for specific purposes students for tourism, and it will continue with field practice/training for tourism in the internship location in yogyakarta. in this research, the participants spent for 35 days as tour guides at an internship location. during the training, participants did their work without being monitored directly. in other words, there were no specific treatments for the research subject or the context in which the research was conducted. all training activities took place naturally. in this research, the researchers conducted direct observation in the classroom and outdoor observations in the form of audio-visual in depth. it means that if the two observations were carried out, the researchers captured the meaning not only from the expression but also implication. the research focused on students who had taken english for specific purposes for tourism courses and those who had undertaken tourism training at stkip ypm bangko. this research focused on english language learning strategies by students for english for specific purposes for tourism classes, and the researchers analyzed the learning strategies used by them while studying inside and outside the classrooms in the form of tourism training related to their speaking performance in communication with foreigners as their partners. findings and discussion the researchers observed the english for specific purposes for tourism class and conducted an analysis based on oxford's classification of language learning strategies (oxford, 1990). some themes that arose were related to english learning strategies based on oxford's classification of language learning strategies, which were presented in groups of language learning strategies for participants through the interview. the questions in the interview protocol were discussed through memory-related strategies, cognitive strategies, compensatory strategies, metacognitive strategies, affective strategies, and social strategies. most participants used memory strategies in language learning. it can be seen from their enthusiasm when learning in the classroom and based on the results of interviews conducted by the researchers, that they easily remembered the materials when they were displayed on a slide, and this contrasts with the opinion of oxford irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 155 (1990) that memory learning strategies used by learners by utilizing prior learning knowledge and experience. this learning strategy involves a lot of memory and learning processes that use memory. the interview results showed that the participants always tried to motivate themselves to learn english, even though some were still afraid of speaking english. affective domains determine the success of students learning. people with no interest in certain subjects find it difficult to achieve optimal learning success. someone who is interested in a subject is expected to achieve optimal learning outcomes. affective dimensions often refer to as emotional dimensions. various studies show that emotions (affective) have a dominant influence on the success of learners (jensen, 2008). affective strategies relate to learners’ emotions which play a role in helping them overcome emotions, motivation, and attitudes related to learning. these strategies can reduce students’ anxiety, support themselves and measure their emotional temperature. these findings indicated that students succeeded in arousing, understanding, storing, and gaining new knowledge about learning foreign languages, especially learning english for specific purposes. problems that students faced in class were compensation strategies, affective strategies, and social strategies. first, compensation strategies, where this strategy becomes the root of improving communication. in other words, when students had a problem with this strategy, which will have an impact on the smoothness of participants’ talking or communicating in the classroom. second, the affective strategy is part of an indirect strategy. this strategy plays a role in regulating emotions, motivation, and attitudes. in observing this strategy, participants were less able to motivate themselves to learn english on esp for tourism subjects. they also experienced a crisis of confidence, so most of them did not dare to use the english words they had just learned because they were afraid of making mistakes in communicating. the problem root faced by participants in this strategy apart from lack of self-confidence. they also did not list vocabulary, including new words in english, when studying esp for tourism. third, a social strategy is also part of an indirect strategy. social strategies are also essential for students to interact with others to facilitate the acquiring new languages process. overall, this strategy does not directly help students to learn new languages without involving the target language indirectly. problems that affect the participants’ communication ability in english are the interaction of the classroom environment. in the classroom, participants rarely used english to communicate with other participants or lecturers in english for specific purposes. when there was a subject matter that participants did not understand, they asked by using indonesian. when there was an opportunity to communicate by using english, they did not try to participate in the communication. the problem that often arises is that participants sometimes had difficulties in communicating in english. the most common problem is that participants often did not speak english fluently because they were not accustomed to communicating by using english. two participants often seemed to think first about what they were going to talk about. the third is the lack of vocabulary they had. it means there were almost no problems in the field faced by participants when they practiced communicating by using english which they acted as a tour guide. it concluded irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 156 that the environment contributed to the participants’ success in communicating by using english. the social environment that supports and encourages participants to communicate by using english is one of the factors that made participants able to communicate with foreigners by using english. it can be concluded that the practice and environment of the participant are the most essential things in practicing english. the english area is a strong way to practice speaking skills. when vocabulary is a problem in speaking, there is one way that might be able to help them by having an easy-to-carry pocketbook. during this research, the researchers found something different, namely as long as participants took part in an esp for tourism internship in a designated location, almost all participants who were afraid and were not confident in communicating in english have now turned out to be able to communicate with foreign speakers at internship location and become a good tour guide, conveying and sharing any relevant information in english after following the esp class. it is because they know the tasks and responsibilities given by tourism managers well. furthermore, the researchers found the emergence of participants' motivation and enthusiasm in communicating with foreign speakers because the environment in which they stayed was very supportive for them to inspire and bring courage to use english communicatively in explaining the history of tourist locations to foreigners that they guide. conclusion the conclusion of this research is the language learning strategies that occur in the class are the memory strategies. most participants liked this strategy. in the field or internship locations, participants seemed to have motivation to be able to communicate with foreigners. in addition, the environment has an essential role in this practice, and it is also driven by the situation and conditions when participants spoke in english. furthermore, the strategies that were often used by participants were cognitive strategies and metacognitive strategies. the two strategies complemented each other. for cognitive strategies, participants were required to understand the history of the tourist sites of the borobudur and prambanan temples. the metacognitive strategy was the participants’ awareness to be a good tour guide for visitors. the use of learning strategies serves to maintain continuity of communication. with the continuity of communication, students can get the opportunity to practice by using language to improve their competence. language learning strategies are used by students because of their limited ability, especially the ability to understand and use the speech forms needed in the communication process. language learning strategies discussed in this research are expected to be able to overcome the problems of other students who will do the same internship practice later. declaration of conflicting interests the authors declared no potential conflicts of interest. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 157 acknowledgment our appreciation goes to the chancellors, head of english education study program, and head of lp3m of universitas merangin who have encouraged and provided the opportunity to conduct research. references burdova, v. (2007). english for specific purposes (tourist management and hotel industry) [unpublished thesis]. masaryk university. chaer, a. (2003). linguistik umum (general linguistics). jakarta: pt rineka cipta. creswell, j. w. (2010). research design: qualitative and mixed approach. yogyakarta: pustaka pelajar. krashen, d. s. (2002). second language acquisition. second language learning, 3(7), 19-39. larsen-freeman, d. (2000). techniques and principles in language teaching. oxford university. nunan, d., & carter, r. (2001). the cambridge guide to teaching english to speakers of other languages. cambridge: cambridge university press. oxford, r. l. (1990). language learning strategieswhat every teacher should know. massachusetts: heinle & henle publishers. oxford, r. l., & cohen, a. d. (1992). language learning strategies: crucial issues of concept and classification. applied language learning, 3, 1-35. zewdie, a. (2015). an investigation of language learning strategy used in an esp context: hotel management students in focus. english for specific purposes, 47, 1-17. biographical notes retno wahyu ningsih is a lecturer of universitas merangin, indonesia, corresponding author; sakti.rosadi@gmail.com diyan andriani is a lecturer of universitas merangin, indonesia. isra miharti is a lecturer of stikes merangin, indonesia. mailto:sakti.rosadi@gmail.com this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 168 english undergraduate students and their metacognitive awareness level: evidence from one english education program bunga ayu wulandari, 1* ahmad ridha, 2 and fortunasari 3 abstract this research investigated students’ level of metacognitive awareness and its correlation with their grade point average (gpa). the data derived from 166 english department students at an indonesian teacher training faculty who responded to the metacognitive awareness inventory (mai) instrument developed by schraw and dennison (1994). the statistical analysis of the data collected showed the mean mai score for the 166 participants in this study was 41.54. it also showed metacognitive regulation has a higher mean score (28.45) than metacognitive knowledge (13.09). pearson correlation analysis indicated that there is no significant correlation between students’ metacognitive awareness and their gpa (sig. 0,46 > 0,05). it means that students with high metacognitive awareness levels can have lower gpas, whereas those with low levels of metacognitive awareness can have higher gpas. keywords grade point average, metacognitive awareness, metacognitive knowledge, metacognitive regulation article history received 3 april 2022 accepted 5 july 2022 how to cite wulandari, b. a., ridha, a., & fortunasari. (2022). english undergraduate students and their metacognitive awareness level: evidence from one english education program. indonesian research journal in education |irje|, 6(1), 168– 179.https://doi.org/10.22437 /irje.v6i1.24627 1faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, indonesia; corresponding author: bungaayu.wulandari@unja.ac.id 2,3 faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, indonesia. https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v6i1.24627 https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v6i1.24627 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 169 introduction having metacognitive skills is deemed important for students. flavell (1979) described metacognitive awareness as the knowledge of one’s own cognitive processes, and the capacity to regulate those processes. therefore, self-awareness, monitoring, and evaluation make up the metacognitive component. suggested metacognitive schraw (1998) awareness comprises of two main components: knowledge of cognition and regulation of cognition. an individual’s comprehension of the variables relating to people, tasks, and strategies is referred to as knowledge of cognition. while the overall planning and monitoring of one’s specific cognitive actions are the examples of regulation of cognition. students need to develop metacognition abilities in the 21 st century since they can result in independent and creative individuals (thomas, 2012; margaret, 2002; ya-hui, 2012). maintained that learning is easier when students possess the schraw and dennison (1994) metacognitive capacity since it gives them knowledge of efficient learning strategies and allows them to regulate and monitor their learning. a number of studies have revealed that students’ academic progress is significantly influenced by their metacognitive awareness ). students that possess metacognitive skills are more aware of their (zhao & mo, 2016 learning processes more deliberate and (sonowal & kalita, 2017; listiana et al., 2016), strategic in their learning, and more self-reliant . they can also accurately (zhao & mo, 2016) assess their performance and conduct a self-evaluation during the acquisition process (zimmerman & matinez-pons, 1998; molenberghsand et al., 2016). another reason for students to have metacognitive skills is due to the promotion of project-based learning (pjbl) at school and university. there is a close relationship between pjbl and students’ metacognitive skills. in higher education, project-based learning (pjbl) is seen as a strategy that has the potential to enhance student learning where universities attempt to provide students with both hard skills (cognitive knowledge and professional skills) and soft skills (critical thinking, communication, collaboration and entrepreneurship). traditional education has come under fire for merely imparting the teachers’ expertise to the students. students only have a cursory understanding of the material as a result. additionally, there may be a disconnect between what university students learn and what employers demand therefore, project-based learning should be used to give university (holmes, 2012). students chances to engage in genuine problem-solving and knowledge development on relevant professional contexts . in order to successfully conduct pjbl, students (guo, 2020) must be able to solve issues by applying declarative, procedural, and conditional knowledge as well as to plan, monitor, and evaluate their work. the abilities are known as metacognitive skills. understanding the importance of metacognition in learning process, the researchers in this study investigated the level of metacognitive awareness of english department students at an indonesian teacher training faculty. pjbl is also encouraged to be implemented in the faculty especially since the implementation of kurikulum merdeka, the newest curriculum in indonesia. the minister of education and culture has put up merdeka belajar kampus merdeka (mbkm) program, which aims to encourage university students to learn a variety of knowledge and skills that will be helpful for prospective employment. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 170 having metacognitive awareness is crucial for the students to strive during their academic journey and for their future. thus, this empirical research aims to examine metacognitive awareness level of english department students in an indonesian faculty of teacher training, and if any, the relationship between metacognitive awareness level and the students’ grade point average (gpa). following research questions were constructed to achieve the aims comprehensively: 1. what is the level of metacognitive awareness of english department students in an indonesian teacher training faculty? 2. what is the relationship between students’ metacognitive awareness level and their academic achievement indicated by grade point average (gpa)? literature review metacognition metacognition is the capacity of learners to be aware of and keep track of their learning process. although cognition and metacognition are connected, they are distinct because cognitive abilities are required to carry out a task, while metacognitive skills are required to comprehend how that task was carried out ). metacognition, to put (rivers, 2001 it simply, is the ability to self-regulate one’s decision making, be aware of one’s own knowledge, and control that information during the problem-solving process. metacognition was studied as knowledge about knowledge or cognition about cognition (flavell, 1976; while demonstrated that the two panaoura, philippou & christou, 2003). rivers (2001) categories of metacognitive skills are self-assessment (the capacity to evaluate one’s own cognition) and self-management (the capacity to control one’s future cognitive development). students’ understanding of themselves, their own techniques, and the situations in which those strategies are most effective correlates with their knowledge of cognition. declarative knowledge, procedural knowledge, and conditional knowledge are the three types of metacognitive knowledge ). these are viewed as the (schraw & dennison, 1994 foundational elements of conceptual knowledge. declarative knowledge includes our understanding of how we learn and the factors that affect it. procedural knowledge is our understanding of the various learning and memory techniques that are most effective for us. meanwhile, our knowledge of the circumstances under which we can use different cognitive techniques, known as conditional knowledge. on the other side, understanding of how students organize their learning, put techniques into practice, monitor their progress, identify comprehension issues, and assess their learning pertains to regulation of cognition. planning, information management strategies, debugging strategies, comprehension monitoring, and evaluation are the domains under metacognitive regulation planning is outlining a cognitive (schraw & moshman, 1995). activity by deciding on the best tactics and cognitive resources to use. monitoring entails being aware of how we are doing with a cognitive task and having the ability to assess how well we are doing. last but not least, evaluation is examining the result to see if the learning irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 171 outcome corresponds to our learning goals, and if the regulating processes we employed were successful (schraw & moshman, 1995). from the reviewing of the literature above, it seems that students who have well-developed metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive regulation skills, and employ these skills will achieve academic success. as a result, it is critical to be able to evaluate college students’ metacognition in order to ascertain whether their knowledge and abilities are connected to academic success. lecturers can utilize a variety of strategies to evaluate their students’ metacognition and come up with ways to improve students’ metacognition. assessing students’ metacognition and its correlation to their academic achievement, several researches have been conducted to investigate students’ metacognitive level and its correspondence to their academic attainment. conducted research on anumudu et al. (2019) self-assessed metacognitive awareness of undergraduate and postgraduate students enrolled in biology or genetics course. the studies showed students’ high scores on mai and positively correlate with their test scores. the data from this study suggested that the students were aware of their cognitive capacities and even had stronger belief that they could exert control over these capacities. the study also found that metacognitive awareness tends to decline with study level. another study by on the relationship between metacognitive ward and butler (2019) awareness and college freshman students' academic achievement found a strong positive association between the two. this suggests that, when compared to pupils with lower levels of metacognitive awareness, those with higher levels tend to also thrive academically. these findings further extend the relationship between academic success and metacognitive awareness to the group of college freshman. pointed out strategies ward and butler (2019) for helping at-risk freshmen succeed in academic environments since the level of metacognitive awareness can be raised through teaching. the metacognitive awareness inventory (mai) and aitken procrastination inventory were also both used in study to examine metacognitive taj and maqsood's (2020) awareness, procrastination, and its effect on students' academic performance. the results of their analysis showed that procrastination and metacognition had a major impact on university students' academic performance. similar studies on correlation between students’ metacognitive awareness and their academic performance were conducted by zhao and mo . therefore, the current researchers endeavoured to (2016), abdellah (2015) and isgör (2016) investigate metacognitive awareness level of their students at an indonesian university. methodology research design, site, and participants the nature of this research is quantitative and data were gathered using a survey design. this research utilized the metacognitive awareness inventory (mai) developed by to investigate the level of metacognitive awareness and its schraw and dennison (1994) correlation with grade point average (gpa) of english major students in teacher training and education faculty. the reliability of the instrument was determined by the significant alpha level of the mai, which was 0.93. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 172 there were 166 students participated in this study. these students are actively enrolled in the english department program of an indonesian teacher training faculty. the following table demonstrates demographic information about their age, gender, and semester enrolled. table 1. distribution of participants’ gender frequency percentage valid percentage cumulative percentage valid female 137 82.5 82.5 82.5 male 29 17.5 17.5 100.0 total 166 100.0 100.0 from table 1, it can be learned that there are 137 female students (82,5%) and 29 male students responded to the survey delivered via google form. the table tells us that more female students are enrolled in the teacher training faculty's english department than male students. it appeared that teaching attracted more female students than male students. their age ranged from 16 to 23 years old and enrolled in the first to ninth semester as shown in table 2. table 2. distribution of participants’ age frequency percentage valid percentage cumulative percentage valid 16.00 1 .6 .6 .6 18.00 31 18.7 18.7 19.3 19.00 38 22.9 22.9 42.2 20.00 36 21.7 21.7 63.9 21.00 45 27.1 27.1 91.0 22.00 11 6.6 6.6 97.6 23.00 4 2.4 2.4 100.0 total 166 100.0 100.0 in this study, students over the age of 21 made up the majority of respondents (27%) while respondents under the age of 16 made up just 0,6% of the sample. at this age, these student groups have demonstrated an understanding of their thought processes (dulay, burt, & . the mai instrument was considered appropriate for the participants' age as krashen, 1982) a result. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 173 table 3. distribution of participants’ enrolled semester information frequency percentage valid percentage cumulative percentage valid 2.00 67 40.4 40.4 40.4 4.00 15 9.0 9.0 49.4 6.00 75 45.2 45.2 94.6 8.00 3 1.8 1.8 96.4 10.00 6 3.6 3.6 100.0 total 166 100.0 100.0 sixth semester students made up the highest percentage of research participants (45,2%), while eighth semester students made up the lowest percentage (1,8%). data collection the research instrument utilized in this study was the metacognitive awareness inventory (mai) developed by ) which consisted of 52 items. schraw and dennison (1994 the scale's items were divided into two main factors and eight sub-factors. the two key components were metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive regulation. there are three sub-levels of metacognitive knowledge: procedural knowledge (4 items), declarative knowledge (8 items), and conditional knowledge (5 items). planning (7 things), information management (9 items), monitoring (8 items), debugging (5 items), and assessment were the five sub-factors that made up metacognitive regulation (6 items). the mai instrument was put in google form and the researchers shared the google form link to the participants via whatsapp group of each student’s academic year. the students received a brief explanation in the google form and instructed to carefully read the statement and mark the relevant box to indicate their answer. the researchers also asked the students’ gender, age, semester, and gpa in the google form. the university in this study grades students using a standard 0.0 to 4.0 scale. once the information was gathered, it was entered into spss version 26 for statistical analysis. statistical analysis students’ metacognitive awareness level, metacognitive regulation level, metacognitive awareness level, and standard deviation of each level were all displayed in the descriptive statistics analysis. pearson product-moment correlation was used to examine whether there is a relationship between students’ level of metacognitive awareness and gpa. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 174 ethical consideration to keep the participants' safety, privacy, and confidentiality, any specific names of the participants and locations were masked. findings and discussion descriptive statistics analysis of the metacognitive awareness level of the participants the following table provided descriptive statistics regarding the participants' level of metacognitive awareness. table 4. descriptive statistics of the metacognitive awareness level of the participants n minimum maximum mean std. deviation mai level 166 20.00 52.00 41.54 6.37 valid n (listwise) 166 the mean mai score for the 166 respondents was 41.54, and the standard deviation score was 6.37. the score indicated that students in this study have relatively high metacognitive awareness level. table 5. descriptive statistics of the metacognitive regulation level of the participants n minimum maximum mean std. deviation regulation 166 11.00 35.00 28.45 4.25 valid n (listwise) 166 metacognitive regulation has a mean score of 28.45, and a standard deviation score of 4.25. table 6. descriptive statistics of the metacognitive knowledge level of the participants n minimum maximum mean std. deviation knowledge 166 6.00 17.00 13.09 2.82 valid n (listwise) 166 metacognitive knowledge has a mean of 13.09 and a standard deviation of 2.82, respectively. the results revealed that students' scores on metacognitive regulation are higher than those on metacognitive knowledge. this finding corroborates research conducted by anumudu et which found level of metacognitive regulation of the students in their study is al. (2019) higher than level of metacognitive knowledge. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 175 table 7. descriptive statistics of the metacognitive awareness level of the participants per gender gender n mean std. deviation std. error mean mai level female 137 41.33 6.50 .55 male 29 42.55 5.70 1.05 from table 7, we can see that males score 42.55 on the mai scale on average, while females score 41.33 on average. hence, the mai level of male and female students does not differ significantly although the male group have a slightly higher score. it might be argued that both groups have the capacity to regulate their thought processes. the results of this study appear to go against earlier research that claimed female students scored higher on metacognitive learning strategies than male students therefore, similar (coskun, 2018). research may be done to clarify the problem. table 8. correlation between level of the metacognitive awareness level and gpa gpa mai level gpa pearson correlation 1 -.057 sig. (2-tailed) .462 n 166 166 mai level pearson correlation -.057 1 sig. (2-tailed) .462 n 166 166 table 8 showed the level of significance is 0,462 > 0,05 which means there is no correlation between gpa and mai. the correlation index is -0,057 which implies negative correlation between them. therefore, it implies that students with low metacognitive awareness level nevertheless have high gpa and vice versa. this finding of study contradicts other studies who confirmed the positive correlation between students’ metacognitive awareness level and their gpa (for example, butler, 2019; garofalo & lester, 1985; young and fry, 2008). according to this is possibly because the metacognitive awareness ward and butler (2019), assessment is not responsive to other variables that might be influencing a person's academic progress such as self-regulation and self-efficacy. this finding, however, suggested that students in this particular study should benefit more from assistance with metacognitive awareness. this is due to the fact that learners' educational lives clearly demonstrate a vital role for metacognition. it is the awareness of the learner's cognitive habits. according to knowing about rezvan, ahmad and abedi (2006), metacognition processes and tactics helps people learn more effectively, and even slow learners can benefit from these techniques. , stated that many students lau and chan (2003) who are more aware of their metacognition processes struggle to finish their academic projects on time. they naturally do worse on academic tasks as a result of their failure to complete their academic work. the pupils' tardiness is to blame for this failure regardless irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 176 their high metacognitive awareness. this may also be the cause of the current study's results differing from those of earlier studies that found a strong contribution of students' metacognition to academic achievement. thus, teaching metacognitive strategies to students may help them perform better. table 9. correlation between level of the metacognitive regulation level and gpa table 9 showed consistency result that the level of significance is 0,342 > 0,05 which means no correlation between the two variables. the pearson correlation value is -0,074 showed negative relationships. table 10. correlation between level of the metacognitive knowledge level and gpa the significant level as revealed by table 10 indicated no correlation between gpa and metacognitive knowledge (sig. 0,819 > 0,05) and pearson correlation value is -0,01. these results confirmed that there is no positive relation between metacognitive regulation and metacognitive knowledge with students’ gpa. the results of this study's investigation into the relationship between metacognitive awareness and academic achievement as measured by students' gpa are in direct opposition to earlier studies that found a strong correlation between the two. this study found there is no association between students' gpa and their level of metacognitive awareness. conclusion this study showed that students of english department in an indonesian university have relatively high mean score of the metacognitive awareness inventory (mai), i.e., 41.54. gpa regulation gpa pearson correlation 1 -.074 sig. (2-tailed) .342 n 166 166 regulation pearson correlation -.074 1 sig. (2-tailed) .342 n 166 166 ipk knowledge gpa pearson correlation 1 -.018 sig. (2-tailed) .819 n 166 166 knowledge pearson correlation -.018 1 sig. (2-tailed) .819 n 166 166 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 177 the mean score for metacognitive regulation (28.4518) is also higher than metacognitive knowledge (13.0964). however, the score does not correlate positively with grade point average (gpa). there is no significant correlation between students’ metacognitive awareness level and their gpa (sig. 0.462>0.05). that indicates that, while students with high metacognitive awareness level can have lower gpas, while students with low levels of metacognitive awareness can have high gpas. the study also supported that there are no significant variations in the level of metacognitive awareness between male and female students, suggesting that both groups have good thought regulation. the researchers thus advise further research to qualitatively examine students' unique practices in putting their cognitive abilities because the findings imply that there is no substantial positive link between metacognitive awareness level and students' academic success. strategies for integrating metacognitive training in higher education must be planned because it is crucial to improve students' metacognitive abilities. in order to improve students' metacognitive skill set, future studies might additionally assess students' metacognitive awareness both before and after training. disclosure statement the authors reported no potential conflict of interest. references abdellah, r. 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(2016). the impact of metacognitive awareness on class performance in financial accounting courses. academy of educational leadership journal, 20(2), 78-88. zimmerman, b. j., & martinez-pons, m. (1988). construct validation of a strategy model of student self-regulated learning. journal of educational psvchology, 80(3), 284-290. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.80.3.284 https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9817.00195 https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1023/a:1003044231033 http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1994.1033 https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02212307 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 179 ward, r. t., & butler, d. l. (2019). an investigation of metacognitive awareness and academic performance in college freshmen. education, 139(3), 120-126. biographical notes bunga ayu wulandary, phd. is working at the english education department, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, indonesia. ahmad ridha, ma. is working at the english education department, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, indonesia. dr. fortunasari, ma. is working at the english education department, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, indonesia. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 138 the lesson observation for the productive learning environment in english classes: stories from two elementary schools bunga ayu wulandari, 1* syahrial, 2 andri amelia syahrial 3 , yundi fitrah 4 abstract in indonesia, english is not required for the elementary school students in the current curriculum. this qualitative case study examines the role of teachers in providing a productive learning environment through classroom activities in english classes at two elementary schools in jambi, a province in indonesia.. the productive learning environment is characterised by target-oriented, genuine and real-based learning, encouraging and appealing activities, dynamic and accommodating knowledge formation, autonomous, and contemplative. the data were gathered from observations in 7 classes and teacher interviews. this research revealed that there was not a single meeting that altogether covered the six features of a productive learning environment. therefore, it is suggested that teachers should understand more about a productive learning environment to empower classroom activities to help students achieve educational goals. keywords competency-based language teaching, lesson observation, productive learning article history received 3 april 2022 accepted 5 july 2022 how to cite wulandari, b. a., syahrial., syahrial, a. a., & fitrah, y. (2022). the lesson observation for the productive learning environment in english classes: stories from indonesian elementary schools. indonesian research journal in education |irje|, 6(1), 138–152. https://doi.org/10.22437/irj e.v6i1.17641 1faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, indonesia; corresponding author: bungaayu.wulandari@unja.ac.id 2,3,4 faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, indonesia. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 139 introduction in indonesia, english is not compulsory for the elementary school level in the current curriculum (kurikulum 2013 or k13). however, schools can have it optionally as a local content subject. some voices have revolved around justifying reasons to approve or disapprove of english as a subject in the elementary school curriculum. this study has been drawn from cameron's standpoint (2001), who preferred a learning-centred approach to a child-centred approach to acknowledge children's potential in learning instead of their assumed limitation implied by the latter approach. cameron (2001) followed vygotsky, who believed that a child is an active learner in a world full of others who can maximise their learning potential through mediation and instruction. cameron (2001) discussed several misunderstandings about teaching young learners. first, teaching children is considered straightforward. second, children only need to learn a simple language. cameron (2001) explained that teachers of english to young learners must understand children's inner mental world besides language knowledge, language teaching, and language learning. she also reminded us that we have assumed that children have minimal potential to learn english. they have been exposed to the global community through television and computer networking. therefore, she contended that it is essential for adults around the children to facilitate them to reach their potential. cooper (2010) argued that emphasising students has encouraged the teachers to act as facilitators and organisers of the learning process and recognise their students' learning styles. nevertheless, cameron (2001) proposed that although it is essential to acknowledge students' role in the learning process, teachers should also be reminded that their students can do more and better with their help. the teacher is a significant variable that influences students' learning (lane, pierson, & givner, 2004). as gattegno (1972) suggested, teaching means facilitating the learning process rather than controlling the process. therefore, highly qualified teachers working with supporting organisational systems and suitable application of the instructional practice can serve their students at their best (smith, desimone, & ueno, 2005). this statement aligns with vygotsky's viewpoint about how teachers can support learning by planning what the students can learn and talking to the students in the classrooms (1978). vygotsky called this process as utilising the zone of proximal development (zpd). this study, in particular, examines the role of teachers in providing a productive learning environment through classroom activities in english classes at two elementary schools in jambi, a province in indonesia. there has been scarce research on english language teaching in indonesia conducting lesson observations. therefore, it is crucial to fill the gap in the field. furthermore, conducting classroom-based research like this current study is worth pursuing because it is anticipated to inform the teachers and the stakeholders about what teaching english to elementary students is like. therefore, they can plan what will or will not work in their elementary schools and improve pre-service and postgraduate english teachers and programmes. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 140 literature review teaching english for students at elementary schools in indonesia currently english is still a foreign language and it is not part of the compulsory subjects in the elementary school curriculum. however, some schools are allowed to have an english subject although some voices have revolved around justifying reasons to approve or disapprove of english as a subject in the elementary school curriculum. it has been claimed that children who learn english at a younger age will have better results because they still have the capacity that helps them to acquire their first language, known as the critical period hypothesis (cameron, 2001). however, demographic issues need to be considered. one-third of the indonesian population is children (aged 0-17 years old), which is around 80 million kids. of the total children population, according to the indonesian statistic bureau (2018), more than half of them live in five provinces (18,6 % in jawa barat,12,8 % in jawa timur, 12% in jawa tengah, 6,2 % in sumatra utara, and 4,4% in banten) and 46 % live in 29 other provinces in indonesia. as can be seen from the statistics, the children live in diverse areas of indonesia where development and welfare vary. some children reside in less developed provinces, regencies, districts, and villages where the opportunities to access education facilities are not the same as those in developed areas. thus, it is very challenging for the schools and local government to provide qualified english teachers, the relevant books, and supporting facilities. therefore, inserting english into the curriculum for all elementary schools in indonesia ignores this demographic fact. nevertheless, schools in urban areas commonly have english as a local content subject, depending on the provincial education department's instruction. the approach used since the 2006 curriculum is competency-based language teaching (cblt), which was imbued by the competency-based curriculum recommended by the indonesian government. richards and rodgers (2001) explain that this approach emphasises learners' autonomy to construct effective learning and focus on learning output. thus, language learning aims for the students to demonstrate the ability to use the language in real-world use. therefore, the students are encouraged to be active as the classes are student-centred, focusing on what students can do (griffith & lim, 2014). however, it can be argued that teachers also have essential roles in preparing students to perform their skills along with other factors such as learning strategies, socioeconomic background, social interaction, and family support. teachers facilitate students' opportunities to develop skills by providing knowledge transfer through appropriate teaching materials and media. drawing from competency-based language teaching (cblt) and a productive learning approach, the materials are given to the students must be authentic and task-related. referring to what has been discussed previously, emphasising learning focus on students puts the teachers as facilitators to maximise the students' potential. therefore, teachers are also in charge of providing their students with a productive learning environment. primarily, teachers in indonesia are currently encouraged to use technological pedagogical content knowledge (tpack) and higher-order thinking skills (hots) approach. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 141 productive learning environment this study observed classroom activities in two english classes at two elementary schools in jambi, a province in indonesia. this research analysed if the classroom activities supported a productive learning environment which is characterised by goal-oriented learning, authentic and reality-based learning, motivating and engaging activities, active and supportive knowledge construction, self-regulated, and reflective (de corte, verschaffel, & masui, 2004; ballantyne & packer, 2009; peltier, hay, & drago, 2005). furthermore, cahyati and madya (2019) reminded us that teaching and learning activities would be more effective if teachers considered the students' needs and backgrounds. by facilitating the students with appropriate material and media to learn english (as the input), the goal of english education in indonesia, that is: students who can use english contextually (the output), will be generated better. thus, this research specifically investigated what learning activities were experienced mainly by students in english classes and how those activities facilitated productive learning for students. methodology research design, site, and participants this research is a qualitative case study to provide data about the real-world situation, non-manipulative, non-controlling, emergent and purposeful to collect the intended data (creswell, 2014). the data were collected through classroom observations in 7 english classes at two different schools (four classes from grades 1, 2, 5, and 6 at a public school, and three classes from grades 2, 4, and 5 at a private school) and semi-structured interviews. classroom observation was deemed appropriate because they are a proper instrument for evaluating instructional practices and professional development. furthermore, as decristan et al. (2015) argued, scholars often use methods to find out aspects of teaching and investigate how they contribute to students learning or students' motivation. meanwhile, the interview was acknowledged as a means to scrutinise one's independent thoughts and allow the participants to be open about their opinion and view (adams, 2015). data collection and analysis the researchers sent the parents the information letter and consent forms before the classroom observation. all the parents returned their consent for participation. the observations were recorded to help the researchers analyse the classes' occurrences comprehensively. each english lesson was observed once. right after the observation was completed, the researchers interviewed the teacher. the interview data were collected from four english teachers observed in the classes. the english teachers chosen in this study were selected based on the representativeness of each grade at public and elementary schools. the participants were interviewed individually once for around 30 minutes. they were irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 142 questioned about each lesson's learning objectives and the underlying reasons for chosen activities provided for the students. the interview processes were audio-recorded so that the researchers could pay careful attention and respond to the participants without the need to write down the information. the teachers' names were anonymous to protect the participants' privacy. the video-recorded lessons collected from classroom observation were watched three times before they were discussed and analysed by the researchers. the researchers organised the classroom activities into major events in the class for discussion. the data from the interview was transformed into verbatim transcription. the researchers argue that verbatim transcription is necessary instead of selective transcription to help the researchers interpret the data. the researchers believe that the quality of the transcription influences the quality of the data analysis. the data was read three times before the researchers interpreted the data. the transcription data then was combined with the activities observed in the class to justify the analysis of the observation. ethical consideration to keep the participants' safety, privacy, and confidentiality, any specific names of the participants and locations were masked. findings and discussion as explained above, productive learning characteristics that were used as references to the findings of the observations are goal-oriented learning, authentic and reality-based learning, motivating and engaging activities, active and supportive knowledge construction, self-regulated, and reflective. this study also observed the seating arrangement because several studies (haghighi & jusan, 2012; van den berg & cillesen, 2015) have justified how it influences students' interaction and behaviour (such as hand-raising and asking questions). as wannarka and ruhl (2008) argued, the type of the task given and the characteristics of the students should be considered before arranging the students' desks. therefore, each seating arrangement has distinctive potential to support students' productive learning. grade 2 private school the english teacher for this english class is ms ella (not her real name). the classroom was designed with clustered and runway seating arrangements. yet, the students were all asked to sit on the floor in rows and columns facing the front—twenty-two students in this class, consisting of 12 male and ten female students. the students worked on a listening test from the textbook english chest for grade 2. the teacher combined four topics into a single test. the students had been asked to review the vocabulary and practice the pronunciation of the words at home. the test was to match the sentences in the audio with the written sentences in the book. the activities for the day are as the following:  the students sat on the floor and took their books with them.  the teacher turned the audio on for the test, and the students listened to the audio. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 143  the teacher played the audio recording twice, and the children double-checked their answers.  the teacher then played a song, and the students listened to the song.  the teacher and the students sang the song together several times.  the students submitted their papers to the teachers. using the framework of productive learning, the classroom activities provided by the teachers in this study hardly met the characteristics of productive learning. the teacher relied on the students' learning capacity but not the student-centred approach suggested. indeed, the students had been asked to review the vocabulary and practice the pronunciation at home. in the interview, teacher ella admitted that she often asked the students to independently learn at home by listening to an audio recording supplied with the textbook. yet, these students were only second-grade students aged around 7-8 years old and reviewing or memorising and practising the vocabulary or words are not the spirits of student-centred learning. moreover, although the test tested the students with the vocabulary they had reviewed at home, the context used in the test was not authentic and meaningful. it is traditional to have a list of vocabulary in textbooks and a gap-fill or matching activity (hopkyns & nicoll, 2013). the words are easily etched in students' memory if they can relate to the words and their contexts (mckay, 2006). therefore, tickoo (2003) offered a term he called 'a web of association' for a process where "new word, word form and word meaning a strong base in the learners' mind" (p. 216). memorising vocabulary is ineffective as students must encounter the words in contexts they usually use. however, it can serve as a mental practice for the students. similarly, cameron (2001) argued that teachers must support students in constructing meaning in every classroom activity and language use. teacher ella also explained that the purpose of playing the song and asking the students to listen to a children's song and sing it together was to calm their nerves after the listening test. she said, "i played a song for the students to listen to after the test, and then we sang it together. they loved it, making them happy again after serious work." psychologically, it is acknowledged that music can reduce tension (nakajima, tanaka, mima, & izumi, 2016). teacher ella seemed to realise that her students enjoyed singing a song. however, perhaps she did not realise that she could use music and song more than just to relieve students' tension. this belief is understandable because there has been a lack of academic support known to teachers about the benefits of using songs in learning a second language. grade 4 private school the english teacher observed grade 4 at the private school whose teacher was ms fatimah (not her real name). the seating in the class was organised into 4 clusters. the total number of students in this class was 15, consisting of eight male and seven female students. ms fatimah said that the lesson for the day was project-based learning creating public signs (rules at home and public places) in english. the teacher explained that giving students the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 144 project aimed to develop soft skills such as leadership, problem-solving, and critical and creative thinking. "the school assigns us to help the students to create or produce something reflecting their learning outcomes. for example, we asked them to compose posters, and the students were excited because they liked drawing. we have discussed the topic before, so they proceed to create posters. they're practising how to be self-regulated, work with others, and think creatively by working on the project.” the lesson lasted for about 75 minutes. the summary of the activities in the class was as the following:  the teacher began the class by introducing the topic.  students were asked to prepare the materials and stuff they needed, such as cardboard, colourful poster paper, scissors, colourful markers, pen, rulers and glue.  the students then worked in a group of four to complete the project. they divided the work among those who drew the pictures, wrote the sign, coloured the pictures and sign, cut the cardboard, and cleaned up after work mess. the seating arrangement was accurate because students worked in a group. occasionally the students asked the teacher about several things related to the project. however, the conversations were all in bahasa indonesia. therefore, it was hard to say that students benefitted from meaningful english from the activity except for written english they made. although the teacher claimed she facilitated project-based learning, the researchers argued that she did not run a pbl approach after comprehensive class observation. instead, the students were merely doing a project. ms fatimah seemed to be misunderstood project-based learning with just doing a project in the class. project-based learning is, as defined on the pblworks.org page (september 2021), "a teaching method in which students gain knowledge and skills by working for an extended period to investigate and respond to an authentic, engaging, and complex question, problem, or challenge". in project based learning, the students are experiencing the tools for gaining knowledge and skills permeating the curriculum and instruction. thus, the activity in this lesson was hardly categorised as pbl. the students' projects in the classroom did not start with driving questions or challenges and did not identify what the students needed to know about the inquiry. it contained minimal 21 st -century skills in the activity but hardly gave room for students' voice and choice, did not provide any feedback from the teacher and room for students to revise. moreover, although it produced a product, it would not be publicly presented beyond the classroom. those missing characteristics differentiate project-based learning from just doing a project in ms fatimah's classroom. in addition, merely drawing a poster of a public sign does not represent a real-world assessment choice. as a suggestion, the teacher can invite the students to present the public sign and explain the sign's condition. however, the class could be acknowledged to meet the characteristics of a productive learning environment. the students seemed motivated and engaged with the activities and independently regulated themselves to complete the task. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 145 grade 5 private school the primary textbook used for students in this class was english chest. this book was designed thematically, focusing on basic vocabulary, listening practice, speaking and pronunciation, reading, writing, games, and songs. the english teacher for this class is also ms fatimah. the seats in this class were organised into five rows and four columns, all facing the front. this type of seating does not represent the student-centred learning approach but the teacher-centred one. however, this kind of seating arrangement could have positive potential. wannarka and ruhl (2008) explained that traditional seating arrangement in row potentially decreases students' misbehaviours and keep them on task. recently, tobia, sacchi, cerina, manca, and fornara's study (2020) suggested that students who sit at single desks have high logical reasoning, especially girls and lonely children who performed better in the theory of mind and creativity. there were 17 students in the class, consisting of 10 male and seven female students. the class was scheduled for about 45 minutes, but it ran late because the previous class finished 15 minutes late. before coming to the class, students were asked to learn the topics at home. the teacher encouraged the students to listen to the vocabulary audio recording to know how the words are pronounced and understand the meaning of the vocabulary listed. the order of activities in the classroom was summarised as follows:  the lesson was begun with greetings in arabic and english.  the teacher introduced the list of vocabulary about the body parts.  the students were asked to translate the words into bahasa indonesia.  the teacher tested the students' memories of the vocabulary learned, showing its position in their bodies.  the teacher asked the students to make simple sentences and asked those who voluntarily wrote their sentences on the whiteboard.  the teacher asked the students to read the dialogue provided in the book, memorise it, and then practice it with their partners.  the teacher then read out chunks of the dialogue and asked the students to respond with the missing dialogue parts.  students were asked to fill in the missing parts of sentences provided in the textbook. most of the time, the teacher and the students used bahasa indonesia, the indonesian language. however, the teacher skipped the listening and pronunciation practice part because the class ran late. teacher fatimah in the interview session, explained that she regularly asked her students to practise their listening skills with a compact disk provided with the textbook at home. that was why she did not ask the students to do listening exercises. teacher fatimah said that the purpose of asking students to memorise the dialogues in 'the body parts' was to improve students' listening and pronunciation skills. from the observation of this meeting, the teachers seemed to hold on to the traditional teaching approach and ignore the fact that she should provide the students with a room to use their higher-order thinking skills as the indonesian ministry of education irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 146 assigned. furthermore, in competency-based language teaching (cblt), students should learn to use the language as if they are in real situations. therefore, the teacher instead exercised the grammar-translation method. she asked the students to translate the new english words into the indonesian language, memorise vocabulary, create their sentences using the words, memorise and practice dialogue, and do fill-in-the-gap exercises in the textbook. she stated, "i asked the students to memorise the vocabulary and practise the sentences. i believe the students found the activities challenging because they felt a sense of competition with their friends who can memorise more." although the students in this grade are a bit older, they are still categorised as young learners. teachers of english to young learners should be reminded that their students will acquire the target language if the environment facilitates them because they learn from the activities experience (moon, 2005). traditionally, the objective of the grammar-translation method was to train the students to read english literature. the teacher was the authority in the classroom, as observed at this grade 5 private school. the interaction that occurred in the class was also from teacher to students, where the teachers kept asking the students to do tasks to acquire the teacher's knowledge and skills. possibly, the activity where the teacher asked the students to show their body parts could be acknowledged as authentic and reality-based learning by utilising the total physical response (tpr) approach. yet, this approach is probably not any closer to a productive learning environment or competency-based language teaching (cblt). grade 1 public schools the class teacher observed in this public school is ms nang (not her real name). the seats were arranged into rows and columns facing the front. the total number of students in this class was 23, consisting of 11 male and 13 female students. the lesson observed was around 60 minutes. on the day of observation, the students learned about colour from stairway, the textbook used. the activities during the lesson are as the following:  the teacher started the lesson by asking the students to sing the head, shoulder, knees, and toes song, count the numbers, and spell the alphabet.  the teacher asked the students to identify the colour of the items in english in their classroom.  the teacher then randomly asked students to show their identified items and colours.  the teacher wrote the students' colours on the whiteboard and asked them to write them in their notebooks.  the teacher then organised the students into four groups, and she came to each group to show the pen markers and the markers so that they could mention what colour the markers were.  the teacher then again showed all students the markers one by one and asked the students to mention the colour of the markers. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 147  the teacher then organised the students again into three groups. each group had to mention the colour of the items in their classroom and pronounce them correctly.  the teacher then chose three markers randomly then asked each group to send their representative to write the colour's words on the whiteboard. ms nang, in the interview session, explained that she always started the lesson by asking the students to sing together to lift the students' enthusiasm before studying, even though the song choice did not match the topic that day. she argued, "the children love to play, sing, and do other energetic activities. so i don't want to adhere to the textbook rigidly." then, as revealed from the activities observed, ms nang began the session by asking the students to identify the surrounding objects' colours in english. luckily some students recognised some of the colours of the objects. after that, ms nang wrote down the colours mentioned by the students on the whiteboard. in the next activity, as observed, ms nang asked the students to guess the colour of markers, pronounce them correctly, and write the colour words on the whiteboard. the activity could be the other way around. first, the teacher could show the students the markers and explain the colours as the introductory phase. the vocabulary needs to be introduced first for these young learners. after the students understood the colour words, the teacher could ask them to identify the objects' colour around them, which was the recognition phase. then, the teacher can expand the students' answers by inviting them to mention any objects and their colours. this approach can boost the students' critical thinking. the students could also be led to the production phase, where they are asked to choose what colour of specific objects before actually writing down the colour words in their books. nevertheless, teacher's activities could be considered fulfilling aspects of productive learning activities since they engaged the students in motivating activities and authentic, active and supportive knowledge construction. grade 2 public school the book used for grade 2 in this public school was stairway. the teacher was also ms nang. the seating arrangement was designed in rows and columns facing the teacher in the front. thirty students consisted of 13 male students and 17 female students. on the observation day, the students were learning about antonyms. the activities observed were as follows:  the teacher opened the class by providing examples of antonym words and their translation in bahasa indonesia.  the teacher then wrote several words on the whiteboard, and the students voluntarily wrote the antonyms.  the teacher and the students checked the antonyms together  the teacher then asked the students to fill out the exercises in the book.  the teacher asked students voluntarily to write the answers on the whiteboard. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 148 the chosen seating arrangement for the students on the day of observation seems based on customary reasons so that the teacher could quickly check the students and point them to do the tasks. there was no activity to encourage students' logical reasoning, let alone creativity. cameron (2001) reminded us that learners who learn a new language would not improve a full range of foreign languages if they relied solely on their teachers and texts. thus, if we expect the young learners to do specific skills, they must experience them. the teacher practised the traditional grammar-translation method, emphasising having the students gain the vocabulary and know the translation forms in the indonesian language. from the observation, this class did not meet the criteria for productive learning or competency-based language teaching (cblt). ms nang claimed, "it was tough to find authentic materials to teach antonym; therefore, i asked the students to find the opposite words of words that i wrote on the whiteboard." this claim, however, is not necessarily valid. the teacher, for example, can invite several students to express what they felt or saw and then ask other students to respond oppositely. in addition, it will encourage the students to have higher-order thinking skills (hots) relevant to competency-based language teaching. since the students in this class are 7-8 years old, the teacher could also utilise visual aids and demonstrations to help the students learn new vocabulary because human memory for objects and pictures is strong (altakhaineh & hajjo, 2019). furthermore, the teacher could also group the students to facilitate group work activities by playing picture games. the teacher could also invite the students to do physical movements. this activity will encourage students to work collaboratively and support shy students to participate in the activities. grade 5 public school the seat formation of this class was designed into six clustering tables. the teacher was mr law. the class run for about 30 minutes. students learned from the textbook stairway for grade 5. the activities were as follows:  the teacher introduced the day's topic, 'ask someone to help in the kitchen, ' translating it into bahasa indonesia.  the students were asked to review the vocabulary in the textbook related to the topic.  the teacher played the audio player and asked the students to listen to the pronunciations of the words.  the students were asked to pronounce the words aloud.  the teacher and the students discussed the words by translating them into bahasa indonesia.  the students completed the exercise in the book: matching the words and the pictures available.  the teacher and the students checked the correct answers together. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 149  the students were asked to practice the dialogues provided in the textbook in pairs. mr law, in the interview, explained that he asked the students to listen to the audio recordings of the related words and read the dialogue aloud to help the students improve their listening and pronunciation skills. he said, "i usually give them a list of words, and i ask them to listen how to pronounce them, then i give them practices such as read the dialogue, or fill in the blank in a sentence." these techniques implied that the teacher is the source of all language learning activities. however, the students were instructed to practice the dialogues in the book. to stevick's concern (1993), students might receive the message that they should use their brain function to copy instead of creating. from the observation, it was evident that mr law utilised the grammar-translation and audio-lingual methods in his class. this method facilitates learning through habit formation (larsen-freeman, 2000). it trains the students with the grammatical sentence patterns drill, and with positive reinforcement, students are expected to build accurate habits. although this audio-lingual method has lost popularity over communicative language teaching, the researchers would argue that teachers can make their own decisions about what methods they implement in their classrooms. these could be informed by their experiences, professional training, others' research, and most importantly, their students' understanding. grade 6 public school the classroom seat arrangement was designed like a horseshoe or letter u. there were 23 students in the class, six male students and 17 female students. on the day of observation, the students learned about 'present perfect tense' from stairway's textbook used in this grade. the teacher was also mr law, and the class ran for about 60 minutes. the list of activities was as follows:  the teacher began the class by explaining the formula of the present perfect tense and how to create positive, negative and interrogative sentences.  the teacher asked the students to mention their daily activities in the indonesian language that could be transformed into the present perfect tense.  students then were asked to complete exercises in the textbook, where they wrote positive, negative, and interrogative sentences of present perfect tense.  the students were asked to write the answers on the whiteboard voluntarily.  the teacher checked the answers the students had written on the whiteboard.  the students were asked to write simple paragraphs that present perfect sentences in their notebooks and submit them to their teacher. teacher law said that he asked the students to write present perfect sentences related to their daily activities because he wanted to facilitate the students to construct the knowledge by using examples related to their lives. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 150 "i want the students to be able to use present perfect tense in daily life. so first i explained the formula, then i asked them to do the tasks in the book and write their sentences related to their daily experiences." this opinion is valid since children are mentally active learners who constantly attempt to find meaning and activities assigned to them (cameron, 2001). but sometimes, teachers must recognise that not all students can quickly grasp the intention of certain activities. they could pretend they understand to please their teacher or be too concerned to clarify. this situation, in turn, will likely disadvantage students in the long term, as the actual situation will emerge, for example, at the final exam or even worse after graduating from school. the students still cannot utilise the instructions they have received. in this class, teacher law executed the grammar-translation method. larsen-freeman and anderson (2011) explained that historically, studying the grammatical structure of the target language will help students recognise their own language's grammar, which helps them write and speak better in their language. another potential benefit of learning foreign language grammar is that it helps students read and understand literature written in a foreign language. however, as reflected in this grade 6 public school, little attention is given to speaking and listening, emphasising that students learned the grammar. the teacher acted as the authority and source of knowledge, and the students followed the teacher's instruction with little interaction. their interaction mainly occurred when the teacher issued the task to the students and corrected their answers related to the assignments. conclusion in this study, we have observed seven english classrooms to examine the productive learning environment provided by the teachers in public and private elementary schools. observing teachers and students in the classroom running their teaching and learning activities is proven to help improve the quality of education by providing a complete understanding of what is happening in the class. it is revealed that there are several discrepancies between the objectives of the english curriculum and classroom practices. the teachers struggled to provide the students with a productive learning environment to facilitate students' use of the language, especially when the teachers were not ready with knowledge about their students' characters. thus, the objectives of the curriculum are also at stake. this small-scale research could be argued for its constraint for generalisation. however, classroom-based research like the current study must be conducted to inform real situations in the classroom to raise awareness among all stakeholders in the indonesian educational structure. this awareness, in turn, is expected to inform public education stakeholders in indonesia to develop a policy regarding the planning of english teaching and learning in elementary schools in indonesia. after all, this study is expected to positively contribute to improving teacher training and education programs for english majors. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 151 disclosure statement the authors reported no potential conflict of interest. references adams, w. 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(2001). approaches and methods in language teaching. new york: cambridge university press. smith, t. m., desimone, l. m., & ueno, k. (2005). "highly qualified" to do what? the relationship between nclb teacher quality mandates and the use of reform-oriented instruction in middle school mathematics. educational evaluation and policy analysis, 27(1), pp. 75-109. https://doi.org/10.3102/01623737027001075 stevick, e. w. (1990). humanism in language teaching. new york: oxford university press. tickoo, m. (2003). teaching and learning english. new delhi: orient longman. tobia, v., sacchi, s., cerina, v., manca, s., fornara, f. (2020). the influence of classroom seating arrangement on children's cognitive processes in primary school: the role of individual variables. current psychology, 1-12, doi: 10.1007/s12144-020-01154-9 van den berg, y. h. m., & cillesen, a. h. n. (2015). peer status and classroom seating arrangements: a social relations analysis. journal of experimental child psychology, 130, 19-34. wannarka, r., & ruhl, k. (2008). seating arrangements that promote positive academic and behavioral outcomes: a review of empirical research. support for learning, 23(2), 89-93. biographical notes bunga ayu wulandary, phd. is working at the english education department, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, indonesia. syahrial, phd. is working at the english education department, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, indonesia. andri amelia syahrial was a graduate student at the english education department, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, indonesia. yundi fitrah, phd. is working at the indonesian education department, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, indonesia. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.3102/01623737027001075 this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 341 the musyawarah guru mata pelajaran forum and its roles in improving the professionalism of high school english teachers ambo dalle 1 * and darmawati 2 abstract this study aimed to examine the roles of the musyawarah guru mata pelajaran (mgmp) in improving the professionalism of high school english teachers in south sulawesi, indonesia. the mgmp forum has been established and operated in nearly every district in south sulawesi. it was to improve the quality of education in schools, and a means of fostering teacher professionalism is frequently insufficient. this study used a generic qualitative approach. it was selected based on the objectives, which was a description of the reactions of each participant and administrator to the english mgmp forum with a focus on their knowledge and abilities regarding the theoretical and philosophical foundations of english subjects after participating in the program. according to the findings of our research, the mgmp of english instructors in parepare city, south sulawesi, has been able to take positive action. it might be witnessed in at least three ways: boosting the efficacy of english teacher learning, their creativity and talents, and their knowledge and understanding. keywords creativity, english teacher, professionalism, skill, teaching article history received 20 july 2022 accepted 10 december 2022 how to cite dalle, a., & darmawati. (2022). the musyawarah guru mata pelajaran forum and its roles in improving the professionalism of high school english teachers. indonesian research journal in education |irje|, 6(2), 341– 351.https://doi.org/10.22437 /irje.v6i2.20636 *1 lecturer, institut agama islam negeri parepare, indonesia; corresponding author: hambodalle@iainpare.ac.id 2 associate professor, institut agama islam negeri parepare, indonesia https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v6i2.20636 https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v6i2.20636 mailto:hambodalle@iainpare.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 342 introduction the development of human resources for educators, particularly the professional development of teachers, is an endeavor to equip teachers with a variety of perspectives, abilities, and confidence to fulfill their duties and responsibilities as professional officers (ertmer & ottenbreit-leftwich, 2010; little, 1993; richards et al., 2005; van driel et al., ). the development or advancement of teachers' professional skills must be based on 2001 their actual requirements or challenges to be beneficial. the profession of teaching is held to a high standard by society. teachers must continue to grow, sharpen their insights, and seek the most effective teaching strategies to equip their students with keen vision and knowledge, to ensure a bright future for students ( ). hargreaves, 2003; sahlberg, 2010 the law of the republic of indonesia number 14 of 2005 concerning teachers and lecturers article 20 paragraph (b) mandates that to carry out their professional duties, teachers are obliged to improve and develop academic qualifications and competencies on an ongoing basis in line with the development of science, technology, and the arts. the statement above basically requires teachers to have: (i) a minimum academic qualification of s1 or d-iv; (ii) competencies as learning agents, namely pedagogic, personality, social, and professional competencies; and (iii) teacher certificates ( ). based on the minister of ri, 2019 national education of the republic of indonesia's regulation no. 16 of 2007 on the standard of academic qualifications and teacher competency, each teacher is supposed to develop professionalism, i.e., their pedagogical, personality, social, and professional abilities. teachers with this ability are expected to effectively organize and implement learning, serve as role models for students, and improve their professionalism ( ). habibi et al., 2019 in this regard, this law is expected will offer teachers the ability to continuously develop their skills through training, research, scientific paper writing, and other professional activities. the musyawarah guru mata pelajaran (mgmp) is used as a gathering place for classroom teachers and teachers of similar subjects. it is possible to conduct this activity there ( ). thus, the socio-cultural philosophy of husna, 2016; nurlaeli & saryono, 2018 education in indonesia has positioned the teacher's function and role in such a way that the teacher's role in indonesia is frequently viewed as having dual or even many functions. teachers are required not only as science educators who must alter scientific values but also as moral guards for their students. even instructors are considered the second most important person in the global education process behind the parents ( ). saragih & dewi, 2018 furthermore, there are no instructions that can be used as a reference for teachers and mgmp administrators when carrying out work group activities or work deliberation and intensive mentoring programs conducted by instructors for teachers as a follow-up to the implementation of mgmp activities. with the mgmp's more organized teacher activities, it is planned that the equivalent of semester credit units for instructors who will continue to the graduate level or the giving of credit points for teachers seeking promotions may be determined. on this basis, the execution of the mgmp must be revived so that activities are implemented in a more systematic manner ( ). hidayat, 2017 in this regard, the education office of parepare intends to renew the function of all mgmps at all levels of education so that the activities conducted may be more targeted and irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 343 serve as a vehicle for the development of quality, autonomous, and sustainable teacher professionalism ( ). anwar, 2011; muhajirin et al., 2017 the mgmp forum is one of the media intended to be utilized to nurture and improve teacher professionalism (subject teacher conference). the mgmp forum is a forum for teachers in one district or city to share information and experiences, identify learning difficulties, discover solutions, and try out and develop new strategies for enhancing the quality of teaching and learning activities (kbm). this forum is one of the most successful ways to promote teacher professionalism within the context of with, from, and for the teachers ( ). jalal, 2005 concerning the role of the teacher meeting forum in mgmp, which is crucial for enhancing teacher competency and performance, the empowerment of mgmp is an urgent concern that must be addressed promptly. different attempts have been undertaken to improve teacher effectiveness, including numerous instructor training, the improvement of facilities and infrastructure, and the enhancement of mgmp administration. according to the assessment report on the implementation of mgmp activities, many mgmps have yet to demonstrate significant performance gains (emaliana, 2019; sueb et al., 2020; sujana et ). in the definite area, the mgmp's performance improvement is highly al., 2021 encouraging, but in most other areas, it remains a cause for worry. based on this situation, the authors believe that it is essential to examine the role of the mgmp forum concerning to the professional development of teachers, particularly english teachers. methodology design and participants the generic qualitative method was used for this study. it was selected based on the desired outcomes, namely a description of each participant's reaction to the english mgmp forum revitalization program. after completing the program, participants will gain knowledge and abilities related to the theoretical and philosophical underpinnings of english courses. based on the research type that has been determined above, the variables of this research are key informants and informants. the key informants are the mgmp forum for english teachers and the head of the mgmp, while the informants are high school/vocational high school teachers and the working group of the school principal in south sulawesi. especially in this study, there were seven participants consisting of the head of the mgmp and its members. each participant was interviewed twice and each interview lasted between 30 and 60 minutes. data collection and analysis in this study, interviews and documents were the data collection methods. interview was done with seven participants of the mgmp forum for english teachers and the head of the mgmp while the documents were related to syllabus, semester plans, and teaching and learning plans. all the transcripts among the 7 participants were analyzed and associated to discover similarities and differences and to organize the important statements among the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 344 participants into themes and to lessen the monotonous data. after we examined the transcripts to find categories or themes, we classified and reduced them into a small manageable set of themes consisting of a brief or few statements, which are significant for our final account. to confirm our explanations, we verified them with our participants. additionally, the research data analysis was conducted qualitatively and descriptively, for example, the data obtained were collected and analyzed under the actual situation and situation and the benchmark provisions or regulations and applicable laws, i.e., by gathering in-depth information about the actual conditions and situations. the mgmp is then synced with standards or laws, such as mgmp management and operational standards, to construct the necessary challenges and solutions. trustworthiness numerous viewpoints have been projected concerning the need of verification or trustworthiness in qualitative research. the terms “credibility,” “transferability,” dependability,” and “conformability” have been suggested in qualitative research to substitute for the terms “internal validity,” “external validity,” “reliability,” and “objectivity”. to verify the accuracy of data and interpretation, the data, interpretations, and conclusions were shared with our participants to get their feedback on our interpretations and conclusions. findings and discussion the subject teacher consultation (mgmp) is a forum or professional forum for subject teachers located in a district/city/sub-district/studio/school cluster. the scope includes subject teachers at mts/smp (junior high school) and ma/sma (senior high school), both public and private, civil servants and non-civil servant teachers, and non-permanent teachers. its working principle reflects the activities “of, by, and for the teacher” of all schools. on this basis, the mgmp is a non-structural organization that is independent and based on kinship (nasional, 2010). the purpose of the mgmp is to encourage teachers in improving their abilities and skills in planning, implementing, and evaluating learning programs to increase their self-confidence as professionals and to identify teachers' abilities and skills in carrying out learning to support efforts to improve and equalize the quality of education. a further objective of the mgmp is to discuss the problems encountered and experienced by teachers in carrying out their daily responsibilities, to find alternative solutions to these problems based on the characteristics of each teacher's subject matter, school conditions, and the surrounding environment, and to assist teachers in acquiring educative technical information related to scientific and technology curricular activities, techniques, and assessment systems in line with the subjects involved (nasional, 2010). in this regard, the goal of the mgmp forum is to share knowledge and experiences gained via workshops, symposia, seminars, training, classroom action research, and other professional activities addressed collectively. to make the process of reorienting learning to irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 345 be effective, teachers must be able to define and construct a school reform agenda with an emphasis on the classroom because of these activities. overview of the mgmp forum for high school english teachers the education paradigm in this age of globalization demands a mindset change based on education. teachers must be able to plan and administer the curriculum, redirect learning from teaching to learning, and cultivate a positive classroom atmosphere. to increase the quality of educational services, particularly the service of the learning process, instructors must have a more creative and innovative approach to classroom management and learning process implementation. the mgmp is an association or association for subject teachers in the district or city that facilitates communication, learning, and the exchange of ideas and experiences to enhance teacher performance as practitioners or actors in altering learning orientation in schools. in general, each member of the mgmp is obliged to know and follow the appropriate guidelines. according to an interview with martan ( ), the interviewed, december 10, 2020 coordinator of the planning, implementation, program, and development of high school english mgmp in parepare, there was a high school / ma english mgmp in parepare, through instructions from the education office to the school principal (mkks), then high school english teachers are required to take part in the english mgmp activities. english teachers mgmp forum is a place of professional activity for english subject teachers who have a strategic vision and mission to develop the professionalism of teachers, develop insight and knowledge, innovative activities towards the development of quality education, and provide quality educational services for people. based on the interview before, the purposes of mgmp are to:  develop knowledge and mastery of the material substance of teaching, syllabus, teaching materials, teaching models, maximizing the use of facilities/infrastructure in teaching, and taking advantage of ict-based learning resources in the development of the profession.  develop the quality of teacher professionalism as a key pillar in classroom management.  realize effective teaching so students can master the teaching material (mastery learning).  discuss the problems faced and experienced in performing everyday tasks and inquiring about alternative solutions in accordance with the conditions of the school, the characteristics of learners, and the environment.  facilitate teachers to reach educational technical information relating to the development of science and technology, curriculum activities, methodology, and evaluation systems.  share information and experiences through workshops, teacher forums, symposiums, seminars, training, etc. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 346  facilitate teachers to obtain technical information relating to class actions research and development professionals for functional improvement and certification of teachers. the urgency of english teacher professionalism a teacher is one of the primary aspects that define the quality of schooling. teachers are at the forefront of human resource development. a teacher is primarily responsible for the execution of education and instruction and plays a crucial role in islamic religious education implementation and innovation. a teacher is a primary individual in the classroom who leads and directs teaching and students' learning activities. in the view of students, a teacher has power in both the academic and non-academic realms. even inside society, teachers are individuals who must be copied. the impact of teachers on their students is substantial. in social contact, variables such as imitation, suggestion, identification, and sympathy play a crucial role. in the hands of the teacher, quality students will be developed academically and in terms of skill, emotional maturity, and moral and spiritual development. thus, future generations will be generated who are equipped to meet the challenges of their time. to fulfill his professional responsibilities, a teacher must have good credentials, competence, and commitment ( ). especially in the period of globalization characterized by marzuki, 2019 the fast advancement of science and technology and the prevalence of moral deterioration, a rise in the quality of instructors, particularly english teachers, is essential. in the implementation of english language education, the success of english teachers might be evaluated based on the learning process that has been carried out and the conduct of the students ( ). a professional chamot, 2005; guilloteaux & dörnyei, 2008 language teacher is an educator with specialized knowledge and skill in the field of linguistic education, allowing him to carry out his responsibilities, tasks, and functions as an educator to the fullest extent possible. teachers of foreign languages must be alert and receptive to changes, renewal, and science and technology that continue to evolve based on societal and temporal needs. as competent educators, english teachers should be able to overcome these obstacles so that the information presented to students is constantly appealing and current. regarding the issue of english teachers' competency and professionalism in carrying out the education and instruction process in educational institutions, they continue to confront issues and criticism from various parties. the evolution of education requires the professionalism of teachers, for example english teachers, to respond to globalization. ultimately, islamic education must be able to compete in the globalized world by emphasizing vision, efficiency, creativity, and critical thinking ( ). therefore, all of this necessitates human alba et al., 2002; dearden, 2014 resources who must be taught and trained to produce quality and resilient individuals. thus, it can be asserted unequivocally that english educators must pursue their responsibilities, tasks, and professional competencies to their fullest extent to carry out a successful language learning process. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 347 the roles of mgmp in improving the professionalism of high school english teachers the presence of an organization will be acknowledged if it has effectively fulfilled its function. it then has beneficial repercussions for the organization's members as well as other institutions and society. to enhance the professionalism of high school english teachers, the mgmp has fulfilled the following responsibilities: improving the effectiveness of english teachers learning, in this practice, english teachers typically begin by discussing their daily teaching and learning experiences. from this, it was determined that the strategy was less effective and efficient for english acquisition. some english teachers, for instance, believe that the lecture technique has less impact on the emotive and psychomotor elements of students. thus, it must be complemented with other methods such as question-and-answer sessions, demonstrations, or the use of multimedia to help the learning process. this exercise will aid english teachers in school-based learning implementation ( ). interview with martan, december 07, 2020 according to english teachers who are members of the mgmp, the national education office-recommended english resources for high school are not broad and in-depth, so, through mgmp, english teachers may debate the material’s growth and expansion previously, the board separated its members into numerous (belcher, 2006). groups based on the grade level they teach. furthermore, each group reviewed the content and its growth while still referring to the existing syllabus so that it would not deviate from curricular requirements in the future ( ). alba et al., 2002 evaluation is a method for measuring the consequences of student learning. this english mgmp exercise, besides addressing resources and techniques, it is customarily addressing how to evaluate and begins with assessing the efficiency of each english teacher's use of assessment instruments in the classroom. if some teachers find it hard to evaluate student learning results, then english teachers select the most appropriate method to evaluate students' english proficiency ( ). each interview with herlina, november 25, 2020 mgmp member is also required to create and submit their learning resources, such as a syllabus, yearly program, semester program, teaching implementation plan, and minimal completeness criterion (kkm). increasing creativity and skills of english teachers, mgmp has conducted training on the utilization of learning methods or instruments. the training was conducted because english teachers tend to employ boring or less diverse learning approaches. the extent to which it will ultimately affect students' knowledge and comprehension is restricted. the student worksheet created by the english mgmp of sma in south sulawesi includes an overview of the curriculum, assignments, assessments, and activities which students must complete. each group of teachers from class x to english xii is tasked with generating worksheets that correspond to the curriculum or teaching guides. after completion, the lks teaching materials are produced by the publisher, for instance, the three major printing presses, and then given to students (interview with umar, december 4, 2020). the teachers then create a grid of test and semester questions. initially, all professors were tasked with creating questions for the question grid development. following the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 348 collection of all questions, the mgmp administration picked questions judged suitable and correct for the semester test. before semester tests, each english teacher who is a member of the mgmp is responsible for creating a grid of exam questions (interview with kamisna, ). december 14, 2020 alternatively, teachers also discussed english novels (main books, supplementary books, manuals, and reading books). the evolution of the times and the educational curriculum necessitates the creation and modification of instructional materials for students. it is to ensure that the content taught by the english teacher is constantly current. therefore, on one occasion, mgmp always discusses and reviews english literature (interview with ). fatmawati, december 6, 2020 increasing knowledge and insight of english teachers, mgmp generally holds in house training (iht) for the socialization of the new curriculum, curriculum development, methods, and others. mr. hadi subhan, as chairman of the english mgmp at senior high school in parepare, south sulawesi, which had been carried out during his management regarding the socialization of kbk and ktsp as well as learning tools. the events include teacher’s book reviews and seminars. this kind of activity is carried out in collaboration with the education office, the ministry of religion, or ngos in the field of education. the aim is to increase the knowledge and insight of english teachers ( ). this activity is usually carried out incidentally, interview hadi subhan, december 10, 2020 for example, in commemoration of national holidays and so on. this activity can identify and solve problems encountered in the teaching and learning process. the administration of the english mgmp also had a conference to identify the technique of guiding and counseling after examining the challenges in teaching and learning activities. previously, one of the administrators was selected to serve as conversation leader. the participants then express their ideas and arguments on how a teacher conducts effective counseling. the conversation revealed an alternate path for a teacher to become a counselor with the responsibility of advising and counseling his students regarding the english language ( ). interview with subhan scheduled for december 17, 2020 it is envisaged that all english teachers who are members of the mgmp forum would raise their level of professionalism because of the many events offered by the mgmp because it is a supporter of teachers' proficiency in carrying out their responsibilities. furthermore, it is strongly influenced by two main factors. they are internal factors, such as interests and talents, and external factors, such as the surrounding environment, facilities, infrastructure, and teacher training. members of the mgmp have all earned a bachelor’s degree in english from a college or university. it demonstrates that english teachers are already considered professionals. there are three types of professional hierarchies for education staff or teachers: professional staff, semi-professional staff, and professional staff. professional personnel refer to education workers with a bachelor's degree or above with complete power over planning, administering, assessing, and managing education or teaching. regarding professional instructors, the law on teachers and lecturers no. 14 of 2005 stipulates that they must possess the appropriate academic credentials and educational background for their field of activity. consequently, the need for teacher professionalism is no longer negotiable, and as one of the professional organizations for english teachers, mgmp plays a crucial part in creating and enhancing the teacher professionalism process. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 349 however, this organization will undoubtedly carry out its mission effectively if all mgmp members who are english instructors unite in their efforts to enhance their performance as english teachers continually. conclusions this research was to analyze the role of mgmp in improving the professionalism of english teachers in high schools in south sulawesi, indonesia. improvements were in the aspects of learning effectiveness, creativity and skills of english teachers, and knowledge and insight into english teaching. according to the findings of our study, the mgmp of english teachers in parepare, south sulawesi, had been able to take positive action. it might be witnessed in at least three ways: boosting the efficacy of english teacher learning, their creativity and talents, and their knowledge and understanding. the research is constrained by the fact that researchers have limited access to the number of teachers who are less involved in mgmp activities. therefore, future research necessitates that researchers investigate instructors' participation in more depth. the contribution of this research can be viewed from two perspectives: theoretical and practical. therefore, it is hoped that this research will provide opportunities for the expansion of academic studies and research material related to the role of the english high school mgmp in enhancing the professional competence of teachers. furthermore. in addition, it is virtually a reference that may be utilized to build future mgmp development programs, regardless of whether they are conducted by the education office, lpmp, p4tk, or other organizations. funding this research received no external funding conflicts of interest the authors declare no conflict of interest. publisher’s note all claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the 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(2021). pengembangan keprofesian berkelanjutan (pkb) melalui pendampingan penyusunan publikasi ilmiah untuk mgmp bahasa inggris smk kota mataram. darma diksani: jurnal pengabdian ilmu pendidikan, sosial, dan humaniora, 1(2), 11– 22. van driel, j. h., beijaard, d., & verloop, n. (2001). professional development and reform in science education: the role of teachers’ practical knowledge. journal of research in science teaching: the official journal of the national association for research in science teaching, 38(2), 137–158. biographical notes dr. ambo dalle is a lecturer, institut agama islam negeri parepare, indonesia; corresponding author: hambodalle@iainpare.ac.id dr. darmawati is an associate professor, institut agama islam negeri parepare, indonesia mailto:hambodalle@iainpare.ac.id this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 206 the relationships among lecturers’ performance, knowledge management, budget planning models and innovation: evidence from three universities in jambi fitriaty 1* , dessy elliyana 2 , and tona aurora lubis 3 abstract this study aimed to provide an understanding of knowledge management, budget planning models, lecture performance and innovation at universities in jambi province. this study adopted an inferential research design. this study was a cross-sectional survey study. the data were collected from 485 lecturers at 3 universities in jambi province. this study used a structural equation modeling (pls-sem) to analyze the data. the results of this study showed that 1) budget planning models (bpm) affect performance lecturer and innovation, 2) knowledge management affects lecturer performance and innovation, 3) innovation affects lecturer performance, 4) budget planning models affect lecturer performance moderated by innovation, and 5) knowledge management affects the performance of lecturers mediated by innovation. in organizations that place greater emphasis on budgetary objectives by using budget planning models with greater flexibility, it is important to create an enabling atmosphere for leaders of both universities and faculties to maximize the effectiveness of evaluation and monitoring. keywords budget planning models, knowledge management, innovation and, lecturer performance article history received 18 june 2022 accepted 29 october 2022 how to cite fitriaty, elliyana, d., & lubis, t.a. (2022). the relationship among lecturers’ performance, knowledge management, budget planning models and innovation: evidence from three universities in jambi. indonesian research journal in education |irje|, 6(2), 206– 221. https://doi.org/ 10.22437/irje.v6i2.18950 1* assistant professor, faculty of economics and business, universitas jambi, jambi, indonesia, corresponding author’s email: fitriaty@unja.ac.id 2 graduate student, faculty of economics and business, universitas jambi, jambi, indonesia 3 associate professor, faculty of economics and business, universitas jambi, jambi, indonesia mailto:fitriaty@unja.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 207 introduction universities in indonesia have started to show quite good performance, including universities in jambi province, there are 3 state universities and more than 20 private universities in jambi. with the increase in the quantity of universities in jambi province, it is necessary for educators or lecturers to be able to improve their performance by conducting education, research, and community service because of rapid technological developments in all areas of life, as a result of the effects of globalization and the very accelerating development of information technology (moffet & porkinson, 2020). this condition has clearly resulted in the need for new ways of responding to all that is happening in order to survive. to facilitate human resources in education, it is necessary to have the ability to manage and develop the knowledge possessed by ndou and menlah (2015). the role of knowledge and learning is an effective approach to building the foundation of organizational competitiveness in this case, namely higher education (thompson & john, 2019). universities must be able to use their knowledge to build strategies (bano & taylor, 2015). this connects management with strategy, universities articulate strategies, identify the knowledge needed to implement the desired strategy, and compare it with actual knowledge to bridge the gap in strategic knowledge. knowledge management (km) is known as a technical tool, and strategy to maintain, analyze, organize, improve, and share understanding and experience. university management is becoming more challenging, complex, analytic and data driven (bano & taylor, 2015). developing innovative management approaches to support the university in utilizing knowledge from existing organizational information and data sources to plan improvements will provide practical assistance to university leaders and contribute to university management theory (ahmad et al., 2019). universities in indonesia have long faced various challenges in terms of development under education reform and curriculum reform designed to meet the demands of the global community. management control system perspective, the budgeting process is able to provide companies with information relevant to their operations and applicable financial plans through coordination, communication, control, performance evaluation, and incentives (chenhall & euske, 2007). achieving company goals through these functions requires a budgeting system that is in accordance with the organizational culture of motsamai, jacob, and wet (2011). in addition, the attitude and knowledge of management regarding the attributes of the budgeting system and the influence of the budgeting system on employee behavior are important factors that determine whether the budget system functions effectively (frow, marginson, & ogden, 2005). the difference between policy and financial theory or the gap between policies implemented with needs and university finances is due to the absence of a clear policy direction regarding leadership and control (thompson & john, 2019). the researchers believe that these practices also occur in universities in indonesia, especially in the province of jambi. so that researchers are interested in seeing how the phenomenon of financial management exists at universities in jambi province. researchers wanted to explore how to apply knowledge management (km) in education as a new concept as universities especially in jambi province need a km model to help conceptualize the different elements of the complete picture in a way that leads to a deeper understanding irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 208 of how knowledge processes work in organizations. the following hypotheses were sought to answer. h1: budget planning models  innovation h2: budget planning models  performance h3: knowledge management  innovation h4: knowledge management  performance h5: innovation  performance h6: budget planning models  innovation -> performance h: knowledge management  innovation -> performance literature review budget planning models and knowledge management the budget planning model consists of two components, namely participation in budgeting and communication in budget preparation. participation in budgeting is a managerial approach that generally can improve managerial performance. communication is at the core of the budgeting process. from a contingency theory perspective, increased uncertainty in the external environment of the organization inevitably leads to increased differentiation in the organizational structure, which requires a response through the use of integration mechanisms. kung, huang, and cheng (2013) stated that budget communication plays a role in the formation of budget planning models by 85.6%. knowledge management (km) in universities can be conceptualized as a strategic management activity that supports university leaders and educators to utilize and utilize organizational knowledge resources to plan and carry out teaching assignments effectively (hansen, nohria, & tierney, 1999; nonaka, von krogh, & voelpel, 2006). the implementation of knowledge management in universities is very important because universities as knowledge collectors transfer the knowledge of each individual as an intangible asset to an organizational asset. the knowledge management model in this study focuses on 5 plans, namely implementation, evaluation, externalization, combination and culture collaboration, in this case knowledge that explains how tacit knowledge is converted into explicit knowledge and then returned as the basis for individual, group, and organizational innovation. the question that underlies this research is how to build a km mechanism to transform knowledge in universities and organizations into knowledge thinking which then becomes an innovative plan for institutional development and improve performance in this case the performance of lecturers (spee & jarzabkowski, 2011). lecturer performance and innovation performance is defined as the behavior required to develop the responsibilities of the assigned position to achieve productivity, efficiency or effectiveness (belogolovsky & somech, 2010; rich & whittaker, 2017). performance of lecturers according to law no. 14 of 2005 lecturers are professional educators and scientists with the task of developing and irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 209 transforming, disseminating science, knowledge, technology and art through education, research and community service or what is known as the tri dharma of higher education. innovation is a person's desire or desire to learn about new things on a broad and diverse concept (klein & bhagat, 2016). the process of receiving, forming ideas, and applying thought designs to a product is part of innovation. there are two types of innovation according to doran and ryan (2014), namely radical innovation and incremental innovation. radical innovations are innovations that are managed or carried out by a research agency or researcher in accordance with their field. meanwhile, incremental innovation is a series of improvements from something that already exists but the scale is still in the low category. there are five indicators that can be used to measure innovation: creativity, passion, expertise, thinking style, and psychographics (klein & bhagat, 2016). methodology the study of the integration of technology and pedagogical innovation in higher education is a very complex process. in the quantitative perspective, the researchers will use a survey approach, non-experimental research. creswell (2014) a survey design is a different research design from experimental research because it does not involve the care given to participants by the researchers as survey researchers do not experimentally manipulate conditions, they cannot explain cause and effect nor can experimental researchers. instead, survey studies describe trends in the data more than offer strict explanations. survey research is a quantitative procedure in which a researcher conducts a survey of a sample or an entire population of people to describe the attitudes, opinions, behaviors, or characteristics of the population. data collection methods previously designed and validated questionnaires were used in this study, as recommended for quantitative research. instruments in this study include budget planning models (bpm) the authors adopted from the research of kung et al. (2013) with 3 indicators budget participation, budget communication, budget detail, knowladge management author adopted from cheng et al. (2021) research with 6 indicators planning, implementation, evaluation, externalization, combination, collaboration culture, employee performance (ghasemy, mohajer, cepeda-carrión, & roldán, 2020; ryu & vũ, 2020) with 4 indicators: task performance, contextual performance, leanrning performance, innovation performance, innovation capacity (saunila, 2014) with 3 indicators: participatory leadership culture, organizing ideas and structures and regeneration. data analysis online questionnaires were distributed and collected from indonesian consumers who were actively using the internet. the questionnaires were administered via google forms and social networking sites (sns such as facebook, twitter, etc.), including a cover letter stating the purpose of the study as well as instructions for the survey. based on..., social media is a relatively new technological method suitable for transportation data irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 210 collection. snowball sampling (also called network or respondent-driven sampling) was chosen because respondents were asked to share the survey with friends and colleges as well as to publish links, which is in agreement with sarstedt, ringle, and hair (2017) and neuman (2014). data collection was carried out with 485 respondents from 3 universities in the city of jambi, namely two state and one private universities. finally, data analysis went through cronbach alpha to see its reliability, its mean and standard deviation to understand their descriptive statistics, pearson's product-moment coefficient for the relationship between variables, t-test and anova for differences in moderating variables and partial least square structural equation modelling (pls-sem) for the best influencing factors. to test the power in the analysis of this study, gpower was used to calculate the minimum sample size required, and the test suggested a total sampling of 485 to reach a power of 0.95. the data analysis method used was based on the sem-pls approach on smartpls version 3.2.7 following several steps. the first step is to assess the measurement model that tests the reliability and validity of the construct. the second step assesses a structural model that examines the direct relationship between exogenous and endogenous variables (hair et al., 2017). findings description of research data based on table 1, it can be seen that teachers are divided into ages, consisting of 25-35 (90/41.0%), 36-45 years (81/37.6%), > 40 years (40/18, 4%), then the gender of male (90/41.4%) and female (128/56.6%). furthermore, for teaching experience < 10 years (132/60%), 11 to 20 years (55 /25.5%) and >20 years (30/28.6%) percentage. table 1. demographic profile of the participants varible content frequency (n-294) percentagege mean age 25-35 90 41,0 1,596330 36 -45 81 37 >46 40 18 gender male 90 41,3 1,587156 female 128 58,6 teaching experience <10 years 132 60,6 1,768349 11 s/d 20 years 55 25,5 >20 years 30 28,6 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 211 table 2. description of statistics questionnaire and level of variables variables constructs mean categories item description budget planning models budget participation 4,228669 good budget communication(budcom 4,361775 good budget detail (buddet) 4,215017 good knowledge management planning 4,395904 moderate/enough implementation 4,259386 low evaluation 4,25256 good externalization 4,361775 good/high combination 4,187713 good collaborative culture 4,139932 good task performance 4,047782 good contextual performance 4,259386 good performance learning performance 4,562799 good innovation performance 4,426621 very good innovation capacity participatory leadership culture 4,16041 good organizing ideas and structures 4,215017 good regeneration 4,047782 good the highest mean score level is 4.2 on the budget quality variable (budquality) (very good category) and the second level is on budget communication (budcom), budget detail (buddet), meeting needs (metneed), budget flexibility (budflex) knowledge management, performance (pefrm) and innovation capacity (good category). the pls-sem technique was used because it has good predictive power, in addition it was chosen to analyze the data and proposed hypotheses using smartpls software (carrión, henseler, ringle, & roldán, 2016; ratzmann, gudergan, & bouncken, 2016; sarstedt et al., 2017). this study applies the pls-sem technique to develop a model that represents the relationship between the factors that support lecturer performance at the university. we consider the fact that universities are complex, but dynamic systems influenced by many factors (mital, moore, & llewellyn, 2014) and, consequently, several attributes affect the success of technology integration. to get a good model in smart pls, the instrument validity test is carried out again, so that the instrument can measure what it should measure (blumberg, cooper, & schindler, 2014). test the validity of this study using the method of convergent validity and discriminant validity with the help of smart pls 3.0. the first step is to enter raw data with commadelimited csv excel format, after that raw data is entered, the data analysis stages can be carried out as follows. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 212 indicator reliability indicator reliability aims to assess whether the latent variable measurement indicators are reliable or not by evaluating the results of the outer loading of each indicator. a loading value above 0.7 indicates that the construct can explain more than 50% of the indicator variance (sarstedt et al., 2017; wong, 2013). in this study, all loading values were above 0.7, only one was below 0.7, and all of them were above 0.7. table 3. construct reliability and validity cronbach's alpha rho_a composite reliability average variance extracted (ave) budget planning models 0,962 0,966 0,966 0,656 innovation 0,860 0,898 0,893 0,532 knowledge management 0,978 0,979 0,979 0,682 performance 0,938 0,944 0,946 0,575 internal consistency reliability internal consistency reliability measures how capable the indicator can measure its latent construct (memon, bhutto, & abbas, 2017). the tools used to assess this are composite reliability and cronbach's alpha. if the composite reliability value is 0.6 0.7, it is considered to have good reliability (sarstedt et al., 2017), and the expected cronbach's alpha value is above 0.7 (ghozali & latan, 2015). convergent validity convergent validity is determined based on the principle that the measures of a construct should be highly correlated (ghozali & latan, 2015). the convergent validity of a construct with reflective indicators is evaluated by average variance extracted (ave). the ave value should be 0.5 or more. an ave value of 0.5 or more means that the construct can explain 50% or more of the item variance (sarstedt et al., 2017; wong, 2013). reliability tests in smart pls can use two methods, such as cronbach's alpha and composite reliability. according to hair et al. (2014), the composite reliability and cronbach's alpha values were examined along with the extracted mean-variance (ave) to check the reliability of the assessment model. all coefficients of cronbach's alpha and composite reliability must be more than 0.7, although a value of 0.6 is still acceptable. however, the internal consistency test is not absolute if the construct validity has been met because a valid construct is reliable. on the other hand, a reliable construct is not necessarily valid (blumberg et al., 2014). composite reliability varies from 0.974 to 0.982. in addition, the ave value varies from 635 to 707. all values in this research are in the table. both cronbach's alpha, composite reliability and ave are acceptable. it means that the data above are valid and reliable. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 213 discriminant validity the individual reflective measure is very high if it has a correlation of more than 0.70 with the construct to be measured. however, for research in the early stages of developing a measurement scale, a loading value of 0.50 to 0.60 is considered sufficient. discriminant validity aims to determine whether a reflective indicator is a good measure of its construct based on the principle that each indicator must be highly correlated with its construct only. the measures of different constructs should not be very highly correlated (ghozali & latan, 2015). in the smart pls 3.2.7 application, the discriminant validity test uses cross-loadings values, the fornell-larcker criterion, and heterotrait-monotrait (htmt) (carrión et al., 2016). the concept of measuring validity can be done by many methods, including the keizer-meiser-ohlin procedure known as kmo (alkhalaf, drew, & alhussain, 2012). the standard smart pls 3 approach recommends three procedures to measure validity, namely; (1) the fornell-larcker procedure, (2) the cross-loading procedure (chian & alves, 1988), and (3) the heterotrait-monotrait ratio procedure (henseler et al., 2015). the data analysis of this research used the sem – pls approach with the help of the smart pls 3 program application to see the validity of this model. figure 1 is about the outer model measurement display. afterward, to get information on the measurement results in (1) the cross-loading procedure, (2) the fornell-larcker procedure, and (3) the heterotrait-monotrait ratio procedure. the cross-loading value of each construct was evaluated to ensure that the correlation of the construct with the measurement item was greater than the other constructs. the expected cross-loading value is more than 0.7 (ghozali & latan, 2015). based on statistical tests with the help of the smart pls application table 2 above, the cross-loading value of each research construct is more than 0.7, so it can be concluded that all research items have met the requirements of instrument validity. fernell larker criterion the results of statistical measurements of discriminant validity tests through the fernell larker criterion procedure with the smart pls application in this research can be seen in table 4 as follows. table 4. fornell-larcker criterion budget planning models innovation knowledge management performance budget planning models 0,810 innovation 0,777 0,729 knowledge management 0,938 0,786 0,826 performance 0,836 0,896 0,838 0,758 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 214 the discriminant validity criteria discussed by fornell-larcker and their loading and cross-loading criteria. the off-diagonal value informed in table 4 is the correlation between the constructs meanwhile; the diagonal value is the squared value of the ave that indicates the ave value in the construct itself is very high compared to all other constructs. therefore, it can be explained that the ave square root is greater than the correlation below it. in this case, the square root value of ave in each construct is greater than the correlation value between constructs and other constructs in the tested model, so the model can be said to have had a good discriminant validity value (fornell & larcker, 1981). thus, it is feasible to use for research. heterotrait – monotrait ratio (htmt) the results of the discriminant validity measurement carried out in this research through the heterotrait-monotrait ratio procedure can be seen in the following table. table 5. heterotrait-monotrait ratio budget planning models innovation knowledge management performance budget planning models innovation 0,836 knowledge management 0,861 0,843 performance 0,852 0,882 0,852 some experts argue that cross-loading and fornell-larcker criterion are less sensitive in assessing discriminant validity. htmt is a recommended alternative method to assess discriminant validity. this method uses a multitrait-multimethod matrix as the basis for measurement. the htmt value should be less than 0.9 to ensure discriminant validity between the two reflective constructs (henseler et al., 2015). based on the results of the data in the table above, all values are less than 0.9, so the research instrument used is valid. coefficient of determination (r2) the coefficient of determination (r2) is a way to assess how much an endogenous construct can be explained by an exogenous construct. the value of the coefficient of determination (r2) is expected to be between 0 and 1. if the r2 values are 0.75, 0.50, and 0.25, it indicates that the model is strong, moderate, and weak (sarstedt et al., 2017). chin in ghozali and latan (2015) gave the criteria for an r2 value of 0.67; 0.33; and 0.19 partially strong, moderate, and weak. the results of the measurement of this research using the coefficient of determination (r2) can be seen in table 6 below. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 215 table 6. r-square r square adjusted r square budget planning models (bpm) 0,326 0,324 innovation 0,669 0,668 the data in table 6 above show that the coefficient of determination model is strong for performance, moderate for budget planning models and school-based budgeting, and weak for school effectiveness. cross-validated redundancy (q2) cross-validated redundancy (q2) or q-square test was to assess predictive relevance. the value of q2 > 0 indicates that the model has accurate predictive relevance to certain constructs, while the value of q2 < 0 indicates that the model lacks predictive relevance (sarstedt et al., 2017). the results of measurements using cross-validated redundancy (q2) in this research are in table 7 below. table 7. q 2 square rmse mae q²_predict budget planning models (bpm) 0,531 0,401 0,150 innovation 0,498 0,337 0,634 the table above shows the value of q2 > 0 that the model has accurate predictive relevance to the construct. figure 1. partial effect measurement model output displays irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 216 based on figure 2 above, the output display of the partial affects measurement model for each research variable includes the budgeting planning model, knowledge management, innovation, and performance. further information on the measurement results of (1) mean, (2) stdev, (3) t-values, and (4) p-values can be seen in table 8 below: table 8. summary of results of hypothesis testing hypotheses path coefficient p values h1: budget planning models  innovation 0,334 0,000 supported h2: budget planning models  performance 0,210 0,001 supported h3: knowledge management  innovation 0,599 0,000 supported h4: knowledge management  performance 0,473 0,000 supported h5: innovation  performance 0,171 0,010 supported h6: budget planning models  innovation  performance 0,200 0,000 supported h: knowledge management  innovation  performance 0,284 0,000 supported discussion in this study, 6 hypotheses were proposed with the results that there was the effect of budget planning on innovation with the original sample of (β) = 0.334, there was the effect of the budgeting planning model on performance with the original sample of (β) = 0.210, there was the influence of knowledge management on innovation with the original sample. of (β) = 0.599, there is an influence of knowledge management on performance with original sample of (β) = 0.473, there is an influence of innovation on performance with original sample of (β) = 0.171, there is an influence of budget planning model on performance mediated by innovation with original sample of (β) = 0.200, knowledge management on performance mediated by innovation with original sample of (β) = 0.284, all variables affect significantly which can be seen from the p value between variables below 0.05. according to the results of this study, knowledge management is positively related to lecturer performance. the structural model findings show that lecturer performance tends to be higher in universities where knowledge and competence are key factors in strategy and strategic planning, which updates strategy regularly and disseminates it thoroughly throughout the organization. in university. thus, this study supports the arguments made by donate and canales (2012) about the advantages of proactive knowledge strategies in terms of maintaining a broad understanding of knowledge as a strategy, setting goals, utilizing specific km tools, and recognizing the importance of km culture and other tools to enhance innovation so that performance is also increasing. in addition, this study is in line irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 217 with the findings of theriou, maditinos, and theriou (2011) about the important role of leadership and for the sake of km influencing the performance of the institution. institutional performance at universities is determined through the performance of lecturers through teaching, research and community service. this is a challenge for universities to be competitive at local and international levels, the results of this study prove that it is necessary to create a good mechanism to improve lecturer performance through innovation supported by knowledge management, budget planning models so that educational staff or lecturers have programs that are implementable in improving lecturer performance to improve organizational performance. innovation is recognized as a necessary variable and has a significant influence on both public and private institutions to create value and maintain competitive advantage in an increasingly complex and rapidly changing environment (bilton & cummings, 2009; subramaniam & youndt, 2005). in general, innovation not only makes full use of existing resources, increasing efficiency and potential value, but also brings new intangible assets into the organization. companies with greater innovation will be more successful in responding to customer needs, and in developing new capabilities that enable them to achieve better performance or superior profitability (calantone, cavusgil, & zhao, 2002; sadikoglu & zehir, 2010). innovation is very important to achieve operational efficiency and improve organizational quality (hsueh & tu, 2004; parasuraman, 2010). the budget planning model refers to budget control by university leaders or supervisors that emphasizes budgetary goals and the participation of subordinates in setting, monitoring, and communicating goals so that the budget made has positive implications and effects on performance (merchant & van der stede, 2007). investigating the reasons and causal antecedents of budget use in an institution and institution, the characteristics of budget planning have an influence on the effectiveness of budget use which is positively related to the performance of lecturers and institutions. conclusion this study finds and explains the dimensions of knowledge management (km) that enhance innovation and lecturer performance. other empirical evidence explains that planning, implementation, evaluation, externalization and combination become knowledge that contributes to the innovation and performance of lecturers. km is a predictor that contributes to improving innovation and performance. university leaders can use these findings to negotiate with stakeholders about implementing km projects. this research can contribute to practitioners, as it provides organizations with new insights and findings that university leaders can translate into their own institutions. km has a positive impact on innovation and performance. in particular, companies know that with a clear km program they can be more innovative, achieve better financial results, improve processes and develop human resource capabilities. this study reveals the fact that the budget planning model serves as a tool to facilitate decisions and achieve management objectives, can explain the greater influence on innovation and organizational performance. the results of this study provide a reference for universities, especially private universities in jambi province in designing budgeting systems. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 218 during the design process, the budget planning model should take into account the level of emphasis the organization places on the budget. in organizations that place greater emphasis on budgetary objectives by using budget planning models with greater flexibility, it is important to create an enabling atmosphere for leaders of both universities and faculties to maximize the effectiveness of evaluation and monitoring. consequently, it is critical to determine how to fully communicate with units and faculty during the budget participation process, as well as to share information and experiences, improve access to work-relevant information, and create a flexible control environment that empowers and engages activities at both the university and university levels faculty. limitations in this study, the author tries to design a model to maximize the performance of the organization seen from management knowledge and the budget planning model plays an important role in the management control system, the model is only part of the overall system. conventionally, budgeting is considered as a passive tool, only providing information to assist decision making. one possible line of further investigation is to explore the optimal cost-benefit tradeoffs associated with other components and practices of management control systems. future research to create model for developing the performance of educators based on government regulations at the time and more implementing in line with the new industrial revolution. future research may also study the influence of budgeting characteristics on the attitudes and behavior of educators. the researcher is aware of the complexities associated with individual responses to the social environment; it will be interesting to explore the mental state and behavior of superiors in the budget model to examine the reactions of subordinates to budgeting decisions. furthermore, the management knowledge factor can also be seen from the leadership of organizational leaders and the emphasis on efforts to improve lecturer and teaching innovation is an effort that must also be made by leaders to make educational institutions better. disclosure statement no potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors. acknowledgments 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(2013). partial least squares structural equation modeling (pls-sem) techniques using smartpls. marketing bulletin, 24(1), 1–32. biographical notes fitriaty is an assistant professor, faculty of economics and business, universitas jambi, jambi, indonesia, corresponding author’s email: fitriaty@unja.ac.id dessy elliyana was a graduate student, faculty of economics and business, universitas jambi, jambi, indonesia tona aurora lubis is an associate professor, faculty of economics and business, universitas jambi, jambi, indonesia mailto:fitriaty@unja.ac.id this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 28 students’ perception on learning speaking english by using english domino games: the case of a private university diana oktavia 1 and renda lestari 2 abstract this research aimed to see the students’ perception in practicing speaking english using the english domino game. it was conducted using qualitative research with a case study approach. fifteen students of the english department at a private university in muara bungo were chosen by using purposive sampling. furthermore, this research used interviews related to their experience and motivation in speaking english with the domino games to collect the data. the results indicated that the students’ motivation in practicing speaking in english increased by using the english domino games. most of the students felt relaxed and confident to speak while playing english domino. they were also excited and motivated to take their turns in telling the connected story. this kind of game can be an alternative for teaching english, particularly speaking in a non-english speaking country. keywords efl students; games; language skills article history received 1 november 2021 accepted 15 f 2022 how to cite oktavia, d., & lestari, r. (2022). students’ perception on learning speaking english by using english domino games: the case of a private university. indonesian research journal in education |irje|, 6(1), 28–42. https://doi.org/ 10.22437/irje.v6i1.15327 1 lecturer, stkip muhammadiyah muara bungo, indonesia; dianaaoktavia@gmail.com 2 lecturer, stkip muhammadiyah muara bungo, indonesia; rendalestari95@gmail.com irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 29 introduction as one of the non-english speaking countries, indonesia provides english as a compulsory subject available in high schools, universities, and private elementary schools. it shows that indonesian students have started to learn english since their school age. the primary purpose of learning english as a foreign language is to be able to speak that language. speaking is considered one of the essential skills in mastering english as a foreign language. moreover, speaking ability can be used as a measurement to prove that an english language learner has mastered english very well. it is a key to determining communication between two or more people to be fluent and good. it is also the key to conveying and giving messages to the interlocutor. this ability has a crucial role in foreign languages development and mastery, including english. as stated by richard (2008), mastering speaking skills is a top priority in mastering a second or foreign language since it is closely related to a person's performance that shows he masters a language. this ability is considered a benchmark for a person's success in mastering a second or foreign language. however, even though it is one important skill, most english learners feel anxious and timid to speak english. these cases make the learners demotivated to use and practice english. most students tend to be passive learners, learning english without using the language in speaking. this problem is also found in english department at stkip muhammadiyah muara bungo. as foreign language learners, most of the students of the english department at stkip muhammadiyah muara bungo have experienced many difficulties in mastering speaking skills. they consider that speaking is complicated. they do not have the confidence to speak, especially in front of lecturers and classmates. in this department, there are three levels of speaking classes offered in each semester (semester i, ii, and iii). they are conditional compulsory subjects for the students. however, many students have the lower speaking ability. the students have difficulties in speaking english due to the lack of vocabulary and lack of ability to pronounce the words (pronunciation). moreover, most of the students have low motivation in learning and practicing speaking. this lack of motivation is affected by the lack of media that encourages students to practice speaking. so far, they had only practiced speaking using dialogue or monologue. it makes the students feel bored and feel monotonous. therefore, they are less motivated to practice speaking english. rusman (2013) stated that learning media is used to transfer messages that can stimulate thoughts, feelings, concentration, and willingness to learn. meanwhile, to have good english-speaking skills, the students need to practice a lot to get used to speaking in english, get familiar with many vocabularies, and know how to use and pronounce them. therefore, by practicing, the students can convey what they want fluently. this problem happened continuously in the academic atmosphere in the english department at stkip muhammadiyah muara bungo. the students get stuck in a society where almost every student has a low motivation in speaking english. they cannot encourage each other to speak english. it makes no english atmosphere created in this english department. meanwhile, in learning english as a foreign language, they need a good irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 30 society and atmosphere in practice without any anxiety. as stated by oktavia (2020), some factors influence students in learning and acquiring language, and one of them is society. to overcome this, a new medium of teaching started to be used in basic spoken english class as the first level of speaking class. this teaching and learning medium is a developed game, english domino. this game is designed similar to the real domino and legalized by the minister of law and human rights. it is trusted to be very effective in stimulating students to convey the information or messages in learning and practicing english. it can also be assured to foster students' enthusiasm in learning and practicing speaking in english and create a small society where the students get used to speaking english without any shame. furthermore, this media can help students to be able to enrich themselves with vocabulary to speak english in various contexts and practice pronunciation. it helps students to gain more knowledge by practicing speaking in various context, changing from one context to another context (nasrun 2014 as cited in indrayadi, yandri, & kamil, 2020). in addition, games are also competitive and can encourage students to compete in enriching english vocabulary and pronouncing sentences. by playing unconsciously, students will look for new words that will increase their knowledge and understanding of many english words and practice their speaking skills in a fun way and not feel burdened. therefore, to figure out how the students’ perception towards practicing speaking skills using english domino in basic spoken english, this current research was conducted by involving 15 students as the participants. it was to answer the question 1) how does students’ perception of speaking skills? 2) how does students’ perception of using english domino in practicing speaking? literature review according to annisa (2015), speaking skill is categorized as productive skill, like writing skill. in speaking, people produce speech; while in writing people produce a text. speaking is used as a medium to communicate, share information, and build relationships in society (fulcher, 2014). moreover, speaking is often considered a measurement in learning a language. language learners are categorized as good at the language when they can use the target language. as stated by glover (2011), speaking proficiency is evidence that the learners have achieved the language. however, as an essential skill, speaking is very complex. to master this skill, the learners need to have many vocabularies, know how to pronounce the words, understand the grammar, etc. most english learners find it difficult, so they keep themselves not using it. shabani (2013) stated that this skill is considered the most challenging in mastering the language. its difficulty makes many english learners have a negative perception of speaking skills. moreover, it requires a high motivation for learners to master the speaking, especially english speaking. that motivation can come from many aspects. harmer (2007) stated that motivation is categorized as intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. intrinsic motivation comes from the person itself, or it is a willingness of a person to do something without any influence from outside. the extrinsic motivation appears because of outside factors such as people, environment, things, etc. in the teaching and learning process, extrinsic motivation can be appeared using a game as the learning media, especially in learning english. game is one of the most popular irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 31 learning media for students of various ages, children to adults. it is also a medium that can help students recognize, learn, and practice english language skills. as ellis (2005) states, games in language learning are fun activities, and they provide opportunities for students to practice the language in fun situations. furthermore, ersoz (2000) also has the same opinion. he stated that games are a fun medium that can build high motivation for students in learning. several previous studies have proven the effectiveness of using games in language learning. saine, lerkkanen, ahonen, tolvanen, and lyytinen (2011) have proven the effectiveness of the use of graphogametm games in improving students' ability to read finnish texts. then, the same thing happened in zambian that the use of graphogametm games proved to be very effective in improving the literacy skills of grade 1 students at zambian public school (jere-folotiya, chansa-kabali, munachaka, sampa, yalukanda, westerholm, & lyytinen, 2014). not only that, previous research on the use of a game to improve students' speaking skills has been conducted in one of the junior high schools in yogyakarta. the results showed a significant increase in students' speaking skills using the board game learning media (nirmawati, 2015). students can be encouraged to have more practice when they get relaxed in the class. playing the game while learning will give this relaxed and relieved feeling, so the students can learn like they are playing. methodology research design, site, and participants this research was conducted in qualitative with a case study approach. in collecting the data, it used interviews that involved 15 students as the interviewee. these students were the first-semester students at english department stkip muhammadiyah muara bungo. they were studying basic spoken english as the first level of english class. most of them acquired english as their second language and started to learn english at 12 years old. furthermore, they learned english for the first time in junior high school as a compulsory subject. before conducting this research, a letter of request was sent to the vice chairman for academic affair of stkip muhammadiyah muara bungo and the head of the english department. after having permission to conduct the research, the students were given invitations and asked their willingness to participate in this research. afterward, the participants were interviewed face to face individually. the interviews were conducted for two months and asked about their experience in playing the english domino game and motivation in speaking english. this case study research was conducted in a qualitative method through interviews. the location of this research was the english department of stkip muhammadiyah muara bungo. to obtain detailed information, the researchers chose 15 students using purposive sampling as the participants. those students were the first-semester students of the english department. they were studying basic spoken english which is the first level of speaking class in the english department, before academic speaking and public speaking. based on their language background, they speak indonesian and regional languages for their daily communication. most of those students gained english after bahasa indonesia and the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 32 regional language. they started learning english in junior high school. it means they have learned it for more than five years. however, their english speaking skill is still low. in this current research, these participants were asked questions about their experience in practicing speaking by using the english domino. data collection and analysis this research used semi-structured interviews to obtain the required data. this interview consisted of some questions related to students’ motivation in speaking before learning using the english domino game, students’ perception of speaking skills, students’ perception of using english domino to practice speaking, and students’ experience in practicing while playing the game. the interviews consisted of some questions, such as 1) what do you think about speaking? 2) what do you feel when you play an english domino game? 3) how can this game motivate you to practice speaking? 4) how do you feel when you get the turn to tell the story in this game? were you afraid to speak? or were you shy? 5) what do you think about practicing speaking using the domino game? 6) why do you think this game can help you improve your speaking skill? and some other questions. the interviews were conducted face to face and recorded during the process. after that, the recording was transcribed and analyzed using qualitative descriptive. to fulfill the required data in this research, the interviews were conducted two times for two months. there were some steps in the data analysis containing data management, generating and development codes, themes, or categories, within-case, and cross-case displays, and interpretation and presentation of data analysis (mukminin, 2012). after analyzing the data, the researcher checked whether it had fulfilled the required data or not. the results of this interview were described and connected to the related theories and previous studies. ethical considerations to keep all the confidentiality of the research location and all participants’ information, we concealed our participants under pseudonym names. findings as explained before, the interview involved 15 participants. based on the answers, the finding of this interview can be categorized into two general groups, the students’ perception of speaking skills and the student's perception of using english domino games toward their motivation in practicing speaking. students’ perception of speaking skill based on the interview, some students showed their negative perception of speaking skills, but some students showed their positive perception because they have good ability in speaking. most of the students explained the following data. “i think… speaking is very creepy.” [ma] irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 33 “hmm... i cannot speak english good.” [el] “i think, speaking is very difficult. you need many vocabularies, you need confidence, you have good grammar. yes, it is complicated.. i think.” [dd] “i don’t know many vocabularies. so, i am afraid to speak in front of my friends.” [rl] “well, yes, for me, speaking is very difficult. i am not confident to speak english in front of the class.” [rj] based on the results, most students felt afraid to practice speaking because they did not have many vocabularies. they were worried about making mistakes. since they were not active in the class, the class was boring for some students. however, in contradiction, some students reported that they liked learning to speak english from the beginning. it was a fun class for them because they could speak english and became active. “yes, i like speaking. hmmm... it is my favorite class.” [yn] “e...... for me.... hmmm... speaking is ver fun class, we are active in this class, because we can speak.”[wp] “yes... yes.... i like speaking. although i am not good, but... hmmm... i like to try speaking english.” [it] “i think... speaking is very enjoyful. i like practicing speaking in the class. because only in the class, i can speak english. outside, i don’t have any friend to speak english.” [mt] in the interview, the students explained about their perception of speaking skills. some students thought that speaking was hard. they also assumed it as the most challenging skill since they must memorize a lot. this finding was in line with the statement stated by shahbani (2013) that speaking is the most challenging skill in mastering the new language, and it is spontaneous. students’ perception of using english domino towards their motivation in practicing speaking moreover, to have deeper information about the students’ perception of the english domino game, the interview was continued to find the students' experience before using english domino and the students’ experience after using english domino in basic spoken english class. the students experience in practicing speaking before using english domino, most students told that they did not have a high motivation in practicing speaking before having an english domino as one of the media. it happened because of the following: irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 34 lack of vocabulary based on the interview, it was found some students uttered some factors that they did not feel confident to speak english because they had a lack of vocabulary. this case led them to consider speaking english as a creepy activity. the following statements reflect the data: “speaking is very creepy. eeee.... because i don’t have many vocabularies and we should speak in english.” [ma] “i did not like speaking that much. because before, we... we... only speak... and at the time, i did not have many vocabularies. i was afraid.” [dd] “i don’t feel confident, i have little vocabulary, so... i did not want to speak in front of my classmates.” [rl] based on their statements, it can be seen that in the beginning, most of the students had a lack of vocabulary, so they were afraid to speak up in the class. they preferred keeping silent rather than trying to speak. afraid of making mistake some of the students told the researcher that they felt afraid to speak because they worried about making mistakes when they were talking. the following statements told more about the students’ worries about speaking. “i like speaking, but i was shy to speak. i was afraid to do mistake.” [el]” “i was afraid to speak english... hmm.... because my friends did not speak english. so, i did not want to speak using english alone.” [wy] “because the lecturer asked us to speak in front of the class, so i was shy.. and... and.. i was afraid to make mistake and my friend will laugh at me” [mt] “speaking was frightened.” [de] speaking class was boring in the interview, the students also stated that before learning using the game, the speaking class was boring. therefore, they did not enjoy and practice actively. some students joined the class and watched other students practice, and not everyone was involved. “i don’t like speaking class before. it was boring.” [rj] “for me... it was just like... we speak, and then...done.. hmmm... it was bored...”[wy] irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 35 “i come, but..... eeee. i only silent, so i am bored” [de] “well... i like to come, but.... because i’m shy, i keep silent, eee... and... i am bored in the class, yes..ee... little bit” [el] the students’ experience in practicing speaking using english domino, besides the information about the students’ experiences learning and practicing speaking without the english domino game, the participants also gave information about their experiences in practicing speaking using the english domino. they explained how they felt enthusiastic practice while playing the game. the english domino change the atmosphere of speaking class the students explained that having the english domino created the speaking class to become more relaxed. therefore, they could enjoy it. the following statements explained more about it. “studying by using the game can make the process of teaching and learning activities becomes better and more effective, students can be more active, communicative and not shy in doing when they want to do something, can help students understand the subject matter, can improve students' abilities in terms of coordination, communication and cooperation, can apply mutual respect, intimacy and honesty between students.’[ma] “the learning process using the play while learning method will make students feel more relaxed in the learning process and will be easy to understand and will unconsciously improve skills in certain subject areas related to the game.” [dd] “therefore, game-based learning can be an attractive solution for students.”[el] “playing game can motivate students to practice without our awareness” [mt] “learning while playing can remove the stress, and boredom that we feel. sometimes, for some people, learning while playing is also a center of inspiration to do various activities.” [rj] “my feeling when playing this game is very relaxed and also fun. i don't feel bored in class and this really helps to refresh the monotonous way of learning the previous day.” [de] “i feel very happy in joining the game.” [mt] “when i play this game i really enjoy it, it's not too exhausting, i also have fun with friends, we sometimes laugh because of the stories we compile” [it] irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 36 based on the explanation, the students explained that they could enjoy the class without feeling anxiety. they felt happy to speak english because it became colorful and not monotone. they also thought that they were playing, but they were practicing speaking. unconsciously, they practiced without being shy. moreover, the students gave more specific information on the usage of english domino games in basic spoken class. the students explained that having the english domino created the speaking class to become more relaxed. therefore, they could enjoy it. the following statements explained more about it. “it is a very fun educational game, i as one of the students who participated in the learning process was very comfortable and happy with the educational game method.” [ma] “in this game i feel that the interaction in one class is good and it trains teamwork, i also feel that this game makes us not bored in following lessons, we play while learning.” [dd] “usually learning will be boring because it is too serious and fixated on the lesson. but in this lesson we feel not too bored with lesson, we defend jar while playing.” [dd] increasing the students’ confidence some students explained that they become more confident to talk, as the following explanations. “because we all speak, so i am confident, yes.... confident to say something.” [dd] “i can practice speaking english without feeling afraid. because everyone has turn to talk, so it was like okay for me, it makes me confident.” [rj] “with the domino, i can speak with my friends. i am more confident.” [de] leading students to become more active and creative not only felt relaxed in the class, but some students also reported that practicing speaking using the english domino game encouraged them to be more active and creative. “it is very cool to practice in learning with a game, because learning while playing can also make students more interactive, active, motivated, creative, and even smarter. because this method also does not make students bored and is too focused on material whose learning methods are usually very standard so that it often makes students bored easily.” [wy] irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 37 “it can help students not to be bored in class because the games obtained by educators are very creative, and it is also one of the learning media so that students are not fixated on the material, but are also active and creative in class.” [rn] “this game is very excited and it challenges me to think the story and speak up.” [rf] “my feeling playing this game is certainly very happy and challenges me to think fast and this game is not only fun, of course it also provides knowledge.” [wp] increasing the students’ motivation in practice the students explained that they were more motivated to speak because it was like playing a game. furthermore, every student got turns to speak, so no one could roast them when they made mistakes. telling the chain story in a group killed their anxiety because they did not feel alone. the following statements explained their feeling. “well.... hmmmm.... i feel excited to wait my turn and i feel i have motivation to speak.” [mt] “i always feel excited to wait my turn.” [it] “i think this game is very exciting because in addition to adding knowledge it also adds vocabulary that i don't know, this game is really very useful because it can make us know what we didn't know before, we are also made nervous and tense due to this game, vocabulary very exciting words and sentence making makes the game not bored.” [rn] “yes, it motivates me to practice... and... and.. i enjoy the game.... eee... makes me not bored in learning.” [de] “this game is very excited. it makes me motivated to speak........ motivates me to be more active and enthusiastic in learning more creatively and also makes me know more things.....” [rn] based on these data, the students had a positive attitude toward practicing speaking through the game. seven students explained that they felt the domino game gave a new atmosphere for them in the class. they enjoyed the practice because it became more colorful. related to the student's motivation in speaking. the following reports gave deeper data about it. “we become more enthusiastic in carrying out learning activities.”[dd] “eeeee..... the usual learning process must be very boring, using the learning method by playing domino games, the learning process becomes more exciting and relaxed.” [de] irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 38 “in this game, we are encouraged to practice. ee....... no one in this game can skip hmmm... their turn to practice speaking, because in the game we can practice directly about speaking in english.” [el] “the game makes us feel happy and.... and..... motivated to practice speaking. we feel very encouraged to speak in english.” [mt] “this domino is different with common domino. it has vocabularies on it instead of numbers. i..... i am personally very excited to do this vocabulary domino game. here we will connect the words into a good story or essay. yes, it motivated me to practice speaking.” [it] “english domino game that contains these words makes students more enthusiastic in learning and thinking. students are also more active in interacting with their fellow students and with lecturers.” [rj] “not only that, during this game i became interactive, active, creative, thought of strategies in completing missions, had high imaginations, improved the ability to speak spontaneously in stringing words in english, practiced teamwork, understood the intent and purpose from the implementation of the learning.” [wy] giving new experience and challenge the students got encouraged to practice speaking english by using the domino game as a talking medium. they found this a great experience to create a connected story spontaneously challenged them to think creatively and quickly. some of the students explained how they felt about this challenge. “during the game process there were some difficulties that i found between the difficulty of integrating stories.... eee...... into stories that my friends had made and finding some vocabulary whose meanings were not yet known.” [ma] “yes, it does, because in this game... emmm.... we have to reflect and think hard about what words are connected and can be continued because the words are very many and must be connected with the words we previously made.” [rn] “it challenges me to think quickly and this game is not only fun,of course it also provides knowledge.” [mt] “well... yes, it does..because.. connecting words into a story is not easy, especially when the words are issued differently, so that's where we are required to think about how this can be a good story, and quickly finish the game.’’ [it] irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 39 those challenges made them more excited to find the meaning of vocabularies on domino cards and then create a story based on the word related to the previous story. the students found that practicing speaking while playing the english domino game was a great experience that increased their motivation and confidence in speaking. however, on another side, some students also reported that they felt shy at the beginning of the first meeting. they did not know and understand how to play. furthermore, after having the explanation about the game and the rules, their confidence was built because of the practice, and they got some turns to talk. “firstly, i was shy..... but, gradually i do practice and practice and makes me more understand and i feel confident to speak.” [rf] “first, i was forced to speak. and then, i enjoy the game to tell the connected story and practice.” [ma] based on the results, it showed that most students had a positive perception of using the english domino game in practicing speaking. this game created a new atmosphere for the students. it helped the students to increase their motivation and confidence in speaking english and remove their anxiety. besides, because this game provides many kinds of vocabulary, it encourages students to be more active and creative. discussion teaching english as a foreign language is not easy because it needs a great effort to make the students comprehend and require the language. one of the complicated problems in teaching english is to increase their motivation, especially in learning speaking. many students are demotivated to speak english because they feel afraid of making mistakes and not confident to use it in front of people. furthermore, speaking is considered a challenging skill to master because of its spontaneous nature and the implementation of conventional teaching approaches that emphasize memorization and students' passive role (shabani, 2013). this lack of motivation and anxiety make the students tend to be silent in the class. as stated by harmer (2001), teachers are the ones who have many roles in the teaching and learning stage. for being good and professional teachers, they do not only need to be the model in the classroom, but they should also be the controller, organizer, assessor, prompter, participant, resource, observer, and tutor in their class. therefore, the teacher's essential role is to build the students' motivation in learning. as a good educator, the teacher should be able to organize and manage the classroom to encourage and motivate students. they should be able to create an attractive class. one of the strategies to create a comfortable atmosphere for students to learn is using good strategy and media. as it has been implemented in stkip muhammadiyah muara bungo, english domino game is used as one of media to support the basic spoken english teaching and learning process. this research focused on the students’ perception in practicing to speak english using domino games as the media. the findings showed that students had positive perception toward using english domino game in practicing speaking. the implementation irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 40 of this game got the same results with several initial researches which have proven the effectiveness of using games in language learning. such as, the same thing happened in zambian that the use of graphogametm games proved to be very effective in improving the literacy skills of grade 1 students at zambian public school (jere-folotiya, chansa-kabali, munachaka, sampa, yalukanda, westerholm, & lyytinen, 2014). and then, another initial research on the use of a game to improve students' speaking skills has been conducted in one of the junior high schools in yogyakarta. the results showed a significant increase in students' speaking skills using the board game learning media, nirmawati (2015). however, ersoz (2000) stated that when deciding to use game in the classroom, it is very important to find the suitable game that can fit the learning objectives. this statement refer that not every game can be used in any class, it requires many consideration, whether the level of game, the objective of subjects, the students’ characteristics, etc. the results of this current research,using this game could remove the students’ anxiety in practicing speaking. they became more motivated to practice speaking using the english domino games as the media. using this game made them happy and enjoy to practice. it created a different atmosphere in the class and gave a relaxed feeling for the students. therefore, the students could practice without any anxiety. they enjoyed the practice and the game. through playing the game, they gained more vocabulary and more knowledge. moreover, they were trained to become more creative and more active. as stated by dorney (2019 cited in anggraini, hayati, & pitaloka 2020), the learning environment and conditions also affect students' achievement. furthermore, the interview results also showed that the students gave a positive perception of using the english domino in the basic spoken english class. besides creating a positive atmosphere in learning, this game could increase their motivation to practice speaking. these findings prove the theory of students that can get extrinsic motivation in learning english. according to harmer (2007), there are two types of motivation. they are intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation. media is one of the extrinsic motivations which can encourage students to learn and practice more actively. in this research, the students played english domino by connecting the words and creating a story in turn. the students were involved in a group where the first student started the story, and the following students continued the story using the words on domino cards. in this game, every student had a chance to explore the vocabulary and create a chain story. as found in the initial study, using media in teaching and learning is essential to increase the students’ motivation and give a huge opportunity to explore their idea (ihsan, 2016). not only that, creating a connected story in a small group encouraged them to think cooperatively. this cooperative learning supports the students to learn working cooperatively with the groupmates (hawkins 2017 as cited in indrayadi, yandri, & kamil, 2020). conclusion and recommendations/implications based on the data, it could be concluded by the two general terms, including 1) students perception of speaking skills, and 2) students’ perception of using english domino in practicing speaking. eventhough some students like speaking class, but most of them irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 41 showed the dislike of this class. they felt the speaking class is creepy and they felt afraid to speak in front of the class, becuase they worried to make mistakes. however, using english domino game switched the classroom’s atmosphere, it made them enjoy and relaxed in practicing speaking. this game removed the students’ anxiety in speaking, the students felt more comfortable speaking while uttering the stories. they got more enthusiastic in waiting for their turn to speak, the english domino game could increase the students’ motivation in learning speaking. . the students got confident to speak english because everyone should use english at the game. through this game, they could improve their vocabulary because they got some new words from the domino. furthermore, they also got trained to be more creative in thinking as when they thought about the sentences they would utter directly and spontaneously. disclosure statement no potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors. acknowledgments we would like thank to irje and the reviewers for accepting and publishing our article. this research was complished with the help from some parties. our gratitude to english department of stkip muhammadiyah muara bungo that has supported us to do this research. special thanks for the participants who already gave required information. references anggraini, h. w., hayati, r., & pitaloka, n. l. (2020). students’ perceptions in a diverse language classroom: the case of one public university in indonesia. indonesian research journal in education|irje|, 4(2) 433-447. annisa, r. (2015). an analysis of students’ ability in using auxiliary verbs in writing descriptive text: a case study at first grade of ma nw narmada in academic year 2014/2015 [unpublished doctoral dissertation]. universitas mataram. ellis, r. (2005). principles of instructed language learning. system, 33(2), 209-224. ersoz, a. (2000). six games for the efl/esl classroom. the internet tesl journal, vi, 6, http://iteslj.org/lessons/ersoz-games.html fulcher, g. (2014). testing second language speaking. routledge. glover, p. (2011). using cefr level descriptors to raise university students' awareness of speaking skills. language awareness, 20(2), 121-133, doi: 10.1080/09658416.2011.555556. harmer, j. (2001). the practice of english language teaching. harlow: longman. harmer, j. (2007). how to teach english. harlow: pearson longman. ihsan, m. (2016). the effect of using video as alternative media on the students' ability to construct procedure text at first grade of mas al-jam'iyatulwashliyah jl. isma'iliyah medan in 2015/2016 academic year [unpublished doctoral dissertation]. universitas islam negeri sumatera utara. http://iteslj.org/lessons/ersoz-games.html irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 42 indrayadi, t., yandri, h., &kamil, d. (2020). the effect of contextual teaching and learning on reading comprehension. /irje/indonesian research journal in education/, 4(2), 569-583. http://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v4i2.9017. jere-folotiya, j., chansa-kabali, t., munachaka, j. c., sampa, f., yalukanda, c., westerholm, j., …& lyytinen, h. (2014). the effect of using a mobile literacy game to improve literacy levels of grade one students in zambian schools. educational technology research and development, 62(4), 417-436. mukminin, a. (2012). from east to west: a phenomenological study of indonesian graduate students' experiences on the acculturation process at an american public research university [unpublished doctoral dissertation]. the florida state university. nirmawati, l. a. (2015). improving students’ speaking skills through speaking board games of grade viii of smp n13 yogyakarta in the academic year of 2013/2014 [unpublished thesis).yogyakarta state university. oktavia, d. (2020). does the age matter in acquiring second language? journal of language education and development (jled), 2(2), 252-260. richards, j. c. (2008). teaching listening and speaking (p. 48). cambridge: cambridge university press. rusman, b. (2013). belajar dan pembelajaran berbasis komputer: mengembangkan profesionalisme abad 21. bandung: alfabeta. saine, n. l., lerkkanen, m. k., ahonen, t., tolvanen, a., & lyytinen, h. (2011). computer‐ assisted remedial reading intervention for school beginners at risk for reading disability. child development, 82(3), 1013-1028. shabani, m. b. (2013). the effect of background knowledge on speaking ability of iranian efl learners. language, 1(1), 25-33. biographical notes diana oktavia is a lecturer and a secretary of english department at stkip muhammadiyah muara bungo. renda lestari is a lecturer and vice chairman for academic affair at stkip muhammadiyah muara bungo. http://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v4i2.9017 this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 18 a model for evaluation of rural schools in developing countries pedro sánchez-escobedo 1 and liz hollingworth 2 abstract rural schools in developing countries present a unique opportunity to understand the factors required to create a successful learning environment for students with a specific set of challenges. this paper proposes a developmental model for evaluating rural schools, constructed with data derived from evaluation and research projects carried out in yucatan, mexico. in short, the model assumes that rural schools should provide a comprehensive set of services and support for a socially vulnerable population. thus, this is a developmental model of evaluation that considers the school as a holistic unit, including the quality and length of educational services, the social supports, the school infrastructure, and the availability of comprehensive services before evaluating learning and curriculum. sustainability, a key element in the model, is examined through school infrastructure, constancy and overall provision of services, and the degree of students’ readiness to learn and opportunities offered. the model can place a school along a specific point along a continuum of a developmental process, providing clear directions and specific goals for school leaders to use to grow and advance the rural school toward a fully comprehensive center of learning and social change. keywords rural schools, evaluation model, developing countries 1 college of education, university of yucatan, mexico; psanchez@correo.uady.mx 2 college of education, the university of iowa mailto:psanchez@correo.uady.mx irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 19 introduction in 2015, a research team with funds from the mexican federal government carried out a study of four rural schools in the mayan zone of the yucatan to evaluate the impact of the emerging program, “escuelas tiempo completo”, or “full time schools project.” this federal school improvement program was designed to provide support to mexican children in socially vulnerable conditions by extending educational activities from three to six hours a day, and to provide additional support in areas of health, nutrition, special education, spanish language, math, technology, mayan language and culture, and art (sanchez escobedo, 2016). results and lessons learned from this study provide the basis for the construction of a new conceptual framework to understand how rural schools develop from providing the most basic services to students to a comprehensive, full-service community center with full supports for the special needs of rural school children in developing countries. historically, the evaluation of school effectiveness has oscillated between models that underline instructional issues and those that assess social and contextual issues involved in the student readiness to learn. from the first perspective, carroll (1963) presented a model where the degree of student mastery is a function of the ratio of the amount of time spent on learning tasks to other non-instructional activities. in the carroll model, the quality of instruction can then be improved by focusing on immediate factors such as aptitude, opportunity, perseverance, quality of instruction and the ability to understand instruction. in this way, the carroll model provides a way to understand and evaluate schools as a function of the time spent teaching and the quality of instruction. the second perspective is best illustrated by the seminal work on equality of opportunity undertaken by coleman (1966) and jencks (1972). these two studies from different disciplinary backgrounds arrived at similar conclusions, arguing that learning was largely dependent upon the physical and psychological readiness of the student. this readiness was determined by the degree of nutrition, health, security, and other essential supports within the family and community. however, there are few models of evaluation that combine both views. in the case of rural schools specifically, there have been relatively few attempts to develop models of evaluation for rural schools that are both theoretically sound and that have pragmatic value. furthermore, some models of education are based upon subjective and pedagogically-based constructs, making them difficult to assess. for example, the 2017 mexican educational model presented by aurelio nuño mayer, secretary of public education, argues that the final outcomes of education are liberty, creativity, reasoning, and not memory. these outcomes are not only unobservable, but also do not take into account school context. the model presented here derives from results and data from an ethnographic research project in rural schools in conditions of social vulnerability in yucatan, mexico. in short, the model posits empirical dimensions and measurable indicators to place a given rural school in a specific developmental stage along a continuum, prescribing actions and strategies for growth and advancement. to better understand the rural school context, we first provide a review of the literature on the evaluation of rural schools. irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 20 literature review on the evaluation of rural schools despite many of the similarities with mexican rural schools, american models and strategies of evaluation of rural schools in the united states cannot be used to assess rural schools in developing countries. for example, as in mexico, children in rural schools in the united states face poverty and food insecurity at a greater rate than the national average (demi, coleman-jensen, & snyder, 2010; olsen, 2017). however, despite the poverty of students, nelson (2010) argues that small, rural american schools have several advantages such; sufficient resources, well-paid teachers, meals, and other health supports to children. furthermore, smaller class sizes create a much more personalized environment for building relationships among students and staff. this also means that every student may have a greater opportunity to participate in a variety of learning and extracurricular activities. in fact, it has been argued that many rural schools in the united states actually provide a better educational outcome for students than urban schools (olsen, 2017). on the other hand, poverty in rural schools in mexico has had a tremendous influence on the students’ readiness to learn, and public educational policies do not necessarily respond to many needs of rural schools. although only a quarter of the mexican population lives in rural areas, two-thirds of the population live in extreme poverty reside in this area (tyler, 2006). furthermore, poverty in rural areas is worse than in urban areas because there are fewer services and opportunities (pateman, 2011). not surprisingly, educational outcomes in the rural mexican schools are far from satisfactory. the mexican agency for educational evaluation reported that because of poverty conditions, rural students do not learn to read and write on the average until they are 8 years old, a significant delay in comparison to their urban school’s peers, which is closer to 6 years old (instituo nacional de la evaluacion de la educacion, 2017). what is more, the indigenous population living in poverty comprises the segment of the population with the highest rates of illiteracy (schmelkes, 2013). this group composes two-thirds of the enrollment in mexican rural schools and has significantly fewer resources and infrastructure than urban schools. moreover, nearly half of the teachers in mexican rural schools do not hold a college degree. despite the importance given in official discourse to the role of schools in improving social conditions, evaluating the effectiveness of rural schools remains a secondary discussion in educational policy and evaluation studies. what is more, the few calls for school evaluation in mexico focus on using student test scores to determine school quality. student learning outcomes are not a fair indicator of the effects of schooling in rural settings in mexico due to the negative influences of malnourishment, hunger, diseases or family violence. in general, the rural school has some specific educational characteristics which require a psycho-educational approach as well some teaching strategies particularly adapted to its context. hence, specific evaluation standards and strategies are required. from this perspective, traditional models of evaluation in the united states used to assess rural schools cannot be used in mexican rural schools because of the diverse socio economic conditions, available resources, and educational policies. the major difference is perhaps that conditions in the united states and developed countries allow for the assessment of learning and instruction as indicators of quality of the school and the effectiveness of the educational process. while in developing countries, rural schools need to account first for the remedial or effects of educational services and other socials supports in the general development of a child (scheerens & creemers, 1989). irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 21 a second important difference between united states and mexico is the role and value of the school in the community. although in both countries rural schools are perceived as centers for the community (barley & beesley, 2007; olsen, 2017), the rural school in mexico is in fact the most important service provider to the population in disadvantage. vaccines, medication meals, meals, orientation and even financial support are provided directly or indirectly through the schools and education, in general, is a strategy for social development. in this context, home schooling is not only illegal but also it is considered to be a disadvantage and a sign of social isolation. this work proposes a developmental model of evaluation for rural schools in developing countries that aims to go beyond traditional assessment models used in the united states, such as the growth model that attempted to estimate the percentage of students that met criteria for proficiency, or the value added model of achievement that aimed to make positive measurements of students’ progress. following basic tenets of physical and psychological development, this model does not consider test scores or teacher evaluation reports unless the school had provided services to children cancelled the negative effects of poverty. it is argued that in rural schools, judging only students’ scores is unfair, because it does not consider the conditions of disadvantage, the bilingual character of the school, problems with access and materials, or simply the degree of nourishment and health of the students. in addition, the model responds to the criticism of many other attempts that fail to devise a system of incentives that will align agents (services, teachers, principals and parents) with the organizational goals (abernathy, 2010). in this view, schools are the center of evaluation, not the students, principals or teachers. the model assumes that every rural school can be placed in a point of development depending the services and reach that they have achieved. any school then can be placed along a continuum from a basic, emerging position to a holistic one with complete services that help the student ready to learn. method an ethnographic approach in four typical rural schools in this region of mexico was employed to collect information from the teachers, students, family members, and local authorities. the results were provided to stakeholders in the forms of written reports, audio, video, and other digital media (see for example, http://j.tinyurl.com/mayaproject). as a result of this research, parameters of evaluation of these rural schools were established by combining the opinion of key actors (teachers, headmasters, administrators) with measurable indicators of efficiency, such as percentage of scheduled days of class actually provided, percentage of students attending school daily, availability of services (vaccines, etc.) quality and amount of teaching materials, and the number of days that meals were provided. indeed, it was clear from the study that objective measurable indicators were insufficient to judge the degree of efficiency in these schools in context. lessons learned established five clear directions for a new kind of evaluation process; (1) schools need to be viewed as a unit in a holistic fashion, (2) any school can be placed at any given point of developmental scale, (3) beyond educational or instructional perspectives children’s challenges need to be hierarchized, (4) evaluation results should provide specific directions for improvement, and (5) evaluation must be a systematic and consistent process. irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 22 the evaluation of rural schools is complex and must be carried out in a qualitative fashion by methods that mix objective measurable indicators with statements and judgments of the school context to understand how the school responds to a child in social disadvantage. in addition to traditional indicators of learning, this new avenue of evaluation requires the assessment of the services and supports schools provide. it is only when the basic needs of students are met that they are ready to learn, so it would be premature to evaluate a school based on student academic outcomes until the school itself has reached the “comprehensive” stage. in sum, data collection for this process, such as interviews, site visits, document review, and surveys, led to the re-conception of the school as a center of services and social support, promoting not only for learning, but also opportunities for social advancement. finally, the contextual framework and individual approach to each school was of paramount importance to the establishment of specific strategies for transition to higher levels of development. in some instances, for example, the school had to provide incentives to volunteer parents to prepare lunch. in others, the headmaster had to procure resources to build a covered shelter for protection for students during the lunch break because of the afternoon heat in the jungle. another school needed to foster communication with families to ensure attendance of children to the school. in sum, each school had its own challenges, so the model had to take into consideration the individual contexts of each site. results from the study allowed investigators to identify different the specific types of educational services and social support actions that had positive influence on the educational process, such as increasing students’ attendance, fostering creative positive learning environments, or providing additional support to the student such as meals, vaccines, uniforms and other resources. results also provided the basis for constructing a developmental model of evaluation, holistic and developmental in nature, which is depicted in the following sections. results: a developmental model for rural school evaluation the model considers factors from the instructional process, while adds insightful criteria from models that focus on environmental conditions and factorize contextual factors into the understanding of educational outcomes. the factors considered are school readiness, infrastructure, instruction, and opportunities. table 1. stages of the model stage focus of evaluation basic planning identification of opportunities and strengths some services are provided developmental there is a sense of complete services, meals and systematic health support is provided comprehensive complete services are provided, meals include breakfast and lunch. there is a systematic provision of health and educational services irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 23 table 2. dimensions of the model dimensions indicators sustainability school readiness breakfast lunch vaccines y, n, frequency, % of children, number of days etc. infrastructure classrooms toilets kitchen etc. #, conditions, use etc. instruction days of class hours of class materials learning outcomes # of days, n of hours, existing materials opportunities physical education special education economic support advancement y or n. # days figure 1. the developmental model of rural schools (mors) •all day school, meals included •homework, artistic and pyshical education •200 effective days of instruction/year •individual differences attended •special education and health services available comprehensive •technology •bathrooms •cafeteria •health/vaccinations developing •<180 days •child physically ready to learn basic irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 24 figure 2. dimensions of the model of rural schools (mors) rather that eliciting right or wrong judgments, schools are placed through evaluation of these dimensions in each developmental stage from a basic level, where resources are scarce without evidence of consistency of teaching strategies and social supports, to a consolidation stage – the evolution stage – in which support and services seem to be sufficient and better organized in a consistent and stable fashion, toward the ultimate level of development which is the comprehensive level. at this level, all services are provided in the school in a consistent and predictable fashion. in other words, the infrastructure to serve these children is comprehensive, there are sufficient and complete services and consistent (and persistent) actions to guarantee their educational readiness and learning is spite of individual differences and social disadvantage. hence, assessment of the schools is systematic over a period of time and considers contextual factors from a developmental perspective. the developmental model is presented in figure 1 and it can be conceived of in three stages. stage one focuses on assessing services, where the basic needs of students are met. stage two is centered on issues of school management, leadership and administration. finally, stage three is centered on student learning and academic outcomes. it is a pyramidal model in the sense that learning is a higher-level function that needs from basic social support and education infrastructure. in addition, the model assumes a developmental perspective that allows any school to move from any given point of development, from an initial stage in which the implementation of measures and indicators emerges in the school community, to a holistic and comprehensive stage in which instructional strategies and other sources of social support act together in fostering learning. rural schools serving children in vulnerable social conditions must have a holistic and comprehensive view of the child beyond learning and achieve curricular milestones. in this sense, the model evaluates schools as units of service, instruction, and social change. adult actors, such as the school principal or the teachers, are not considered in isolation. indeed, these schools must care for a broader and integral perspective that encompasses the child healthy development in various dimensions. under this tenet, rural sustainable readiness opportunity instruction infrastructure irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 25 schools must have systematic screening processes that allow early identification and treatment of children with developmental, health, social and behavioral problems. early identification of children with developmental delays is critical for diagnosing and providing early interventions and improving the school potential and their chances of continuing in the educational ladder. in this perspective, rural schools in mexico should screen for basic health issues such as infections or dietary conditions to more sophisticated affections such as learning disabilities or emotional problems. in the comprehensive stage, rural schools track students with digital files providing inclusive services and supports. in addition, in this stage the school measures developmental milestones and other physical and psychological indicators of growth, learning, and social adaptation. this is a holistic model that considers the school as a unit of social support. hence, the schools are viewed as a comprehensive provider and administrator of several educational, health, psychological, and social services that help children overcome conditions of disadvantage. in this view, the role of the schools goes beyond learning contents from the curriculum, whereas it is crucial to help children achieve key physical and psychological developmental milestones at expected at a given age in similar urban and even private schools. the model hierarchizes and order evaluation indicators in a more logical succession of events. that it, it attempts to account for physical, social and psychological factors which are essential for learning, before judging the role of school. at the same time, the model addresses conditions related to learning in the school such as the learning environments, the discipline, and the infrastructure. the model is based in the tenet of accountability for the complete and consistent provision of services to fight back extreme poverty. this is in contrast with the government’s pedagogical model that strives to foster creativity and reasoning in frank disregard of social conditions and developmental delays broadly reported in mexican rural zones. in sum, the model for evaluation includes procedures and indicators from both, the contextual general setting and from the school situation. ideally, key elements should be accounted to create an index of impact that allows evaluators to place the school, in each stage of development, from basic, where basic educational instructional tasks are carried out, to developmental stages in which some of the services and supports are provided along with instruction, to an ultimate comprehensive level of development. in this stage, the school not only provides and manages several services and supports for children, but also it is able to generate a learning environment. discussion as opposed to the government-derived models based upon subjective pedagogical postures, this model focusses on services and efficiency in social supports that can be measurable, evaluated and furthermore, that can elicit criteria for accountability in social and educational intervention. the present developmental model to evaluate rural schools assumes that potential learning can only be assessed if basic health, nutritional, hygienic and other most basic needs of the children are met. in rural settings in mexico, latin america, and many other developing countries around the world, rural schools should be conceived as the front line in the struggle against the cycles of disadvantage that perpetuate poverty. there are three implications of the findings. the first relates to teacher training that should emphasize subjects that help teachers understand the influences in human development, nutrition, and irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 26 hygiene associated with poverty and their effects on learning and on strategies in the school that may help interrupt the cycles of transmitted deprivation (rutter & madge, 1976). the second implication relates to the importance of the person leading the school. school leaders can provide transformation in rural, high-poverty schools by having high expectations for all (childers, 2009), building positive trusting relationships with stakeholders (gorski, 2015; tschannenmoran, 2014), and providing support and professional development for teachers (kono, 2012). rural school directors who view poverty through a perspective of finding strengths instead of deficits and who have high expectations for all learners are better equipped to facilitate instructional growth and positive change for students living in poverty (gorski, 2015; klar & brewer, 2013). rural leaders can help build positive learning cultures in their schools by knowing and understanding both the culture of their students and culture of the neighborhood(s) (gorski, 2015). leaders who understand the context of their communities are better able to facilitate a positive culture and learning environment (ylimaki, jacobson, & drysdale, 2007). principals can create a safe and supportive learning environment for students and staff by building trusting relationships (tschannen-moran, 2014). in addition, principals can build trust with families and provide opportunities for families to be involved in schools (masumoto & brown-welty, 2009), which could include providing child care and transportation to school events, or providing family outreach by going out into the community (gorski, 2015). a third implication for is the need to provide on-going support and training for educators in rural schools (ashton & duncan, 2012; kono, 2012). educators must understand that until student’s basic needs are met, effective learning and teaching is not likely (durlak, weissberg, dymnicki, taylor, & schellinger, 2011). when the social and emotional needs of students are met, there is an increase in academic performance, fewer behavior problems, and increased feelings of positive self-esteem and emotional and social development (payton et al., 2008). the fourth implication is that policymakers in the mexican educational system should imagine schools as not only as places of instruction and learning, but also in terms of institutions to be leveraged for social justice. this progressive view envisions schools as agents of social and personal development for children in poverty. the pilot program of full time schools should be fully funded to include provision of foods, uniforms, health services and additional instruction. finally, results provide a framework for future educational research to explore factors related to socioeconomic conditions in rural schools in other countries. a shift in the expectations for what a rural school must provide students before addressing the instructional process will ultimately improve student learning and readiness for school. conclusion the need to identify and construct pathways of change and implementation in mexican rural schools demands an evaluation model with a sound theoretical support. the mors model provides a framework to explore the effects of investment and effort in rural schools with particularly vulnerable populations of children. in addition, the levels and stages included in the model, provide landmarks to judge both research and evaluation processes. when in poverty, children in rural schools need complete and comprehensive support that overcomes deficiencies and weaknesses from the family or origin to be physically and irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 27 emotionally ready to respond to the demands of the school. rural schools ultimately should provide a clean, safe, nurturing, and stimulating environment. what is more, rural schools must address developmental issues and account with mechanisms and the necessary staff to assess, teach and provide intervention when needed. in general, the school must account for each student in identifying the presence of risk and protective factors and able to use various kinds of screening tests, record and monitor each child health, educational and developmental history, and develop actions in the community such as promoting parental involvement in school activities and local authorities support. results from the study allowed investigators to identify different types of educational services and social support actions that had positive impact, the mexican model is similar to other such as the “escuela nueva” in colombia and guatemala providing additional support to the student such as meals, vaccines, uniforms and other resources. of course, the implementation of the model provides important future research opportunities. the next step will be the development of a quantitative index, by assigning a partial value to different services in each dimension to help place schools in different degrees of development. secondly, clear specifications for improvement and change must arise from the use of the mors if practical value and impact is desired. analysis and further examination of the role of rural schools in fighting poverty and disadvantage need to be revived both in educational research and policy making. most importantly, what is needed is a comprehensive rural school in rural yucatan to serve as a prototype for other rural communities in mexico. this model school would provide all of the services outlined in the mors, including transportation to and from school to allow for larger class sizes. ideally, this model school would be associated with a university to allow for the training of the next generation of teachers and school leaders with specialization in the unique needs of rural school children. references abernathy, s. f. (2010). no child left behind and the public schools. ann arbor: the university of michigan press. ashton, b., & duncan, h. e. (2012). a beginning rural principal's toolkit: a guide for success. rural educator, 34(1). barley, z. a., & beesley, a. d. (2007). rural school success: what can we learn?. journal of research in rural education, 22(1), 1-16. carroll, j. b. (1963). a model of school learning. teachers college record, 64(8), 723-733. childers, w. h. (2009). transformational leadership and its relationship to trust and behavioral integrity. (phd), saybrook university. coleman, j. s. (1966). equality of educational opportunity: u.s. government printing office. demi, m. a., coleman-jensen, a., & snyder, a. r. (2010). the rural context and secondary school enrollment: an ecological systems approach. journal of research in rural education (online), 25(7), 1. durlak, j. a., weissberg, r. p., dymnicki, a. b., taylor, r. d., & schellinger, k. b. (2011). the impact of enhancing students’ social and emotional learning: a metaanalysis of school based universal interventions. child development, 82(1), 405-432. gorski, p. c. (2015). reaching and teaching students in poverty: strategies for erasing the opportunity gap. new york, ny: teachers college press. instituo nacional de la evaluacion de la educacion. (2017). base de datos y tablas estadisticas. irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 28 jencks, c. (1972). inequality: a reassessment of the effect of family and schooling in america. klar, h. w., & brewer, c. a. (2013). successful leadership in high-needs schools: an examination of core leadership practices enacted in challenging contexts. educational administration quarterly, 49(5), 768-808. kono, c. d. (2012). comprehensive teacher induction: meeting the dual needs of principals and new teachers in rural schools. journal of college teaching & learning (online), 9(2), 129. masumoto, m., & brown-welty, s. (2009). case study of leadership practices and school-community interrelationships in high-performing, high-poverty, rural california high schools. journal of research in rural education, 24(1), 1-18. nelson, s. (2010). leveraging the unique features of small, rural schools for improvement. lessons learned, 1(5), 1-4. olsen, d. (2017). rural homegrown school leaders. (phd), university of iowa, proquest. pateman, t. (2011). rural and urban areas: comparing lives using rural/urban classifications. regional trends, 43(1), 11-86. doi:10.1057/rt.2011.2 payton, j., weissberg, r. p., durlak, j. a., dymnicki, a. b., taylor, r. d., schellinger, k. b., & pachan, m. (2008). the positive impact of social and emotional learning for kindergarten to eighth-grade students: findings from three scientific reviews. technical report. collaborative for academic, social, and emotional learning (nj1). rutter, m., & madge, n. (1976). cycles of disadvantage : a review of research. london: heinemann. sanchez escobedo, p. (2016). evaluacion de las escuelas de la zona maya de yucatan. merida yucatan., mexico: consejo nacional de ciencia y tecnologia. scheerens, j., & creemers, b. p. (1989). conceptualizing school effectiveness. international journal of educational research, 13(7), 691-706. schmelkes, s. (2013). educación y pueblos indígenas: problemas de medición. revista internacional de estadística y geografía, 1, 5-13. tschannen-moran, m. (2014). trust matters: leadership for successful schools: john wiley & sons. tyler, s. r. (2006). comanejo de recursos naturales aprendizaje local para la reduccion de la pobreza (comanagement of natural resources: local learning for poverty reduction) en foco ylimaki, r. m., jacobson, s. l., & drysdale, l. (2007). making a difference in challenging, high-poverty schools: successful principals in the usa, england, and australia. school effectiveness and school improvement, 18(4), 361-381. biographical note pedro sánchez-escobedo is a former fulbright scholar. currently he is a senior lecturer at the university of yucatan, in the college of education. he has contributed significantly to both educational and psychological fields in mexico. he was in charge of the standardization processes of the three major intelligence scales widely used in mexico in both clinical and educational settings and he has published so far 7 books an more than 100 original research articles. liz hollingworth is the director for evaluation at the lindquist center. she is a full professor at the college of education, the university of iowa this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 158 parents’ investment in english for young learners: the case of elementary school students attending non-formal english education nuria farahdina 1 , ismail petrus 2 , and sary silvhiany 3* abstract this research seeks to explore parents‟ investment in english for young learners. nowadays, english is not a compulsory lesson in state elementary schools in indonesia. however, parents invested their children in non-formal english education. this research offers the point of view of state elementary school students‟ parents regarding english education at an early age. this research implemented a qualitative with a case study approach. it involved six parents of state elementary school students. the data were collected through semi-structured interviews and demographic questionnaires. the interview data were analyzed using thematic analysis. this research finding indicated that all parents had high or positive expectations after their children joined an english course. the main factor indicating this was that english is not a compulsory lesson anymore in indonesian state elementary schools. thus, the parent‟s involvement in supporting their children to learn english made them practice it at home and in additional english courses. keywords english for young learners, elementary school, non-formal english education, parents‟ investment article history received 17 may 2023 accepted 15 june 2023 how to cite farahdina, n., petrus, i., & silvhiany, s. (2023). parents‟ investment in english for young learners: the case of elementary school students attending non-formal english education. indonesian research journal in education |irje|, 7(1), 158 – 170. https://doi.org/10.22437/irje .v7i1.25149 1graduate student of sriwijaya university, palembang, indonesia 2 senior lecturer at sriwijaya university, palembang, indonesia 3*senior lecturer at sriwijaya university, palembang, indonesia; corresponding author: ssilvhiany@unsri.ac.id https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v7i1.25149 https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v7i1.25149 mailto:ssilvhiany@unsri.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 159 introduction this globalization era has affected all aspects of human life in many ways, including politics, economy, culture, and especially language. language is essential in human life because it is for communicating with each other. of many kinds of languages, english is the most important one because it is the lingua franca of the world. hence, learning it in the earlier stages of education is paramount. according to english is one of pennycook (2017), the international languages used as a communication tool in international relationships and used in all branches of knowledge. it means people should not be blind to english. people will not be blind to english if they learn it earlier, like, when they are a kid or in elementary school, so it will be easy to understand how to speak english. if they know english earlier, especially since they are a kid, it will not be hard to continue their learning in english in the further steps. according to kids undoubtedly understand new knowledge and evridawati (2020), the ability to speak a language in early childhood can affect academic achievement in school. it means when they get new lessons or language, they will accept it. learning english since they are kid means they learn english at a young age, or people call them young learners. according to sukmawati (2018), young learners are between 0 to 15 years old. however, according to government rules number 67 of 2013 about the elementary school curriculum pages 9-10, there is no mention of the existence of english subjects in elementary school. since english in the early stages of education is important, children need parents to guide them in this case. therefore, parents‟ investment in supporting their children is necessary. it is one of the most important for their children to influence how their children will grow. according to parents‟ awareness of the importance of education wati and sahid (2022), greatly influences decision-making on educational extensions for children. since many parents are aware of the importance of education in supporting children‟s survival in the future, parents will be more aware of expanding education to a higher level for the benefit of the children, the environment, and the future. therefore, in this research, the researchers are interested in knowing why parents want to invest their children in learning english outside (non-formal english education) while their children are not learning english at school. thus, the research problems in this research are (1) what are parents‟ expectations regarding their children‟s english ability? (2) what are the factors that contribute to the parent‟s investment in attending non-formal english education for their children? (3) how do parents involve their children in english language development? theoretical framework based on , investment models are divided into three darvin and norton (2015) components, consisting of identity, ideology, and capital. they influence each other. darvin have explained that the models have relation and power in every and norton (2015) component. ideology, language ideology is an essential construct to understand the mechanisms of power in linguistic exchanges. this investment model is expected to form a broader irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 160 construct of ideology, that is, as a normative set of ideas. the correlation between ideology and parents‟ investment is about parents‟ mindset that depends on parents‟ expectations of children‟s english ability. english ability in this research is from non-formal english education. models of investment figure 1. darvin and norton’s model of investment (2015) identity is to understand how inscriptions of identity such as race, ethnicity, gender, social class, and sexual orientation shape the way learners and their resources/capital are positioned in different social spaces. in this regard, our goal is not to explain these categories as factors or to find patterns of behaviour within categories, nor attempt to establish causal relations between social groups and learning outcomes. instead, to understand how these inscriptions of identity can shape learners‟ way of navigating diverse social contexts, relations, and practices, and how learners can be privileged or marginalized by their identity, such as black, latinx, woman, working class, gay or straight. however, specifically for indonesian parents to invest their children in non-formal english education because their perspectives are english can bring positive impacts for their children even though it is a foreign language. hopefully, it can open windows to the global world for a better future. capital is a power that extends from the material/economic to the cultural and social. economic capital refers to wealth, property, and income; cultural capital refers to knowledge, educational credentials, and appreciation of specific cultural forms. meanwhile, social capital refers to connections to networks of power. the value of these capitals is determined by ideological structures, but it is continually negotiated in different fields or sites of struggle. in this stance, investment for capital is not only for parents‟ money for materials things but also for supporting their children to join non-formal english education. therefore, capital can be one of the essential factors in supporting their children to get english education from non-formal english education. english education english education is paramount. meanwhile, students should learn english as soon as possible, especially young learners, because when teachers teach young learners, they will get used to knowing english. according to teaching english in lesia and petrus (2022), irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 161 indonesia seems to force students to know the rules and develop sentences. besides, some teachers who teach english to young learners do not have the appropriate educational experience. sometimes, several things in the material are out of sync and out of control. since this issue appears especially in teaching english to young learners, the indonesian government has launched many policies to solve this current issue. in indonesia, teaching english to young learners was considered necessary in large cities. many parents compete to have their kids learn english as young as they are. this situation is how these schools deal with this phenomenon and how they can deliver effective and efficient learning. when the teachers are teaching english to young learners, it means teachers develop the children's knowledge. however, nowadays in indonesia, the government made a rule that english is not a compulsory language anymore. in addition, based on in government rules number 67 of 2013 about kaltsum (2016), the elementary school curriculum pages 9-10, the sd/mi subjects consisted of two groups, group a and group b. group a consisted of 1. religious education and character education, 2. pancasila and citizenship education, 3. indonesian (bahasa), 4. mathematics, 5. science, 6. social sciences. group b consists of 1. cultural arts and crafts., 2. physical education, sports, and health. furthermore, the cultural arts and crafts subjects can contain all regional languages. in addition to the intra-curricular activities, as stated in the curriculum structure above, there are also extracurricular activities for elementary school/madrasah ibtidaiyah between scouts (mandatory), school health enterprises, and the youth red cross. extracurricular activities such as scouts (especially), school health units, youth red cross, and others are to support the formation of students' social competencies, like caring attitudes. it means that there are no english lessons mentioned in the research. non-formal education non-formal education is knowledge from outside school. students can get it from the community or course. according to non-formal education is grajcevci and shala (2016), different from formal education. it is flexible in terms of curricula and methodology, but learning in these settings is not by chance. instead, it is intentional and organized. students‟ needs and interests are placed at the center, and the time frame is lacking. non-formal education is flexible, adaptable to local circumstances and changing needs, and convenient for the target group. it can be used for virtually any type of subject matter and learning objectives. it is free to try new and unconventional approaches. programs can be designed to serve all people regardless of their age or educational background. in addition, according to mara and thomson (2021), non-formal education gives people control over the additional skills and knowledge they acquire. in conclusion, non-formal education is different from formal education because it does not have research limitations and has more time from outside. it can be huger than formal education. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 162 parents’ investment parents' investment is one of the most important for their children because it will influence how they will grow. according to parents‟ awareness of the wati and sahid (2022), importance of education greatly influences decision-making on educational extensions for children. additionally, parents are part of the family. it means that people can also call it a family investment. described that family education investment is a yu and wenjing (2021) special way of investment, which is fundamentally different from financial investment in nature, mode, and time. the goal of financial investment is profit only. the short-term benefit is pursued in time, and profit is the primary investment. the education investment pursues the long-term goal of cultivating people. in addition to capital investment, there is also the payment of knowledge and energy. parents' investment in children‟s education is much, and according to the conclusion of this research, parents do not seek a return. there are three factors of parents‟ investment in their children, supported by gauthier and jong (2021).  future labour market prospects as a motive for parental investment the first perspective views parents‟ investment as a way of increasing children‟s future labour market prospects and future „returns‟. theoretically, it assumes parents‟ investment in their children, especially in their human capital to be driven by a desire to secure children‟s future (in an altruistic way) to preserve or improve a family‟s social status, or to ensure support (returns) at an older age.  social pressures (or societal norms) as a motive for parental investment two decades ago, to capture this new parenting ideology and the related pressures on mothers to invest in their children. this ideology carries a high expectation regarding parents‟ time, money, and emotional investment in children, as well as expert guidance to provide the best for the children. deploying time and financial resources to stimulate children‟s development has become part of what a good parent is expected to do.  the quest for self-growth as a motive for parental investment finally, the third perspective views parental investment in children as a source of personal fulfillment and self-growth. this argument has been made in the context of the transition to parenthood, where becoming a parent is associated with social identity acquisition. but it has also been made regarding child-rearing, by which negotiating today‟s challenges and social expectations related to good parenting contributes to a feeling of accomplishment and self-growth. the conclusion from the explanations above is the factors of parents‟ investment are not only about materials but also about parents‟ willingnesses, if there is no motivation from the parents to ask their children to join non-formal english education, even though they have much money and can pay for everything, it will not support their children to join the classes. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 163 young learners young learners are different from teaching english to adults or young adult learners. stated that indonesian young learners are elementary school oktaviani and fauzan (2017) students between 6 to 12 years old children. in addition, according to , young phillips (1993) learners are children from the first year of formal schooling (five or six years old) to eleven or twelve years of age. however, as any children's teacher will know, it is not so much the children's age that counts in the classroom as how mature they are. many factors that influence children's maturity, for example, their culture, environment (city or rural), sex, and the expectations of their peers and parents. the conclusion is that young learners are students who have been six to twelve years old, which means that the range age six to twelve is elementary school students because most elementary schools have started first grade from six years old and it will be to twelve years old. methodology research design, site, and participants this research used qualitative research. according to , qualitative maxwell (2005) researchers typically study a relatively small number of individuals or situations and preserve the individuality of each in the analyses rather than collecting data from large samples and aggregating the data across individuals or situations. in addition, also stated creswell (2012) that qualitative research is a method for a problem to get an in-depth understanding of the case, not excluding understanding the participants, event, activity, process, individuals, etc. this research was conducted on parents‟ investment in english for young learners, the case of elementary school students attending non-formal english education, non-formal english education at palembang. the participants of this research were parents of elementary school children who attended non-formal english education. the number of participants interviewed in the research was six people. they were from young learners‟ parents in attending non-formal english education from state elementary school students. all of the justifications have followed: (1) parents who have fifth or sixth-grade students, (2) parents who have students from state elementary school, and (3) indonesian ethnicity. data collection, demographic data, and the interview in this research, the primary data were obtained with interviews and demographic data. according to a qualitative interview occurs when the participants are creswell (2012), asked by researchers general, open-ended questions and record their answers. an interview was conducted to seek the answers to the research questions regarding parents‟ investment in english for young learners. the interview process was done in indonesian to avoid misunderstanding the interpretation. the researchers followed several steps in conducting the interview. first, prepare the interview protocol and the recorder to record the interview process. second, prepare a note irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 164 to write some additional information. third, the researchers met and asked for parents‟ permission to attend non-formal english education as the research participants. before beginning the interview process, the researchers introduced themselves to the interviewee and the purpose of the interview. fourth, the researchers started asking several questions based on the interview protocol as comfortably as possible. the interview questions consisted of 20 items adapted from during the interview process, the norton (2015). researchers recorded all the conversations. furthermore, the researchers applied thematic analysis in analyzing parents‟ investment in english for young learners, the researchers applied thematic analysis. thematic analysis is a method for identifying and reporting patterns (themes) within data (braun & . the researchers therefore, the collecting data from the interview were clarke, 2006) transcribed to identify categories based on the answers to the interview questions. afterward, the researchers read the interview transcripts, then classified the data based on the code. after the coding process, the researchers made it into themes. in addition, demographic data is used to get more detailed information about the research participants. in this part, the researchers provided some questions for the participants. they are name, age, gender, educational level, job, income per month, daily language, self-rated proficiency in using english, and frequency of english usage. findings and discussion high expectations from the parents regarding their children’s english language to obtain data about parents‟ expectations regarding their children‟s english language. the result showed that the parents have high expectations regarding their children‟s english ability. findings from the research are detailed into one emerging theme. it is about understanding english fluently. understanding english fluently understanding english fluently was a high expectation for young learners who attended non-formal english education, even though english is not compulsory for state elementary schools. the participants were from state elementary school parents. thus, making students understand english fluently is a high expectation because they do not know anything about english when they join non-formal english education. these findings are from the following interview answers. “after joining the english course, she can speak english”. (desy, february 2023) “my expectation is not too high, to understand english and can communicate in english in the future.”(randy, february 2023) “i hope my child can understand english and can communicate in english after joining this course.” (yeti, february 2023) irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 165 “i wish my child can speak english”. (alpra, february 2023) “i hope my child can fluently speak dan understand english”. (elsan, february 2023) “after joining the english course, she can use engish at the home and in school. i hope they can understand english”. (intan, february 2023) to obtain data about parents‟ expectations regarding their children‟s english ability. the result showed that the parents put high expectations after taking their children to join non-formal english education. understanding english fluently is one of the high expectations kinds, especially for state elementary school students who do not have english lessons in their studies. if the parents take their children to the english course, it means they do not know anything in english, even though just a little bit. therefore, it is categorized as high expectations if parents expect to make their children understand english fluently. the absence of english lessons in the school and international language are the factors contributing to the parent's investment in attending non-formal english education for their children to obtain the data related to factors contributing to the parent‟s investment in attending non-formal english education for their children. the result showed that there is no english lesson in the school and english is an international language. both are factors why parents take their children to join english courses or non-formal english education. findings from the research are detailed into two themes. they consist of english as not a compulsory lesson, and english is an international language. english is a not compulsory lesson english is not a compulsory lesson is the reason why parents take their children to join non-formal english education. however, english can be as muatan lokal. three parents as participants answered that there is no english lesson, even if it is only muatan lokal. these findings are from the following interview answers. “because she wants to study english by her willingness. in the school there is nothing english lesson, thus i support her to join non-formal english education”. (randy, february 2023) “in the school, my child does not learn english. i support her to join an english course”. (desy, february 2023) “there is nothing english lesson because it is for getting knowledge, i ask my child to join english course”. (yesi, february 2023) “there is nothing english lesson, the reason why i ask my child to join an english course is for getting new knowledge about english”. (agung, february, 2023) “there is nothing english lesson, while english is very important for the future”. (elsan, february 2023) irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 166 “because there is nothing english lesson, while i support my child for joining english course because it is for getting knowledge about english and can speak english correctly”. (intan, february 2023) english is an international language english is an international language, and that is the reason why parents want their children to learn english. most parents answer that english is essential and it is an international language. these findings are from the following interview answers. “yes, it is important, because, in the globalization era, we need to communicate with another country, however, most of the countries can speak english so that we can understand what they have already talked about”. (randy, february 2023) “important, because english is an international language and english is a famous language in the world”. (agung, february, 2023) “yes, it is very important”. (elsan, february 2023) “yes, because it is for making their knowledge wider”.(intan, february 2023) to obtain the data related to the factors contributing to the parent‟s investment in attending non-formal english education for their children. the result showed there is no english lesson in the school and english is an international language. it is related to government rules number 67 of 2013 about the elementary school curriculum pages 9-10. nothing is saying english lesson is a compulsory lesson. findings from the research are detailed into two themes. they consist of english is not a compulsory lesson and english is an international language. the first is that english is not a compulsory lesson for young learners. young learners can easily understand everything. according to , english children‟s khumairo (2022) songs have been commonly used as pedagogical tools to teach english to young learners. it means teaching young learners is very simple and easy. it is deeply regretted the school does not place an english in the school. if the reason of government wants to make young learners focus on indonesian, the school has already learned about indonesian. it means they still learn about indonesia at school and also at home. second, english is an international language. it is true because most countries are familiar with english, and in fact, english is an international language. hence, all countries need to learn english, especially when they are a kid or young learners. it will affect their english skills if they learn earlier about english. according to english is an international language that is tosuncuoglu (2017), famous to everybody. it means everybody has already known that english is for communicating if people meet with other countries. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 167 parents practice english at home for involving their children in english language development to obtain the data related to how parents are involved in their children's english language development. the result showed that the parents involved their selves with their children after joining the english course. findings from the research are detailed into one theme. it is about supporting their children to practice english at home. supporting their children to practice english at home to make their children want to remember what they have already learned in english courses, their parents sometimes ask them to speak english. they also support online games and allow them to play the games. however, sometimes their parents ask in english about the games. all participants care for their children. they also follow up and ask their children in english at home, although not too often. these findings were from the interview with randy. he asked his daughter what she had already watched on the handphone, like watching an english film. he asked her to tell him what she had already watched in an english film. furthermore, he also asked about her hobby in english. in addition, yeti and agung stated they asked their children about the lesson, which has been learned when studying english. then, elsan said that he asked his child to speak english at home. last, an answer from intan. she stated that she asked her child to talk in english for her to remember and understand. to obtain data regarding how parents are involved in their children's english language development. the result showed that the parents involved their selves with their children after joining the english course. the research findings are detailed into one theme. it is about supporting their children to practice english at home. according to li and doyle , parental literacy beliefs appear to be related to children‟s early literacy skills and (2022) literacy interactions, and the association between parental beliefs and children‟s early literacy skills may be mediated by home literacy interactions. it means even though the parents seldom practice english for their children. parents can give literacy interaction, like asking their children what game they played in english to make them interested to answer. discussion the research result showed that parents put high expectations after they take their children to join non-formal english education. the research findings are detailed into one theme, understanding english fluently. understanding english fluently is one of the high expectations kind, especially for state elementary school students who do not have english lessons in their studies. if the parents take their children to the english course, it shows they do not know anything in english, even though just a little bit. that is why if parents expect to make their children understand english fluently, it is categorized as high expectations in addition, according to parents‟ expectation is about ideology from the model norton (2015), investment because it is related to the ideas. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 168 second, to obtain the data related to the factors contributing to the parent‟s investment in attending non-formal english education for their children. the result showed that there is nothing english lesson in the school and english is an international language. it is related to government rules number 67 of 2013 about the elementary school curriculum pages 9-10. nothing is saying english lesson is the compulsory lesson. findings from the research are detailed into two themes. they consist of english is not a compulsory lesson and an international language. the first is that english is not a compulsory lesson for young learners. young learners can easily understand everything. according to khumairo (2022), english children‟s songs have been commonly used as pedagogical tools to teach english to young learners. it means teaching young learners is very simple and easy. it is deeply regretted the school does not place an english in the school. if the reason of government wants to make young learners focus on indonesian, the school has already learned about indonesian. it means they still study indonesian at school and also at home. second, english is an international language. it is true because most countries are familiar with english moreover, it is an international language. hence, all countries need to learn english, especially when they are a kid or young learners. it will affect their english skills if they learn earlier about english. according to english at elementary school can ernawati et al. (2021), improve students‟ skills and prepare them for international competitions. this research also used demographic data to know parents‟ income. thus, it concludes parents‟ income is also a factor. according to , income is a part of norton (2015) the capital from investments theory. in addition, stated parents believed atwell et al. (2009) that their children‟s future life will be much better with english as it is interrelated between economic value and language. it means economic value can be one of the reasons to support their future. last, to obtain data regarding how parents are involved in their children's english language development. the result showed that the parents involved their selves with their children after joining the english course. findings from the research are detailed into one theme. it is about supporting their children to practice english at home. according to li , parental literacy beliefs appear to be related to children‟s early literacy and doyle (2022) skills and literacy interactions, and the association between parental beliefs and children‟s early literacy skills may be mediated by home literacy interactions. it means even though the parents seldom practice english for their children, they can give literacy interaction, like asking their children what games they played and using english to make them interested, especially, since most games use english nowadays. in addition, ) explained norton (2015 this case is a part of identity because it is about ethnicity. they thought that english was essential, which was why they involved their children to improve their english at home. conclusion this research concerned parents‟ investment in english for young learners, the case of elementary school students attending non-formal english education. the results areall parents want to get high or positive expectations after their children join english courses, and the result showed the absence of english lessons while it is an international language. that is why they became the factors why the parents asked their children to join non-formal english education. third, the result showed that all parents support their children to learn irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 169 english at home after joining non-formal english education. their parents ask their children to practice english even though it is not often. declaration of conflicting interests the authors declared no potential conflicts of interest. references atwell, r., gifford, s. m., & mcdonald-wilmsen, b. (2009). resettled refugee families and their children‟s futures: coherence, hope and support. journal of comparative family studies, 40(5), 677-697. braun, v., & clarke, v. (2006). using thematic analysis in psychology. qualitative research in psychology, 3(2), 77-101. creswell, j. w. (2012). educational research: planning, conducting and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. boston: edwards brothers. in: inc. darvin, r., & norton, b. (2015). identity and a model of investment in applied linguistics. annual review of applied linguistics, 35, 36-56. evridawati, b., & yetti, e. (2020). the cognitive style and attachment on early childhood speech skills. jurnal pendidikan usia dini, 14(1), 32-49. gauthier, a. h., & de jong, p. w. (2021). costly children: the motivations for parental investment in children in a low fertility context. genus, 77(1), 1-19. grajcevci, a., & shala, a. (2016). formal and non-formal education in the new era. action researcher in education, 7(7), 119-130. kaltsum, h. u. (2016). bahasa inggris dalam kurikulum 2013 di sekolah dasar (english in the 2013 curriculum in elementary schools). research colloquium, 276-283. khumairo, k. i., inayati, d., & tyas, p. a. (2022). pre-service and in-service teachers' perceptions on the use of english children's songs. acuity: journal of english language pedagogy, literature and culture, 7(2), 236-247. lesia, e. s., petrus, i., & eryansyah, e. (2022). teaching english for young learners in elementary school: perceptions and strategies. international journal of elementary education, 6(1), 142-148. li, l., & doyle, a. (2022). contextual support in the home for children's early literacy development. berkeley review of education, 11(1), 41-73. maxwell, j. a. (2012). qualitative research design: an interactive approach. sage publications. norton, b. (2015). identity, investment, and faces of english internationally. chinese journal of applied linguistics, 38(4), 375-391. oktaviani, a., & fauzan, a. (2017). teachers perceptions about the importance of english for young learners. linguistic, english education and art (leea) journal, 1(1), 1-15. pennycook, a. (2017). the cultural politics of english as an international language. taylor & francis. phillips, s. (1993). young learners. oxford university press. sukmawati, n. n. (2019). teacher talk in teaching english for young learners. jurnal varidika, 30(1), 62-72. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 170 tosuncuoglu, i. (2017). ecrif framework system. journal of education and training studies, 5(3), 130-134. wati, a. p., & sahid, s. (2022). factors influencing parents‟ awareness of children ‟education' investment: a systematic review. sustainability, 14(14), 8326. yu, l., & wenjing, z. (2021). study on the influencing factors of family education investment difference. 2021 international conference on modern educational technology and social sciences (icmetss 2021). zhong, j., gao, j., wang, t., he, y., liu, c., & luo, r. (2020). interrelationships of parental belief, parental investments, and child development: a cross-sectional study in rural china. children and youth services review, 118, 1-8. biographical notes nuria farahdina was a graduate student of sriwijaya university, palembang, indonesia ismail petrus is a senior lecturer at sriwijaya university, palembang, indonesia sary silvhiany is a senior lecturer at sriwijaya university, palembang, indonesia; corresponding author: ssilvhiany@unsri.ac.id mailto:ssilvhiany@unsri.ac.id this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 43 the challenges of learning assistance encountered by parents in a rural area wiwik wijayanti, 1 rahmania utari 2 , and widia murni wijaya 3 abstract the corona virus disease 2019 (covid-19) has been determined as pandemic causing schools around the world to be closed. this research aimed to observe the constraints of remote learning in rural areas during the covid-19 pandemic. this quantitative research involved 280 parents in a rural area of magelang city, indonesia. the samples were chosen by using the proportional area random sampling technique. the research data were analyzed statistically and descriptively. the research results show that time allocation and parents’ academic capability accompanying children were the most challenging factors. moreover, many children have emotional issues while doing assignments at home. related to school, curricular information to parents and the supply of learning facility assistance were insufficient. also, the most prominent problems in the role of parents in assisting children in learning were parents’ limited time and their low academic ability which should be considered by policymakers. keywords accompanying children learning; learning constraint; remote learning; student behavior article history received 30 july 2021 accepted 18 february 2022 how to cite wijayanti, w., utari, r., & wijaya, w.m. (2022). the challenges of learning assistance encountered by parents in a rural area. indonesian research journal in education |irje|, 6(1), 43–57. https://doi.org/10.22437/irje .v6i1.14292 1program studi manajemen pendidikan, universitas negeri yogyakarta, indonesia; wiwik_wijayanti@uny.ac.id 2program studi manajemen pendidikan, universitas negeri yogyakarta, indonesia. 3program studi manajemen pendidikan, universitas negeri yogyakarta, indonesia. mailto:wiwik_wijayanti@uny.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 44 introduction the covid-19 is determined by the world health organization (who) as a pandemic since this virus has been distributed to many countries, and this virus has been distributed quite rapidly. it has caused many casualties ( ). this virus is predicted who, 2021 to be transmitted through social activities that involve interaction between humans, which is the most significant cause of covid-19 distribution. consequently, like many other countries, the indonesian government instructs temporary closing of schools until the condition gets better. learning at home is then an operational alternative of learning deemed most reasonable. however, this leads to its consequence. this drastic and sudden change has disrupted school life and its stakeholders (guri-rosenblit, 2005; putri, purwanto, pramono, . the research finds that the effectiveness of remote asbari, wijayanti & hyun, 2020) learning is up to 73.9% from the teachers’ perspective ). the (fauzi & khusuma, 2020 problems causing the effectiveness less optimal, among others, are the limited facilities, non-optimal utilization of internet networks, lack of learning planning that affects its implementation and evaluation, and low collaboration with parents. another research conducted by states that it is necessary to provide teachers, (mahlangu, 2018; daniel, 2020) students, and parents with skills for remote learning implementation. the research also recommends parents accompany students in their learning, and it requires government and school management’s support to facilitate the society to participate in proses remote learning. the other factors that also affect the effectiveness of remote learning are geographic and economic conditions. according to the result of research conducted by basilaia and , learning at home activity widens the gap of education quality all this time kvavadze (2020) . this research states that limited access to supporting (basilaia & kvavadze, 2020) instruments and teachers’ limited ability to manage to learn online is commonly found in rural areas. also, student behavior in learning at home needs to be developed since being at home during the covid-19 pandemic is interpreted as a school holiday. one of the rural areas with most of its society working as farmers is ngablak district, magelang regency. this mountainous area adjacent to mount merbabu has 21 elementary/equal schools. based on the preliminary study, not all schools implement internet-based remote learning. many schools use modules, television, and radio broadcast to facilitate the delivery of teaching materials. on the other hand, the majority of the people in ngablak district are junior high school (smp) graduates; thus, their capability in accompanying their children should become a concern for the school and the government. accompanying children learning is one form of society’s participation in education. parents’ involvement is part of social capital that supports the achievement of the government’s investment in education . the government’s appropriate intervention (you & nguyen, 2011) to help the society, such as giving aid to the society, will be more effective when social capital is involved. therefore, to what extent accompanying is carried out is an important matter to pay attention to. accompanying is an assistance attempt carried out by family, especially parents, by playing the role of accompanying children to meet their needs and solve their problems in irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 45 support of optimizing child development . the importance of (ireson & rushforth, 2014) parents’ role in accompanying children’s learning proves that parents contribute to physical, emotional, social, intellectual, and spiritual development . (lubis, irwanto, & harahap, 2019) before the covid-19 pandemic, it has long been acknowledged that parents’ existence was also the key to the success of a system of learning at home . (berthelsen & walker, 2008) parents’ role in their children’s achievement is surely more important than before in the learning at home. during the covid-19 pandemic, many parents feel the necessity to accompany their children learning becomes parents’ additional activity besides doing household work. for parents, taking the role of teacher at school is a special challenge. parents’ success in accompanying children’s learning can be realized if parents accompany children learning patiently and wisely. patience and wisdom are the supporting factors for the parents’ success in accompanying children learning. the parents need to know their children’s characteristics . thus, they can guide their (you & nguyen, 2011) children patiently and wisely. parents must not shout at children when they have difficulty understanding lessons since shouting may take away children’s peace and joy, obstructing the learning process. accompanying children learning at home must be optimized since it is the effort for successful remote learning. the supporting factors of remote learning consist of teachers making remote learning plans. school readily assists in alleviating parents such as internet quota to be used by students to access learning online, and teacher and parents’ capability of using technology as children’s medium of communication and learning . this research was conducted to determine the extent of the parents’ (mahlangu, 2018) problem in accompanying children in remote learning during the covid-19 pandemic. the research consisted of three questions research, there are 1) parent’s role in accompanying children learning during the learning at home policy, 2) student’s learning behavior, and 3) school effort to solve constraints in accompanying children learning at home. literature review learning assistance learning assistance by parents is a strategy to help and support children to succeed in learning at school . (bray, zhan, lykins, wang, & kwo, 2014; hille, spieß, & staneva, 2016) the wide prevalence of parental learning assistance at home has resulted in many studies, including parental assistance in helping children with homework and providing for children’s needs . another study found (shumow & miller, 2001; patall, cooper, & robinson, 2008) that parental assistance is an important indicator of parental involvement in children’s education the role of parents in children’s learning is the (fantuzzo, tighe, & childs, 2000). actions of parents who care about children’s education, including concern for children’s learning, understanding of children’s education, understanding of children’s education, understanding of children’s education, understanding of children’s education, understanding of children’s education, understanding with teachers, and support for children’s homework . as (gonzalez-dehass, willems, & holbein, 2005; you & nguyen, 2011) grolnick and suggested, the role of parents in children’s education can be seen from the slowiaczek (1994) parents’ dedication, including time, money, and energy for the child’s life. there are three irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 46 types of parental roles ; 1) parental behavior is described in (grolnick & slowiaczek, 1994) parental participation in school programs such as meetings between teachers and parents; 2) the attitude of parents is seen from their understanding of children’s education and their concern for the success of their children’s success, and 3) the responsibility of parents in facilitating and providing materials needed for children to learn such as books and other necessities. thus, the role of parents in helping children’s learning is defined as parental involvement in children’s education. the role of parents can be in the form of time and effort in providing assistance and completing the child’s progress. this study focuses on the role of parents in assisting and helping children learn at home, covering the intensity of parents accompanying children to learn parental activities in assisting children in learning for moral, technical, and educational support. remote learning distance education is an educational experience where teachers and students are separated in space and time. it means that learning occurs outside of the institution’s area distance learning is usually done using (gunawardena, mcisaac, & jonassen, 2008). electronic media to support distance learning or online . distance (guri-rosenblit, 2005) learning can allow students to apply knowledge and skills by developing independent learning skills . self-study has advantages, including time and (corlett & martindale, 2017) space flexibility, time-saving, and can save costs becoming cheaper. at the same time, the disadvantages of distance learning are the sense of isolation, lack of direct interaction, and limited infrastructure (markova, glazkova, & zaborova, 2017; de paepe, zhu, & depryck, . 2018) there are seven principles of good practice that can be implemented in distance learning in education according to including; 1) encouraging baldwin and jesús (2017) student contact; 2) encouraging cooperation among students; 3) triggering active learning; 4) giving prompt feedback; 5) emphasizing time on task; 6) promoting high expectations, and 7) respecting diverse talents and ways of learning. in supporting distance learning, things that need to be considered include adequate technological infrastructure, good internet connection, adequate electricity, and having the ability and skills to use electronic equipment (mahlangu, 2018). methodology research design, site, and participants this research used a quantitative research approach to obtain information of parents accompanying children learning, student behavior, and effort carried out by school during the covid-19 pandemic at elementary schools in rural areas. the samples were chosen using a proportional random sampling technique with a belief level of 90%. the population of 2920 people and referring to the table of krejcie & morgan ), 292 (isaac & michael, 1997 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 47 people were taken as samples. out of the 292 samples, 280 questionnaires were returned by students’ parents in ngablak district. the respondents’ profiles can be observed in table 1. table 1. respondents’ profiles profile percentage age 20-30 years old 19% 31-40 years old 51% 41-50 years old 25% 51-60 years old 4% >61 1% education sd (elementary school)/equal 37% smp (junior high school)/equal 49% sma (senior high school)/equal 11% s1 (undergraduate program) 1% s2 (graduate program) 1% informal 1% job farmer 69% labor 12% merchant 4% self-employed 2% village official 1% private sector 3% teacher 1% unemployed 6% range of expenditure < rp. 2,000,000 81% rp. 2,000,000 – rp. 4,000,000 18% rp. 4,000,000 – rp. 6,000,000 1% level of use of online media always 29% often 32% sometimes 36% never 3% use of television always 3% often 12% sometimes 59% never 25% use of module/printed learning media always 34% often 43% sometimes 21% never 3% data collection and analysis this research used a survey technique, and the data were collected through the distribution of questionnaires. since all respondents could not access the internet, the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 48 printed questionnaires were distributed directly. questionnaires used a rating scale; validity and reliability were tested before taking the research’s main data. each of the respondent’s responses was calculated; always (4), often (3), sometimes (2), and never (1). the item of the questionnaire was developed by adapting the theory of parental engagement continuum framework and the guidance in distance (levinthal de oliveira lima & kuusisto, 2020) learning modalities to real all children and youth during school closure, which focuses on lowand no-tech modalities to reach the most marginalized. the technique used to test the validity of the questionnaire was based on content validity, which shows that measurement covers a set of sufficient and representative items to reveal the concept. the content validity measurement in this research was determined by professionals (expert judgment) in reviewing problems; thus, the items developed can measure the content studied. cronbach alpha coefficient formula was used to examine the instrument’s reliability: where, α = cronbach alpha coefficient k = number of valid items r = mean correlation between items 1 = constant test on the reliability of all items of question uses the value 0.6 as a reference, that if α ≥ 0.6, the instrument is declared reliable. data reliability was tested by comparing r alpha with r table, that if r alpha > r table, the data were expressed reliable. the cronbach alpha value as the reliability test resulted in 30 respondents’ responses was 0.719. therefore, we can conclude that the questionnaire questions were consistent or dependable. the analysis technique used was descriptive statistics. the researcher summed all respondents’ scores in each item of the question, and the cumulative average was calculated per sub-aspect. besides calculating the index score, the researcher also calculates the frequency for the percentage of respondents’ responses in four criteria (always, often, sometimes, and never). findings parent’s role in accompanying children learning during the learning at home policy the research findings on parents’ role in accompanying children learning at home during the covid-19 pandemic were divided into three aspects, namely: 1) parents’ role in accompanying children learning during the learning at home because of the covid-19 pandemic policy, 2) student’s learning behavior, and 3) school’s effort to solve the constraints in accompanying children learning at home. in parents’ role in accompanying children learning, below are the achieved average indexes of respective aspects. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 49 table 2. parents’ role in accompanying children learning at home aspect sub-aspect index the intensity of parents accompanying children learning an effort to make time available for accompanying children learning 3.07 time of accompanying children learning during the pandemic 2.70 capability to allocate time for accompanying children learning 2.47 accompanying habit before the pandemic and after pandemic takes place 2.91 parents’ activity of accompanying children learning variation of parents accompanying children learning during the pandemic 3.02 moral, technical and facilities and infrastructure support availability of supporting facilities of children learning at home 3.07 parents’ academic capability in accompanying children learning during the pandemic 2.65 parents’ knowledge of children learning styles and habit 3.02 parents’ level of expectation of children learning at home during the pandemic 3.49 parents’ emotion in accompanying children learning during the pandemic 3.18 from some sets of sub-aspects in table 2, the three highest achieved average indexes are that of 1) parents’ expectation of children learning at home during the pandemic of 3.49, 2) parents’ emotion in accompanying children learning during the pandemic of 3.18, and 3) effort to make time available for accompanying children learning during the pandemic of 3.07 and the availability of supporting facilities of children learning at home also of 3.07. the three lowest achieved average indexes are 1) constraints in allocating time for accompanying children learning during the pandemic of 2.47, 2) parents’ academic capability in accompanying children learning during the pandemic of 2.65, and 3) time of accompanying children learning during the pandemic of 2.65. from the results of this research, it is found that most parents are well aware and have made an effort to allocate their time to accompany their children in learning or doing assignments at home. however, the problem mostly found in the respondents is the difficulty of arranging appropriate time between parents’ activities and children’s learning schedule. the aspect with the second-lowest index is parents’ academic capability, with a score of 2.65. this seems to be related to parents’ education level. based on the respondents’ profiles data, 36% of respondents have elementary school education, while 52% have junior high school or equal education. the proportion of respondents who completed senior high school/equal education is 11.5%, and only 1% has higher education. from the perspective of age, 51% of parents are of the first batch of y or millennial generation, and the remainder is of x generation. rural society’s education level indeed tends to be low; thus, parents’ capacity to guide their children at home is limited. although the parents have many limitations in accompanying children learning, the questionnaire reveals that, on the other hand, the parents always expect their children to learn by limiting their playtime and irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 50 conditioning them to learn. table 1 shows that four out of the five sub-aspects of the aspect of learning moral, technical, and facilities/infrastructure supports are higher than 3.00. student’s learning behavior based on table 3, the lowest index is of sub-aspect constraints in children learning of 2.70 while the highest is of sub-aspect children’s emotions while learning at the home of 2.86. compared to the other aspects, none of the indexes of the aspect student behavior reaches three. furthermore, the achievement of the aspect of student behavior during learning at home is as follows. table 3. student behavior during learning at home aspects sub-aspects index student behavior in doing the assignment children’s learning routine during the pandemic 2.85 constraints in children learning during the pandemic 2.70 children’s emotions while learning at home during the pandemic 2.86 the special research on sub-aspect learning constraints describes that the majority of parents (62.87%) find their children often getting tempted to do other activities than learning. on the other hand, many parents still assign children to household work at high intensity—14.35% state they never release their children from it. regarding children’s emotions, while learning at home, 42.19% of parents state that their children often show depression since they have to learn at home. in addition, 52.74% of parents state that their children often get angry when their parents’ guide them in learning. interestingly, only a few parents state that their children always learn peacefully at home. most parents (47.26%) state that their children sometimes learn peacefully. school effort to solve constraints in accompanying children learning at home referring to table 4, teachers’ willingness to communicate with parents achieves the highest index of 3.00. meanwhile, the aspect with the lowest achievement is found with the provision of facility assistance of 2.42. regarding the research results of the school’s effort to solve constraints in accompanying children learning at home, the data revealed are follows. table 4. school’s effort to solve constraints in accompanying children learning at home aspects sub-aspects index communication between school and parents while children learning at home school curricular information 2.59 teacher’s willingness to communicate with parents 3.00 technical assistance from school for parents provision of facility assistance 2.42 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 51 out of all aspects of this research, technical assistance from schools for parents achieves the lowest index. not much differently, the index of aspect of communication between school and parents is also relatively not high of 2.59. the research data revealed that only 23.63% of parents state that the teacher always informs parents of how to accompany children learning. the majority of parents state that, in this case teacher sometimes does it. this also occurs with the intensity of teacher informing learning target that only 24.05% of parents state that the teacher always does it. in this sub-aspect, the majority of parents choose ―sometimes,‖ of 36.29%. interestingly, there are even 20.25% of parents stating that the teacher never informs of how to accompany children learning and 18.57% parents state that the never informs of the learning target. this percentage is relatively big for it to be a concern. although the index of delivery of curricular information to parents is not too high, the good news is that most parents state that it is easy to contact the teacher and that the teachers respond to parents’ questions. still, regarding schools’ effort to solve constraints in remote learning, the index of provision of technical assistance seems to need special attention. from the perspective of the percentage of respondents’ responses, most parents state that the school has provided facility assistance although with varied intensity. however, 21.61% of parents state that they never receive any assistance from the school. the compatibility of this facility assistance is perceived differently by parents. 19.92% of parents state that facility assistance is of the ―always‖ category according to their needs, while 25.42% of parents choose the ―often‖ option. the majority of parents choose ―sometimes,‖ which means that the level of compatibility of facility assistance to the needs for children learning still needs to be improved much. discussion the research results show some noticeable problems in remote learning and accompanying learning during the covid-19 pandemic for rural society. based on previous research, distance learning has proven effective to be implemented, even though there are still limitations such as internet facilities and lack of communication and collaboration between schools and parents in addition, the success of (basilaia & kvavadze, 2020). distance learning lies in three main focuses: teachers, students, and parents . (daniel, 2020) meanwhile, learning assistance for children plays an important role in supporting children’s needs as an effort to optimize child development. in this case, the role of parents is needed as the key to success in children’s learning because parents have a strong role in directing their children thus, this study tries to find real experiences that occur in (lubis et al., 2019). rural areas in implementing distance learning and child learning assistance. based on the findings, the problem mostly faced by parents and students is limited facility assistance for remote learning. the second problem is parents’ limited time to accompany children learning although they are willing to do it. the third problem is the teacher’s initiative to communicate with parents related to curricular information. the fourth problem that the researcher also deems very crucial is how school and parents prevent children from having chronic constraints in learning. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 52 limited learning facility assistance, the problem is limited learning facility assistance is a critical issue, particularly in association with society’s economic condition of the research setting. as commonly known, remote learning demands the availability of facilities/infrastructure that leads to increased household expenditure. however, not all schools in ngablak district use the internet (through wa group, youtube, etc.). the need for device and internet quota arises simultaneously with the transition from face-to-face learning to remote learning. the availability of such facilities is crucial since they are directly related to learning implementation (rasmitadila. aliyyah, rachmadtullah, samsudin, syaodih, . parents accompanying children’s learning gets more difficult nurtanto, & tambunan, 2020) when access to learning and infrastructure is limited. the availability of network and data packages determines the success of online learning. in line with this, some factors make parents unready to face online learning, namely insufficient facilities, either of the school or their part . (ayuni, marini, fauziddin, & pahrul, 2021) some schools in ngablak district apply learning methods using the module, radio, and television to reduce the impact of the necessity of the internet network, which also minimizes household expenditure. based on the research data, 78.9% of respondents have monthly expenditures lower than rp2,000,000. only 17.7% state their monthly expenditure ranging from rp2,000,000-4,000,000 or above rp4,000,000. the data may implicate some things. it is possible that their family income is higher than these, but thanks to their frugal lifestyle, the respondents choose to restrain their consumption. the other possibility is it describes their income equal to or below the regency minimum wage or upah minimum kota (umk) of magelang. it is necessary to know that the current umk magelang when this research was conducted in 2020 was rp.2,042,000. from the expenditure situation above, we can conclude that the government needs to protect and prioritize aid for weak economic societies, many in rural areas. this has not regarded the research data that reveals that 53.6% of respondents and 31.6% of respondents acknowledge that they are affected and relatively affected negatively economically. besides minimizing economic impact, module, radio, and television were chosen as learning facilities based on the geographically mountainous condition of ngablak district, making uneven access to internet signals. therefore, learning facility assistance needed by the society in ngablak district is data package and other relevant sources of learning, such as modules and books. the learning support system that must be made available on the student part consists of four , namely 1) support for student’s needs, 2) support for (usun, 2004) teaching material needs, 3) support for school condition, and 4) support for the technology. therefore, the learning facility assistance provided should cover the four aspects. the government’s top-up or data package aid is a popular policy directly addressed to an individual level. however, the government can provide learning facility assistance based on school and its environmental condition. parents’ constraints in accompanying children learning, the next problem, the second most finding in this research, is parents’ constraints in accompanying children learning from the perspective of time fulfillment. in this regard, based on respondents’ profiles, 65% of respondents work as farmers. other 8.1% are employees, the remainder as merchants, irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 53 unemployed, and housewives. these parents’ activities are in contrast with the implication of application of learning at home that requires parents’ involvement in helping their children. similar to the results of this research, the research conducted by novianti and garzia states that most parents attempt to get involved in children learning activities (2020) although they have a constraint of limited time. the solution that needs to be taken by parents is to keep allocating time despite a short while, and school allows flexibility and tolerance of deadline for submission of the assignment so that parents can accompany their children. parents’ involvement in teaching and helping complete children’s assignments may give a big chance of children’s successful learning . this way, (đurišić & bunijevac, 2017) when parents participate in accompanying children learning, this means that they take their part in the process of children learning by really getting involved in each of the children learning activities . the influence of parents as a motivator (goodall & montgomery, 2014) may improve children’s interest and motivation if they are given trust and responsibility by monitoring each of their learning activities . parents (ardiyana, akbar & karnadi, 2019) accompanying with love can also be interpreted as one emotional facility. with correlation and synergy between all parties as an optimization effort, this ―learning at home‖ moment may run successfully despite the constraint of limited time. it is important to arrange a time for parents to accompany children learning at home since the pandemic has made many children spend their time at home. they manage the time of accompanying children learning by arranging the time of children learning, besides giving time to play and do other family duties (patall, cooper, & robinson, 2008; hille, arrangement of accompanying children learning can motivate or spieß, & staneva, 2016). encourage children to know when to play or do other things and when to learn or do school assignments. in addition, parents must control the use of the time of children learning, since, with control, children will be able to use time of learning well in an orderly manner. communication between teacher and parents, the third most noticeable problem from the results of this research is that it is still necessary to improve teachers’ initiative to communicate with parents related to curricular or academic information. parents really need the support given by school to assist parents since parents need instruction regarding learning in order to achieve the target of children learning. this is confirmed by the research conducted by that finds that a good relationship between berthelsen and walker (2008) parents and school can build communication and interaction between both parties. another research states that an excellent school has an effective partnership with parents (đurišić & . school is also expected to actively contact parents, asking what it can do bunijevac, 2017) for parents to be confident and convenient with their involvement in children’s learning process. states that it will be easier with parents’ involvement in support of coleman (2013) in-class learning, programs, and school activities. parents’ good involvement in children’s learning process is the realization of one form of building good communication between school and parents. the form of communication strategy that school can do is communication with emphasis commitment, attempting to provide parents with their needs to accompany their children, establishing communication to build parent participation in developing curriculum, and communicating to jointly evaluate various plants of student learning (triwardhani, trigartanti, rachmawati, & putra, 2020). irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 54 constraints of children learning, the fourth problem is related to student behavior at home, which is how school and parents prevent children from having chronic learning constraints. learning constraints can be stated as learning difficulty, defined as a condition in the learning process marked with certain constraints in achieving learning results. learning difficulty is a condition of the learning process in which a person is disrupted because of activity contradicting learning results lower than their potential. the factors causing learning difficulty are students’ lack of memorizing capability, lack of internal motivation, student’s problem-solving capability, students lacking confidence, and students having a difficult concentration in learning (deng, cai, zhou, & leung, 2020; ding, liu, hong, yu, wang, liu . the shift of form of the learning process because of the covid-19 pandemic & zhen, 2021) has caused changes to child behavior. the reason may be boredom and minimum interaction of students with a teacher and other students . the other source of stress is (putri et al., 2020) the source of learning and the remote learning method itself the cause (gillett-swan, 2017). of learning constraints cannot be separated from the disturbance in learning such as friend’s playing invitation, helping parents’ work, etc. in this case, parents need to give emotional support to children. parents need to be sensitive to emotional change in them when they are guiding children to prevent them from showing any symptoms of depression in the guided learning process. it is indeed a special challenge in the covid-19 pandemic situation for parents to compensate what children received to be shifted to home. children’s control must be carried along with the allocation of sufficient time for play. the other strategies that can be used to solve disturbance in children learning include inviting children to learn while playing, repeating the previous lesson until children understand the material, giving a reward when children successfully complete problem or assignment well, and giving punishment as an effort for children to get motivated to learn better with the covid-19 pandemic, the (nuraeni & syihabuddin, 2020). school or teacher also needs to provide additional time to prepare the content of material so that it is more interactive, easy to understand and use, and provides consultancy service, both online and offline. conclusion and recommendations/implications the results showed that the most prominent problems in the role of parents in assisting children in learning were parents’ limited time and their low academic ability. in the aspect of student learning behavior, students experience changes in behavior because they experience learning barriers during distance learning. at the same time, the aspect of the school’s efforts to overcome obstacles in assisting children in studying at home is the need to increase the initiative of teachers to communicate with parents related to curricular information. moreover, with most students coming from disadvantaged families, they expect more school aid in distance learning facilities. however, distance learning can still be optimized to run effectively. based on findings, the researchers suggest (1) government’s provision of learning facility assistance during the covid-19 pandemic crisis period needs to adjust to the needs, both at individual and institutional (school) levels. in a rural society with limited access to the internet, online irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 55 media use is still not as massive as that in urban society. therefore, assistance such as modules/worksheets will help students/parents and schools. (2) parents keep allocating their time for accompanying children learning despite their busy activities by sharing time between father and mother or other family members. in this case, the school can also allow flexible deadlines for the completion of assignments for parents to keep accompanying their children. (3) principal needs to direct the teacher to keep communicating with parents to help children learn. principal leadership during the covid-19 pandemic is vital since the shift of learning mechanism leads everyone to panic and get confused. (4) learning constraints experienced by students at home are parents’ responsibility and that of teacher and school. the teacher is responsible for the material, method, and media used. the teacher also needs to involve parents so that the material learned is known and understood by parents. the principal, in this case, needs to observe the module or other source of learning used by the teacher to minimize the risk of students having boredom and other psychological impacts. similarly, parents need to supervise their children and understand children’s emotional needs. disclosure statement the authors reported no potential conflict of interest. acknowledgments this research was financially supported by the institution of research and community service of universitas negeri yogyakarta. references ardiyana, r. d., akbar, z., & karnadi, k. 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(2011). parents’ involvement in adolescents’ schooling: a multidimensional conceptualisation and mediational model. educational psychology, 35(1), 547–558. biographical notes dr. wiwik wijayanti is a senior lecturer at the education management study program, faculty of education science, universitas negeri yogyakarta (uny). rahmania utari, m. pd is a senior lecturer at the education management study program, faculty of education science uny. widia murni wijaya, m. pd is a senior lecturer at the education management study program, faculty of education science, in informatics engineering. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.75702 this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 121 validating the academic writing creativity and self-efficacy scale: a rasch model analysis herri mulyono 1* , sri kusuma ningsih 2 , and beauty sholeha raufi 3 abstract the current study aimed to examine the psychometric characteristics of an instrument used to evaluate academic writing creativity and self-efficacy scale among pre-service teachers, instructors, and school teachers. using a convenience sampling, an adapted and expanded version of mitchell’s (2021) situated academic writing self-efficacy (sawses) questionnaire was distributed to 655 participants with three different occupation statuses, such as pre-service teacher (n = 315, 485%), tvet instructor (n = 80, 12%), and school teacher (n = 260, 40%). unfortunately, due to the presence of outliers, of 655 data, only 582 data were used for rasch statistical analyses, including the analysis of (a) unidimensionality, (b) reliability for the item and the person separation, (c) rating scale, (d) item bias, and (e) item differential function. the analysis of differential item functioning (dif) resulted that the academic writing creativity and self-efficacy scale could potentially be biased when employed to collect the data from participants with differing teaching statuses and educational backgrounds. these findings thus suggest that caution should be taken when using the academic writing creativity and self-efficacy scale, as highlighted by the results of the current study. keywords academic writing, rasch, self-efficacy, writing, writing creativity article history received 16 april 2023 accepted 3 june 2023 how to cite mulyono, h., ningsih, s.k., & raufi, b. s (2023). validating the academic writing creativity and self-efficacy scale: a rasch model analysis. indonesian research journal in education |irje|, 7(1), 121 – 135. https://doi.org/10.22437/irje .v7i1.24789 1, university of muhammadiyah prof. dr. hamka, indonesia, corresponding author: hmulyono@uhamka.ac.id 2, 3 university of muhammadiyah prof. dr. hamka, indonesia https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v7i1.24789 https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v7i1.24789 mailto:hmulyono@uhamka.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 122 introduction generally, academic writing is viewed as a convention of writing style in an academic society that it involves a specific written communication style in delivering the writer’s ideas, opinions, or arguments in a clear, concise, and comprehensible writing structure (joshi et al., . according to , writer’s academic writing ability reflects their ability in 2022) mccarthy (1987) developing the writing ideas and delivered them in coherent and cohesion explicitly connected sentences. more importantly, scholars who have a sufficient academic writing competences would be able to use texts and language to discuss knowledge (hyland, 2013) or academic-related topics throughout their critical perspective (wingate & tribble, 2012) and rationale (odena & burgess, 2015). many authors assert that academic writing not only involves criticality and rationality of the writers, but also creativity (badley, 2019; dobele & veer, 2019; murray, 2013; odena . in other words, a good academic writers should be able to collect & burgess, 2015) expressions and use words creativity to present their ideas . in this (groot et al., 2019) context, perceives creativity in academic writing as the concept of proposing allison (2004) insightful and reliable problem-solving as well as creating a connection between the knowledge and inquiry field . in a similar vein, , suggests that (allison, 2004) cremin (2017) academic writing creativity is a reflection of the writer's opportunity to express their ideas by engaging in their self-developed process of writing and reflecting on their life experiences while being able to share their knowledge. he also emphasizes that creative academic writing played a critical way and could be used to reflect ones’ level of writing confidence and self-efficacy. in this context, academic writing self-efficacy reflects the belief and confidence in the writers’ writing capabilities that enable them to produce a piece academic text that complies with the writing convention in scientific community . (kiriakos & tienari, 2018) the academic writing self-efficacy is perceived as the phase in which the writer could see themselves as a competent and experienced writer, therefore, lots of attempts were performed to develop the finest version of academic writing (van de poel & gasiorek, . 2012) many scholars have also conducted a study to explore the variable of academic writing self-efficacy with other variables related (alberth, 2019; callinan et al., 2018; chen & zhang, 2019; collado et al., 2023; huerta et al., 2017; meza & gonzález, 2020; mickwitz & suojala, 2020; mitchell et al., 2021; mitchell & mcmillan, 2018; pajares, 2003; plakhotnik & . for rocco, 2016; ruegg, 2018; teng et al., 2018; wei et al., 2022; zumbrunn et al., 2020) instance, a study by , investigated the effect of van de poel and gasiorek (2012) self-efficacy on the academic writing performance of fifty-three efl university students through an academic writing course for over two years in dutch. their study found that after receiving the course program, students could significantly see themselves more confident with their understanding as competent and experienced writers following the study by , that self-efficacy towards academic activities could be beneficial and pajares (2003) detrimental influence depends on its perceived. however, in our knowledge, there is little evidence concerning the instruments used to examined academic writing creativity and self-efficacy, except one developed by mitchell irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 123 to measure academic writing self-efficacy in particular setting. this current study (2021) adapted and expanded upon scales to assess the creativity and self-efficacy mitchell's (2021) of indonesian instructors and teachers when engaged in academic writing activities. the primary research question addressed in this study was: is the academic writing creativity and self-efficacy scale reliable to use when evaluating pre-service teachers’, tvet instructors’, and schoolteachers’ creativity and self-efficacy in academic writing activities? methodology research design, site, and participants a total of 655 participants with three different occupation statuses, such as pre-service teacher (n = 315, 485%), tvet instructor (n = 80, 12%), and school teacher (n = 260, 40%) completed the study survey. there were 465 females (71%) and 190 males (29%). many of the participants are university students of teacher training and education faculty (n = 315, 48%), or graduated from the university with a diploma degree (n = 8, 1%), bachelor degree (n = 290, 44%), master degree (n = 40, 6%), and doctoral degree (n = 2, 1%). table 1. tabulation codes demography description code n = 655 n = 582 status pre-service teacher (h) h 315 274 tvet instructor (i) i 80 80 school teacher (j) j 260 228 gender female (f) f 465 415 male (m) m 190 167 background of education student (v) v 315 274 d3 (w) w 8 8 s1 (x) x 290 260 s2 (y) y 40 38 s3 (z) z 2 2 instrument the current study adopted and expanded the questionnaire offered by mitchell (2021), aimed to examine the level of teachers’ creativity and self-efficacy in academic writing in indonesia. mitchell offered an academic writing self-efficacy scale called situated academic writing self-efficacy (sawses) grounded by bandura's self-efficacy theory and a model of constructed writing (see bandura, 1978, 1994; bandura et al., 1997; bandura & adams, the thirty-four questionnaire items were developed using a five-point likert scale 1977). divided into four sections, such as the writing essential scale, rational reflective writing scale, creativity identity scale, and technology use to support writing and writing creativity scale. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 124 table 2. questionnaire scales scales total item type of response to the item writing essential (we) 9 strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5) rational reflective writing (rrw) 8 strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5) creative identity (ci) 8 strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5) technology use to support writing & writing creativity (tusw) 9 strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5) translation into bahasa the original questionnaires were written in english and translated into the local language (i.e., bahasa indonesia) in the current research in purpose to let the participants easily understand and relate to the questionnaires based on their experience. the translated questionnaires were proofread and validated by other researchers who were fluent both in english and bahasa indonesia . (mulyono et al., 2020; ningsih et al., 2021) data analysis the instruments of the research are gathered using google forms. the data recorded in the form is then saved in xlsx format (microsoft excel form). the time records are then omitted to retrieve only the data that is required. the participants' responses were then sorted, categorized, marked, and converted into the predetermined code on the following sheets. before testing the psychometric properties of the scales, all the xlsx data was converted to formatted text and underwent a two-phase (mulyono et al., 2021) evaluation process. the first phase was conducted to eliminate null responses and identify outliers, which would then be removed from the data (goh et al., 2010). data was identified as an outlier if they did not meet the criteria of an mnsq >2. of the 655 samples, 73 were found to be outliers, leaving 582 samples to be analyzed in the second phase. this phase was used to re-examine the respondents' data that had previously been reduced by the number of outliers . several analyses were done in this phase, including: (a) (linacre, 2010) dimensionality; (b) reliability for the item and the person separation; (c) rating scale; (d) item bias; and (e) item-differential function (lee et al., 2020; mulyono et al., 2020, 2021; ningsih et al., 2021; zulaiha & mulyono, 2020). findings and discussion the analysis of the unidimensionality of the items rasch unidimensionality analysis is known as the statistical analysis to determine whether an item is exclusively associated with one construct, and not compatible with any other construct . to examine the instrument unidimensionality, the rasch (yu, 2020) principal component analysis (pca) was done to the global scale and its subscales (mulyono et al., 2020). table 4 presents the raw variance data which satisfies the criterion of irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 125 unidimensionality with figures of 20% or more. the global scale was measured at 58.5%, and subscales at writing essential (61.2%), rational reflective writing (60.7%), creative identity (65.1%), and technology use to support writing & writing creativity (64.0%). the pca eigenvalue for the first contrast was shown to be 3.2 logits for the global scale, 1.7 logits for the we scale, 2.1 logits for the rrw scale, 1.6 logits for the ci scale, and 2.2 logits for the tusw scale. these findings suggest that the global, rrw, and tusw scales reflect multidimensionality or could incorporate other potential constructs; conversely, the other two scales (i.e., we and ci) appear to be unidimensional. table 3. summary of rasch measurement model on global scale and constructs parameter (with quality criteria) global scale (34 items) we (9 items) rrw (8 items) ci (8 items) tusw (9 items) model fit: summary of items item mean in logit (criteria 0.0 logits) .00, sd = 0.50 .00, sd = 0.50 .00, sd = 0.60 .00, sd = 0.23 .00, sd = 0.31 item reliability 0.97 0.97 0.98 0.84 0.91 item separation reliability (criteria: good, 0.81-0.90; very good, 0.91-0.94; excellent, >0.94) 0.97 0.97 0.98 0.84 0.91 item model fit mnsq range extremes (criteria: good. 0.5-1-5; very good, 0.71-1.4; excellent 0.77-1,3) infit: 0.72-1.50 outfit: 0.68-1.47 infit: 0.82-1.25 outfit: 0.75-1.19 infit: 0.83-1.30 outfit: 0.78-1.35 infit: 0.87-1.17 outfit: 0.78-1.14 infit: 0.76-1.15 outfit: 0.70-1.09 item separation index (criteria >3) 5.67 (6) 5.26 (3) 6.65 (5) 2.30 (2) 3.25 (3) separate item strata == [(4 x separation index) + 1]/3 (criteria: fair, 2-3; good, 3-4; very good, 4-5; excellent, >5) 7.89 = 8 level 7.35 = 7 level 9.20 = 9 level 3.40 = 3 level 4.66 = 5 level model fit: summary of persons person means in logits (criteria: 0.0 logits) 2.65 sd = 2.22 2.78 sd = 2.40 3.23 sd = 2.19 3.20 sd = 2.82 2.83 sd = 2.56 person reliability 0.97 0.89 0.87 0.89 0.90 person separation reliability (criteria: good, 0.81-0.90; very good, 0.91-0.94; excellent, >0.94) 0.97 0.89 0.87 0.89 0.90 person separation index (criteria >2) 5.55 (6) 2.84 (3) 2.59 (3) 2.85 (3) 2.97 (3) separate person strata = [(4 x separation index) + 1]/3 (criteria: fair, 2-3; good, 3-4; very good, 4-5; excellent, >5) 7.73 = 8 level 4.12 = 4 level 3.79 = 4 level 4.13 = 4 level 4.29 = 4 level irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 126 table 4. rating scale and dimensionality of rasch measurement model on global scale and constructs rating scale analysis responses per category (criteria: >10) yes na na na na adjacent threshold distance (criteria 1.4-5 logits) (i) scale 0-1 was (0) (-6.07) = 6.07 logits; (ii) scale 1-2 was (-6.07) – (-1.41) = 4.66 logits; (iii) scale 2-3 was (-1.41) – (1.60) = 3.01 logits; (iv) scale 3-4 was (1.60) – (5.88) = 4.28 logits outfit mnsq (criteria: <2 logits) yes na na na na probability curve graph (criteria: decent curve on each response category and each item is higher than 0.5 logits) yes na na na na average measure (criteria: increase significantly overrating scale) yes na na na na dimensionality raw variance in data explained by measure (criteria: 20% fair, 40% very good, >60% excellent) 58.5% 61.26% 60.7% 65.1% 64.0.% pca eigenvalue for first contrast (criteria: >2.0 indicates the presence of another dimension, < 2 supports unidimensional scale) 3.2 1.7 2.1 1.6 2.2 unexplained variance in 1st – 5th contrast of pca of residuals (criteria: good, 5-10%; very good, 3-5%; excellent, <3%) 3.9% 1.9% 7.4% 4.5% 7.1% 4.5% 7.0% 4.6% 8.9% 3.7% sd: standard deviation; pca: principal components analysis; dif: differential item functioning; mnsq: mean square; na: not applicable. the table was adopted from the study by sumintono et al., (lee et al., 2020). irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 127 item and person separation reliability the criteria for item separation reliability range from good to excellent. specifically, 0.81-0.90 is defined as good; 0.91-0.94 represents very good, and logits above 0.94 indicate excellent quality (cohen et al., 2018). as seen in table 3, the data shows that the global score reaches 0.97 logits and surpasses the criteria that reflect excellent quality. furthermore, the constructs varied in quality from one another. in line with the global score, the we and rrw scales both reflected excellent quality with logits of 0.97 and 0.98, respectively. however, the ci only met the criteria for good quality with 0.84, and the tusw reached 0.91 logits and reflected very good quality. furthermore, the criteria for person separation reliability also demonstrated a different situation, where the global score was the only one that met the excellent quality with 0.97 logits, whereas the we, rrw, ci, and tusw all represented good quality, with logits of 0.89, 0.87, 0.89, and 0.90, respectively. as a result, the consistency of respondents' responses to the data needed in this research was possible to be generalized from good to excellent. this clarifies that it is more practical to be able to define their self-efficacy in academic writing. in addition, with the exception of the ci scale, the quality of the item separation reliability was excellent, as they were all higher than the expected criteria of >3. they were 5.67 logits on the global scale, 5.26 logits on the we, 6.65 logits on the rrw, 2.30 logits on the ci, and 3.25 logits on the tusw, which indicates the classification of the item difficulty. the person separation index on the global scale and each construct also presented excellent quality, meeting the criteria of >2, with 5.55 logits on the global scale, 2.84 logits on the we, 2.59 logits on the rrw, 2.85 logits on the ci, and 2.97 logits on the tusw. it can thus be concluded that the respondents showed excellent quality in answering the instrument. effectiveness of the rating scale the questionnaire was developed using a 5-point likert scale, with values ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree), for each item. the criteria for the response category were set at higher than 10. data from the "observed persons" column showed that scale number one met the criteria of 10 or more persons with 655 persons voting on that scale. additionally, the criteria for adjacent threshold distance had to be between 1.4 to 5 logits. it is shown in the data in table 4, rating scale section, that the first scale received 6.07 logits, the second scale was 4.66 logits, the third scale was 3.01 logits, and the fourth scale was 4.28 logits. all of them have met the criteria. table 5. summary of category structure of rating scales rating scale step number observed person average calibration outfit mnsq threshold threshold distance 1 106 (1) -5.58 1.46 none (-7.18) 2 1190 (6) -1.56 1.23 -6.07 -3.74 3 5017 (25) 1.25 .89 -1.41 .10 4 10525 (53) 3.32 .93 1.60 3.75 5 2950 (15) 5.41 1.03 5.88 (6.99) irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 128 in addition, as shown in table 5, the threshold distance was shown to increase for the rating scale step number one to five, beginning with (-7.18) to (6.99). the outfit mnsq for each scale was shown lower than two logits and the curve measure of the response probability also met the requirement of > 0.5 logits. when the item is higher than 0.5 logits, it will cross the scale one another and shape a decent curve of the response category. finally, the average measure denotes a significant and gradual rise of the average calibration from the negative pole to the positive pole: (-5.58) to (-1.56); (-1.56) to (1.25); (1.25) to (3.31); and (3.31) to (5.41). item and person mapping figure 1 shows the wright map, which represents the itemand person-mapping of the current study. the first line of the table provides information regarding the section distribution. the table is divided by a dotted line; the left side refers to the person items, while the right side describes the information on the item difficulty per construct. the least approved option is given the highest level while the most approved option is labeled the lowest level. from the figure, it is evident that q1, q2, q10, and q8 are reflected as the most difficult or rarely selected items by respondents for each scale are these items inquire about the ability of the respondents to generate ideas for academic writing, write texts that are clearly comprehensible, determine the expectations of readers, and develop impressive and professional writing. this suggests that most participants experienced difficulty in coming up with an idea in academic writing as they are unaware of the preferences of their readers and whether they can meet these expectations through their writing. in addition, as reflected in q2 and q8, most of the participants were unsure if they could write clear and impressive academic writing professionally which could be easily understood by the readers. in addition, several items (i.e. q16, q22, q25, q27, q13, q14, q15, and q26) posit at the moderate level as in the map. the item q16, q22, q25, q27, q13, q14, q15, and q26 address the following questions: "can i synthesize information from various sources of literature to build ideas and arguments in academic texts?"; "can i paraphrase the original text accurately and write it in an academic format?"; "can i vary the grammatical arrangement to maintain originality of meaning?"; "am i able to identify incorrect grammar and rearrange it with more correct grammar?"; "am i familiar with various websites or journal search engines and databases for references to support academic writing?"; "can i use a digital reference management application to cite references in an academic text?"; "can i save a list of articles that i cite into a database, and manage them using a digital reference management application?"; and "can i use software or other digital applications to identify variations in grammar while still maintaining the originality of meaning?" respectively. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 129 figure 1. item and person mapping “#” represents seven persons while “.” represents one to six persons. mp: person means; sp: one standard deviation of a person means; tp: two standard deviations of a person mean; mi: item mean; si: one standard deviation of item means; ti: two standard deviations of item mean. furthermore, as shown in figure 1 above, the easiest level of items answered by the participants were found to be q11, q31, q32, and q9. these items were found at or below the line of “t” which represents the lower level of the item mapping. the items address the questions "do i always re-read academic writing and reflect on its content in order to write better texts?", "do i have an open mind to receive feedback from colleagues regarding the content of the academic texts i write?", "do i constantly seek feedback from my colleagues by asking them to read and comment on my work?", and "when writing, do i always consider whether the information i have written is clear and understandable for the reader?". in summary, it can be concluded that most of the participants demonstrate consideration when writing academically, and have the willingness to improve by anticipating feedback and advice from their colleagues in order to write better and more legible academic texts. they also have consideration for the readers of their writing, double checking their work to ensure that the information they have written is comprehensible for readers. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 130 item bias distributions person differential item functioning (dif) analysis was done to determine which items on which instrument are biased or benefited one particular party in demographic data. the analysis threshold for dif analysis includes the dif contrast value should be higher than 0.5 and the probability value is lower than 0.05 (chan & subramaniam, 2020; j m linacre, 2011; mulyono et al., 2020). the results, shown in table 6 and table 7, indicated biased items for two out of the three demographics (i.e., status and background of study). table 6 displays the biased items for the participant status demographic, while table 7 displays the biased items for the background of education demographic. fortunately, no biased items were detected in the gender demographic. further analysis of demographic and construct items which did not meet the criteria was conducted by taking into consideration the construct item, the type of demographic, and the dif measure. table 6. item bias demography status no item status dif measure dif contrast t probability 1 q4 h .57 .64 2.54 .0122 i -.07 2 q8 j .93 .55 3.05 .0024 h .38 3 q10 j 1.00 .76 4.20 .0000 h .24 4 q14 i 1.13 1.18 4.80 .0000 h -.06 j .58 .64 3.50 .0005 h -.06 5 q15 i .76 .63 2.56 .0116 h .13 j .73 .59 3.25 .0012 h .13 6 q31 h -.48 1.41 5.25 .0000 i -1.88 h -.48 .72 3.80 .0002 j -1.20 j -1.20 .68 2.49 .0139 i -1.88 7 q32 h -.46 1.04 3.92 .0001 i -1.50 h -.46 .60 3.15 .0017 j -1.06 8 q33 h -.48 .60 2.28 .0242 i -1.07 note. h = pre-service teacher; i = tvet instructor; j = school teacher as seen in table 6, several bias items were identified in participants’ status demography. firstly, in q4, it was found that pre-service teacher respondents were more capable of expressing their individual ideas and opinions when writing an academic text than irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 131 tvet instructors. secondly, q8 revealed that school teacher respondents were more adept at writing professional and impressive academic texts than pre-service respondents. additionally, q10 suggested that school teacher respondents were more capable of understanding what the reader wanted and meeting those expectations in their writing than pre-service teachers. furthermore, q14 found that pre-service teachers had a lesser understanding of utilizing digital reference management applications to cite references in academic texts than the other two groups. lastly, q15 also demonstrated that pre-service teachers had a weaker understanding of developing storage for a database of cited articles by managing them with digital reference management applications than the other two groups. however, it was demonstrated in q31 that pre-service teacher respondents were more open-minded to receiving feedback from colleagues about the content of academic texts they had written than the other two groups. furthermore, it was revealed in q32 that the pre-service teachers were more likely to ask colleagues for feedback after reading their academic text, compared to the other two groups. finally, q33 indicated that pre-service teacher respondents were more likely to accept or reject feedback provided by their colleagues on written revisions, compared to the tvet instructor respondents. table 7. item bias demography background of study no item status dif measure dif contrast t probability 1 q10 y 1.04 .80 2.34 .0236 v .24 x .89 .65 3.71 .0002 v .24 2 q12 v -.30 .80 2.17 .0350 y -1.10 w .64 1.74 2.29 .0426 y -1.10 3 q13 v .10 .84 2.28 .0270 y -.74 w 1.50 2.24 3.05 .0110 y -.74 x .38 1.12 3.04 .0039 y -.74 4 q14 x .71 .77 4.37 .0000 v -.06 y .73 .79 2.27 .0274 v -.06 5 q15 x .76 .62 3.56 .0004 v .13 6 q31 v -.48 1.99 2.60 .0356 w -2.47 v -.48 .86 4.70 .0000 x -1.33 v -.48 .99 2.67 .0105 y -1.46 7 q32 v -.46 .69 3.77 .0002 x -1.15 note. v = university students; w = diploma degree; x = bachelor degree; y = master degree; z = doctoral degree irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 132 as shown in table 7, other bias items were found in participants' education backgrounds. in q10, it was demonstrated that participants who are still university students had less capability in determining what readers want to know from their writing and how to meet those expectations than the respondents with bachelor's and master's degrees. additionally, q12 revealed that those holding a master's degree had a reduced understanding of how to find literature sources from various journals, repositories, or other digital databases, in comparison to those who were still university students or had attained a diploma degree. similarly, in q13, the respondents with a master's degree displayed less awareness than the other three groups (university students, diploma holders, and bachelor's degree holders) for various websites, journal search engines, or databases for referencing to support their academic writing. furthermore, in q14, it was found that university student respondents had less understanding of how to use digital reference management applications to cite references in academic texts than the respondents with bachelor's or master's degrees. similarly, in q15, it was found that respondents who had graduated from graduate school had a greater understanding of how to use digital references to develop a database of articles they had cited than those who were still university students. conversely, in q31, it was found that university student respondents were more open to receiving feedback from colleagues on the content of academic texts they wrote than the other three groups (i.e., respondents with diplomas, bachelors, and master's degrees). finally, according to q32, university student respondents were more willing to seek out feedback by asking for their colleagues' suggestions after reading their academic texts than respondents with bachelor's degrees. conclusion despite the number of current studies on academic writing self-efficacy offering results of investigation of the variable, there is rarely an examination of the instrument measuring academic writing creativity and self-efficacy, specifically in indonesian writing teachers contexts. the current study examined the psychometric characteristic of the academic writing creativity and self-efficacy instruments adapted and expanded from the earlier study by measuring the level of academic writing creativity and mitchell (2021) self-efficacy, and the effect of five affective variables (i.e., writing essential scale, rational reflective writing scale, creativity identity scale, and technology used to support writing and writing creativity scale). despite the high level of reliability of the academic writing creativity and self-efficacy scale (cronbach's α > 0.95 for the global scale, and cronbach's α > 0.85 for each constructs) and sufficient separation index for the person and item aspects, the instruments present an issue concerning the multidimensionality i.e. on the global scale, rational reflective writing (rrw), and technology use to support writing & writing creativity (tusw); indicating that the questionnaire could incorporate other potential constructs on the related aspects. the analysis of dif resulted that the academic writing creativity and self-efficacy scale could potentially be biased when employed to collect the data from participants with differing teaching statuses and educational backgrounds. these findings thus suggest that caution should be taken when using the academic writing creativity and self-efficacy scale, as highlighted by the results of the current study. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 133 declaration of conflicting interests the authors declared no potential conflicts of interest. funding the current study was funded by the directorate general of higher education, research and technology, ministry of education, culture, research and technology, republic of indonesia, through a research grant pdupt year 2022. references alberth. 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(2020). exploring junior high school efl teachers’ training needs of assessment literacy. cogent education, 7(1), 1772943. https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186x.2020.1772943 zumbrunn, s., broda, m., varier, d., & conklin, s. (2020). examining the multidimensional role of self-efficacy for writing on student writing self-regulation and grades in elementary and high school. british journal of educational psychology, 90(3), 580–603. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12315 biographical notes herri mulyono is an associate professor at university of muhammadiyah prof. dr. hamka, indonesia sri kusuma ningsih is a lecturer at university of muhammadiyah prof. dr. hamka, indonesia beauty sholeha raufi was a student at university of muhammadiyah prof. dr. hamka, indonesia this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 494 in search of quality education: the e-learning implementation as the impacts of the covid-19 pandemic ikeu kania 1* , dini turipanam alamanda 2 , mila karmila 3 , and mutiana budiman 4 abstract the appearance of the disease epidemic induced by novel coronavirus (covid-19) leads to some changes in life aspects, including in the learning process in the education unit, particularly in colleges. the e-learning model is one of the models implemented in garut university to prevent coronavirus transmission. this research aimed to describe an e-learning activity conducted by garut university during the pandemic. the research method used was survey to examine the positive and negative effects of online learning activities. the technique of collecting data used was an online questionnaire via whatsapp with 181 students. the results showed that e-learning activity conducted by garut university had not been conducted effectively for students, lecturers and the campus itself as e-learning system provider. lecturer performance was the complained factor by students, but generally lecturing ineffectiveness was due to all academicians‟ unpreparedness for dealing with the changes of learning system from face-to-face to online method. keywords change management, online learning, pandemic effect, physical distancing article history received 19 march 2022 accepted 10 november 2022 how to cite kania, i., alamanda, d. t., karmila, m., & budiman, m. (2022). in search of quality education: the e-learning implementation as the impacts of the covid-19 pandemic. indonesian research journal in education |irje|, 6(2), 494– 514. https://doi.org/10.22437/irje .v6i2.17525 1*faculty member, universitas garut, indonesia; corresponding author: ikeukania@fisip.uniga.ac.id 2,3,4 faculty member, universitas garut, indonesia https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v6i2.17525 https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v6i2.17525 mailto:ikeukania@fisip.uniga.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 495 introduction in some recent months, the world is surprised with a health phenomenon of the incidence of epidemic induced by virus called novel coronavirus (or new type of coronavirus, thereafter, called covid-19) by scientist or also called wuhan influenza virus. who has released this 2019-ncov infection status as the outbreak phenomenon (rothan & . like other viruses spreading rapidly, coronavirus is considered highly byrareddy, 2020) infectious, transmitted from human to human . it is characterized with the (dong et al., 2020) high case number reported in short period at global scale. although statistically it has achieved the fatal mortality rate, this virus novelty is very worrying, and moreover there has been neither specific therapy nor vaccine for eradicating it . this (rothan & byrareddy, 2020) development of disease incidence rate is reported continuously, and so far the confirmed case occurs mostly in china, as the location of disease origin, followed by thailand, japan, south korea, singapore, nepal, vietnam, france, india, united states of america and indonesia . (tang et al., 2020) the prevalence of coronavirus in indonesia now leads the government to organize some measures to cope with it through many policies. for example, ministry of education and culture of indonesia decided the authority of learning process organization implementation in high education (college) to be handed over to individual rectors. most campuses in indonesia have announced the organization of lecturing using online-based lecturing system to anticipate the covid-19 among college students. this policy is conducted to restrict or to minimize the transmission of covid-19. in the more worrying condition due to this covid-19 effect, e-learning is considered the solution to bridge the implementation of the learning process in college. in this online lecturing, students are not required to go to campus routinely. online lecturing (e-learning) is also a means of interactive learning. lectures and students can communicate using social or interactive media . lecturers can deliver (samir abou el-seoud et al., 2014) lecturing material in file, video, and text. as such, the students can get learning material in the form of file or reading material from corresponding lecturers, send question to the lecturer of the course, send contact to other students, see information from the corresponding lecturer, and take examination at the time specified (al-mukhaini et al., 2014). recently, the use of social network is a phenomenon developing in both academic and non-academic lives . the use of social network equips and (kalpana & mahajan, 2018) improves teaching process in traditional classroom. for instance, youtube, facebook, wiki, and blog provide a large volume of materials on various subjects. therefore, students can open one of these tools for further explanation or clarification. virtual tools such as google classroom, zoom, and moodle can help students keep connected to their classmates and lecturers in a participative environment. this tool helps the material taught be accessible to all users anytime and anywhere . (al-mukhaini et al., 2014) unfortunately, based on , there is a significant gap between the ratnadewi (2019) performance of the e-learning system and the acceptance of the e-learning system in various educational institutions in indonesia. although e-learning can be as a learning solution in the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 496 pandemic era , some academics consider it a new source of difficulty in the (dhawan, 2020) teaching process (almaiah et al., 2020). the government of garut regency also assigns all education activities, including lecturing, to be conducted online. garut university as the only one university in garut regency is also responsible for implementing the online learning. it consists of 7 faculties. the teaching learning activity is managed independently by each faculty with centralized instructions. google classroom was used on 16-29 march 2020, and then learning management system (lms) was used as an improvement of the learning system. online learning is held in accordance with the schedule and monitored by academic staff and it staff of each faculty. both students and lecturers are asked to use the email recommended by the campus thus the lecture process can run in an integrated manner with the academic system. the transfer of learning methods creates pros and cons among the academic community. the facilities and infrastructure have not been able to fully support e-learning activities. based on the explanation above, how the implementation of e-learning system at garut university. thus, this study aims to describe the e-learning activities carried out at garut university. the implications of this research can be used as an illustration of the performance of learning activities by the management of garut university and become a consideration for reviewing learning methods by lecturers at garut university. literature review policy implementation is an activity that is seen after a proper direction has been issued from a policy which includes efforts to manage inputs to produce outputs or outcomes for the community . implementing online learning policies has (khan et al., 2016) resulted in mixed responses from academician . although e-learning as a (dhawan, 2020) technology is the best option to maintain the continuity of the teaching and learning process during the covid-19 pandemic, it must be understood that e-learning is not always well received as students receive conventional learning. it could be that students do not accept, dislike, or even reject e-learning. although several studies have stated that e-learning can significantly improve student learning outcomes, the results of these studies have not been able to measure the level of acceptance and the use of e-learning, especially during the covid-19 outbreak ( . amir et al., 2020) research related to the acceptance and use of e-learning is necessary because, in general, the success or failure of the application of technology, including e-learning, will depend on the acceptance and use of each individual . therefore, it is (zalat et al., 2021) necessary to investigate the factors that can affect the acceptance and use of e-learning by students. online learning depends on the e-learning infrastructure provided by educational institutions, always e-learning service providers . many aspects need to be (garad et al., 2021) considered in using e-learning applications, starting from planning, and measurement of student needs, support systems, teacher competencies, material design, appropriate platforms, learning environment, and evaluation of student learning outcomes. three main aspects of e-learning are developers, educators, and students. e-learning will be successful if irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 497 there is access and technology, guidelines and procedures, maximum participation of students, applied collaborative learning teacher, and interaction (amir et al., 2020). e-learning can bring new circumstances to the learning development methods with open content, i.e. learning material can be used concomitantly. students can attend the lecturing anywhere and anytime, as long as they have internet connection (panyajamorn et . in online system, students keep having a “face-to-face” schedule and the lecturer al., 2018) that has been planned. therefore, in e-learning application not only students are required to master certain skill, but a lecturer is also required to have some competencies to make the e-learning program he/she organizes running well ( suanpang et al., 2004). rosenberg in categorizes three basic criteria existing in e-learning. firstly, e-learning is a sanderson (2002) network enabling it to improve quickly, store or redisplay, distribute, and share learning and information. secondly, e-learning is sent to the user through computer using standard internet technology. thirdly, e-learning focuses on the broadest learning perspective, learning solutions surpassing the traditional training paradigm. most previous studies on the effectiveness of e-learning have found interesting facts. a study of suanpang et al. (2004) found the method affecting the effectiveness of learning. it examined the effectiveness by comparing two (interactive and non-interactive) and traditional (class instruction) methods. the result of research showed that e-learning in interactive mode is better than that in non-interactive mode. this information technology-based learning model using e-learning contributes to the change of learning culture in its learning context. meanwhile, the advantage of e-learning is, among others, that students can attend the lecturing anytime and anywhere they want as long as they have good internet connection, and can save transportation cost (el-seoud et . the learning materials can be selected according to students‟ ability level and want, al., 2014) and debriefing is flexible in nature in the lecturing process, as it can be conducted through chatting with either lecturers or classmates. e-learning model, as aforementioned benefits the students very well, but on the other hand some students residing in rural areas found some constraints related to it. in addition, e-learning still faces another problem, i.e. most students decline to shift from the use of traditional class to the training guided by computer in virtual classroom . (sanchez-gordon & luján-mora, 2016) methodology in order to achieve this research‟s objective, the research used survey. singer and state that a researcher can adapt open-ended questions to several functions in couper (2017) a quantitative survey. open questionnaire is the technique used to explore e-learning phenomenon as unplanned lecturing system with the users of e-learning service. the questionnaire was given to 181 garut university students from 7 faculties when the government obligated all face-to-face lecturing activities to be eliminated temporarily. the sampling method used in this study was random cluster sampling, where the student population was divided into faculty clusters and taken randomly from each cluster. the distribution was 35% (63 people) of the respondents were from the economics faculty (fekon), 20% (36 people) from the mathematics and natural sciences faculty (fmipa), 13% (24 people) from the faculty of islamic education and teacher training (fpik), 12% (22 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 498 people) from the faculty of social and political sciences (fisip), 11% (20 people) from the faculty of agriculture (faperta), 5% (9 people) from the faculty of engineering, 3% (5 people) from the faculty of communication (fikom), and 1% (2 people) from the faculty of entrepreneurship (fkwu). the questions presented to the respondents were "what is your opinion toward online learning at garut university?" the distribution of the open-ended questionnaire was carried out through the whatsapp platform during march 2020. open-ended questionnaires were used to obtain more detailed answers from respondents by expressing what they thought in their own words. the first stage of data processing was making verbatim and then inputting the entire range of possible responses. the next step was making classification based on coding. this research used the inductive coding method, where the researchers know a little about the research subject and conducts heuristic or exploratory research (adu, . the coding results were calculating the frequency and presented in a graph using 2019) microsoft excel tools. the data that had been processed is then tested for validity using a member check. member checks can be implemented after a period of data collection is complete or after obtaining a finding or conclusion. the implementation technique was to go to the data provider individually to the data provider, or through group discussion forums. in the group discussion, the researchers conveyed the findings to a group of data providers. in the group discussion, there were data that were agreed upon, added, reduced or rejected by the data provider. after the data was mutually agreed upon, the data givers were asked to sign to make it more authentic and as evidence that the researchers had done a member check. findings and discussion based on the coding results, 48 issues with a cumulative total of 1,169 appeared related to online lecturing activity in garut university. generally, respondents stated that online lecturing using media and system specified by campus is not effective yet (98%), despite some respondents seeing its positive side (2%). respondents coming from regular class (84%) had fewer problems compared with students coming from employee class (16%). marital status, family situation, and occupation status made working students encountering more complex situation. about 48 issues appeared from the result of exploration, divided into 10 categories: lecturing activity, interaction during lecturing, lecturing material, facilitator, assignment, cost, physical, psychical, technology, and family and environmental. assignment category got most responses (562) and psychical effect was the least one appearing (16). the distribution of issue and frequency related to online lecturing in garut university is presented in table 1 and visually the proportion of online lecturing issue is presented in figure 1. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 499 table 1. distribution of issues and frequencies related to online lecturing category issue(s) frequency total activity assignment proportion 16 62 online attendance 12 discussion 20 flexible 11 internet café 3 interaction face to face habits 39 68 conformity of concepts 16 visual needs 2 miscommunication 10 monotonous 1 material material availability 2 91 material understanding 38 material quality 11 material presentation 27 material delivery 13 facilitator creativity 3 34 innovation 4 empathy 15 responsive 2 coordination 9 attitude 1 assignment direction 180 562 technical collection 10 timing 175 weight 180 media 13 tolerance 4 cost internet quota 54 67 transport 11 tuition compensation 2 health tiredness 12 52 sore eyes 40 psychic/mental stress 7 16 hard to sleep 2 bored 6 antipathy 1 technology literacy 2 192 radiation 6 network 102 system reliability 55 device condition 15 device availability 2 device memory 2 media selection 8 family and environmental support pocket money 8 25 tolerance 1 protest 1 focus 10 disturbance 5 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 500 figure 1. distribution of response categories to online lectures lecturing activity the academic activity held in lecturing class in the form of lecture, discussion, role play, quiz, and assignment. the lecturing time is determined according to the varying credit value of respective courses, at least 2 credit points and at most 3 credit points in garut university. generally, the lecturing is dominated with lecturing activity and discussion, but during online lecturing, students cannot feel the lecturing circumstance. it is confirmed by a student (1) stating that, “…. i think this online lecturing system is ineffective, as most lecturers give assignment only without explaining the material …” “…..i think, this online lecturing is ineffective as it tends to give more assignment than to explain the material,…” (student 2) the students also expect that discussion activity keeps running in online lecturing, thereby can solve the unclear assignment problem. some respondents said (student 3), “…online application feature is appropriate but ineffective because students work on the assignment and read the material only without the explanation of less understandable material and without visual discussion between students and lecturer…” “… online lecturing is not merely about assignment, but it can open discussion forum or debriefing, and then discuss coronavirus taking more tolls over times…” (student 4) another issue is the problem of incriminating online presence; campus instruction states that “the assignment submission conducted by students is the evidence of their 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 c u m u la ti v e f re q u e n c ie s category irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 501 presence in the lecturing”. the point of instruction incriminates the students; it is in line with a student (5) stating, “…. thereafter, the lecturer gives assignment with the scheduled deadline and with the assignment being the parameter of presence…” “….in the presence of online lecturing, the lecturing time actually becomes more flexible, so that it is unnecessarily adjusted with the lecturing hour…” (student, 6) considering the result of interview with some informants, it can be seen that the implementation of online lecturing is still less effective because the lecturing material is received by students not as obviously as that using face-to-face lecturing in the class. in addition, online discussion activity is ineffective. e-learning and new technology in the changing education process is an important innovative segment in college (ghareb & . most students decline to adapt from traditional classroom to mohammed, 2016) computer-led or virtual training . (sanchez-gordon & luján-mora, 2016) hayashi et al. said that social attendance evidently has an effect on virtual learning environments. (2020) online discussion helps students answer the question in appropriate manner (ghareb & . online discussion media used today are varying; learning management mohammed, 2016) system (lms) , zoom (safont & calvís, 2010), kahoot (alamanda et al., 2019) (sayem et al., and google meet are alternative media to be used. whatsapp is also considered as 2017) effective as lecturing discussion media in some campus (amry, 2014). social interaction a reciprocal relation that can be established well between students and between student and lecturer during the lecturing process, but in online lecturing the students cannot interact socially and directly with others, thereby lowering their learning spirit and motivation. it is confirmed by a student (7), “…. i attend online lecturing not vigorously, because i cannot see my friends. meanwhile in face-to-face lecturing we can discuss and work on the assignment while joking…” “…. learning motivation is lowered, without the presence of classmate directly the learning is not great as we cannot debate in working the assignment in group…” (student 8) “… it is boring, usually in the face-to-face lecturing, students can express their opinion and share anything from lecturing material to personal matter freely with the lecturer…” (student 9) this condition makes the interpersonal communication not running, thereby generating some problems, as suggested by a student (10), “….online lecturing is less effective, not great, not passionate, stressful and very rigid, in the direct learning in the classroom, the lecturer usually explains the material irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 502 while giving real and clear example and even with joke, rekindling the class circumstance, debriefing can run openly, so that harmonious interaction is established…” the findings on interaction in the learning above is in line with janse van rensburg's (2018) study, in which poor interaction with classmates and instructors makes students feeling intimidated. it is important to implement collaborative learning in order to create meaningful social learning and interaction . suggested that an effective (rezaei, 2017) morel (2018) interactive lecturing should be equipped with multimodal competency including classroom space, gaze, and movement accompanied with spoken and written language, the attendance to regulation and supervision in order to lead active activity in the class. although the use of google classroom is considered as effective in more flexible learning process in several campuses in indonesia however, it is has not (alim et al., 2019). been considered as representing the definition of lecturing interaction by students in garut university. it is because the google classroom feature has not been used maximally by facilitators. has developed interactive vignet video (ivv) adding interactivity laws et al. (2015) and presentation by means of combining web-based video activity. zoom application has not been applied to online lecturing in garut university, but it needs to be considered to be an alternative learning media. zoom has evidently improved students‟ participation through virtual tutorial from comfortable location . the finding shows that the (sayem et al., 2017) use of google classroom is effective with some limitations: (1) not all students get the account given by lecturer because they have no smartphone, (2) limited wi-fi availability in the campus, and (3) students have inadequate cellular data package during online discussion and even some of them submit their assignment using their friends‟ account. cost the cost is particularly related to purchase internet quota. this condition is understandable because many students use wifi facilities on campus for learning or other purposes. this category is a problem in the implementation of online learning, in view of the socio-economic conditions of parents of students at garut university who are mostly at the middle level. the addition of internet quota purchases is a burden for students. this condition is a problem that also has an impact on the implementation of online lectures. cost becomes the controversial issue among students, as suggested by a student (23), “…. the cost for purchasing quota becomes a distinctive burden to me, because my family‟s economic condition is only on average level, and online lecturing will increase our economic burden…” “….i usually spend only …. to buy internet quota for 1 (one) month… but in the presence of online lecturing it increases. (student 24) “….campus should give compensation for quota purchasing…” (student 25) this condition is understandable because many students use wifi facility in campus for learning or other purposes. it is also confirmed by a student (26), irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 503 “…. direct learning will save more money than online learning, because students can use internet facility for free and joyfully in the campus…” “…..the wifi in campus has broad bandwidth, so we can download anything fast…” (student 27) “…. hopefully this corona pandemic will end quickly, because online learning is not student-friendly, it takes more money for buying quota, therefore our pocket money is reduced…” (student 28) “….to me and the condition with average economic condition, the quota cost becomes substantial burden…” (student 29) this cost category becomes an issue in online lecturing implementation, recalling the social-economic condition of student‟s parent in garut university belonging to medium level. the increased expense for internet quota burdens the students. this condition becomes an issue impacting on the online lecturing as well. responding to cost issue, as aforementioned, podcast methods is feasible to consider by facilitators because bolliger et study found that students are fairly motivated with the method. additionally, the al.'s (2010) use of podcast is more efficient and simpler than online tutorial method like zoom or google meet or youtube video. health online lecturing requires the students to keep connected to computer and smartphone android. both computer and cellular using intensities are higher. stress, sleeping difficulty, tiredness, boredom, and sore eyes are things that students felt in doing online learning. it is stated by the students (30), “….my eyes will be poignant and watery if i use computer for a long time…“…..working on the assignment using computer almost every day is tiring, particularly the eyes become less healthy and poignant…. “… online lecturing makes me tired and even often headache such as dizziness… “(student 31) “… it really makes me think hard; because of so many assignment, i often have dizziness…” (student 32) “… hopefully this covid-19 pandemic ends immediately, so that the lecturing can return to the normal one… because online lecturing makes me tired physically and mentally…” (student 33) irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 504 technology use online lecture requires the students to be technology-literate; recalling the implementation of e-learning in practice needs technology help, particularly internet technology. internet connection or online connection is absolutely necessary to access learning process and lecturing material. internet connectivity problem due to technical and unstable power supply problems can inhibit the online learning activity (esewe & adejumo, internet technology use is a determinant of online lecturing, but in fact not all 2014). students can access internet because of such constraints as less supporting connectivity, as suggested by a student (37), “…. i live in rural areas and cannot be connected to internet ...” “...i have no personal computer and my smartphone is incompatible to online lecturing, so i am always left behind in the lecturing….” student (38) “...the network connection is unstable; the server is often in trouble…” (student 39) limited internet network or connection is the factor affecting the e-learning implementation. computer set is determinant of the optimum online lecturing implementation. the successful e-learning program in information technology (it) requires the users to be equipped with certain computer specification affecting information . (hayashi et al., 2020) software availability, training for facilitator, collaboration between facilitator and learning media provider, self-efficacy perception, and teaching concepts affect the use of technology in lecturing (gil-flores et al., 2017). the environmental condition environmental condition, either family or social environment, is determinant of online lecturing implementation. this attempt of preventing coronavirus requires the students to implement the lecture at home (stay at home) obligatorily. this condition of course needs support from many parties, particularly family members. we need quiet circumstance at home, to make the learning process running smoothly without disturbance. the condition of the family environment has an impact on the implementation of e-learning, both positive and negative impacts, therefore good cooperation from all family members is needed so that all activities can run optimally. it is confirmed by a student (43), “….lecturing at home (home lecturing) has an advantage as it can be more relaxed, but classroom lecturing is more effective because my little brother often disturbs me when i attend lecturing at home…” “…..my little brother is also studying at college, so i should share the computer with him, while online lecturing should be on time….” (student 44) irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 505 “….home lecturing makes me less focusing because of noise and disturbance coming from other family members who are watching tv…” (student 45) family environment condition affects the e-learning implementation, either positive or negative effect; therefore, good cooperation is required from all family members so that all activities can run optimally. learning environment plays an important role in creating individual‟s inherent potency . self-esteem is considered to be (lawrence & vimala, 2012) able to mediate social support and academic achievement and to explain social relation and emotional fatigue . (li et al., 2018) materials during pandemic, in garut university lecturing material is delivered using various applications, from google classroom to video conference through google meet and zoom. material availability, material understanding, material quality, and presentation form delivered by lecturers are responded to differently by each of students. a student said (11), “….. online lecturing used zoom is less preferred, because adequate internet quota should be available…” “….. learning material during pandemic is better to be sent via whatsapp in the form of power-point file…” (student 12) “. i prefer lecturing in the classroom using power point, because lecturer explains the points in detail, so that we can understand it better…” (student 13) “… that is right… the material delivered using power point is more understandable; then lecturing runs more vigorously…. much writing is no longer needed…” (student 14) “…. i think the material delivered using power point is better, despite inadequate explanation sometimes due to the use of small font…” (student 15) so far the use of power point slide is used by nearly all facilitators in garut university. the use of slide power point is used very popularly in many campuses. the delivery of powerpoint slide material can improve students‟ attendance and participation in the class, but it does not impact on the performance during examination (babb & ross, 2009). however, the delivery of material before the lecturing process makes the lecturing time ends more quickly than the time allotment. the use of learning video is considered as an effective means of delivering course content and provides the attendance circumstance in the virtual teaching environment . the video lecturing format most commonly used is voice-over (scagnoli et al., 2019) slideshows and standard recording using digital video camera. nevertheless, the use of podcast can be an attractive consideration material to the students as the users (bolliger et irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 506 . preparing a successful learning video-based lecturing needs an instructor to make al., 2010) its format, content, and activities accompanying it appropriate so that the content delivered can be accepted effectively by students . lecturing material can also (inman & myers, 2018) be delivered through virtual lecturing session using zoom and google meet. modern technology gives vital aid to achieve the standard learning instrument quality desirable (sayem et al., 2017) psychic/mental issues the change of learning method from face-to-face (conventional) to online one suddenly due to the appearance of coronavirus pandemic of course affected overall learning processes. such the change can be felt by lecturers, students, and all academicians. the change occurring affecting them not only physically but also psychically. lecturers and students complain with it because they have not been accustomed with online lecturing. it is confirmed by student (34), “…. direct learning (classroom lecturing) is more joyful…. many views can be seen and it is pleasant, while online lecturing requires us to express opinion continuously using internet, it is boring….” “…. this corona pandemic condition makes me stressed, because many assignments sometimes should be done until late night as they should be submitted immediately…” (student 35) „... i am tired of doing the assignment continuously, the lecturers formerly delivering the learning material in the classroom now change it into assignments, and eventually i have insomnia, dizziness, and nausea …” (student 36) stress, insomnia, fatigue, saturation, and sore eyes are grievances often told by students in attending online lecturing. some studies have been conducted on the effect of many lecturing assignments on physical health of students . (law, 2007; benner & curl, 2018) moreover, among students with double role as students and workers, physical and mental health factor is associated with conflict of role, leading to higher fatigue risk. improving students‟ life quality has been the main focus of educational institution . such (li et al., 2018) disorders as stress and lowered sleeping quality are important factors contributing to students' poor learning and well-being the management of faculty (pascoe et al., 2020). should evaluate the assignment weight received by students because fatigue can lead to inefficient teaching-learning process (li et al., 2018). assignments the implementation of online lecturing during pandemic time changes some forms of assignment to students. because there is no face-to-face meeting in the classroom, in the end of material delivery the lecturers often give assignment with written instruction sent through google classroom. students often complain about this assignment, as each of the courses gives an assignment at the end of each meeting. a student complained (19), irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 507 “… ouch!!!... why must all lecturers give assignment?… the lecturing makes us busier with online teaching method….” “….a longer time should be given to the deadline of assignment submission, because we have a large number of assignments…” (student 20) “…sometimes the instruction of assignment is not clear… and we cannot ask information about it directly …” (student 21) “… the tolerance to assignment submission deadline is expected to be given wisely, because we have a lot of assignments to do….” (student 22) many facilitators design assignment based on what they consider as good rather than on evidence . the assignment given should be adjusted with pandemic condition. (rezaei, 2017) lecturers of garut university should avoid assignment in group in which the students‟ infrastructural capacity has not been adequate. also explains that the rezaei (2017) assignment in group and the design of collaborative environment are not always easy and conducted successfully. however, such condition can be improved when facilitators and students understand how to design and to do online group work. facilitators an online learning process requires facilitator (lecturer) to contribute actively, and to have creativity and responsiveness to situation and condition. interaction with an effective communication is important to learning process. online lecturing, according to students, does not exert positive and significant effect. a student stated (16), “…online teaching-learning process feels more rigid, as interaction with lecturer cannot be done freely…” (student 16) “…. the organization of online lecturing is often inhibited by situation and condition, sometimes it is difficult to coordinate with friends, because they are difficult to contact due to no signal and etc…” (student 17) “… information from lecturer cannot be received directly, because the signal is bad in their residence…” (student 18) this condition is the constraint often faced during teaching-learning process. facilitator‟s creativity, innovation, and attitude are the factors need to be improved to support the successful learning process. new technology will not change educators' role, but significantly affects the need to implement various teaching approaches in a very different technology environment and organization . (sukmawati & nensia, 2019) esewe and adejumo (2014) stated that the lack of skilled educators affects negatively the good online teaching standard. unfortunately, the policy of online lecturing organization is often not accompanied with irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 508 guidelines for online teaching so that facilitators often find constraints in designing and evaluating the lecturing . to optimize the role of ict as an (santos & boticario, 2015) innovative factor in learning activity, teaching model modification should be made; facilitator role, class organization problem, teaching-learning process, and interaction mechanism . furthermore, (sangra & gonzalez-sanmamed, 2010) sangra and gonzalez-sanmamed suggested that facilitators often have no self-confidence to synthesize and to evaluate (2010) learning process using ict. the guarantee of teaching and learning process is very important to educational institution to maintain its progress . from the result of exploration above, (sayem et al., 2017) a lot of information can be used for evaluating the online lecturing activity, particularly in garut regency. there are four significant issues becoming topic of discussion among students, each of which gets more than 100 times: assignment instruction (180), assignment weight (180), assignment time (175), and cellular network (103). from the four basic issues in online lecturing in garut university, 3 issues come from lecturer: instruction, assignment weight, assignment time, and 1 (one) issue comes from external campus (cellular network). it indicates that lecturers in garut university have not been accustomed with online lecturing system and do not have enough preparation for online lecturing activity. meanwhile, online lecturing system is defined as the lecturing system utilizing internet access as learning media designed and displayed in the form of lecturing module, video and audio recordings, or writing by academician/university. in fact, in practice, the lecturers use this system to give assignment to students. in other words, it cannot be called online lecture but online assignment. it, of course, highly affects the students‟ satisfaction with campus service during stay-at-home situation. student‟s satisfaction results from service quality delivered by university . said that teaching method employed by (deuren & lhaden, 2017) djudin (2018) lecturer affects significantly the students‟ satisfaction, while learning program does not. added that instructor‟s quality affects an individual‟s interest in being susilawati et al. (2019) enrolled in a university. from the two arguments above, lecture is one of the front lines to be considered by university in giving the students the satisfaction that can impact the campus‟ reputation in the future. the government‟s attempts still focus on providing good equipment but have not comprehensively achieved the evaluation stage on online learning effectiveness. the objective of government in implementing stay-at-home and online home learning program during the pandemic is to enable the students to keep doing lecturing activity despite no face-to-face interaction with the corresponding lecturer, so that the pause can be utilized maximally. however, it is noteworthy that the objective of learning is to transfer knowledge from lecturer to students, thereby students can understand what the lecturer delivers, and it can change the students from not knowledgeable to knowledgeable. another crucial philosophy of education is that the students‟ mindset in learning is to understand knowledge (science) and then applying it, rather than hunting value (score). ideally, the application of information technology-based lecturing model using e-learning contributes to the change of learning culture in its learning context. from e-learning lecturing model, the important components in building the students‟ learning culture are, among others: (1) students are required independently in learning using a variety of appropriate approaches to enable the students to direct, to motivate, and to organize irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 509 themselves in the learning; (2) students can develop knowledge and skill, particularly information technology thereby can facilitate the learning, understand the learning and anything needed in the learning; (3) the availability of adequate infrastructure to support the lecturing implementation. it is similar with most students‟ opinion; lecturers also stated that online lecturing has not been conducted effectively in garut university. similarly, viewed from the issue aspect, the result of interview with 3 lecturers of garut university aged 30-40 years stated that lecturing media specified by campus is the main factor leading to ineffective learning. it is confirmed by a lecturer informant (1), “…we usually use google classroom, but now the campus has moved to lms, so we are rather in troublesome because of limited upload quota, while my lecturing material is in video form; i think using the proved media is better at this urgent time” it is justified by lecturer informant (2): “…. lecturing media should use whatsapp only, because in addition to the lecturers and the students having been familiar with it, discussion more possibly occurs with it than with google classroom or lms often down. as the proof of lecturing, there is download chat facility in whatsapp to prove that the lecturing occurs at specified time.” (lecturer informant 2) meanwhile, for the assignment, lecturers admit that they are forced to give assignment on the campus‟ instruction, as the evidence of presence the students are required to upload the assignment during lecturing period. it is confirmed by lecturer informant (3), “…i personally agree more with the lecturing material discussing the pandemic associated with the lecturing material. however, the campus management asks for the evidence of students‟ presence, so that i am forced to give assignment.” some lecturers admitted that they give assignment because they have no e-learning material such as learning video or lecturing module, so that they are confused during the lecturing period. it is confirmed by lecturer informant (4), “…. actually, i am rather confused because i have not prepared learning video yet, but eventually i use video from youtube as the material and then give assignment…” lecturers also regret the network and quota problems complained of by students. the more preferred online lecturing media in garut university are google classroom, lms, and their combination through whatsapp. students‟ economic problem is one reason of why garut university does not apply video-based zoom in online lecturing. the use of whatsapp and google classroom is indeed more effective for discussing agenda, but the campus‟ it operators states that the two applications are connected difficultly to the existing academic system, while lms can be connected to students and lecturers‟ presence system. from the elaboration above, the online lecturing effectiveness model in garut university can be summarized in figure 2. students argue that lecturer is the dominant factor leading to irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 510 ineffective lecturing. meanwhile, lecturers argue that campus is responsible for the ineffectiveness of online lecturing media. viewed from the campus‟ perspective, it is because it is necessary to record the lecturing activity orderly. figure 2. online lecturing effectiveness model conclusion and recommendations considering the result of research, it can be concluded that generally, e-learning activity conducted by garut university had not been effective yet, viewed from students, lecturers, and the campus as the service provider. there were 10 out of 48 categories of issues delivered by students related to online lecturing, in which 3 (three) main issues are relevant to the lecturer performance related to direction, weight, and timing assignment. meanwhile, lecturers argued that learning media instructed by the campus was not reliable and made the materials and lecturing processes difficult, thereby generating many complaints among the students. some recommendations are proposed based on the findings of this study.  there are should be a consideration for familiar, reliable and friendly behaviours to cellular networks of the learning media for both lecturers and students;  the lecture attendance recording system is sufficient with the lecturer's report to the academic officers of each faculty with acceptable evidence;  besides giving assignments to students proportionally, during the lecture period, lecturers open discussion activities through agreed media, so that students get good directions and explanations;  online lectures should not only be held when the government instructs social and physical distancing, but universities need to prepare themselves to follow the development of industry 4.0 where online lectures are one of the challenges;  lecturers are given training in several alternative implementations of online lectures through media that allow all lecturers to participate; irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 511  the it team conduct an online comparative study on which campuses have successfully implemented online lecture systems in indonesia. declaration of conflicting interests the authors declared no potential conflicts of interest. references adu, p. 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(2021). the experiences, challenges, and acceptance of e-learning as a tool for teaching during the covid-19 pandemic among university medical staff. plos one, 16(3), e0248758. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0248758 biographical notes ikeu kania is working at universitas garut, indonesia dini turipanam alamanda is working at universitas garut, indonesia mila karmila is working at universitas garut, indonesia mutiana budiman is working at universitas garut, indonesia this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 188 the development of pq4r-tps learning strategies for empowering students' scientific attitudes and hots henny setiawati * abstract biology in secondary schools is still largely oriented to mastery of concepts and has not attempted to empower students' scientific attitudes and higher order thinking skills (hots). it has implications for the attitudes and cognitive abilities of students who tend to be low. the problems found in the learning process are related to the lack of application of students' scientific attitudes and hots. teachers do not have learning tools that support the development of scientific attitudes and hots. the development of learning tools using constructive strategies is an effective alternative solution that can be used by teachers to overcome these problems. one of the constructive strategies that are considered appropriate to be developed is the pq4r and tps strategies. therefore, this research aims to develop an oriented biology learning tool for empowering students' scientific attitudes and hots. efforts to combine pq4r and tps strategies to maximize the potential of these two strategies. the strategy development method follows the thiagarajan 4d learning design model. the results of this strategy development will be implemented into learning tools. keywords critical thinking skills, hots, metacognitive skills, pq4r-tps learning strategy, scientific attitude article history received 28 july 2022 accepted 18 september 2022 how to cite setiawati, h. (2022). the development of pq4r-tps learning strategies for empowering students' scientific attitudes and hots. indonesian research journal in education |irje|, 6(2), 188–205. https://doi.org/ 10.22437/irje.v6i2.19992 *faculty member of biology education study program, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas muhammadiyah parepare, indonesia; corresponding author: hennysetiawati030473@gmail.com mailto:hennysetiawati030473@gmail.com irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 189 introduction policy in the 2013 curriculum (k13) describes the competencies that graduates must achieve in three aspects, namely affective, skills, and cognitive. these three aspects of competence are interrelated to produce independent graduates. however, in reality, learning is still oriented to mastery of concepts and has not sought the empowerment of high-order thinking skills and attitudes. it is also seen in biology learning in secondary schools that have not conditioned the empowerment of scientific attitudes and high-order thinking skills yet which are the needs to build an independent generation and have life skills in the 21st century. one of the objectives of learning biology in secondary schools is to develop a scientific attitude in students to achieve objective knowledge (surajiyo, 2008). another problem in learning biology in secondary schools is that they have not made efforts to empower higher-order thinking skills. some research results show that the scientific attitudes and learning to think about the application are not optimal. according to setiawati, rahman, and jafar (2019) attitude competence and thinking skills in biology learning in high school have not been empowered, even though corebima (2009) stated that the thinking skills of students do not develop by themselves in line with the development of their age. the thinking skills of students will develop well if it is done intentionally. critical thinking and metacognitive skills are related to solving problems through the ability to analyze, synthesize, evaluate, generalize, compare, deduce, classify information, conclude, make decisions, and solve problems (corebima, 2009; darling-hammond et al., 2003). based on the problems that have been disclosed, learning strategies are needed to empower students' scientific attitudes and higher-order thinking skills at the same time, including the pq4r (preview, questions, read, reflect, recite, review) and tps (think pair share) learning strategies. the pq4r proved beneficial for deep understanding and reconstructive learning (bibi & manzoor, 2011). research by wahyuningsih (2012); setiawati and corebima (2017) stated that the pq4r strategy improves student learning outcomes. the pq4r strategy has the potential to help empower students' thinking skills and scientific attitudes through 6 stages of learning. the preview, question, read, reflect, recite, and review stages direct student-centered independent learning through reading activities. according to handayani and dewanti (2020), the pq4r strategy improves analytical skills, attention, and students in science learning. likewise, ramdiah (2015) stated that the pq4r contributed to the empowerment of students' critical thinking and metacognitive skills. the pq4r strategy has revealed various advantages. however, there are individual shortcomings (setiawati & corebima, 2017). the pq4r is difficult to implement if the facilities such as student books (packaged books) are not available in schools and the number of students is too large. the tps learning strategy was chosen to help to overcome the weaknesses of the pq4r and empower the students' scientific attitude and thinking skills at the same time. the tps learning strategy provides opportunities for collaboration, higher-order thinking, and optimizing participation so that all students can improve their learning outcomes together. the incorporation of the pq4r strategy syntax into the tps strategy then referred to as pq4r-tps, is expected to be able to overcome the shortcomings of pq4r, which will provide opportunities for students to develop and demonstrate abilities irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 190 at the individual and group levels to empower students' scientific attitudes and thinking skills. based on this rationality, it needs a pq4r-tps strategy in biology learning in secondary schools to empower students' scientific attitudes and thinking skills. the combination of these two learning strategies aims to produce a new strategy formulation which is the integration of the pq4r strategy into the tps strategy to mutually reinforce the potential of each other in empowering students' scientific attitudes and thinking skills. literature review scientific attitude students with a high scientific attitude will have fluency in thinking, so they will be motivated to always excel and have a strong commitment to achieving success and excellence (setyobudi, boleng, & lumowa, 2012). aspects of scientific attitude include curiosity, respect for data, critical reflection, perseverance, creativity and discovery, open-mindedness, cooperation with others, willingness to accept uncertainty, and sensitivity to the environment. the american association for the advancement of science places emphasis on four dimensions of scientific attitude, namely honesty, curiosity, open-mindedness, and doubt (bundu, 2006). the same thing was also conveyed by subagia (2013) that noble morals, attitude-free demo, and learner responsibility will be built with getting used to being scientific, such as curiosity, openness, perseverance, not easy to believe, honesty, objective, not in a hurry in making decisions, and respecting the opinions of others. some information related to scientific attitudes application in schools shows a lack of student participation in learning. according to tursinawati (2013), the inculcation of the value of scientific attitudes is still lacking in science learning which results in obtaining the nature of science that is not intact, and the lack of scientific attitudes of students is formed. the emergence of scientific attitudes of students in science learning obtained an average of 60% in the category of enough because students have carried out scientific activities well, especially in collaborative activities. it means that it is essential to empower scientific attitudes in learning. according to oktarian (2019), students lack curiosity in solving problems, lack of students' critical thinking attitudes, manipulating data, and showing the same task as friends. it can push students' scientific attitudes in a negative direction. critical thinking skills critical thinking is the ability to give reasons in an organized manner and evaluate a reason's quality systematically. six variables of critical thinking ability that need to be observed in high school students are 1) formulating problems, 2) argumentation, 3) deduction, 4) induction, 5) evaluation, and 6) deciding and implementing. critical thinking skills have the potential to increase students' critical analytical and intellectual abilities. therefore, developing critical thinking skills in learning is an effort to improve student learning outcomes (adnyana, 2007). thinking skills are not automatically owned by students because students rarely transfer these thinking skills themselves, so they need guided practice. if teaching critical irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 191 thinking skills to students has not reached the stage where students can understand and learn to use them. it means thinking skills will not be used much. students' critical thinking skills can be trained, among others, by giving problems in the form of various questions. these critical thinking skills can be used as a potential tool to filter information and improve character formation and with this ability, students can achieve increased cognitive abilities. thomas, anderson, and nashon (2008) suggested that critical thinking skills are one of the crucial skills that need to be developed because these skills help students in selecting and sorting information properly, expressing opinions or reasons, and being able to solve problems. students need to repeat to practice thinking skills even though these skills have become part of their way of thinking. routine practices carried out by students will impact the efficiency and automation of students' thinking skills. metacognitive skills students' metacognitive skills refer to skills of prediction, planning, monitoring, and evaluation (veenman et al., 2006). darling-hammond et al. (2003) also stated that metacognitive skills have an essential role in many types of cognitive activity including understanding, communication, attention, memory, and problem solving, so students' metacognitive skills can direct their learning. metacognition plays an essential role in determining learning success. therefore, teachers need to teach metacognitive strategies to students. empowerment of metacognitive skills in students aims to make students understand how they think about biology, like the thinking steps of a biologist (tanner, 2009). metacognition plays an essential role in solving problems, and teachers are obliged to activate students to reflect, choose, monitor, and evaluate their performance results. developing a metacognitive culture in the classroom encourages students to develop this kind of awareness starts with making the goals of learning activities and performance to students. chikmiyah and sugiarto (2012) also stated that metacognitive is an ability that significantly increases the effect resulting from learning considered for its empowerment. empowerment of metacognitive skills in the learning process can be done by teachers. according to corebima (2009), empowerment of metacognitive skills can be done to students during the learning process, either through habituation of metacognitive learning strategies or the implementation of appropriate learning strategies. metacognitive skills training can increase students' awareness to learn, make learning plans, control the learning process, and evaluate their self-efficacy, strengths, and weaknesses as students. drew and mackie (2011) stated that teachers are obliged to activate learning that involves students to reflect on the learning activities they are doing. students need to be encouraged to plan and define learning objectives clearly, choose learning strategies that are appropriate to their learning styles, and monitor and evaluate the results of their performance. pq4r learning strategy (preview question read review recite reflect) the stages in the pq4r strategy are the part that encourages students to use their thinking skills. it is also stated by rodli (2015) that each stage of the pq4r strategy can empower students' thinking skills through the preview, question, read, reflect, recite, and review activities. stage p (preview) is a stage that guides students to read quickly on a irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 192 reading. students can find out the overall picture of the reading by checking the book's table of contents. according to bibi and manzoor (2011), in the preview activity, students already have an idea of what they will learn. stage q (question) is the stage when students are asked to formulate questions for themselves. questions can come from prior knowledge. the formulation of questions made by students themselves can help students to develop their thinking skills. according to rogers (2006), learning activities carried out by relating previous knowledge encourage students to think at a higher level. the first r stage (read) is the reading stage in detail from the reading material he studied. students' reading activities are directed to find answers to all the questions they have previously formulated. the second r stage (reflect) is a stage that requires students to understand the reading. when reading activities, it is not just remembering, but must be able to connect with previous knowledge and with reality. the most important part of this stage is that they have a dialogue with what they read. the third r stage (recite) is the stage of contemplating or recalling what has been read. the most important thing in the r part is that students can formulate concepts, explain the relationship between these concepts, and articulate the important points they have read with their editors (huber, 2004). this activity is better if students do not only convey orally but also in written form. the fourth r stage (review) is a student activity that repeats thoroughly by summarizing or formulating the essence of the material he has read. according to suprijono (2011), the most important part of this stage is that students can formulate conclusions as answers to the questions that have been asked. learning strategies tps (think pair share) the tps strategy is a cooperative learning strategy consisting of 3 main stages, namely think, pair, and share (kennedy, 2007), which allows students to think, discuss, and share with other students (setiawati & corebima, 2017). think stage, directing students to carry out the thinking process by answering questions that have been provided by the teacher. furthermore, the second activity is the pair stage. it is a discussion activity carried out cooperatively with a partner (2 people) so that students can correct and perfect their assignments. finally, the third stage is share. it is the stage to discuss with all students in the class. this activity provides opportunities for students to complement each other and help students to understand the assignments that have been given. according to kennedy (2007), the tps strategy encourages all students to be active in class through writing, thinking, listening, and speaking skills. the tps learning strategy has an explicitly defined procedure to give students more time to think, answer, and help each other (miranda, 2010). thus, it is helpful in empowering metacognitive skills and critical thinking in students. methodology research design this research follows the stages of developing a learning design (instructional design) 4 d (thiagarajan, 1974). this research consists of the stages of defining, designing, and developing pq4r-tps strategies and tools in biology learning in high school, as well as a limited-scale dissemination stage. research conducted in high school in parepare with research irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 193 subjects is teachers and students. the research procedure consists of the define, design, development, and disseminate stages which are generally described as follows. define stage, the purpose of this stage is to determine and define the learning requirements starting with an analysis of the objectives of the material limits, including the main steps, namely front end analysis aims to determine the basic problems faced in learning biology. analysis of students is also to determine their academic abilities of students. task analysis includes content structure analysis and procedural analysis. concept analysis includes the identification of the concepts being taught and the formulation of learning objectives. design phase, this stage aims to produce a design strategy and learning tools. the design of learning tools consists of five steps, namely (a) selecting the syllabus format and learning implementation plans, (b) the initial design of the syllabus preparation and learning implementation plans, and (c) the preparation of essay tests to measure critical thinking and metacognitive skills (d) preparation of questionnaires for measuring students' scientific attitudes (f) compiling observation sheets on the implementation of learning syntax, critical thinking skills rubric, metacognitive skills rubric and questionnaire responses to learning strategies. the results of this stage are prototypes of learning tools, including syllabus, lesson plans, worksheet learners (lkpd), and evaluation tools. critical thinking and metacognitive skills test, this test is in the form of an essay (anderson & krathwohl, 2001). before using the test, a validity analysis was carried out, including content validation, construct validation, and empirical validation. furthermore, the reliability value was determined. content validity regarding the determination of all aspects covered in the conceptual framework or subject matter represented in the conceptual understanding test. validity content refers to the extent to which the conceptual understanding test instrument reflects the entire subject matter. construct validity aims to determine the extent to which a test measures the dimensions of cognitive processes based on the revised bloom's taxonomy and how far the construction of the questions meets the rules of drafting a concept understanding test. dimensions of cognitive processes include the categories of remembering (c1), understanding (c2), applying (c3), analyzing (c4), evaluating (c5), and creating (c6). construct validity is carried out by experts. empirical validity is done by testing the conceptual understanding test on students. the empirical validity used is the item validity. the validity of the test is calculated using the product moment correlation formula. the calculation is assisted by the spss 16.0 for the windows program. the results of the validity test are compared at = 0.05 to determine whether the item is valid or invalid with the criteria if the p-value > 0.05, then it is valid, and vice versa if p < 0.05, then it is invalid. reliability refers to the level of reliability which is trustworthy and reliable (arikunto, 2006). the reliability of the conceptual understanding test was determined using the alpha cronbach formula (arikunto, 2006). r11 ( )( ) information: r11 : instrument reliability k : the number of questionnaire items or the number of questions : the number of item variances : total variance irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 194 the r-count value obtained is compared with rtable to determine whether the concept understanding test is reliable or not with the criteria if rcount > rtable, then the instrument is reliable, and vice versa if r-count < r-table, then the instrument is not reliable. the test criteria according to arikunto (2006) are as follows. 0.80 – 1.00 : very high 0.60 – 0.79 : high 0.40 – 0.59 : enough 0.20 – 0.339 : low 0.00 – 0.199 : very low critical thinking and metacognitive skills rubric, critical thinking skills are measured by a rubric that refers to hart (1994) on a scale of 0-5. the metacognitive skills rubric used is the mad rubric consisting of 7 scales (0-7) (1) answers in their sentences, (2) the order of exposure to coherent, systematic, and logical answers, (3) grammar or language, (4) reasons (analysis). /evaluation/creation), (5) answers (true/less/incorrect/blank) (corebima, 2008). metacognitive skills inventory, the metacognitive skills questionnaire was measured using the metacognitive skills inventory (msi) adapted from the mai (schraw & dennison, 1994) and semli-s (thomas et al., 2008). this inventory consists of 34 statement items which are divided into planning, monitoring, evaluation, and revision skills. the grid and the metacognitive skill inventory instrument were developed based on the indicators of metacognitive skills, namely, planning, monitoring, evaluation, and revision (lee & baylor, 2006). scientific attitude questionnaire, this questionnaire was given at the time after the posttest was conducted. this scientific attitude questionnaire was developed by harlen (1992) in terms of the dimensions of an open-minded and cooperative attitude which include: 1) respecting the opinions/findings of others, 2) willing to change opinions if data are lacking, 3) accepting suggestions from friends, 4) not feel always right, 5) assume every conclusion is tentative, 6) participate actively in groups (anwar, 2009). this questionnaire was developed using a likert scale with options strongly agree, agree, disagree, and strongly disagree, which was modified with a score of 1-4 so that the attitude or interest of the respondent is clear. questionnaire of students' responses to learning strategies, this questionnaire reveals students' responses to the learning strategies used. develop stage (development), produce learning tools that have been revised based on input from experts, followed by testing of test instruments by students, which are then used as a basis for determining item validity and test reliability. this stage resulted in learning tools used in experimental research that have been validated. disseminate stage (modified into experimental research stage), this stage is the second-year research stage, which is the stage of using the tools that have been developed and modified into experimental research on 3 subject classes (pq4r, tps, and pq4r-tps) that have been validated. data collection and analysis the instruments used in data collection consisted of validation sheets of learning tools, questionnaires for teacher and student responses to learning tools, tests of critical thinking and irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 195 metacognitive abilities, scientific attitude questionnaires, and learning implementation observation sheets. the learning device validation sheet contains instruments to measure the validity of the tps integrated pq4r, tps, and pq4r learning tools. the teacher and student response questionnaires are the questionnaires used to reveal the responses of students and teachers about the learning strategies used. the thinking skills test is given integrated into the form of an essay. scientific attitude questionnaires were given to students to measure the development of students' scientific attitudes in learning. the learning implementation observation sheet is used to record the implementation of the learning steps according to each learning strategy, which has been planned in the learning implementation plan (rpp). the techniques used consist of documents techniques, interviews, questionnaires, and tests. documentation techniques are used at all stages of the data collection procedure, starting from the define, design, development, and disseminate stages. interviews were used to dig up information during preparation for the preparation of learning tools to be developed. interviews with teachers about suggested methods, learning concepts, and the direction of scientific development. interviews were also conducted with students to find the difficulties, weaknesses, and learning advantages they had obtained. the questionnaire technique consists of 3 questionnaires, namely student responses to learning strategies, metacognitive inventory, and scientific attitude questionnaires. the data analysis technique was in the form of descriptive statistical analysis. the research data were analysed using descriptive statistics to show the description of students' metacognitive skills, critical thinking skills, and scientific attitudes toward biology. descriptive statistical values include the mean, standard deviation, the highest mean, the lowest mean, and the percentage change between pre-test and post-test. in addition, some data is displayed in the form of graphs. ethical considerations in my study, all participants’ data were concealed to keep the confidentiality of their identity and all participants agreed to participate in the study. findings the findings of this study are the availability of learning tools that integrate scientific attitudes and hots. this learning tool has been tested on a limited scale for its use. based on the analysis results of the learning device trials and suggestions/inputs from the observers, revisions/improvements of the learning tools were carried out (draft ii). the results of the revision/improvement of draft ii learning tools resulted in draft iii learning tools that can be used on a wide scale. the field test implementation results average implementation of the lesson plan (rpp) on the pq4r, tps, and pq4r-tps learning strategy respectively, the average implementation of the teacher activity components is 98.42%, and the implementation of student activities is 97.36% in the pq4r rpp. the average implementation of the teacher activity components is 98.33%, and the implementation of student activities is 97.78% in the tps rpp. the average implementation of the teacher irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 196 y = 1.5131x 21.249 r² = 0.9054 y = 1.5585x 25.201 r² = 0.9295 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 c o n c e p t u n d e rs ta n d in g metacognitive xkmeta-xkonsep ykmeta-ykonsep linear (xkmetaxkonsep) linear (ykmetaykonsep) activity components is 98.82%, and the implementation of student activities is 97.84% in the pq4r-tps rpp. the implementation of the learning strategy syntax is supported by the results of the consistency test. the consistency test of the implementation of the syntax of the learning strategy was carried out by using regression analysis between metacognitive skills and understanding the concepts of both pre-test and post-test. the results of the implementation of the rpp consist of 3, namely the implementation of the rpp pq4r, rpp tps, and rpp pq4r-tps at meetings 1 and 2. the data obtained are as follows. the regression summary of the results of the pq4r learning syntax consistency test shows that ypretest and yposttest are parallel and coincide. it means that the syntax of the pq4r strategy has been applied consistently from the beginning to the end of the lesson. the summary of the regression results of the pq4r learning syntax consistency test is shown in table 1 and figure 1. table 1. summary of pq4r learning syntax consistency test results regression model sum of squares df mean square f sig. regression 19737,757 3 6579,252 366.576 0.000 b1,b2 3,127 1 3,127 0.174 0.678 b1,b2,b3 27,022 2 13,511 0.753 0.473 residual 1292,244 72 17,948 total 210300.001 75 figure 1. regression line for pq4r learning syntax application irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 197 y = 1.4068x 16.855 r² = 0.8011 y = 1.2405x 5.7307 r² = 0.9299 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 c o n c e p t u n d e rs ta n d in g metacognitive xkmeta-xkonsep ykmeta-ykonsep linear (xkmetaxkonsep) linear (ykmetaykonsep) regression summary of learning syntax consistency test results of tps shows that ypretest and yposttest are parallel and coincide. it means that the syntax of the tps strategy has been applied consistently from the beginning to the end of the lesson. the summary of the regression results of the tps learning syntax consistency test is in table 2 and figure 42. how the lecturers have well handled the class is approved by the students. the data showed that 100% of the students agree that the lecturers always reviewed and concluded each discussed material in every meeting. it means that the lecturers did not just let the students take the total center of the class without guidance afterward. the lecturers always concluded the results of each discussion to clarify the students’ understandings. moreover, 92.9% of the students agreed that the lecturers were actively involved during the discussion process. the lecturers still monitored and kept an eye on the students to make the discussions run well. in addition, 92.9% of students also agreed that the lecturers tried to make all students participate and voice their opinions. the lecturers ensured that all students must speak in the class forum, and there was no student left behind. in other words, although the case-based learning method is a student-centered learning process, the lecturers still have to take their roles in guiding students. thus, all students’ discussions, presentations, and participation could run well. especially in online classes, lecturers must monitor the screen more often and mark students’ names to ensure that every student speaks their arguments. table 2. summary of regression results of tps learning syntax consistency test model sum of squares df mean square f sig. regression 16670,023 3 5556,674 224,366 0.000 b1,b2 44,543 1 44,543 1,799 0.191 b1,b2,b3 81,767 2 40,884 1,651 0.193 residual 1882,222 76 24,766 total 18552.245 79 figure 2. regression line for tps learning syntax application irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 198 y = 0.8865x + 4.7651 r² = 0.827 y = 0.8384x + 14.556 r² = 0.8937 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 c o n c e p t u n d e rs ta n d in g metacognitive xkmeta-xkonsep ykmeta-ykonsep linear (xkmetaxkonsep) linear (ykmetaykonsep) regression summary of learning syntax consistency test resultspq4r-tps shows that ypretest and yposttest are parallel and do not coincide. it means that the pq4r-tps strategy syntax has been applied consistently from the beginning to the end of the lesson. the summary of the regression results of the pq4r-tps learning syntax consistency test is in table 3 and figure 3. table 3. summary of regression results of pq4r-tps learning syntax consistency test model sum of squares df mean square f sig. regression 15922,911 3 5307,637 249.919 0.000 b1,b2 7,334 1 7,334 0.345 0.558 b1,b2,b3 646,150 2 323,075 15,213 0.000 residual 1529,094 72 21,237 total 17452.006 75 figure 3. regression line for pq4r-tps learning syntax application the effectiveness of learning devices the indicators used to determine the effectiveness of the learning tools are; (1) the results of the learning outcomes test, (2) student activities, (3) student responses, and (4) learning management. the results of the data analysis of the effectiveness of learning devices after the trial were below: learning outcomes data were obtained after the trial using the learning outcomes test instrument. the learning outcomes test is given after three meetings which aim to determine the level of student mastery of the material after the learning process is carried out with a scientific approach. based on the analysis results of the learning outcomes test, from 38 students, 33 students managed to get a complete category score, so the percentage of completeness was 86.84%. furthermore, there were five students who scored in the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 199 incomplete category, so the percentage of the number of students who received incomplete scores was 13.16%. individual learning completeness requirements for biology subjects if students get a minimum score of 75 (ktsp sma negeri 1 parepare sets the kkm value = 78). learning is said to be classically successful if at least 85% (t total of 85 %) of students achieve a minimum score of 75. therefore, with a mastery percentage of 86.84%, the learning is classically successful. assessment for spiritual attitude competence (ki.i), social attitude competence (ki.ii), and skill competence (ki.iv) although not used as a reference in determining the effectiveness of learning tools, researchers still carry out assessments for these competencies to students. student activity data were obtained from the observations of two observers using the student activity observation sheet instrument. the first observer observed the activities of students in group 1, while the second observer observed the activities of students in group 2. the activities of students observed during the learning process were in accordance with the syntax of each learning strategy, namely pq4r, tps, and pq4r-tps syntax activities. which is integrated into the 5 m scientific approach; (1) listening/paying attention to the teacher's explanation/guidance (2) being active in conducting activities/experiments according to the lkpd guidelines, (3) being active in conducting observations to collect data/information, (4) actively asking questions both among students and between participants, learning with the teacher, (5) active discussion in working on/answering questions in the lkpd, (6) presenting the results of group work, and (7) behaviours that are not relevant to learning. student activities are categorized as effective because the time used in engaging themselves for each learning activity is in accordance with the ideal time tolerance that has been set. student response, percentage of students who are taught by learning strategies of pq4r, tps, and pq4r-tps considered fun. the percentage of students who were taught the pq4r, tps, and pq4r-tps learning strategies were more likely to consider it easy to follow the lesson when compared to those who thought they were hesitant and did not make it easier to follow the lesson. the percentage of students who were taught using the pq4r, tps, and pq4r-tps learning strategies, considered the learning strategies not confusing when compared to those who thought they were doubtful and confusing; while the percentage of students who are taught by conventional learning, the percentage who think the learning strategy is not confusing and doubtful is the same when compared to those who think it is confusing. percentage of students who are taught by pq4r, tps, and pq4r-tps learning strategies more consider learning strategies to make students able to share information when compared to those who think they are doubtful and do not make students able to share information. percentage of students who were taught using the pq4r and tps learning strategy considered that learning strategies made students learn more when compared to those who thought they were doubtful and did not make students learn more; while in the pq4r-tps learning strategy, the percentage of students who feel doubtful about the learning strategy that makes them learn more when compared to those who think that the learning strategy makes students learn more and not. percentage of students who are taught by pq4r, tps, and pq4r-tps learning strategies more consider learning strategies to make students able to work together when compared to those who think they have doubts and do not. the percentage of students who were taught using the pq4r, tps, and pq4r-tps learning strategies considered the learning irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 200 strategies to add clarity to the learning material when compared to those who thought they were doubtful or not. the percentage of students who are taught with pq4r, tps, and pq4r-tps learning strategies is more considered learning strategies to improve their thinking skills when compared to those who thought they were doubtful and not. percentage of students who are taught by pq4r, tps, and pq4r-tps learning strategies assume that learning strategies make students able to regulate their learning methods when compared to those who think they are doubtful and not. the percentage of students who were taught using the pq4r, tps, and pq4r-tps learning strategies more considered learning strategies to make students able to evaluate learning when compared to those who thought they were doubtful and unable to evaluate learning. the analysis results also show that the average percentage of students who give positive responses to pq4r-tps is greater than tps, pq4r learning strategy; and tps learning strategies are greater than pq4r. the same is shown by the percentage of students who consider the pq4r-tps strategy to make them learn more when compared to the pq4r, tps, and conventional learning strategies which are still doubtful for students as a strategy that makes them learn more. in addition, learning biology using the pq4r-tps combination strategy makes students more able to evaluate the learning that has been followed compared to the other two strategies. it means that the pq4r-tps blend strategy is superior to the other two learning strategies. the findings of this study indicate that the pq4r-tps strategy is better than the pq4r and tps strategies. learning management data were obtained through observations made by two observers using the learning management observation sheet. observations on learning management were carried out three times, which is done each meeting. the observation aspects contained in the observation sheet include; (1) initial activities, (2) core activities, (3) final activities, and (4) the learning atmosphere in the classroom. the results of the data analysis of learning management by the teacher showed that the teacher's ability to manage to learn was stated to be adequate because all aspects of observation in the management of learning by the teacher had met the criteria. the teachers' ability to manage to learn can be declared adequate if the minimum kg score is in the high category (arsyad, 2007). learning tools developed after going through trials have met the criteria for effectiveness. based on the analysis results of the learning device trials and suggestions/inputs from the observers, a revision/improvement of the learning tools was carried out (draft ii). the results of the revision/improvement of draft ii learning tools resulted in draft iii learning tools. development stage, the distribution of learning tools is done in a limited way through socialization among biology subject teachers at sma negeri parepare through mgmp activities. the socialization was carried out in the science laboratory of sma negeri 1 parepare and was attended by 11 biology subject teachers. in this activity, the researcher explained how the use of tools related to the learning steps in the lesson plan (rpp) according to the characteristics of learning using the pq4r, tps, and pq4r-tps which is integrated with a scientific approach. furthermore, biology subject teachers who have participated in the socialization are asked to write down their responses and give suggestions regarding the learning tools that have been developed. based on suggestions and responses from subject teachers, it becomes the basis for improvement/revision of draft iii learning tools. the results irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 201 of the revised draft iii resulted in a final draft learning tool that can be used for class x students in the odd semester of the next academic year. discussion this study examines the development of learning tools that integrate scientific attitudes and hots through the pq4r-tps strategy. this learning strategy is considered appropriate to be an alternative solution for the low empowerment of students' scientific attitudes and hots in learning biology. the pq4r and tps strategies have the advantage of empowering scientific attitudes and hots, which can complement the weaknesses of each strategy if they stand alone. the integration of pq4r syntax into tps supports students to actively think and work together during the learning process. much research has been done on the respective pq4r and tps strategies before, but not in the form of integration of pq4r into tps. this research is still on a limited trial scale which requires time to determine the effect of this pq4r-tps strategy on a wide scale and can be used as a reference for implementing scientific attitudes and hots in biology learning. the next planned activity is to pilot it on a wide scale to all high schools in parepare and its surroundings. based on the results of expert validation data, information was obtained that the syllabus and lesson plans that had been developed by the researchers had quality with good valid categories and few revisions. according to ellis and levy (2010), valid devices can provide a significant difference from learning using conventional devices. it means that the lesson plans that have been developed can be used in biology learning in sma class x science. the developed lkpd has been validated by two experts in the field of biology. the validation results obtained that the quality of this lkpd was categorized as good for all aspects of the assessment with a slight revision with an average score of 3.5. it can be seen from the limitations in experimental observations related to the complexity of the organizational structure of life around schools, for example, biological objects that are less varied. this can be overcome by bringing some samples from the environment around the students' homes. the developed lkpd should have fulfilled the components of the lkpd preparation. according to ana (2010), the involvement or activity of students in the teaching and learning process can be increased by using lkpd which is a means to optimize the achievement of learning outcomes and develop critical thinking skills, metacognitive, and scientific attitude, and arouse students' interest in the natural surroundings. lkpd with pq4r, tps, and pq4r-tps characters help students to develop critical thinking skills, metacognitive, and scientific attitudes. the syntax of each learning strategy has advantages in monitoring, regulation, and problem-solving. the results of expert validation on student teaching materials obtained information that the developed teaching materials received an average validation score of 3.5, which indicated that the teaching materials were good and slightly revised. it is supported by pramita (2014) that students will first be interested in the outer appearance of the material, not in its content. the use of images in teaching materials and lkpd can convey the message/content of the images effectively so that the images presented must be clearly visible in the appearance of the teaching materials. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 202 the observation results of the implementation of the lesson plan in the small group test during meetings 1 and 2 which include preliminary, core, and closing activities. the syntax implementation of the learning strategy is supported by the results of the consistency test. it means that the syntax of the pq4r strategy has been applied consistently from the beginning to the end of the lesson. the response of students to the learning strategy shows that the pq4r-tps strategy is superior to the pq4r and tps strategies. the combination of these two strategies supports each other in empowering students' thinking skills and scientific attitudes. the six stages of pq4r syntax are integrated into a cooperative tps strategy that makes learning more enjoyable. the combined pq4r-tps strategy is a strategy that involves total and independent student-centered activities. the existence of individual and group work patterns in the pq4r-tps strategy causes individual responsibility and cooperation among group members to be formed. according to rodli (2015), each stage in the pq4r strategy is a part that encourages students to use their metacognitive skills. likewise, the tps learning strategy, according to corebima (2016), tps is one of the learning strategies that have been reported to have the potential to empower thinking skills. the positive response of students to the pq4r-tps learning strategy is also since students are directly involved in the learning process 3 main activities in think (preview, question, read), pair (reflect, recite), and share (review). integrated into the 5m scientific approach (observing, asking, reasoning/collecting data, associating, and communicating). it is also supported by hala (2015) that stated positive responses arise in students because of their direct involvement in observing, asking, reasoning, trying, and communicating activities. conclusion based on the results of the validation and implementation of learning tools, the conclusion is as follows: (1) overall, the learning tools developed were good quality and suitable for use in biology learning for class x sma; (2) the implementation of class x biology learning for two meetings overall is good with the consistency of implementation from the beginning to the end of the lesson; (3) the activities of students during the implementation of class x biology learning with the pq4r-tps learning strategy according to the stages of learning and increasing reliability for each meeting. it is recommended that further research be carried out on a wide scale to produce better learning tools. disclosure statement this research was carried out on the needs of developing studies related to learning strategies, scientific attitudes, and higher-order thinking skills of students as a form of readiness to apply the applicable curriculum and not based on certain interests. acknowledgments thank you to those who have helped carry out this research, especially to the chancellor of the muhammadiyah university of parepare, the principal of the parepare city high school, the parepare city mgmp, the parepare city senior high school 1 students, the data analysis and documentation team. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 203 references adnyana, g.p. 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(2006). metacognition and learning: conceptual and methodological considerations. metacognition and learning, 1(1), 3-14. wahyuningsih, a. n. (2012). pengembangan media komik bergambar materi sistem saraf untuk pembelajaran yang menggunakan strategi pq4r (development of comic media with pictures of nervous system material for learning using the pq4r strategy). journal of innovative science education, 1(1), 19-27. biographical note dr. henny setiawati is faculty member of biology education study program, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas muhammadiyah parepare, onesianindonesia; corresponding author: hennysetiawati030473@gmail.com mailto:hennysetiawati030473@gmail.com this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 210 from bureaucratic-centralism management to school based management: managing human resources in the management of education program asad* abstract indonesia‘s education system used to be a centralized and bureaucratic mode as introduced by the dutch as the colonial power. however, after the fall of suharto‘s administration in may 1998, the indonesian education policy has significantly transformed from centralization to decentralization which is popularly known as school-based management (sbm). this change is because of the arrival of the law no.22/1999 (later reviewed by the law 32/2004) about ―local government‖ (provinces and districts). the purposes of this paper are first to discuss the characteristics of school-based management and the practices of sbm and second, to explore the motives of indonesian government to apply school-based management in education in the digital era. the orienting question for this study is: are all school-levels actors and district level actors ready for dealing with the characteristics of school-based management and the practices of sbm? recommendations for education policy reform in the digital era in indonesia for good governance are discussed, particularly the motives to move from bureaucratic-centralism management to school-based management. keywords bureaucratic-centralism management, digital era, school based management * associate professor, uin sulthan thaha saifuddin jambi, indonesia; e-mail: asadisma@uinjambi.ac.id mailto:asadisma@uinjambi.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 211 introduction educational system around the world is managed by various approaches or ways such as a centralized, semi-centralized, and decentralized management. in the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s, the concept of decentralization or self-management became a major trend in school reform. the transfer of decision making from higer (the center) to lower authirities in relation to budget and resource allocation, staff and students, and assesment reflects what is called a self-managed school (caldwell & spinks, 1992). a number of terms are interchangeably used to refer to the decentralized management including school-based management, school based governance, school self-management, and school site management (de grauwe, 2005). although the terms are different in meanings, they are all referring to allow schools to have more autonomy in decision making about their management including the use of their human, material, and financial resources. in the meantime, interest in educational reforms spreads around the world and school-based management (sbm) based on the decentralized method is one of the approaches that is voiced by educators and researchers. according to oswald (1995), the decentralized management has begun to be applied in schools when educators and researchers detect dissatisfaction with the centralized authority. a dozen of definitions of school-based management (sbm) have been proposed by scholars and researchers. in general, school-based management is defined as the decentralization of decision-making authority to the school level (de grauwe, 2005). it is one of the most popular strategies that began in the 1980s school reform movement. particularly, caldwell (2005) defines school-based management as the decentralization system of authority to make decision on the school level. in school-based management; responsibilities are transmitted to authorities within the schools. additionally, school-based management refers to increase in the involvement of parents, students, teachers, officials, principals and beneficiary groups of the community, and local organizations which may increase the independency, responsibility, and accountability of school (moradi, hussin, & barzegar, 2012). school based-management involves the transfer of decision-making power on management in the school level (de grauwe, 2005). moreover, malen et al. (1990) defines school based-management as follows; sbm can be viewed as an alternative of governance, as a decentralization form that identifies the individual school as the primary unit of improvement might be simulated and sustained. this definition mainly focuses on the change of authority of decision making from a central authority to the school site which it indicates of prime importance for the improvement of the school. however, the questions: what kinds of decision-making authority are decentralized or transferred to the school level? in response to the kinds of decision-making authority to school level, leithwood and menzies (1998) have proposed four types of decision-making authorityies: (1) administrative control in which every principal is dominant, (2) professional control in which the teacher corps receives the authority, (3) community control where the community or the parents, through a board, receive the authority, and (4) balanced control where the parents and the professionals (teachers and principal) are in balance for having the authority. the purposes of this paper are first to discuss the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 212 characteristics of school-based management and the practices of sbm and second, to explore the motives of indonesian government to apply school-based management in education. the orienting question for this study is: are all school-levels actors and district level actors ready for dealing with the characteristics of school-based management and the practices of sbm? literature review the characteristics of school-based management and the practices of sbm the characteristics of school-based management (decentralized) are different from the centralized management. the characteristics of sbm vary and depend on the implementation, practices, and processes. generally, there are six areas or practices of sbm based on the literature related to sbm including (1) effective school leadership, (2) budget allocation, (3) management strategies, (4) staff development, (5) curriculum and instruction, and (6) resources. the effective school leadership, the roles of the principal and school staff and their relationships are very important in determining the success of sbm. unlike leaders under a centralized system, leaders in sbm do not perform the same leadership roles at all times. the roles will vary according to the situations, tasks, and individuals that they work with. accordingly, the new roles and responsibilities within sbm have required the principal to be an effective leader with a strong and positive instructional and administrative competence as well as a collaborative and collegial relationship. sammons, hillman, and mortimore (1995) explain that there are several features of an effective leader. first, a leader develops goal by ―taking lead to establish vision and values to develop and set new goals, polices, plans and budgets‖ (p.13). second, a leader is a manpower coordinator who ―communicates, motivates, trains, supports, and encourages teachers‘ commitment and initiative to achieve school goals and find appropriate leadership roles for teachers‖ (p.21). finally, a leader is a resource developer ―acquiring extra resources to promote school development‖ (p. 19). in this perspective, the leader helps create the conditions within which teachers and students take responsibility for their quality of teaching and learning and engage in leadership activities. some scholars assert that distributed leadership contributes to a sustainable improvement of schools in terms of achieving higher levels of student achievement and teacher accountability. for example, a study done by lindberg and vanyushyn (2013) who examined schools principals‘ perception of the importance of school-based management (sbm) and instructional leadership tasks and their assessment of the performance of those tasks in swedish upper secondary schools by surveying 234 principals of all upper secondary schools in sweden. they found that 80% of administrative tasks were seen as highly important and performed well while 68% of instructional leadership tasks were perceived as of having lower importance and performance. with regard to the leadership role of the school principals in sbm, botha (2006) did a case study in selected schools about leadership in school-based management in gauteng province, south africa to conceptualize the important and pivotal leadership role of the school principal in ensuring school improvement via an effective school-based management. the primary goal of the study was to determine whether participants believed or not that irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 213 effective leadership in sbm resulted in school improvement. it was also to examine school principals and educators perceptions of the relationship between sbm and school improvement, and the leadership role of the school principal. the study used a qualitative design with a case study approach. the samples for this study were four extremely divergent schools in gauteng. open-ended interviews were done in one day in each of the four schools with the school principal and two purposively selected teachers. the finding of the study indicated that schools that were most successful in implementation of sbm and school improvement efforts were those schools with empowered principals in making decision, and also trained for their new roles and provided with information to guide their decision making. the findings indicated that a school principal was the most important and essential stakeholder for an effective sbm. school principals in sbm required being more flexible in creating collaboration, higher level commitment, motivation, trust, ownership, and healthier school climate which would lead to greater productivity and increased student achievement. additionally, the other important stakeholder in implementing sbm practices is teacher‘s role. the role of teachers in sbm has a great impact as it empowers teachers at the school to make decisions. sbm provides for better informed teachers and incentives (white, 1992). in sbm, teachers are allowed to share their decisions affecting them by getting teachers and principals to see each other as collaborators in making schools work effectively for students (maeroff, 1988). however, teacher‘s participation in sbm requires them to assume duties in addition to usual teaching roles. weiss, cambone, and wyeth (1992) claim that added duties make heavy demands on the teachers‘ time and call on teachers to undertake a variety of tasks that they have not previously been responsible for. for example, a study done by yau and cheng (2014) who examined the perceptions of 83 hong kong principals and 239 teachers of the extent to which school-based management (sbm) had been effectively implemented in primary schools. they found that the most adopted elements of school-based management are ‗financial planning and control‘ and ‗leadership competence and work relationships‘. the moderate adopted element is ‗resources and accommodation‘. the least adopted element is staff coordination and effectiveness‘. in addition, there are significant differences between the perceptions of principals and teachers towards the areas of sbm. budget allocation and management strategies, in sbm, budget allocation is one of the most crucial parts of sbm that should be delegated to school through the decentralization of budget. budgeting decentralization means the allocation of funds in a lump sum rather than predetermined categories of expenditures (e.g. certain amount for books, a certain amount for salaries). the opportunity to spend money gives a school to achieve its goals (cheng, 2004). planning and budget control are the cores of sbm, and providing curriculum and staff is largely related to budget control (lindelow, 1995). one of the problems of lack of sbm policy‘s proper implementation in the world is budgeting via schools. in the words of haderman (1999), there is a weak relationship between budget decentralization performance in sbm and increasing student‘s progress. in order to support the priorities and programs in sbm, school and staff need to have some degrees of control over budget. according to cheong (1996), decentralized budgeting may provide an important condition for schools to use resources effectively according to their own characteristics and needs to solve problems in time and pursue their own goals. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 214 the transition to sbm is a profound change, because it entails fundamental changes in people‘s understanding of the school structure and their roles and responsibilities. according to white (1989), the purpose of sbm is to make changes in traditional structures of authority, with new relationships between teachers and learners, administrators, and parents. it is not simply to reorganize administrative responsibilities. in a centralized system, the function of the ministry of education usually includes the overall planning, program implementation, coordination, personnel supervision, monitoring, and evaluation. however, in a decentralized system like in school-based management, the roles of the central ministry have changed from the implementer to the technical consultant and coordinator responsible for policy formulation, and overall quality assurance, monitoring, and evaluation. the role of the central office is more to consult than to supervise the school. therefore, the head office is responsible for improving school performance under its supervision; on the other hand, they delegate some strength and authority to the school to make decisions in accordance with the interests of different school. staff development, curriculum and instruction, and resources, another important area in sbm is staff development. schools should be given an authority to select professional development activities that directly address their students‘ needs and fit in with the school‘s particular reform agenda. lee and smith (2001) claim that a very high priority on professional development which is a line with school‘s reform agenda will be placed by successful schools, especially in developing knowledge in teaching, learning, curriculum, and assessment. in a centralized system, the function of the ministry of education usually includes the overall planning, program implementation, coordination, personnel supervision, monitoring, and evaluation, including the content of curriculum. however, in a decentralized one, school has an authority to make their own decision related to curriculum and instruction. when responsibility of curriculum and instruction are at school level, it will be a principal and teachers‘ duty for determining the changes to provide effective curriculum. in order to design an effective curriculum, teachers and administrators need to consider the interactions with teachers‘ competence to facilitate teacher‘s performance. on student‘s side, it should help students to gain more knowledge that appropriate with their needs so that they can produce expected educational outcome (cheong, 1996). the appearance of sbm with its goals is to make better use of available resources at school level. resources are essential tools for the school for changing teaching and learning practices. resources may include money, personnel, space, time, building, and equipment. in school-based management, principals and other stakeholders must ensure the allocation and usage of the educational resources to reach the goals, solve the problems and to make a decision that is appropriate with their own school characteristics and needs so that they have a better school. methodology the method used was literature review (documentary work) which was done to systematically search internet resources, abstracts and databases including eric, british library direct, academic search elite, libris, questia and high beam and journal sources irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 215 such as elsevier, emerald, sage, sciencedirect, and opendoar related to the existing policies and practices, as well as other available literature related to school-based management. the data from documentary work were analyzed qualitatively and categorized to : (1) to find and list every source relevant to the school-based management and its practices, (2) to create clusters of every data from every source by grouping them into themes or meaning units; and (3) to remove or reduce overlapping and repetitive data. findings and discussion the practices of school-based management in several educational systems sbm programs have been implemented in many countries. approximately 800 sbm programs that have been implemented in more than two dozen countries from australia and the united states to spain, mexico, cambodia, and mozambique (world bank, 2007). sbm has increasingly become a movement throughout the world autonomy to seek shared results and partnerships in the school community for the purpose of achieving school improvement. as a movement, sbm is considered as an effective system for empowering local schools in decision making (world bank, 2007; anderson, 2006; vernez, karam, & marshal, 2012). there is a tendency to increase autonomy, responsibility for delegation, and encourage responsiveness to local needs with the aim of improving performance level. however, the experience of implementing sbm programs in several countries shows that it's not a quick fix. sbm has been promoted by several educational systems around the world that want to greater local autonomy and control of schools with the aim of increasing the efficiency and effectiveness of their school education. for example, in the mid-1970s, canada started introducing sbm which is generally known as ‗school-site decision-making.‖ through this policy, in 1980-81, seven pilot schools were involved in the decentralization of the allocation of resources for teaching and non-teaching staff, equipment, supplies and services. ‗school-site decision-making‖ focused on financial delegation of resources to schools through school-based budgets and formula funding. now, this sbm is now institutionalized. in hong kong, initial educational reforms focused on expanding the system, and on improving the teaching and learning facilities. in 1991, hong kong department of education initiated school management initiative (smi) which gave schools more flexibility in the use of their resources, while allowing greater involvement by teachers, parents, and former students in decision-making. reforms to the education system in the uk consisted of several models: a national curriculum, a performance based testing system linked to the national curriculum, student choice of school, and local school management (lsm) that decentralized the bulk of the budget to school sites and provided schools with the authority to recruit and select staff. these systems gave more autonomy and flexibility in decision-making to the local community, leading to more accountability to the parents, employers and the wider community. a similar reform was also introduced in new zealand which was based on the results of task force made by the prime minister (david lange) to review the administration of education in october 1987. in the usa, the approach to sbm has been more localized as ever state implemented different strategies in improving its educational system. sbm was in some states linked to an accountability system tied to irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 216 student performance, but not in others. two kinds of sbm were (1) ‗administrative decentralization‘, in which the central office of an lea designates certain tasks that are carried out by school-site teachers and principals and (2) ‗site-based management‘, a structure that empowers parents, teachers, and principals in each school building to set their own priorities, to allocate their budget accordingly, to shape their curriculum, and to hire and fire personnel. although there are many reform movements in process today in the usa, one of the most rapid developments in recent years is that of the ‗charter schools‘. the charter was a clear written agreement between a group of teachers and the school district to reorganize some part of the instructional programme. in some non-english-speaking countries, the experiences varied from local control and management delegation to financial delegation and autonomy. models and approaches of school-based management sbm in some educational systems has been adopted to give power for principals and teachers by devolution of authority. this kind of management is used to increase their accountability and commitment to create a better school environment that will improve the school‘s quality. under the school-based management, teaching and non-teaching staff play an active part in decision making at the school level which will let them become a part of decision making process. additionally, school-based management will create such financial control which will let teachers to be likely to accept responsibility for the financial decisions for the schools. sbm program differs on several dimensions: the level of authority delegated to schools, the domains over which school-level decision makers have discretion, the groups of stakeholders involved in decision-making bodies, and the purposes served by school level decision-making bodies (ogawa & white, 1944). there are several different models to determine who is investing with the power to make decisions in every sbm reform. some general models are defined by ogawa and white (1994) as follows: (1) community control which implies school community governance, (2) administrative decentralization which implies a dominant role for teachers and headmaster, (3) main controls where the locus of authority is placed with the principal. additionally, leithwood and menzies (1998) suggested the following four models: (1) administrative control: sbm transfers the power to the principal. this model aims to make everyone responsible for the district or council office. the benefits of sbm include in increasing efficiency in personnel and curriculum and making one person in each school more responsibility to the central authority. (2) professional control: sbm transfers the main decision-making authority to the teacher. this model aims to increase teachers' knowledge of what the school needs at the class level. participating in the decision-making process can also motivate teachers to perform better and can lead to larger customers and effectiveness in teaching. (3) community control: sbm transfers the main decision-making authority to parents or the community. under this model, teachers and principals are assumed to be more responsive to the needs of parents. another benefit is that the curriculum can reflect local needs and preferences. (4) balanced control: sbm balances decision-making authority between parents and teacher, who are the two main stakeholders in any school. this is the goal to take advantage teacher knowledge about school to improve school management and irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 217 make the school more responsible to parents. these school-based management models are used differently in every educational system around the world are collection of these model. in general, in sbm programs, community representatives appear on the school committee. however, in many cases, members of the community are involved in it ways that do not complicate the role of the principal and teacher. research on international practices on sbm sbm programs have been implemented in many countries. in this section, the discussion centers on reviewing research articles that look intothe practices of school-based management around the world. one of the previous studies related to the practices of school-based management in american, canadian, and australian done by wholstetter, kirk, robertson, and mohrman (1997). the study was designed to determine how school-based management could work to improve the performance of schools. the study examined american, canadian, and australian schools that exhibited a range of success in restructuring curriculum and instruction and improving performance. the study had involved 40 schools that had implemented sbm for at least 3 years. they conducted various interviews with over 400 school-community members. the study presented findings from the interviews and from the archival and survey data collected during site visits. they used an organizational framework as their lens to examine the differences between actively restructuring and struggling schools. they found that certain organizational situations were strongly related to greater organizational learning and integrating processes. they also found that decentralized management operatedbest when the following four organizational resources were available to the decentralized unit: power, knowledge and skills, information, and rewards. three other organizational situations were also crucialfor explaining the differences between actively restructuring schools and struggling schools: an instructional guidance mechanism, leadership, and resources. wholstetter, kirk, robertson, and mohrman (1997) concluded that (1) actively restructuring schools had more of the situationsin place that encourageorganizational learning and integrating processes; (2) the existence of these organizational learning and integrating processes facilitate more innovative teaching practices; and (3) consequently, the existenceof organizational situations facilitate schools to adopt more innovative teaching practices, both directly and indirectly. finally, the transition to sbm necessitatespervasive and deep changes (change in almost all aspects of the organizations and a fundamental change in people's understanding). another study related to school-based management was done by agyemang (2008) who focused on looking at the formula funding in the uk school sector. using the qualitative approach, this study analysed the interview data obtained from eight senior managers, the director of education, and three primary school head teacher. the findings of this study revealed that power relations between the users and the providers of funds impact on the extent to which service providers needs are incorporated into the funding formula. in 1995, a qualitative case study was done by brandao (1995) who looked at the effects of school-based management on the worklife of elementary teachers. this study involved 33 educators in florida. the results showed that the effects of restructuring were varied and included both positive and negative findings. for some teachers, involvement enhanced irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 218 commitment to the organization and spurred them on to further efforts, while for most respondents restructuring activities were perceived as impositions that made it difficult to balance classroom and sbm responsibilities. respondents also revealed that they doubted the potential of sbm as a means to improve the quality of education at florida county schools or as a process for producing significant academic achievements. a qualitative study was done by cranston (2001) in order to examine some issues; 1) the impact of school-based management on primary principals in queensland, identifies particular challenges for principals in terms of their skill and capacities in moving to more collaborative and inclusive decision-making regimes. 2) studying two primary schools operating under sbm that examines how and in what areas of the school (planning, operation, curriculum), parents and teachers are engaging in school-level decisions-making. this study involved 2 or 3 teachers and 2 or 3 parents in each school. based on the interview, it revealed that the principals should demonstrate leadership skills and capacities that facilitate such involvement. schools were really going through learning and maturing process in their journey towards greater parents and teacher involvement in decision-making in school. both teachers and parents acknowledged they needed skill development as part of this process. a quasi-experimental study was done by umansky and vegas (2007) who looked at the effect of school-based management in improving students learning. this study involved 3 school-based management reforms in central america. the analysis result of the three central american reforms indicated that school-based management reforms can have varied impacts on students learning. the evidence indicates that all three reforms resulted in substantive changes in management and teacher characteristics and behavior and that these changes explain significant portions of resultant changes in student learning. the practice of school-based management has been done in some developing countries. al-ghefeili, ghani, & elham (2014) conducted a study to investigate the views of school community regarding school-based management as a management tool in oman. a qualitative design with a multiple case study has been distributed to the principal; principal‘s assist ands, senior teachers, and teachers in selected schools. based on the interview data, it is found that the school stakeholders especially principals have different view toward the implementation of the sbm, senior teacher perceived that he has more negative about sbm system because he claimed that sbm gave the teacher more work. in addition, the study on the school-based management was also done by bandur (2012). the study was done in order to examine the sbm policy reform in indonesia. it emphasized on the impact of shifting authority and responsibility to school level as well as the challenge in the implementation of sbm confronted by the school council members and remedial measures to minimize the problems. this study involved all school primary schools in ngada disrtict and 32 schools in rural area. it also involved 42 interviews. the findings indicated that the implementation of sm in indonesia needs to be shifted adequate power and authority from central government to school councils. additionally, blimpo, evans, and lahire (2014) conducted study to evaluate the effectiveness of a comprehensive school-based management and capacity building program which is called whole school development (wsd). the study used experimental research design with the observation, written literacy and numeracy test, students‘ interview and oral literacy test, and teacher and headmaster interview. the result indicated that no effect of wsd on learning outcomes and no effect on test scores. in 1995, irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 219 a study was conducted by heck and brandon to investigate how the purposeful reform of school-decision making responsibilities affects teacher participation and leadership in selecting critical needs to address during the school improvement process. this study is done by involving 151 teachers in nine elementary schools in the first study and 212 teachers in four elementary schools in the second study. as the secondary data, interviews were also conducted with administrators and teachers who had taken leadership roles during the process. the finding indicate that involvement in the process of setting up decision making and selecting the content of school needs affect teacher‘s agreement with selected needs. moreover, teacher expertise and leadership opportunities were found as an effect of participation in school decision making. the study about school-based management is also done by candra (2012) in order to find out the effectiveness of cipp components (context, input, process, and product) in the implementation of sbm in smk negeri 3 singaraja. the evaluative study used questionnaires, interviews and documentation which involved the principal, staffs and administrators as the participant of the study. the result showed that school-management implementation was effective. david (2015) conducted a study using an exploratory sequential design to paint a holistic picture of a successful aided secondary school which achieves its vision, mission, core value and goals, and most importantly, sustains success for all its students. in depth interview was done to 20 experienced senior teachers and 103 teacher managers in secondary school in hongkong. the finding indicated that sbm implementation did not improve students‘ learning outcomes yet, but it had produced various positive impacts on imc schools. a historical research was conducted by de grauwe (2005) in order to define sbm and its view of its implementation in different world regions. this study aim in examine the advantages and disadvantages. particularly, this study explores the strategies in school-based management implementation in order to ensure a positive impact on quality. the finding indicated that school-based management implementation need to be accompanied by strategies to build capacities of schools, head-teacher s and communities, motivated by a clear focus on quality improvement and a concern for equity. al kaabi (2015) conducted a study on the evaluation of the school-based management practices in the new school model. 1345 staffs from 17 cycle 1 school and 11 kindergartens participated in this quantitative study. this study also investigated the influence of staff position on the practices of the sbm and identified the main areas of sbm which need improvement. the finding showed that the staffs have authority in decision making especially in in school development plan, another finding related to questions number two indicate that there was no significant difference between the practices of the teacher and another administrators and the teachers should involve in curriculum decision making because they understand more their students and they know what should they improve related to their students. in addition, a qualitative research was conducted by karam, vernes, and marshall (2012) in order to examine how autonomy and accountability under school-based management implementation in indonesia at the national and how they are associated with intermediary and students outcomes. this study involved four hundred elementary public schools from among 54 districts in indonesia. the finding of this study were; 1) principals‘ and teachers‘ lack of knowledge and preparedness about taking risks making independent decisions, 2) both teachers‘ and principals‘ lack of knowledge and preparedness about taking irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 220 risk to make independent decisions, 3) both principals and teachers felt that they didn‘t receive enough support and training on sbm and how to make school performance improvement. finally, sbm should be used to improve students‘ achievement by upgrading principal and teacher capacity so they can make their own operational and instructional decisions by providing them higher quality and comprehensive sbm-related leadership training and professional development. in 2013, a quantitative survey design was done by kiragu, king‘oina, and migosi (2013).the study was designed toto find out what the principals and teachers perceived were the prospects of school-based management (sbm), the accrued benefits of sbm and challenges schools would experience if sbm was introduced in murang‘a south district. this study involved 16 principals and 64 teachers. the result showed that the principals and teachers perceived that if sbm introduce in secondary school it will give positive impact that many aspects would change and there would be increased accountability and transparency, efficient use of resources, improved decision making, timely syllabus coverage and timely procurement of resources and this also help to improve quality of education. another quantitative study was done by lindberg and vanyushyn (2013) to 234 principals of all upper secondary schools in sweden. this study sets out to examine schools principals‘ perception of the importance of school-based management (sbm) and instructional leadership tasks and their assessment of the performance of those tasks in swedish upper secondary schools. the result showed that analysis of the survey responses from 234 principals shows that 80% of administrative and 75% of fire-fighting tasks were seen as highly important and performed well, while 68% of instructional leadership tasks were perceived as of having lower importance and performance. levačić (1998) did a study about local management of schools in england. aim of this study was to reviews the evidence on the impact of six years of local management of schools in england. the findings of the research on the impact of local management, in particular the lack of firm evidence of consequential improved educational outcomes for pupils, are then interpreted in terms of the theoretical basis of local management. the application of school-based management in iran's secondary schools done by mehralizadeh, sepacy, and atashfeshan (2006).the study was designed to recognize the main barriers of schoolbased management (sbm) in iran in general, and in public secondary schools of ahvaz, in particular. the study examined 40 secondary school principals, 200 teachers and 40 local education authorities. this study indicated five main factors such as management, information and knowledge, structure and organization, cultural, power and political issues are the main barriers to running the sbm in secondary schools in iran. they found that the new scheme of sbm compared to the present system of education in secondary schools differs in three main areas: the office of the administrative affairs is now working under the supervision of the school council which has authority over the hiring and firing of the principal; the vetoing power over the principal‘s sanctions against students, (but they do not have the right and the authority to modify the obligations, rights and sanctions established for the principal, the student and the teacher by the ministry of education). furthermore, the barriers faced in implementation of sbm were management barriers, information and knowledge barriers, structural and organizing barriers, cultural barriers and power and political barriers. while yau and cheng (2014) did a quantitative study about irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 221 principals and teachers‘ perceptions of school-based management in hong kong. this study involved 322 respondents; consisting of 83 principals and 239 teachers. the aim of this study was to examine the perceptions of a sample of hong kong principals and teachers of the extent to which school-based management (sbm) has been effectively implemented in primary schools. the finding shows that all four features of school-based management are perceived as being implemented in hong kong primary schools, but the degree of their implementation is not the same. the most adopted elements of school-based management are ‗financial planning and control‘ and ‗leadership competence and work relationships‘. the moderate adopted element is ‗resources and accommodation‘. the least adopted element is ‗staff coordination and effectiveness‘. in addition, there are significant differences between the perceptions of principals and teachers towards the areas of sbm. another study related to school-based management was done by kuncoro (2008). who focused on principal, teachers and administrators also community who understand the role of principal using qualitative interview, documentation and field observation and used the previous studies to support this study. the aim of this study was to know and describe the role of principal in the implementation of sbm in madrasah tsanawiyah negeripiyungan yogyakarta. the findings of this study revealed that the principal of mts n piyungan less intensive explicit when did the seminar related to the implementation of sbm, the principal did not understand about the sbm and how to implement it, the principal played the important role in extracurricular activity than in regular or curricular activity and the principal less intensive as educator, facilitator, motivator and innovator. education policy reform: the motives of indonesian government to apply school-based management in education indonesia‘s education system used to be a centralized and bureaucratic mode as introduced by the dutch as the colonial power. in addition, in the old order (sukarno‘s regime) and in the new order regime (a 32 year of suharto‘s regime), indonesian education system was still dominated by a centralized system of administration. however, after the collapse of suharto‘s regime in may 1998, the indonesian education policy has significantly changed from centralization to decentralization which is popularly known as school-based management (sbm). this change is because of the arrival of the law no.22/1999 (later reviewed by the law 32/2004) about ―local government‖ (provinces and districts). both laws describe the key relationship between the central government and local governments in their powers and authorities with regard to education. the terms of decentralization and school-based management are very popular in indonesia because of educational policy reforms after the downfall of new order regime in may 1998. decentralization means ―to disperse away from a central point‖ (lauglo, 1996, p.18) and school based management refers to the decentralization of authority from the central government to the school level (caldwell, 2005). world bank (2008) notes that school-based management is the strategy to decentralize education decision-making by increasing parental and community involvement in schools. thus, in school level, decision-making authority and school operations are transferred to principals, teachers, and parents, and sometimes to students and other school community members. nationally, the central government has introduced the idea of irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 222 educational decentralization when the government issued the law no.22/1999 (later reviewed by the law no. 32/2004) about ―local government‖, which was officially implemented in january 2001. both laws have logical consequences that educational administration, management and leadership, goals, budgets, personnel, curriculum, and structure should be adapted to the soul and the spirit of autonomy. it means in the era of autonomy,‖ the former bureaucratic notions, based on hierarchical positional powers within a single school system, are now outmoded‖ (chapman, 1996). therefore, the so-called central-based educational management that had been practiced in the indonesian education system for long time should be changed into school-based management. the motives of most governments to apply school-based management aim at both improving the financing and delivery of education services and increasing the quality and quantities (enrollment) in education (world bank, 2008). in indonesia, the central government wants to give, principals, teachers, parents, and communities broader opportunities to take part in the management of education program and at the same time, it can ease the burdens of the central government financially and operationally by giving more authorities to local governments and schools to arrange their schools to meet local needs (minister of national education, 2004). eliason (1996) says that decentralization refers to have greater citizen participation, influence, and greater local autonomy in order to meet local needs and demands. in other words, indonesian government has been decentralizing the control of education systems in an effort to lower costs, overcome unmanageable central bureaucracies, and to provide young people a better education and give local government officials and schools much greater scope to decide how to meet those goals. however, the success of school-based management practices at school level depends on how ready all school-levels actors and district level actors work on it. as discussed earlier, the centralized education system had been practiced for more than 53 years from the old order (sukarno‘s regime) to the new order regime (suharto‘s regime). hence, it is not considerably easy to change all those actors‘ mind and work habits. they are still used to working with a centralized system, in particular, principals and educational administrators. for example, principals still depend on the upper actors such as central and provincial governments and district levels to make key decisions and school programs. the second problem is parents and communities are not accustomed to involving in making decisions at school level. in indonesia, it is common for parents (not in big cities) to come to school every six months when they will take a final report of their children‘s progress. teachers are not qualified and competent to teach is also the third major problem to reach the goals of sbm in terms of student achievement. for instance, the total number of elementary school teachers and headmasters as of 2005/2006 was 1,567,157 and 84.70% of elementary school teachers do not meet the education ministry‘s basic requirement that is completion of bachelor degrees (ministry of national education, 2008). this will also influence their ability and capacity of involving in making school programs. the last problem, but not the least, is community participation such as representatives of parents, community members, and education councils is not that high like in western countries. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 223 conclusions the purposes of this paper are first to discuss the characteristics of school-based management and the practices of sbm and second, to explore the motives of indonesian government to apply school-based management in education in the digital era. to conclude, decentralization and school-based management in indonesia‘s education system have become the means to decentralize the authority from the central government to the school level (caldwell, 2005), to improve the financing and delivery of education services and increase the quality and quantities, to give parents and communities broader opportunities to take part in education. at the same time, the success of sbm is overly reliant on how well all school and district actors put it into practices and change their work habits from a centralized to decentralized practice. disclosure statement the author declares no conflict of interest in this study. . references agyemang, g. 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(1992). teacher empowerment under ideal school-site autonomy. educational evaluation & policy analysis, 14, 69-82. wholstetter, p., kirk, a., robertson, p., & mohrman, s. (1997). organizing for successful school-based management. alexandria, virginia, usa: association for supervision and curriculum development. world bank report. (2007). what do we know about school-based management? washington, dc: the world bank. yau, h. k., & cheng a. l. f. (2014). principals and teachers‘ perception of school-based management. international education research, 2(1), 44-59. biographical note dr. asad is an associate professor at uin sulthan thaha saifuddin jambi, indonesia; e-mail: asadisma@uinjambi.ac.id mailto:asadisma@uinjambi.ac.id this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 462 analyzing the initiationresponse and feedback patterns and its impact on the interaction between teacher and students in english classroom eka barahma putri 1 , machdalena vianty 2 , and sary silvhiany 3 abstract this study was based on the phenomenon of classroom interaction in enhancing students’ language skills in english classes using the 2013 curriculum. this study investigated the dominant initiationresponse and feedback [irf] patterns and its impact on the interaction between the teacher and the tenth-grade students during classroom spoken discourse. this qualitative research involved a teacher of english and four classes. the data were collected via classroom observations and semi-structured interviews. the findings of the study showed that in the irf pattern, the most dominant pattern was initiation. the teacher dominated the classroom during the lesson and the irf pattern had positive impacts on students’ english when the teacher asked questions. the teacher needed to understand what questions students needed to ask to respond well because it must be in line with the 2013 curriculum, which places students at the center of learning. teachers needed to use more various feedbacks from the irf pattern. it can be seen from the observation that the teacher did not use feedback much when students responded to the initiation from the teacher because feedback is essential to increase student motivation, confidence, and evaluation. keywords classroom interaction, irf pattern, students and teacher of english 1 m.pd student at faculty of teacher training and education, sriwijaya university, indonesia; ekabaputri@gmail.com 2 lecturer at faculty of teacher training and education, sriwijaya university, indonesia; machdalena074@yahoo.com 3 lecturer at faculty of teacher training and education, sriwijaya university, indonesia; ssilvhiany@unsri.ac.id mailto:ekabaputri@gmail.com irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 463 introduction in indonesia, teaching english is one of the foreign languages that must be studied. the introduction of english as a second language in indonesia has resulted in a dramatic shift in the country’s educational policies (mappiasse & sihes, 2014). as a result, much pedagogy related to english language education, such as methodology, curriculum, and evaluation, have gotten a lot of attention in order to improve the country’s fluency with the language. it is a required topic in junior high schools for three years and senior high schools for three years (lauder, 2008). as a result, english plays an essential role, and indonesian students must master the language. overall, the english language has become the de-facto standard means of communication worldwide, and indonesia is no exception. in the period of communicative language teaching, classroom interaction has been a major concern in teaching and learning english (sundari, 2017). communication becomes important to improve students’ ability to learn english when the teacher does a question and answer session. by communicating in the classroom, students can improve their ability in english lessons. the interaction throughout the teaching-learning process is primarily between a teacher and students, who both play a key role in the process. the classroom discourse analysis is, essentially, the type of language use (performance parole) used in classroom situations (richard, 2002). sinclair and coulthard (1992) argued that they offered a three-part exchange structure: initiation, response, and feedback, which is known as irf, in their classroom discourse model, which contained a set of hierarchically arranged ranks and levels (as cited in paterson, 2008, p. 102). as mccarthy (2002) stated that in a discussion that is generally well-structured, it is very important to analyze patterns. classroom discourse is closely related to the irf pattern, which is used to analyze communication between teachers and students. communication between teachers and students is crucial, especially when it comes to speaking english in the classroom. it is necessary to learn english, particularly speaking english, because most agencies, firms, and the business sector want employees who are fluent in english. abrar et al. (2018) argued that many learners, despite years of english teaching, are unable to communicate in the target language, especially in the four language skills. speaking is one of the most difficult aspects of learning a language. all in all, communication between teachers and students must happen when teaching english in the classroom. teaching english in the classroom is an opportunity for students to practice speaking english so that communicative practices can be produced that involve students in meaningful communication that can make students use english actively. in relation to this, fink (2003) stated that students try to use english in the classroom even with their limitations. by examining the use of the irf pattern in the classroom the researchers attempted to solve problems between teachers and students in initiating, responding, and giving feedback during classroom spoken discourse. furthermore, the irf pattern is an important aspect to see the potential for oral production in the students themselves (liu, 2008; lyle, 2008; myhill,2006). furthermore, rashidi and rafieerad (2010) claimed that, even though classroom discourse followed an irf pattern in which teachers dominated a significant portion of the discussion, students initiated transactions with their teachers and irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 464 frequently followed up on their teachers’ answers to their questions, resulting in an irf pattern even in student-teacher talk. it can be concluded from the result of their study that it is important for the teachers to rearrange activities to prevent a teacher-dominated classroom. in the classroom, more interaction can be fostered, such as brainstorming and problem solving, role play, stimulation, and debate. in addition, badr (2018) stated that bad oral production occurs in students when the teacher is trying to do the interaction, so the teacher should improve the turn by allowing them to start and analyze every interaction between the teacher and the students throughout the spoken discourse. in the indonesia context, similar findings were also found (rachel, 2016; waliyani & yuliani, 2018; sasmiati, 2018). in this case, there have been many studies using the irf pattern, but rarely observe the irf pattern together with analyzing the effect of the irf pattern on students’ english. the dominant part of the irf pattern that happens during the interaction between teacher and students is examined in this study and the effect of the irf pattern on improving students’ english. in addition, some scholars have studied irf patterns in order to determine the teacher’s technique for dealing with students, analyze irf in student group discussions, and understand the issues that develop during teacher-student interactions in the classroom, among other things. despite the fact that many academics have previously conducted research, this study is unique, looking at irf in classes that used the 2013 curriculum, which highlighted the idea of student-centered learning. the 2013 curriculum is applied at the research site. according to the regulation of the minister of education and culture number 70 in 2013 (reference), student-centered learning is at the core of the 2013 curriculum. although interaction may appear to be a straightforward task, there are numerous challenges to overcome in order to assist kids in developing their speaking skills. menegale (2008) discovered that professors continue to dominate class discussion time. it is the most prevalent and traditional practice that occurs in the classroom during teaching and learning process. therefore this study aims at finding out: (1). the dominant irf pattern in the interaction between the teacher and tenth-grade students during classroom spoken discourse at the research site and (2). the impact of irf pattern for the tenth-grade students during classroom spoken discourse i at the research site. by examining irf patterns as teachers and students interact in the classroom and the impact of students’ spoken output of the target language, the researchers sought to gain knowledge into present interactional practices in the context of the 2013 curriculum. to reach the above goal, the researchers of this article put forward the following research question: 1. what are the dominant irf patterns in the interaction between the teacher and the tenth-grade students during classroom spoken discourse at the research site? 2. what are the impacts of irf pattern for tenth-grade students during classroom spoken discourse at the research site? literature review according to richard (2002), classroom discourse is also different in form and purpose from the language used in other contexts because students and teachers have specific social positions in the classroom and the types of activities they typically do there. the term “classroom discourse” refers to the way students engage in the classroom. the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 465 irf model, according to mccharty (2002), is a model of classroom interaction that provides guidelines for understanding spoken language, derived from classroom interaction. the irf pattern begins with the teacher asking a question, followed by the learner answering the question and the teacher providing feedback on the learner’s response. this form of interaction, tied to students’ interactions with teachers, is believed to benefit them. the learners can negotiate meaning with teachers and teachers should facilitate this interaction by confirmation checks, clarification requests, and comprehension checks (mackey, 2012). according to richard and lockheart (199), there are three types of questions; first, procedural questions, concern classroom processes and routines, as well as classroom management, rather than learning content. for example, the following questions emerged in classrooms as teachers checked that assignments were done, task instructions were clear, and students were ready for a new activity. second, convergent questions promote students to respond in a similar way, or to respond in a way that focuses on a central issue. short answers, such as “yes” or “no,” or short sentences, are frequently used. they normally do not require students to use higher-order thinking to come up with a response instead of focusing on recalling previously delivered facts. third, divergent questions elicit a wide range of replies from students, including those that aren’t simple yes/no answers and necessitate higher-order thinking. they enable students to give their own information rather than recalling information that has already been delivered. according to moskowititz’s flint in brown (2001, p.170), the diversity of student responses can be seen from the six categories of student talk described as follows: first. the student response, specific: drills, reading aloud, dictation, and responding to the teacher within a precise and limited range of accessible or previously performed replies. second, student response, open-ended or student-initiated: students’ own thoughts, opinions, reactions, and feelings in response to the teacher. giving one of many possible answers that students have already practiced, but from which they must now choose to begin the participation. third, silence: interactions are interrupted by pauses. there will be no verbal engagement during these periods of silence. fourth, silence-av: silence in the interaction during which a piece of audio-visual equipment, e.g., a tape recorder, filmstrip projector, record player, etc., is being used to communicate. fifth, confusion, work-oriented: because there are numerous people talking at the same time, the conversation cannot be recorded. students are extravagantly calling out, ready to join or answer, and focused on the subject at hand. sixth, confusion, non-work-oriented: the interaction cannot be captured if more than one person is talking at the same time. students who are out of order, not behaving as the teacher would like, and uninterested in the task at hand. richard and lockheart (1996) state that feedback can be positive or negative, and it can be used to not only let students know how well they did, but also to boost motivation and create a great classroom environment. feedback on a student’s spoken language in a language classroom might be given in reaction to the substance of what the student has produced or in the form of utterance. several strategies can be used in providing feedback in learning content as follow: 1.) acknowledging a correct answer: the teacher acknowledges that a student’s answer is correct by saying, for example, “good,” “yes, that’s right,” or “fine.” 2.) indicating an incorrect answer: the teacher indicates that a student’s answer is incorrect by saying, for example, “no, that’s not quite right,” or “mmm.” irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 466 3.) praising. the teacher compliments a student for an answer, for example, by saying “yes, an excellent answer.” 4.) expanding or modifying a student’s answers the teacher responds to vague or an incomplete answer by providing more information or rephrasing the answer in the teacher’s own words. for example: t: does anyone know the capital of the united states? s: washington. t: yes, washington, d.c. that’s located on the east coast. 5.) repeating. the teacher repeats the student’s answer. 6.) summarizing. the teacher gives a summary of what a student or group of students has said. 7.) criticizing. the teacher criticizes a student for the kind of response provided. for example: t: raymond, can you point out the topic sentence in this paragraph? r: the first sentence. t: how can it be the first sentence? remember, i said the first sentence is not always the topic sentence in every paragraph. look again! methodology research design, participants, and locale of the study this research adopted a qualitative research and used observations and interviews to gather the data of current research. the observation was chosen because this study focused on behaviorists. it was supported by creswell (2012) about the observation. this research was conducted in islamic school in palembang, south sumatera, which focused on senior high school students in grade 10 and their teacher of english. the subjects of research were olympiad, x ipa 4, x ipa 5, x ipa 6 classes and teacher of english who taught the classes. the research used an audio recorder, observation sheet, and interview guide as the instrument to obtain the data. the interaction between teachers and students was recorded using video recorder. the observation sheet was used by the researchers to record the data in the form of information while observing. to gather the data from the participant intensively, the interview was done. wolcott (1994) suggested four ethnographic observation methods, one of which is to observe and record everything that happens in the classroom. whereas the researchers were fully conscious that recording teachers’ expressions and body movements was crucial since they play a significant role in controlling classroom spoken language. such gestures and postures can only be recorded using video-recording devices; the researchers were unable to use such video-recording devices as research instruments because the teacher of english was concerned about data misuse. as a result, the researchers decided to dismiss the teacher’s anxieties and worries by going to class with an audio-tape recorder and, at the same time, writing notes about the most crucial non-verbal interactional events. in this regard, the researchers recognized that this approach was not ideal for capturing non-verbal interactional events that typically occur irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 467 during classroom conversation, but the researchers believed that it was preferable than doing nothing at all. data collection and analysis to answer the first study question, classroom observations were conducted to investigate teacher-student interactions. four observations were made in four different classrooms with the same teacher of english. as a result, in this study, classroom observations were conducted with tenth-grade students in four different classrooms totaling roughly 40 students and the teacher of english who taught the classroom. the study took place between february and march, 2021. the last part of this research was to answer the second research question. interviews were conducted with six students from different classes who had been observed. the interview techniques was semi-structured interviews where the interview was conducted to obtain the research objectives through a question and answer face to face between the interviewer and the informant and verified the data gathered from the observation. in analyzing the data of this study, the researchers used four techniques and the data analysis is from miles et al. (2014), as follows: (1). transcribing data; the process of transcription starts after interviews have been conducted or events have been reported. transcription requires direct examination of knowledge by careful listening (and/or watching) repeatedly, and this is a significant first step in data analysis. (2). data condensation; according to miles et al. (2014), the process of choosing, focusing, clarifying, abstracting, and/or changing the data found in the complete text (body) of written-up, field notes, interview transcripts, records, and other analytical materials is referred to as data condensation (3). the data display deals with the provision of ordered, compressed, information the assembly which allows the drawing of a conclusion. (4). drawing and verifying conclusions; conclusions should also be tested as the analyst moves along. at this point, to establish the conclusions regarding the analysis, the data analyzed were read and re-read. the results were then double-checked by going over the data as many times as feasible. the approach of establishing the credibility of a study and the study’s expectation to acquire the best outcome from the data is known as data credibility. the researchers in this study employed the triangulation approach to demonstrate the study’s trustworthiness. creswell (2012) stated that triangulation is the process of corroborating information from multiple people (e.g., a teacher and a student), data forms (e.g., observational field and interviews). in this study, the researchers used the technique of data triangulation and reviewed the informants to examine the credibility of data. findings the dominant irf pattern in the interaction between the teacher and tenth-grade students during classroom occurred at the research site. classroom observations were used to find out information about interactions between teachers and students. the observation was carried out twice in the olympiad and x ipa 5 classes. the data generated were based on the interactions between teachers and students in the classroom. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 468 table 1. olympiad class the irf pattern had been used by teachers and students in the olympiad class 94 times. to keep the discourse continuing, a teacher conducted 36 initiations. in this case, the teacher strikes up a conversation with the students in order to generate a positive response. the student gave the teacher an open initiation after the teacher performed a bound initiation. as a result, the teacher had to perform the necessary initiation for the students. the teacher only employed four types of initiation based on the data received from the six types of initiation. the types are procedural, convergent, and divergent questions. the questions that are more important in this observation’s learning process are convergent questions, in which students were asked to answer basic inquiries regarding an option that cannot be developed. furthermore, the total number of replies received in this study was around 44. each student took turns responding questions from the teacher, although students were given the opportunity to answer questions first. according to the results of the responses, students had 27 responses to questions and 16 open responses. each student had a turn to answer the teacher’s questions. every teacher asked questions, and most students could answer them properly. however, not all students wanted to react to teacher questions, as indicated by the teacher’s questions, which attempted to initiate students from the questions given and called on select students to answer questions. only a few students wanted to participate in the teaching and learning process by sharing their opinions. finally, students should be able to participate actively in the teaching and learning process by contributing ideas and knowledge. based on the findings of observations and interviews, there were numerous factors why some students responded and others did not. in addition, there was a brief period of “silence” in the midst of the class when the interaction ceased. in this study’s irf pattern, there were several types of responses: student response, particular; open-ended to student-initiated; and quiet. the irf pattern’s reaction delivers the teacher’s feedback to the students. despite what can be seen from the teacher’s observations, the teacher did not provide any comments during the observations in this class. the feedback that occurred in irf total types of initiation procedural questions 7 convergent questions 17 divergent questions 15 types of response student response, specific 25 open ended or student-initiated 13 silence 1 types of feedback acknowledging the correct answer 4 indicating an incorrect answer 3 praising 5 expanding or modifying a student’s answer 2 summarizing 2 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 469 the observations was: acknowledging a correct answer, indicating an incorrect answer, praising, expanding or modifying a student’s answer and summarizing. table 2. irf pattern in olympiad class list of abbreviation: i: initiation, r : response, f : feedback based on the table above, it can be determined that initiation and response is the most common turn in the irf pattern. when teachers initiated students, they had a positive response, but not all students responded to initiation with the teacher, despite the teacher’s best efforts to include all students in the learning process. table 3. x ipa 5 class the irf pattern used 37 turns of initiation between the teacher and students. the most common irf pattern in this class interaction was initiation. the teacher delivered many initiations to the students, but only a few of them responded appropriately. procedural, convergent, and divergent inquiries are examples of initiation that occur during the teaching. after that, pupils gave a total of 11 turns in their responses. students did not respond well to teacher activities, which allow the teacher to engage in more interaction. this contradicts to the curriculum, which states that the student-center should be given a priority over the teacher center. the only two answers that occurred during the learning process were specified and open-ended student responses or student initiation. despite the fact that not all students responded to the instructor’s initiative, the teacher provided feedback based on their responses. the teacher tried to involve students even though the result was that the teacher was more dominant. this is because students did not respond, so that the feedback given was not too optimal. some feedback occurred during teaching and learning process, namely acknowledging a correct answer, praising, expanding or modifying a student’s answers, and summarizing. irf olympiad class i 39 r 39 f 16 total 94 irf pattern total types of initiation procedural question 7 convergent question 8 divergent question 4 types of response student response, specific 6 open ended or student-initiated 5 types of feedback acknowledging a correct answer 3 praising 1 expanding or modifying a student’s answers 1 summarizing 2 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 470 table 4. x ipa 5 class irf pattern x ipa 5 i 19 r 11 f 7 total 37 the conclusion drawn from the table above was that teacher interaction continued to dominate the teaching and learning process in the classroom; students should ask more questions, but it appeared that students were not particularly active in the classroom, even the teacher’s best efforts. while students just answered the questions presented by the teacher, there was no active interaction between teachers and students, and the active learning process was not carried out properly. interviews were conducted to determine the impact of the irf pattern on the improvement of students’ english in the classroom. the point of the study was to find out how the irf pattern influenced the students in the classroom. teachers and students were observed to see how they interacted. following observations in the classroom, it would be beneficial to learn the students’ thoughts on the teacher’s questions and responses and the teacher’s feedback. according to kotari (2004), observation is a popular method employed in behavioral science research. the researchers observed activities in the classroom during teaching and learning processes, and to confirm this conclusion, the researchers conducted interviews with several students. the observations were made to several classes: olympiad, x ipa 5, x ipa 4 and x ipa 6 class. table 5. schedule and result of observation on x class the table above describes the observations in the classroom such as the time and date of the observations, the subject matter, and the results of these observations. to illustrate that the irf pattern has an impact on improving students’ english, interviews were done. six tenth-grade students participated in the interview. classes date/time teaching materials results of observation olympiad class wednesday, february 24th,2020 (9.45 10.35) the report text about animals and galaxy (komodo dragon, birds, and galaxy) the teacher explains the report texts about animals and the galaxy and asks students to read the text and initiates students to understand the meaning of the texts and looks for the wrong pronunciation of what the student reads. x ipa 5 saturday, february 27th, 2021 (9.45 10.35) describing the animal ( elephant) the teacher tells about the descriptive text about animals, asks students to read the text, and looks for the wrong words spoken by students who have read the text. x ipa 4 monday, march 01st, 2021 (9.45-10.35) describing the animal (animal) the teacher tells about the descriptive text about animals, asks students to read the text, and asks students to look for the wrong words spoken by students who have read the text. x ipa 6 march 16th, 2021 (08.00 9.45) definition, social function, general structure, identify and language features of song the teacher initiates students to read the text and asks students to identify sentences from parts of the song, generic structures, linguistic features of a song, after one of the students reads the text, the teacher initiates students’ questions about the wrong pronunciation when students read. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 471 table 6. the result of the student’s interviews no. questions response 1. do you like being active in the classroom? student 1: sometimes i am also active, miss if i understand the material. student 2: active. student 3: if the teacher asks a question, i will answer it. student 4: active if during the question session. student 5: not really. student 6: active. 2. what do you think about ma’am ria in delivering the material? does she directly explain the material or give examples? student 1: ma’am ria also sometimes gives direct examples while explaining the material and then giving example. student 2: there must be a delivery, right?, remember the material that has been studied before then enter the new material, from the new material the core lesson is explained. student 3: they are usually explained it first and then given an example. student 4: first, explain it, and then give an example. student 5: explain the material directly. student 6: usually it is explained first after that the teacher gives questions to the students. 3 what language does ma’am ria use when explaining the subject matter, does she use english or indonesian? student 1: most of them use english but there are about 20% maybe use indonesia, so that it can make it easier for students to understand the lesson. student 2: ma’am ria usually uses english, after that it is only translated into indonesian. student 3: sometimes uses english, if for example, a student doesn’t understand, then it is translated to indonesian. student 4: sometimes also in indonesian, sometimes in english, mixed. student 5: english, sometimes indonesian. student 6: use english, but if there are students who don’t understand what the teacher was saying, it is usually translated into indonesian. 4 in explaining the material during this pandemic, does ma’am ria usually only speak or share the material in your wa groups? student 1: sometimes also verbally but also shared through the google classroom. student 2: through google meet and also using the material in google classroom. student 3: usually through google meet or google classroom. student 4: explain verbally from google meet after that through google classroom for assignments. student 5: both. student 6: the material from google classroom that the teacher will explain through google meet. 5 during this pandemic the system uses google classroom, right? so, how do teachers usually call out the students to answer questions? student 1: sometimes also mentioned in the class list through absenteeism or if the students understand they raise their hand. student 2: hmm.. so random…. usually called by the teacher so everyone can participate in class so that all students can interact in class student 3: the teacher usually asks the student first who wants to answer the question, after that if no one comes forward, then the teacher will call the student to answer the question. student 4: it depends on someone who wants to answer the question, if someone wants to, answer that… if there isn’t one, they will be appointed. student 5: directly call the student. student 6: if the students want to answer a question from the teacher, for example, “who wants to answer the question?” then if no one wants, the teacher will appoint students. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 472 table 6. continued… to see the impact of the irf pattern on students’ english, it can be seen from the students’ answers about their daily routine in the classroom. these questions were asked to obtain information about whether students played an active role during the lesson. then, the result of the first question is students play an active role in responding to the teacher. in the second question, the all six students gave the same response, stating that the teacher usually described the content first and then gave an example to focus students on the questions they wished to ask regarding the teacher’s explanation. the third question is how the interaction between teacher and students occurs during english lessons whether the teacher initiated the students using english or indonesian. it can be concluded that the teacher used english and translated it into indonesian so that students who did not understand the teacher’s orders could understand what the teacher said. the fourth question is to make sure that students did assignments from the teacher in a good way and according to the rules. this question is to find out how students interacted with the materials presented by the teacher. the fifth question, how the teacher initiated students to get the responses the teacher wanted, whether the teacher gives questions based on absenteeism, randomly, or students’ wishes. based on the results of the interviews, the teacher gave questions not only through attendance but also randomly, but before the teacher called students based on attendance, the teacher always offered students to answer questions so that students could play an active role in question 6 when studying, does the teacher explain the material first before sending it to your study group? student 1: before the assignment is sent, it must be explained first, given… first understand the material. student 2: explained first so that students who do the assignment understand what to do student 3: explained before being given a task. student 4: it must be explained first. student 5: explained the material first and then sent it to the group student 6: explained first. 7 in your opinion, does it have any effect on your english when ma’am ria asked any questions? is your english getting better? student 1: my english has improved, maybe because there is a lot to learn. student 2: if it depends on the individual if puan…. it will definitely increase because there will be practice immediately if not practice can’t speak in english for everyone. student 3: i think it’s getting better. student 4: yes, it will definitely increase because we interact with each other. student 5: it’s getting better student 6: increase 8 then when mam ria asks questions about the lessons you are studying and provides corrective responses from your answers, what kind of impact does it have on your english? student 1 :hmm very influential, ma’am ria provides improvements if we don’t understand, we become more understanding about english. maybe even more, we can learn a lot from these improvements. student 2: have a positive impact. student 3: so it seems like i understand better because if it’s wrong, it must be corrected so that it has a positive impact. student 4: of course it will increase. student 5: have a positive impact on our english. student 6: so we know more about our mistakes so we can fix them faster. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 473 and answer session. the sixth question, based on the interview results, students said that the teacher explained the material first before sending assignments to students. this is part of the irf pattern interaction. when the teacher tried to explain, if students did not understand, they would ask questions and the teacher would give feedback directly to students. from the seventh question, it can be seen that the influence of the initiation carried out by the teacher on the students. all students indicated that their english had improved as a result of the teacher encouraging them to engage in the question-and-answer session, which was corroborated by observations made during classroom spoken talk. the eighth question about the influence of the irf pattern on improving students’ english, said that the initiation was given, student responses and feedback from the teacher had a positive impact on the student’s english. through these observations and interviews, the interaction between teachers and tenth-grade students at the research site occurred at the beginning of the learning and teaching process, for example, when the teacher greeted the students. the teacher posed some questions to the students at the start of class. the teacher’s main question was addressed to all students. some students enthusiastically responded to the teacher’s initiation. when the teacher initiated the students with some questions, they could answer the questions well. this situation reflected that students paid attention to the teacher and learning activities in the classroom. after that, the question and answer activity had several objectives. this activity was designed to introduce students to the lesson’s topic, maintain students’ attention from the start of the lesson, keep students active during the teaching and learning process, and verbally convey what was on their minds. the interaction between teachers and students in the classroom occurred in question-and-answer activities when they discussed the material together in the teaching and learning process. question and answer activities could make students think actively. they were ready to follow the teaching and learning process of english because they knew what they were going to learn. questions and answers also helped students to stay focused on the teaching and learning process. their concentration was maintained from the start when discussing the material. the students had pay attention and concentrate on the teaching and learning process because they had to answer questions from the materials. teachers who give questions randomly to students make students concentrate on question and answer activities. they tend to listen to the teacher’s questions carefully. they can answer the teacher’s questions well. they seem more courageous in expressing their ideas, opinions, and feelings. in addition, their self-confidence also appears when they answer the teacher’s questions. thus, students’ responses show their interest in the teaching and learning process. students are communicative in responding to the teacher. during this activity, the teacher balanced the interaction between the teacher and students by providing feedback to students according to the responses given by the teacher. researcher: “then when mam ria asks questions about the lessons you are studying and providing corrective responses from your answers, what kind of impact does it have on your english?” irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 474 student 1: “hmm very influential, ma’am ria provides improvements if we don’t understand, we become more understanding about english. maybe even more, we can learn a lot from these improvements.” student 2: “have a positive impact.” student 3: “so it seems like i understand better because if it’s wrong, it must be corrected so that it has a positive impact.” student 4: “of course it will increase.” student 5: “have a positive impact on our english.” student 6: “so we know more about our mistakes so we can fix them faster.” this is supported by the findings of interviews, which showed that students believed that questions and answers and teacher feedback helped them improve their english because they could learn from their mistakes and immediately corrected them based on the teacher’s feedback as they added new vocabulary. discussion one of the most crucial parts of establishing active communication between teachers and students in the classroom is classroom interaction. in our study, an aspect used to assess the interaction between ipa 5 and x ipa 4 classes was the irf pattern in the classroom. in this case, the irf pattern revealed that the teacher dominated the classroom during the lesson, which was the study’s first objective. while some students actively participated in question and answer sessions, others did not react to the teacher’s initiation. this result is similar to previous studies, which found that (e.g., rahmi et al., 2008; rashidi & rafieerad, 2010), the teacher still dominated the interaction during the lesson, even though the irf pattern was trying to be applied in the classroom. however, other research informed that in line with the type of irf pattern, in the classroom activities the student’s response was dominantly occurred (rustandi & mubarok, 2017). in other words, in terms of dominating, it depends on what subject matter is presented in the classroom and how the teacher tries to make students active in the classroom. if the subject matter in class is easy enough, student participation will often occur. on the other hand, if the teacher’s way of provoking students by initiating can make them interested, the percentage of student responses will increase. the findings of the second research objective, even if the class was dominated by the teacher, interviews with six students using the irf pattern on the teacher-student interaction process revealed that students might still improve their english. students were asked whether the teacher’s question and answer session had an effect on their english, and they responded that their english had improved. students demonstrated that they were still trying to answer questions during class observations, despite the fact that the teacher dominated each class observation. the conclusions of this study contradict those of previous studies conducted by waliyani and yuliani (2018) at the same school but in a different year, the students were very passive and complained a lot because of a lack of confidence. according to interviews conducted when students were asked about activity in the classroom. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 475 researcher : “do you like being active in the classroom?” student 1 : “sometimes i am also active; miss if i understand the materials student 2 : “active” student 3 : “if the teacher asks a question, i will answer it.” student 4 : “active if during the question session.” student 5 : “not really.” student 6 : “active.” although the teacher dominated the interaction in the classroom, some students played an active role in question-and-answer sessions. researchers conducted classroom observations. this research was conducted during the covid-19 pandemic. so starting from one year ago until the research ended in march, the school was still in the covid 19 pandemic that students were doing lessons online. some of the limitations of this study also slightly interfere with teaching and learning process. classroom observations were done by online learning. teacher and students used google classrooms during the interaction. students also did not activate the camera because the teacher said that the students complained about the internet cost being less than activating the camera. badr (2017) proposed that despite the fact that although the researchers recognized the importance of recording teachers’ expressions and body movements because they played a critical role in monitoring classroom spoken language, and that such expressions and body movements can only be recorded using video-recording devices, the researchers were unable to use such video-recording devices as research instruments because the class teacher was concerned about data misuse. as a result, the researchers had chosen to reject the teacher’s concerns and anxiety by attending class with an audio recorder. in this aspect, the researchers realized that this strategy was not optimal for recording nonverbal interactional events that commonly occurred during classroom talks but argued that it is better than doing nothing at all. conclusion, implications, and recommendation this article aimed to report on the use of the irf pattern on students’ classroom interactions and the impact of the irf pattern in improving students’ english. there were two techniques were used to find the purpose of this research such as classroom observation and interviews. classroom observation was used to determine the dominant irf pattern in the classroom observation between teacher and student. the findings from class observations revealed that the irf pattern occurred during classroom spoken discourse, but the most of the interactions made by the teacher only asked questions and students answered them in the learning process sequentially. the teacher only gave questions and students did not answer many questions because classroom interaction was related to the 2013 curriculum which emphasizes student dominance in the classroom. interviews were employed to respond to the questions posed by the second research question. although teacher interaction dominated the classroom, the interviews demonstrated that students’ english had improved. when the teacher asked questions in the style of english lessons, the majority of students remembered the sentences and attempted irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 476 to participate actively. when teaching the topic, the teacher constantly provided examples, which helped the students understand it better. the study’s findings suggest that english teachers ask too many questions without knowing if students could accept them, that the material presented was always the same, and that there was no substantial change. the teacher was required to give feedback, which ensured that students were satisfied with the teacher’s responses. if this was not done, students’ creativity might be stifled, and they might become less interested in asking questions. when doing classroom activities, teachers had employed some innovative methods or techniques. in relation to that, some recommendations are offered. first, the teachers of english need to understand what questions students need to ask, so that students can respond well because it must be in line with the 2013 curriculum, which places students as the center of learning. second, teachers need to use more varied feedback from the irf pattern. it can be seen from the observation that the teacher does not use feedback too much when students respond to the initiation from the teacher because feedback is very important to increase student motivation, confidence, and evaluation. third, for further research, there are several aspects that the next researchers might be able to do. further researchers can use the theory of sinclair and coulthard (1992) in the irf pattern to see the interactions between students and group members, other english teachers, or use the best interaction practices in analyzing interactions between teachers and students in the classroom in improving students’ english. disclosure statement this study does not include any defamatory questions. the authors state that they have no conflicting interests in this study or the publishing of this paper. acknowledgments i would like to thank sriwijaya university for providing facilities and opportunities to develop this research and mrs. machdalena vianty, m.ed., m.pd., ed.d as the first advisor and also mrs. sary silvhiany, m.pd., m.a., ph.d. as my second advisor. then i would like to thank sma muhammadiah 1 palembang for allowing me to do this research. references abrar, m., mukminin, a., habibi, a., asyrafi, f., makmur, m., & marzulina, l. 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(1992). caught in the act: using the rank scale to address problems of delicacy. new york, ny: routledge. biographical notes eka barahma putri is a m.pd. student from english education department, faculty of teacher training and education, sriwijaya university, indonesia. machdalena vianty, m.ed,. m.pd., ed.d is a doctor of education from english education department, faculty of teacher training and education, sriwijaya university, indonesia. sary silvhiany, m.pd., m.a., ph.d is an assistant professor from english education department, faculty of teacher training and education, sriwijaya university, indonesia. http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.8n.6p.147 this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 43 the introvert personality and speaking challenges: the case of indonesian efl student teachers dian erlina 1* , rendo alesta pratama 2 , lenny marzulina 3 , muhamad holandyah 4 , herizal 5 , kasinyo harto 6 abstract learning to speak english is not easy. this study aimed at finding out 1) the personality of students of english education study program student teachers and 2) the speaking challenges faced by the introverted student teachers at an english education study program. this study used a mixed-method design. for the quantitative data, the samples were 98 students chosen by using purposive sampling. meanwhile, for the qualitative data, there were 5 participants, and homogeneous sampling was the sampling technique. the data were collected through questionnaires, observation, and interviews. the result of the study was that 14 students had introverted personalities, and 84 students had extroverted personalities. furthermore, the speaking challenges faced by introverted students were language components, the psychology of students, and the learning environment. this study can give a positive contribution to the students, teachers, and future researchers. . keywords challenges, extrovert, introvert, speaking article history received 1 october 2022 accepted 18 april 2023 how to cite erlina, d., pratama, r.a., marzulina, l., holandyah, m., herizal., & harto, k. (2023). the introvert personality and speaking challenges: the case of indonesian efl student teachers. indonesian research journal in education |irje|, 7(1), 43 – 60. https://doi.org/10.22437/irje .v7i1.24716 1*universitas islam negeri raden fatah palembang, south sumatra, indonesia; corresponding author: dinerlina_uin@radenfatah.ac.id 2, 3,4,5,6 universitas islam negeri raden fatah palembang, south sumatra, indonesia. https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v7i1.24716 https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v7i1.24716 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 44 introduction people talk every day wherever they live. they use language as their tool to interact and communicate with other people. stated that language is an essential amberg and vause (2009) required for communication. there are many languages in this world. but nowadays, english is the most used in some countries. english is a famous language. it is used in every aspect. according to brown (2001), english is an international language valued highly as a tool for upward mobility. in addition, pattymahu (2012) stated that as a universal language, english is used in the world of technology, education, politics, trade, and so on. therefore, it is not surprising many countries learn about english, such as indonesia. in indonesia, english has been taught in elementary school, and even in kindergarten, the students have been introduced to english. according to the ministry of education and culture, english has been part of the policy of the indonesian government (anggraini et al., 2021; holandyah et al., since it is government policy, english has 2022; hidayat et al., 2021; mukminin et al., 2015). been taught even to the young learner in kinder garden. for indonesian, english is not their mother tongue, so it is difficult to speak english. indeed, arifin (2017) pointed out that for efl students speaking in english is an uneasy assignment and needs a lot of effort to bring out words that are acceptable and utterances in english. then, mukminin et al. (2015) and claimed that learning english is erlina et al. (2021) challenging for indonesian students. in other words, learning english needs a struggle because it is difficult for indonesian students. when people want to learn english, there are four skills to master according to maxom (2009), the four cornerstone skills of (mukminin et al., 2019). english are writing, reading, speaking, and listening. people need to understand those four skills when they learn english. in addition, harmer (2001) divided english skills into two terms, which are receptive skills and productive skills. receptive skill is skills that receive information from outside, such as listening and reading. meanwhile, productive skill is the term for skills that produce information from the inside, such as writing and speaking. in conclusion, the four skills (reading, listening, speaking, and writing) are skills of english that language learners must learn. among the four skills of english, speaking is the most important skill (maxom,2009). subsequently, afshar and asakereh (2016) believed that to make efl/esl students communicate effectively in different contexts, from four macro language skills, speaking is one of the skills that needs to be developed. it is one of the abilities to bring out conversation because it is used to communicate, deliver information, and make connections among people (sayuri, 2016). that is why speaking is paramount to making people understand what others say. learning to speak english is not easy. thornbury (2005) stated that the real challenge to most language learners is speaking. furthermore, al-roud (2016) found out that most people who learn english think that speaking skills is a difficult task. in some cases, students have problems with their speaking. afterward, sayuri (2016) figured out the problems faced by students in speaking english related to pronunciation, fluency, grammar, and vocabulary. additionally, goktepe (2014) stated most students complained about limited mechanical vocabulary and grammar structures in their language. in addition, hadijah (2014) found out the students had three difficulties in speaking, including pronouncing english words correctly, irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 45 arranging the words in good sentences grammatically, and expressing their ideas because of limited vocabulary. hence, speaking has some factors that make it difficult. in learning a language skill such as speaking, people believe that personality has a role. dornyei and ryan (2015) stated there is a long-standing and widespread perception of a unique personality set-up that characterizes good language learners. then, naiman (1996) claimed various degrees and combinations of success in language learning which are influenced by personality characteristics, learning environments, attitudinal aspects, learning strategies, and accidental circumstances. therefore, learners must be aware of personality because it can help them to learn a language. moreover, everyone has a different personality, especially students. personality means behavior aspect that is relatively stable and important (prakash, singh, & yadav, 2016). meanwhile, akhavan, dehghani, rajabpour, and pezeshkan (2016) asserted that personality refers to all traits and attributes of behavior, such as feelings, self-perception, point of view, styles of thinking, and many habits. a personality trait is not the same as sex, age, nationality, or the length of language learning which can be easily measured and judged (noprianto, 2017. therefore, everything related to someone‟s behavior and identity is personality. furthermore, someone‟s personality can be divided into some parts. jung (1954) divided personality into two parts, which are introverts and extroverts (sharp, 1987). in addition, marwa and thamrin (2016), claimed that extroversion or choleric personality is commonly called for extrovert personality. on the other hand, introversion is commonly called introverted personality. akhavan et al. (2016) defined introversion as a trait related to the subjectivity of inner vision and extraversion as a trait of behavior that is related to the objectivity of vision and focused on external perspective. in short, the characteristics of extroverts and introverts are different. extroverts and introverts are unlike each other. according to khalil (2016), extroverts and introverts think differently and have different approaches to various aspects of life. additionally, marwa and thamrin (2016) believed that introvert is the opposite of extrovert because extroverts work better under stressful situations. afterward, an extrovert is more sociable than an introvert since there are advantages for extroverts in verbal information processing that support their sociability (matthews, deary, & whiteman, 2009). besides, stated that compared to introverts, extroverts were better zafar, khan, and meenakshi (2017) l2 speakers. in addition, chen, jiang and mu (2015) believed that extrovert learners have a high possibility to involve in oral participation than introverts. therefore, no wonder some people believed that extroverts are good in some aspects than introverts. based on an informal interview with two lecturers who teach speaking class at the english education study program at universitas islam negeri raden fatah palembang, they claimed that in the teaching and learning process, the introverted students were the most difficult to teach rather than the extrovert students. there were two reasons, 1) they needed more strategies and methods to guide introverted students in the learning and teaching process, and 2) they had to motivate the introverted students more to speak up. in short, there were difficulties in teaching introverted students, especially in speaking class. hence, based on the problem above, the researchers conducted a study about speaking challenges faced by introverted students. this study can give a positive contribution to the students, teachers, and following researchers. furthermore, this study intends to 1) discover irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 46 the personality of students of the english education study program at universitas islam negeri raden fatah palembang 2) explore the speaking challenges faced by the introverted students at the english education study program at universitas islam negeri raden fatah palembang. literature review concept of speaking speaking is part of daily activities. thornbury (2005) stated speaking is a production of speech that becomes a proportion of routine life that engages an interaction. several experts explain speaking and its definition. harmer (2001) mentioned that in speaking, people form words and frames with personal sounds, and people also utilize changes in pitch, intonation, and stress to carry out various meanings. speaking has several components. to speak correctly in english, people need to understand those components. haris mentioned there are five components generally recognized in the analysis of the speech process (speaking). they are pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, fluency, and comprehension (as cited in helmanda & nisa, 2019, p.79). those five components are essential because to speak, people need to master them. it can improve someone speaking. there are several characteristics of successful speaking activity. ur (1996) stated the successful speaking has characteristics like learners talking a lot, participating, having high motivation, and having a language of an adequate level. in summary, to make successful speaking, there are four characteristics that students have to know. concept of speaking challenges there are many challenges in speaking. the difficulty of speaking is a challenge in itself. according to brown (2001), there are spoken language characteristics that make speaking may easy or difficult, namely clustering, redundancy, reduced forms, performance variables, colloquial language, rate of delivery, stress, rhythm, and intonation, and then interaction. afterward, the difficulty of speaking has several factors. ur (1996) stated four difficult factors in speaking skills, such as inhibition, nothing to say, low or uneven participation, and mother-tongue use. however, the challenge of speaking is various. categorized some abrar et al. (2018) themes for speaking challenges of efl student teachers, like the language barriers, which refer to the difficulty of speaking based on the language components such as vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, and fluency. psychological factors refer to anxiety, attitude, and lack of motivation. learning environment is consistent with lecturers, peers, and speaking modules topics. in conclusion, some factors in speaking challenges faced by students are 1) language component, 2) psychological factor of students, and 3) environment in learning. language components such as vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, and fluency are essential in speaking. regarding vocabulary, alqahtani (2015) asserted that knowledge of vocabulary is reputed to be a crucial tool for l2 students because a limited vocabulary in learning l2 delays successful communication. in other words, it is paramount in speaking. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 47 there will be problems and difficulties in speaking if the students cannot speak without available vocabulary. afterward, regarding pronunciation, bailey and nunan (2004) claimed that having good pronunciation is one of the keys to success when learning to speak a foreign language. thus, pronouncing the words well can help people understand communication well. it leads to confusion and problems for people who pronounce words incorrectly. furthermore, grammar is also influential in speaking. ur (1996) mentioned that grammar is about the words that are set together to construct proper sentences. when students speak, they should consider the grammar to make the sentence correct. in addition, grammar will help the students to speak well and fluently. mastering grammar can smooth someone speaking. richards (2006) stated that fluency is a natural language use appearing when the speakers employ meaningful interaction and manage understandable and continued communication even with limitations in their communicative competence. fluency is needed to speak naturally when communicating with somebody else. in summary, vocabulary and pronunciation are essential to make people understand what other people talk about. afterward, grammar and fluency are used to make the speaking process flow sleek. it becomes a challenge for people if they do not have those four components to speak well. moreover, it seems that psychological factors, such as anxiety, can be challenging for students when speaking. when students perform their speaking and feel anxious, it can be difficult and even become a problem for them to deliver their speech well. brown (2001) stated that students‟ anxiety, nervousness, and unconfidence are several factors that influence the student‟s performance in their speaking. in short, when students feel nervous, unconfidence, and anxious, it can affect their speaking performance. those three aspects can be problems for students, especially anxiety. furthermore, motivation plays a part in students‟ speaking. it becomes the other psychological factor. gredler stated the definition of motivation is the attribute that moves people to do or not to do something (as cited in broussard & garrison, 2004, p.106). therefore, motivation is considered the reason for the students to speak. if the students are not motivated, there will be no guarantee make they speak and enjoy the learning process. afterward, another psychological factor is attitude. revealed attitude is an eternal feeling of positive or negative toward petty and cacioppo several people, objects, or issues (as cited in gross, 2010, p.366). in the language context, crystal (2008) stated attitude is people‟s feelings toward a language, whether it is their own or others. then, it may be positive or negative. thus, there is the possibility of students‟ attitudes about a language, whether it is positive or negative. when the students‟ attitudes toward language are negative, they may have difficulty learning it. nevertheless, learning in the environment has also to be considered. the speaking challenges indicate efl learners‟ handicaps in speaking a language from internal and external factors. external factors can be the environment of the classroom and negative comments from teachers and peers (abrar et al., 2018). in brief, the environment has the potential to be challenging for students when they speak. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 48 personality and language learning personality refers to someone‟s behavior and it is unique. feist and feist (2008) stated that personality is a model of a relatively permanent trait and the characteristics of uniqueness that bestow on a person‟s behavior consistently and individually. as a human being, people have personality because it is part of human themselves. personality is characteristic of individuals that people have the most (dornyei & ryan, 2015). moreover, personality influences language learning. according to ellis (1999), students‟ personalities in many language teachers‟ eyes are a primary factor contributing to the student‟s success or failure when they learn a language. she also stated that one of the proofs shows that the learner of extroverts has the advantage in developing the sort of association of language using basic skills of interpersonal communication. in other words, at least personality has a role for learners when they learn a language. extrovert and introvert there are many definitions of extrovert and introvert according to experts. gass and selinker (2008) described an extrovert as a person who is more comfortable with people rather than with a book. on the contrary, an introvert is a person who is more comfortable with a book rather than with people around. furthermore, zhang (2008) stated that an extrovert is more interested in what is happening than in his thoughts and feelings. meanwhile, an introvert is a person who is more interested in his thoughts and emotions than in things outside himself. in addition, he also often feels bashful and reluctant to talk or participate in an activity with someone else. in brief, extroverts, and introverts contrast each other, and they have their characteristics. afterward, extroverts and introverts have several characteristics. according to gelberg (2008), the characteristics of introverts are 1) reflect before they talk or act, 2) energized by solitude, 3) prefer socializing one-on-one to group events, 4) like periods of quiet, feel depleted after a lot of activities, 5) enjoy deep relationships with just a few friends, 6) frequently turn their focus to thoughts, ideas, the inner world, 7) characterized by depth of interest. on the contrary, the characteristic of extroverts are 1) talk out loud as they think, 2) energized by being around people, 3) enjoy large group activities, 4) like a lot of activities, 5) enjoy a wide circle of friendships, 6) frequently turn their focus to people, things, the outer world, 7) are characterized by breadth of interest. in conclusion, from those seven points, introverts have contrasting characteristics to extroverts and each point is antipode. introvert and speaking challenges it seems that introverts tend to avoid speaking or delivering a speech. in general, introverted people are not active, temperamental, less talkative and lack social. they prefer to do their tasks individually without asking for help from other people than they work in a group. the introverted person is an earnest type, shy person, minus of thinking about the future, and does not like to think about an initiative to solve the problem (arip, mohammad, irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 49 ). in short, it seems that introverted people have less desire when ibrahim, & husni, 2017 they have to perform or talk to other people, especially in public because they do not like to interact with other people. meanwhile, speaking necessitates speaking with other people and interacting with them, so it is challenging for introverts, particularly introverted students. in the first place, introverts restrict themselves. laney (2002) stated that introverts are most likely typical who want to keep their energy inside, which makes other people are difficult to know them, enamored in their thought, hesitate before speaking they feel hesitation, generally, avoid crowds, and look quiet when other people are doing something, lose sight while meeting people they proceed cautiously, and then participate merely in the chosen activity, not freely offer their opinions, many other people need to be asked their ideas, get disturbed without enough time alone or untroubled, carefully when reacting and acting and do not show much their facial expression or reaction. to sum up, those reasons are enough for introverts to get challenges in speaking because several of their characteristics tend to limit communication with other people. in most cases, in the teaching and learning process, introverts prefer listening to a lecture. according to introverted learners prefer processing varela, cater, and michel (2012), information inwardly to outwardly. they like sitting quietly in classes and reflecting deeply on the lecture instead of participating in group learning activities or discussions (hana, 2016). therefore, even in the classroom, introverts do not want to participate in a discussion to share their opinion. it seems to count as another challenge for introverts. when introverts are asked to speak up, they cannot deliver it directly. laney (2002) stated that to think about something, introverts need time, and they cannot speak spontaneously except when the subject is familiar to them. in addition, introverts tend to hesitate in situations with which they are not familiar. they speak after collecting, processing, and concluding their thoughts and feelings (laney, 2005). therefore, introverts need time to speak to understand the situation and can speak up directly if they know the subject. it is another challenge faced by introverted students. methodology research design, site, and participants this study used mixed methods. according to creswell (2014), a mixed method is a fusion of quantitative and qualitative approaches to gain a more complete understanding. in the quantitative method, the researchers used a questionnaire to find out the personality of students. meanwhile, in the qualitative method, the researchers used observation and interviews to figure out the speaking challenges faced by introverted students. this study was conducted at the english education study program of universitas islam negeri raden fatah palembang. in this study, the researchers used two sampling techniques. the researchers also used purposive sampling to take a sample for quantitative data. cohen, manion, and marrison (2007) asserted that purposive sampling is the sample chosen for a specific purpose. in quantitative data, among 132 total third-semester students, only 107 students were available and willing to respond to the questionnaire. they were from four classes. the researchers distributed the questionnaire to those students to figure irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 50 out the students „personalities. therefore, the researchers chose purposive sampling because of several reasons. the researchers only chose the third-semester students from the 2018 academic year because they were taking the speaking class. meanwhile, first-semester students did not have speaking classes and the fifth semester or above have finished speaking classes. in qualitative data, the researchers chose five introverted students from pbi 02 class to interview. the researchers chose pbi 02 class because based on the questionnaire results, the class had many introvert students than other classes. furthermore, the researchers did observations and interviews with introverted students. in addition, this study used homogeneous sampling. homogeneous sampling means the researcher chooses participants depending on affiliation in a subgroup with describing characteristics (creswell, 2012). since the participants in this study were just introverted students so, homogeneous sampling was taken as one of the purposeful sampling strategies to choose the participant. data collection and analysis in quantitative data, the researchers used the extrovert and introvert personality inventory (ipei) questionnaire to find the students‟ personalities. ipei was developed from the theory of personality by jung (1954). it has 30 items comprising two subscales. the design of the response grant for each item was the scale of nominal by the options of 'yes' or 'no'. the questionnaire was distributed to the students to measure the students‟ personalities. the researchers did several procedures along these lines, for instance, explaining the study objective to the students, distributing the questionnaire to students, receiving the questionnaire from the students, and identifying the questionnaire result. in qualitative data, the researchers used observation and interviews to find the speaking challenges faced by introverted students. in this study, the researchers used an observation checklist. the observation checklist adopted from and laney abrar et al. (2018) (2002) consisted of some indicators, such as vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, fluency, motivation, attitude, anxiety, lecturers, peers, the topic of speaking, and introvert characteristics. in the observation process, the data were collected by using a videotape. furthermore, the researchers used one-on-one interviews with the students and bahasa indonesia in this study. in interviewing the participants, the researchers used semi-structured interview that was useful to answer general and specific questions. the researchers asked the students some questions related to speaking challenges faced by introverted students. in the interview process, the data were collected by using audio tape. in analyzing the quantitative data, the researchers counted the students‟ questionnaire results to determine their personalities. if the students‟ questionnaire score on the extrovert scale was higher than the introvert scale, it meant the student had an extroverted personality. meanwhile, if the students‟ questionnaire score on the introvert scale was higher than the extrovert scale, it meant the student had an introverted personality. furthermore, after all the students had their personalities, the researchers separated the students who belonged to the extrovert and introvert personalities, and then the students of the two personalities were calculated with a definite statistical method. regarding the qualitative data, the researchers analyzed the data by using thematic analysis. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 51 to validate the accuracy of the findings data of qualitative, the researchers used triangulation in this study. triangulation is a corroborated evidence process by a different data source (creswell, 2007). furthermore, the researchers used the methodological triangulation technique in this study. according to , methodological cohen et al. (2007) triangulation is a technique that has the same study object but uses different methods. findings the findings of this study were to answer the two research questions which are 1) how is the personality of students? and 2) what are the speaking challenges faced by introverted students? the personality of the students the total numbers of third-semester students were 132 students. 107 students participated in this study, and the other did not attend when conducting this study. out of 107 students who followed the test, 14 students were classified as an introvert, 84 were extroverts, and nine students were not classified because their scores of extroverts and introvert were the same. therefore, they were not identified as introverts or extroverts. hence, the sample of quantitative data for this study was 98 students. the result showed that 14 students (14.3%) were indicated as introverted personalities. then, 84 students (85.7%) were indicated as having extrovert personality. in short, it was extroverts were the most perceived type of personality. table 1. distribution of students’ personality category frequency percentage introvert 14 14.3% extrovert 84 85.7% total 98 100% speaking challenges faced by the introverted students in the classroom observation and interview process, there were five introverted students. the researchers used the initial name of those five participants, such as mhr, d, nl, bk, and i. in the classroom observation, the researchers only focus on those five students and their activities. after classroom observation finished, the researchers interviewed those students. based on the data gained from classroom observation and interviews, the researchers found some speaking challenges faced by introverted students. the speaking challenges were language components, the psychology of students, and the learning environment. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 52 language components based on data obtained from classroom observation and interview, the researchers found the speaking challenges faced by an introverted student were language components. in this case, language components are related to vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, and fluency. in the classroom observation, students were stuck in delivering the word. afterward, from the interview results, most students were aware of their vocabulary. they thought that vocabulary was the factor or the difficulty in speaking. one of the students, such as bk, said she has difficulty translating some sentences in english, because of the less mastered vocabulary. “the difficulty in speaking.. that are. for example, i feel difficulty to translate some words in english. em perhaps, it is factor of.. because i have less mastery some vocabularies.” (personal communication, october 28, 2019). in addition, mhr said the factor that makes him difficult in speaking is vocabulary. “the difficulty in speaking, that’s clear from vocabulary aspect, because my vocabulary aspect is still less and low. so, when i want to talk in english. that’s still stuttered and think twice about what i say for the next sentence.” (personal communication, october 25, 2019). in addition, d, nl, and i also mentioned that vocabulary is one of the difficulties in speaking. besides vocabulary, grammar becomes a challenge for introverted students. in classroom observation, students often made mistakes in grammar. they cannot use grammatical structures correctly in speaking. afterward, from the interview result, data showed that students believed that grammar is one of the difficulties in speaking. in line with d, she said that her speaking difficulty is because she memorizes less vocabulary and has grammar problems. “sometimes, i still think about the grammar, whether it is correct or incorrect” (personal communication, october 25, 2019). therefore, it showed that she worried about her grammar. furthermore, the other student also explained their difficulty in speaking, such as nl and i. nl said she felt her vocabulary and grammar were low. “the difficulty, perhaps because of.. vocabulary, then the grammar too.” (personal communication, october 28, 2019). i also said she has a problem with grammar. furthermore, from the classroom observation, the researchers found that pronunciation became a speaking challenge for introverted students. it showed that students often mispronounced some words in speaking. additionally, from the result of the interview, pronunciation also became difficult in speaking for the student. nl said besides vocabulary and grammar, she also had difficulty with pronunciation. “the difficulty, perhaps because of lack of vocabulary then the grammar... then, pronunciation.” (personal communication, october 28, 2019). in line with i, she said that besides vocabulary, the pronunciation was another reason for the difficulty in speaking. in addition, from the classroom observation, the researcher found that fluency also became one of the speaking challenges for introverted students. they often paused when speaking in class. it seemed they were thinking something before delivering their speech. the interview result showed the student, such as mhr, perceived that he could not speak fluently because he had to think about how to translate the words into english. ”i still think how to translate in english, because i can’t really speak fluently in english.” (personal communication, irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 53 october 25, 2019). the other students, such as d, nl, and i, said that they paused because they need time to think when speaking. psychology of students based on data obtained from classroom observation and interviews, the researchers found the speaking challenge faced by an introverted student was the student‟s psychology. in this case, the student‟s psychology is related to self-confidence and nervousness of the student. in the classroom observation, the students preferred sitting in the back row or staying away from the lecturer. in other cases, the students kept silent in class. afterward, from the interview result, the students recognized that she had low self-confidence. i said she wanted to express what was in her mind but her confidence was low, so she had to study hard. in addition, she also felt afraid when she made mistakes. “first of all, i need time to think about, to convey something. because of i am afraid when i make mistake and of course that will make me ashamed.” (personal communication, october 28, 2019). furthermore, in the psychology of students, such nervousness seemed to affect students‟ speaking. in the classroom observation, the students felt nervous when speaking in class. they often stuttered in delivering a speech. afterward, on the interview result, the students felt nervous. for example, nl said she was nervous because she seldom spoke and used english. “nervous.... because seldom speak...... then, i am not used to. so, nervous.” (personal communication, october 28, 2019). additionally, bk said she felt nervous when speaking in class. “the reason, perhaps because nervousness factor. actually, i already have learned about tenses in english but when i practice in the class, perhaps because of nervousness factor so when i speak in front of many people so that i often do wrong thing in construct the words in english.” (personal communication, october 28, 2019). the other students, such as mhr, felt nervous when he wanted to answer the teacher‟s question. i also felt nervous at the beginning of speaking. learning environment based on data obtained from classroom observation and interviews, the researchers found the speaking challenge faced by an introverted student was the learning environment. in this case, the learning environment is related to students feeling afraid to talk to the lecturer. from the result of classroom observation, students needed time when the lecturer asked them a question, and sometimes it made them nervous. the interview result showed students felt scared of the lecturer. nl said when she talked to a lecturer, she felt scared “...it is just when ee i try to speak with someone or lecturer for example.... that is little scare.” (personal communication, october 28, 2019). besides, some students feel nervous when talking to the lecturer, especially if the lecturer asked them a question. it was shown by bk, d, and i. bk said she felt nervous if the lecturer suddenly asked her a question without any preparation. additionally, d said she felt nervous if the lecturer asked her suddenly. meanwhile, another student felt panic if the lecturer asks a question. i said she felt panic if the lecturer asked a question. in addition, i mentioned that she preferred talking to the other students to the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 54 lecturer. “when i speak with friends in the class. in my opinion, i more relax because if i made mistake, my friends fix it and i feel just so-so.” (personal communication, october 28, 2019). table 2. themes and sub-themes themes sub-themes language components students believe vocabulary is not enough. students admit they have problems with grammar. students sometimes mispronounce the words. students perceive they cannot speak fluently. psychology of students students have low self-confidence students are nervous when they speak learning environment students feel afraid to talk to the lecturer discussion the first research question aimed to find out the personality of students of the english education study program at universitas islam negeri raden fatah palembang. there were 98 participants in this study. based on the questionnaire result, there were 14 introverted students (14.3%) and 84 extroverted students (85.7%). the total of introverted students was a little more than extroverted students. some studies showed that introverted students were less than extroverted in learning language. sukinah (2016) and azzuhria (2017) showed the total of introverted students was less than extroverted students. detailed information, according to sukinah (2016), the 70 samples consisted of 22 introverted students and 48 extroverted students. according to azzuhria (2017), 78 samples consisted of 22 introverted students and 56 extroverted students. to sum up, in this study based on the result of the questionnaire, the total number of extroverted students was more than introverte students. the second research question aimed to find out the speaking challenges faced by introverted students in english education study program in universitas islam negeri raden fatah palembang. based on the finding above, the speaking challenges faced by introverted students are a) language components, b) the psychology of students, and c) the learning environment. the first challenge faced by introverted students was language components such as vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, and fluency. those four components were essential in speaking. vocabulary was paramount to fulfilling an utterance through the words that students wanted to say. furthermore, grammar was crucial because if people want to speak or write something, it must be based on the ruler of the structure of language. in addition, fluency can make speaking goes smoothly. hence, if students have a problem with their vocabulary and grammar, it can influence their speaking. al hosni (2014) found students cannot speak in english because they lack the necessary vocabulary items and grammar structures. additionally, noprival (2016) and abda (2017) also showed students lack grammar and vocabulary, so most of them feel speaking difficulty. moreover, pronunciation also became a problem for students to speak. sayuri (2016) figured out that one speaking problem is pronunciation. according to rahmaniah, asbah, and irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 55 nurmasitah (2018), lack of grammatical mastery, difficulty in remembering vocabulary, and difficulty in pronouncing words were some factors of speaking difficulty. thus, pronunciation also caused difficulty in speaking. according to riyaz and mullick (2016), vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation are the essential components of speaking, and most students make mistakes in those points. in addition, they note that the lack of vocabulary has a crucial effect on speaking fluency. in line with this, ihsan and wahidah (2019) mentioned three elements of speaking difficulty faced by the students, which are vocabulary, pronunciation, and fluency. in summary, introverted students are the same as other students whose problems with language components such as vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, and fluency. the second challenge faced by introverted students was the psychology of students, such as self-confidence and nervousness. self-confidence affects student‟s speaking performance. if they do not have self-confidence, they will feel nervous and hesitate when speaking. arifin (2017) found that low self-confidence is one of the psychological factors and challenges that concern students when performing a speech. according to al nakhalah (2016), there is some difficulty in speaking and one of the reasons is a lack of confidence. in addition, tuan and mai (2015) stated confidence is one of many factors that affect students‟ speaking performance. in addition, thornbury (2005) asserted that besides students‟ lack of vocabulary and grammar, lack of confidence is one of the factors that can contribute to speaking failure. besides self-confidence, the students‟ nervousness can affect their speaking performance. according to ratnasari (2020), one of the students‟ challenges in learning speaking skills is nervousness. furthermore, hasibuan and irzawati (2020) mentioned that oral language performace is affected by fear and nervousness produced by speaking anxiety. in short, self-confidence and nervousness seemed to consider challenges for introverted students when they conveyed speech, reminded the other students also had that problem. the last challenge faced by introverted students was the learning environment such students felt afraid to talk to the lecturer. the lecturer had a paramount role in teaching speaking. if the lecturer makes students afraid of speaking, it can inhibit them. sometimes students worry when they make mistakes while talking to a lecturer or answering the lecturer‟s question. hence, the lecturer had to be patient when facing this student. hagenauer, hascher, and volet (2015) found that negative emotions of lecturers, like anger, influence the students‟ participation in the classroom. furthermore, according to adityas (2008), feedback from a that teacher has a significant influence on their students. if students get negative feedback too much, they will make the students embarrass and have other negative experiences in learning. in summary, when introverted students feel uncomfortable with the lecturer, it can influence their learning process. there was potential to make the students not want to get involved in the activities in the class. conclusion based on the findings and discussions, there are 14 introverted students and 84 extroverted students. afterward, some speaking challenges faced by introverted students are 1) language components, which refer to students who believe their vocabulary is not moderate. they admit that they have a problem with grammar, sometimes mispronouncing irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 56 the words, and perceive that they cannot speak fluently, 2) the psychology of students, which means that the students have low self-confidence, and they are nervous when speaking, and 3) the learning environment. it refers to the student feeling afraid to talk to the lecturer. there are more than three aspects that are investigated in this study but only three aspects are discovered. furthermore, the researchers also hope that the next researcher who wants to continue a similar topic, to improve the range of domains in the language barrier. in this study, language barrier refers to language components such as vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, and fluency. this study only discusses four areas. finally, due to the limitation, further investigation is necessary to enrich knowledge about introverted personalities. the researchers have a big expectation about that because it will be beneficial and give a much better understanding of the issues of an introverted personality. as a note, the study of personality, especially in the independent variable of an introvert is limited. therefore, the next researcher can investigate more about it. the researchers personally think it is helpful. declaration of conflicting interests the authors declared no potential conflicts of interest. references abda, k. 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(2008). the role of personality in second language acquisition. asian social science, 4(5), 58-59. biographical notes dian erlina is working at the universitas islam negeri raden fatah palembang, south sumatra, indonesia. rendo alesta pratama was a student at the universitas islam negeri raden fatah palembang, south sumatra, indonesia. lenny marzulina is working at the universitas islam negeri raden fatah palembang, south sumatra, indonesia. muhamad holandyah is working at the universitas islam negeri raden fatah palembang, south sumatra, indonesia. herizal is working at the universitas islam negeri raden fatah palembang, south sumatra, indonesia. kasinyo harto is working at the universitas islam negeri raden fatah palembang, south sumatra, indonesia. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 58 introduction of research articles in applied linguistics by indonesian and english academics udi samanhudi 1 abstract this study was an exploratory study focusing on the textual analysis of the rhetorical structure of ten preliminary samples of research article introductions (five research article introductions for each) in the area of applied linguistics written by indonesian and english academics. the analysis of ten research article introduction sections written by both indonesian and english writers refers to the procedures as suggested by dudley-evans (1994). the results of analysis on rhetorical moves as suggested in the create a research space (cars) model proposed by swales (1990) in the article journal introduction section of indonesian and english writers. this study presented the results of analysis of the rhetorical structure as found in the ten introduction sections of research articles written by indonesian and english academics. in general, the results showed similarities in terms of move structure in which all moves (1, 2 and 3) are identified in the ten articles written by writers from the two different language backgrounds. keywords research articles, applied linguistics, create a research space 1 universitas sultan ageng tirtayasa, banten, indonesia; udisamanhudi@untirta.ac.id irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 59 introduction recently, research article (ra) is one type of the academic writing that is much investigated (wannaruk & amnuai, 2016; yang, 2016). studies on research articles so far focus on, for example, the discourse features of component parts like introductions, methods, and discussions (e.g., arsyad, 2013; chalal, 2014; hirano, 2009; hopkins & dudley-evans, 1988; kanoksilapatham, 2005, 2007; lim, 2012; wannaruk & amnuai, 2016; yang & aloson, 2003). current attention, however, is dominantly given to the introduction section of the research article because it is considered as an essential part used by the writers to attract the readers (arsyad, 2013; lim, 2012; swales & najjar, 1987; swales, 1990, 2004) and to capture their interest toward the research topic discussed in the research article (lim, 2012). consequently, lim (2012) further argued, an introduction section of the research article must be written in an interesting, argumentative and convincing way (wannaruk & amnuai, 2016). it must provide the readers with information about the research article and must give logical reasons for the article to be written (bruce, 2014). this study was an exploratory study that focuses on investigating rhetorical styles of the introduction part of ten research articles with complete introduction-method-result-discussion (imrd) format written by indonesian and english academics as published in the indonesian journal of applied linguistics (ijal), an indonesian international reviewed journal indexed in the scopus database. in particular, this small-scale study examines whether the create a research space (cars) model by swales (1990) is applied to the ten examined research article introductions (rais). additionally, this study also identifies similarities and differences between those introduction sections written by indonesian and english academics. thus, the findings of this study is expected to clarify a similar study conducted previously by arsyad (2013) reporting that research article introduction sections (rais) written by indonesian academics today tend to have similar rhetorical structure as those written by western academics. literature review introduction section in research articles it has long been argued that research articles (ras) are essential means of communication within a certain discourse community context (swales, 1990). for example, in the world of academia, writing and publishing research articles are important especially to support the advancement of scholars’ professional standing in both national and international levels (stoller & robinson, 2013; lim, 2012) particularly since the notion of ‘publish or perish’ has become a universal doctrine (yang, 2016). thus, yang (2016) asserted that in order to be able to publish in both national and international reputable journals, research article writers are usually expected to write their papers in a good english and in an organisation which follows a specific pattern of rhetoric (suryani et al., 2013; lim, 2012). this, in fact, has been a huge challenge of many writers especially those from non-english academic backgrounds in which english is treated as a foreign language (efl). in this context, english is not formally used in people’s daily communication either orally or in written (wannaruk & amnuai, 2016) like indonesian academics who write their research articles in english for an international publication purpose (arsyad, 2001, 2013; mirahayuni, 2002). mirahayuni (2002) contended that failures to meet the standard as well as the irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 60 rhetorical pattern being determined by a certain discourse community open for a wider possibility for the research articles to be rejected (wannaruk & amnuai, 2012, 2016; arsyad, 2013; adnan, 2005). current studies on the ras have shown the importance of a good organisational structure of the introduction section to help readers get sufficient information about the topic of the research being discussed (arsyad, 2001, 2013; swales & najjar, 1987; swales, 1981) and to be convinced on the importance of the topic being reported (pho, 2010). additionally, the importance of the introduction section in a ra is due to the persuasive value it carries for the entire research article (bruce, 2014). in this part, the writer will need to argue that the research that is reported is useful and will need to ‘provoke readers to read it’ (bruce, 2014., p. 3). therefore, it is vital that the introduction part shows a knowledge gap left from previous studies at the same topic or field (hunston, 1994) and provides a strong reason for why the study is important (lim, 2012). however, studies reported that writing an introduction part in an article journal is not always easy especially for those whose native language is not english (wannaruk & amnuai, 2016; arsyad, 2013; suryani et al., 2013; lim, 2012; adnan, 2005; mirahayuni, 2002). it is reported, for example, that writing an introduction part in an article journal is much influenced by the writer’s native language which makes it even harder for non-native english writers to write in the expected discourse pattern (e.g., arsyad, 2013; adnan, 2005). in his study, adnan (2005) found that most non-native speakers such as indonesian academics find it difficult to write this introduction section in an english rhetorical style as they still bring with them the rhetorical style of writing in their own native language (indonesian language). in response to this issue, swales (1990) admitted that writing an introduction section is even harder because the writers are required to provide the right amount of information necessary for a certain group of readers in order to help them understand the topic of the research. he also said that writing the research article introduction is challenging because it should be convincingly argumentative, persuasive and informative (arsyad, 2013; pho, 2010). current studies on rhetorical structure of the research article introductions researchers on scientific discourse focus their attentions into how writers organize their ideas in an introduction section of research (e.g., bruce, 2014; arsyad, 2001; adnan, 2005; mirahayuni, 2002). arsyad (2001) in his study of the idea organisation in 30 introduction sections of rais by indonesian writers reported a different way of indonesian writers use in organising their ideas as those in the cars model suggested by swales (1990) which is a typical of the western academics discourse style (chalal, 2014). specifically, arsyad (2001) concluded that 1) indonesian writers employ more moves in their introduction section than english writers; 2) in move 1 realisation (establishing a territory), the indonesian writers tend to refer to current government policy to show the urgency of the research being conducted and 3) in move 2 (establishing a niche) the indonesian writers tend to mention that the research conducted is important without further logic justification to convince the readers as mostly found in the ones written by the english writers (see adnan, 2005). another study investigating the discourse style of the indonesian and english writers as represented in the introduction section of the journal articles by mirahayuni (2002). in her study which involved 38 ra introduction sections by indonesian and english academics, she irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 61 found a significant difference between the ra introductions written by indonesian as efl writers with those by english writers in terms of ideas organisation. the most important finding is on the way the researchers justify their study (establishing a niche). she said that the english writers tend to justify their study by relating it to the current study at the same topic while the indonesian writers tend to relate it to the current problem in the local community allowing for the study to be only addressed to a small readership. another interesting finding to note is the benefit of the research found in the introduction section written by the indonesian writers which is not found in the english writers introduction section and cars model swales (1990) suggested (arsyad, 2013). in another efl context, a similar finding is also reported. for example, jaroongkhongdach et al., (2012) reported that thai phd students found it difficult to write both introduction and discussion sections in their dissertation due to their lack of knowledge in terms of rhetorical structures and skills in writing academic english (hirano, 2009; kanoksilapatham, 2005, 2007, 2012). specifically, these writers encountered problems in providing evaluative and critical comments in their writings (pojanapunya & todd, 2011). they are also unable to clearly state the research background, purposes and significant of the study due to the lack of critical writing abilities and skills (thongrin, 2000). in addition, it is argued that this difficulty is caused by these efl writers’ cultural barriers in that most thai people adopt the loss-of-face phenomenon and the seniority system which, to some extent, also affect the l2 writing (pupipat, 1998). however, a more recent study on the same issue by arsyad (2013) reported that there is no more significant difference of rhetorical styles found between indonesian and english writers especially in dealing with move use in their introduction section (suryani et al., 2013). arsyad (2013) argued that this tendency of similar use of moves between the indonesian and english academics is due to intensive exposures of article writing that adopts a rhetorical structure that is used in the international journal among indonesian scholars. today, arsyad (2013) said, indonesian academics have gone through various trainings focused on the improvement of their abilities and skills in academic english for international journal publication. a similar trend is also reported in other efl contexts such as in thailand by wannaruk and annuai who found that thai academics tend to perform a similar discourse or rhetorical style as those english academics for almost similar reasons (wannaruk & annuai, 2016). all these studies suggest a trend in terms of similar rhetorical styles in introduction parts especially by indonesian academics as it is applied by their western academic counterparts due to a systematic exposure in dealing with academic writing for international journal publications (arsyad, 2013). the create a research space (cars) model the create a research space (cars) model proposed by swales (1990) is a text analysis model that is predominantly used by many researchers who are concerned with the introduction component of ras analysis (yang, 2016). this cars model by swales is used as an analytical tool to examine the discourse or rhetorical structure of the introduction section of the research articles. in this context, a text is described as a sequence of “moves” that carries with them a specific communication function (jian, 2010). additionally, in order to investigate the rhetorical styles and discourse types employed in any research or academic writing, swales (1990) established a theoretical framework to define the scope and nature of academic discourse. this framework functions as a model that is especially designed to irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 62 examine and to describe academic discourse. mirahayuni (2002) strongly argued that swales’ theory on create a research space (cars) model as illustrated in table 1 is one that is able to provide a clear picture of the textual characteristics of ra introduction. table 1. the cars model by swales (1990) moves steps move-step abbreviation move 1: establishing a territory claiming centrality and/or making topic generalization (s) and/or reviewing items of the previous research 1-1 1-2 1-3 move 2: establishing a niche counter-claiming indicating a gap question-raising continuing a tradition 2-1a 2-2b 2-3c 2-4d move 3: occupying the niche 1a outlining purposes or b announcing present research announcing principal findings indicating ra structure 3-1a 3-1b 3-2 3-3 moreover, chalal (2014) said that the cars model by swales especially the swales’ 1990 version as clearly shown in table 1 employs an ‘ecological metaphor’ (p.2). this term is used to describe the content schema structure (move/step) of research article introductions. according to cars model, a writer begins an introduction section by establishing a territory (move 1). this is then followed by establishing a niche within that territory (move 2) and by occupying that niche (move 3). in addition to move, cars model also suggests that each move consists of at least one component of steps. for example, move 1 can be realized through a centrality claim (move 1step 1) and/or topic generalizations (move 1step 2). additionally, move 1 can also be realized through reviewing items of the literature (move 1step 3). arsyad (2013) contended that the steps within each move are characterized by certain linguistic clues especially cohesive devices such as conjunction (swales, 1990; joghtong, 2001). furthermore, move 2 can be established through the use of step 1 in which the writer indicates a counter-claiming of the existing theory or research finding (move 2step 1) or through the use of step 2 where the writer shows a gap in the literature (move 2step2). finally, this move 2 is sometimes realized through the use of step 3 (question raising) and step 4 (continuing a tradition). like steps within each move, chalal (2014) said that a shift from move 1 to move 2 in an introduction section can be signed linguistically through the use of devices such as adverse sentence connectors (e.g., ‘however’ and ‘nevertheless’) and negative quantifiers (e.g., ‘no’ and ‘little’). finally, lim, (2012) argued that the moves in the introduction part of article journals are not necessarily realized in a linier structure as presented in table 1 above. it is possible that the moves structures presented by the writers are in a cyclical form (chalal, 2014; crookes, 1986). for instance, move 1-step 3 (reviewing items of previous research) followed by move 2 (establishing a niche) are repeatedly provided in the introduction section (swales irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 63 & najjar, 1987). swales & najjar (1987) emphasized that this possibility may occur in a longer introduction section and this cycle form of move structure presentation is very common to be found in the field of applied linguistics as a divergent field (swales, 1990) which has various focuses (yang, 2016). research method research design this study was an exploratory study focusing on the textual analysis of the rhetorical structure of ten preliminary samples of research article introductions (five research article introductions for each) in the area of applied linguistics written by indonesian and english academics. this study adopted a qualitative approach based on a small number of texts and textual units therein (arsyad, 2013). biber et al. (2007) said that discourse analysis in general and move analysis in particular, has typically been a qualitative approach to analyzing discourse, with studies focusing only on few texts. therefore, this study does not make claims as to the size, frequency and representativeness of the data or the generalizability of the findings beyond the scope of the examined articles. rather, the detailed textual analysis of a small number of introductions may serve as a preliminary indication of some trends displayed in rai writing in the area of applied linguistics as observed in the examined texts (bruce, 2014). therefore, future research is needed to validate these findings across purposefully designed corpora containing more sizable and diverse compilations of applied linguistics texts (lim, 2012). table 2. the distribution of ras in the corpus of this study journals code number of ras by indonesian academics number of ras by english academics total indonesian journal of applied linguistics ijal 5 5 10 data analysis the analysis of ten research article introduction sections written by both indonesian and english writers refers to the procedures as suggested by dudley-evans (1994) below: 1) the abstracts and key terms were read in order to get an initial insight of the ra to analyse; 2) the whole selected ra written by both indonesia and english academics were read and divided into two groups; irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 64 3) each ra introductions was read intensively and recursively to examine the texts in relation to the application of cars theory by swales (1990) through the linguistic and the discourse clues available in the texts; 4) the move analysis applied in the texts as suggested by swales (1990) is used to analyse the discourse style in each introduction section of the ten research articles analysed in this study; finally, the identification of moves structure in the introduction sections analyzed in this study was done through the use of particular lexical items, cohesive markers and other kinds of discourse clues including the sub-section titles and paragraphs within the text. in section 4 to follow, results and discussions of this study is presented. results the results of analysis on rhetorical moves as suggested in the create a research space (cars) model proposed by swales (1990) in the article journal introduction section of indonesian and english writers are presented in table 3. table 3. rhetorical moves structure of introduction section by indonesian and english academics no moves indonesian academics english academics 1 m1: establishing a territory 5 (100%) 5 (100%) 2 m2: establishing a niche (citation possible) 5 (100%) 5 (100%) m3: occupying the niche 5 (100%) 5 (100%) table 3 shows that all moves (move 1, 2 and 3) are used in the discourse structure of the ten introduction sections written by both indonesian and english writers analysed in this study. this finding, in general, clearly shows that there is no difference between indonesian and english academics in terms of move used in their introduction sections. this correlates with what arsyad (2013) said that the indonesian academics today are well trained to academic convention especially in dealing with research article writing which adopts a rhetorical structure that is used in the international journal. this could be a reason for this similarity of move realisation in the introduction section to take place by the writers from these two academic backgrounds (wannaruk & annuai, 2016; suryani et al., 2013). however, this study found some differences between indonesian and english academics in the case of step use realisation in every move structure. while the five indonesian writers employ step 2 (making a topic generalisation) and step 1 (making a centrality claim) in move 1, the five english writers tend to use more varied steps i.e., step 1 (making a centrality claim), step 2 (making a topic generalisation) and step 3 (referring to previous studies). in move 2, both indonesian and english writers employ a similar step that is step 2 (indicating a gap) to show the complete absence, limited studies, distinctness of research in the field (yang, 2016; mirahayuni, 2002). finally, in move 3 all indonesian writers used step 1a (outlining the purposes of the study) while english writers used more varied steps i.e., step 3 (reviewing previous research) and step 1b (announcing the present research). each move-steps realisation is further elaborated in the discussion below. irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 65 discussion move 1: establishing a territory of the rais by indonesian and english academics move 1, as shown in table 4, is found in all ten introduction sections (100%) written by both indonesian and english writers analysed in this study. this move 1, swales (1990) argued, is used to introduce the research topic and to show the boundary of the research. in move 1, the writers usually refer to relevant previous studies in order to support their claims. this use of reference also functions to assure that the claim that is made is stronger and is therefore worth investigating (arsyad, 2013). in addition, according to cars (swales, 1990, 2004), rais typically begin with the writer’s efforts of showing the significance of the research under study. this is done, for example, by showing that the topic is interesting and important (claiming the centrality of the topic). additionally, showing the significance of the study is also conducted by making a topic generalisation through relating it to the field’s state of knowledge or other existing previous studies (chahal, 2014). the following are examples of move 1 as found in the ten articles analysed in this study. table 4. examples of move 1 by indonesian academics text example of move 1 1ia curriculum in public schools is always changing along with what occurs in the society (move 1 step 2) 2ia people usually have tendency to air their feeling, plans, intuition and views in communication with other people. in addition to speaking that is usually used to express the tendency, writing also becomes the means to transform the tendency into action (move 1 step 2) 3ia language is one of natural basic abilities granted to human beings (move 1 step 2) 4ia stories have been an essential part of indonesian cultures. it is reflected in the country’s motto “bhineka tunggal ika” (unity in diversity) that was taken from a 14th century old javanese epic poem (move 1 step 1) 5ia english in indonesia is considered as a foreign language, and according to the government’s directive, english is started to be taught as early as possible (move 1 step 2) table 5. examples of move 1 by english academics text example of move 1 1ea the repetitious study of a pre-determined list of items has repeatedly been shown to have great advantages for long-term memory formation within both sla research and other related fields (move 1 step 3) 2 ea an increasing attention has been given to the concept of genre because of the shifting views that language is shaped by context to achieve social purposes (move 1 step 1) 3 ea second language (l2) writing pedagogy has been constantly experiencing paradigm shifts (move 1 step 2) irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 66 4 ea teachers’ knowledge base relies on the input of new research information (move 1 step 2) 5 ea fluency in language use is an integral part of language learner development (move 1 step 2) tables 4 and 5 demonstrate that move 1 in the introductions sections written by both indonesian and english writers is mainly realised through the use of step 1-2, where the writers provide readers with general information about the topic of the research and with statements about challenging phenomena. move 1 is also presented by the writers through highlighting the significance of the study. this is realised by primarily use of lexical items such as “always” (1ia), “essential” (4ia), “usually” (2ia), “considered as” (5ia), and ‘constantly’ (3ea). in addition, the ten rais analysed in this study also employ reviewing of the existing previous studies (step 3) in order to establish the territory of the research (1ea). this is done by showing findings of the previous studies leading to a conclusion that the present study is worth examining to further inform the field or discipline. another characteristic of the ten research article introductions analysed in this study is by showing the relevance of the research topic in answering current problems happening in the field of the study. swales (1990) said that this use of move 1-step 1 as found in 4ia (indonesian academics) and 2ea (english academics) is common especially in a divergent field such as applied linguistics that ‘has an interdisciplinary focus’ (bruce, 2014., p.3). therefore, any claims related to the research topic in this discipline is important to be explicitly presented (chahal, 2014; lim, 2012). move 2: establishing a niche of the rais by indonesian and english academics establishing a niche is one of the important rhetorical moves in the introduction section of the research article. this move is used as an initial attempt to justify the position of the study that is reported (lim, 2012). in relation to the niche establishment, swales (1990) argued that there are four possible ways or steps chosen by any writers in justifying their research projects. these may include, swales added, the use of step 1 (counter claiming), step 2 (indicating a gap), step 3 (question rising) or step 4 (continuing a tradition). the analysis of the ten articles conducted in this study found that the dominant step used by both indonesian and english writers in justifying their research is step 2 (indicating a gap). this is done by, for example, showing the complete absence, limited studies, and distinctness of research in the field under study as can be seen in the examples presented in tables 5 and 6. this study also found that both indonesian and english writers use their knowledge based on their reading and judgment of the previous studies of the similar topic or field to show a gap in the area of the topic under research (lim, 2012). this seems to be done by the writers to show that previous studies on the same issue still have some kinds of limitations. another possibility is that no other research concerned similar topic so that it is important that the research undertaken by the researchers is worth doing (arsyad, 2013). irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 67 table 6. move 2-step 2 by indonesian academics 1 however, no prior research, particularly in the indonesian context, yet observes the possible patterns of corrective feedback in the interactions of efl classrooms which adopt communicative language teaching (clt) approach (text 3ia) 2 however, it seems that there are a few studies investigating this issue in the context of teaching and learning english as a foreign language (text 4ia). the examples in table 6 clearly show that the indonesian writers try to show limitations of the previous studies and directly suggest that the present research is worth doing for the current contribution into the field (wannaruk & annuai, 2016). they also show that the study that is conducted would be valuable to both enrich the existing theory of the field and to improve certain products/models (arsyad, 2013; adnan, 2005). similar to indonesian academics, the english academics also use indicating gap to establish the niche as can be seen in table 7. table 7. move 2-step 2 by english academics 1 few studies have attempted to directly determine where these points may occur; however, most memory studies focus instead on the structure and limits of the working memory and/or the transition to long-term memory storage (text 1ea) 2 very few studies were conducted to examine the dynamics of interview in a broadcast media context (text 2ea) 3 writing emerged as a distinct area of concern and discussion in the field of english as a second language learning and teaching in the post-world war ii era united states, where a growing number of international students were enrolling in higher education institutions (text 5ea) moreover, the results of the analysis indicate that the english writers used step 1 (counter claiming) in establishing the research niche. this is done by showing the limitations of the previous study and by indicating the importance of the present study, as in, ‘however, critics of process approach argued that (1) it views process as the same for all writers regardless of what is being written and who is doing the writing; and (2) it lacks emphasis on the social context and purpose of the piece of writing … … … …’ (3ea). these differences of justifying the research project between indonesian and english writers may indicate a different way of appreciating other people’s work. in indonesian context, for example, critiquing other people especially those who are older tend to be avoided (arsyad, 2013). they, arsyad further said, tend to keep ‘group harmony and collective values and seem to believe that it is more important than winning over other people’s ideas through showing their work weaknesses or faults’ (arsyad, 2013., p. 3). irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 68 move 3: occupying a niche of the rais by indonesian and english academics to fill the gap that is previously raised in move 2, it is common that research article writers offer information about reasons for why the present study is conducted which is labelled as move 3 in the cars model by swales (1990). this move includes a statement of research purpose (step 1a), principal findings of the research (step 2) and/or the structure of the research (step 3). in the ten research article introductions written by both indonesian and english writers, it is found that move 3-step 1a (highlighting the aim of the research) is dominantly used. the realisation of this move 3-step 1 is indicated by the use of lexical items like “to focus on” (1ia), ‘to address’ (3ia), ‘ to contribute’ (5ia), as in, ‘this study attempts to contribute to the knowledge base by examining corrective feedback patterns provided by teachers in the interactions of indonesian university classrooms which adopt clt ….’ (2ia). another example of the use of move 3-step 1a is also found in the introduction section written by the english writers as in, ‘the present study focuses on analyzing the written discourse (i.e. printed mode) of the interviewing style of oprah winfrey, specifically, the phases of oprah’s interviewing procedures, the typology of the questions she used in her interviews, and the transitional strategies she executed….’ (ea2). the dominant use of this move 1-step 1 by both indonesian and english writers as found in this study may indicate the writers’ awareness of the clear goal of the research to make it in line with the research methodology being applied in the study (yang, 2016; mirahayuni, 2002). additionally, this study also found another step used in move 3 by the indonesian writer that is step 3b (announcing the present research) as in, ‘this paper reports on an action research that investigates the role of mentor coaching in helping pre-service teachers of english as a foreign language design lesson plans to prepare themselves in facing their teaching practices and how they respond to the technique’ (5ia). this is used, as arsyad (2013) said, to provide a clear ‘outcome of the research conducted’ (p. 57) by the writer. finally, it is interesting to note that the analysis of the ten articles in this study found an additional step of move 3 which is not mentioned in the move structure as proposed by swales (1990). one out of five research article introductions written by indonesian academics have move 3 that is identified as the implications of the research given mostly at the end of the introduction section as illustrated in the following example. it is expected that the findings of this study will put forward salient points for the development and promotion of la in indonesian contexts, which in turn will be beneficial for the improvement of effective teaching and learning process to promote better learning outcomes (text 1ia). showing the future implications of the present study, one that is not found in the research article introductions written by the english academics, seems to be used by the researchers to show that the research offers real values and practical applications in the real life (adnan, 2005; arsyad, 2013). in other words, they put the emphasis on the results of the study rather than the procedure or the structure of the research (lim, 2014). conclusion, implications, and limitations this study presented the results of analysis of the rhetorical structure as found in the ten introduction sections of research articles written by indonesian and english academics. in general, the results show similarities in terms of move structure in which all moves (1, 2 irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 69 and 3) are identified in the ten articles written by writers from the two different language backgrounds. move 1 is realised mainly through step 1 and 2. this means that the writers provide readers with general information about the topic of the research and with statements about challenging phenomena. other steps used include step 1 (showing the relevance of the topic under study in answering current problems happening) and step 3 (showing findings of the previous studies leading to a conclusion that the present study is worth examining to further inform the field under study). this study also found that move 2 is mostly realised through the use of step 2 (indicating a gap) in the ten articles analysed in this study. this is done by showing the complete absence, limited studies, and distinctness of research in the field conducted by both indonesian and english writers. finally, in move 3 for realisation, a similar trend is shown by both indonesian and english writers in which step 1a (outlining the purposes of the study) is dominantly used. apart from an additional step provided by indonesian writer (showing the implications of the study, step 4) which is not found in cars model by swales (1990), dominant steps used in move 3 by both indonesian and english writers are step 2 (announcing a principal finding) and step 3b (announcing the present research). all these suggest that there are no more significant differences of move-steps realisation by writers of both indonesian and english as also reported by arsyad (2013) and suryani et al., (2013). the findings of the present study may have essential implications especially in the design of the esp program in the area of english language teaching (elt) in indonesia. for example, the results of this study may inform the curriculum design or text book materials of english for academic purposes (eap) programme especially those related to academic writing. in this case, teachers as book writers, for example, may provide detailed explanations regarding moves-steps concept as suggested in the cars model by swales (1990). additionally, this finding is also important for esp development specialised for indonesian scholars who may need to publish their research in the international journal in that this brings them a sense of awareness that swales’ rhetorical structure model has been one that is deserved to follow in order to be accepted in the english journal. however, the findings of this study are based on a small and limited number of research article introductions. in addition, in this study no comparative analysis of the texts by raters was provided. therefore, the results from this small-scale study need further validation through larger numbers of rais especially in the area of applied linguistics corpora before any generalisation 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(2013). research article abstracts in two related disciplines: rhetorical variation between linguistics and applied linguistics. english language teaching, 6(2), 84. biographical note udi samanhudi is an english lecturer at sultan ageng tirtayasa state university and an awardee of indonesian endowment fund for education (lpdp), pk-41 2015. phd candidate on language education (tesol), university of wollongong, australia (commencing in 2016). i have been working as a teacher educator since 2006 in a state university in banten province (indonesia), sultan ageng tirtayasa state university (untirta). in addition, i am also a coordinator for international partnership program in the international office of the same university. i am proficient in academic writing, research on tesol area, public speaking and english/indonesian translation and i am able to work independently, team and really fond of new challenges. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| the mission of the irje |indonesian research journal in education| is to serve as a vital and international forum for a different group of scholars and researchers who are of interest in exchanging ideas in order to enrich the theory, policy, and practice of education in indonesia and around the world and who can grasp a noteworthy voice in discussions and decision-making around issues of education. irje is a free, twice-yearly, open access, peer-reviewed, international, and e-journal, published in indonesia, which accepts unpublished, high quality, and original research manuscripts in english, resulting primarily from quantitative, qualitative, and mixed research methodology related to or associated with education. all research articles appearing in irje have undergone a thoroughly peer-review. editorial team founder & executive editor amirul mukminin, universitas jambi, indonesia lead editor akhmad habibi, universitas jambi, indonesia managing editors muhaimin, universitas jambi, indonesia assistant editors masbirorotni, universitas jambi, indonesia harlina harja, iai nusantara, indonesia international editorial board jeffrey ayala milligan, the florida state university, usa thomas f. luschei, claremont graduate university, usa shen chen, university of newcastle, australia tiago neves, university of porto, portugal https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=ip8-bosaaaaj&hl=en irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| irje | vol.6 | no. 2| year 2022 |issn: 2580-5711 181 saedah siraj, university of malaya, malaysia judit navracsics, university of pannonia, hungary pedro sanchez escobedo, universidad autónoma de yucatán, mexico muhammad kamarul kabilan, university of science, malaysia farrah dina binti yusof, university of malaya, malaysia peer review board dina belluigi, queen's university belfast, north ireland, uk florante p. ibarra, central luzon state university, the philippines irina golubeva, university of miskolc, hungary jennifer elsden-clifton, griffith university, australia katy campbell, university of alberta extension, canada lourdes villardon, university of deusto, spain mohd faiz mohd yaakob, universiti utara malaysia, malaysia mohd rashid bin mohd saad, university of malaya, malaysia rafiza binti abdul razak, university of malaya, malaysia siti hajar binti halili, university of malaya, malaysia yunisrina qismullah yusuf, syiah kuala university, indonesia riyan hidayat, university of malaya, malaysia dian erlina, state islamic university of raden fatah, indonesia https://umexpert.um.edu.my/saedah https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=k5skd70aaaaj&hl=en http://nsuworks.nova.edu/tqr/vol22/iss4/7/ http://angol.uni-miskolc.hu/index.php/oktatok/irina-golubeva/ https://experts.griffith.edu.au/academic/jennifer.elsden-clifton https://www.ualberta.ca/extension/information/people/faculty-members/katy-campbell https://www.ualberta.ca/extension/information/people/faculty-members/katy-campbell https://www.deusto.es/cs/satellite/deustoresearch/en/home/centres-teams-and-researchers/researchers/467/investigador https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=ohvkfocaaaaj&hl=en https://umexpert.um.edu.my/msaadmr https://umexpert.um.edu.my/rafiza https://umexpert.um.edu.my/siti_hajar.html https://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=8zqjgyuaaaaj&hl=en https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorid=57204575608 https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=txczia8aaaaj&hl=en irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| irje | vol.6 | no. 2| year 2022 |issn: 2580-5711 182 lenny marzulina, state islamic university of raden fatah, indonesia siti rahma sari, iai nusantara, jambi, indonesia focus and scope irje |the indonesian research journal in education| accepts unpublished, high quality, and original research manuscripts in english, resulting primarily from quantitative, qualitative, or mixed research methodology related to or associated with education. these issues include, but not limited to, practices, policies, and research in education from early childhood education to higher education which cover the areas of instruction, learning, teaching, curriculum development, educational policy, language education and policy, bilingual education, multicultural education, art education, teacher education, educational technology, educational developments, educational psychology, and international education in indonesia and other parts of the world. publication frequency irje is published 2 times per year (june and december) by universitas jambi publisher irje|indonesian research journal in education| universitas jambi, jl. raden mattaher no.16, jambi, indonesia 36113 issn 2580-5711-e-mail: irje@unja.ac.id https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorid=57200338539 https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorid=57200338539 https://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=loz3nzkaaaaj&hl=en&citsig=amsthgq9kwnqe2vdher5bypelarkaiwj9q https://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=loz3nzkaaaaj&hl=en&citsig=amsthgq9kwnqe2vdher5bypelarkaiwj9q mailto:irje@unja.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| irje | vol.6 | no. 2| year 2022 |issn: 2580-5711 183 content 180 editorial 188 the development of pq4r-tps learning strategies for empowering students' scientific attitudes and hots henny setiawati 206 the relationships among lecturers’ performance, knowledge management, budget planning models and innovation: evidence from three universities in jambi fitriaty fitriaty, dessy elliyana, tona aurora lubis 222 the ryff’s psychological well-being scale for indonesian higher education students: a rasch model analysis diana septi purnama, muh farozin, budi astuti 232 the effectiveness of the problem-based learning model to improve the students’ 21st century skills febri yanto, enjoni enjoni 243 measuring indonesian efl learners’ beliefs about english language learning: a stochastic modeling approach dairabi kamil 261 re-conceptualizing the construction of political education for women's party cadres based on gender competences and needs irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| irje | vol.6 | no. 2| year 2022 |issn: 2580-5711 184 al rafni, suryanef suryanef, cici nur azizah 274 the effect of the art-themed activities on mathematics achievement and student views berna yildizhan, ozlem cezikturk 292 a bibliometric analysis of moodle e-learning: evidence from 2011 to 2021 hijril ismail 305 teacher talk and learners’ learning styles in learning english over the pandemic era: a psycholinguistic study nasmilah nasmilah 138 looking at the self-innovation and learning models for the internship program students during the covid-19 pandemic: a qualitative study sofyan sofyan, robin pratama 323 the efl students’ perceptions on the plagiarism in writing thesis proposals: a case study lenny marzulina, rizqy dwi amrina, dian erlina, muhamad holandyah, raudhatul jannah, herizal herizal, kasinyo harto 341 the musyawarah guru mata pelajaran forum and its roles in improving the professionalism of high school english teachers ambo dalle, darmawati darmawati irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| irje | vol.6 | no. 2| year 2022 |issn: 2580-5711 185 352 the interactive bahasa indonesia learning module innovation for the basic education level in the global computation era wirnita wirnita, nirwansyah nirwansyah 362 the impacts of the fraud diamond dimension, religiosity, and misuse of information technology on student academic dishonesty netty herawaty, masbirorotni masbirorotni 376 beyond the immigration services: the role of the international center in promoting intercultural programs for international student success marzul hidayat 394 a case study of parental involvement in fostering their child’s english-speaking skills bunga ayu wulandari, reny heryanti, rizki dwiki reza usman, ahmad ridha, fortunasari 409 merdeka belajar kampus merdeka and the development of english for a specific purpose book diana oktavia, nur habibah 418 building the entrepreneurial spirit of students: the case of an islamic boarding school ali idrus, sukandar hadi 431 the actualization of character values in sumbang duo baleh by teacher training and education students syofiani, hasnul fikri, romi isnanda, yetty irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| irje | vol.6 | no. 2| year 2022 |issn: 2580-5711 186 morelent 445 improving the ability of higher order thinking skills through information technology media in civic education learning pebriyenni, m. nursi, muslim 455 the skills of high school mathematic teachers in utilizing the merdeka belajar plafform i wayan sumandya, i wayan widana, i nyoman bagus suweta nugraha 465 children's story textbook and character education for the elementary students nazurty nazurty, eddy haryanto, puti masurai 479 the implementation of learning policies in the new normal era in garut regency rostiena pasciana, friska prastya harlis , ieke sartika iriany, sri farida 494 in search of quality education: the e-learning implementation as the impacts of the covid-19 pandemic ikeu kania, dini turipanam alamanda, mila karmila, mutiana budiman 515 the gender portrayal in english textbooks for junior high school students in indonesia: is it equal? dian erlina, fikri yansyah, lenny marzulina, muhamad holandyah, herizal herizal, kasinyo harto irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| irje | vol.6 | no. 2| year 2022 |issn: 2580-5711 187 we are proud to announce that irje (indonesian research journal in education) is currently indexed by: (a) the indonesian minister of research, technology and higher education, number b/3351/e5/e5.2.1/2019 on october 11, 2019. sinta 2 (science and technology index), delivers access to citations and expertise in indonesia, web-based research information system offering fast access, easy and comprehensive to measure the performance of researchers, institutions and journals in indonesia. sinta provides benchmarks and analysis, identification of research strength of each institution to develop collaborative partnerships, to analyze the trend of research and expert directories. (b). doaj on 2 may 2018. doaj's mission is to increase the visibility, accessibility, reputation, usage and impact of quality, peer-reviewed, open access scholarly research journals globally, regardless of discipline, geography or language. doaj will work with editors, publishers and journal owners to help them understand the value of best practice publishing and standards and to apply those to their own operations. doaj is committed to being 100% independent and maintaining its primary services and metadata as free to use or reuse for everyone. (c) erih plus on 2020-01-27. erih plus (originally called the european reference index for the humanities or erih) is an index holding bibliographic information on academic journals in the social sciences and humanities (hss). the aim of the index is to increase visibility, searchability and availability of the hss. erih plus is an online service, and it grants updated data on european journals. the main target group of the index is researchers and research within a european framework. to the extent which the index holds journals from other parts of the world, it is because they are assumed to add value to the erih plus main target group and scope. https://sinta.kemdikbud.go.id/journals/profile/4647 https://doaj.org/toc/2580-5711 https://kanalregister.hkdir.no/publiseringskanaler/erihplus/periodical/info.action?id=498012 this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 305 teacher talk and learners’ learning styles in learning english over the pandemic era: a psycholinguistic study nasmilah* abstract teacher talk (tt) in the classroom is a crucial topic in the research, as evidenced by the fact mentioned earlier. poor teacher talk might result from a lack of instructor attention. this research observed how teacher talk and student learning style interplayed in the learning english process at sman 6 and smks harapan bangsa watang pulu in sidrap, south sulawesi province, indonesia, during the post-covid 19. this research used a mixed method. the data were from observation and questionnaire surveys of 5 classes in sman 6 and smks harapan bangsa watang pulu in sidrap. the result of the psycholinguistic analysis categorized the learning style of the observed learners as high interpretation as a dominant style. the results also showed a significant interplay level between tt and learning style and auditory learning is the most dominant. the researcher found that from the six types of learning styles, visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and tactile in the learning process in the post-pandemic era, individual and group learning styles were never conducted in the class activities during the teaching-learning process post-pandemic. the research implication is teacher talk is an indispensable part of foreign language teaching in organizing activities, and the way the teacher talk (tt) not only determines how well they transfer the lessons. at the same time, it also has a good understanding of the learners’ learning styles. keywords fiac, learning style, psycholinguistic study, teacher talk article history received 30 october 2022 accepted 15 december 2022 how to cite nasmilah, n. (2022). teacher talk and learners’ learning styles in learning english over the pandemic era: a psycholinguistic study indonesian research journal in education |irje|, 6(2), 305– 322.https://doi.org/10.22437 /irje.v6i2.20608 * faculty member, universitas hasanuddin, indonesia; imla63@yahoo.com.au mailto:imla63@yahoo.com.au irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 306 introduction giving directions, assisting someone in their study of a subject, supplying them with knowledge, and causing them to know or understand are all examples of teaching (brown, 2000). giving and making an effort to ensure learners grasp the material they have studied are all parts of teaching. it means directing, facilitating, learning, allowing learners to learn, and creating favorable learning environments (hanafiah et al., 2022). based on these definitions, the teacher facilitates the learning process by giving learners the knowledge they need, and guiding, inspiring, and counseling them to understand the lesson. teachers must have a sufficient understanding of the features of learners to achieve performance efficiently and optimally. they must also implement what they know in incorrect specific actions (gusnawaty et al., 2017). to teach the qualities of learners both theoretically and practically, teachers must be highly motivated (dirman & juarsih, 2014). it turns out that the learner’s failures to digest knowledge from their professors are because of the delivery of less satisfying material, and many learners suffer perplexity when receiving lessons since they cannot digest the material offered by the teacher so that learners can receive the information that the teacher is presenting (yassi, 2006). teacher talk is employed in school when an educator conducts instruction, cultivating their intellectual and managing classroom activity. poor interaction between teacher and learner may be a common failure in learning english. classroom interaction is concentrated totally on whole-class interactions between the teacher and learners (kumpulainen & wray, 2003). teacher talk can foster the learners’ spirit or learning style towards a subject. the ideals of encouragement cause learning styles in learners to obtain the expected results. learning style is very paramount in the learning process. learning based on learners’ interests and learning styles will increase learners’ understanding of the selected material or information and create a conducive and enjoyable for teachers and learners. learning styles are the fastest and best way for individuals to receive, assimilate, organize, and process the information they receive. generally, learning styles are divided into three groups, namely visual learning styles, auditory learning styles, and kinesthetic learning styles. learning styles play a paramount role in education, especially in the teaching and learning process (porter & hernacki, 2013). saeed et al. (2009) revealed that learners' learning styles that match the way they carry out learning activities have a positive impact, such as improving their learning achievement. he also said that the role of the teacher in the student learning process affects student success (uno, 2006). a good deal of learners’ failures in receiving information is due to the teacher's teaching style incompatibility with the student's learning style (chatib, 2010). this fact is under nasution (2013) that each teaching method depends on the way or style of the student study, the individual, and the abilities. therefore, teachers in teaching should pay attention to learners’ learning styles. by recognizing learners’ learning styles, teachers can design learning activities with various appropriate models, strategies, and methods. these learning activities will create a conducive and fun learning atmosphere and under the needs and abilities of learners. of course, it also makes learners easier to absorb information, thereby improving their interest and academic performance (nasution, 2013). irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 307 concerning the issue of teaching and learning, indonesia has gone through a great change in its educational platform during the covid-19 pandemic. different study activities have shifted from face-to-face learning to online learning since early march 2020. this sudden change has altered the educational system to a more sophisticated platform and media for classroom instruction. the unreadiness of most educational practitioners to deal with this new teaching model has resulted in a decrease in the quality of education in indonesia compared to other countries during the covid-19 pandemic. therefore, the government then began to develop strategies to allow the limited face-to-face learning implementation which started in july 2021 with the provision that all education personnel has been vaccinated and learning is carried out by limiting meeting hours and the implementation of strict health protocols. in this new subset, learners are divided into study groups or scheduled by a shift to limit the number of learners in one room (pattanang et al., 2021). limited face-to-face learning needs to pay attention to several things that schools can do among others, for example, 1) vaccinate all educators and education staff in schools, 2) maximize the immunity of learners, educators, and education staff, and 3) prepare facilities and infrastructure under health protocols. before the limited face-to-face learning implementation, the ministry of education and culture had socialized and published a learning guidebook during the pandemic. the role of the learning team includes 1) dividing study groups and arranging lesson schedules for each group, 2) deciding on the layout of the room, 3) providing and dividing boundaries and direction markers of corridors and stairways, 4) implementing bullying prevention mechanisms for education unit residents who stigmatized by covid-19, and 5) preparing all equipment for implementing health protocols. in addition to health protocol restrictions and poor internet access was one of the challenges faced by learners and teachers at sman 6 and smks harapan bangsa watang pulu in sidrap during the pandemic, so they are hard to utilize zoom media or google sessions as study spaces. it makes learning not optimal and causes learners’ learning styles to decrease. this limited face-to-face system is expected to be able to overcome learning problems during the pandemic, but the new challenge for teachers in this period is that teachers must make good use of time. few opportunities for learners to ask questions, and more learners are in study groups, each meeting twice a week for an hour. hence, english teachers become more involved in distributing materials. study sessions were split into two sessions, each lasting an hour, each week. it is believed to boost learners’ learning abilities, particularly in learning style. thus, the role of english teachers in material distribution increases. it should improve learners’ capacity for learning, especially in terms of their learning styles. based on the facts above, teacher talk in the classroom becomes an urgent issue to research. the lack of teacher attention in improving the teacher talk quality can be a solemn problem if ignored. similarly, learners’ learning style needs to be known by the teacher to avoid things that can make communication or interaction of learning less comfortable. additionally, it is paramount for teachers to recognize the learners’ learning styles and how to teach according to their learning styles. in line with the background above, the researcher is interested in analyzing the interplay between teacher talks and learners’ learning styles to learn english. it aims to provide a reference for other researchers, other language teachers, and practitioners. the first purpose of this research is to analyze how learners learn irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 308 english in a limited face-to-face classroom during the endemic era. second, this research evaluates the interplay of teacher talk and the learners’ learning style when learning is taking place during this endemic era. literature review teacher talk talk is one of the many ways that teachers use to deliver their materials in the classroom. it is the foremost media they can apply to manage the learners’ behavior. teachers should pay attention to their talk since they must talk extensively to convey their message. during a class where learners are studying a second or foreign language, a teacher may speak to the learners is known as tt. language is used as a teaching tool and a learning objective in english classes. therefore, the appropriate use of instructor speak will impact language learners' output, either positively or negatively. tt has been given definitions from different perspectives by some experts. longman dictionary of language teaching and applied linguistics defines tt as a variety of languages sometimes used by teachers when they are in the process of teaching. therefore, in the framework of classroom talk (richards & schmidt 2013), johnson (1994) stated that there is a tendency for teachers to control the pattern of communication. this control comes from their special status and from the way they use the language (johnson, 1994). it means they commonly decide how, when, where, and with whom language is to be used in the classroom. for example, the teachers can control their speech in the classroom through the way they allocate speaking turns to learners by specifying who is to take it or by throwing it open to the whole class. teacher talk is the language a teacher uses to allow the various classroom processes to happen, which is the language of organizing the classroom. it includes the teacher’s explanations, responses to questions, instructions, praises, corrections, etc. ellis and ellis (1994) formulated that tt is a particular language that teachers use when addressing l2 learners in the classroom. ellis and ellis (1994) also stated that tt means that teachers address classroom language learners differently from the way they address other kinds of classroom learners. teacher talk is essential for both classroom teaching organization and learners’ language learning in the foreign language learning and the second language acquisition process. it is because teacher talk is an instrument for implementing a teaching plan (ellis & ellis, 1994). teacher talk is also a kind of modification in teachers’ speech that can lead to a particular type of discourse (richards & lockhart, 1994). they explain that when teachers use teacher talk, they try to make themselves as easy as possible to understand, and effective teacher talk may provide essential support to facilitate both language comprehension and learner production. sinclair and brazil (1982) postulated that teacher talk is the language in the classroom that takes up a dominant portion of class time employed to give direction, explain activities, and check learners’ understanding. as an indispensable part of foreign language teaching, teacher talk has features in that both the content and the medium are the target language. sometimes teacher talk can be called teachers’ language, teachers’ speech, or teachers’ utterances. despite these different shapes, they share the same characteristic where they are all the words spoken by the teacher in class. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 309 from the definitions above, first, tt in an english classroom is one special variety of the english language, so it has specific features that others do not share. because of the restrictions of the physical setting, for definite participants and for achieving the goal of teaching, teacher talk has its style. secondly, teacher talk is a special communicative activity. it aims to communicate with learners and develop learners’ foreign language proficiency. teacher talk is used in class when teachers conduct instruction, cultivate their intellectual ability, and manage classroom activities (cullen, 1998). teachers adopt the target language to promote their communication with learners. in this way, learners practice the language by responding to what their teachers say. third, teachers use language to encourage communication between learners and themselves. therefore, tt is a communication-based or interaction-based talk. some previous researchers researched the interplay of teacher talk to the learning style of english language learners of senior secondary school, named a psycholinguistic study. in this part, the researcher reviews some related research in the same field concerning tt. it can be studied in various contexts across the age range, from primary school to higher education, and many research titles related to teacher talk variables. still, there has not been analytical research on the interplay of teacher talk and learning style. teacher discussions are divided into two categories, including functional distribution and questions. teacher speaking needs to be articulated and examined in terms of pedagogical roles and how they are distributed in the classroom. the researcher's choice of instrument or theoretical framework affects how the functions are specified. it is clear from the description and analysis of their distributions whether a teacher is speaking to a particular student or a class of learners. the student must participate in class. fewer learners will have the chance to participate if the teacher spends more time providing explanations and management instructions. depending on the researcher's theoretical presumptions on language learning, one function of teacher speaking may be considered superior to another. the type of tt refers to flanders' interaction analysis categories (fiac). flanders (1970) and the instructor discussion were classified into seven groups. the first four are concerned with how the teacher interacts with the learners, including accepting their feelings and elucidating their attitudes, praising, or encouraging their actions or behaviors, clarifying, building, or developing their ideas and using those ideas to solve problems, and asking questions. through their encouragement of learner behavioral patterns, these four categories increase learners’ participation and subtly communicate the teacher's authority. less domineering behaviors are assumed by the teacher, and more student talk is heard. these actions are occasionally referred to as indirect influence. the teacher uses the other three categories to exercise direct control. these include lecturing, providing instructions, and establishing or defending authority. to enforce conformity or address inappropriate behavior, the instructor is directive. he needs to speak up more and assume a leadership position in the class activity if the teachers are to accomplish this. these actions refer to direct influence. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 310 learning style the idea of multiple intelligences was put forward based on which learners can possess a wide range of intellectual skills. the eight forms of intelligence (visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical-rhythmic, inter-personal, intra-personal, verbal-linguistic, naturalistic, and logical-mathematical) can all exist in everyone at variable levels of capacity. the student in this situation prefers to learn using a combination of some or all those intelligence (gardner & lambert, 1972). learning styles function as comparatively reliable markers of how learners view, engage with, and react to the classroom environment. there are numerous ways to accomplish the learning process (brown, 2000). since each learning style potentially boosts a learner's success rate when appropriate for their personal needs, it is crucial to recognize them when the learning process is underway. there are a variety of justifications for learning style (ls). reid (1995) defined learning style as a person's common and preferred method of acquiring, managing, and trusting new information. when it comes to language learning, learning styles can be thought of as the standard techniques like visual or auditory that is suitable for learning a language or other disciplines. learning style is a vocabulary that describes the differences among learners’ use of one or more sanities to absorb, regulate, and preserve understanding. reid (1987) stated that learning processes and performance practices are affected by learners' learning styles (gordon, 1998). according to dunn et al. (1998), a learner's learning style is the approach, preferences, and behavior they take when they study. furthermore, the learners claim that there may have been significant or minor changes made to the learning schedule. for instance, a visual learner prefers to learn by looking at the written name. in contrast, auditory preferences are developed when learners learn through listening. there are numerous ways for learners to acquire and absorb information. learners’ learning styles may be subjective to their earlier learning involvements, inherent make-up, and culture. some are more satisfied with data and facts, while others favor exact models and concepts. the other is visual and in favor of learning by charts, while others are keen on learning by oral details and are called auditory learners (felder & henriques, 1995). furthermore, some others also are interested in learning in a group, while others prefer to learn independently. reid (1987) suggested the term learning preferences when creating a framework specifically for adult esl learners, and these preferences were included in the widely used learning style model created by dunn et al. (1989). the model's dominant focus is on providing an instrument for identifying the circumstances in which a person is most likely to learn, remember, and succeed (dunn et al., 1989). however, in developing her paradigm, the emphasis is placed on learners' preferences for "perceptual" and "sociological" learning styles. the perceptual measurement examines a learner's preference for one of the three learning styles, such as kinesthetic, psychomotor, visual-spatial, and auditory or verbal in the process of learning. reid (1995) defined learning styles as a person’s regular, typical, and favored way(s) of captivating, handling, and recalling fresh material and abilities. she also presented that all learners possess individual characteristics concerning their learning progress. for instance, some may react to hands-on actions, and prefer visual performances. of course, individuals learn contrarily, and these irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 311 variances in learning thrive in esl/efl situations. reid (1987) revealed six learning styles the perceptual learning style preference. a. visual learning style refers to learning by seeing (learning by reading and studying charts, graphics, and diagrams). b. auditory learning style refers to learning through listening (learning by listening to audio, tapes, and people). c. tactile learners like to learn over practical involvements (hands-on, learning, such as doing lab experiments, building models vocabulary puzzles activities). d. kinesthetic learners favor learning by physical action and movement (learning by physical participation). e. individual learners favor learning individually. f. group learners prefer to work and study collectively. reid (1987) stated perceptual learning style preference questionnaire used in this research was the pioneer for observing the perceptual learning style preferences of esl/efl learners at the university level. the questionnaire established how learners’ study best by using their sensitivities, such as visual, auditory, and kinesthetic preferences, and two social features of learning, consisting of group and individual preferences. methodology research design this research used a mixed-methods design. it is more than simply collecting and analyzing quantitative and qualitative data. the research design in this study used a mix of methods with commensurate status. qualitative research was used to find out learners’ learning style in ptmt english classrooms in the post-epidemic era and the effect of tt and learning style in the classroom, and the use of quantitative methods to find out the interplay of tt and learning style. participants this research was conducted in secondary education classrooms in sidrap, specifically on english subjects, including english learners. the researcher used a purposive sampling technique in choosing research samples. one hundred-sixty learners are taken as samples. they taught english at sman 6 and smk harapan bangsa watang pulu in sidrap. the researcher chose those schools as part of this research setting because the researcher had conducted a preliminary investigation in those schools, easing further research. data collection method data were from the questionnaire and observation. the respondents were requested for their willing to contribute to this research before collecting the data, and they approved to involve in this research. learners could be acknowledged how they learn effectively and irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 312 their preferences in learning by using flanders’ interaction analysis categories (fiac) and hartinah (2011). data analysis the learners read the statements in the questionnaire and decided their opinions based on the choices provided. after that, the researcher collected the data from the close-ended questionnaire and counted the simple statistics to determine the mean percentage. following are the various stages of quantifiable data analysis techniques. in analysing the data, the researcher used spss (statistical package for the social sciences) 23.0 version of computing the descriptive data to analyse the data obtained from the questionnaire. data analysis of observation is the process of analysing data using reduction, reduction, and conclusion. ethical consideration formal correspondence was required to obtain research ethics or permission from schools and respondents. this letter aims to ensure that respondents prepared themselves and that there is no coercion in activating research data. it was sent to the target school requesting permission to research the schools and teachers’ permission. at the same time, data related to the learner's motivation, learning style, and attitude is given directly before giving treatment. the mixed-methods design utilized in this research goes beyond gathering and evaluating both data. both qualitative and quantitative data are used concurrently to strengthen each other (creswell, 2007). the qualitative paradigm is applied to analyze the categories of learning styles and the quantitative data gathered through questionnaires are used to measure the relationship between the teacher talk and the learners’ learning style of the learners. the questionnaire carries five scales as alternative answers, consisting of strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree, and strongly disagree. all data obtained from the questionnaire are tested for validity, reliability, and regression. 160 participants in this research were learners at sman 6 and smks harapan bangsa watang pulu in sidrap selected using random sampling techniques. the data were collected through video, observation, and questionnaire surveys. qualitative data from written tests and interviews were analyzed in the process of compiling data followed by a set of procedures (miles & huberman, 1994), like activities that refer to the selection process, the concentration of attention, simplification, abstraction, and transformation of the raw data. it includes data classification and identification, such as organizing and categorizing the data sets so they can get a conclusion. in addition, it used spss 23.0 software to analyze the data (bandur, 2016). findings the learners’ learning style in english based on direct observation of the field, the researcher found many problems with learning styles. there are still learners who are slow in the learning process, such as being irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 313 less able to remember and understand the material presented by the teacher. it is because learners have not studied according to their learning style. teachers also do not understand learning styles. every student has different learning styles, so teachers are required to teach according to the characteristics of the learners. to make the learners easier to absorb the lessons delivered by teachers supporting facilities and infrastructure in schools are inadequate. in addition, the researcher also found that learning styles during the post-pandemic did not vary much because the knowledge sources were centered on the teacher and limited learning time. based on the observations, the conclusion is some learners learn best in bright light, while others learn best in dim light. some learners learn best in small groups, while others choose authoritarian figures such as parents or teachers, and others feel that working alone is most effective for them. some people need music to accompany their studies, while others can only concentrate in a quiet room. some learners need an orderly and tidy work environment, but others prefer to roll out everything. when learners need to concentrate well, they can do it well, and it is necessary to have an environment that supports student learning. environmental factors that affect learners' learning concentration include (1) voice. each student responds differently to sound. some prefer to learn by listening to soft, loud music or watching tv. some like to study in a quiet atmosphere, and some like to study in a deep crowded atmosphere, (2) temperature. every student has different tastes. some people like calm places, and some people like warm places; (3) learning design. there are two types of learning design; they are formal learning design and informal learning design. traditional designs, such as studying at a desk, are complete with tools, while informal designs are casual study, sitting on the floor, on a sofa, or lying down. the interplay of teacher talk and learners’ learning style in english this section consists of the analysis result of respondents’ learning style preferences. the analysis was conducted by identifying the mean and the standard deviation score of every learning style used by the respondents. in identifying the respondents’ learning style preferences, the data were enumerated from the perceptual learning style preference questionnaire (plspq) adapted from reid (1987). the questionnaire scored the learners’ preferences according to the way they learn best using their preferred senses consisting of visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and tactile preferences. the learners’ learning style preferences were enumerated from the questionnaire consisting of 16 statements that suit the categories. four learning style preferences were represented in the 16 items questionnaire administered to the learners. each learning style has five statements to indicate which style is mostly used by the respondents. to make a clear description, the analysis of the questionnaire result is presented. the number of successful respondents was 160 respondents. one can classify the trend of learning style preferences of successful respondents. quantitative analysis was employed in this research to figure out the learning style preferences of non-english department learners to report the research questions. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 314 figure 1. learners’ learning style preferences table 1. learners’ learning style preferences learning styles mean standard deviation auditory 17.49 4.37 visual 17.42 4.35 tactile 17.23 4.30 kinesthetic 17.18 4.29 based on the report above, the most preferred respondents’ learning style was auditory. it can be seen from the means and the category. from 160 respondents, the highest mean was auditory (m=17.49, sd=1.812). this style is categorized as a minor style and for successful respondents. this style is the only foremost learning style preference. the other styles are in minor preference, visual (m=17.42), tactile (m=17.23), and kinesthetic (m=17.18). for respondents, no style is in negative learning style preference. the descriptive analysis result is in the figure above. the classical assumption test is done before hypothesis testing because it is a prerequisite for regression analysis to be considered trusted or valid. in this process, the whole sample will first be tested before testing the classical assumption for each variable. the sample used in this research has met the classical assumption test consisting of one independent variable and one dependent variable, namely learning style. therefore, the researcher tested the interplay and correlation of independent variables with the three dependent variables by using simple linear regression. the histogram and plot may be seen in the above graph output of the normality test of teacher talk and learning style, which shows a distribution pattern that deviates to the right, indicating that the data is normally distributed. 4.28 4.29 4.3 4.31 4.32 4.33 4.34 4.35 4.36 4.37 4.38 17.15 17.2 17.25 17.3 17.35 17.4 17.45 17.5 17.55 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 315 figure 2. normality test the linearity of the teacher talk to learning style is shown in the above graph. the data plot points appear to create a straight-line pattern from the bottom left to the higher right, as in the output of the scatter plot chart above. it demonstrates that the teacher-speaking variables x and y have a linear and favorable relationship. it means that if the teacher speaks about the experience, an increase in learning styles also appeared. figure 3. linearity test irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 316 validity the validity of the questionnaire results was tested using spss for the windows application. a statement item significantly related to the total score indicates that the item is valid. in this research, from 160 respondents, the r-table is 0.1552. the value computed by the r-score must be larger than the table to be said as valid. the variable of teacher talk consists of 10 statements, and after testing for validity, the results obtained from consecutive items 1 to 10 are 0.476, 0.478, 0.526, 0.484, 0.315, 0.386, 0.601, 0.601, 0.709, 0.683 and 0.722. the variable of learning style consists of 16 statements, and after testing for validity, the results obtained from consecutive items 1 to 16 are 0.431, 0.358, 0.429, 0.451, 0.424, 0.413, 0.390, 0.439, 0.509, 0.822, 0.811, 0.726, 0.732, 0.712, 0.755 and 0.814. from the validity test result in the table above, 26 questionnaires containing these two variables were filled out by 95 respondents in this research. one way to find out which statement is valid, and which is not. additionally, we must find out the table first. the formula for the r-table is df = n-2 so 160-2 = 158, so the r-values from ten items are higher than 0.1552 for the r-table. the items showed that the r-table had an r-value of more than 0.1152. reliability before the reliability testing, there must be a basis for the study's use of questionnaires to measure the interaction between variable x and variable y in the investigations. the reliability test for the factors is in teacher speaking and student learning style. these two variables have a total score of 2 points and statements worth 26 points each. the statements after being tested get the following results: figure 4. reliability cronbach's alpha n of items .733 10 .745 16 after analyzing the reliability test, cronbach’s alpha in variable teacher talk is 0.733, and the learning style is 0.745. all variables have cronbach’s alpha of > 0.70. thus, all the variables are reliable. regression test simple linear regression analysis is a linear relationship between one independent variable (x) and one dependent variable (y). the function of this analysis is to know the interplay or correlation between teacher talk learning style variables. the first table generated in a linear regression test in spss is model summary. it provides detail about the characteristics of the model. the model summary table looks like below. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 317 table 2. coefficient of teacher talk to learning style model summary b model r r square adjusted r square std. error of the estimate 1 .278 a .077 .072 4.064 a. predictors: (constant), teacher_talk b. dependent variable: learning_sytle the correlation between the dependent and independent variables is represented by the r-value. for further examination, the number that is taken is more than 0.3. the value in this instance is .278, which is favorable. r-square displays the overall variation for the dependent variable that the independent factors may account for. the number which is higher than 0.7 indicates that the model can identify the relationship. the value in this instance is.077, which is favorable. in multiple regressions, the adjusted r-square demonstrates the generalization of the results or the variation of the sample results from the population. a minimum difference between r-square and the adjusted r-square must exist. in this instance, the value is.077, which is close to.278, making it acceptable. table 3. significance of teacher talk to learning style anova a model sum of squares df mean square f sig. 1 regression 219.143 1 219.143 13.268 .000 b residual 2609.701 158 16.517 total 2828.844 159 a. dependent variable: learning sytle predictors: (constant), teacher talk the following table's components are paramount for understanding the findings of the p-value/sig value. first, in most cases, the research significance level is set at 5% or the 95 percent confidence interval. consequently, the p-value must be lower than 0.05. it is .000 in the table above. it shows that the outcome is crucial, f-ratio. second, after considering the model's inherent inaccuracy, it represents an improvement in the variable predicted. a value for the f-ratio yield efficient model is higher than 1. the value in the table above is 13.268, which is favorable. these findings suggest that the null hypothesis may be rejected further because the p-value of the anova table is below the acceptable significance level. the relationship's strength, or how important a variable is to the model and how much it affects the dependent variable, is shown in the table below. the hypothesis testing for the research is aided by this analysis. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 318 table 4. coefficient regression of teacher talk to learning style coefficients a model unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t sig. b std. error beta 1 (constant) 27.835 2.800 9.940 .000 teacher_talk .260 .071 .278 3.642 .000 a. dependent variable: learning sytle the sig. value is the only value that matters in the interpretation process. the value should be less than the research’s acceptable significance level, which for this research is less than 0.05 for the 95 percent confidence interval. the null hypothesis validity is determined by the significant value. the null hypothesis is rejected if sig. 0.05. the null hypothesis is not rejected if sig. > 0.05. rejecting the null hypothesis indicates that there is an impact. however, if a null hypothesis is not disproved, it means that no effect exists. the interpretation in this situation will be that the null hypothesis is rejected (0.00 > 0.05). little to no change in the way teachers discuss learning styles. it is due to the sig. value is higher at 0.05. discussion the learning styles of the earners are different from each other. the fact that learning styles are different is not a shortcoming but rather a feature that enriches the learning environment. if the learner feels ready for self-learning, this is the learning style for the learner. in other words, how the learner wants to learn is the best learning style for this learner. when the learning environment is oriented towards natural tendencies such as studying, exploring, and touching the learner, then the learner is willing to participate in the lesson and tt. in addition, the matching between learning styles and learning activities in the learning environment positively affects academic success. identifying the learners’ learning styles and designing the activities will also make learning easier for learners with learning disabilities. teachers need to reveal the learners’ learning styles and shape the learning process. based on the observations, the conclusion is that some learners learn best in bright light, while others learn best in dim light. some learners learn best in small groups, while others choose authoritarian figures such as parents or teachers, and others feel that working alone is most effective for them. some people need music as an accompaniment to their studies, while others can only concentrate in a quiet room. some learners need an orderly and tidy work environment, but others prefer to roll out everything so that it can be seen when learners need to concentrate well. for the learners to concentrate well, it is necessary to have an environment that supports their learning. environmental factors that affect learners' learning concentration include voice, temperature, and learning design. in this context, the fact that teachers reveal the learners' learning styles can be evaluated positively. although the learners’ prior knowledge is not under scientific facts, this irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 319 preliminary information is paramount and should be taken into consideration. the readiness level can vary so much as the individual differences of the learners vary. teacher classes should study the individual differences of the learners and discover the learners’ readiness levels and develop and apply the teaching methods and techniques. based on the four interviewed teachers through observation, only two mentioned the importance of the learners’ readiness level. however, one of the crucial tasks of the teacher is to determine the learners’ readiness level and determine their needs. it will be very hard to realize learning in a learning environment where learners will not be present and need to be prepared. instructional activities must conform to the level of development in which the learner is involved. the physical and spiritual development of each learner is different. given that there are learners with very different individual differences in the learning environment, it is very difficult for teachers to achieve gains with a single approach or teaching method. in this context, the appropriateness of the teaching methods, techniques, and strategies of the teacher to the learners’ achievement is a problem. otherwise, all the teaching methods, techniques, and strategies to be implemented will not work and it will be very difficult to achieve the desired effect on the learner. the more the sense organ participates in the learning-teaching process, the better the learning takes place. in the teaching process, the tools and equipment have a great influence in supporting the teaching process by affecting the sense organs. tools that support the individual differences between on-site and on-time learners can provide effective and fast learning and enrich the teaching process. some learners learn better when they see, some listen, some read, and some with the help of different tools. as the number of equipment suitable for the individual differences of the learners’ increases in the learning-teaching process, the probability of effective learning will also increase. as explained in the previous background, the learning system in the pandemic period use whatsapp group more as a learning space, so the learning style found is visual. the system that the teachers applied followed definite procedures in which the teachers sent the materials and assignments to the whatsapp group then the learners were given time to do them without supervision from the teacher. after completing the assignment, the learners share their work via whatsapp or google classroom. although all teachers teach with such a system, there is still a teacher who combines teaching via whatsapp, zoom and sharing youtube links. there are three dominant findings of this research concluded based on the descriptive analysis result. under the research questions of identifying the learning style preferences of non-english department learners, the first findings are that the learning style preference of successful respondents is auditory (m=17.55, sd=4.37) as the dominant learning style preference, and visual (m=17.42, sd=4.35), tactile (m=17.23, sd=4.30), and kinesthetic (m=17.18, sd=4.29) as the minor preferences. it means that learning styles during the pandemic and endemic period are still the same, namely the visual learning style. the t-test result was 9.940, and the df was 160. in conclusion, the p-value was 0.000, and which 2-tailed value was lower than 0.05 (alpha value). the result showed that the scores differ much between significance and 0.05. there might be a significant interplay between teacher talks and english language learners’ learning styles in secondary high school. the first is the correlation coefficient or pearson's r value. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 320 that is the pearson correlation value, which in this case is 0.355 and shown above the square red box. the correlation coefficient in table 4.22 of.355 is fair positive. although the effect is fair and marginal, people are more likely to perform better the longer they spend taking the test. a significant influence between the two variables might be due to the learning carried out at sman 6 and smks harapan bangsa watang pulu in sidrap existing now in a combination of online and offline learning. in offline learning, the learners can interact directly with the teachers even though the teaching time is very limited. the learners’ learning style has also looked better than the learning model using google classroom only. the learners assume that communication is more effective when done through face-to-face learning in class. naim (2011) revealed the child's world is typical. they have different perceptions, imaginations, and views from their parents. their life is different from their parent’s or teachers’ life. in this way, face-to-face communication will be more effective in communicating with children, especially those in senior high school (naim, 2011). some limitation of the research is the limited observation time so that data related to learning styles cannot be investigated because the teaching schedule becomes one hour per subject each week during the limited face-to-face learning. therefore, many teachers complain that the teaching time is minimal and that so much teaching content must be completed in a relatively limited time. learner interactions are time-consuming. it is not allowed to let learners talk more and ask them more referential questions in a short class time, or the necessary teaching content will not be achieved, whereas it will save much time through more teacher lectures. in addition, it is a very demanding job to prepare and design class activities that consume time and energy. teachers are usually overloaded and reluctant to do so. the classroom is the situation that occurs inside and outside the classroom. everything that happens inside and outside will be material for the teacher. for example, at the first meeting of t2, there was a vaccine schedule for learners, but many teachers talked about discussing vaccines. the implications of the conclusions in this research and development are that in general tt becomes the developed strategy and approach that can be used in learning english in high school. research has several implications as follows (1) teachers need a communication model that fits the needs of competency standard learners to convey the subject matter. teachers are expected to be able to improve their linguistic abilities, and (2) learners need a stimulus so that learning styles are not focused on auditory. conclusions there are several points to be concluded in this research. first, the results indicate that the learning style preference of the respondents is auditory as the dominant learning style preference, while visual, tactile, and kinesthetic are the minor preferences. it means that learning styles during the pandemic and endemic period are still the same, namely the visual learning style. second, there is a significant interplay between teacher talk and learners' learning style in learning english. this research bears two limitations that need to be considered when similar research is to be carried out. the first limitation is that this research only looked at the learners’ learning styles and had a small number of research sessions, so data on the different kinds of irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 321 teacher discussion cannot be found when learners were learning english in the classroom. second, because the researchers did not observe the learners' learning styles while studying, the information on the learning styles was limited to the questionnaire only. to develop the findings from this research, future 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(2013). berbagai pendekatan dalam proses belajar dan mengajar (various approaches in the process of learning and teaching). jakarta: bumi aksara. pattanang, e., limbong, m., & tambunan, w. (2021). perencanaan pelaksanaan pembelajaran tatap muka di masa pandemi pada smk kristen tagari (planning for implementing face-to-face learning during a pandemic at tagari christian vocational school). jurnal manajemen pendidikan, 10(2), 112-120. reid, j. m. (1987). the learning style preferences of esl students. tesol quarterly, 21(1), 87-111. reid, j. m. (1995). learning styles in the esl/efl classroom. heinle & heinle publishers. richards, j. c., & lockhart, c. (1994). reflective teaching in second language classrooms. cambridge university press. richards, j. c., & schmidt, r. w. (2013). longman dictionary of language teaching and applied linguistics. routledge. saeed, n., yang, y., & sinnappan, s. (2009). emerging web technologies in higher education: a case of incorporating blogs, podcasts and social bookmarks in a web programming course based on students' learning styles and technology preferences. journal of educational technology & society, 12(4), 98-109. sinclair, j. m., & brazil, d. (1982). teacher talk. oxford university press. uno, h. b. (2006). orientasi baru dalam psikologi (a new orientation in learning psychology). jakarta: pt. bumi aksara. yassi, a. h. (2006). speech variety of elite people in makassar: forms and social functions of indonesian-english code switching. nady al adab, 4(2), 70-82. biographical note nasmilah is faculty member at the english department universitas hasanuddin. she holds a phd from university of newcastle in english language, an m.hum in english language from universitas hasanuddin. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 32 identity development among muslim indonesian-american college students: a phenomenological study taufik mulyadin 1 abstract this study was conducted to understand muslim indonesian-american college students’ experiences of identity development from the perspectives of the reconceptualized model of multiple dimensions of identity (rmmdi) proposed by abes, jones, and mcewen (2007). through purposeful sampling, six participants were selected for participation in this study. this study was qualitative in nature by using the phenomenological approach to capture the essence of how muslim indonesian-american college students experienced, processed, and interpreted their identity development in college. questionnaire and interviews were utilized for data collection. the collected data were analyzed using the analysis procedures proposed by moustakas (1994) including epoche, phenomenological reduction, imaginative variation, and the synthesis of structural/textural descriptions. the study revealed that the salience of four identity dimensions for muslim indonesian-american students including religion, culture, social class, and gender. these identity dimensions were found to be impacted by varied contextual factors such as family, the 9/11, peer support, and college support. keywords identity development, indonesian, muslim-americans, phenomenology 1. indonesia university of education, bandung, indonesia and ohio state university, the usa; mulyadin.1@osu.edu; opikmulyadin@gmail.com irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 33 introduction in the late 1930s, the american council on education instructed the entire higher education institutions in the united states to enlist individual and professional development as an essential goal to be achieved for their educational practices (evans, forney, & guido, 1998). due to its significance, an understanding on student development in post-secondary education has been widely used as a basis for policy-making in college. student development greatly varies in terms of its focuses and one among them is identity development. for decades, research on identity development with different groups of students has grown rapidly and addressed a variety of identity dimensions including, race, gender, socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and religion (evans, forney, guido, patton, & renn, 2010). there are different models of identity development which have been revealed to explain a wide range of college student groups from diverse backgrounds including not only majority, such as white students (helms, 1990), but also minority groups, such as women (josselson, 1973, 1996), black or color (cross, 1991, 1995; helms, 1990, 1995; horse, 2001; kim, 1981, 2011), multiracial (kerwin & ponterotto, 1994; poston, 1990; root, 1990), and lgbt (cass, 1984; d'augelli, 1994; mccam & fassinger, 1996) students. the presence of these models provides a conceptual and empirical framework for better understanding underrepresented students in college. moreover, the models of identity development can serve as a guide to institutions, administrators, staff, faculty, and other agents in college to provide necessary supports and assistances with the aim of enhancing student success of marginalized groups in terms of academic, personal, and professional attainment (jones & mcewen, 2000). the population of muslim-american people is estimated to be more than 2.7 million with the annual growth rate of about 6% and they constitute around 1% of the total population in the united states (pew research center, 2011). based on the shared aspects of interest, beliefs, national origin, as well as culture and tradition, immigrants from middle east and non-arabic speaking asian countries, including indonesia, mostly represent the largest muslim-american communities (pipes & duran, 2002). an increase of the muslim population in the united states results a growing number of muslim-american young adults entering post-secondary education. however, they are frequently misunderstood and have become increasingly scrutinized as well as prejudices since the horrible event of 9/11 and other following terrorist attacks acted by muslim persons (britto & amer, 2007; cole & ahmadi, 2003; peek, 2005; sirin, bikmen, mir, fine, zaal, & katsiaficas, 2008; williams & vashi, 2007). an insufficient understanding of this group of students has hindered institutions and their agents from identifying their needs and providing necessary supports for enhancing their experiences and development during in college (britto & amer, 2007; cole & ahmadi, 2003; peek, 2005; sirin, bikmen, mir, fine, zaal, & katsiaficas, 2008; williams & vashi, 2007). since the number of muslim-american college students keeps growing, there has been an increasing interest of practitioners and scholars to seek a better understanding of identity development of muslim-american college students (britto & amer, 2007). however, most of existing research studies on muslim-american students in college focused more on middle eastern descent students (e.g., britto & amer, 2007; cole & ahmadi, 2003) and a limited number of identity dimensions (e.g., barazangi, 1989; bartkowski & read 2003; irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 34 haddad, 2004; hermansen, 2000; khan, 2000; marshall & read, 2003; peek, 2005; read, 2003). it is hardly to find research which examines more comprehensive dimensions of identity and involves muslim student groups with non-middle eastern descents, particularly indonesia. this subgroup of muslim-american students is frequently marginalized and even has been subject to exclusion from the largest group to which they belong (sirin et al., 2008; smith, 1999). due to the gap in literature and the necessity to enhance their development during in college, this study utilizing the phenomenological approach aimed to explore muslin indonesian-american college students’ experiences and their identity formation. according to jones and mcewen (2000), the varied salience of distinct identity dimensions is mostly determined by contextual factors which intensely shape the identity formation of an individual. therefore, this study deployed the reconceptualized model of multiple dimensions of identity (rmmdi) proposed by abes, jones, and mcewen (2007) as a lens in understanding experiences and identity formation shared by muslim indonesian-american college students. the following research questions guided this study: (1) what are the lived experiences of muslim indonesian-american college students regarding their identity development in college? and (2) what are salient identities to muslim indonesian-american college students? theoretical framework building upon the previously developed model (jones & mcewen, 2002), abes, jones, and mcewen (2007) proposed the reconceptualized model of multiple dimensions of identity (rmmdi). they asserted that the previous model limitedly focuses on identity component without the inclusion of cognitive and interpersonal components which are needed to gain comprehensive understanding of identity development and the relationship of multiple identities. to address this drawback, they improved the model by incorporating the process of meaning making as an individual capability of filtering contextual influences that shape the formation of his or her personal and social identity. the newer model is later known as rmmdi in figure 1. figure 1. reconceptualized model of multiple dimensions of identity (rmmdi) irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 35 abes et al. (2007) asserted that the salience of identity dimensions heavily relies on contextual factors including family, historical background, cultural traditions, norms, and sociopolitical conditions. hence, to have a better understanding of the identity formation of any individual or group students in college, it should include personal attributes and traits, socio-cultural conditions, family backgrounds, life planning, current experiences, and career decisions (jones & mcewen, 2000). the existing literature revealed that identity development of muslim -american college students is influenced by their social and political conditions, hostility, experiences of discrimination, friends, family, and community (britto & amer, 2007; cole & ahmadi, 2003; peek, 2005; sirin et al., 2008; williams & vashi, 2007). given the intersecting identity dimensions and their environment, understanding how muslim indonesian-american college students experience their identity formation is best achieved by inclusion of contextual factors. literature review muslim-americans and identity development muslim americans in general fall into three different categories. the first category is americans who convert into islam. this group is largely constituted by african-americans and remnants of the nation of islam, a political and religious movement founded in the united states in 1930 by wallace d. fard muhammad with its key figures such as elijah muhammad and malcolm x (smith, 1990). the second category is immigrants who came to the united states seeking better lives and opportunity as well as taking benefit from the more open immigration regulation enacted in 1965 (smith, 1990). the last category is immigrants’ children and many of them are young adults going to high schools and college (pipes & duran, 2002; smith, 1999). they are generally considered as first generation of muslim-americans who grew up or were born in the united states. this study focused more on the last group, muslim indonesian-american young adults who ever went or are currently in college. it estimates that there are around seven million muslim-americans or constitute about 1% of the total population in the united states (pew research center, 2011). this number is as large as the hispanic population few decades ago. with the annual growth of about 6%, muslim-americans are considered a fast growing population compared to less than 1% for the annual growth of the entire population in the united states (pew research center, 2011). only one third of muslim-americans were born in the united states. from those who were born in other countries, more than 20% are of arab decent, less than 10% from iran, 5% from european countries, less than 9% from pakistan, and about 10% from other asian countries including indonesia (pew research center, 2011). in terms of ethnicity, muslim-americans in the united states are very diverse coming from south asian (such as bangladesh, india, pakistan, and iran), south east asian (such as indonesia and malaysia), and arabic-speaking countries (such as saudi arabia, egypt, jordan, and morocco) (pipes & duran, 2002). using religion as a basis for unity, muslim-americans are often referred themselves as umma that literally means a community and this term owns sociopolitical implications reflecting an expectation and ultimate goal to be united under the religion of islam for the greater good (smith, 1999). irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 36 although muslim-american have not attracted yet major intention from researchers of college student development, there have been a small number of studies with the aim of exploring the factors that influence the identity development of muslim-americans young adults. some examined the role of religion (barazangi, 1989; haddad, 2000, 2004; mukminin, fridiyanto, & hadiyanto, 2013). peek, 2005), others focused on the impact of politics (khan, 2000; marshall & read 2003), and several studied the role of gender (bartkowski & read 2003; haddad, 2006, 2007; hermansen, 2000; read 2003; read & bartkowski, 2000). however, none of the existing studies attempting to address the multiple dimensions of identity development with the focus on muslim indonesian-american young adults. under the framework of rmmdi (abes et al., 2007), the salience of each identity dimension is significantly determined by certain contextual factors which have greater influence on an individual’s identity development. hence, it is crucial to explore the dynamics between multiple dimensions of identity and contextual influences in understanding muslim indonesian-american college students’ experiences of identity development. religion and culture religion has been an important identity for muslim-american youth and a point of interest due to the increased declaration of religious sense of self mostly impacted by family, peers, organizational membership, and the sense of alienation particularly after the event of 9/11 (hermansen, 2003; peek, 2005). muslim-americans are more likely to turn to religion as their effort to address hostility issues and create a more familiar and comfortable environment within a least known society (kurien, 2001; kwon, 2000; rayaprol, 1997; smith, 1999). as a result of its significance to their lives in the united states, religion, in terms of identity dimension, has been considered more salient for muslim americans than it was in their origins (peek, 2005). it encouraged the younger generation of muslim americans to be more committed to following and practicing islam than their parents. this was often reflected from their dress, religious rituals, and participation in organizations established to strengthen a sense of self and group unity (abdo, 2005; hermansen, 2000; peek, 2005; pipes & duran, 2002; sirin et al., 2008; smith, 1999). the identity of culture actually reflects the intersection and interconnection of other identity dimensions including ethnicity, class, nationality, and religion (berry, phinney, sam, & vedder, 2006). according to fine (1995), culture is constituted by four core elements: beliefs, values, symbols, and norms. the massification of culture within a community could be accomplished through the involvement of community members such as parents, peers, and neighbors; institutions such as schools and worship houses; and media such as movies, games, and social media (sirin et al., 2008). in terms of rules and standards, islam and its associated cultures are different from or even contradict the western cultures. muslim-americans have to face the western values and customs which are often perceived as a threat to their way of life and faith (pipes & duran, 2002). it concerns many muslim-americans in preserving their family honor and traditional culture and more importantly keeping their faith. within the complexity of the assimilation between seemingly contrasting cultures, islam and western cultures, muslim-american youth have to continuously experience negotiation and integration of these two different value systems in their day to day lives during in college (sirin et al., 2008). irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 37 social class and gender the identity of social class for muslim-americans intersects with culture, particularly as it is seen from the perspective of contextual influences including social and cultural setting, current experiences, family backgrounds, and career and life plans (abes et al., 2007). more than half of muslim-americans in the united states have attended college with about one-fourths are degree holders and this number is much higher than 18% of the total population in the united states (gates & cooke, 2011). even, about 10% of muslim-americans hold post graduate degrees compared to less than 8% of the total population in the united states (gates & cooke, 2011). more than 40% of muslim-americans are employed in full-time job and earn $50,000 or higher (pew research center, 2011). muslim-americans have been perceived as a vibrant community falling into the middle and upper class, receiving higher incomes, and holding exceptionally postsecondary education degrees compared to the general united states population. the identity of gender is interconnected to religion and its associated culture. more than 45% of muslim-americans are female and this percentage is slightly lower than the general population in the united states, about 50% (gates & cooke, 2011). the role of gender in islam and its most cultures is well defined but might become a subject to misunderstanding and misinterpretation by either within or outside the community of muslim-americans. for instance, many muslims believe that a certain separation between male and female individuals who have no family relations. this is necessary since if they are allowed to be together, they would fall into an evil temptation to be committed what are considered sinful actions which would take away or exclude them from the circle of islam and negatively influence society in general (pipes & duran, 2002). in islam, females are allowed to work but they are not obliged to provide for their family since this is considered to be the primary duty of males (smith, 1999). also, to express their sincere obedience to the god, many muslim-american females prefer to dress in a conservative way and often wear a long veil namely hijab. methodology the phenomenological approach was employed in the study in order to capture the essence of how muslim indonesian-american college students experienced, processed, and interpreted their identity development in college. phenomenological research aims to "explore and search for the essential, invariant structure (essence) or the central underlining meaning of the experiences that contain both the outward appearance and inward consciousness based on the memories, images and meaning" (moustakas, 1994, p. 52) of the participants. because the lived experience of the individual with a certain phenomenon is a key element in this study, a phenomenological approach is relevant for the current study on how muslim indonesian-american students experienced and perceived identity development in college within the lens of the multiple dimensions of identity model. irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 38 participants since the purpose of this study was to gain in-depth understanding of identity development of muslim indonesian-american college students, it was sufficient to recruit a small number of participants (creswell, 2013). through purposeful sampling, six participants were selected to take part in this study. all of the selected participants met the criteria assigned in this study for participant selection including: were born or mostly grew up in the united states, had both parents who were indonesian immigrants, were traditional students (age between 18 and 24), completed a bachelor’s degree in no more than five years, and graduated from higher education institutions in the united states. in the process of participant recruitment, i utilized mostly social media, facebook, and whatsapp. this yielded six participants, two males and four females, ranging from 24 to 28 years old. one participant identified herself as coming from upper-middle income family while the rest from middle income family. all six participants attended public four-year institutions in the midwest of the united states. to keep their confidentiality, this study used pseudonym names suggested by the participants: asma, zahra, zaid, ali, hasma, and ayu. data collection and analysis data of this study was gathered utilizing two primary methods including questionnaire and interview. questionnaire listed questions about demographic information as well as their parents’ status and salient identity dimensions. it was used as supplementary data to interviews. each participant took part in an individual and semi-structured interview which lasted about 60-75 minutes. these are some examples of the main questions in the interview: (a) tell me your experiences when you were in college, (b) how were you perceived by others in college?, (c) what challenges did you experience in college?, (d) what did being a muslim mean to you?, and (e) what did being an american to you when you were in college? the participants were asked additional questions to explore issues raised by them during theinterviews. due to the distance issues, the participants and i as a researcher could not make in-person interviews. therefore, interviews were carried out through skype and were audiotaped and then transcribed. the collected data were analyzed by using the data analysis process proposed by moustakas (1994). this process included epoche, phenomenological reduction, imaginative variation, and the synthesis of structural-textural descriptions needed to describe thoroughly the participants’ experiences with formative assessment practices. in the first step, epoche, i temporarily suspended my existing biases, preconceptions, assumptions, and beliefs about the issue under study to better understand the lived experiences of muslim indonesian-american college students. this step is critical in a phenomenological inquiry to gain the pure essence of the phenomenon (moustakas, 1994). the next step was phenomenological reduction as the process to rid the phenomenon under study of its surface appearances and then reveal the essence or deep understanding about it (moustakas, 1994). in this step, i began with careful and repetitive readings of all interview transcripts. then, i highlighted the participants’ responses, eliminated the redundant parts, and developed a cluster or category of meanings from the responses. next, it was imaginative variation where a researcher utilized imagination and approached the phenomenon from divergent angles to unveil possible meanings of narratives (moustakas, irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 39 1994). i followed up the previous step with development of core themes by understanding the transcribed interviews from different perspectives. then, these themes were validated by checking the transcripts. if the identified themes were compatible with the participants’ responses and experiences, they would remain. however, as they did not fit the participants’ words, they would be excluded. then, the last step was the synthesis of structural-textural descriptions to capture the essence of the phenomenon under study (moustakas, 1994). in this step, i took the developed and validated themes and then provided relevant excerpts from the transcripts as well as the description of what was experience of the research participants. for the description, i wrote a paragraph or some of descriptive passages with the emphasis on shared experiences revealed among the research participants. trustworthiness in qualitative inquiry, trustworthiness is commonly determined by the degree of credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability (lincoln & guba, 1985). credibility refers to a degree of correspondence between the findings and the reality. i employed different methods to enhance credibility of the findings. first, triangulation of multiple data sources, interview, and data across multiple participants were employed to cross-check and confirm emerging themes. second, member-checks were conducted with all six participants by sending them summaries of the themes that emerged from the analysis and invited to provide feedback. another aspect needed to establish trustworthiness is transferability. it refers to a degree of applicability of findings in settings outside of the phenomenon being investigated. transferability of the findings in this study was accomplished through thick description allowing the participant to speak in detail about particular experience (lincoln & guba, 1985). being provided a complete description of the participants’ experiences, readers can determine if the findings are transferrable to other situations. findings and discussion this study used abes et al.’s (2007) framework of the rmmdi that provided a useful lens for exploring how muslim indonesian-american college students experienced and perceived identity development. this study identified several dimensions of identity which were salient to the participants including religiosity, social class, culture, and gender. additionally, it revealed that family, the impact of 9/11, peer support, and institutional support were contextual factors which contributed to the participants’ identity development. figure 2 shows how, under the framework of rmmdi, the identified identity dimensions intertwined with contextual influences in the process of muslim indonesian-american students’ identity development. irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 40 figure 2. identity development of muslim indonesian-american college students dimensions of identity religiosity, for all involved participants, religion was more than about ritual practices. islam is a way of life that ultimately affected whole aspects of their lives, including values, relationship with others, daily activities, life and career plans, and also college success. asma said, “believing in allah and everything from him also following his messenger provides a way of life for me. islam gives me a guide how i should live my life in its every aspect. for me, being a muslim is my way to make my life much better. it is not just a religion, in everyday dealings. i always feel connected to the religion when doing anything including what i did during in college when i was an undergraduate.” zaid shared similar thought, “islam is the center point and anything else must rotate around it. everything i do in my life, such as education, my family, my personal life should keep rotating around islam.” even zahra tried to always use relevant verse(s) from the qur’an, a muslim holy book, to verify what she did was in line with the god’s commands. zahra said, “since the second year of my undergraduate, i learned the qur’an more seriously. not only how to read it but also how to understand it accordingly. i just want to make sure that everything i do is actually what allah wants me to do. that’s why i need to better understand the qur’an and so i can verify all of what i do.” religion has become the most salient dimension of identity for most muslim-american young adults who either grew up or were born in the united states with immigrant parents from muslim-majority countries (hermansen, 2000; peek, 2005; pipes & duran, 2002). they are often found practicing islam in a more conservative way than their parents of other individuals of older generation (abdo, 2005). there have been an increasing number of muslim-americans who restrict themselves to halal food and beverages (pipes & duran, 2002). more muslim-american youth wear veils and identify themselves with islam’s conservative principles, and even they need to argue with their parents as they desire to fully practice and embrace islam (abdo, 2005). according to pipes and duran (2002), more than one-third of religion gender class culture family 9/11 peer college religious norms irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 41 muslim immigrants became more likely to be religious after they moved into the united states. one third of female muslim-americans does not wear make-up in public and avoid shaking hands with males who are not relatives for religious reasons. peek (2005) asserted that as individuals, typically children or teenagers, perceive their religion as a part of their personal attributes by the fact that they were born into or raised in it, they are not likely to be engaged in the process of self-reflection and internalization of being a muslim. when they turn to be older and more mature, they become more thoughtful and aware of what they believe and value. as a result, they begin to be more open to idea of questioning their inherited belief and eventually they view it as an essential part or even core dimension of their identity. moreover, as they experience or see hostility against the community of muslims, they identify themselves more closely with being muslims than before. this also what had led the participants in particular to learn the qur’an and islamic literature more deeply as well as align themselves with islam and express it through their physical appearance, talk, and behavior. culture, most participants seemingly identified more with the culture of origin and the country, indonesia, that their parents came from rather than the american culture. ali shared, “the american culture would be the least important aspect of my identities. muslim and indonesian are at the top. although i was not born and never lived in indonesia, i really like the culture and people.” in addition to cultural elements, some participants commented about social and political situations or events in indonesia and how these facilitated the stronger connection between them and their culture of origin. for instance, ayu said, “in 2014 after the presidential election, i was like horey! i am really proud of it.” this sense of pride in their culture and heritage of indonesia was commonly shared among all participants, particularly those who were heavily exposed at home to cultural elements of indonesia including food, language, music, and even frequent visits to indonesia. however, they clearly declared that they were a part of the united states. “i definitely love my country (the united states) where i currently live in. we go out and enjoy the fireworks on july 4 th to celebrate the independence day of this country. it is beautiful thing to see and i am proud to be an indonesian, a muslim and an american at once,” ali said. the definition of the label of muslim-american is complicated since there are many ways for someone to express it. this socially constructed identity was a result of the tragic terror of 9/11. this event caused islam to be a more salient dimension of identity for muslims in the united states and their standing in the general society was increasingly doubted and questioned (sirin et al., 2008). consequently, americans practicing the islamic faith have utilized the label of muslim american in addition to their nationality of origin, such as from an indonesian american to be a muslim indonesian-american, (sirin et al., 2008) as a coping mechanism often used by marginalized groups in the united states such as asian-americans, jewish-americans, and african-americans (grewal, 2009). over time, the label of muslim-american has turned to be a collective identity referring to a group of americans, typically immigrants, who obeyed the religion of islam and had similar experiences as the united states citizens. muslim-american young adults are often found anxious about integrating or balancing their original and american cultures within the united states where they live in (sirin et al., 2008) and therefore the participants continuously negotiates their dual cultural identities, indonesian and american. however, the participants reflected muslim-american young adults in general who had capacity to create integrated and parallel identities as well as to be engaged and involved not only with their ethnic and religious communities but also with the mainstream irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 42 society of the united states (peek, 2005; sirin et al., 2008). muslim indonesian-american young adults are responding to the liberal and open culture, particularly compared to the more conservative environment of origin but islam always comes first. it is in line with the fact that although almost half of muslim-americans identify themselves as muslim first, they do not have any conflict between becoming a muslim and at the same time living in the modern way in the united states (pew research center, 2011). therefore, muslim-americans have integrated to the mainstream society more easily compared to other minority groups in the united states (pipes & duran, 2002). social class, participants shared similar experiences and thoughts that having a good job was their primary reason and goal to attend college. zaid said, “if you are muslim, a minority group like us, you have to attend college and then get degree. so, you can get a job with high salary. and actually, that’s why i went to college.” ali shared that he was not interested in social sciences since it would not generate sufficient earnings, “if you are studying social sciences, oh man, other people would comment ’you are a person of color and you are studying social sciences?’ what are you doing? that’s why instead of studying social sciences, i took a program of computer science like ayah (dad).” while hasma noted, “ i went to college and took medicine. when in high school, i wanted to study something like science or finance because they are big things. while my parents always want me to be a doctor or an engineer, prestigious jobs, i guess. and this is it, i am a doctor now. i think my parents realize what kind of opportunity they wanted to give their children by moving here. so, they should take advantage of it.” different from typical muslim immigrants in european countries mostly living in lower income communities, muslim-americans represent a vibrant community with their higher socioeconomic status (pew research center, 2011). although europe is close to many muslim majority countries, it is not really appealing to wealthy and skillful immigrants. meanwhile, the united states could attract wealthier and more educated muslim immigrants and their success to achieve american dream was primarily driven by high societal and family expectations as well as largely influenced by americans’ openness and tolerance towards muslims until the 9/11 horrible attacks (pipes & duran, 2002). as a result of the high pressure and expectations from the community and families, muslim-american young adults tend to prefer high paying careers such as a doctor and an engineer and hence, once combined, these two fields account for more than 30% of the community of muslim-americans (pipes & duran, 2002). however, recent social and political situations, especially under president donald trump’s administration, have made changes in the environment for muslims in the united states including muslim indonesian-american young adults who have to build a more pronounced identity because of mostly the current islam related issues such the islamic state of iraq and syria (isis), terror attacks, and travel ban that drew more media and public attention on islam and the community of muslims in the united states (saleem & ramasubramanian, 2017). therefore, muslim-americans in general and muslim indonesian-americans in particular have to irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 43 understand who they are in the environment with different culture form theirs and becoming increasingly unreceptive towards their presence. gender, the salience of identity dimensions, such as gender, relies on the extent to which an individual interacts and becomes exposed to these (jones & mcewen, 2000). in this study, gender was a more salient identity dimension for females than males. it is in line with what females in general experience that they have very high salience of gender identity compared to their male counterparts since they live in a conceptually male dominated world (jones & mcewen, 2000). the high salience of gender for the female participants could be reflected from their preference of dress. hasma shared, “being a female in our community, muslims, gives me a much stronger voice. i think people really want to hear voice from the female. being a female and a muslim also wearing hijab (a veil), i would be more likely to be heard and people would respect my opinion and pay attention to what i think and say.” whether they covered their heads or not, all female participants talked about the issues of dress as an essential aspect that would define their identity. muslim-american students in college, particularly those wearing the hijab, are often found experiencing prejudice and alienation by their class or college mates, faculty, and staff whose negative views are driven by their misconception perceiving a female student with the hijab as submissive, oppressed, marginalized, and limited to express their thoughts and feelings (cole & ahmadi, 2003). although some muslim male students probably have similar experiences, there is a greater likelihood that muslim female students are to be subject to hostility since they can be easily identified as muslims from their appearance. it became the reason for some female participants to be reluctant of covering their heads when firstly entering college. zahra shared her experience that she preferred not the hijab to cover her head in the first weeks of entering college. however, she later decided to wear it once she received more courage and realized that wearing the hijab could strengthen her identity as a female and a muslim as well as provide a platform to impact her community and the society in general. she said, “i was very happy for finally making decision on wearing the hijab since i can show to others that i am a muslim and female who has freedom to wear it and still have a life like others such as going to college and actively involving with my community. i can still do all these while wearing the hijab. also, i can still achieve anything i want without having to show my head and hair. i found many women spend more times to enhance their beauty. they focus more on their beauty than their knowledge or behavior. so, i believe hijab makes me and my voice much stronger.” the contact between muslim male and female students was another issue discussed by the participants. ayu said, “a lot of muslim females, of course me too, when i was in college often complained that as muslim males walked passing the sisters (muslim females), they did not say anything. we know the male and he knows we were all muslims but he did not say salam to us. however, when we left, he was talking to a non-muslim female student. “ irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 44 the double standards practiced by muslim male students to their female counterparts were due to the misunderstanding that the rule to avoid intense eye and physical contacts between males and females merely applied to muslims. it was reflected from what zaid shared, “we (muslim males and females) are not as free as with each other like non-muslims who would be with their opposite gender friends. it is certainly because of islamic principles. we do not want to get close just to prevent ourselves from committing any sinful act.” the separation rule comes from the cultural and historical traditions across muslim communities that males and females, especially teenagers and adults, are not allowed to closely mingle with one another to avoid them from falling into evil temptation and then being involved in sinful relations outside of marriage (smith, 1999). however, muslims, especially females challenge the hypocrisy performed mostly by males who can comfortably interact with non-muslim females but tend to be shy and keep muslim females at a distance (smith, 1999). contextual factors family, for most participants in this study, family was found as a major contextual factor in the identity development of muslim indonesian-american students. zahra recalled her experience with her parents, “ i was raised in a very strict family. at that time, i was not allowed to listen to music but islamic songs or quran recitation and have pictures of actors or actresses on my room’s walls. however, i still listened to rhcp (red hot chili peppers) without my parents finding out. but overall, i realize that they were strict for my own good.” muslim parents in the united states share similar concerns of raising their children within the western culture and values which either partly or mostly contradict and even challenge their way of life and faith, islam (pipes & duran, 2002). they worry about preserving their family honor and traditions and are afraid of leaving their culture and faith. therefore, many muslim families put more emphasis on religiosity and islamic lesson as well as values when raising their children and sometimes they seem to be overly strict when doing so (pipes & duran, 2002). the participants also reported that their families impacted their identity development in terms of their degree of conservatism in expressing their faith. ali shared that his conservative family caused him to be conservative as well. he said, “my family is very religious and have high conservatism in practicing islam. so, having grown up within a conservative family, i became conservative too.” on the contrary, ayu was raised within a more secular muslim family and it impacted her identity development. she shared, “i found my parents were not really strict and conservative. although my mother was wearing the hijab, she never pushed me to wear it. however, she gave me courage when i decided to cover my head by the hijab. my parents must have had impact on who i am now.” irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 45 according to abdo (2005), muslim-american young adults who grew up in somewhat conservative and strict environments are more likely to be conservative individuals and those with less conservative or more secular families seem to reflect their families’ impact on them as well. in addition to values and morals, families, mostly parents, provide a source of motivation for their children’s success and even they are not physically present (haddad, 2004). the 9/11, the participants were children as 9/11 happened. after that horrible terror, all participants experienced kinds of bullying and stereotyping in their very young and vulnerable age. it might have made them to question and even challenge their identity as well as discourage them from identifying themselves as muslims. asma shared her experience of being a victim of bullying after the 9/11, “ it was a great time as i was little. i was very very happy. i used to celebrate ramdhan with family and relatives. then, in 2001, that thing (the 9/11) happened and it caused everyone or many people in this country to hate us, muslims. so, i began to keep distant from it a bit. moreover, some i met in college said to me ‘you and your people cannot even read. oh no, i guess you can read very well because terrorists have to read instructions to assemble and blow a bomb. it was really bad.” some students reported that they had similar experiences but these, in turn, made them stronger and they expressed their gratitude for the non-muslims’ support and protection to the muslim community in the united states. zahra said, “we are currently in a time when islam is the new black. i feel like i am being crushed right now. it hurts me a lot as a muslim that they are dehumanizing and insulting my faith. however, in the same time, it made me much stronger and prouder of being a muslim. absolutely, the support from our non-muslim communities is really valuable and made me feel that i am not only a muslim but also an american and so i can confidently declare i am a muslim-american.” these participants’ experiences indicated that the event of 9/11 and its aftermath have had a major influence on their identity development. since the 9/11 and its aftermath, muslim-americans, including muslim indonesian-american students, have become subject to increased prejudice, stereotyping, and hostility (britto & amer, 2007; cole & ahmadi, 2003; peek, 2005; sirin et al., 2008). clearly, bullying and discrimination have a great impact on, in addition to identity development, muslim indonesian-american students’ anxiety when attending a new environment in college. according to connell and farrington (2000), students who have experienced bullying and discrimination tend to have low self-esteem and lack self-confidence and assertiveness. bullied and discriminated students are also often found suffering from any personality problem and facing difficulty in trusting others. they become more cautious and careful with what they state and what they act (connell & farrington, 2000). peer support, most of the participants reported the tremendous influence of their friends’ supports through the organization of msa (muslim student association) on their lives and experiences in college as muslim indonesian-american students. zaid shared his friends’ impact on his process of integrating into college, “the organization, msa, and its members irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 46 provided me a sense of belonging. without the organization and friends there, my experience in college would have been worse. it turned to be my social outlet.” moreover, the msa was found to help the participants enhance their social skills. hasma shared her experience, “in the first time i came to college, i was very shy and quite. after getting involved in the msa and making friends with its members, i became increasingly friendly and open. i realized that i was not very social at that time. however, my involvement in the msa had helped me a lot become more social.” the msa, also, provided the participants with an environment which enabled them to remain on the islamic path as well as refrain from any restricted behaviors. ali described how having lack of the support from peers and an organization such as the msa has put him off the right path. he said, “ once i was involved in the msa and kept contact with friends there, i became more religious. but it was only for a while. then, i slowly left that environment and started doing what typical american students do. later, i regretted my leave and turned back to my muslim friends and tried to get involved again in the msa. it was difficult to keep up with staying on the islamic path without support group like the msa.” peers and the msa are clearly an agent of change in the college experiences of muslim indonesian-american students and their identity development. student organizations and their members in college play a critical role in the development of underrepresented and marginalized students as a source of group support, network, friendship, and mentoring relationships which can facilitate and enhance their success in terms of social adjustment, academic attainment, and persistence in college (swail, perna, & redd, 2003). hence, an organization like the msa in college should be supported by institutions as a critically institutional intervention and resource which help facilitate identity development of muslim indonesian-american students and resolve varied difficulties and problems they experience during in college. institutional support, some participants found their institutions from which they were graduated incredibly supportive by providing them resources and supports to meet their needs as muslims. they specifically mentioned tangible examples including the budget for the msa, the prayer room and the proper washroom to perform wudhu (ablution) that have been provided in several campus buildings, the ability to reserve rooms for prayer meetings, and the availability of halal food in campus. ali said, “there was so much accommodation and flexibility on campus. muslim students were given rooms for our prayers and flexibility around classes. also, we could request an off-day to observe our holidays like ied fitr.” similarly, asma shared, “ my university already had the organization for muslim students, the msa. i think the university really supported it. for example, they offered prayer rooms and other necessary things to practice our religious rituals. and i did not realize that the msa in my university was so big with hundreds of student members.” overall, muslim indonesian-american students seem very pleased with the support they receive from the college. clearly, college support and understanding on muslim indonesian-american students are very important to promote their identity development. irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 47 implications and limitations of the study employing abes et al.’s (2007) framework of the reconceptualized model of multiple dimensions of identity (rmddi), this inquiry unveiled that environmental, cultural, and sociopolitical conditions have created contextual factors (family, 9/11 impact, peer, and college support) that influence the salience of various dimensions (religiosity, culture, class and gender) for muslim indonesian-american young adults during their study in college. the emerging findings from this investigation (the interviews) that have been rarely discussed in existing literature are that msa, the student organization that muslim students on campus are involved in, and college support were found to play a critical role in positively promoting muslim-american students’ identity formation. having supportive environment at college is important for minority college students, including muslim indonesian-american students, because it impacts their entire postsecondary trajectory. however, prejudice based on religious practice and cultural differences remain to negatively influence muslim-american college students’ educational experience. if the institutions do not recognize the oppression they face and its impact on their development, and also unwillingly make efforts to resolve it, muslim indonesian-american college students will be more difficult to successfully persist at college. further research is necessary to identify the identity development of muslim indonesian-american college students across types of socioeconomic status and postsecondary institutions as well as with the focus on on-going students in order to understand their complexities and accommodations they need at college. the current study has several limitations that should be taken into the interpretation process of the findings. first, all participants had attended public four-year institutions in the midwest of the united states which had quite selective admission. it was likely they had satisfactory academic attainment during college years and preparedness prior to attending college. hence, the findings resulted from this study might not describe muslim indonesian-american students enrolled or graduated from less selective institutions. second, another limitation of this study was its focus on muslim indonesian-american students who completed their degree. in addition, the participants in this study were from middle to upper-middle income family. therefore, it is important for readers to be cautious in considering the transferability of this study’s findings to on-going and lower socioeconomic status students. disclosure statement no potential 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(2007). hijab and american muslim women: creating the space for autonomous selves. sociology of religion, 68(3), 269-287. biographical note taufik mulyadin is a faculty assistant in educational administration and a staff of vice rector in academic and student affairs at indonesia university of education, bandung, indonesia. he is currently a scholarship recipient of indonesian endowment fund for education (lpdp), batch (pk)-41, and a phd student in higher education and student affairs at the ohio state university. his current study is also a part of joint program between indonesia and united states under the project of higher education leadership and management (helm) managed by the united states agency for international development (usaid). the author’s research interests focus on college student engagement, student success, alumni, and university governance. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 409 merdeka belajar kampus merdeka and the development of english for a specific purpose book diana oktavia 1* and nur habibah 2 abstract this research aimed to develop english for a specific purpose book: merdeka belajar kampus merdeka based. this book is made following indicators of kampus merdeka policy, where the students become the center of the class. this book provides some projects and cases that should be finished by the students related to the materials to fulfill the indicators. this developed book was validated by content experts’ validators and media experts’ validators. the validation used a content questionnaire and a media questionnaire. based on the results, this book is validated and can be used as teaching and learning materials in english for a specific purpose. both validators gave scores that were categorized as good, which was more than 50%. furthermore, based on the trial, the first and second observations were categorized as very good. they were 80% at the first observation and 87,5% at the second observation. keywords english for specific purpose; merdeka belajar kampus merdeka (mbkm) article history received 23 september 2022 accepted 15 december 2022 how to cite oktavia, d., & habibah, n. (2022). merdeka belajar kampus merdeka and the development of english for a specific purpose book. indonesian research journal in education |irje|, 6(2), 409– 417.https://doi.org/ 10.22437/irje.v6i2.20736 1*lecturer, univ. muhammadiyah muara bungo, indonesia; corresponding author: dianaaoktavia@gmail.com 2 lecturer, universitas muhammadiyah muara bungo, indonesia. https://doi.org/ mailto:dianaaoktavia@gmail.com irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 410 introduction to prepare capable human resources o face industry era 4.0 and society 5.0, the ministry of education and culture issued a new policy for higher education, merdeka belajar kampus merdeka (mbkm) policy. this policy prioritizes eight primary indicators. they are 1) the graduates will be able to get a good job, 2) the students get more experiences outside of campus, 3) the lecturers have activities outside of campus, 4) the practitioners get experience teaching on campus, 5) utilizing the lecturers’ works, 6) the department makes cooperation internationally, 7) collaborative and participative class, 8) international standard department (takdir et al., 2021). this policy is implemented to create students who are creative, innovative, and ready to work based on the era. it is great to increase soft skills and hard skills for the student. to support this policy, the required curriculum and subjects can be matched to those primary working indicators, including english for a specific purpose. english for a specific purpose is one of the compulsory subjects at the english education department in universitas muhammadiyah muara bungo. this subject prepares the students to have english language skills for particular aspects. the concept of this subject is matched to the government expect in preparing the graduates ready to face worklife. this subject provides several specific materials, such as english for business, english for medical science, english for hospitality, etc. this subject helps students to master the english language skills suitable to their specifications and needs. the primary key to learning english for a specific purpose is the purpose and context needed by the students therefore, this research aimed to develop english for (hyland, 2000). a specific purpose book that prioritizes collaborative and participative classrooms. the materials of this book direct the students to learn while having activities outside. cheng (2021) stated that the success of english for the specific purpose of learning is strongly related to the materials given as input and the students’ project as the output. literature review book as teaching material the primary task of a teacher or lecturer is to make a lesson plan that contains the purpose of study, programs, and lesson plan, to run the lecture well. as a good educator, a lecturer must be able to choose the precise materials. teaching material is a primary component in creating good and effective teaching and learning process. it is a guideline for the lecturer during the teaching and learning process. as it is stated in that a deuri (2012) textbook is one major tool in teaching foreign language, it helps language teachers to have planned teaching concept. a good textbook have to match with the students’ need in their era. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 411 english for a specific purpose english for a specific purpose is one of the compulsory subjects provided by the english education department at universitas muhammadiah muara bungo. this subject has significantly different from general english. english for a specific purpose has a definite purpose based on the specification. meanwhile, general english provides english materials for general use. generally, english for a specific purpose is used in teaching and learning a foreign language with a definite purpose (robinson, 1980). furthermore, english for a specific purpose becomes an approach to learning english in which the teaching material and method focus on the students’ learning purpose ( , 2016). it is an approach to learning saliu & hajrullai english as the students need. english for a specific purpose refers to learning english as specific need based on the field and occupation. medical students require learning and mastering english for medical science. engineers require learning and mastering english for engineers. hotel employees require learning and mastering english for hotels and tourism. this subject supports and helps students have english language skills matched to their occupation, and they can use this english to support their careers. merdeka belajar kampus merdeka (mbkm) the changing society, culture, occupation field, and the improvement of technology demand graduates ready to work. merdeka belajar kampus merdeka (mbkm) is the answer to this demand to prepare graduates who can adapt to the era. mbkm is one policy of the education, culture, research, and technology ministry that gives a huge opportunity for students to increase their skills by doing some practice. kampus merdeka based teaching and learning process concerns the students centered learning, where the students are challenged to develop themselves to be more creative and innovative. moreover, they are led to get knowledge through practice in their working life. therefore, they will be trained to find the solution to whatever they face as a real working situation. as mentioned in , merdeka belajar ministry of education and culture, moec (2020) kampus merdeka (mbkm) provides nine great programs that give those opportunities to students. those programs are teaching at school, research, studying independently, internship, student exchange, community service, entrepreneur, social, and citizenship. students are allowed to join those programs to have more experiences while learning. furthermore, each program is recognized as a learning process where the participants gain some recognize credits for it (moec, 2020). methodology this current research was conducted using the research and development method. it was to produce the newly developed english for specific purpose book which is related to merdeka belajar kampus merdeka (mbkm) policy. the research was conducted in english department at universitas muhammadiyah muara bungo by involving students who are learning english for specific purposes as subjects. those students are enrolled as the 7 th irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 412 semester students. they have intermediate english language skills. to obtain the required data, the researcher conducted some steps regarding the steps by sugiyono (2010), addie (analysis, design, develop, implement, dan evaluate). research design this research was conducted using research and development design. it followed some steps regarding the steps by sugiyono (2010), addie (analysis, design, develop, implement, and evaluate). before conducting the research, the researcher analyzed to determine the students’ problems and needs, especially in learning english for a specific purpose. not only that, in this analysis step, the researcher also did the curriculum check, and then the researcher analyzed the materials that can be matched with merdeka belajar kampus merdeka’s (mbkm) policy. after that, the researcher designed and developed the materials in english for a specific purpose merdeka belajar kampus merdeka (mbkm) based. the materials are more concerned with creating active and innovative students in learning. the book puts the students at the center of the teaching and learning process, where they have some projects to do, and problems to solve. both are related to the teaching and learning materials, and they need to do observation. this english for a specific purpose book was designed based on its typical characteristic, providing english material fit to the specific need. after designing and developing the book, the researcher implemented the english forspecific purpose book to the class as the trial. the trial was conducted and observed using the observation sheet. based on the trial, the evaluation of this media development was done. data collection and analysis the data of this research were collected using three instruments, which include an instrument validation questionnaire, a media and content validation questionnaire, and an observation sheet to observe the trial. the validity of media and content were assessed by media experts and material experts. media validation involved two media experts. both of them are working as lecturers in universitas muhammadiyah muara bungo. one validator has background as educational technology. another media validator is the head of the technology information education department of universitas muhammadiyah muara bungo. the book contents were validated by two experts in english for a specific purpose. both of the content validators are the lecturers in english education department of universitas muhammadiyah muara bungo. the research results were analyzed through descriptive statistics to measure the mean percentage of research instruments (media validation questionnaire, content validation questionnaire, and observation sheet). additionally, the results were referred through spps to determine the validation scores percentage. moreover, to measure the validation of media and content were conducted and referred to the criteria from as follows, ridwan (2017) irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 413 table 1. validation score category interval category 0-20 very invalid 21-40 invalid 41-60 valid enough 61-80 valid 81-100 very valid findings content experts’ validation the content validation was done by two content experts. the experts have english education and teaching background. they work as lecturers in english department at universitas muhammadiyah muara bungo. the validation was conducted in three aspects; they were the content feasibility assessment, the presentation feasibility assessment, and the language assessment. the following table shows the score of content experts’ validation. table 2. the score of media experts’ validation criteria 1st validator 2nd validator total average very good 80 80 160 80 good 20 15 45 22.5 not enough 0 5 5 2.5 very poor 0 0 0 0 based on the data, the average of “very good” response was 80, then, the “good” response was 22,5, and the average “not enough” response was 2,5, while there was no “very less” response from the content experts, it was 0. media experts’ validation results to validate english for specific purposes mbkm based as an accepted teaching and learning book, this research involved two media experts. those experts work as lecturers in english department at stkip muhammadiyah muara bungo. the media validation was conducted using a closed questionnaire. it consisted of three aspects of assessment. they were the general aspects, the design of media, and the use of media. the results of this verification are in the following table. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 414 table 3. the score of media experts’ validation criteria 1 st validator 2 nd validator total average very good 75 63 138 69 good 15 31 46 23 enough 10 5 15 7.5 not enough 0 0 0 0 table 3 showed the scores from media experts’ s of t h e domino game as a teaching and learning medium in english for a specific purpose. the results found that the average score the “very good” answer was 69, the average for the “good” answer was 23, the average for the “enough” answer was 10, and the “not enough” answer was 0. the lecturer’s evaluation in this step, the lecturer of english for a specific purpose helped the researchers to evaluate the english domino game. this evaluation was conducted by answering the questionnaire related to the game. there were some aspects evaluated by the lecturer, like the design of the book, the content of the book, and the use of the book. the results are in the following table. table 4. the evaluation by english for a specific purpose lecturer criteria strongly agree agree disagree strongly disagree the design of the book 0 6 0 0 the content of the book 0 9 1 0 the use of the book 4 0 0 0 total 4 15 1 0 table 4 shows the results of media evaluation by the lecturers of english for a specific purpose. most answers were in the “agree” response with 15 responses and then followed by “strongly agree” with four responses and one response with “disagree”. meanwhile, there was no response for “strongly disagree”. from those responses, the game design had all responses as “agree”. for the content of media/game, it had nine responses of “agree” and one response of “disagree”. furthermore, the game had four responses of “agree” for the use of the game as a teaching and learning medium in english for a specific purpose class. the three aspects of evaluation done by the lecturer are from the following figure. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 415 figure 1. the evaluation by english for a specific purpose lecturer the results show that english for a specific purpose bo o k is categorized as a good book for teaching and learning. it can be implemented and used to improve the students’ knowledge. moreover, this book leads the students to have more practice. they can practice while doing a specific project or solving a problem. therefore, the conclusion is this book received positive responses from the lecturer of english for a specific purpose. however, the lecturer suggested adding more projects for the students. trial the trial was conducted involving 1 5 students of english department students at universitas muhammadiyah muara bungo. the observasion was done to see the use of english for specific book which has been developed based on merdeka belajar kampus merdek. based on the observation in this trial, the students had a positive attitude toward the game. they showed their motivation in practice. from the result of the observation sheet, it was 87,5. this score was categorized as a very good score based on furthermore, based on this trial, some improvements were porformed by students, whether their motivation or skill. discussion based on the research results, english for a specific purpose book merdeka belajar kampus merdeka based is accepted and categorized as a very good book to use. it can help 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 416 students explore themselves and improve their knowledge and skill suitable for the era. according to , the results of the validation of the media expert were very good, as well as the validation score of the content expert. for the media validation, it was categorized as very good. then, for the content validation, both validators gave a score categorized as good, which was more than 50%. it s h o w s that the content experts assessed the content of english for a specific purpose merdeka belajar kampus merdeka (mbkm) based is good enough, but it needs to be improved. the book fits with the material of english for a specific purpose class, and it is easy to be understood. the media experts said that the book is well-developed. besides that, this book has good design and color. furthermore, based on the trial, the first and second observations were categorized as very good (hariyati et al., 2022), they were 80% at the first observation and 87,5% at the second observation. oktavia and lestari (2022) stated that students are motivated to learn when they havegood media and good material in the class. moreover, dorney (as cited in oktavia & , the learning environment and conditions also affect students' achievement. lestari, 2022) stated teachers or lecturers are the harmer (as cited in oktavia & lestari, 2022) ones who have many roles in the teaching and learning stage. to be good and professional teachers or lecturers, they do not only need to be the model in the classroom, but they also should be the controller, organizers, assessors, prompters, participants, resources, observers, and tutors in their class. as good teachers, they must be able to determine any suitable and attractive media to support the teaching and learning process. in addition, they must be able to choose good books and materials in the teaching and learning process. conclusion based on the result of the research, it can be conclude that the development of english for a specific purpose merdeka belajar kampus merdeka (mbkm) is valid both of media and content terms. this book can be published and used as teaching and learning materials in english for a specific purpose. moreover, this developed book can help the students to get the characteristics suitable as the merdeka belajar kampus merdeka (mbkm) policy expect. furthermore, this book is also able to help the ministry of education and culture to reach the program’s goal based on the new curriculum. declaration of conflicting interests the authors declared no potential conflicts of interest. references cheng, a. (2021). the place of language in the theoretical tenets, textbooks, and classroom practices in the esp genre-based approach to teaching writing. english for specific purposes, 64, 26-36. file:///c:/users/akade/downloads/published+version+(1).docx%23_bookmark12 file:///c:/users/akade/downloads/published+version+(1).docx%23_bookmark4 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 417 deuri, c. (2012). an evaluative study of text book in english at higher secondary level. international journal of science, environment and technology, 1(1), 24-28. haryati, l. f., anar, a. p., & ghufron, a. (2022). menjawab tantangan era society 5.0 melalui inovasi kurikulum merdeka di sekolah dasar (responding to the challenges of the society 5.0 era through the kurikulum merdeka innovation in elementary schools). jurnal pendidikan dan konseling (jpdk), 4(5), 5197-5202. hyland, k. (2000). developments in english for specific purposes: a multi-disciplinary approach. english for specific purposes, 19(3), 297-300. ministry of education and culture, moec. (2020). buku panduan merdeka belajar kampus merdeka (a guidebook of merdeka belajar kampus merdeka). jakarta: kementerian pendidikan dan kebudayaan. oktavia, d & lestari, r. (2022). the development of the english domino game in basic spoken english class. international journal of educational studies in social sciences, 2(2), 47–53. ridwan. (2017). metode dan teknik menyusun tesis (technical methods of compiling thesis). bandung: alfabeta. robinson, p. c. (1980). esp (english for specific purposes): the present position. pergamon. saliu, b., & hajrullai, h. (2016). best practices in the english for specific purpose classes at the language center. procedia-social and behavioral sciences, 232, 745-749. sugiyono. (2010). metode penelitian kuantitatif, kualitatif, r&d (quantitative research methods and r&d). bandung: alfabeta. takdir, m., sani, k. r., juniati, s. r., & arifin, z. (2021). polemik implementasi program magang mbkm program studi administrasi publik fakultas ilmu sosial dan ilmu politik universitas muhammadiyah sinjai (polemic on the implementation of the mbkm apprenticeship program, public administration study program, faculty of social and political sciences, universitas muhammadiyah sinjai). al qisthi, 11(2), 22-35. biographical notes diana oktavia is a lecturer, english department at universitas muhammadiyah muara bungo, indonesia. nur habibah is a lecturer, english department at universitas muhammadiyah muara bungo, indonesia. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 445 improving the ability of higher order thinking skills through information technology media in civic education learning pebriyenni 1* , m. nursi 2 , and muslim 3 abstract this research aimed to prove how the civic education learning process in high school that uses information technology media can increase the ability of higher order thinking skills. additionally, this research was experimental research that involved manipulating independent variables, controlling external variables, and measuring the effects of independent variables on the dependent variable. there were 20 students for the higher-order thinking skills data for the control class and 20 students for the experiment class. the average value of students' higher-order thinking skills or mean pre-test for the control class was 74, 2500, while for the experiment class was 76, 2500. meanwhile, the post-test mean for the control class was 80, 5000, while the experiment class was 84.5000. thus, statistically descriptive, the conclusion is that there is a difference in the average of higher order thinking skills of students between the control and the experiment class. keywords citizenship, civics education, higher order thinking skills, information technology, media article history received 20 september 2022 accepted 7 december 2022 how to cite pebriyenni, nursi, m., & muslim. (2022). improving the ability of higher order thinking skills through information technology in civics education learning. indonesian research journal in education |irje|, 6(2), 445 – 454. https://doi.org/10.22437/irje .v6i2.22120 1*faculty member, universitas bung hatta, padang, indonesia; corresponding author: pebriyenni@bunghatta.ac.id 2,3, faculty member, universitas bung hatta, padang, indonesia. https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v6i2.22120 https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v6i2.22120 mailto:pebriyenni@bunghatta.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 446 introduction as the bearer of reformative and transformative roles, education must be able to prepare students to master various skills. the need for graduates who are critical, creative, communicative, and collaborative is the learning outcome of the 2013 curriculum. learning outcomes are developed based on needs, curriculum content, and subjects. civics subjects contribute to the formation of citizenship attitudes, knowledge, and skills. the application of essential principles in civics learning impacts citizens who are ready to face the 21 st century (sriyanto, 2019). it is appropriate to the council of the european union that recommends future competencies that need attention in the education world, such as literacy, multilingual competence: mathematical competence, competence in science, digital competencies, personal, social, and learning-to-learn competencies, citizenship competence, cultural awareness, and expression competences, entrepreneurship (council of the european union, 2018). citizenship competence is the ability to act as a responsible citizen and fully participate in the community. it requires an understanding of social, economic, legal, and political concepts and structures, as well as sustainable global development (sriyanto, 2019). for indonesia, citizenship competence is obtained in civics subjects at all levels of education. the 2013 curriculum mandates civics to be a subject that must instil character in students by developing four core competencies, namely spiritual, social, knowledge, and skill. civics has a philosophical meaning in preparing civilized and wise citizens (wibowo & wahono, 2017). the success of civics learning will determine the character of law-abiding citizens (a balance of rights and obligations) as the shaper and development of the nation's values and morals in preparing a multicultural mentality (wibowo & wahono, 2017). the civics curriculum develops dynamically, and learning materials are from four elements of national values, namely pancasila, the 1945 constitution, the unitary state of the republic of indonesia (nkri), and bhinneka tunggal ika. these four elements are combined to achieve the four core competencies. in general, the objectives of civics subjects are to develop the potential of students (1) nationality attitudes including firmness, commitment, and responsibility (civic confidence, civic commitment, and civic responsibility), (2) civic knowledge, (3) civic skills including civic competence and civic responsibility. in particular, civics subject aims to (1) display characters that reflect the personal and social understanding and practice of pancasila values and morals, (2) have a supported constitutional commitment by a positive attitude and a complete understanding of the 1945 constitution, (3) think critically, rationally and creatively and have the spirit of nationalism, love for the homeland, (4) participate actively, intelligently and responsibly as members of society, nation, and state (sriyanto, 2019). in essence, the learning process is a process of communication or delivery of messages from the sender to the receiver. in the learning process, the message is in the form of learning material poured into communication symbols, both verbal (words and writing) and nonverbal. it will be obtained by students as knowledge, skills, and values for life. for the message to be conveyed effectively, it requires adequate means or media. the use of irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 447 information technology media can create meaningful learning, where students can increase their higher order thinking skills (hots). students who have hots abilities are characterized by being able to: 1) transfer and apply the knowledge and skills they already have to new contexts or more complex ways; 2) think critically, apply wise judgment, or produce reasonable criticism; 3) identify and solve problems in their lives. according to bloom's taxonomy, there are six cognitive levels, namely, remember (c1), understand (c2), apply (c3), analyze (c4), evaluate (c5), and create (c6). remembering, understanding, and applying are included in low order thinking skills (lots). meanwhile, analyzing, evaluating, and creating are included in higher order thinking skills (hots) (yahya, toukal, & osman, 2012). literature review schools need to prepare students to face the increasingly complex challenges of the 21 st century. learning is not enough to equip students with the knowledge and simple thinking processes but needs to prepare students to have and be able to develop the essential skills of this century. thinking is a mental activity that occurs when a person faces a situation or problem that needs solving. the most popular classification or taxonomy in the world of education is bloom's taxonomy. there are six (6) levels of thinking processes, including remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating (yahya, toukal, & osman, 2012). brookhart (2017) categorized the top three cognitive processes in bloom's taxonomy as higher order thinking skills processes consisting of analyzing, evaluating, and creating as follows: table 1. the verbs of l3 hots to create create own ideas. verbs: construct, design, create, develop, write, and formulate to evaluate make own decision. verbs: evaluate, assess, refute, vote, support, and decide to analyze specify aspects/elements. verbs: compare, examine, criticize, evaluate source: ariyana et al. (2018) the hots cognitive level involves creative and critical thinking processes of analysis, evaluation, and creation. student retention or student comprehension is strongly influenced by the learning activities model by the teacher. students can only absorb 5% of learning materials if the lecture activities are carried out by the teacher. when learning activities are carried out with peers, the retention power of students reaches 90%. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 448 figure 1. learning pyramid research by eyler and giles (1999) proved that the effectiveness of learning is influenced by the media used by the teacher. eyler and giles (1999) also found that the learning model that is located at the top of the cone, which is learning that only involves verbal symbols through text presentation, is the learning that produces the highest level of abstraction. the most effective learning is learning that is at the bottom of the cone, which is directly involved with purposeful learning experiences. the level of abstraction in this learning model is very low, so it makes the students easier to absorb new knowledge and skills. a meaningful learning process is needed to create citizens who can adapt to the development of science and technology, the 21 st century, and the industrial era 4.0. the problem that is mostly encountered in civics learning is the lack of information, especially related to the development of law enforcement, political participation, and implementation of civilized values in the life of the nation and state. these problems are assumed to be able to be overcome by utilizing information technology media. it is because learning is always influenced by the development of technological results that can be used for learning needs. students are learning subjects that play a dominant role so they can move fully, even individually studying the subject matter. thus, the teacher acts more as a facilitator, managing various sources and facilities for students to learn. student involvement as learning subjects can improve students' ability to think at higher levels (hots). higher order thinking skills are one of the individual capital to face the real world with increasingly rapid changes (hanifah, 2019). methodology this research is quantitative research with a quasi-experimental design. sugiyono (2013) stated that experimental research is a study that involves manipulating independent variables, controlling for extraneous variables, and measuring the effect of independent variables on the dependent variable. additionally, sugiyono (2013) also stated that irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 449 experimental research is a method used to find the effect of treatment on others under controlled conditions. by using this design, the experimental class group and the control class group have the same characteristics because they are taken randomly from a homogeneous population. this design has a control group but cannot function fully to control external variables that affect the implementation of the experiment. the design is used if the researcher can exercise control over various influential variables. the effect of the treatment can be known by calculating the average treatment observation results compared to the average observation results without treatment. an explanation of the research design is as follows (hastjarjo, 2019). x = treatment information; p = research conducted implementation; o1 = pre-test results; o2 = post-test results the population in this research was students of class xi sma 4 padang. meanwhile, the research subjects were 40 students classified into two groups, with 20 students in the experimental class and 20 in the control class. the students in the experiment class were ten students from each xi mipa 1 and xi mipa 2. additionally, in the control class, there were ten students from each xi mipa 5 and xi iis 2. the research was conducted by giving treatment (information technology media) to the experimental class only, while the control class was not given any treatment. the data analysis technique was carried out by the normality test, homogeneity test, and heteroscedasticity test with testing of hypothesis one way anova test and wilcoxon sign range test. findings and discussion comparison of the level of higher order thinking skills (hots) in the control class and the experimental class the normality test used is the kolmogorov-smirnov method. below is a complete description of the results calculation of the higher order thinking skills data normality test of students between the control and experimental class. table 2. normality test treatment q value control class 0,200 experimental class based on the analysis of the normality test, the asymp.sig. (2-tailed) value in the control and the experimental class was 0.200 because both values are more than the alpha value (α = 0.05) with normality conditions (asymp. sig. > 0.05). therefore, the conclusion is that higher order thinking skills data of students in the control and experimental class are normally distributed. homogeneity test, the results of the data homogeneity test of the ability to memorize the control and the experimental class are in the table below: x irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 450 table 3. homogeity test treatment ρ – value control class 0,752 experimental class 0,205 from the results of the homogeneity test analysis, the ρ value for the control class was 0.752, and the experimental class was 0.205. since this value is greater than the alpha value (α = 0.05) with the condition of homogeneity (sig. 0.05), the conclusion is that the higher-order thinking skills data of students in the control class and experimental class are homogeneous (same). thus, it can be concluded that there is no difference in the level of students' higher-order thinking skills between the control class and the experimental class. heteroscedasticity test, the results of the heteroscedasticity test of students' higher-order thinking skills data in the control class with the experiment class are in the table below: table 4. heteroscedasticity test treatment ρ value control class 0,000 experimental class from the results of the analysis of the heteroscedasticity test, ρ value was 0,000. since it is less than the alpha value (α = 0.05) with the condition of heteroscedasticity (sig. > 0.05), it means that the higher-order thinking skills data of students in the control class and experiment class do not show heteroscedasticity symptoms in the regression model. thus, the conclusion is that there is no difference in the level of students' higher-order thinking skills between the control and experimental class. independent t-test, an independent t-test is a method of hypothesis testing in which the data used are free (not in pairs) and normally distributed. table 5. statistics group class n mean std. deviation std. error mean pre-test 1 20 74,2500 5,19995 1,16274 2 20 76,2500 5,59017 1,25000 post-test 1 20 80,5000 3,59092 ,80296 2 20 84,5000 4,26121 ,95284 based on the table of group statistics output above, the number of students for the control class is 20, and for the experimental class are also 20 students. the average value of students' higher-order thinking skills or mean pre-test for the control class is 74,2500, while for the experimental class is 76,2500. meanwhile, the post-test mean for the control class is 80,5000, and the experimental is 84.5000. thus, statistically descriptive, the conclusion is that there is a difference average of students' higher order thinking skills between the control and irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 451 experimental class. furthermore, to prove whether the difference is significant or not, it is necessary to interpret the output of the independent samples test as follows. table 6. independent samples test levene's test for equality of variances t-test for equality of means f sig. t df sig. (2-tailed) mean difference std. error difference 95% confidence interval of the difference lower upper hots equal variances assumed 1,664 ,205 -3,210 38 ,003 -4,00000 1,24605 -6,52249 -1,47751 equal variances not assumed -3,210 36,939 ,003 -4,00000 1,24605 -6,52487 -1,47513 based on the output above, the value of sig. levene's test for equality of variances is 0.205 > 0.05, which means that the data variance between the control and experimental class is homogeneous so that the interpretation of the independent samples test output table above is guided by the values contained in the table of equal variances assumed. additionally, the above table of independent samples test output in the equal variances assumed section that the value of sig (2-tailed) is 0.003 > 0.05, so as the basis for decision making in the independent samples t-test, the conclusion is that h1 is accepted and h0 is rejected. thus, it indicates a significant difference between the higher-order thinking skills of students average in the control class and the experimental class with different abilities. therefore, the conclusion is that information technology media can increase students' higher-order thinking skills. furthermore, from the output table above, it is known that the mean difference value is -4,00000. this value shows the difference between the higher order thinking skills average of students in the control class and experimental class or 80.5000 – 84.5000, and the difference between these differences is – 6.52249 to – 1.47751 (95% confidence interval of the difference lower upper). based on the research results, the conclusion is that information technology media can increase students' higher order thinking skills in civics learning in high school. the effect of information technology media on civics learning in senior high schools in improving students' higher order thinking skills the statistical analysis results show that information technology media in civics learning in senior high schools affects the students' higher-order thinking skills, as in the table below. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 452 table 7. anova a model sum of squares df mean square f sig 1 regression 1,914 1 1,914 8,993 ,005b residual 8,086 38 ,213 total 10,000 39 a. dependent variable: higher order thinking skills b. predictors: (constant), unstandardized residual the "anova" table above shows that the f-count is 8.993 with a probability of 0.005. since the probability = 0.05, it means that information technology media is not equal to zero and affects students' higher-order thinking skills. it also means that the value of the coefficient of determination r a is not equal to zero or significant, so the conclusion is that information technology media is not equal to zero and affects students' higher-order thinking skills. the research results indicate that information technology media affects students' higher-order thinking skills. based on the anova test analysis result above, further tests were carried out using the wilcoxon sign range test, as below. table 8. test statisticsa post-test – pre-test z -4,780 b asymp. sig. (2-tailed) ,000 a. wilcoxon signed ranks test b. based on negative ranks based on the results of the wilcoxon sign range test calculation, the z value is -4.780 with a p-value (asymp. sig 2 tailed) of 0.000, where the number is less than the critical level of 0.05, so it indicates that h1 is accepted and means there was a significant difference between the pre-test and post-test groups. conclusion based on the research results, the higher order thinking skills data of students in the control and experimental class are normally distributed and homogeneous. there is no difference in students' level of higher order thinking skills between the control class and the experimental class. the average value of students' higher order thinking skills or mean pre-test for the control class is 74,2500, while for the experimental class is 76,2500. meanwhile, the post-test mean for the control class is 80,5000, and the experimental class is 84.5000. thus, statistically descriptive, the conclusion is that there is a difference average of students' higher order thinking skills between the control and the experiment class. based on irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 453 the wilcoxon sign range test calculation results, z is -4.780 with a p-value (asymp. sig 2 tailed) of 0.000, where the number is less than the critical level of 0.05. therefore, the conclusion is that h1 is accepted or means there is a significant difference between the pre-test and post-test groups. thus, the suggestion is that teachers use information technology media to improve the higher order thinking skills of high school students. declaration of conflicting interests the authors declared no potential conflicts of interest. references ariyana, y., bestary, r., & mohandas, r. (2018). buku pegangan pembelajaran berorientasi pada keterampilan berpikir tingkat tinggi [learning hanbook oriented to higher order thinking skills]. jakarta: direktorat jenderal guru dan tenaga kependidikan kementerian pendidikan dan kebudayaan hak. brookhart, s. m. (2017). how to give effective feedback to your students. the united states: ascd. council of the european union. (2018). key competences for lifelong learning (text with eea relevance). official journal of the european union, 198, 1-13. 2. eyler, j., & giles jr, d. e. (1999). where's the learning in service-learning? san francisco: jossey-bass, inc. hanifah, n. (2019). pengembangan instrumen penilaian 5 higher order thinking skill (hots) di sekolah dasar [development of 5 higher order thinking skill (hots) assessment instruments in elementary schools]. current research in education: conference series journal, 1(1), 1-8. hastjarjo, t. d. (2019). rancangan eksperimen-kuasi [quasi-experimental design]. buletin psikologi, 27(2), 187-203. sriyanto, s. (2019). bahan ajar ppkn berbasis karakter dan literasi untuk siswa kelas ix smp al hikmah surabaya [character-based civics and literacy teaching materials for class ix students of al-hikmah junior high school surabaya]. edcomtech: jurnal kajian teknologi pendidikan, 4(2), 130-142. sugiyono, d. (2013). metode penelitian pendidikan pendekatan kuantitatif, kualitatif dan r&d [educational research methods quantitative, qualitative and r&d approaches]. bandung: alfabeta. wibowo, a. p., & wahono, m. (2017). pendidikan kewarganegaraan: usaha konkret untuk memperkuat multikulturalisme di indonesia [citizenship education: a concrete effort to strengthen multiculturalism in indonesia]. jurnal civics, 14(2), 196-205. yahya, a. a., toukal, z., & osman, a. (2012). bloom’s taxonomy–based classification for item bank questions using support vector machines. in modern advances in intelligent systems and tools. springer berlin heideiberg. . irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 454 biographical notes dra. pebriyenni, m.si. is working at universitas bung hatta, indonesia. dr. m. nursi, m.si. is working at universitas bung hatta, indonesia. dr. muslim m.pd. is working at universitas bung hatta, indonesia. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 51 looking at the link between parents’ educational backgrounds and students’ english achievement lenny marzulina* 1 , nova lingga pitaloka 2 , herizal 3 , muhamad holandyah 4 , dian erlina 5 , and indah tri lestari 6 abstract this study investigated the link between parents’ educational background and students’ english achievement at one senior high school in palembang, south sumatra, indonesia. one hundred and eight senior high school students were involved in this study. data were collected through a parents’ educational background questionnaire and an english test. descriptive statistics, pearson product moment correlation, and regression analysis were employed to analyze the data. the results of the pearson product moment correlation coefficient revealed that parents’ educational background significantly correlated with the students’ english achievement. additionally, the results of the linear regression analysis indicated that there was a correlation between parents’ educational background and students’ english achievement. although the contribution was small and there were other factors that contribute to the students’ academic achievement, parents’ educational background is important in supporting their children’s english achievement. keywords parents’ educational background, students’ english achievement 1. *corresponding author: english education study program, faculty of tarbiyah and teaching sciences, state islamic university of raden fatah, south sumatra, indonesia; hj.lennymarzulina@gmail.com 1 english education study program, faculty of tarbiyah and teaching sciences, state islamic university of raden fatah, south sumatra, indonesia. 2 english education study program, faculty of tarbiyah and teaching sciences, state islamic university of raden fatah, south sumatra, indonesia. 3 english education study program, faculty of tarbiyah and teaching sciences, state islamic university of raden fatah, south sumatra, indonesia. 4 english education study program, faculty of tarbiyah and teaching sciences, state islamic university of raden fatah, south sumatra, indonesia. 5 english education study program, faculty of tarbiyah and teaching sciences, state islamic university of raden fatah, south sumatra, indonesia. irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 52 introduction education is essential for the development of society. the more educated the people of a society are, the more civilized and well-disciplined the society might be. education is also a primary need in this era of globalization (haryanto, mukminin, murboyono, muazza, & ekatina, 2016; mukminin, rohayati, putra, habibi, & aina, 2017). education gives insight, grooms the personality, inculcates moral values, adds knowledge, and provides skills for people who will live in a very competitive society. in every field, highly qualified people are needed (mukminin, haryanto, makmur, failasofah, fajaryani, thabran, & suyadi, 2013; mukminin, 2012). however, there are several studies focusing on the problems of education in indonesia including mukminin, lestari, afifah, rahmadani, and hendra (2017) and musyaddad (2013) who argue that there are some problems of education in indonesia including curriculum, budget, quality, purpose of the education, national examination, and learning facility. these kinds of problems have influenced the quality of education both in national and in international levels. for example, although since 1995, indonesia has taken part consistently in every round of trends in international mathematics and science study (timss), the results have not been satisfactory (luschei, 2017), of the 38 countries participating in 1999, indonesia ranked the 34 th and the 32 nd in math and science respectively. in 2003, performance in math increased to 411, while the science score slipped to 420. the reverse occurred in 2007, with math performance decreased to 397 and science improved to 427. scores in both math and science fell in 2011 to 386 and 406 respectively. in 2015, math performance increased to 397, while science performance decreased to 397. (p. 12) the results of indonesian’s participation in timss have implied that the quality of education should become the responsibility of all parties including government, school, and family. family is one of the important factors in supporting the education of their children. as a unit of society, the family is obviously a major socializing agent, so that it is important in determining the child’s motivation to achieve success (muola, 2010). mainly, family has responsibility for socializing children for making them productive members of society. the more the parents are involved in the process of imparting education to their children, the more the children might excel in their academic career and to become productive and responsible members of society (arib, 2017; rafiq, fatima, sohail, saleem, & khan, 2013). additionally, parents’ personal educational backgrounds and economic backgrounds have a significant effect on their children’s education. it means that parents’ educational background plays an important part in their children’s education. the education received by the children depends very much on the education that their parents have (arib, 2017; gratz, nation, schools, & kurth-schai, 2006). in relation to education, english is one of the compulsory subjects in indonesia’s educational system. the internal and external factors, for example, tend to influence the learners’ english achievement (yaghoubi & rasouli, 2015). furthermore, data from education first english proficiency index also showed that the average score of indonesian’s english proficiency was 52.74 and labeled as a moderate proficiency level. this score has placed indonesia in the 28 th rank out of 63 countries in terms of index that irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 53 compares the average english language ability in different countries (oecd, 2012). the data indicate that english proficiency in indonesia is still lower than the other countries. however, learning english is not an easy process, there are some problems or difficulties in learning english. in their study, abrar, mukminin, habibi, asyrafi, makmur, and marzulina, (2018) and mukminin, muazza, hustarna, and sari (2015) found that the problems in learning english such as teacher’s competence, students lack of english foundation background, students’ lack of confidence, inappropriate curriculum, unmotivated, encouraged and gained learning strategy, not practice speaking english with english native speakers, and class environment. some researchers have previously explored parents’ educational background and students’ english achievement. for example, apriana (2015) found that parents’ educational background was significantly correlated to students’ english achievement though the correlation was weak. also, karnegi (2010) found that there was a strong correlation between parents’ educational background and students’ english achievement. schnabel, alfeld, eccles, koller, and baumert (2002) found that a significant positive correlation existed between parents’ education and students’ achievement. it can be concluded that the results of those studies are still inconsistent. additionally, arib (2017) found that there was no significant relationship between parents’ occupation and educational background and students’ achievement in learning english. the findings of the previous studies on the link between parents’ educational background and students’ english achievement are still mixed. the current study investigated the correlation between parents’ educational background and students’ english achievement at one senior high school in palembang, south sumatra, indonesia. two research questions guided this study: (1) is there any link between parents’ educational background and students’ english achievement of the twelfth grade students at one senior high school in palembang, south sumatra, indonesia? and (2) does parents’ educational background influence students’ english achievement of the twelfth grade students at one senior high school in palembang? literature review parents’ educational background refers to “parents’ highest education” that means the highest level of education attained by parents. international standard classification of education (isced) from unesco (2011) has grouped nine levels of education. they are early childhood education, primary education, lower secondary education, upper secondary education, post-secondary non-tertiary education, short-cycle tertiary education, bachelors or equivalent level, master’s or equivalent level, doctoral or equivalent level. parents with higher levels of education are also more likely to believe strongly in their abilities to help their children learn (selvam, 2013). highly educated parents have greater success in providing their children with the cognitive and language skills that contribute to early success in school. selvam (2013) also adds the relationship of parents’ education to their children’s achievement motivation in academic area is meditated by parents’ beliefs and behaviors are likely to be influenced by their educational experiences and how these parental beliefs and behaviors actually influence children’s achievement motivation in academic area. additionally, family characteristics such as parental income, education, and family size seem to be connected to students’ achievement (levin, 1994; hanushek, 2007). irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 54 in terms of student achievement, algarabel and dasi (2001) state that achievement is the competence of a person in relation to a domain of knowledge. additionally, sukmadinata (2007) stated that achievement of students could be seen from mastering the subject that they have taken up. achievement refers to the good result from learning. in addition, english achievement has a strong relation with the academic achievement. english achievement means the competency that is achieved by the students in english subject. being well-educated parents give benefits for their children. intosh (2008) stated that parents could serve as good role models by being conscientious, ambitious, and methodical, all of which will contribute to make their children more successful at school. moreover, educated parents can provide their children with guidance to get good information at home. ghuntla, mehta, gokhale, and berhanun (2012) found that educated parents had more attention to the facility used by their children related to their study, especially in learning english. students from good socio-economical and high parental educational background have good chances for getting admission in good professional courses. parental education level also determines the facilities and the cultural level of the home. udoh and sanni (2012) claim that educated parents often get a better job. thus, with their income, they are better prepared to give educational materials for their children. in other words, this suggests that students manage to support their learning with good educational materials because they have parents who can provide them with educational supporting materials that they need including in learning english. methodology research design and participants in this study, we used a correlational approach to find out the link between parents’ educational background and students’ english achievement. the first procedure was we identified the parents’ educational background by using educational background questionnaire and the second procedure was we gave the students test of toefl. the next step was we analyzed the link between the two variables through spss based on the results of the educational background questionnaire and toefl test. one hundred and eight senior high school students were involved in this study. data were collected through a parents’ educational background questionnaire and an english test. data collection and analysis in this study, we used questionnaire and a test as the instruments to gather the data concerning the link between parents’ educational background and students’ english achievement of the twelfth grade students at one senior high school in palembang, south sumatra, indonesia. to obtain the information about parents’ educational background, we used the questionnaire from unesco (2011) which was adapted by apriana (2015). the questionnaire consisted of parents’ educational background which was related to parents’ highest education. the questionnaire asks about the level education of father and mother of the students. in scoring parents’ education background, the students ticked one of their parents’ educational background levels including early childhood education, primary irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 55 education, lower secondary education, upper secondary education, post-secondary non-tertiary education, short-cycle tertiary education, bachelor’s or equivalent level, master’s or equivalent level, and doctoral or equivalent level. the score was from 0 until 8. the highest level education is, the highest score is. a higher score indicates a higher degree of educational background level. to obtain the students’ english achievement, we used toefl junior test. the purpose of the toefl junior test is to provide an objective measure of the degree to which students in the target population have attained proficiency in the academic and social english language skills. the designers of the toefl junior standard test assert that the toefl junior standard test is an english-proficiency test that is not based on or limited to any specific curriculum. there are three sections: listening, structure, and reading. each section contains 42 four-choice questions with a total testing time of 1 hour 55 minutes. toefl junior test scores are determined by the number of questions that a student has answered correctly. there is no penalty for wrong answers. the category of the result of the test is grouped into very good, good, average poor, and very poor. in terms of correlation and regression, it was necessary to know whether the data were normal for each variable and linear between two variables. in this study, normality test was used to find out whether the data of educational background questionnaire and toefl junior test were normal or not. we used i-sample kolmogorov-smirnov in spss. if p-value is higher than .05, then it was normal and vice versa. in this study, linearity test was conducted to know whether the data of educational background questionnaire and toefl junior test were linear or not. if the score was higher than 0.05, the two variables were linear. linearity test in spss was used to see if the data were linear or not. after getting the result of educational background questionnaire and toefl junior test of students, we used pearson – product moment correlation coefficient to find out whether or not there was a correlation between the variables. the interpretation of coefficient correlation was to find whenever pearson r is higher than 0.34(>0.34). regression analysis was used to find out whether or not parents’ educational background influenced students’ english achievement. we identified the influenced of variables by using the result of r-square. simple regression analysis was used to measure two variables. the score of parents’ educational background as independent variable and students’ english achievement as dependent variable were calculated by spss. findings and discussion parents’ educational background and students’ english achievement one hundred and eight students participated in this study. the descriptive statistical analysis of parents’ educational background for the participants indicated that the maximum score was 8, and the lowest score was 1. the mean score of parents’ educational background for the participants was 5.05 and the standard deviation was 1.588. this mean score indicates that the level of parents’ educational background of participants is short-cycle tertiary education (d2/d3). it was revealed that from the questionnaire, the 9 levels of parents’ educational background were all perceived by the students with different numbers. primary education (sd) was as the least perceived level and bachelor’s or equivalent level was as the most perceived for both father and mother educational background categories. the irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 56 descriptive statistical analysis of english achievement for the participants indicated that the maximum score was 79, and the minimum score was 10. the mean score of english achievement for the participants was 47.02 and the standard deviation was 17.739. this mean score indicates that the level of students’ english achievement of participants is very poor. for each category, 13 students had a good english achievement. 19 students obtained an average english achievement. 5 students had a poor english achievement. 71 students had a very poor english achievement. the results of normality test and linearity test the data were interpreted as a normal one if p> 0.05. if p< 0.05, it means the data were not normal. kolmogorov-smirnov was used to see the normality. the results of normality test indicated that the data from each variable were all normal and appropriate for data analysis with coefficients .290 for parents’ educational background and .605 for english achievement. for linearity test, deviation of linearity was obtained. if probability is more than .05, the two variables are linear. the results showed that, the deviation from linearity betweenparents’ educational background and students’ english achievement was .769. correlation between parents’ educational background and students’ english achievement based on the pearson product moment correlation coefficient, the result indicated that the pattern of correlation between parents’ educational background and students’ english achievement was positive. the correlation coefficient or the r-obtained (.420) was higher than r-table (.176). then, the level of probability (p) significance (sig.2-tailed) was .000. it means that p (.000) was lower than .05. thus, there was a significant correlation between parents’ educational background and students’ english achievement. the details are following: table 1. correlation between parents’ educational background and students’ english achievement parents' educational background english achievement parents' educational background pearson correlation 1 .420 ** sig. (2-tailed) .000 n 108 108 english achievement pearson correlation .420 ** 1 sig. (2-tailed) .000 n 108 108 irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 57 influence of parents’ educational background on students’ english achievement the results indicated that parents’ educational background influenced students’ english achievement significantly with tvalue (4.763) was higher than ttable(1.982) with sig. value (.000) was lower than probability (.05). therefore, there was a significant influence between parents’ educational background toward students’ english achievement. the details are following: table 2. the regression analysis of parents’ educational background and students’ english achievement model unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t sig. b std. error beta 1 (constant) 23.348 5.208 4.483 .000 parents' educational background 4.691 .985 .420 4.763 .000 a. dependent variable: english achievement in addition, to know the percentage of parents’ educational background influence on the students’ english achievement, r-square was obtained. the result of the analysis revealed that the r square (r 2 ) was .176. it means that parents’ educational background led a significant effect in the level of 17.6% toward students’ english achievement, and 82.4% was an unexplained factor value. the details are following: table 3. model summary model r r square adjusted r square std. error of the estimate 1 .420 a .176 .169 16.175 a. predictors: (constant), parents’ educational background based on the result of pearson product moment correlations, it was found that there was a positive and a significant correlation between parents’ educational background and students’ english achievement of the twelfth grade students (r.420).this means that parents’ educational background had a relation to students’ english achievement. the level of correlation between parents’ educational background and students’ english achievement was fair. parents with a higher level of education can stimulate their children in a good learning environment. they can transfer what they have in their children’s cognitive development. for example, by having more discussion about the lesson, using rich vocabulary in the interaction of parents and children, and reading more books with the irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 58 children. this result is in agreement with gratz’s (2006) arguments that parents’ educational background has a relationship with students’ english achievement. furthermore, the more educated the parents are, the more they are able to pass along the education and help their children excel in school. parents with little or no education may find it very difficult to understand or help their children in the area of education. for example, selvam (2013) states that parents with a higher level of education are also more likely to believe strongly in their abilities to help their children learn. highly educated parents have greater success in providing their children with the cognitive and language skills that contribute to early success in school. also, ghuntla, mehta, gokhale, and berhanun (2012) argue that educated parents have more attention to the facility used by their children related to their study. moreover, karnegi (2010) argues that parents who have a high educational background and a good english competence generally prepare their children to face globalization with good english preparation. they will help learning english by doing many ways such as providing their children with facilities, or paying private tutors. furthermore, the result of this present study is also in agreement with the findings of apriana’s (2015) study who found that parents’ educational background was correlated to students’ english achievement even though the correlation was not strong. in addition, ardila, rosselli, matute, and guajardo (2005) indicated that there was a significant correlation between the parents’ educational level and the students’ test performance. conclusion the current study investigated the correlation between parents’ educational background and students’ english achievement at one senior high school in palembang, south sumatra, indonesia. based on the results of the present study, we found that parents’ educational backgrounds were significantly correlated with students’ english achievement with r.420. the category of correlation was fair. additionally, the linear regression analysis showed that parents’ educational background (17.6%) significantly influenced the dependent variable, students’ english achievement. in short, the total contribution of parents’ educational background and students’ english achievement showed a significant link although the contribution was small, suggesting that there were other factors that could contribute to their student’s english achievement such as schools, teachers, friends, and environment. references abrar, m., mukminin, a., habibi, a., asyrafi, f., makmur, m., & marzulina, l. (2018). “if our english isn’t a language, what is it?” indonesian efl student teachers’ challenges speaking english. the qualitative report, 23(1), 129-145. retrieved from https://nsuworks.nova.edu/tqr/vol23/iss1/9. algarabel, s., & dasi, c. (2001). the definition of achievement and the construction of tests for its measurement: a review of the main trends. psicologica, 22, 43-66. apriana, a. (2015). the correlation among parents’ attitude, their educational background and english achievement of the tenth grade students of state senior high schools in indralaya (unpublished undergraduate thesis), sriwijaya university, palembang, indonesia. https://nsuworks.nova.edu/tqr/vol23/iss1/9 irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 59 ardila, a., rosselli, m., matute, e., & guajardo, s. (2005). the influence of the parents’ educational level on the development of executive functions. developmental neuropsychology, 28(1), 539-560. arib, a. w. (2017). do family backgrounds control students’ motivation and achievement in learning a foreign language? the case of one islamic senior high school in jambi. ta'dib: journal of islamic education, 22 (1), 1-38. ghuntla, t. p., mehta, h. b., gokhale, p. a., & shah, c. j. (2012). a study of socio-economic and parental educational backgrounds of first year medical students in medical college bhavngar. international research journal of pharmacy, 3(9), 253-255. gratz, j., nation, s. o., schools, s. o., & kurth-schai, r. (2006). the impact of parents’ background on their children’s education. educational studies, 268, 1-12. haryanto, e., mukminin, a., murboyono, r., muazza, & ekatina., m. (2016). teacher certification policy in indonesia: evidence from certified english teachers at one public high school. turkish online journal of qualitative inquiry, 7(3), 224-244. hanushek, e.a., (2007). education production functions. hoover institution, california: standford university. intosh, j. (2008). family background, parental involvement, and academic achievement in canadian school. journal of economi literature classification, 120, 1-23. karnegi, d. (2010). the correlation between parents’ educational background and students’ english achievement of smp negeri 45 palembang (unpublished undergraduate thesis), sriwijaya university, palembang, indonesia. levin, h. m. (1994). raising educational productivity. california: stanford university. luschei, t. (2017). 20 years of timss: lessons for indonesia. indonesian research journal in education |irje|, 1(1), 6-17. mukminin, a., rohayati, t., putra, h. a., habibi, a., & aina, m. (2017). the long walk to quality teacher education in indonesia: student teachers’ motives to become a teacher and policy implications. elementary education online, 16(1), 35-59. mukminin, a., lestari, p.a., afifah, y., rahmadani, f., & hendra, r. (2017). the national standardized test policy for english subject: students’ perception. journal of education and learning, 11(2), 200-207. mukminin, a., haryanto, e., makmur, failasofah, fajaryani, n., thabran, y., & suyadi. (2013). the achievement ideology and top-down national standardized exam policy in indonesia: voices from local english teachers. turkish online journal of qualitative inquiry, 4(4), 19-38. mukminin, a., noprival, masbirorotni, sutarno, arif, n., & maimunah. (2015). efl speaking anxiety among senior high school students and policy recommendations. journal of education and learning, 9(3), 217-225. mukminin, a., muazza, hustarna, & sari, s.r. (2015). stories from the frontlines: in-service teachers’ demotivating factors and policy recommendations. international journal of academic research in education, 1(2), 40‐52. doi: 10.17985/ijare.56085 mukminin. a. (2012). acculturative experiences among indonesian graduate students in us higher education: academic shock, adjustment, crisis, and resolution. excellence in higher education journal, 3 (1), 14-36. irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 60 muola, j. m. (2010). a study of the relationship between academic achievement motivation and home environment among standard eight pupils. educational research and reviews, 5(5), 213-217. musyaddad, k. (2013). problematika pendidikan indonesia. edu-bio, 4, 51-57. oecd. (2012). pisa 2012 results: what students know and can do – student performance in mathematics, reading and science. france: pisa, oecd publishing. rafiq, h. m. w., fatima, m., sohail, m. m., saleem, m., & khan, m. a. (2013). parental involvement and academic achievement: a study on secondary school students of lahore, pakistan. international journal of humanities and social science, 3(8), 209-210. schnabel, k. u., alfeld, c., eccles, j. s., koller. o., &baumert, j. (2002). parental influence on students’ educational choices in the united states and germany: different ramifications--same effect? journal of vocational behavior, 60, 178-198. selvam, p. (2013). a study on relationship between parental education and student achievement.international research journals, 3(3), 75-82. sukmadinata, n. s. (2007). landasan psikologi proses pendidikan. bandung, indonesia: pt. remaja rosdakarya. udoh, n., & sanni, k. (2012). parental background variables and the career choice of secondary school students in uyo local goverment area, nigeria. mediterranean journal of social sciences, 3(1), 497-504. unesco. (2011). international standard classification of education (isced). montreal, canada: unesco institude for statistics. biographical notes lenny marzulina works as a lecturer researcher and head of english education study program in the faculty of tarbiyah and education, state islamic university of raden fatah, palembang, indonesia. she obtained her undergraduate and graduate degrees in english education from sriwijaya university, indonesia. her research interests are on the area of education, language teaching, material development, and tefl. nova lingga pitaloka works as a lecturer at english education study program in the faculty of tarbiyah and education, state islamic university of raden fatah, palembang, indonesia. herizal works as a lecturer at english education study program in the faculty of tarbiyah and education, state islamic university of raden fatah, palembang, indonesia. muhamad holandyah works as a lecturer at english education study program in the faculty of tarbiyah and education, state islamic university of raden fatah, palembang, indonesia. dr. dian erlina works as a lecturer at english education study program in the faculty of tarbiyah and education, state islamic university of raden fatah, palembang, indonesia. indah tri lestari is a student at english education study program in the faculty of tarbiyah and education, state islamic university of raden fatah, palembang, indonesia. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 292 a bibliometric analysis of moodle e-learning: evidence from 2011 to 2021 hijril ismail * abstract moodle e-learning is a suitable solution for learning in the technology era. the research purpose was to present a comprehensive literature review on moodle e-learning in teaching and learning. the articles were gained via publish or perish software. the study analyzed 29 articles from 2011 to 2021 from the scopus database. the software of mendeley was utilized to arrange the articles. the software of vosviewer is applied to review and identify the articles. the study showed the two clusters of group words that appear most often. the first cluster consisted of six items (application, e-learning, effective, elementary school, moodle, and study) and the second cluster consisted of three items words (design, development, and moodle). this cluster represents the research streams of moodle e-learning. keywords bibliometric analysis, moodle e-learning, scopus, publish or perish, and vosviewer article history received 12 august 2022 accepted 13 december 2022 how to cite ismail, h. (2022). a bibliometric analysis of moodle e-learning: evidence from 2011 to 2021. indonesian research journal in education |irje|, 6(2), 292–304. https://doi.org/ 10.22437/irje.v6i2.21485 * assistant professor, muhammadiyah university of mataram, mataram, indonesia; hijrilismail@yahoo.com mailto:hijrilismail@yahoo.com irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 293 introduction the bibliometric analysis of e-learning has been widely discussed in many articles to identify, clarify, and analyze large numbers of scientific articles that enable the researchers to explain the evolutionary nuance of a particular field, explore the intellectual structure of a specific domain in the vast literature, and also to uncover emerging trends in many articles. the research of bibliometric analysis of e-learning, such as global investigation activity on e‑learning in health sciences teaching: a bibliometric analysis (sweileh, 2021), two decades of study in e-learning: a deep bibliometric analysis (sobral, 2021)(sobral, 2021), categorization of e-learning as a developing discipline in the world publication system: a bibliometric study in scopus (tibaná-herrera et al., 2018), tendencies of e-learning study from 2000 to 2008: apply of text mining and bibliometric (hung, 2012), a bibliometric analysis of the adoption and utilization of e-learning in higher education (martin, 2021), and comprehending the association between e-learning and web 2.0: a bibliometric and thematic analysis from 2006 to 2020 (lópez-robles et al., 2020). in contrast, the research is concentrated on the bibliometric analysis of moodle e-learning. moodle is a software whose acronym is modular object-oriented dynamic learning environment as a free source of the software platform used in learning (brandl, 2005; costa et al., 2012; ismail et al., 2020; rice, 2015; soliman, 2014; sun, 2014), which has several features available for teachers to assist them in teaching (deepak, 2017). while oproiu (2015) puts forward that moodle is a virtual learning environment (vle), considered a new learning framework based on constructivist pedagogy, the learning process is carried out online and uses open source software to support a collaborative learning environment and creates information. moodle can be applied to increase academic achievement in some essential specific aspects: declarative knowledge, strategies of learning, the approach of learning, self-regulation, and statistically significant distinctions in academic results (núñez et al., 2011), enhance efl reading comprehension (ismail et al., 2020), develop students‟ motivation, participation, competence, and qualification of utilizing moodle multiple choice test and traditional classroom exams (novo-corti et al., 2013), significant effect to progress english language learning skills (yang et al., 2013), prepare beneficial to predict the students‟ academic results (romero et al., 2021), improve formative assessments (cohen & sasson, 2016), and help traditional teaching (romero et al., 2013). many previous researches about moodle e-learning were moodlerec: a recommendation system for designing courses utilizing the moodle e-learning platform (de medio et al., 2020), evaluation of moodle features at kajaani university of applied sciences-case study (deepak, 2017), a research about employing e-learning platform (moodle) in university teaching process (oproiu, 2015), the effect of moodle e-learning material on efl reading comprehension (ismail et al., 2020), moodle and socrative quizzes as formative aids on theory teaching in a chemical engineering subject (romero et al., 2021), implementation of training programs in self-regulated learning strategies in moodle format: results of an experience in higher education (núñez et al., 2011), before and during covid-19: a cohesion network analysis of students‟ online participation in moodle courses irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 294 (dascalu et al., 2021), and introducing an open-source course management system (moodle) for blended learning on infectious diseases and microbiology: a pre-post observational study (lebeaux et al., 2021). therefore, this research aims to review moodle e-learning. methodology the study used quantitative research of journal articles and concentrated on bibliometric analysis. the five stages of bibliometric analysis were modified and applied in this research. they define appropriate search terms, early search results, refine the search results, compile statistics on the early data, and conduct data analysis (fahimnia et al., 2015). defining the appropriate search term the articles search was carried out in october 2021 by applying “moodle e-learning” as a keyword. the publish or perish software with the scopus database was employed to elicit the articles. the process was initiated by entering “moodle e-learning” into the publish or perish software. then, the authors arranged to publish names with „journal‟, title word with “moodle e-learning”, and years with „0-0‟. 117 articles were found in the early search from 2007 to 2021 (14 years). early search results in this stage, the authors did not adjust the year range. the oldest article on moodle e-learning was published in 2007, entitled analyzing users' access logs in moodle to improve e-learning. the publish or perish software recognized the ten top articles. table 1. the ten tops articles (unregulated search) authors titles publication years baruque et al. analyzing users' access logs in moodle to improve e-learning 2007 limongelli et al. configuration of personalized e-learning courses in moodle 2007 minović et al. usability issues of e-learning systems: case-study for moodle learning management system 2008 siirak moodle e-learning environment an effective tool for the development of a learning culture 2008 romero et al. evolutionary algorithms for subgroup discovery in e-learning: a practical application using moodle data 2009 tuparov, at al. the "jigsaw" collaborative method in e-learning environment moodle 2009 braccini et al. users' perception of the quality of open source e-learning platform: the case of moodle 2009 amaral and almeida usability and e-learning: moodle assessment 2009 gergely and pohl eye tracking study of the e-learning environment moodle: investigation of user-behavior 2009 cuadrado-garcía and ruiz-molina university students' satisfaction on virtual platforms: an international e-learning program based on moodle 2009 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 295 refinement of the search results in this stage, the authors controlled the range of years (2011-2021) and set publication names (journals). 29 articles were found over ten years. the distinction between the result of the early search and the refinement search can be exhibited in table 2. table 2. comparison metrics metrics data initial search refinement search query journal, moodle e-learning journal, moodle e-learning from 2011 to 2021 (10 years) source scopus scopus papers 117 29 citations 760 210 years (2007-2021) 14 years (2011-2021) 10 years cites/year 54.29 21.00 cites/paper 6.50 7.24 authors/paper 1.00 1.00 h_index 14 7 g_index 24 14 hi_norm 14 7 hi_annual 1.00 0.70 ha_index 7 4 compiling initial data statistics twenty-nine articles found in the refinement search result were downloaded and saved into the software of mendeley in the form of ris format to regulate vital information related to the articles, such as title, author‟s name, abstract, publication year, journal publisher, volume, issue, and page. afterward, the articles identified the publication trend year and source of publication. figure 1. publication trend years 0 2 4 6 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2019 2020 2021 years of publications irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 296 the publications trend on moodle e-learning in the last ten years is in 2011 was two articles published in the scopus-indexed journal. in 2012 were three articles. in 2013 was only one article. in 2014 were three articles. in 2015 were two articles. in 2016 were four articles. in 2017 were two articles. in 2019 were three articles. in 2020 were five articles. and, in 2021 were four articles. figure 2. journal in which articles in analysis appeared eighteen journals have only published one article on the “moodle e-learning” theme. the 18 journals are the academy of strategic management journal, desidoc journal of library and information technology, eurasia journal of mathematics, science and technology education, international journal for lesson and learning studies, international journal of advanced computer science and applications, international journal of innovation and learning, international journal of instruction, international journal of mobile and blended learning, international journal of morphology, international journal of scientific and technology research, international journal of technology enhanced learning, journal of information systems education, journal of information technology education: research, journal of internet technology, journal of network and computer applications, journal of statistical software, journal of turkish science education, and turkish online journal of distance education. in total 20 journals discussed issues related to moodle e-learning. data analysis this research explores the term “moodle e-learning”, which is analyzed using bibliometric analysis from the database of scopus. the bibliometric review was carried out through version 7.33.3388.7819 of publish or parish software. the authors elicited 117 articles in the early result and 29 in the regulated result. the data regarding citations changes with 210 citations and 21.00 citations/year. findings and discussions this study highlights the matrix's significant impact on citations on articles published in scopus-indexed journals. the most cited paper is titled. the first is student-oriented planning of e-learning contents for moodle", written by caputi and garirdo, published in 0 5 10 15 20 journal of e-learning and knowledge… journal of physics: conference series others journals https://iopscience.iop.org/journal/1742-6596 https://iopscience.iop.org/journal/1742-6596 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 297 the journal of network and computer applications in 2015, and cited by 54 authors. the second is personalized e-learning in moodle: the moodle_ls system, written by de medio et al. (2020), was published in the journal of e-learning and knowledge society in 2011 and cited by 44 authors. the third is the analysis of selected aspects of students' performance and satisfaction in a moodle-based e-learning system environment," written by umek, et al., published in the eurasia journal of mathematics, science and technology education in 2015, and cited by 32 authors. the fourth is what drives successful social media in education and e-learning? a comparative study on facebook and moodle, written by a. al-azawei, published in the journal of information technology education: research in 2019 and cited by 17 authors. and the fifth is an assessment of the effectiveness of moodle e-learning system for undergraduate public administration education, written by umek, et al., published in the international journal of innovation and learning in 2017, and cited by 10 authors. the five most cited articles have strengths and weaknesses. the first, the strength of an article written by valentina et al. is they designed student-oriented learning content according to the student's background and learning objectives in moodle and the weakness in the teaching and learning process used entirely online. the second, the strength of an article written by de medio et al. is that they develop an innovative learning content delivery system based on personalization of the learning experiences. the weakness is that learning content is still in the experimental stage. the third, the strength of an article written by umek et al. is found a positive relationship between moodle e-learning platform and students‟ performance. the weakness is that they don‟t create e-learning because they undertake student surveys. the fourth, the strength of the article written by al-azawei is that the students were more focused on system and quality of information on facebook than on moodle. the weakness is that he used a convenience sampling approach, so the result was not generalizable. and the fifth, the strength of an article written by umek et al. is knowing the positive impact of moodle in education. the weakness is that they do not consider other individual factors (motivation) and the content quality in moodle. figure 3. mapping of network visualization note: two colors in figure 3 state four clusters of moodle e-learning. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 298 after finding the citation frequency, the output from the publish or perish software is analyzed using vosviewer software to visualize bibliometric analysis maps and identify keywords that appear frequently. the result of vosviewer software displays bibliometric mapping in three diversity visualizations, namely network visualization, overlay visualization, and density visualization. figure 4. mapping of density visualization figure 4 shows nine-word items that meet the threshold of the 104 terms from the title fields extracting and full counting with the minimum number of occurrences set to 2. the author also found two clusters identified, namely cluster 1 consisting of six items: application, e-learning, effective, elementary school, moodle, and study; cluster 2 consisted of three items words, such as design, development, and moodle. the authors of the 29 articles analyzed in this research are: 1) valentina et al. researched about student-oriented planning of e-learning contents for moodle in 2015; 2) de medio et al. about personalized e-learning in moodle: the moodle_ls system in 2011; 3) umek et al. about the analysis of selected aspects of students‟ performance and satisfaction in a moodle-based e-learning system environment in 2015; 4) al-azawei about what drives successful social media in education and e-learning? a comparative study on facebook and moodle in 2019; 5) umek et al. about an assessment of the effectiveness of moodle e-learning system for undergraduate public administration education in 2017; 6) jordan about comparison of international baccalaureate (ib) chemistry students‟ preferred vs actual experience with a constructivist style of learning in a moodle e-learning environment in 2013; 7) jainul et al about development of e-learning courses for subjects about 'learn and learning' with moodle-based for prospective teacher in indonesia in 2020; 8) konaru about exploring moodle functionality for managing open distance learning e-assessments in 2017; 9) chen et al. about a study of investigating the learning effectiveness of applying the moodle e-learning in taiwan's elementary school in 2014; 10) schultz about information security trends and issues in the moodle e-learning platform: an ethnographic content analysis in 2012; irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 299 11) zeileis et al. about flexible generation of e-learning exams in r: moodle quizzes, olat assessments, and beyond in 2014; 12) bucarey about anatomy contents in learning designs displayed in lams and integrated to moodle in 2011; 13) berizzi et al about moodle my style: e-learning improves attributional style for cancer-diagnosed children in 2016; 14) santo and meo about e-training for the clil teacher: e-tutoring and cooperation in a moodle-based community of learning in 2016; 15) hawagamag et al about m-learning not an extension of e-learning:" based on a case study of moodle vle in 2012; 16) bansode and kumbhar about e-learning experience using open source software: moodle in 2012; 17) widyaningsih about the development of the hots test of physics based on modern test theory: question modeling through e-learning of moodle lms in 2021; 18) lisnani about designing moodle features as e-learning for learning mathematics in covid-19 pandemic in 2020; 19) arianti about the development of e-learning use moodle as a multimedia learning medium in 2020; 20) hasan about on examining user experience of moodle e-learning system in 2021; 21) syarif about using moodle learning management system in teaching from distance learning to the e-learning 5.0 of new technology in 2021; 22) dewantara about the principles of blended learning design with heutagogy approach through e-ganesha moodle in indonesian language learning in 2021; 23) putri about moodle as e-learning media in physics class in 2020; 24) nurjanah about moodle-based e-learning development based on mathematical solving of high school students in 2020; 25) ariesta about enhancing science learning outcomes through moodle-based e-learning in elementary schools in 2019; 26) dhika about the study of the use and application of the moodle e-learning platform in high school in 2019; 27) magonava about e-learning practice using moodle by leading universities in the russian region in 2016; 28) manzo about design and performance evaluation of a virtualized moodle-based e-learning environment in 2016; and 29) yalman about the design, application and evaluation of a web-based e-learning system (moodle) in 2014. table 3. article with two or more citations no citations per year authors title year publication 1 54 09.00 caputi, and garirdo student-oriented planning of e-learning content for moodle 2015 journal of network and computer applications 2 44 04.40 de medio, et al. personalized e-learning in moodle: the moodle_ls system 2011 journal of e-learning and knowledge society 3 32 05.33 umek, et al. analysis of selected aspects of students performance and satisfaction in a moodle-based e-learning system environment 2015 eurasia journal of mathematics, science and technology education 4 17 08.50 a. al-azawei what drives 2019 journal of irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 300 successful social media in education and e-learning? a comparative study on facebook and moodle information technology education: research 5 10 02.50 umek, et al. an assessment of the effectiveness of moodle e-learning system for undergraduate public administration education 2017 international journal of innovation and learning 6 8 01.00 jordan comparison of international baccalaureate (ib) chemistry students‟ preferred vs actual experience with a constructivist style of learning in a moodle e-learning environment 2013 international journal for lesson and learning studies 7 7 07.00 zainul et al. development of e-learning courses for subjects about 'learn and learning' with moodle-based for prospective teacher in indonesia 2020 journal of physics: conference series 8 7 0,09375 koneru exploring moodle functionality for managing open distance learning e-assessments 2017 turkish online journal of distance education 9 7 01.00 chen et al. a study of investigating the learning effectiveness of applying the moodle e-learning in taiwan's elementary school 2014 journal of internet technology 10 6 0,046528 schultz information security trends and issues in the moodle 2012 journal of information systems irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 301 e-learning platform: an ethnographic content analysis education 11 4 00.57 zeileis et al. flexible generation of e-learning exams in r: moodle quizzes, olat assessments, and beyond 2014 journal of statistical software 12 3 00.30 bucarey anatomy contents in learning designs displayed in lams and integrated to moodle 2011 international journal of morphology 13 2 00.40 berizzi, et al. moodle my style: e-learning improves attributional style for cancer-diagnosed children 2016 international journal of technology enhanced learning 14 2 00.40 santo and meo e-training for the clil teacher: e-tutoring and cooperation in a moodle-based community of learning 2016 journal of e-learning and knowledge society 15 2 00.22 hewagamage et al. "m-learning not an extension of e-learning:" based on a case study of moodle vle 2012 international journal of mobile and blended learning 16 2 00.22 bansode and kumbhar e-learning experience using open source software: moodle 2012 desidoc journal of library and information technology conclusions, implications, and suggestions this research reviewed 29 articles related to the term moodle e-learning. the publish or perish software version 7.33.3388.7819 with the scopus database was utilized for collecting the articles. these 29 articles were found from a more extensive original set of 117 articles gained from the early result. the number of data citations is 760 citations and 54.29 citations/year, whereas the refinement result is 29 articles, cited by 210 authors and 21.00 citations/year. the most cited article on moodle e-learning is written by v. caputi entitled student-oriented planning of e-learning contents for moodle. the article was written in 2015, published in the journal of network and computer applications, and cited by 54 authors. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 302 most importantly, as studies showed the two clusters of words that appear most often. the first cluster consisted of six items (application, e-learning, effective, elementary school, moodle, and study) and the second cluster consisted of three items words (design, development, and moodle). finally, because the keywords used to search for articles in this study were limited to moodle e-learning, the results displayed are only those related to moodle. therefore, future researchers are advised to use other forms of e-learning as keywords to find articles to be analyzed. disclosure statement the author reported no potential conflict of interest. references brandl, k. (2005). are you ready to “moodle”? language learning & technology, 9(2), 16–23. cohen, d., & sasson, i. (2016). online quizzes in a virtual learning environment as a tool for formative assessment. journal of technology and science education, 6(3), 188–208. https://doi.org/10.3926/jotse.217 costa, c., alvelos, h., & teixeira, l. (2012). the use of moodle e-learning platform : a study in a portuguese. 5, 334–343. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.protcy.2012.09.037 dascalu, m. d., ruseti, s., dascalu, m., mcnamara, d. s., carabas, m., rebedea, t., & trausan-matu, s. (2021). before and during covid-19: a cohesion network analysis of students‟ online participation in moodle courses. computers in human behavior, 121(october 2020), 106780. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2021.106780 de medio, c., limongelli, c., sciarrone, f., & temperini, m. (2020). moodlerec: a recommendation system for creating courses using the moodle e-learning platform. computers in human behavior, 104, 106168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2019.106168 deepak, k. c. (2017). evaluation of moodle features at kajaani university of applied sciences-case study. procedia computer science, 116, 121–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2017.10.021 fahimnia, b., sarkis, j., & davarzani, h. (2015). green supply chain management: a review and bibliometric analysis. international journal of production economics, 162, 101–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpe.2015.01.003 hung, j. l. (2012). trends of e-learning research from 2000 to 2008: use of text mining and bibliometrics. british journal of educational technology, 43(1), 5–16. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8535.2010.01144.x ismail, h., rahmat, a., & emzir, e. (2020). the effect of moodle e-learning material on efl reading comprehension. international journal of multicultural and multireligious understanding, 7(10), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.18415/ijmmu.v7i10.2069 lebeaux, d., jablon, e., flahault, c., lanternier, f., viard, j. p., pacé, b., mainardi, j. l., & lemogne, c. (2021). introducing an open-source course management system (moodle) for blended learning on infectious diseases and microbiology: a pre-post observational study. infectious diseases now, 51(5), 477–483. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 303 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.idnow.2020.11.002 lópez-robles, j. r., casas-valadez, m. a., guzmán-fernández, a., monjaraz-frausto, c., castorena-robles, a., & gamboa-rosales, n. k. (2020). understanding the relationship between e-learning and web 2.0: a bibliometric and thematic analysis from 2006 to 2020. proceedings of the international conference on e-learning, icel, 2020-decem, 290–295. https://doi.org/10.1109/econf51404.2020.9385510 martin, o. a. (2021). a bibliometric analysis of the adoption and use of e-learning in higher education. educación superior, 8(2). novo-corti, i., varela-candamio, l., & ramil-díaz, m. (2013). e-learning and face to face mixed methodology: evaluating effectiveness of e-learning and perceived satisfaction for a microeconomic course using the moodle platform. computers in human behavior, 29(2), 410–415. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2012.06.006 núñez, j. c., cerezo, r., bernardo, a., rosário, p., valle, a., fernández, e., & suárez, n. (2011). implementation of training programs in self-regulated learning strategies in moodle format: results of a experience in higher education. psicothema, 23(2), 274– 281. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21504681 oproiu, g. c. (2015). a study about using e-learning platform (moodle) in university teaching process. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 180(november 2014), 426– 432. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.02.140 rice, w. (2015). moodle e-learning course development (third edition). romero, c., espejo, p. g., zafra, a., romero, j. r., & ventura, s. (2013). web usage mining for predicting final marks of students that use moodle courses. computer applications in engineering education, 21(1), 135–146. https://doi.org/10.1002/cae.20456 romero, e., garcía, l., & ceamanos, j. (2021). moodle and socrative quizzes as formative aids on theory teaching in a chemical engineering subject. education for chemical engineers, 36, 54–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ece.2021.03.001 sobral, s. r. (2021). two decades of research in e-learning: a deep bibliometric analysis. international journal of information and education technology, 11(9), 398–404. https://doi.org/10.18178/ijiet.2021.11.9.1541 soliman, n. a. (2014). using e-learning to develop efl students ’ language skills and activate their independent learning. june, 752–757. sun, l. (2014). investigating the effectiveness of moodle-based blended learning in college english course. international journal of information technology and management, 13(1), 83– 94. https://doi.org/10.1504/ijitm.2014.059152 sweileh, w. m. (2021). global research activity on e-learning in health sciences education: a bibliometric analysis. medical science educator, 31(2), 765–775. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40670-021-01254-6 tibaná-herrera, g., fernández-bajón, m. t., & de moya-anegón, f. (2018). categorization of e-learning as an emerging discipline in the world publication system: a bibliometric study in scopus. international journal of educational technology in higher education, 15(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-018-0103-4 yang, y. t. c., chuang, y. c., li, l. y., & tseng, s. s. (2013). a blended learning environment for individualized english listening and speaking integrating critical thinking. computers and education, 63, 285–305. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 304 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2012.12.012 biographical note hijril ismail is an assistant lecturer in the english language education study department at the faculty of teacher training and education, muhammadiyah university of mataram. he earned a bachelor of education in english education program from ikip mataram in 2006. he then earned a master of education in english education program from universitas ahamad dahlan yogyakarta in 2011 and a doctor of education in language education program from universitas negeri jakarta in 2021. he has written numerous journal articles and two books on “teaching materials of efl academic reading for university students” in 2022 and “english reading comprehension materials through e-learning moodle” in 2021. . this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 228 the adaptation from online learning to face-to face learning during the post of the covid-19: the case of one senior high school in batam novia sri yanti 1* and afriva khaidir 2 abstract this research aimed to identify the process of adaptation from online learning to face-to-face learning in post-covid-19 and describe the extent to which students and teachers can adapt from online learning to face-to-face in post-covid-19. this research used the theory of habitus and environment by pierre bourdieu. it used qualitative with case study research. the research participants were the teachers, students, and curriculum assistant principals of sman 15 batam. data validity tests include credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability tests. meanwhile, data analysis used the interactive analysis model miles and huberman (2002). the research results showed that the process of adapting online learning to face-to-face has stages of preparation, implementation, and learning. the level of achievement of teachers and students in adapting to learning can be seen from the learning methods used by teachers, attendance, and student tardiness. keywords adaptation, covid-19 face-to-face learning, online learning article history received 03 february 2023 accepted 01 june 2023 how to cite yanti, n. s., & khaidir, a. (2023). the adaptation from online learning to face–to-face learning during the post of covid-19 pandemic: the case of one senior high school in batam. indonesian research journal in education |irje|, 7(1), 228-238. https://doi.org/10.22437/irje .v7i1.27059 1* postgraduate student at the department of social science education with a concentration in sociology-anthropology, padang state university, sumatera barat, indonesia; corresponding author: sriyantinovia2020@gmail.com 2 padang state university, sumatera barat, indonesia https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v7i1.27059 https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v7i1.27059 mailto:sriyantinovia2020@gmail.com irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 229 introduction online learning is a recommendation to study from home during the covid-19 pandemic to make changes in the world of education that are all new, starting from learning media that use video conferencing or are limited to communicating messages via text judging from the development of the decline in the covid-19 outbreak (collantes et al., 2022). in almost all regions of indonesia in early 2022, the government again issued a policy regarding learning, namely being allowed to carry out 100 per cent face-to-face learning (ptm) for areas that have complied with the provisions (mukminin et al., 2022; yulianti & mukminin, 2021). learning activities that were initially face-to-face were then forced to become online learning or distance learning which teachers or students at sma negeri 15 batam were not ready even though they provided many conveniences to teachers and students. therefore, these conveniences made teachers and students reluctant to return to face-to-face learning. this reluctance is a phenomenon that researchers observed directly with fellow teachers at sma negeri 15 batam that teachers do not prepare the latest teaching materials and still use teaching materials during the online learning process, besides that there are also other phenomena in terms of timeliness to enter the class as the teacher's teaching schedule, where the teacher buys time go for it. meanwhile, the phenomenon that occurred to students based on the observations of researchers as one of the teachers who taught at sma negeri 15 batam, when researchers started the teaching and learning process, not all students brought books as a lesson to the class. the transition from online to face-to-face learning requires educational actors, including teachers and students to adapt. from the online learning system, it changed to a limited face-to-face learning (ptm) system, now 100 percent face-to-face learning (ptm). for about 1.5 years, students studied at home and then returned to study at school. students tended to show individualistic behavior, did not respond to the people around them, and were undisciplined and irresponsible. the behavior of students who lack attention and focus when learning online is involved in face-to-face learning. the same thing is felt by other teacher colleagues when dealing with students inside and outside the classroom. online learning habits harm students' habits. the difficulties in the transition process from online to face-to-face learning that is felt by schools are also influenced by the number of students in sma negeri 15 batam. the more students at school, the increasingly difficult for the school to control the level of focus on student learning, which has to readjust to face-to-face learning after getting used to online learning during the covid-19. with quite many students included in the category, the school must be able to consider and examine issues that could hinder the process of adapting students to the new policies issued in implementing face-to-face learning after undergoing the online learning process for quite a while (velasco et al., 2022; susanti et al., 2022). according to online learning policies make children addicted to adawiyah et al. (2021), playing with gadgets, bored, and lazy to study. it is undeniable that online learning can change students' attitudes and behavior. learning at home during the covid -19 made children sometimes less cooperative in completing assignments given by teachers at schools who were helped to work with parents. changes in students' attitudes and behavior during online irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 230 learning will also change the meaning of learning in its process and objectives. batam 15 public high school had difficulty adapting to implementing online learning. however, now that things have returned to normal from covid-19 and face-to-face learning. schools are also finding it difficult to adapt back to face-to-face learning. even though face-to-face learning is indeed an obligation for sma negeri 15 batam because the school implements face-to-face learning, not online learning. however, sma negeri 15 batam felt reluctant to return to implementing face-to-face learning. literature review habitus and environment the researcher used the theory of habitus and environment put forward by pierre bourdieu, a sociologist from france (ritzer & goodman, 2007). in general, habitus is a mental or cognitive structure used by individuals to relate to the social world. individuals are equipped with a series of internalized schemes to interpret, appreciate and understand the social world (ritzer & goodman, 2007). habitus can also be said to be a product of history, which was formed after humans were born and interacted with society in a definite space and time (winoto, 2017). bourdieu divided the environment into two types. first, the battle environment aims to get resources and keys to get closer to power. second, the environment forms structural bonds that can determine the status of individuals and groups in society. individuals and groups that can win the battle are those who have all kinds of capital to deploy and use (ritzer & goodman, 2007). the environment is a network of relations between objective positions within it. the existence of these relations is separate from individual consciousness and will. it is a social arena in which individuals maneuver and struggle to win capital used to gain definite access (sihotang, 2012). in addition, the environment is also a structured and unconscious relationship that regulates the positions of individuals and groups in a spontaneously formed society (adib, 2012). online learning online learning uses an internet network with accessibility, connectivity, flexibility, and the ability to bring up various learning interactions. zhang and nunamaker (2003) stated that the internet and technology can change how knowledge is conveyed and can be an alternative to learning that is carried out in traditional classes. the online learning implementation requires supporting facilities, such as smartphones, laptops, or tablets, to access information anywhere and anytime (sadikin & hamidah, 2020). coman (2020) revealed that online learning provides effective learning methods, such as practicing with related feedback, combining collaborative activities with independent learning, personalizing learning based on student needs, and using simulations and games. there are advantages and disadvantages of online learning. the advantages of online learning are that the material that has been taught can still be given back (nengrum et al., 2021). however, online learning also irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 231 has disadvantages, such as ineffective students, not all parents of students having data/mobile phones, and ineffective material delivery. face to face learning in face-to-face learning, the teacher's ability to teach is very decisive, for example, mastery of the concept of the subject matter and the environment where the initial learning is (nurlatifah et al., 2021), so the learning activities are in the form of interaction processes between students, learning materials, teachers, and the environment that can be measured through rusman's media, methods, strategies, and approaches (nurlatifah et al., 2021). therefore, face-to-face learning is a set of planned actions based on learning principles in the form of interaction processes between students, learning materials, teachers, and the environment, so it is easier for teachers to evaluate students' attitudes. face-to-face learning has characteristics that are place-based and social interaction (istiningsih & hasbullah, 2015). face-to-face learning is usually carried out in classrooms in a synchronous communication model and there is an active interaction between fellow students, students and teachers, and other students. in face-to-face learning, the teacher will use various methods in the learning process to make the learning process active and attractive. methodology this research used a qualitative with a case study approach. moleong (2011) explained that qualitative research prioritizes the quality of research rather than the quantity. one type of qualitative research with a case study approach is carried out by looking closely at individual interpretations of experiences and understanding their meaning from the participant's perspective (ezmir, 2013). the participants of this research were teachers, students, and the curriculum assistant principal at sma negeri 15 batam. the research site was sma negeri 15 batam. for the data obtained to be more valid, this research used data triangulation techniques, which include source triangulation, data collection technique triangulation, and time. to collect data, the researchers used observation, interviews, and documentation studies. in addition, the data analysis is used as what was explained by miles and huberman (2002). findings the process of adapting online learning to face-to-face the covid-19 pandemic forced the government and related agencies to provide an alternative educational process for students to study at home to break the chain of the spread of covid-19. the minister of education and culture began to limit teaching and learning activities in schools, even issuing regulations to implement online distance learning using smartphones, laptops, or computers during a pandemic. students and teachers will adapt to the online learning situation. school closures during the covid-19 pandemic had negative impacts on students, such as learning achievement, decreased student abilities, lack of mastery irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 232 of technology, increased spending to buy internet quota, decreased socialization and communication between students, teachers' working hours became unlimited because the communication and coordination are more often with parents, other teachers, and school principals. through the change from online learning to face-to-face learning again, it is not easy for schools, students, and teachers to do, as happened at sma negeri 15 batam. since they have been doing online learning for about 1.5 years, online learning is considered to provide many conveniences for schools, students, and teachers. of course, with these conditions, they must adapt to face-to-face learning again. however, the adaptation process does not always go as expected. as with the research results of researchers which show that there are several adaptation processes needed by schools, students, and teachers in facing face-to-face learning again after going through online learning, including: preparation the first step taken by sma negeri 15 batam in adapting to face-to-face learning set by the government after the covid-19 pandemic was to make preparations. however, the researchers' findings showed a lack of preparation to implement face-to-face learning after the covid-19 pandemic because policies always experienced sudden changes according to circumstances. sma negeri 15 batam teachers who are used to online learning in conditions like this makes a lack of preparation in the learning process. changes in the immediate learning structure require all teachers to participate in the face-to-face learning process. in face-to-face learning, the teacher must create a mechanism to make lesson plans and learning methods that suit the interests and conditions of students after they are used to participating in online learning and ensure the learning process runs smoothly. implementation the second step taken by sma negeri 15 batam in the adaptation process to face-to-face learning is to carry out face-to-face learning in stages according to the health protocol by dividing students into groups 50% group a and 50% group b. the groups take turns to come to school to attend face-to-face learning every day. when a group of students does not participate face-to-face on a definite day, they can still participate in online learning. as the covid-19 cases decrease, sma negeri 15 batam is allowed to carry out 100% face-to-face learning. however, sma negeri 15 batam has not been able to fully carry out face-to-face learning due to the renovation of classroom construction, so it impacts the implementation of learning, which requires students to follow the online learning process. the learning implementation is scheduled by the curriculum assistant principal, where in the first week, all class x students study online, while the class xi students are face to face, and so on. this learning implementation is increasingly difficult for teachers and students to fully adapt to face-to-face learning because there are still students who take part in online learning. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 233 evaluation the next step in the face-to-face learning adaptation process is to evaluate learning. learning evaluation is a process to obtain data and information needed to improve the implementation of learning that is needed to maximize results. the research findings show that sma negeri 15 batam is still in the processing stage to maximize face-to-face learning, as the learning methods used by teachers have not made improvements and still use the same learning model during online learning. how far teachers and students adapt from online to face-to-face learning the researchers' findings show that teachers and students have not been able to adapt to face-to-face learning well after the covid-19 pandemic. it can be seen from the teacher's unpreparedness in preparing the latest learning methods because they are still fixated on the learning methods used during online learning. in addition, teachers and students have not been able to adapt to face-to-face learning, as seen from the declining attendance of sma negeri 15 batam students and also seen from students coming late due to students' habitual patterns during online learning which are more relaxed, so students cannot arrange sleep schedules properly. use of learning methods a learning method is one of the tools to support educational goals achievement. it is also a component for teachers to master. the use of appropriate learning methods has contributed to the success of the learning process. therefore, it is not suited for a teacher to only use one particular learning method, such as the lecture method. the lecture method is a way of conveying lessons through oral narrative or explanation to students. the lecture method is a traditional method because this method has long been used as a means of spoken communication between teachers and students in the learning process. many teachers often use the lecture method during the learning process so that student participation becomes less visible. the use of the lecture method is one of the benchmarks that researchers found that sma negeri 15 batam has not been able to adapt the face-to-face learning any more after the covid-19 pandemic because, during online learning through google meet, the teacher also uses the lecture learning method in teaching. presence the presence of students in the face-to-face learning process is a form of the failure of sma negeri 15 batam in re-implementing face-to-face learning after the covid-19 pandemic. the cause of student absence in the learning process according to the research findings was the learning process being boring and making them sleepy. it is because students are used to receiving online learning, which is considered fun learning. after all, students can be more relaxed in learning. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 234 lateness students participating in learning activities at school will not be separated from the various rules and regulations applied by the school. every student is required to be able to follow the rules. sman 15 batam is re-implementing the rules regarding face-to-face learning after the covid-19 pandemic. with these rules, of course, teachers and students must be able to adapt to these circumstances. however, based on the research finding, sman 15 batam students have not been able to participate in the face-to-face learning process properly. there were still students who came late to school. students are often late for various reasons, including living far from school, transportation problems, and waking up late. these reasons are often given by students when they arrive late when the first class has started. discussions from the development of the decline in the covid-19 outbreak in almost all regions of indonesia in early 2022, the government again issued a policy regarding learning, which allows carrying out 100 percent face-to-face learning (ptm) for areas that have complied with the provisions. skb 4 is a new policy issued by the government to reopen schools as places for the learning process in almost all parts of indonesia. sma negeri 15 batam is one of the schools that fulfils the requirements of holding face-to-face learning (ptm). additionally, online learning uses an internet network with accessibility, connectivity, flexibility, and the ability to bring up various learning interaction types. zhang and nunamaker (2003) showed that the use of the internet and technology can change the way knowledge is conveyed and can be an alternative to learning in traditional classes. in face-to-face learning, the ability to teach by the teacher is very decisive, for example, mastery of the concept of the subject matter and the environment where the initial learning is (nurlatifah et al., 2021) so that the learning activities are in the form of interaction processes between students, learning materials, teachers, and the environment that can be measured through rusman's media, methods, strategies, and approaches (nurlatifah et al., 2021). the transition process from online to face-to-face learning requires educational actors, including teachers and students at sma negeri 15 batam. from online learning to a limited face-to-face learning (ptm) system. now it has been 100 percent face-to-face learning (ptm). for about 1.5 years, students study at home and then return to study at school. students show behavior that tends to be individualistic, less responsive to people around them, undisciplined, and irresponsible. the discussion of adaptation from online learning to face-to-face learning after the covid-19 pandemic at sma negeri 15 batam is in line with the habitus theory and the environment put forward by pierre bourdieu (ritzer & goodman, 2007). this theory is motivated by bourdieu's concern that he sees a conflict between objectivism and subjectivism. in general, habitus is a mental or cognitive structure used by individuals to relate to the social world. individuals are equipped with internalized schemes that are used to interpret, appreciate and understand the social world (ritzer & goodman, 2007). habitus can also be said to be a irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 235 product of history, which was formed after humans were born and interacted with society in a definite space and time (winoto, 2017). sma negeri 15 batam experienced problems in the adaptation process with face-to-face learning again after the covid-19 pandemic. it happened because sma negeri 15 batam, in going through the adaptation process was based on the social and mental world of teachers or students who had not been able to accept the face-to-face learning process. after all, there were no supporting factors for students and teachers in the adaptation process, so students and teachers still felt reluctant to learn face-to-face again. habitus is the internalization product of the structure of the embodied social world. habitus between one individual and another individual will experience differences depending on the individual's position in social life they stay. in this case, individuals who occupy the same position in the social world will also tend to have the same habits. habitus allows people to understand the social world and its structure cannot be imposed equally on all individuals (ritzer & goodman, 2007). the process of adapting in sma negeri 15 batam, especially for teachers and students in face-to-face learning, depends on the extent to which the school can provide confidence to teachers and students with various efforts that teachers and students can adapt to learn because of the process of adaptation to face-to-face learning again after the pandemic covid-19 must be carried out in stages without having to be forced by the school. capital in a person tends to coexist with existing habitus. in habitus, capital has become an integral part of individual struggles. habitus always finds itself in the environment. then the environment will use capital to become a crucial part of itself (setiyono & imelda, 2021). the process carried out by teachers at sma negeri 15 batam in conducting face-to-face learning can vary. it is because habitus and environment are related to what is inside and outside the student's thinking. student adaptation is influenced by the structure that encourages it, which is the position of students who indirectly have to carry out face-to-face learning again after the covid-19 pandemic. it is in line with pujiyanto (2021) that the homeschooling model used in online learning of social subjects for class viiia at the even semester of smp negeri 30 semarang provides changes and impacts related to adaptation of students' behavior, attitudes, and habits. the student behaviors were 1) students are not very obedient in time management, 2) students' enthusiasm, concentration, and attention are not very good, 3) students are more excited after following the homeschooling learning model and students respect the teacher more. meanwhile, the impact felt by students is 1) students find it hard to understand the material because of the delivery in online learning, 2) students are not comfortable with some technical constraints from their learning environment, and 3) students feel tired, stressed, and quickly bored. it is also in line with ramadhan et al. (2022) that the changing learning process from online to offline learning by the school lies in changing students' attitudes and behavior, such as decreasing respect and obedience to rules. the offline learning during the new normal was carried out in classrooms with around 25 students. the impact felt by students on the change in the learning process from online to offline on learning achievement, students feel their achievement increases when offline learning is implemented because students find it easier to understand what the teacher explains, compared to previous online learning. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 236 conclusion based on the objectives of this research, the conclusion is that there are several adaptation processes from online learning to face-to-face learning after the covid-19 pandemic at sma negeri 15 batam, for example, has no preparation for implementing face-to-face learning, the implementation of face-to-face learning has not been optimal because students are divided into two group shifts to study at school, namely the morning shift and the afternoon shift, and the school has not evaluated face-to-face learning face-to-face to help the readiness of teachers and students to adapt to the face-to-face learning process. however, the school only evaluates in terms of development which is being renovated to support the smooth face-to-face learning process. the level of teachers' and students' achievement in adapting is different, for example, teachers' achievement in adapting to face-to-face learning in terms of the learning methods used. some teachers still use the lecture learning method, and some teachers have been able to develop interactive learning models, such as differentiated learning models and learning models through games. furthermore, the level of achievement of students adapting to face-to-face learning is from the categories of attendance and lateness of students coming to school. declaration of conflicting interests the authors declared no potential conflicts of interest. references adawiyah, r., isnaini, n. f., hasanah, u., & faridah, n. r. 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(2022). the readiness on the implementation of the special program for information and communication technology. journal of higher education theory and practice, 22(3), 79-89. doi:10.33423/jhetp.v22i3.5083 winoto, a. w. p. (2018). reproduksi kemiskinan (studi reproduksi kemiskinan pada komunitas miskin penghuni makam rangkah) (reproduction of poverty (study of poverty reproduction in the poor community of the residents of the grave). [unpublished irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 238 doctoral dissertation]. universitas airlangga. yulianti, k., & mukminin, a. (2021). teaching and learning during covid-19 pandemic: a qualitative study on elementary school teachers in indonesia. qualitative report, 26(12), 3900-3910. doi:10.46743/2160-3715/2021.5079 zhang, d., & nunamaker, j. f. (2003). powering e-learning in the new millennium: an overview of e-learning and enabling technology. information systems frontiers, 5, 207-218. biographical notes novia sri yanti is a postgraduate student at the department of social science education with a concentration in sociology-anthropology, padang state university, sumatera barat, indonesia. afriva khaidir is an associate professor at the department of social science education, padang state university, sumatera barat, indonesia. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 196 the character education implementation and local wisdom values in learning history: the islamic development in indonesia dilla rizki ramadani 1* and azmi fitrisia 2 abstract learning process should not merely focus on school textbooks; however, paying attention to the local and traditional values should be there. this research aimed to produce the implementation of character education with local wisdom values in learning history, on the topic of islamic development in indonesia. this research used qualitative research with a case study approach. data were collected through observations, interviews, and documents. the results indicated that the implementation of character education with local wisdom of jambi's traditional seloko was carried out by instilling religious education, honesty education, discipline education, creativity education, and social care education in students. keywords character education, history learning, local wisdom values article history received 15 february 2023 accepted 29 april 2023 how to cite ramadani, d. r., & fitrisia, a. (2023). the character education implementation and local wisdom values in learning history: the islamic development in indonesia. indonesian research journal in education |irje|, 7(1), 196 – 206. https://doi.org/10.22437/irje .v7i1.26308 1* postgraduate student at the department of science social education with a concentration in history, padang state university, sumatera barat, indonesia; corresponding author: dillarizki890@gmail.com 2 padang state university, sumatera barat, indonesia https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v7i1.26308 https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v7i1.26308 mailto:dillarizki890@gmail.com irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 197 introduction character education is a conscious and genuine effort by a teacher to instill values in students based on what must be internalized if a society wants to live and work together peacefully the best character formation becomes very important (abdurahman, 2009). because children are the next generation in the nation. various opinions from child education experts state that human character formation is determined by environmental factors. it means that character education is an effort that is designed systematically and implemented to help students understand the values of human behavior in thoughts, attitudes, feelings, words, and actions ( wangid, 2009). local wisdom is the attitude, view, and ability of a community in its spiritual and physical environment, which provides resilience and power for the society to grow in the area where they belong in other words, local wisdom is a creative answer (alqomayi, 2012). to geographical, historical, and situational situations. local wisdom is a view of life and knowledge as well as various life strategies that are realized by the activities carried out by local communities in responding to some problems in meeting their needs. basically, local wisdom is the basis for identity formation. one of the efforts to maintain local wisdom is through education therefore, character education based on (suparmini et al., 2013). traditional seloko is urgently needed, especially for high school students. historical learning, which incidentally discusses history based on arts and culture, has not been implemented by educators in carrying out learning related to traditional seloko-based characters (rukiyati & . purwastuti, 2013) based on the results of observations on october 10, 2022, by researchers at sma negeri 5 jambi, especially in history lessons. history teachers have implemented historical learning, although the application has not been fully maximized in implementing traditional seloko-based character education due to inadequate educational facilities and infrastructure. teachers also always express words containing messages or advice with ethical and moral values to carry out learning, as a coercive tool and supervisor of societal norms so that they are always obeyed. the contents of jambi's traditional seloko expressions include rules of behavior in the daily life of the people and legal norms, which have not been fully implemented, but teachers always provide things that must be taught and obeyed. jambi people, who are mostly malay descendants, have made malays play an essential role in social life in jambi. the jambi malay community is a religious society and has norms of life in a society that always wants peace. the people of jambi provide figures of speech which are then used to describe their connection with allah (god) which is reflected in jambi's traditional seloko, adat bersendi syarak, syarak bersendi kithabullah syarak mengato, adat memakai segala perbuatan atau pekerjaan hendaknya selalu mengingat aturan adat dan agama, jangan hendaknya bertentangan antara satu dengan yang lainnya (in bahasa) all actions or work should always remember the rules of custom and religion and should not conflict with one another (in english) irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 198 sah kato syarak, sah kato adat syarak berbuhul mati, adat berbuhul sentak. adat berintikan kepada ajaran-ajaran dan hukum-hukum islam, ajaran-ajaran dan hukum-hukum islam bersumber dari al-qur’an (in bahasa). customs are sourced from islamic teachings and laws, and islamic teachings and laws are sourced from the al-qur'an (in english) syarak mengatakan, adat memakai sah kata syarak, sah kata adat syarak berbuhul mati (abadi), adat berbuhul sentak (sementara) adat selalu berdasarkan hukum islam, sah menurut islam maka akan sah menurut adat, karena hukum islam mutlak tidak boleh diubah dan adat tak dapat diubah (in bahasa) customs are always based on islamic law and are legal according to islam, so they will be valid according to customs because islamic law may not be changed absolutely, and customs cannot be changed (in english) the seloko above clearly illustrates that every customary rule or customary seloko that applies in jambi is based on islamic law, in which the rules originate from the quran and al-hadith. apart from that, from the seloko above, it can also be emphasized that principally, in the life of the jambi malay community, there has been interaction, struggle, and collaboration between islam and the community’s local culture. it is evident in the jambi malay customary law, in which every element has been colored by islamic values, in the sense that there is harmony and conformity between islamic teachings and jambi malay customs. teachers continue to strive to implement local culture-based history learning despite the diversity of students with different languages. students at the school come from various areas outside jambi province, such as jambi, java, sulawesi, and medan. besides that, the student's behavior at school is still not good because there are still impolite students to teachers and friends, not on time to come to school, and some still tell lies. students also often smoke in the school environment and do not dress neatly when in the school environment. the behavior of students outside of school also does not reflect good students since they often smoke and date freely. various traits and characters of students make their abilities also vary in receiving learning material. therefore, history subjects only focus on book material which results in the values of jambi's traditional seloko being set aside and impacts students' behavior which is not being fully developed according to jambi malay customary guidance, to be able to solve this problem the right solution is that the teacher improves the character of students by implementing character education in traditional seloko-based history lessons supported by science, supporting facilities and infrastructure, and optimal teaching regarding seloko which is applied in history learning. therefore, students can improve their character according to the jambi traditional seloko around them. jambi's traditional seloko has a paramount role in the life of the jambi malay community. apart from being a characteristic of the jambi malay community and traditions from previous generations, the contents of jambi's traditional seloko expressions also include irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 199 rules of conduct in the people's daily life and legal principles or norms which the people always adhere to and respect. in addition, community chants are often conveyed in various da'wah activities, such as delivered in daily chats, during lectures, and at weddings, and are used to resolve conflicts. the results of research conducted by explained that character nurzafira et al. (2021) education based on traditional seloko has a big impact on learning. the existence of all the elements involved is largely determined by the facilities and infrastructure that support the running of all learning activities both inside and outside the classroom. ) nasir et al. (2013 also found that traditional seloko-based character education has a good impact on children's character, where children learn local languages and art (dance) lessons that are internalized in local content. literature review character education is a system of instilling character values in students and plays a paramount role in the world of education, especially in schools. this character education can be integrated into learning in every lesson, and learning materials related to values and norms need to be developed to improve character education in schools ( it means gunawan, 2017). that values such as wisdom, respect for others, personal responsibility, shared feelings, suffering, and peaceful conflict resolutions are values that should be prioritized in character education. the descriptions of each value are in table 1 below. table 1. the behavior descriptions of character values no character values behaviour description 1 religious obedient attitude and behavior in carrying out the teachings of the religion they adhere to, tolerancece of other religious practices, and living in harmony with adherents of other religions. 2 honest behavior is based on efforts to make oneself a person who can always be trusted in words, actions, and work. 3 tolerance attitudes and actions that respect differences in religion, ethnicity, opinions, attitudes, and actions of other people who are different from themselves. 4 discipline actions that show orderly behavior and comply with various rules and regulations 5 hard work behavior that shows genuine effort in overcoming various learning and assignment obstacles and completing assignments as well as possible 6 creative thinking and doing something to produce new ways or results from something you already have 7 independent attitudes and behaviors that are not easy to depend on others to complete tasks 8 democratic the way of thinking, behaving, and acting that assesses the rights and obligations of himself and others 9 curiosity attitudes and actions that always seek to know more deeply and broadly from something that is learned, seen, and heard irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 200 10 spirit of nationality the way of thinking, acting, and having insight that places the interests of the nation and state above self and group interests 11 love the motherland ways of thinking, behaving, and acting that show loyalty, care, and high appreciation for the nation's language, physical, social, cultural, economic, and political environment 12 appreciate achievements attitudes and actions that encourage him to produce something useful for society and recognize and respect the success of others 13 friendly actions that show pleasure in talking, associating, and cooperating with others 14 love and peace attitude attitudes, words, and actions that cause others to feel happy and secure in their presence 15 like to read the habit of providing time to read various readings that provide virtue for him 16 environmental care attitudes and actions that always try to prevent damage to the surrounding natural environment and develop efforts to repair the damage that has already occurred 17 social care attitudes and actions that always want to assist other people and communities in need 18 responsibility a person's attitude and behavior to carry out his duties and obligations, which he should do, towards himself, society and the environment (natural, social, and cultural), the state, and allah (god) almighty (gunawan, 2017) methodology this research was qualitative research with a case study approach. the researcher used this research design because it can be used to interpret, explore, or gain a deeper understanding of a topic (creswell, 2009). the participants of this research were teachers teaching the local wisdom of the jambi traditional seloko carrying out evaluations of character education for class x ips students at sma negeri 5 jambi in the 2022/2023 academic year and students. however, to obtain accurate data, the researcher had discussions with other participants, such as school principals and curriculum assistants. in this research, researchers used 3 data collection techniques, consisting of observation, interviews, and documents. findings and discussion this research starts with learning history based on the local wisdom of the jambi traditional seloko at sma negeri 5 jambi in the 2022/2023 academic year. it began by observing teachers teach by carrying out evaluations of character education based on the local wisdom of jambi's traditional seloko to class x ips students at sma negeri 5 jambi in the 2022/2023 academic year. the researcher made observations of the students under research by looking at the extent to which the students followed the lessons and whether the learning irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 201 was successful with the implementation of character education based on the local wisdom of jambi's traditional seloko. based on the results of observations, in learning teacher has a syllabus and prepares a lesson plan based on the material that will become directed teaching materials and achieves its achievements. in the learning process, the teacher teaches traditional food processing, folklore originating from jambi, jambi traditional clothes, traditional music, and others using concrete media in learning, such as local food-making materials, tengkuluk cloth, sarongs, and others. several findings can describe the implementation of evaluation of character education based on the local wisdom of jambi's traditional seloko for class x ips students at sma negeri 5 jambi in the 2022/2023 academic year, in the results of interviews and observations as follows: evaluation of character education based on local wisdom of jambi's traditional seloko the evaluation of character education based on the local wisdom of jambi's traditional seloko for class x ips students at sma negeri 5 jambi city has run well. it is based on the creativity of the teachers who teach and are supported by facilities and infrastructure in introducing students to the local wisdom of jambi's traditional seloko. the teacher's creativity in summarizing becomes one of the noble values contained in the customs and culture of the jambi tribe itself. based on the interview results with the headmaster of sma negeri 5 jambi, he said that the teacher carries out character education lessons based on the local wisdom of jambi's traditional seloko because the material in the history lesson leads to cultures outside the jambi region and other habits, such as jambi's folk songs, wearing jambi malay clothes, and jambi's traditional food. to complete the research data, the researcher conducted interviews with school principals and history teachers at state senior high school 5 jambi. the interviews were recorded by researchers, which resulted in: instilling religious values in students the observation is carried out in history subject where it is held one meeting in one week. at the beginning of learning, the teacher has been waiting for students in the class. after everyone is in class, the teacher checks the student's readiness because some students are still talking to each other. the teacher asks questions and provides information or the latest news in front of the class so that students pay attention to the teacher. after the teacher saw that all the students were calm, one of the students, as a class leader, led the prayer before the lesson began. students pray to allah (god) to get beneficial knowledge from the lesson. instilling character in religious students has been carried out by the teacher so that students always carry out islamic values in their lives. during the learning process, the teacher has made an appreciation by conducting questions and answers relevant to the material and motivating student learning to provide enthusiasm. students are encouraged to express prior knowledge about the concepts to be studied. then the teacher conveys the learning objectives and briefly explains the jambi art irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 202 history material, such as jambi’s folk songs. afterward, the teacher gives jambi seloko that is beneficial and explains them to the students. when the students understand the meaning of the seloko, the teacher asks them to memorize them and practice them with their friends. the teacher began the lesson by greeting and inviting all students to pray according to religion. the teacher also checked the students' attendance by calling them one by one and appreciated, "did you say goodbye and shake hands with both parents before school? it means students in the class are good children. afterward, the teacher also asked the students, "does anyone know who the figures are fighting for jambi?" in addition, the teacher showed pictures of jambi heroes and asked some students. based on the observation results, the teacher always invited the students to pray together because praying is humility to allah (god). besides, the teacher asked the students to be grateful for the blessings of life by doing good things to friends using the good jambi language. the observations result in class showed that expressing gratitude can be interpreted as a sign of gratitude or remembering what allah (god) has given. grateful for the grace given by allah (god) to us, as allah’s (god’s) servant. below is the seloko. seloko iko kmi akhiri seloko ini kami akhiri (in bahasa) we end these phrases (in english) kito bedoia pado ilahi kita berdoa kepada tuhan (in bahasa) we pray to allah (god) (in english) semoga kito dilindungi semoga kita dilindungi (in bahasa) may we be protected (in english) sehat badan murah rezeki healthy and full of luck the seloko above illustrates that as human beings, people must always pray to express gratitude to allah (god) for protection, given sustenance, and health because allah (god) is the place to ask for and say praise with the word hamdallah. in the process of carrying out history learning, teachers in class x ips always associate it with other jambi cultures with religious behavior, namely by glorifying the supreme creator, because of allah's blessings humans are on earth. furthermore, the teacher also requires students to always pray in every activity in class or outside the school environment. by praying, allah (god) always protects students. therefore, by giving understanding to students, they are always grateful and act according to the teachings of allah (god). irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 203 instilling the value of honesty in students honesty is the basis of living socially with others by doing good things and telling the truth to promote good harmony with each other. the value of honesty applied at sma negeri 5 jambi is by saying good things and not lying to oneself and others. from the interview results, students are always guided, to tell the truth to friends, teachers, and parents. they must say what it is and not tell a lie to other people. the teacher tells the bad things that will happen if they still lie or are dishonest, but if they tell the truth, they will get benefits, like having many friends and more affection from teachers and parents. during history class, students learned to practice playing musical instruments to increase their intelligence and their concern with the history and songs of jambi province. the teacher also gave directions to pay attention to the presentations that have been prepared. the teacher played jambi folk songs and practiced piano so that students imitated the songs. the students looked interested and enthusiastic about practicing and listening to the folk song. after that, the teacher also displayed and explained the struggle undertaken by sultan thaha saifuddin. the teacher explained it in detail from the beginning until the end of his life. the material sharing is done communicatively. the teacher invited students to obey their parents, both in the family environment and in the surrounding environment, forbidding students from cheating because, in jambi culture, the students have to have the courage to act honestly and take responsibility like the sultan thaha saifuddin jambi and orang kayo hitam. in the implementation of history lessons based on jambi's local culture, students can answer questions that have been given by the teacher honestly and not lie. instill discipline value in students discipline plays a role as a regulator and seriousness in carrying out actions, so the discipline applied at sma negeri 5 jambi has been felt by students and provides good benefits for them. every morning there is always a morning greeting activity for students and teachers who come. in this activity, the teacher who is picket stands in front of the school to greet them. all school members are accustomed to greeting when going to and from school. the results of observations made by the researcher regarding social interactions built by school members show that the school applies the three principles, consisting of smiling, shaking hands, and greeting in daily activities. in the implementation of learning, before students enter the class, they always queue while shaking hands with the teacher at the entrance, which indicates that students are polite to their teacher. furthermore, if the bell rings for entering the class, there is no movement outside. students also dress neatly. it indicates that in jambi culture, cleanliness is the main thing because it is part of faith. habits instilled at sma negeri 5 jambi are formed in daily activities, including social interactions and behavior patterns built by school members. this habit pattern is carried out in various daily activities, from the initial to the closing learning activities, such as morning welcoming activities by singing, playing, physical movements, and praying together. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 204 instilling creative value in students students are required to be creative by having good habits and being active in doing something. to make children creative, the teacher must carry out activities that support student creativity. teachers keep continuing to make breakthroughs in teaching to make it more fun. students are enthusiastic about listening to the teacher's explanation regarding jambi culture when the lesson can be packaged in a fun way. the available media are in the form of musical instruments such as pianos to support children in understanding folk songs so that they can memorize traditional jambi songs and also understand the regional song they sing, pictures of jambi figures, and typical jambi culinary pictures and traditional clothes worn by the teacher. students become aware of the importance of preserving jambi culture and can apply their knowledge in everyday life with the values they get from studying history. the teacher also added a historical figure of jambi, such as orang kayo hitam, by displaying a video through the lcd projector. the students looked enthusiastic about watching the story of orang kayo hitam. how amazed the children with orang kayo hitam, who bravely defended jambi so that it would not be colonized by the mataram kingdom. students practice using the piano to perform a jambi song, so they know it and can play musical instruments. in addition, the teacher invites students to make works of art by utilizing materials in class, such as paper to make creative butterflies, pictures, and also pictures of traditional jambi objects or historical objects such as the signal keris, sailing ships, weapons of war, and also angso duo transportation. students are also asked to tell stories using their language about the history of jambi or the history of jambi's struggle. the teacher also asked the students to perform art by singing and playing the piano of jambi folk songs. instilling the value of social care in students social awareness needs to be improved so that students have the character to care about their surroundings, not only for friends but also for the environment. the existence of concern in students, of course, will increase students' awareness they need other people in wading through life, and of course, they have to help each other. the local wisdom application has been applied in history lessons and daily habits by playing piano, singing jambi malay songs, and wearing jambi malay clothes every friday, based on the results of observations of student activity in the learning process using methods related to learning history, the students seem interested from the beginning. furthermore, the teacher instills a sense of self-sacrifice, including a commendable attitude to life. sacrifice does not mean seeking attention or praise, but the attitude of courage to take risks to assist others. willing to sacrifice without expecting a reward for services or praise as in the jambi malay traditional seloko, as follows, bukan awak menerawang semak semak menerawang batang kemiri bukan awak membuang semak semak membuang bandan diri irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 205 the seloko above describes the attitude of self-sacrifice that every human being must have because humans are social creatures whose lives depend on other humans. when discussing the material explained by the teacher before, students were still playing around. afterward, some students were still afraid to answer when the teacher asked questions. when the teacher gave the inducement in the form of new questions, the students wanted to answer. the courage of students to ask themselves about the material that has been studied has not yet appeared. students will get used to socializing with friends and the environment. with direction from the teacher, they will help each other, help like when experiencing learning difficulties or playing outside the classroom. it is not justified to be angry and must be sincere so that students will use smiles more often than anger. conclusion the implementation of character education with local wisdom based on the local wisdom of jambi's traditional seloko for class x ips students at sma negeri 5 jambi was carried out by instilling religious education, honesty education, discipline education, creativity education, and social care education in students. instilling religious education in students, is carried out before starting learning, students pray for the learning and the heroes who have preceded them, b) instilling honesty education in students, where students behave honestly in doing assignments and exercises without copying other people, c) instilling ddiscipline education in students, where students come and go home always on time and do not procrastinate while studying, d) instilling creative education in students, where students will be creative in singing and playing the piano in front of their friends, e) instilling social care education in students, where students help pray for and help friends who are in trouble and maintain the school environment. declaration of conflicting interests the authors declared no potential conflicts of interest. references abdurahman, m. (2009). pendidikan bagi anak berkesulitan belajar (education for children with learning difficulties). jakarta: rineka cipta. alqomayi, s. (2012). kearifan lokal berbasis islam dalam pelestarian lingkungan hidup (islamic-based local wisdom in environmental preservation). ibda: jurnal kajian islam dan budaya, 10(1), 15-29. creswell, j. w. (2009). qualitative inquiry and research design. united states of america, california: sage publisher. gunawan, h. (2017). pendidikan karakter (character education). bandung: alfabeta. nasir, n., bambang sumardjoko, m., & candraningrum, p. d. (2013). pengembangan pendidikan karakter berbasis budaya lokal di smpn 2 kendari. [unpublished doctoral dissertation]. universitas muhammadiyah surakarta. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 206 nurzafira, i., citrawida, a. a., & hanifah, h. (2021). seloko as wedding advice of sarolangun malay: the directive function and value of character. isllac: journal of intensive studies on language, literature, art, and culture, 5(2), 174-185. rukiyati, r., & purwastuti, l. a. (2016). model pendidikan karakter berbasis seloko adat pada sekolah menengah atas di bantul yogyakarta (a character education model based on traditional seloko in high schools in bantul, yogyakarta). jurnal pendidikan karakter, 7(1), 130-142. suparmini, s., setyawati, s., & sumunar, d. r. s. (2013). pelestarian lingkungan masyarakat baduy berbasis kearifan local (preservation of the baduy community environment based on local wisdom). jurnal penelitian humaniora, 18(1), 8-22. wangid, m. n. (2009). sistem among pada masa kini: kajian konsep dan praktik pendidikan. among systems today: a study of educational concepts and practices. jurnal kependidikan: penelitian inovasi pembelajaran, 39(2), 129-140. biographical notes dilla rizki ramadani is a postgraduate student at the department of science social education with a concentration in history, padang state university, sumatera barat, indonesia. azmi fitrisia is an associate professor at the department of science social education with a concentration in history, padang state university, sumatera barat, indonesia. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 185 finding the early identity for children in the film of laskar pencerah vani dias adiprabowo *1 and agung widodo 2 abstract this research aims to reveal the message in the film 'laskar pencerah'. it provides an overview of the wider community and how non-formal education can provide alternatives and educational inspiration through the learning community. it uses descriptive qualitative to build the meaning of the message in the film 'laskar pencerah' and to understand the phenomenon by describing it in words. in collecting data, it uses observations viewed through the youtube channel. the data are used to explore the meaning of the film's story, explain, give, and detail the film's message. furthermore, the research shows that the main character of a child who wants to continue to learn although limited in his life to achieve what he aspires to with continuous efforts. his efforts and hard work shape the child's character and help him find his identity early on. keywords character building, children, film, identity, learning community article history received 13 december 2022 accepted 15 may 2023 how to cite adiprabowo, v.d., & widodo, a. (2023). finding the early identity for children in the film of laskar pencerah. indonesian research journal in education |irje|, 7(1), 185-195. https://doi.org/10.22437/irje .v7i1.22374 1* lecturer at the communication science department, faculty of literature, culture, and communication, universitas ahmad dahlan, indonesia, corresponding author: vani.adiprabowo@comm.uad.ac.id 2 lecturer at the sports science department, faculty of public health, universitas muhammadiyah semarang, indonesia https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v7i1.22374 https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v7i1.22374 mailto:vani.adiprabowo@comm.uad.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 186 introduction education aims to explore every character and know the children‟s identity from an early age. universally, education also aims to improve cultural values (moulin-stożek, 2020). furthermore, character education encourages participatory children to identify and form good character under certain conditions (baiocchi, 2019). character education can foster intellectuality and morality in children (kotsonis, 2019). the approach to character education depends on the children‟s development through their environment (bates, 2019). character education is a learning process by promoting values and fostering ideology to build fighting power (hetemi, 2020). although character education emphasizes morality in children's education in formal schools, it is minimal in a film story (halimah et al., 2020). the challenge in education is to empower the wider community (morin, 2019). every human being has the power of the soul, named copyright, works. full human development demands the development of all power in a balanced manner. development that is too focused on one power alone will result in incomplete development as a human being. education that emphasizes the intellectual aspect will only keep learners away from their society. it can be grown by providing emotional developmental stimuli to children (yuan et al., 2020). education until now has only emphasized the development of copyright. if it continues, it will make human beings less human or humane. the identity of each child is unique because each child is different from the others. identity is part of children's social status to express their abilities in society (wagner, 2019). children can creatively find themselves to adapt to their social environment (yan, 2019). children are a valuable asset to the state; therefore, it needs support in the educational process (nieminen, 2019). education should not govern, but education should be supportive. so that in the learning process, children are not unfettered by a curriculum. education does not have to be expensive either. cheap education can be a strategic program that aims to subsidize education-related costs for students from low-income families to remain complete in completing their education (wekullo, 2020). alternative processes of education can see in the film 'laskar pencerah', which describes the learning process in the learning community that is different from formal schools. the film is a medium of mass communication of listening. the film can also be a pedagogical tool for people's enlightenment. the film can build images of children aimed at children's well-being (nieminen, 2019). the film can shape the power of attitudes and behaviors to society according to its context (el-khoury et al., 2019). the film can also motivate in a more specific direction (pookaiyaudom & tan, 2020). the filmmaking process also requires writing, acting, and cinematographic techniques, which require collaborative work between the experienced and the inexperienced to create an atmosphere that can fill each other's shortcomings (chapin et al., 2019). mass communication is a tool to develop education in the community (blom et al., 2018). mass communication through a medium is a process of information from the sender to the recipient involving profound sociocultural transformation (moll, 2020). mass communication always requires critical updates in specific contexts (amiradakis, 2019). mass communication provides a broad perspective to describe the mass communication process and its dynamics (walther & valkenburg, 2017). irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 187 the film is not only a medium of entertainment, but it also provides educational value. film as a medium of entertainment can also contain cultural elements and representations of norms and social values (el-khoury et al., 2019). also, the public's entertainment programs many used to anticipate the direction of radicalization (lakomy, 2017). realizing the value of education can be taken from the surrounding environment, there is no reason not to learn (haider & hunter, 2020). education's importance can be repeated and requires collective knowledge (battilana & dorado, 2010; lee & raschke, 2018). experience has the value of independent education to achieve a particular political goal (martin, 2019). the film is also able to communicate using a distinctive cinematic language. the film has a significant concern for understanding how it creates cinematic language in building ideas (akhter, 2019). cinematic language can capture how phenomena can see firsthand and what humans do (gupta, 2019). cinematic language can construct powerful narratives and communicate to a broad audience (wong et al., 2020). not a few children who are in formal school are lazy to learn if not told. formal education tends to equate learning ways and is even narrower than just instructing in the classroom (akiva et al., 2020). the school arranges for children to learn according to the system and not learn what they want. the school has a goal applied to students to achieve a predetermined educational program (liu, 2019). the school also assesses by providing the child's best order (adair & kurban, 2019). the effect is that the average child experiences a psychological burden in the learning process. school is a means of learning and a place of social interaction (yunus, 2019). formal schools tend to study in a classroom and dress in uniform. an excellent classroom needs funds to build it, as well as school uniforms. school is a problem for the underprivileged; getting an education must pay for building money and expensive uniforms. there are not many film stories that focus on education, especially non-formal education, in the learning community. this problem is one reason why the general public rarely knows learning models in the learning community. most of the film spectacles that happen are only limited to entertainment. a film that focuses on the entertainment element looks for maximum profit as the film entertainment industry is one of the fastest-growing business sectors (lakomy, 2017). as an entertainment medium, films can promote social issues' greater good (khoo & ash, 2020). many people doubt the film's impact if it only serves as entertainment (marquis et al., 2019). however, the entertainment function can be an unpredictable success in the film (walls & mckenzie, 2020). in a film that focuses only on the entertainment element, the goal is to make the most profit. indeed, when viewed from the distribution aspect, entertainment films are the most profitable segment and arguably the most in-demand feature in society. therefore, it is not surprising that films that only concern the entertainment element become the fastest-growing business (lakomy, 2017). however, entertainment films usually do not attach importance to the educational component. in films that do not attach importance to education, the impact can plunge the audience. film education can provide alternatives and offers for the development of film production with educational elements. a film has become essential as a widely accessible medium of communication. through the film 'laskar pencerah', the story of education in the learning community can be an alternative solution for the community. besides, films containing educational elements can help to accelerate the formation of the character of a nation. films that tell the story of irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 188 character education need support from the wider community. character education is essential as a foundation in the community (bates, 2019). character education will be better if it grows early, starting from the child. therefore, the district must feel responsible for the education of children. character education aims to teach the values and virtues necessary for human development, both for fulfilling the character of human physical and mental potential in life (arthur et al., 2016; paul et al., 2020). films about education are regarded as stereotypes of films that focus only on the school environment, depicting teacher-centered teaching and learning processes. in contrast to the film 'laskar pencerah', which prioritizes the education process centered on children. therefore, films with educational themes such as the film 'laskar pencerah' are essential to be discussed and conveyed to the public. methodology this research uses descriptive qualitative to explore the meaning of the film 'laskar pencerah'. this qualitative research also intends to understand the phenomenon by describing it in the form of words. 'laskar pencerah' is a film about a poor student named laskar. laskar always strives to learn and excel even though his parents still prohibit him if laskar goes to the learning community. the ban was due to his sickly father and required laskar to help his mother find money to treat her father. a writing competition held by the learning community motivated laskar to prove to his parents that what laskar did could provide pride and benefits. the learning community shown in the film 'laskar pencerah' emphasizes that the learning process does not have to be in a room or building. the learning process can be done anywhere and in any way. research design this research begins with how the film is observed, namely collecting data on the film 'laskar pencerah' through the youtube channel. the data are used to explore the meaning of the film's story, explain, give, and detail the film's message. data collection and analysis the research data for the film 'laskar pencerah', get from youtube. the duration of the film 'laskar pencerah' is 24.01 minutes. the analysis is to create a detailed description in the form of a definite report that reveals everything to understand the findings obtained. first, look for film material on youtube. the second saw the film 'laskar pencerah'. the third analyzes the storyline of the film. fourth, the storyline is studied and then done, concluding the message of the film story. findings and discussion an educational model in the learning community that suits the child's needs and frees the child to learn anything with a companion as a facilitator is an alternative in the learning process. children can evaluate themselves, know their identity early on, and develop irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 189 them to benefit their environment. laskar's character in the film 'laskar pencerah' is a child who wants to progress and excel but always gets obstacles from his parents and friends in the learning community. the efforts made by the laskar to be able to continue to go to school and excel show when the laskar always writes down ideas or ideas of the problems they face, even if only one sentence. writing is already considered by some people to be a tedious and lazy thing to do. many say they want to write, but they also give to answer why they have not written yet. there is no reason not to write. for some people, writing is a troublesome thing, but if examined more in-depth, writing includes simple things, something noble that can indirectly enlighten anyone who reads it. writing is the fruit of writing and is the result of real evidence that can change civilization. writing in the sense of communication is conveying knowledge or information about the subject. writing means supporting the idea of utterances that creates one sentence or just a few unrelated things but produces a series of organized things that relate to each other and in an individual style. the sentences' sequence can be short, perhaps only two or three sentences, but they are placed regularly and relate to each other, and form a reasonable unity. writing is hard work, but it is also an opportunity to convey something about yourself in communicating ideas to others, even learning something unknown. laskar never gave up hope despite their limited circumstances. however, these limitations make the laskar more eager to achieve what they aspire to. they traveled through limited conditions by working hard to keep writing to keep up with the writing competition held in his learning community. efforts in the education process carried out continuously will shape the children‟s character. education in the learning community based on the surrounding environment can help children find their identity early on. not always, the child wants to be conditioned in a formal learning atmosphere. learning should be fun and doable anywhere. the purpose of learning is to find yourself. education is not to pursue passing the exam but to fulfill the learner's curiosity, especially in the child. children should have freedom in learning, which is free to express themselves. the film 'laskar pencerah' can be an inspiration in the learning process. the motivation shown in 'laskar pencerah' is patience, obedience to parents, and unyielding. despite all laskar's problems in the family and the learning community, laskar still showed patience by carrying out all his parents' orders and writing ideas on a piece of paper. the next inspiration is that laskar always obeys his parents' orders without resentment and still accepts the situation by continually trying to carry out his parents' demands. the last inspiration that can be picked in the film 'laskar pencerah' is the unyielding attitude to finish the writing that it wants to include in the learning community's competition. another picture of the form of inspiration obtained in the film 'laskar pencerah' where learning does not have to be in an enclosed space or classroom, education does not have to wear a uniform, and learning does not have to be with a lot of material. non-formal education through a learning community can be an alternative to the learning process. non-formal education in the learning community applies a different learning model than formal schools in general. community learning can help to improve teaching and reduce dropouts (rima et al., 2019). the learning community is an independent educational process to explore the character, where the companion is only a facilitator the learning community aims to improve children's understanding (hamilton et al., 2019). irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 190 and involvement in the face of daily life (lee et al., 2018). the education process in the learning community based on lave and wenger's ideas lies in social practice (walton et al., 2019). the learning community provides an alternative for the lower middle class so as not to drop out of school. the learning community becomes a bridge of educational solutions in the local environment that can be relevant by producing and responding to learning materials in the surrounding environment (macintyre et al., 2020). the learning community has a distinctive character by learning to get closer to the ground (cantwell, 2018). a powerful learning intention is shown by the character of laskar in the film 'laskar pencerah'. learning can achieve the goal with firm confidence to achieve what is said (ciampa & wolfe, 2020). education is necessary to explore the potential and see children's development (pardo & opazo, 2019). the relationship between the facilitator and the child requires a deep focus on learning (oakden et al., 2020). the independent learning process can express the value of children's character (peterson, 2019). the essence of a child named laskar in the film 'laskar pencerah' can motivate children his age who want to progress and excel but have limitations. motivation by showing laskar's desperate efforts to continue to learn and excel can make, namely writing down ideas or ideas of the problems he faced even if only one sentence. motivation needs to be grown and done with self-awareness to become accustomed to it (grumley, 2019). increasing motivation can also show a person's morals to benefit others (kotzee, 2019). in this context is how the cause continues to communicate through the film 'laskar pencerah'. one of the famous educational communication media is film. a film can be a creative and positive message to change one's audience experience (reigada et al., 2019). as a medium of communication, it can provide a compelling message. a film is like seeing a process in flight where the messages are conveyed clearly (real, 2020). the news got through the film can also inspire the audience. a film becomes an essential means and source of inspiration in producing meaning. it is not only presented only entertainment but enlightenment. enlightenment can contribute based on universality (wessels, 2020). it is something that is ingrained in the hearts and heads of its audience. a good film in the film 'laskar pencerah' can provide contemplation materials and offer an alternative perspective in looking at life and various social realities of education. the film 'laskar pencerah' gives an overview of the message of how the process of non-formal education in the learning community can be an inspiration. inspiration can provide new insights to offer further educational value (cui et al., 2019). the push in the film 'laskar pencerah' depicts a laskar character who can encourage the audience that limitations are not an obstacle. limits can be a useful experience for the audience (anderson & mccreary, 2020). the child character named laskar can be an inspiration, that an educational goal can be achieved through strong efforts and never giving up, even though it has many limitations. a respectful attitude to parents is also an inspiration for children of their age to remain appreciative and grateful for the learning process. the learning process can do anywhere, as done by laskar figures. a learning process can help solve problems through mentoring by teachers as facilitators (guilherme, 2019). the learning process should understand how education can be built together (schiffeler et al., 2018). the learning process also does not have to be in a classroom or a luxurious building. the learning process also does not have to wear fancy uniforms. uniforms are not the final goal in the learning irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 191 process. likewise, learning materials do not have to know many things that are not in the child's interest. the most important thing is how a companion can facilitate what the child wants. the child's character in the film 'laskar pencerah' can be an example of an educational goal through strong efforts and never giving up despite having many limitations. education is essential for children's needs to realize through the values taught (han, 2020). although no formal education is shown in the film 'laskar pencerah', the child character's learning process in the film can indicate that the efforts made continuously will shape the feeling he wants. scientific discourse and discourse in the community show that education is responsible for forming a character to realize an independent and prosperous society (martin, 2019). the film 'laskar pencerah' describes how to create the character education process through children who continue to write even though it can forbid their parents to participate in competitions held in their learning community. education is the formation of character in children that becomes a sign of modern social history in an international context-oriented toward politics, society, and economics (bates, 2019). for good character education quality for children, it is necessary to support the nearest environment, especially parents. every parent will see the benefits of getting recognition in the community for their identity (almagro & andrés-cerezo, 2020). children who have aspirations need to be encouraged so that they are quick to find their identity early on. conclusion the film 'laskar pencerah' provides an overview for the wider community of how the process of non-formal education through the learning community can provide an alternative. the learning process in the learning community encourages children to discover their identity early on. the character of a child named laskar in the film 'laskar pencerah' can be an inspiration in anyone's learning process despite having limitations in his life. inspiration for those with limitations and motivation for those who have complete facilities. patience, obeying parents, and never giving up are not obstacles to continuing learning. boundaries can be conquered by effort and hard work continuously. the child named laskar's effort and hard work in the film 'laskar pencerah' can form a strong character. the surface is the child's motivation to continue to achieve what he aspires to and encourages finding his identity early on. declaration of conflicting interests the authors declared no potential conflicts of interest. references adair, j. k., & kurban, f. 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(2019). practitioners‟ views on learning using children‟s peer interactions amongst under three year old children in selangor, malaysia farhana. asian journal of university education, 15(3), 54–68. biographical notes vani dias adiprabowo is a lecturer at the communication science department, faculty of literature, culture, and communication, universitas ahmad dahlan, indonesia, corresponding author: vani.adiprabowo@comm.uad.ac.id agung widodo is a lecturer at the sports science department, faculty of public health, universitas muhammadiyah semarang, indonesia. mailto:vani.adiprabowo@comm.uad.ac.id this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 61 student-centred teaching strategies by gender, grade level, and teacher’s self-concept in mexico pedro sánchez-escobedo 1 and ana karen camelo lavadores 2 abstract this study examined the student-centred teaching strategies of mexican teachers by gender, grade level, and self-concept as an instructor. a conventional sample of 573 teachers from diverse school settings in the state of yucatan in mexico responded to a paper and pencil questionnaire. results indicated, in general, that teachers prioritized classroom management and independent learning activites, in contrast with teaching strategies emphasized by policies and teacher´s training programs in the country, such as cooperative learning, differentiation, or promoting critical thinking. there were some gender and grade level differences. in general, female teachers promoted more independent activities than males. as expected, primary school teachers were more concerned with using differentiation teaching strategies than secondary education teachers, considering the greatest variance in younger students. teachers self-concept had differential effects. whilst self-efficacy feelings had no influence in the use of specific student-centred teaching strategies, high self-steem teachers used more student-centred teaching strategies. the importance of asking teachers what they did, and how they felt as teachers was argued in light of results. future research avenues regarding self-concept and teaching strategies are posited. keywords mexican teachers, teaching strategies, self-concept, classroom management 1 college of education, university of yucatan, mexico; psanchez@correo.uady.mx 2 college of education, university of yucatan, mexico; annykaren1@gmail.com irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 62 introduction a robust international body of literature leads investigators to analyze the outcomes of student-centered teaching strategies that promote high-level thinking and the achievement of meaningful relationships and positive psychological well-being (gillies, ashman, & terwel, 2008; johnson & johnson, 1989; tomlinson, 2003). yet, there are relatively few empirical studies on the use of these kinds of teaching strategies in mexico. educational researchers in mexico rarely ask teachers directly what they do in their classrooms and how they feel as teachers. thus, this study seeks to understand the relationship between student-centered teaching strategies and the teachers´ s self-concept, across different levels within the educational system in mexico. we aim to explore the differential effects of teacher’s self-esteem and self-efficacy in relation to their teaching activities. there are relatively few studies in mexico exploring the use of student-centered teaching strategies by grade level. studying the use of specific teaching strategies across educational levels is important since some teaching techniques may be effective in some levels, but inappropriate in others, that is perhaps because the literature on teaching strategies is full of “effective teaching techniques” but they rarely prescribe uses and limitations. even the opposite may be true; sometimes using lower grade level techniques out of classroom may be an important remediation strategy, without taking away classroom-time focus on grade-level standard (dataworks educational reseach, 2014). in general, research on teaching has confirmed the lack of a clear relationship between student outcomes and teacher inputs. apparently, either performance depends upon student’s characteristics and potentials or investigators have failed to identify new variables within the classroom that may help to explain learning and motivation to achieve. few studies focus on the dynamics of the teachers’ self-concept and how this is culturally shaped and instrumental to create a learning environment. wenglinsky (2002) published an outstanding review of teacher classroom practices and their impact on student performance. he asserts that three main classroom practices: individualization, collaboration, and authentic assessment. individualization means that teachers instruct each student by drawing upon the knowledge and experience that each student already possesses and authentic assessment occurs in an on-going basis rather than at a single point in time (golub, 1988; graves & sunstein, 1992; mclaughlin & talbert, 1993). teacher strategies in this study are student-centred, that is, they are based in instructional activities in the classroom that aim to foster learning and positive outcomes for students. we have chosen five most frequently used actions in mexican classrooms including critical thinking promotion, fostering independent study, differentiation of instruction, cooperative learning and classroom management. critical thinking aims to make students think and reflect upon specific problems or curriculum contexts. independent study aims to foster learning by self-initiated activities beyond the classroom. differentiation in teaching refers to the adaptation of instructions considering individual differences. cooperative learning means that teachers allow students to work together in groups and classroom management is closed linked to an atmosphere of discipline and the creation of a positive learning environment. on the other hand, we explored the relationship in the uses of these five specific strategies and the teacher’s self-concept. teacher´s self-concept for this work refers to a broad construct that include teachers’ feelings of self-efficacy and their general perception of irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 63 how good of a teacher they feel they are. the purposes of this study were to identify the use of five student-centred teaching strategies frequently used in mexico and to explore differences by gender, grade level, and their association to self-concept as a teacher. more specifically, this study was to describe the most often student-centred teaching strategies used by mexican teachers, to explore differences by grade level, to explore differences by gender, to explore the relationship between teaching strategies and two main dimensions of teacher´s self-concept: self-efficacy feelings and their self-esteem as teachers. to achieve the purposes of the study, two central research questions guided this study: (1) how are these teaching strategies used in mexico? and (2) how mexican teachers feel about their use? literature review student-centered teaching strategies a robust international body of literature leads investigators to analyze the outcomes of student-centered teaching such as high-level thinking and achievement, meaningful relationships, and positive psychological well-being (gillies, ashman, & terwel, 2008; johnson & johnson, 1989; tomlinson, 2003). additional literature demonstrates the widespread adoption of student-centered teaching practices, from cyprus (hursen & soykara, 2012) to vietnam (nguyen thanh, dekker, & goedhart, 2008). yet, there are relatively few empirical studies of teaching strategies in mexico. student-centered teaching fosters a host of positive outcomes for students. for example, in a meta-analysis of research about cooperative learning compared with competitive or individualistic learning, johnson and johnson (1989) found that cooperative learning fosters considerably greater efforts to achieve among students. these scholars also found cooperative learning promotes supportive social and peer relationships, as well as maturity in cognitive and moral decision making (johnson & johnson, 1989). in another example, studies of differentiation strategies demonstrate the effectiveness of differentiation as responsive to individual student needs, especially in schools where programs for special education or gifted education do not exist (emanuelsson, 2003; tomlinson, 2003). similarly, research shows that effective class management strategies are the “art” of establishing environments that foster student cooperation (cangelosi, 2014). additionally, students experience positive outcomes from teaching practices that promote independent or autonomous work (stefanou, perencevich, dicintio, & turner, 2004) and critical thinking (abrami et al., 2008; hooks, 2010). how are these student-centered teaching strategies, which are known to promote positive outcomes for students, used in mexico? there are literally hundreds of teaching strategies depicted in the literature, some of them traditional and frequently used such as various types of lectures, some others are more sophisticated and innovative with the use of technologies, problem-solving activities or learning projects with different learning conditions. however, in this study we focused in 5 of the most popular teaching strategies referred by our teachers in training at our teacher training program, at the college of education in the university of yucatan in mexico. we explored specifically strategies to promote critical thinking, activities that instill on independent study, differentiation techniques, and strategies of classroom irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 64 management. focusing on five specific teaching strategies has allowed us to compare its differential use across grades and to explore for gender differences. critical thinking logically, because of developmental reasons, teaching strategies that promote critical thinking tend to be more popular in higher grades than in young children. in fact, some authors believe that critical thinking is not a teaching strategy -per se-; rather they see it as a procedure based on strategies that increase cognitive abilities and the probability of a desirable outcome. hence, promoting critical thinking is “teleological in nature: it concerns the attainment of goals, desirable outcomes…to obtain the desired outcome, we have at our disposal (to some degree, with proficiency) a set of cognitive skills” (sohroy, 2005, p. 163). perhaps, as a teaching technique, it was born with socrates along with the famous maieutic method that through incisive questioning the teacher asked to instill the discipline of analysis and seeing the connections between ideas and critical thinking (abrami et al., 2008; hooks, 2010). critical thinking is more than thinking clearly or rationally; it is about thinking independently and be able to formulate one’s own opinions and conclusions. teaching higher-order thinking skills involves not so much conveying information as conveying understanding. students learn concepts and then attempt to apply them to various problems, or they solve problems and then learn the concepts that underlie the solutions. these skills tend to be conveyed in one of two ways: through applying concepts to problems (applications) or by providing examples or concrete versions of the concept (simulations). in either case, students learn to understand the concept by putting it in another context. in the case of an application, this might mean solving a unique problem with which the student is unfamiliar. in the case of a simulation this might mean examining a physical representation of a theorem from geometry or engaging in a laboratory exercise that exemplifies a law from chemistry. while both lower-order and higher-order thinking skills undoubtedly have a role to play in any classroom, much of the qualitative research asserts that the students of teachers who can convey higher-order thinking skills as well as lower-order thinking skills outperform students whose teachers are only capable of conveying lower-order thinking skills (langer & applebee, 1987; phelan 1989). classroom management classroom management refers to the wide variety of skills and techniques that teachers use to keep students organized, orderly, focused, attentive, on task, and academically productive during a classroom. when classroom-management strategies are executed effectively, teachers minimize the behaviors that impede learning whilst facilitating learning. effective teachers tend to display strong classroom-management skills. watkins and wagner (1991) assert that role of the teacher is undervalued in terms of the role she plays in promoting (or discouraging) certain types of behaviors. while a limited or more traditional interpretation of effective classroom management may focus largely on obedience and discipline such as following directions, listening attentively, etc.—a more encompassing or updated view of classroom management extends to everything that teachers may do to facilitate or improve student learning, which would include such factors as attitudes irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 65 (respectful and fair treatment of students), physical environment (learning materials) and expectations. classroom management techniques aim to instill a positive learning environment that facilitates learning and turn the classroom into a fertile thinking and learning ground. cooperative learning and independent work cooperative learning is a systematic pedagogical strategy that encourages small groups of students to work together for the achievement of a common goal. the term 'collaborative learning' is often used as a synonym for cooperative learning when, in fact, it is a separate strategy that encompasses a broader range of group interactions such as developing learning communities, stimulating student/faculty discussions, and encouraging electronic exchanges (bruffee, 1993). cooperative learning as a teaching strategy requires careful planning and preparation. understanding how to form groups, ensure positive interdependence, maintain individual accountability, resolve group conflict, develop appropriate assignments and grading criteria, and manage active learning environments is critical to the achievement of a successful cooperative learning experience. for example, in a meta-analysis of research about cooperative learning, compared with competitive or individualistic learning, johnson and johnson (1989) found that cooperative learning fosters considerably greater efforts to achieve among students. these scholars also found that cooperative learning promotes supportive social and peer relationships, as well as maturity in cognitive and moral decision making (johnson & johnson, 1989). similarly, research shows effective classroom management strategies are the “art” of establishing environments that foster student cooperation (cangelosi, 2014). cooperative learning gives students the opportunity to work with others and see different points of view. research shows that students learn more effectively when working together rather than apart, and it is also known to improve self-confidence in students. the jigsaw technique is especially effective because each student is responsible for one another’s learning, and students find out really quick that each group member has something equally important to contribute to the group in order to make the task a successful one. students are exposed to and use many skills throughout this strategy: communication, problem-solving skills, cognition, and critical thinking -all of which are essential for a successful academic career. teaching strategies based upon collaborative learning had mixed results in mexico. in our culture, team work does not necessarily involve every student in the actual academic work; some of them provide emotional support, drinks and snacks or compensate their absence or lack of work in other ways. self -learning or independent learning is a process of self-regulation. as such, student approach curricular contents on their own, and teaching activities can direct and foster this kind of effort. for this, teachers must plan, monitor, and establish the pace and direction of the homework. self-motivation is a key element for successful independent learning. ‘external’ elements which support independent learning include the development of a strong relationship between teachers and students, and the establishment of an ‘enabling environment’. independent work refers to the work of the student outside the classroom with the help or supervision of a teacher. this is also known as independent learning. additionally, students experience positive outcomes from teaching practices that promote irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 66 independent or autonomous work (stefanou, perencevich, dicintio, & turner, 2004). independent learning is often linked to other approaches to learning such as ‘personalization’, ‘student-centred learning’ and ‘ownership’ of learning. discussion of independent learning frequently arises in the context of important issues such as student-teacher roles and relationships, and the role of information and communications technology (ict) in learning (meyer, haywood, & faraday, 2008). not every student benefits from teaching strategies that promote independent work, younger students, dependent pupils and students with few or non-existent resources at home may not develop their academic work competently. in addition, some basic cognitive skills such as focusing of memory and attention and problem-solving, metacognitive skills associated with an understanding of how learning occurs are necessary. there might be also some cultural factors to consider in approaching cooperative learning in gregarious societies such as mexico. gender and teachers’ self-concept there are various research reports regarding differences by gender and instructional strategies. for example, zhukov (2012) reported that in music education, male teachers gave general directions, whereas female teachers offered more time to practice. also, male and female teachers offered different kinds of reinforcement and feedback (klassen & chiu 2010). in fact, gender differences in teaching styles and student perception have been thoroughly investigated. for example, mullola et al. (2012) reported that student’s temperament played a significant role in teacher's perception of the student's learning style, educational competence and teachability. self-concept is a general term used to refer to how someone thinks about, evaluates or perceives themselves. to be aware of oneself is to have a concept of oneself. self-concept includes two broad dimensions of one`s self-perception. the first has to do with accomplishment of task and it is called self-efficacy, and the second has to do with the value ascribed to one’s self, it is also known as self-esteem. however, self-concept could simply have defined as what a person thinks of oneself. in the literature of educational psychology, self-concept is an integral construct that incorporates all the experience of individual self and it is especially important to consider when explaining somebody´s performance. teacher selfconcept has been a topic rarely investigated in mexico with relation to the use of specific instructional strategies, when in fact these are import indicator of how teachers see themselves in their job and situation. self-efficacy of teachers refers to feelings about their work in the school’s belief other couple because to carry out a course of function successfully (bandura, 1977). in this study, with the purpose of further understand how teaching strategies impact the teacher; teacher’s self-concept was explored with two questions related to the two major dimensions of self-concept: self-perception (how good of a teacher you are?) and self-efficacy (how efficient is your teaching?). teacher self-concept was thus defined as the evaluation teachers make about themselves regarding how good and effective they are as teachers. irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 67 methodology participants a paper and pencil anonymous questionnaire was voluntarily responded by 573 teachers from the different educational levels in the state of yucatan, mexico. from these, 185 (32%) were males and 388 (68%) females. teachers were on the average 32 (sd = 3.2) years old, with a modal seniority of 13 years in the school system. almost half of them worked full time, a quarter of them worked half time, and the remaining quarter were teachers hired on an hourly basis. teachers showed, in general, similar characteristics to teachers in other states in mexico. special fields of teaching were: spanish language (23%), social sciences (32%), stem subjects (20 %), arts and physical education (5%), and others (20%). table 1 depicts participants by gender and grade level taught. table 1. participant characteristics legend: m = males; f = females; (%) data collection and analysis a questionnaire was designed asking for general demographic and labor information. in addition, teachers were presented a list of 15 teaching activities (table 2). they were asked to rate the frequency of use in a six-point likert scale. cronbach reliability coefficient was .766. table 2 presents the table of specifications depicting the dimensions and items in each. primary junior high high school college total m f m f m f m f m f 39 141 34 141 47 74 23 34 185 (32) 388 (68) 180 (31) 215 (38) 121 (21) 57 (10) 73 (100) irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 68 table 2. dimensions of instructional strategies and corresponding survey items dimension items critical thinking instructional activities that foster intellectually disciplined processes as the basis of learn students reflect upon their own work i posit questions to check if they had understood i make them express their thoughts classroom management activities to create and maintain a structured and intentional learning environment i present the classroom objectives i promote order and discipline i administer tests to assess their learning differentiation instructional activities that mean to account for variation in students’ abilities, styles, and preferences. i assign tasks according to the student capacity i check on individual differences i make groups according to abilities cooperative learning classroom activities that attend to increasing social interaction and fostering academic and social learning experiences i promote group-work they develop products to be used by others i promote group tasks independent work instructional strategies that promote individual learning activities under control of the student i check the homework i ask the students to work/use their textbook i assign long term projects a confirmatory factor analysis allowed the establishment post-hoc of five factors/dimensions. these activities were clustered into 5 groups according to their factorial loads. each dimension represented a categorical teaching strategy as described in table 2, including the items clustered by this method. finally, teachers were asked to self-assess in a six-point likert scale: (1) how good they were as teachers and (2) how efficient their instruction was. data were fed into spss version 20 for statistical analysis. parametric testes were sued to explore for statistical significant differences. findings gender differences gender differences were explored using simple t–tests. scores in each category of teaching strategy were pondered in a scale from 1 to 6 by dividing the mean score by the irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 69 number of items in each dimension, so everyone had the same directly comparable scale. table 3 depicts the results of this analysis by gender. table 3. differences in teaching strategies by gender men (n = 165) women (n = 388) t p classroom management 4.23 (.56) 4.26 (.56) .64 .69 independent study 4.17 (1.2) 4.22 (.89) 3.19 .001* cognitive skills 3.91 (.61) 3.94 (.58) .249 .265 cooperation 3.74(.99) 3.75(1.03) .126 .11 differentiation 3.29 (.97) 3.27 (.88) 1.3 .62 legend: m, (sd). in general, classroom management seemed to be the major concern of these teachers. the only statistically significant difference in teaching strategies by gender was found in the analysis of independent study. female teachers promoted more independent activities than males. no other statistically significant differences were found. in general, women showed higher scores than men across most teaching strategies. and when asked how good of a teacher they were, women tended to consider themselves better teachers than men (t = 2.33; p = .027). grade level differences one-way anovas were carried out to explore differences in the use of teaching strategies by grade level. table 4 summarizes the results. table 4. anova: teaching strategies by level of teaching level grade/years primary 1 -6 secondary 7-9 high school 10-12 college ≥ 13 n 181 214 121 54 f p classroom management 4.32 (.56) 4.21 (.58) 4.22 (.52) 4.15 (.57) 1.68 .151 independent study 4.35 (1.14) 4.13 (1.21) 4.17 (.53) 4.0 (.90) 1.76 .134 cognitive skills 3.99 (.55) 3.85 (.61) 3.93 (.61) 4.04 (.58) 2.33 .055 cooperation 3.89 (.99) 3.62 (1.04) 3.69 (.95) 3.76 (3.7) 1.79 .129 differentiation 3.46 (.88) 3.23 (.86) 3.04 (.92) 3.4 (.93) 3.67 .001 frequency of teaching strategies ranked similarly in every level. the only significant difference was in differentiated instruction that logically was more frequently used by primary school teachers. no statistically significant differences were found in college teachers that primarily work with graduate students with those who worked with undergraduates. irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 70 teachers self -concept and use of specific teaching strategies teachers´ self-concept was the sum of two dimensions of perception: self-esteem and self-efficacy. the distribution of both measures, as expected, was skewed to the right, having 78% of teachers with a high self-perception and 22% with low self-perception. no differences in self-efficacy were found by either level taught (primary, secondary, high school, and college) or in the use of a teaching strategy. regarding general self-concept as a teacher (how good of a teacher are you), there were significant differences in 3 of the 5 categories of teaching strategies, as depicted in table 5. table 5. teaching strategies by level of self-concept low (n = 165) high (n = 388) t p classroom management 3.96 (.60) 4.33 (.52) 6.75 .001 independent study 3.95 (.69) 4.28 (1.06) 3.29 .001 critical thinking 3.73 (.59) 3.98 (.57) 4.32 .001 cooperation 3.75 (.92) 3.72 (1.02) .281 .779 differentiation 3.20 (.97) 3.30 (.88) 1.08 .278 legend: m; (sd); t = student’s t; p = alpha probability level. this analysis showed that teachers with high self-esteem as teachers (that consider themselves good teachers) tended to carry out more student-centred teaching activities than teachers with high self-concept in three of the five dimensions under analysis: classroom management, independent study, and critical thinking. no other significant differences were found in these teachers when contrasted by training, experience, field of study, or type of school. discussion the analysis of demographic information indicated that results data from this study could be extended to the average mexican teacher/student. in general, few gender differences were found. the only teaching strategy that seemed to be different by gender was promoting independent study, with women teachers promoting independent study more frequently than men. this may be associated to women reporting interest in paying attention to students’ homework, checking their homework, and the management of textbook and learning materials. traditional gender roles in mexico align with this finding reporting that women, in this case teachers, sometimes also mothers, tend to pay more attention to autonomous activities, such as homework, while men pay more attention to summative assessment, or grades (sánchez & martínez, 2016). however, this difference needs to be better studied by observational and other research strategies. the preference for mexican female teachers to promote independent deserves further investigation. irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 71 asking teachers to assess their own performance as teachers is not common practice in educational research in mexico. yet, we asked teachers about their feelings under the frame of self-concept, a traditional construct in school psychology, divided in two dimensions: their self-esteem and their self-efficacy. in both dimensions, we observed bi-modal presentation of results; nearly 80% of participants had a high self-perception and 20% a low self-perception. overall, there seemed to be no differences in feelings of self-efficacy of teachers and the strategies they use. however, when analyzing the self-steam (how good of a teacher are you?) there were significant differences in the relationships with three of the five strategies. high self-esteem teachers reported more frequent classroom management, independent study, and the promotion of critical thinking skills than low self-esteem teachers. this is an interesting finding, because regardless of perception of effectiveness, those mexican teachers considering themselves good were more like to use student-centred teaching strategies that desire to promote a positive learning environment. this suggests that low self-esteem teachers may have an external locus of control that imputes effectiveness to things other than teaching. this hypothesis, of course, deserves further empirical research. asking teachers what they do and how they feel in educational research is useful to collect empirical data about teachers themselves. although this study approach is simple with direct variables, it generates important information to understand the teaching situation and teacher training in mexico. results, for example, indicated that teachers were most concerned with classroom management and promoting independent study, which goes against common teacher training programs in the country that that emphasizes cooperative learning and differentiation. most importantly, the promotion of critical thinking skills – an aspect salient to many educational reforms and pedagogies – does not seem to be as a frequentist used strategy by teachers in mexico. these results encourage a further study of critical thinking pedagogies in mexico. although we might anticipate more critical thinking pedagogies in high school and higher education, the data showed no differences in grade level. this needs to be further analyzed because of the developmental nature of high school and college-age students who are preparing for adult life. generally, teachers in mexico were concerned with classroom management. this finding makes sense because teachers are concerned with facilitating their classrooms, viewing creating a positive learning environment as their primary responsibility. this permeated across gender and all levels of instruction. interestingly, cooperation and differentiation seemed to be the least of teachers’ concerns even though these topics are highly recommended in the literature and teacher preparation and training programs. also, promoting critical thinking seemed to be in the middle, despite making students think or reflect is a challenge in current education. when we examined teaching practices by grade level, the only difference was that primary school teachers focused more on differentiation than other teachers. this is logical given the developmental nature of young children. educational challenges must be addressed among primary age students such that the students persist in school. in the absence of differentiation, students may drop out of school altogether. differentiation in lower grades seems to be a logical finding considering development issues and the prevalence of learning problems in lower grades. irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 72 the fact that teacher´s self-esteem seems to be a better predictor of the use of student-centred teaching activities is ant interested one for two reasons. the first, relays on the fact that no significant differences were found by their feelings of self-efficacy, related to their perception of how efficient or effective these strategies are. however, teachers reporting higher sense of being a good teacher tend to use these strategies more often that those with lower feelings of teachers´ self-esteem. conclusion in general, three major findings can be derived from the study. first, it can be concluded that female teacher tended to promote more independent study than their male colleagues. second, differentiation of instruction seemed to be preferred by teachers of lower grade levels. the third finding was that teacher’s self-esteem seemed to be a better predictor of student-centred teaching strategies which were used more often by teachers in lower grades. research focusing in teachers‘ practices in developing countries continues to be a need, information yielded in this study may be important for improving teachers ‘training programs and must be considered to implement educational policies that respond to both students and teachers concerns. teaching is a profession in continues change, technological advancements, globalization, social equity movements and many other factors should promote educational researchers to focus their efforts in documenting how these external influences impact teacher perceptions and actions in the classroom. references abrami, p. c., bernard, r. m., borokhovski, e., wade, a., surkes, m. a., tamim, r., & zhang, d. (2008). instructional interventions affecting critical thinking skills and dispositions: a stage 1 meta-analysis. review of educational research, 78(4), 1102-1134. bandura, a. (1977). self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. psychological review, 84, 191-215. bruffee, k. a. (1993). collaborative learning: higher education, interdependence, and the authority of knowledge. baltimore, md: johns hopkins university press. cangelosi, j.s. (2014). classroom management strategies: gaining and maintaining students’ cooperation, 7th ed. san francisco, ca: wiley. dataworks educational reseach. (2014). differentiation strategies: teaching grade-level content to all students. obtenido de. gillies, r.m., ashman, a.f., & terwel, j. (2008). the teacher’s role in implementing cooperative learning in the classroom. new york: springer. golub, j. (1988). focus on collaborative learning. urbana, il: national council of teachers of english. graves, d. h., & sunstein, b. s. (1992). portfolio portraits.portsmouth, nh: heinemann. hooks, b. (2010). teaching critical thinking: practical wisdom. new york: routledge. johnson, d., & johnson, r. (1989). cooperation and competition: theory and research. edina, mn: interaction book company. klassen, r., & chiu, m. (2010). effects on teachers’ self-efficacy and job satisfaction: teacher gender, years of experience & job stress. journal of educational psychology, 102(3), 741-756. irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 73 langer, j.a., & applebee, a.n. (1987). how writing shapes thinking. urbana, il: national council of teachers of english. mclaughlin, m. e., & talbert, j. e. (1993). introduction: new visions of teaching. in m. w. mclaughlin & j. e. talbert (eds.), teaching for understanding (pp. 1-10). san francisco, ca: jossey-bass. meyer, n., haywood, b., & faraday, s. (2008). what is independent learning and what are the benefits for the student? london: department for children, schools and families research. mullola, s., ravaja, n., lipsanen, j. alatupa, s., hintsanen, m., jokela, m., & keltikangas-jarvinen, l. (2012). gender differences in teachers’ perceptions of students’ temperament, educational competence, and teachability. british journal of educational psychology, 82, 185-206. phelan, p. (1989). talking to learn. urban, il: national council of teachers of english. sanchez, p., & martinez, r. (2016). caracteristicas de mujeres de lato rendmiento acadmeico en mexico (unpublishedtesis de masetria), mie. facultad de educacion. universidad autonoma de yucatán. sohroy, w. (2005). knowledwe and thought: an introduction to critical thinking. experimental psychology, 52(2), 163-164. stefanou, c. r., perencevich, k. c., dicintio, m., & turner, j. c. (2004). supporting autonomy in the classroom: ways teachers encourage student decision making and ownership. educational psychologist, 39(2), 97-110. tomlinson, c.a. (2003). fulfilling the promise of the differentiated classroom: strategies and tools for responsive teaching. alexandria, va: association for supervision and curriculum development. watkins c., & wagner, p. (1991). disciplina escolar. barcelona: editorial paidós. wenglinsky, h. (2002). how schools matter: the link between teacher classroom practices and student academic performance. education policy analysis archives, 10(12). zhukov, k. (2012). teaching strategies and gender in higher education instrumental studios. international journal of music education: research, 30(1), 32-45. biographical notes pedro sánchez-escobedo is a former fulbright scholar. currently he is a senior lecturer at the university of yucatan, in the college of education. he has contributed significantly to both educational and psychological fields in mexico. he was in charge of the standardization processes of the three major intelligence scales widely used in mexico in both clinical and educational settings and he has published so far 7 books an more than 100 original research articles. ana karen camelo-lavadores is a doctoral student at the multidisciplinary social sciences degree at the universidad autónoma de yucatán. merida, yucatan mexico. she has a master’s in educational innovation and she focuses on research of gifted and high achieving students. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 479 the implementation of learning policies in the new normal era in garut regency rostiena pasciana 1* , friska prastya harlis 2 , ieke sartika iriany 3 , and sri farida 4 abstract the unpreparedness of the community in rural areas with government policies related to change in learning methods during the pandemic is a rife phenomenon in indonesia's education sector. as is the case in one public junior high school, garut regency, there were limited resources, weak control over the learning process, and a lack of support from parents. this research aims to describe the implementation of learning policies in one public junior high school, garut regency in the new normal era and its impacts. this study uses qualitative methods with descriptive analysis. informants in this study were principals, teachers, and students. by analyzing communication, resources, disposition, and bureaucracy structure, the result shows that the implementation of blended learning has not been optimal. implementing blended learning requires good cooperation between the school, students, and the community. in addition, providing technology-based education training to teachers and staff, increasing students' digital literacy, and increasing parental socialization are very important things to strive for. keywords blended learning, covid-19 pandemic, policy implementation, study from home article history received 5 april 2022 accepted 1 october 2022 how to cite pasciana, r., harlis, f. p., iriany, l. s., & farida, s. (2022). the implementation of learning policies in the new normal era in garut regency. indonesian research journal in education |irje|, 6(2), 479– 493. https://doi.org/10.22437/irje .v6i2.17642 1*faculty member, universitas garut, indonesia; corresponding author: rostiena_pasciana@fisip.uniga.ac.id 2,3,4 faculty member, universitas garut, indonesia https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v6i2.17642 https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v6i2.17642 mailto:rostiena_pasciana@fisip.uniga.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 480 introduction since the covid-19 virus has spread and has become a pandemic globally, it has impacted various sectors of life, including the education sector (camacho-zuñiga et al., 2021; firmansyah & kardina, 2020), including in indonesia. one of these impacts is the policy regarding changes in learning methods in indonesia issued by the ministry of education and culture. the indonesian government issued a policy on learning from home methods so that the education process could continue during the pandemic. although learning activities are carried out in unusual conditions, it is hoped that learning targets at every level of education can be achieved with this method. before the covid-19 outbreak, face-to-face teaching and learning activities between students and teachers were carried out. however, after the pandemic, the teaching and learning process was carried out using the learning from home method. as stated in circular letter no. 4 of 2020 concerning the implementation of education policies in the emergency period for the spread of corona virus disease (covid-19), the minister of education and culture of the republic of indonesia emphasized that the implementation of the teaching and learning process is carried out from home or what is often referred to as distance learning. distance learning needs to be done immediately to break the chain of the spread of the virus 19. with this policy, millions of students and teachers worldwide, including in indonesia, have become dependent on technology (firmansyah & kardina, 2020). while in reality, various it support facilities and skills in their mastery are still not qualified. this phenomenon happens a lot, especially in people who live in rural (setiawan & taiman, 2020). furthermore, the learning process is carried out by referring to the joint decree of the minister of education and culture, minister of religion, minister of health, and minister of home affairs no. 01/kb/2020, no. 516 of 2020, no. hk.03.01/menkes/363/2020, number 440-882 of 2022 concerning guidelines for implementing learning in 2020-2021 during the covid pandemic. the implementation of this policy is the main topic of this research. the policy explains that all academic units in the green zone can conduct face-to-face learning by complying with health protocols and maintaining physical distancing. the approach mentioned is done during the new normal. fajar, in his article, quotes the chairman of the task force for the acceleration of handling covid-19 opinion that a new normal is a change in behavior to continue to carry out everyday activities but with the addition of implementation of health protocols to prevent the transmission of covid-19 (fajar, 2020). the conventional learning paradigm moves towards technology-based learning (education-based technology) with science and information technology developments (kornpitack & sawmong, 2022). technological developments can overcome the crisis experienced by the education sector (pacheco, 2021). by utilizing technology, students can easily access knowledge from various internet media and other technological media, and teachers are no longer the only primary source of knowledge. therefore, teachers need to be able to comprehend and master technological advances to exceed students' abilities. (firmansyah & kardina, 2020) irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 481 in line with the development of science and technology, using media in information and communication technologies (ict)-based learning is necessary to achieve learning objectives. both teachers and students tend to use information and communication technology (ict) in teaching and learning activities (firmansyah & kardina, 2020). students' ability to use technology will be trained if the learning process in their school uses the e-learning method (hadiyanto, 2019). in addition, combining conventional and e-learning methods, known as blended learning, is the right solution in limited educational conditions, especially during a pandemic (riswan, 2022). the e-learning method, a form of digitization, is expected to improve classroom teaching and learning outside the classroom. the statement above is in line with two of the four main goals of digitalization in education proposed by quilter-pinner and ambrose (2020). according to krasnova (2015), blended learning can be interpreted as a teaching method combining effective face-to-face teaching techniques with interactive online teaching, where the two designs are collaborated and form one system. the existence of adequate and balanced learning components will facilitate the effectiveness of this teaching system. in applying this system, proper planning is needed to be useful for achieving educational goals. in indonesia, the implementation of the blended learning method still faces various obstacles, especially for people who live in rural areas. as is the case at smpn 6 pakenjeng, garut regency. smpn 6 pakenjeng, garut regency, is one of the public schools in rural areas, the implementation of blended learning is still experiencing several obstacles. the first is the problem of available resources, including the lack of hr competence in mastering it, both the school (teachers and staff. in addition, not all students have cell phones. even though cellphones are one of the minimum supporting facilities students need to possess in blended learning, mainly when implementing e-learning. data on student cell phone ownership can be seen in the following table: table1. data on cell phone ownership among students no class quantity have a cellphone yes no 1 vii a 25 15 10 2 vii b 24 16 8 3 vii c 26 18 8 4 viii a 30 21 9 5 viii b 30 23 7 6 ix a 32 24 8 7 ix b 32 23 9 total 199 140 59 source: (processed by researchers, 2021) from the table above, the number of students at smpn 6 pakenjeng is 199. the number of students at smpn 6 pakenjeng with mobile phones is 140, while 59 students, or 29.3% of the total students, do not have mobile phones. even though it is dominant that irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 482 they have cellphones, not all students, who have cellphones, can participate in e-learning because of signal instability in students' residences, and students do not always have quotas. secondly, there was a lack of supervision in blended learning educational methods. it is indicated by students who have not been able to manage time and process information independently, and teachers also have not been able to take full advantage of existing multimedia facilities in making learning methods. this problem becomes an obstacle for blended learning education providers. another problem is that several teachers get signal instability in their residences. based on the observations, 9 out of 13 teachers, or 69.2%, felt that accessing the internet from home was difficult to provide online teaching. third, many parents do not support online learning methods. this phenomenon happens because not all parents of students have a good economy and an excellent educational background; most parents' jobs are farm workers. so they cannot facilitate their children if the learning method is online. these three things show that there are still problems in implementing learning policies at smpn 6 pakenjeng. if this problem is ignored, it will harm the achievement of learning objectives. therefore, this phenomenon needs to be studied more deeply to find solutions so that policy implementation in this new normal era can be carried out more effectively and achieve the learning process's objectives. several previous researchers have researched blended learning, for example, those discussing the application of blended learning in training (akhmadi, 2021), the implementation in russian higher education (krasnova, 2015), the implementation in islamic religious school (madrasah ibtidaiyah) (maskur et al., 2021), the implementation in vocational schools (handayani et al., 2020), and some have examined the implementation of blended learning in remote villages during the pandemic period. covid-19 (kasanah & murtadlo, 2021). however, from previous research, no one has discussed the implementation of blended learning, which is analyzed by looking at the theory of edward iii's policy implementation and its impact. so, therefore, based on the background of the problem, this research aims to determine the implementation of the blended learning policy at smpn 6 pakenjeng, garut regency, and the impact of the implementation of the blended learning policy. literature review several previous researchers have carried out research on the implementation of blended learning, such as the application of blended learning in training (akhmadi, 2021), the implementation of the blended learning model in pai subjects (mildan, 2021), and implementation of blended learning in higher learning institutions (ma’arop & embi, 2016). however, this study analyzes the implementation of blended learning in rural communities, a case study at smpn 6 pakenjeng, garut regency. these topics and locus distinguish this research from previous research. policy implementation is a statutory regulation that has been determined as a result of problem-solving so that it becomes a policy to achieve predetermined goals. ratri and horn (2014) define policy implementation as actions taken by individuals, governments, or private groups to achieve the goals set in previous policy decisions. the theory used as a reference in this research is the theory of edward iii (1990) which argues that there are four irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 483 main factors to influence the success of effective policy implementation; communication, resources, disposition, and bureaucratic structure. this study uses the theory of edward iii because it is in accordance with the phenomenon of existing problems regarding the implementation of policies from learning in the new normal era, similar to several indicators of the theory. whereas blended learning is the process of uniting various learning methods that combine virtual and physical resources (siti & hasbullah, 2015). its characteristics are as follows:  learning combines various delivery methods, learning styles, teaching models, and skills-based learning tools.  a combination of face-to-face or face-to-face training, independent learning, and virtual (online) learning.  support learning by combining teaching, delivery, and effective teaching methods.  teachers and parents play an essential role when teachers act as coordinators and support parents (trisniawati, 2021). the framework for this research is as follows: figure 1. mind frame diagram the blended learning method effectively used for the learning process at smpn 6 pakenjeng blended learning policy implementation beaurocration disposition resources communication 1. perception in conveying information 2. compliance with implementing guidelines 3. problem solving 4. operational decisions 1. the ability to set the policy 2. the ability to implement the policy 3. commitment to carry out the tasks 4. knowing what to do 5. prioritizing the success of blended learning method policy 1. operational cost 2. quality 3. facilities and equipment 1. the clarity of the task division 2. the clarity of authority and responsibility 3. the clarity of command 4. the clarity of coordination irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 484 methodology the method used is a qualitative method with descriptive analysis. this method was chosen to describe the problem of applying blended learning policies, the obstacles to applying the blended learning method, and the impact of implementing the blended learning method at smpn 6 pakenjeng. research design, site, and participants the design of this research is a qualitative approach. the unit of analysis in this study is smp negeri 6 pakenjeng, garut regency. informants in this study are implementers of blended learning. more details can be seen in table 2. table 2. research informants no. informants information want to get number of people 1. principal related information: policies were taken, obstacles in implementing blended learning policies, and the impact of blended learning policies 1 2. teacher related information: policies were taken, obstacles in implementing blended learning policies, and the impact of blended learning policies 3 3. student related information: policies taken, obstacles in implementing blended learning policies, and the impact of blended learning policies 3 the criteria for informants are (1) the principal as a decision-maker in the learning process at school, (2) teachers who are directly involved in implementing blended learning at school, and (3) students as targets of blended learning who have implemented the learning process at school. this research with a natural setting is a grounded theory, while the researcher is a research instrument assisted by interview guidelines, camera, recorder, and stationery as aids in collecting data between researchers and informants. data collection and analysis this research's data collection techniques were conducted through observation, interviews, and documents. firstly, observations were made by direct observation of the smpn 6 pakenjeng school as the implementers of the school blended learning and students as the target by recording the phenomena found in the field to study the data needed as a reference related to the research topic. the second is an in-depth interview using structured irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 485 interview guidelines and conducting interviews in stages proposed by bungin (2008). third, documents by learning the documents, notes, and reports available at smpn 6 pakenjeng, as well as other literature relevant to the object of research; such as regulations, student data, teacher data, student's parent data, cellphone ownership data, as well as articles on the topic of implementing learning policies in the new normal era. the above mentioned steps support/strengthen the observations and interview results. next, the researchers conducted data analysis. the analysis is carried out on the data from the preliminary study or secondary data, which will be used to determine the research focus. in analyzing the data, researchers used the interactive model analysis, which consisted of four stages, namely: data collection, data reduction (data reduction), data display (data display), conclusion drawing / verification. data reduction is made by summarizing, choosing the main things, and focusing on the important ones. then perform the data presentation, limiting a presentation to a set of structured information that allows concluding and taking action. after that, draw conclusions that can be made during the research. findings the covid-19 virus threatens the health of all humans in the world. so that all sectors, one of which is education, change learning methods that use technology to decide the spread of the covid-19 virus. however, not all schools can carry out face-to-face learning directly but depend on regional policies adapted to the spread of covid in their respective regions. this act was based on the ministerial decree 4 november 2020 regarding guidelines for implementing learning in the 2020/2021 academic year during the covid-19 pandemic, underlining the health and safety of children as the most crucial factor. the learning method at smpn 6 pakenjeng is that the learning process is carried out by meeting teachers and students face-to-face in class with limited time and dividing study groups. in the implementation of learning at smpn 6 pakenjeng, there are two activities, namely: learn in class face to face or offline, face-to-face activities aim to interact directly in learning so that teachers can see the condition of students to greet and communicate or other things. face-to-face learning is also considered effective because there will be direct communication interactions. learning is carried out in class face to face directly with the teacher. students divide into two groups per class, namely groups a and b. group a studies in the class on mondays, wednesdays, and fridays. group b has a limited time on tuesdays, thursdays, and saturdays. study time starts at 7.30 11.00 wib. self-study or online, students study independently at home at a predetermined time, or when group a learns offline, group b learns online, and vice versa. the teacher gives material or assignments to students using the whats app application only with the hope that the learning method will be effective. furthermore, in implementing blended learning policies at smpn 6 pakenjeng, garut regency, the authors observe and analyze policy implementation as a dynamic process, and many factors influence policy implementation. these factors are communication factors, resources, disposition, and bureaucratic structure. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 486 communication the implementation of a communication policy is vital thing to be implemented. communication in schools is a very complex process. a person can deliver communication because of particular interests, and different sources of information will give birth to different interpretations. for implementation to be effective, those responsible for implementing a decision must understand the information. therefore, three things are needed, namely: 1. transmission with a good distribution, it will result in exemplary implementation as well. otherwise, the target of the policy will not understand the purpose of the policy. 2. clarity the clarity received by policy implementers is essential to avoid confusion in policy implementation. 3. consistency consistency in policy implementation is essential because if what is communicated is not valid, it will affect the implementation of the policy. from the perception of conveying information in communication, it can be concluded that implementing blended learning at smpn 6 pakenjeng in communication is still lacking. therefore, the blended learning method's implementation follows the education unit level curriculum and government policies. the teacher socializes with students on the policies determined when they teach in the classroom. this activity is reinforced by a policy implementer who stated that: "…for this school's policy to adjust to the curriculum level education units in schools here and the policies of the government are: with each teacher carrying out the learning program effectively with the best…." (interview with informant 1, 15 february 2021) although in limited conditions, the blended learning method is considered the right solution for the learning process in the new normal era. teachers can carry out learning with conventional methods combined with online so that they can provide materials and assignments by sending them to the application. then students can study and do tasks at home with a more flexible time. a policy implementer supports this statement: "… blended learning is a learning method that is currently being used. this policy solves various existing problems, both in and outside the school environment. even though there are many obstacles but every good teacher, the principal, tries to the implementation of the blended learning method is going well…" (interview with informants 2, 15 february 2021) the presence of blended learning has panicked all parties, both teachers and students. technical problems such as quota, signal, and application constraints are often encountered. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 487 the statement is reinforced by the results of the author's interviews with students following the explanation, "…yes, the teacher has already informed that the study time will be divided into two parts offline and online and the study time is divided into two groups a and b with different schedules…" (interview with informants 5, 15 february 2021) the presence of a blended learning policy is the right solution for learning methods towards the new normal era. in terms of communication, implementers try to make good communication despite various limitations. resources in implementing the policy, resources must be met, human resources, budgetary resources, and equipment resources. data of the smpn 6 pakenjeng employee: table 3. the recent educational backgorund of pakenjeng 6 junior high school employee position educational background (person) total (person) senior high school diploma undergraduate postgraduate the principal 1 1 teacher 13 13 staff 3 1 4 total (person) 3 1 13 1 18 percentage 16,7% 55,5% 72,3% 5,5% 100% source: (document of profil smpn 6 pakenjeng, 2021) based on the table 3, it can be seen that the most recent educational background of the employees is undergraduate. in general, undergraduate have the good ability in using technology. but in reality it is not so. there are still many teachers who have not been able to master technology well. even though the teacher is the main implementer in the implementation of this blended learning policy. in addition, the existing facilities still not support. such as the limited number of computers in school, and the student’s handphone ownship. this is in line with the statement during the interview with the informant as follows. there are still obstacles based on resource interviews at smpn 6 pakenjeng in implementing the blended learning policy. this statement is reinforced by the results of interviews with policy implementers, as follows, "…there are so many obstacles when using technology, due to lack of resources both material and human, for example, computers. besides that, there are also no teachers who are proficient in technology, and not all students have their own handphone because not all parents are economically sufficient…." (interview with informant 1, 15 february 2021) irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 488 based on this statement, it can be seen that in terms of resources, the obstacles are the lack of teacher ability to use technology, the lack of availability of computer facilities in schools, and the ownership of student cellphones that are not fully available. the problem mentioned is a major obstacle in implementing blended learning at smpn 6 pakenjeng. because if the resources for implementing blended learning are limited, then the policy tends not to be implemented properly. in addition, it is still limited in terms of budget resources at smpn 6 pakenjeng, garut regency. this statement is reinforced by the results of interviews with policy implementers, as follows, "…for the budget, there are bos funds. but these funds are used gradually because if all the needs are met there will not be enough so that it prioritizes what is more needed to be used…" (interview with informant 4, 15 february 2021) similarly, this obstacle is felt by the policy target, namely students. one student said: "… in the application of blended learning, it will be difficult at the time of implementation online because signals constrain it, there is no quota, and not all students have cell phones. we also as students have difficulty in understanding the material independently…." (interview with informants 7, 15 february 2021) based on the results of interviews on the resources factor, the author sees that there are still limited resources in implementing blended learning policies at smpn 6 pakenjeng garut. disposition a disposition in the effectiveness of the implementation of learning is undoubtedly strongly influenced by the attitude of policy implementers. if the policy implementers agree with the blended learning method, they will be happy to implement it, but if they do not agree, the implementation process will not be optimal. policy implementers have three attitudes: awareness to implement, policy response towards acceptance and rejection, and intensity of the policy response. failure in implementation often arises because they reject the purpose that is in it. based on the results of the author's interviews with policy implementers, "…the policy of blended learning in schools depends on the supporting factors and the obstacle, whether we as teachers are ready, still have to carry out our duties. we are completely sincere in carrying out our duties because it is our obligation as teachers…." (interview with informant 3, 15 february 2021) the statement can be interpreted that there is awareness from the teacher to carry out blended learning at smpn 6 pakenjeng as well as possible. hence reflects the teacher's positive attitude as one of the policy implementers. besides that, other policy implementers stated that, "…school policies in learning must be following the curriculum. the level of the education unit in the school here is with each teacher carrying out the learning program irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 489 in the best possible way. therefore, it is our duty as teachers to carry out the learning method as well as possible even though policy different from usual…." (interview with informant 4, 15 february 2021) this statement shows a response from the implementer towards "acceptance." and it means that this policy is acceptable and offers a supportive attitude for the optimal implementation of the blended learning policy at smpn 6 pakenjeng. the other policy implementers explained that: "…in implementing blended learning, sophisticated technology is needed, and here not all students have the tools to carry out learning activities through blended learning. however, we try to implement the best policies that exist in the school " (interview with informant 3, 15 february 2021) this statement proves that there is positive response intensity from the implementers. even though it was carried out suddenly and urgently, the policy implementers could be positive in implementing it. this can be seen from the awareness to follow the policies that the government has issued from the implementers, the response to "acceptance" of policies from the implementers, and the intensity of positive reactions. so it can be concluded that in terms of disposition, it can be said to have been able to support the implementation of blended learning policies at smpn 6 pakenjeng. bureaucracy structure in implementing policies, the bureaucratic structure is an important indicator so that the policy can run. regarding this bureaucratic structure, the authors obtained data from interviews regarding the implementation of blended learning policies at smpn 6 pakenjeng as follows. the principal of the school believes that, "…each teacher has a different ability wherein the method as well as different learning styles but the implementation of learning methods it is clear both in its policy and the division of tasks for implementers." (interview with informant 1, 15 february 2021) this statement shows that a clear division of tasks has been carried out in implementing the policy. this division of tasks begins with socialization from the principal to teachers, students, and parents. another policy implementer also confirmed this, "… this blended learning policy was carried out based on a decision from the central government, which the garut regency education office strengthened. however, its implementation was adjusted again to the existing situation and conditions at smpn 6 pakenjeng. as a result of deliberations at the school level, the principal decided that it was necessary to socialize each program that had been determined so that it was clear and known to all parties. this socialization starts from the principal to the teacher, irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 490 then the teacher to the students, and to the parents of students in the hope that it can be carried out as well as possible…." (interview with informant 3, 15 february 2021) however, if viewed from the procedure's suitability, it still needs to be improved; this is as stated by one of the implementers, who said that, "in learning activities, many things cannot be done properly because they are still in the adjustment stage. for example, in collecting assignments, some students still do it manually and even exceed the time limit when it should be done online. in addition, sometimes obstacles from the teacher make it late to deliver the material online. lesson materials are sometimes sent near the end of study hours. the point is that there are still things that are not by the procedure due to various technical obstacles faced by students and teachers." (interview with informant 5, 15 february 2021) this opinion indicates that the bureaucratic structure still needs to be improved regarding conformity with procedures. discussion referring to edward iii's theory, which argues that four factors influence the success of policy implementation, namely communication, resources, disposition, and bureaucratic structure, it can be said that the performance of blended learning policies at smpn 6 pakenjeng has been implemented but is still not optimal. first, judging from the communication, it has been done well in transmission and clarity. implementers can establish two-way communication, namely between school principals and teachers. this communication factor supports the implementation of good learning policies, and as stated by ahmed and sintayehu (2022) that good communication is a factor that determines the success of learning. however, it is necessary to optimize the consistency of communication, especially with students and parents. in addition, communication barriers are communication aids constrained by signals and students' limited ability to buy quotas. second, resources in implementing blended learning seem to be one of the main problem dimensions. various limitations exist in the school, such as the lack of it-based facilities or the students regarding ownership of cellphones and quotas; besides that, it is also relatively tricky for parents to support the program due to the background of the majority of parents as farmworkers, so it is complex help their children in learning both in understanding the material or doing chores at home. these difficulties impact students' lack of understanding of the materials they should get directly from the teacher. these problems align with kornpitack and sawmong's (2022) statement in their research. so, therefore, teachers are required to have more abilities in compiling interesting learning media so that students can easily understand the material even though they are studying independently at home. third, regarding disposition, every policy taken must have reciprocity for awareness in implementing learning to decide whether to accept or reject. the main thing is to pay attention to three things: awareness of implementers, implementing instructions to respond to policies towards acceptance or rejection, and the intensity of the response. from these three things, it seems that at smpn 6 pakenjeng, most irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 491 teachers can realize and respond well to the need to follow the policies made even though they are unprepared to follow the government's policies. fourth, the existing bureaucratic structure is still less than optimal, such as implementation that is not in accordance with procedures. in addition, the principal, as a 'decision maker,' sometimes has not provided a solution for improving and developing the teacher's role in implementing his blended learning. furthermore, based on the observations, information, and data obtained from smpn 6 pakenjeng. with the blended learning policy, it has various positive impacts, as follows:  the teacher can provide material anywhere and anytime or according to the schedule and is not limited by time.  learning methods that are not monotonous.  students gain experience and insight into using technology.  students can learn by searching for material widely.  students can study anywhere and anytime and have plenty of time. besides that, the blended learning policy has negative impacts such as:  teachers must have skills in e-learning.  teachers need to prepare time to manage internet-based learning.  there are deviations in the use of the internet for students.  students lack understanding in mastering the material.  not all students will participate in e-learning.  the number of tasks the teacher gives so that students are stressed and lazy to do it. (teachers and students, interview results, november 2021). in adapting the blended learning method during the pandemic, it is still necessary to increase support and collaboration between teachers, students, and parents to overcome the negative impact of implementing blended learning policies at smpn 6 pakenjeng. this statement is in line with unesco (2020) in the book "education in a post-covid world," which states that by paying attention to, supporting, and collaborating with parties outside the school (students and the community), there is a potential for educational change during and after the covid crisis towards a better direction. conclusion and recommendations based on the research results, it can be concluded that the implementation of the blended learning policy at smpn 6 pakenjeng, garut regency, has not entirely gone well because there are still obstacles to its implementation. in addition, the blended learning policy also has various impacts (both positive and negative impacts). the negative impacts need to be anticipated by paying attention to responses from teachers, students, and the community, providing support, and making good cooperation between the school, students, and the community. as for the results of this study, some recommendations can be given as follows: first, the school needs to provide facilities and equipment in schools for learning. the need to organize various activities to improve the ability of teachers and staff in the use of it and the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 492 need to increase socialization among parents of students to convey the latest information that needs to be implemented in schools. second, as implementers of blended learning policies, teachers need to conduct technology-based training so that blended learning policies can be appropriately implemented. third, students must increase learning independence and activeness in the online and offline classroom. fourth, parents need to be able to access minimal technology to find out the learning process that their children need to do at home. fifth, future researchers can examine blended learning, which is associated with a teacher or student motivation which has not been analyzed in this study. disclosure statement the authors reported no potential conflict of interest. acknowledgments we express our gratitude and appreciation to the informants and parties who have been willing to provide data and information that helped the completion of this research references ahmed, a., & sintayehu, b. 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(2019). the efl students’ 21 st century skill practices through e-learning activities. 3(2), 2580–5711. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v5i2.16293 handayani, t., maulida, e., & sugiyanta, l. (2020). blended learning implementation and impact in vocational schools. teknodika, 18(2), 146. https://doi.org/10.20961/teknodika.v18i2.42032 kasanah, s. i., & murtadlo. (2021). implementasi pembelajaran blended learning di desa terpencil pada masa pandemi covid-19. jurnal inspirasi manajemen pendidikan, 9(12), 999– 1012. https://ejournal.unesa.ac.id/index.php/inspirasi-manajemen-pendidikan/article/view/ 42440 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 493 kornpitack, p., & sawmong, s. (2022). empirical analysis of factors influencing student satisfaction with online learning systems during the covid-19 pandemic in thailand. heliyon, 8(3), e09183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e09183 krasnova, t. (2015). paradigm shift: blended learning integration in russian higher education. procedia – social and behavioral sciences, 166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.12.543 ma’arop, a. h., & embi, m. a. (2016). implementation of blended learning in higher learning institutions: a review of literature. international education studies, 9(3), 41. https://doi.org/10.5539/ies.v9n3p41 maskur, anwar, m. k., & trianah. (2021). implementasi pembelajaran blended learning di madrasah ibtidaiyah. magistra, 12(2), 120–132. https://doi.org/10.31942/mgs.v12i2.5605 pacheco, j. a. (2021). the “new normal” in education. 3–14. quilter-pinner, h., & ambrose, a. (2020). the “new normal” the future of education after covid-19. institute for public policy research, october, 1–44. www.ippr.org riswan. (2022). the design of adaptive learning model to support the application of blended learning. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol, 6(1), 58–70. https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v6i1.10677 setiawan, f., & taiman, t. (2020). the impact of the lockdown status on student learning during the covid-19 pandemic. syntax literate ; jurnal ilmiah indonesia, 5(11), 1311. https://doi.org/10.36418/syntax-literate.v5i11.1729 unesco. (2020). education in a post covid world : ine ideas for public action international commission on the futures of education. https://en.unesco.org/news/education-post-covid-world-nine-ideas-public-action biographical notes rostiena pasciana is working at universitas garut, indonesia. friska prastya harlis is working at universitas garut, indonesia. leke sartika iriany is working at universitas garut, indonesia. sri farida is working at universitas garut, indonesia. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 375 listening comprehension performance and problems: a survey on undergraduate students majoring in english hariswan putera jaya 1 , ismail petrus 2 , and dedi kurniawan 3 abstract this study was aimed at finding out the performance of listening comprehension, problems faced, the causes of the problems, and the relationships between the problems and their causes. the samples of this study were the students of bachelor program of an english education study program. the data were the toefl prediction listening comprehension test and questionnaires. it was found that 30% of the samples were in a fair listening category and 70% were in a poor listening category. the students’ main problems in listening were then categorized as listeners, listening materials, and listening settings. the causes of the problems were specified as linguistic knowledge, pronunciation, concentration, and environment. the data were analyzed using chi-square association with p-value 514.84 which was greater than the critical value of 179.58. therefore, there is a significant relationship between the listening problems and the factors causing the problem. keywords causes, comprehension, listening, problems, teaching materials 1faculty of teacher training and education, universitas sriwijaya, palembang, indonesia: hariswan@unsri.ac.id 2faculty of teacher training and education, universitas sriwijaya, palembang, indonesia: ismailpetrus15@gmail.com 3faculty of teacher training and education, universitas sriwijaya, palembang, indonesia: dedikurniawan@unsri.ac.id mailto:hariswan@unsri.ac.id mailto:ismailpetrus15@gmail.com mailto:dedikurniawan@unsri.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 376 introduction it is widely known that listening has a very important place in language learning because it is one of the four skills in which significantly contributes to the language acquisition in spite of the fact that other skills such as reading, speaking, and writing are also crucial to develop proficiency in language. listening is essential as it is the receptive skill that develops for the first time in human being’s language development and certainly learning to listen to the target language will improve language proficiency. the pronunciation, intonation, rhythm, and stress of the language could only be improved perfectly through listening activities (renukadevi, 2014). listening is the most significant part of communication since it provides substantial and meaningful language inputs, especially when it is learnt for communicative purpose. it helps language learners to learn sounds, pronunciation, word stress, and vocabulary. the good comprehension of spoken messages can only happen when these aspects and also the tones of voice, pitches and accents are sufficiently acquired. in other words, without comprehending languages input appropriately, language learning simply cannot get any improvement and no communication can be achieved without listening (croom, 1998) moreover, having good listening skill will make language learners able to understand what other people are saying regardless of choice of words, accents, speaking speed, intonation, complicated grammar, and other language comprehension barriers (hien, 2015). nevertheless, listening comprehension is less considered to be a priority in english teaching and learning process. richards and renadya (2002) state that listening is disregarded by most english teachers compared to other language skills such as reading, speaking and writing. wang and fan (2015) also claim that l2 listening is rarely seen as worthy of serious research or pedagogical attention. they consider listening as a soft skill that can be obtained outside schools and not to be officially taught by teachers. this thought has led to the unending problems in listening comprehension. problems in listening comprehension are caused by many factors. the first one is the listeners themselves. the listeners’ language proficiency can interfere the listening comprehension processes. the listeners’ exposures to native speakers’ pronunciation have great influence on the listeners’ comprehension. the listeners’ vocabulary mastery may become an obstacle for the listeners to find out the overall meaning or the main point of the spoken discourse. the difficulties in listening comprehension may as well be caused by lack of listening material. also, jaya (2017) explains that gathering the listening teaching materials is not as effortless as gathering teaching materials for other three skills because the amount of learning sources for listening comprehension is not as abundant as the source for speaking, writing, and reading skill. the third problem in listening comprehension is the physical settings or the surroundings where the listening activities take place such as noises, audio player, and audio unclarity. indonesian students are still struggling to improve listening comprehension. the report on test taker of toeic (2014) revealed that indonesia’s listening performance was in the 42nd rank out of 44 countries. this has made many teacher training faculties at indonesian universities provide more courses in their curriculum. on the average, there are irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 377 12 credits semester offered to students. however, students still have difficulties in listening. it is still the toefl section that they scored the lowest. hamouda (2013) states that efl students have crucial problems in listening comprehension because universities pay attention to grammar, reading, and vocabulary. listening and speaking skills are not significant parts of many books and teachers do not consider these skills in their classes. similarly, osada (2004) stated that listening is not very important for both teachers and students, teachers teach language not to teach listening and students learn language not focusing on listening comprehension. consequently, it remains the most neglected aspect of language teaching and learning. it is also the research topic that is less embraced by the teachers and students at the university. this study tried to fill the gap and was aimed at finding out the performance of listening comprehension, problems faced, the causes of the problems, and the relationships between the problems and their causes. literature review potential difficulties in listening comprehension listening difficulties is the hindrance for the students to achieve optimal comprehension performance in listening. that is why to avoid the possibility of encountering the difficulties during the process of listening; we have to find the causes of the problems. bingol et al. (2014) state the so-called problems in listening comprehension are supposed to be known by both the learners and educator in order to find the solution for the problems. the difficulties in listening comprehension are varied, but in this study, the difficulties will be focused on several aspects, which are the listeners, listening materials and external settings and condition. according to hien (2015), the problems that arise in listening comprehension comes in several aspects, namely from the listeners themselves, the listening materials, and the result from physical settings. similarly, darti and asmawati (2017) analyses ten problems of listening comprehension which are; lack of vocabulary, poor grammar mastery, accent, pronunciation, lack of concentration, speed of speech, anxiety, noisy, inability to apply listening strategy, and bad quality of recording that is used for listening. listeners’ difficulties the difficulties in listening comprehension are caused by the limitation of the listeners’ knowledge. goh and taib (2006) state that listeners’ knowledge of their skill in english is very important especially in the process of listening because the more knowledge they have, the more they become confident during the process of learning. efl students often stumble upon unknown vocabulary, unfamiliar accent and failed to grasp the whole concept on what the speaker talks about when they have a listening test or simply in an informal conversation. these difficulties arise from the listeners who face challenges in grasping english such as grammar understanding and vocabulary collection. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 378 materials’ difficulties most of the times, efl students encountered difficulties in listening comprehension because of the listening materials. listening materials are means that is used for english learning purposes in listening. the materials that are usually used in the classroom mostly provided in the form of a dialogue and monologue which often use various accents. efl students especially find difficulties in distinguishing the accent that is used by the speaker in the audio. buck (2001) states that listeners will have difficulties in listening, especially when they encounter an unfamiliar accent such as indian english. a speaker that talks too fast, the unfamiliar topic, and a non-formal form of dialogue and monologue that is used in the listening materials will also bring difficulties for the efl learners unfamiliar topics have confused the listener because topics that are used as listening material come from beyond the students’ field of learning. the topic that discusses heavy matter such as business or political issue may bring confusion. students that have learnt english as a second language and taught by a non-native teacher may also find a problem when they hear a discourse that comes from a speaker that has an unfamiliar accent. authentic listening material also takes a big part in listening comprehension process of the students. that is because students’ mostly less exposed to an informal form of conversation inside the classroom which led to the students’ problem in understanding the unfamiliar words that are come from a more informal form of conversation in real-life context. finally, graham's (2006) found out that the difficulties in listening faced by efl students mainly come from the students’ inability to catch the meaning of words especially when the delivery of the spoken discourse is too fast for the students to catch up on. listeners tend to feel under pressure when they listen for too long and thus lose concentration. difficulties from physical settings external or physical settings can also bring significant difficulties in the listening comprehension process. the use of an inefficient media for listening such as a broken tape, noises from inside or outside the classroom and the use of poor equipment can cause the students to confuse and make a mistake during the english learning process or during the listening test the quality of the listening equipment and recorded materials are very important because it can affect the students’ listening performance acutely. loud sounds that come from outside or inside of the classroom can make the students unfocused on their listening materials. that is why in order to achieve an optimal result in listening performance, the use of language lab or sound-proof room is recommended for listening comprehension activities in order to hinder the unnecessary noises from the outside. most of the time, broken audio will make unnecessary noises or even missing some parts, can make the students lose their concentration in the middle of the listening process. hien (2014) states that the use of poor-quality recordings or audio can severely affect the listening comprehension performance of the students. the equipment that the teacher uses has to be compactable and efficient in order to bring a comfortable situation for the students to learn. the last few years along with the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 379 development of technology, the use of learning media for listening which tends to be impractical and not easily accessible such as cds, tapes, and boom boxes are no longer needed because there are so many other learning resources that do not require extra energy to be accessed and can be accessed anywhere and anytime through applications or websites such as youtube, spotify, or podcast. potential causes of the difficulties difficulties in the listening aspect can come from many causes. bingol et al. (2014) examine the problems that the students possibly meet during the process of listening comprehension, the problems included; quality of recorded materials, cultural differences, accent, unfamiliar vocabulary, length and speed of listening. similarly with hien's (2015) study which implied that efl students have difficulties in guessing the meaning behind the new words, unfamiliar topic, and accent, failed to figure out the context of what the speaker talks about, failed to grasp the main points, unfamiliar speech style, and the use of poor-quality recordings or audio, noises, and poor equipment. sumalinog (2018) also conducted a study of the factors that affecting listening comprehension difficulties of efl students. the factors are unfamiliar accent, speed of delivering the speech, the learners’ limited knowledge of vocabulary and language structure and the use of unfamiliar expressions. sumalinog (2018) believes that the students’ have a problem in listening comprehension because of the level of difficulty of the listening material is either too difficult or too easy for them. methodology this was a survey study. the participants of this study were the sixty-seven students of bachelor program of an english education study program. the instruments used to collect the data were listening test and questionnaires. content validity was used to test the validity of the listening test. the test was adopted from a ready-made toefl-like test listening material. the listening test consists of 50 questions, each listening passage was associated with a set of questions intended to assess test takers’ ability to understand main ideas or important details, recognize a speaker’s attitude or function, understand the organization of the information presented, understand relationships between the ideas presented, and make inferences or connections among pieces of information. the questionnaires were adapted from hamouda’s (2013) study of listening comprehension problems. the original questionnaire consists of 71 question items that are divided into seven sections which are the students’ self-assessment of their listening proficiency (11 items), problems related to the teaching method at school (4 items), problems concerning the students’ method of studying (5 items), and problems that are grouped into seven sections based on their factors, including listeners factor, listening materials, physical settings, psychological factor, speakers, and concentration (51 items). hamouda (2013) ensured the validity of the questionnaire by asking four experts that have related backgrounds with the study to examine the structure, flow of the questionnaire, clarity, length, and the order of the questions. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 380 this study focused on the listeners, listening materials, and physical settings, so several items from the original questionnaire were selected based on their functions in serving the purpose of this study. the selected questionnaire items were divided into three sections namely the difficulties related to the listeners (5 items), difficulties related to the listening materials (6 items), and difficulties related to the physical settings (3 items). the questionnaire originally consists of seven sections reduced into three sections because the other sections of questionnaire items were not related to the variables of this study. results of the reliability test showed that cronbach’s alpha is 0.756 which means that it is reliable. the listening test was scored by using conventional number right (nr) scoring method. each correct answer was scored 1 and wrong answer was scored 0. according to bereby-meyer et al. (2002), correct answers are scored with positive value, incorrect answers and blank answers with value of zero. the questionnaires employed likert scale and analyzed based on the level of agreement and disagreement that the students chose from the responses that are available. the responses were then put into percentages and described. findings students were given a toefl-like listening test to find the current condition of their listening performance. there were fifty questions and scored based on the correct or wrong answers. the results of the test were described in the table 1 below: table 1. results of the listening test score interval category frequency percentage 86.00 – 100.00 very good 0 0% 71,00 – 85.99 good 0 0% 56.00 – 70.99 fair 20 29.8% 40.00 – 55.99 poor 29 43.2% <40.00 very poor 18 26.8% total 67 100% table 2 below shows the aspects of the listening comprehension test results associated with micro and macro skills of listening comprehension table 2. results of listening test associated with the aspects category aspects words recognition grammar recognition function recognition inference making prediction very good 2 (3%) 1 (1%) 2 (3%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) good 11 (16%) 8 (12%) 2 (3%) 6 (9%) 2 (3%) fair 20 (30%) 13 (19%) 18 (27%) 10 (15%) 4 (6%) poor 28 (42%) 26 (39%) 26 (39%) 23 (34%) 31 (46%) very poor 6 (9%) 19 (28%) 19 (28%) 28 (42%) 30 (45%) total 67 67 67 67 67 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 381 results of the questionnaires in order to see the students’ problems in listening comprehension, questionnaires were distributed. table 3 and 4 below shows the results of the questionnaires. table 3. results of the questionnaire on listening problems the second questionnaire was given to the students who got the low scores. the purpose was to get more information related to the listening problems. the questions were designed to find the causes of the listening problems. the results were described on the following table: table 4. the results of the questionnaire on the causes of listening problems difficulties frequency percentage listener prediction making 24 51% word guessing 25 53% understanding main points 25 53% listening materials unfamiliar topic 24 51% unfamiliar accent 25 53% slang words 25 53% long audio 31 65% fast audio 35 74.4% physical setting noises 41 87.2% poor quality audio 40 85% poor quality equipment 39 82% aspect causes frequency linguistic knowledge word by word translation 69 lack of vocabulary 95 limited knowledge of varied accents 78 informal form of communication 90 unclear pronunciation inability to distinguish sound features 98 intonation 72 unfamiliar topic 55 inability to concentrate no audio repetition 55 inability to catch the keywords 74 fast spoken discourse 104 exhaustion 83 inability to understand the context 63 environmental variables unsuitable condition/ surrounding 84 disturbing noises 160 broken tape 37 poor-quality boombox/ cassette player 127 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 382 results of statistical analysis the data of the questionnaire on listening problems and the data of the questionnaire on the causes of the listening problems were statistically analyzed to find the associations between problems and the causes of the problems as shown in table 5. table 5. frequency of listening difficulties associated with the causes aspects causes linguistic pronunciation concentration environment total listeners 106 81 88 58 333 listening materials 95 103 301 80 579 physical settings 55 17 21 270 363 total 256 201 410 408 1275 in order to find out the significant association between the problems and the causes of problems in listening comprehension, the chi-square association test was done. the result of the chi-square association test is shown in the table 6 below. table 6. results of chi-square association test aspects causes linguistic pronunciation concentration environment listeners 22.91 15.48 3.40 22.13 listening materials 3.89 1.51 70.80 59.82 physical settings 4.39 28.28 78.51 203.74 total 31.19 45.26 152.71 285.69 based on the chi-square association table above, the p-value is 514,842 and greater than the critical value of 179.581. it means the null hypothesis is rejected. so, there is a significant association between the problems in listening and the factors causing the problems. discussion based on the results of the listening comprehension test, 47 students or 70% of the population got poor scores, 20 students or 30% of them got fair scores, and no student got good score. the results indicated that the students still had problems in listening. underwood (1989) states the problems in listening comprehension are usually caused by lack of control over the speed at which speakers speak, not being able to get things repeated, the listener’s limited vocabulary, failure to recognize the language, problem of interpretation, inability to concentrate, and established learning habit. higgins (1995) adds that the problems in listening comprehension frequently faced by students are caused by speech rate, vocabulary, and pronunciation. moreover, this study showed that the first listening problem was related to the listeners themselves such as difficulties in making prediction (24 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 383 respondents or 51%) and difficulties in guessing meaning of unfamiliar words (25 respondents or 53%). another problem in listening comprehension was related to the listening materials. there were 51%% or 24 respondents agreed that the use of unfamiliar topics in the listening materials had caused difficulties for them to understand the whole context of what the speakers were talking about. the use of unfamiliar accent also became problems in which 25 respondents or 53% agreed that they got confused by the use of various accent of the speakers. most of the students also though that if the spoken discourse was too long, they often found it difficult to focus on what the speaker was talking about. 31 students or 65% respondents agreed that listening duration makes it difficult for them to follow the speaker successfully. in addition, 35 students or 74.4% of the respondents agreed that they often found it difficult to understand the spoken discourse if the speaker spoke too fast. 41 students or 87.2% of the respondents agreed that surrounding noises frequently made them difficult to concentrate on the listening materials. similarly, 40 students or 85% of the population also agreed that the poor audio quality mostly affected their listening. the fact that listening is still a problem for the students at the university might have caused listening comprehension course received more than 10 credit hours in the curriculum almost in every university with english major in indonesia. at our english education study program, there are 12 credit hours for listening comprehension course which students must take starting from the first until the fourth semester. however, students still find listening the most challenging course. hamouda (2013) claims that efl students have crucial problems in listening comprehension because universities pay attention to grammar, reading, and vocabulary. listening and speaking skills are also not significant parts of many books and teachers do not consider these skills in their classes. osada (2004) shared the same idea that listening is not very important for both teachers and students and teachers teach not to teach listening and students learn listening not listening comprehension. the findings of this study revealed that there were many factors that could cause listening difficulties which can be divided into external and internal ones in terms of what contributes to them. according to azmi et al. (2014), students may find problems in listening comprehension because of the quality of the recording materials. teachers usually use some recorded materials that have been rerecorded for more than three times. these will reduce the quality of the sounds which eventually will affect the students in trying to comprehend the listening materials. munro and derwing (1999) stated that too many accented speech can lead to an important reduction in comprehension. unfamiliar accents both native and non-native can cause serious problems in listening comprehension and familiarity with an accent helps students’ listening comprehension. similarly, buck (2001) mentioned that when listeners hear an unfamiliar accent such as indian english for the first time after studying only american english will encounter critical difficulties in listening. this will certainly interrupt the whole listening comprehension process and at the same time an unfamiliar accent makes comprehension impossible for the listeners. the other factor causing the problems is vocabulary. when listening materials contain known words, it would be very easy for students to comprehend listening materials. if students know the meaning of words this can also arouse their interest and motivation and can have a positive impact on the students’ listening comprehension ability. a lot of words have more than one meaning and if they are not used appropriately in their appropriate irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 384 context students will get confused. it is also very difficult for lower level students to listen more than three minutes long and complete the listening tasks. short listening passages make easy listening comprehension for students and reduce their tiredness. according to underwood (1989), speed can make listening passage difficult. if the speakers speak too fast students may have serious problems to understand l2 words. in this situation, listeners are not able to control the speed of the speakers and this can create critical problems with listening comprehension. despite the fact that we can cope with missing whole chunks of speech when having a conversation on a noisy street in our own language, many people don't seem to be able to transfer that skill easily to a second language let alone a foreign language. sometimes inconvenient classrooms also affect students listening comprehension. in the large classrooms, students who are sitting on the back rows may not hear the recording as well as those sitting in the front. students who prefer to stay next to the windows are effected by the noises that come from the outside. teachers actually have to take into account all this conditions. the size of the classroom also makes it difficult for teachers to manage the class in group activities or to get feedback from students. the class that does not have air conditioner may start to be too hot in early morning conclusion and recommendations/implications in conclusion, the students’ listening comprehension performance was still bad. none of them got a good score in the test. most of them were in a poor listening category. 70% of the students got a poor score or below 56 and 30% got a fair score or below 70. there were three kinds of problems the students faced in listening comprehension namely the listeners, listening materials, and the physical settings. the first was related to the students’ limited linguistic knowledge such as prediction making problem, word guessing problem, and understanding main point problems. the second was unfamiliar topic, unfamiliar accent, slang words, and fast audio. the last was noises, poor audio quality and poor equipment. the listening problems were caused by the limited vocabulary, limited knowledge of accents, informal form of communication, inability to distinguish sound features, intonation, unfamiliar topics, fast spoken discourses, surrounding noises, broken tapes, and poor quality boom box. it was also found that there was a significant association between the problems in listening comprehension and the factors contributing to the difficulties. disclosure statement no potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors. acknowledgments the research/publication of this article was funded by faculty of teacher training and education, sriwijaya university in 2020. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 385 references azmi, b. m., celik, b., yidliz, n., & tugrul, m. c. 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(2018). factors affecting the listening comprehension skills of the foreign students. international review of social sciences, 2(2), 611–617. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 386 underwood, m. 1989. teaching listening. london: longman wang, l., & fan, j. (2015). listening difficulties of low-proficiency efl learners: a comparison of teacher and learner perspectives. asian efl journal, 17(3), 85–110. biographical notes hariswan putera jaya is a faculty member of english education study program, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas sriwijaya. ismail petrus is an assistant professor in english education study program, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas sriwijaya. dedi kurniawan is a faculty member of english education study program, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas sriwijaya. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 560 the validation of the information systems success model: lms integration during covid-19 miftahuddin 1 , lantip diat prasojo 2, * , and awnis akalili 3 abstract this study adapted delone & mclean information system success model (d&m is success model) regarding the implementation of learning management system (lms) during covid-19. six variables are included; system quality, information quality, service quality, system usage, user satisfaction, and net benefits with 23 initial items. a total of 279 undergraduate students from a public university in indonesia participated in this study. the factor structure of the instrument was investigated using a survey design. the survey data were calculated using exploratory factor analysis (efa) and confirmatory factor analysis (cfa). six variables emerged from the efa methods, establishing a valid and reliable model; a few items were eliminated due to cross-loading. the suggested model was successfully mapped as a consequence of the results. the cfa confirmed that the instrument was suitable for the indonesian setting. the findings led to the development of 19 reliable and valid items. the measured scale has psychometric qualities, allowing for future research with a tool to capture d & m is success model technology integration. keywords cfa, efa, is success model, validation 1 senior lecturer of history education at universitas negeri yogyakarta, indonesia. 2 professor at the fakultas ilmu pendidikan, universitas negeri yogyakarta, yogyakarta, indonesia; corresponding email: lantip@uny.ac.idlantip@uny.ac.id 3 lecturer of communication science of social science faculty, universitas negeri yogyakarta, indonesia. mailto:lantip@uny.ac.id mailto:lantip@uny.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 561 introduction the use of technology has transformed traditional teaching and learning techniques into a more active and dynamic condition. face-to-face contact is no longer the sole way for instructors and students to communicate (hernandez-de-menendez et al., 2020). in current years, the use of technology in education, particularly in higher education, has increased student access and engagement. since then, the educational methodology has evolved from traditional techniques and toward electronic learning (e-learning). the learning management system (lms) is one type of e-learning used in higher education. the demand for quick transmission of knowledge and information at any time and from any location has fueled the rise of lms throughout the world and is a critical component of corporate success of educational activities. when combined with the prevalence of coronavirus disease 2019 (covid-19), lms is a recipe for the disaster (abazi-bexheti et al., 2018; rossini et al., 2021). lms is a web-based learning platform that allows users to access information and knowledge regardless of time or location. lms is a comprehensive e-learning platform with full multimedia integration, instructor-led and real-time instruction, and a collaborative environment. the real-time and synchronous lms distributions and the asynchronous lms distributions are the two forms of lms (namada, 2021). it has become an essential component of remote learning; an idea that must be fully grasped for the new learning environment paradigm. humanity has encountered numerous challenges since the spanish flu outbreak. without question, the covid-19 is unparalleled. with almost three billion individuals under quarantine since its start, the scope and impact are unprecedented in contemporary global history. the technology, on the other hand, substantially separates the contemporary situation from the past, altering quarantine history. the employment of technology in all parts of life is unavoidable in this covid-19 environment (gabr et al., 2021). several studies have looked at how technology is used in schools during the pandemics. however, there are few empirical studies on the success of lms implementation during covid-19. the current study is part of a larger attempt to develop a valid and reliable scale for measuring lms implementation using the d&m is success model. the research was carried out at one university, where students utilized lms on a regular basis during the covid-19 teaching and learning process. literature review understanding information system success is a topic that many scholars, practitioners, and management stakeholders are interested in. this knowledge helps to emphasize the system’s worth and may be used to inform future decisions about similar systems. there are several methods to measure success; the d&m is model is among the widely used and well-validated metrics. the model was initially proposed in 1992; it was revised in 2003 (delone & mclean, 2003). the model facilitates six interrelated dimensions: system quality, information quality, service quality, system usage, user satisfaction, and net benefits (delone & mclean, 2014; delone & mclean, 2003; wang, 2008). in previous irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 562 research, the model has been used and verified; e-commerce platforms (sharma & aggarwal, 2019; tam et al., 2020), knowledge sharing (halonen et al., 2010; sarkheyli & song, 2019), e-government (lessa & tsegaye, 2019; mellouli et al., 2020), and technology integration in education (al-azawei, 2019; safsouf et al., 2020; shahzad et al., 2021). it’s worth noting that the majority of research using the d&m is model to measure success have been conducted in developed nations, with just a handful specifically confirming the model regarding lms integration in developing ones, particularly during covid-19 (wang, 2008). as a result, the primary goal of the current research is to evaluate the proposed d&m is model to evaluate lms integration success during covid-19 in indonesia. the d&m is model, which presents six interconnected constructs of information system success metrics, is used to drive this research (al-azawei, 2019; halonen et al., 2010; lessa & tsegaye, 2019; mellouli et al., 2020; safsouf et al., 2020; sarkheyli & song, 2019; shahzad et al., 2021). 1) system quality is said to assess an information system’s desired qualities. this has been assessed in several information systems research utilizing factors such as system tools, reaction speed, and adaptability. this research, on the other hand, evaluated system quality by looking at the ease of use of lms integration and their function and adaptability. 2) information quality is content concerns and output qualities of information systems. it has been assessed by evaluating an information system’s output about timeliness, correctness, dependability, and trustworthiness. 3) service quality is determined by the level of assistance provided by the creator of the information system. service quality characteristics like assurance and response by the systems support department, and the provision of user training, have been used in studies to measure this. service quality was assessed in this study by looking at the technical assistance provided to users of a hospital information system, the network infrastructure in place, and the system’s dependability. 4) intention to use is focused on evaluating how an information system is utilized. various studies have looked at actual usage or, in certain cases, frequency of use to determine this. 5) user satisfaction is one of the most significant indicators of a system’s performance, and it’s frequently assessed by total user happiness. 6) net benefits: this is also one of the most significant indicators of information system performance, as it indicates how much an information system contributes to the success of various stakeholders, whether good or bad. it has been assessed by measuring individual or organizational influence on occasion. need for an instrument statistical data on technological integration, as seen by teachers, has been the subject of many studies (dong et al., 2015; m. liu, 2013; liu, 2013; ndongfack, 2015; polly et al., 2010). besides, students have also been involved in the context of technology integartion research (al-ani, 1979; dasig & pascua, 2016; ervin, 2014; lisenbee & ford, 2018). however, just a few research provided enough data on success of information technology (delone & mclean, 2003; halonen et al., 2010; sarkheyli & song, 2019; wang, 2008), especially in developing countries. therefore, this study’s objective is to examine the validity and reliability of the instrument in the context of developing country perceived by students regarding the success of the implementation of lms during covid-19. instrument irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 563 development should include a sufficient number of indicators to fit the setting and context (connell et al., 2018; hosseini & kamal, 2012; jamieson-proctor et al., 2013; valtonen et al., 2015; zelkowski et al., 2013). it aims at capturing critical aspects of constructs of the study. this study refers to the context and setting in indonesian scope through the use of exploratory factor analysis (efa) and confirmatory factor analysis (cfa) (james, 2009; kyriazos, 2018; padgett & morgan, 2021). specifically, the study was establihsed by the following research question: how valid and reliable the proposed instruments regarding lms implementation success among indonesian students during covid-19? methodology research design and participants this study applied survey as the main data collection method (ball, 2019; geldsetzer, 2020; weiss et al., 2016). we initiated the survey instrument by thoroughly evaluating related previous studies (andrews & diego-mantecón, 2015; hanniball et al., 2021). afterwards, the instrument indicators was validated through content validity and distributed for a pilot study (hazzi & maaldaon, 2015; leon et al., 2011). after the validation of the data normality (alejo et al., 2015; miot, 2017; noel, 2021), the data were assessed for the validity and reliability through exploratory factor analysis (efa) and confirmatory factor analysis (cfa). the present study’s population was made up of all undergraduate students at an indonesian public university. cluster random sampling was used by the researchers because it allows them to investigate the selection of groups rather than individuals. three hundred undergraduate students were given online survey instruments, and a total of 279 students responded. to gain a better comprehension of the data, the instruments were prepared in the participants’ native language, indonesian. data collection a questionnaire was developed to gather the data required for analysis. in ensuring validity, 24 items were adapted from prior studies with validated scales (cho et al., 2015; ojo & popoola, 2015; pai & huang, 2011; tilahun & fritz, 2015). we discussed the questionnaire with five experts and five users in order to assess all items through the face and content validity process. adjustments were made as needed and 21 items were submitted for the primary data collection; three were removed because they were inappropriate for the study’s topic, context, and setting. the current study employs a survey design consisting of methods for quantitative approaches that allow surveyors distribute an instrument to sample or the entire population to gather information on the respondents’ views and perceptions. individual accounts of social reality make it easier to build a foundation for cultivation and silent study. survey research is very critical in education. a survey is described as a combination of data obtained from the responses of a sample of people (liang et al., 2013; williams, 2013). creswell (2014) mentioned that the survey design contrasts from the experimental design in that it does not provide a treatment for the participants or subjects. because investigators do not change the settings like experimental researchers do, they are irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 564 unable to draw conclusions about cause and effect. instead of informing robust interpretations, surveys exaggerate data patterns (rowan et al., 2001). in a quantitative, survey research is a technique in which researchers disseminate a survey data collection device to a sample or the entire population in order to elucidate their views, beliefs, behaviors, or traits (chan, 2012). data analysis the current study covered several data screening concerns, namely missing data, multicollinearity, outliers, and normality, before moving on to the primary data analysis. the statistical results were computed using spss 23.0. for each variable, we used a box plot to calculate outliers. the skewness and kurtosis were assessed to ensure that the data was normal (-1.96 to +1.96 at the 0.05 significance level) (chou et al., 1998; singh & masuku, 2014). when the correlation matrix was more than the cutoff of .900, multicollinearity was detected. following that, data was examined in two phases for each construct: efa and cfa. the kaiser-meyer-olkin (kmo) value, bartlett’s value, factor loading, eigenvalue, scree plot, and varimax rotation were all included in the efa. the kmo index needs to be higher than .500. a kmo score of less than .500 indicates that the sample size for the efa technique is insufficient; the results may not be trustworthy. at p .050, bartlett’s test of sphericity was significant. each indicator’s factor loading should be more than .500 (habibi et al., 2020; james, 2009). an eigenvalue is the proportion of variance contribution retrieved by each factor using factor analysis; an eigen of less than 1.000 must be eliminated, and communality must be > .300. according to cfa, quality of fit was assessed using some measurements, such as loading of >.500 (kyriazos, 2018; truong et al., 2010; zainudin, 2012), chi-square at p > .05, comparative fit index or cfi of > .800, and root mean-square error of approximation or (rmsea of < .080) (padgett & morgan, 2021); details are presented in table 4. the stability of the values acquired is characterized as reliability. cronbach’s alpha, construct dependability (cr), and average variance extracted (ave) values were computed to determine the data’s reliability. cronbach’s alpha must be larger than .700, cr values should be greater than .600, and ave values should be greater than .500. findings preliminary analysis the quantity of missing data in the current study ranged from 0% to 0.4 percent on each item. multiple imputations, an iterative type of stochastic imputation, were employed to cope with the missing data. the observed data distribution was used to estimate several values that reflected the real value’s uncertainty instead of replacing it with a single value. table 1 shows the correlation matrix, skewness, and kurtosis, indicating a satisfactory study. the early study of system quality, information quality, service quality, system utilization, user happiness, and net benefits found that they were all univariate normal (skewness and kurtosis values ranging from -.419 to -.132 and from .137 to 1.193, respectively). irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 565 inter-correlations among the six variables ranged from .295 to.615 in terms of multicollinearity; discriminant validities were achieved (correlations of .900). table 1. correlation matrix, skewness, and kurtosis sq iq serq su usat nb system quality 1 .615 ** .475 ** .465 ** .393 ** .436 ** information quality .615 ** 1 .482 ** .495 ** .354 ** .455 ** service quality .475 ** .482 ** 1 .418 ** .360 ** .392 ** system usage .465 ** .495 ** .418 ** 1 .457 ** .379 ** user satisfaction .393 ** .354 ** .360 ** .457 ** 1 .295 ** net benefits .436 ** .455 ** .392 ** .379 ** .295 ** 1 mean 3.6254 3.5968 3.4719 3.7145 3.6476 3.7195 sd .45867 .53941 .62578 .58705 .61913 .62686 skew -.318 -.154 -.318 -.419 -.214 -.132 kurt .137 1.145 1.121 1.193 1.159 1.137 exploratory factor analysis the efa included the measurement of all 21 items. one item (sq1, “the system is easy to use”) with a loading value of below .500 was dropped. kmo values were above .500, and all values were significant at p < .005 (table 2). with an eigenvalue of greater than 1.0, six factors reported: system quality (1.024), information quality (1.590), service quality (1.377), system usage (1.377), user satisfaction (1.936), and net benefits (6.937). the factor loadings of all variables are above .400 system quality (.482 to .769), information quality (.539 to .745), service quality (.727 to .809), system usage (.585 to .773), user satisfaction (.759 to .813), and net benefits (.681 to .747). all communality values exceed .300, showing sufficient values of communality. table 3 informs all values of loadings, communalities, eigenvalues, cross-loadings table 2. kmo and bartlett’s test kaiser-meyer-olkin measure of sampling adequacy. .865 bartlett’s test of sphericity approx. chi-square 2585.691 df 190 sig. .000 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 566 table 3. loadings, communalities, eigenvalues, cross-loadings variable eigen. item (statement) m sd comm. 1 2 3 4 5 6 net benefits 6.937 nb3 3.6237 .72341 .747 .809 nb1 3.8136 .84459 .681 .764 nb2 3.7885 .74071 .701 .740 nb4 3.6523 .79403 .669 .738 user satisfaction 1.936 usat2 3.6344 .68570 .759 .859 usat3 3.6631 .68470 .764 .833 usat1 3.6452 .72437 .813 .818 information quality 1.590 iq2 3.6631 .67411 .745 .818 iq1 3.5305 .69295 .714 .744 iq4 3.5197 .69334 .539 .644 iq3 3.6738 .67141 .605 .553 service quality 1.377 serq3 3.5878 .69840 .809 .834 serq2 3.3154 .70518 .747 .803 serq1 3.5125 .76268 .727 .750 system usage 1.240 su3 3.7706 .71298 .773 .812 su2 3.5161 .72389 .706 .788 su1 3.8566 .70524 .585 .616 system quality 1.024 sq4 3.5699 .53774 .769 .844 sq3 3.5806 .52947 .767 .836 sq2 3.7240 .67789 .482 .499 confirmatory factor analysis cfa was conducted for the factorial validity of the six variables. the measurement model was satisfactory after one covariance activity was done between iq1 and iq3. one item was dropped since the value of loading is less than .500 (nb4, the system is an important and valuable aid to me in the performance of my classwork) (truong et al., 2010; zainudin, 2012). all loading values for the cfa surpass the standard cutoff value after the dropping. 500 (figure 1). figure 1 also shows the standardized coefficients of the cfa, addressing the correlation between factors and items for all variables: χ2/df = 1.830, cfi = .800, and rmsea = .055. this computation was exceeding the threshold value of .500 (table 4). the following six popular model-fit metrics were used to assess the model’s goodness-of-fit: the chi-square ratio, goodness-of-fit index (gfi), adjusted goodness-of-fit index (agfi), normalized fit index (nfi), root mean square residual (rmsr), and root mean square error of approximation (rmsea) are all terms that can be used to describe how well a model fits. table 4 indicates that the model fit indices exceeded their suggested acceptability thresholds, indicating that the measurement model fits the data quite well. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 567 table 4. model fit indices parameter threshold obtained value chi-square ratio (χ2/df) ≤3.406 1.830 gfi ≥0.90 .906 agfi ≥0.80 .868 cfi >0.80 .800 rmsr ≤0.10 .065 rmsea ≤0.08 .055 figure 1. cfa results cronbach’s alpha and composite reliability (cr) values of all varibales were found to be satisfactory of above .700: system quality (cr = 0.772; α = .706), information quality (cr = 0.814; α = .799), service quality (cr = 0.830; α = .833), system usage (cr = 0.767; α = .760), user satisfaction (cr= 0.853; α = .864), and net benefits (cr = 0.814; α = .786). in addition, the ave for all varibles also exceed the desirable threshold value of .500, denoting that this study had acceptable discriminant validity (table 6). through the examination and elaboration of efa and cfa in measuring the scale, the finding elaboration suggested the establishment of the validity and reliability of the survey instrument, a scale to provide a valid and reliable scale to measure the success of lms implementation through the use of d&m is success model. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 568 table 5. cfa results of all constructs variable items loading cr ave α net benefits nb3 (overall, the system is successful) .720 0.814 0.770 .786 nb1 (the system has a positive impact on my learning) .820 nb2 overall, the performance of the system is good) .770 user satisfaction usat2 (i think the system is very helpful) .760 0.853 0.891 .864 usat3 (overall, i am satisfied with the system) .900 usat1 (i have a positive attitude or evaluation about the way the system functions) .900 information quality iq2 (information i get from the system is accurate) .740 0.814 0.723 .799 iq1 (information from the system is relevant to my work) .780 iq4 (the information is presented in a useful format) .630 iq3 (it is easy to understand information from the system) .740 service quality serq3 (overall, the support services meet my needs) .810 0.830 0.787 .833 serq2 (the support services give me individual attention) .740 serq1 (the support services for the system are dependable) .810 system usage su3 (i only use the system when it is absolutely necessary for learning) .770 0.767 0.723333 .760 su2 (i depend upon the system) .710 su1 (i frequently use the system) .690 system quality sq4 (i can retrieve information i need easily) .750 0.772 0.723333 .706 sq3 (the system is easy to learn) .850 sq2 (the system is useful) .570 discussion the process of developing the scale of the current study was conducted within some stages. it aims at producing a scale with examined validity and reliability. initially, twenty-four items were established, adapted from prior studies (cho et al., 2015; ojo & popoola, 2015; pai & huang, 2011; tilahun & fritz, 2015). to filter the instruments, three items were removed from the list during face and content validity processes. the items (n. 21) were distributed to respondents (279 undergraduate students) from one public university in indonesia, efa was conducted using varimax rotation with principal component analysis. through this process, one item was dropped. the dropping indicator process did not result irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 569 in removing any important content of the scale. the dropping process helped improve the reliability and validity of the scale, leaving the scale with twenty items for the cfa process. the processes for determining the validity and reliability of an instrument development should contain a sufficient number of items that are appropriate for the setting and context. as a result, it may be able to capture important features of the structures in a study (macleod et al., 2018; maul, 2017). the technique aims to reveal the unknown elements that impact the co-variation of various lms integration observations in the indonesian setting. the technique is then repeated using cfa to confirm the factorial validity of the d&m is success model d&m is success model d&m is success model d&m is success model d&m is success model d&m is success model components in relation to the usage of lms during covid-19. the efa-based data were calculated for cfa using spss amos 23.0; just one item was eliminated since its loading value was less than its cutoff value. the reliability of the remaining 20 indications was investigated. cronbach’s alpha, ave, and cr values are adequate in this procedure, resulting in a legitimate and trustworthy scale. previous research using similar techniques has looked at the cfa process to corroborate the efa results. this method is critical for determining sub-construct measurements that are compatible with our knowledge of their nature (kyriazos, 2018; miller & pellegrino, 2018). the scale is appropriate for the measuring model and can help future researchers perform comparative studies. conclusion during the covid-2019 pandemic, the current study seeks to create and validate the d&m is success model in the setting of a learning management system (lms) in a university in a poor nation (covid-19). the final scale consists of 19 elements divided into six constructions (system quality, information quality, service quality, system usage, user satisfaction, and net benefits). the measured scale has adequate psychometric characteristics and can be used in future research. the scale’s reliability and validity were only tested at one university. it’s also necessary to incorporate a broader range of samples in research and to evaluate the link. other study settings and contexts were also suggested. furthermore, during covid-19, more specific and applicable definitions of extended constructs and sub-constructs for measuring lms integration will aid in the development of more consistent and exact survey instruments. valid and trustworthy indications linked to technology integration might be included in such instruments during a future outbreak emphasized by a similar idea. furthermore, more relevant definitions of technological integration during a pandemic epidemic are required, both conceptually and practically. mapping the technology use in this context will move the focus away from the method of instruction and onto the subject. disclosure statement no potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 570 acknowledgments the research/publication of this article was funded by universitas negeri yogyakarta. references abazi-bexheti, l., kadriu, a., apostolova-trpkovska, m., jajaga, e., & abazi-alili, h. 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(2013). developing and validating a reliable tpack instrument for secondary mathematics preservice teachers. journal of research on technology in education, 46(2), 173–206. https://doi.org/10.1080/15391523.2013.10782618 biographical notes dr. miftahuddin is a senior lecturer of history education at universitas negeri yogyakarta. he graduated, doctoral degree, from uin sunan kalijaga, yogyakarta in 2017. he was also studied history at universitas gadjah mada for his master's degree. lantip diat prasojo is a professor in educational management and information system and working as the head of institute of educational development and quality assurance of universitas negeri yogyakarta. he completed his bachelor degree form gajah mada university in 2001 and finished his master degree in 2005 at univeristas negeri yogyakarta. finally, he did his doctoral degree in 2015 from univeristas pendidikan indonesia, bandung. he has published more than 20 books and 15 articles in reputable journals such as heliyon, quality access to success, current science, and data in brief. awnis akalili is a lecturer of communication science of social science faculty, universitas negeri yogyakarta. she is a postgraduate student of universitas gadjah mada, indonesia this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 222 the ryff’s psychological well-being scale for indonesian higher education students: a rasch model analysis diana septi purnama 1* , muh farozin 2 , and budi astuti 3 abstract the research aimed to examine the ryff’s six factors model of psychological well-being that could be applied to higher education students in indonesia by using the rasch model. 425 higher education students completed adapted scales to assess demographic variables. the results showed that the person separation criteria scored 2.38 in the poor category, the item separation scored 12.21 in the very good category, the person reliability scored 0.85 in the good category, and the item reliability scored 0.99 in the very good category. the subscales of the pwb-42 showed accepted levels of reliability and the validity of the psychological well-being scale. the terms of the person and item strata separated criteria in the rasch model showed good results. however, the statement items provided are not broad enough to reveal the condition of psychological well-being. therefore, future higher education students research should develop more specific and context-appropriate items for a better operationalization of the ryff’s theoretical model. keywords higher education students, psychological well-being, ryff's scales, rasch model article history received 14 august 2022 accepted 05 november 2022 how to cite purnama, d. s., farozin, m., & astuti, b. (2022). the ryff’s psychological well-being scale for indonesian higher education students: a rasch model analysis. indonesian research journal in education |irje|, 6(2), 222-.231, https://doi.org/ 10.22437/irje.v6i2.20086 1* universitas negeri yogyakarta sleman, daerah istimewa yogykarta indonesia, corresponding author’s email: dianaseptipurnama@uny.ac.id 2 universitas negeri yogyakarta, sleman, daerah istimewa yogykarta indonesia 3 assoc universitas negeri yogyakarta, sleman, daerah istimewa yogykarta indonesia mailto:dianaseptipurnama@uny.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 223 introduction the ryff’s scales of psychological well-being (pwb) are widely used in various countries to determine the condition of individual psychological well-being. the rasch model is a test of validity and reliability that is still not widely used to test the validity and reliability of the psychological well-being scale for higher education students in indonesia. higher education students in indonesia are in the category of late adolescence. psychological well-being in adolescence has always been a centre of academic research. there are trend issues related to mental health in recent years is psychological well-being such as alfawaz et al. (2021) and lingelbach et al. (2021). it is evidenced by the results of research that relate to psychological well-being conducted in various countries in the last five years with different subjects (royer & moreau, 2016). the pwb can contribute to people’s personal growth, career development, and successful aging. measuring, and promoting pwb among the higher education students might be helpful to solve essential issues in life at every stage. during the pandemic of covid-19, online learning has various obstacles found in the field, such as inadequate network, facilities, and capacities of android/handphones owned by students, as well as the limited purchase of internet packages by teachers, students, and student parents. some students complain about learning. the tasks are considered more than previous days, and the difficulty of network access in their areas causes them to have to find network access. in april 2020, northwest evaluation association (nwea) released a report that follows the trajectory of learning loss by class since the pandemic started. there is a lack of student initiative and effort during online lectures. it is undeniable if all students come back to school after a long break, their previous knowledge and skills will lose, or called with learning losses. according to research carried out by the jrc european commission, the implementation of distance learning is the key to ensuring continuity of education after physical school closure. some students probably will experience learning losses during the lockdown. learning loss is a condition in students who arise because of difficulties in the learning process (dziuban et al., 2018). students who can measure their ability accurately in completing tasks or problems will be easy to feel prosperous in their life. in reverse, students who cannot accurately measure their ability will be hard to feel good. psychological well-being is a condition of someone who can accept himself as he is, form a warm relationship with others, has independence from social pressures, control the external environment, has deep meaning in life and realize their potential sustainably. the research showed that a total of 193 islamic psychology students who participated were those with an average age of 19 years old, most of them can deal with situations from the six dimensions of pwb (kurniawan, 2015). the pwb has been frequently measured by ryff’s psychological well-being scales (ryff, 2018). literature review ryff and singer (2008) explored the issue of well-being in the context of the development of a person's life span. they influenced aristotle's view, that wellness is a irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 224 simple thing like an effort to get pleasure, but the struggle to be perfect in realizing one's true potential (ryan & deci, 2001). ryff and keyes (1995) stated that to measure a person's psychological well-being (pwb) using a multidimensional approach consists of six aspects of human self-actualization such as autonomy, personal growth, self-acceptance, life goals, environmental mastery, and positive relationships with others. these six aspects explain pwb theoretically and operationally and relate them to mental and physical health (ryff & singer, 2008). in addition, they stated that eudemonic life represented by pwb could affect specific physiological systems of immunological functions and health-supporting factors. according to ryff and keyes (1995), psychological well-being is a state of individuals in their true self-potential which is characterized by an ability to behave independently and avoid social pressures (autonomy), feel an increase in self-quality over time (personal growth), accept their weaknesses and strengths (self-acceptance), has a purpose in life that impacts on the direction of his attitudes and behavior (life goals), create and choose an environment under personal values and needs (mastery of the environment) and enjoy and establish harmonious relationships with others (positive relationships with others). the reliability and validity of the pwb have been established in more than 30 languages and across various cultures (cheng & chan, 2005). various measuring tools were used, including the psychological well-being scale developed by ryff, both the short item and the 42-item version. collecting data process for survey research requires valid and reliable measuring instruments. ensuring the measuring instrument can be done by testing the validity and reliability. one of the validity and reliability test models is the rasch model. the results of publications in indonesia regarding the validity and reliability of the ryff’s psychological well-being scale using the rasch model are still relatively low and difficult to find on the google scholar page. validity and reliability testing with the rasch model produces detailed information that has not been completed by other analytical techniques (sumintono & widhiarso, 2014). the rasch model determines a valid and reliable instrument in terms of several indicators, including targeting, item model fit mean-square, range extremes, person and item measurement reliability, person and item strata separated, ceiling effect, floor effect variance in data explained by measure, and unexplained variance. the value on each indicator is categorized into five parts. they are poor, fair, good, very good, and excellent (fisher, 2007). therefore, considering much research using the psychological well-being scale developed by ryff and the rasch model have not been completed by other analytical techniques, it is necessary to test the validity and reliability. methodology based on learning loss since the pandemic started, participants of this research were students recruited from eight faculties in universitas negeri yogyakarta, indonesia. the scales of psychological well-being (pwb) were adapted to assess the psychological well-being of higher education students in indonesia. -5 students completed the adapted 42-item pwb. a questionnaire was to assess demographic variables, including gender (male or female), education status (bachelor, master or doctoral) and 8 faculties. we translated the 42 items of the pwb into bahasa indonesia. according to ryff (1989) originally comprised six subscales with seven items, each to measure the six factors, such as 1) autonomy, 2) environmental irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 225 mastery, 3) personal, 4) positive relations with others, 5) purpose in life, and 6) self-acceptance. response categories for these items are on a seven-point scale ranging from 1 (“strongly disagree”) to 5 (“strongly agree”). the score for six subscales was calculated as averages. higher scores mean greater psychological well-being. data collection started from april to june 2021. additionally, data analysis used the rasch model by looking at the scores/values on the criteria of person and item measurement reliability, person and item strata separated, and the results of the mis-fit test. furthermore, the primary objective is to compare indonesian students with malaysian students to test hypotheses linking constructs of interdependence and independence to well-being and health. findings and discussion the responses were from 425 students in the target sample. based on the collected data, there were 146 male and 289 female students. the level of psychological well-being of students of universitas negeri yogyakarta is as follows: table 1. the level of psychological well-being category number of respondents percentage low 58 13,4% medium 368 86,3% high 1 0,23% total 425 the table shows that the psychological well-being level of students is medium and in the category of obtaining a high percentage (86.3%).the results of this research generally support previous research which stated that psychological well-being can be an essential factor that can influence their life (caldwell et al., 2013). in contrast to previous research that measured psychological well-being by looking at the presence or absence of depressive symptoms, this research measured, psychological well-being directly with the instrument developed by ryff (1989). thus, it is hoped that this measuring instrument can describe a person's psychological well-being more accurately. the level of psychological well-being is in the figure below. figure 1. the level of psychological well-being 14% 86% 0% low middle high irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 226 furthermore, based on demographics such as gender, there are differences in the psychological well-being level of male and female students. male students have a lower level of welfare than women, where the percentage of psychological well-being for male students is 84.9% and female students is 88.1%. there are no male students with psychological well-being in the high category, while there is one female student with a high category of psychological well-being. it means the students of universitas negeri yogyakarta are enough in a condition of psychological well-being. it is indicated by the condition of each group of students with the highest percentage in the moderate category. the difference in level is in this figure below. figure 2. the conditions of psychological well-being ryff (1989) reported significant overall gender difference in the psychological well-being subscales using manova. however, subscale univariate analyses revealed gender difference only for the positive relations with others. roothman, kirsten, and wissing (2003) used 13 scales related to psychological well-being and reported small to medium gender differences on some of the scales. mokhlesi and patil (2018) supported the results of this research that the correlation between emotional intelligence and psychological well-being is higher in female than male adolescents. hence, gender is moderate in correlation between psychological well-being and emotional intelligence. it is also supported by research from vinayak and judge (2018) that the multivariate and univariate analyses were directed to assess the subscale consistency of the pwb, the factor structure of the pwb in terms of its subscales, and gender differences in pwb, its subscales and optimistic attitude. the findings of results showed that there is significant gender difference in psychological well-being among male and female of higher education students. the results also indicate an insignificant gender difference in dimensions of psychological well-being (autonomy, environmental mastery and personal growth) and a significant difference in these three dimensions of psychological well-being (positive relations, purpose in life and self-acceptance) among male and female students. according to li (2014), three models were tested, including the one-factor model, six-factor model, and hierarchical model. to be more specific, the one-factor model 125.5 126 126.5 127 127.5 128 male female mean irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 227 suggested that all 33 items were unanimously loaded on a single factor. the six-factor model suggested that the items of each sub-scale were loaded on their corresponding factor and correlated with each other. the hierarchical model suggested that the items of each sub-scale were loaded on their corresponding factor, and the six factors were subsequently loaded on a higher-order factor, which represented the construct of pwb (ryff & keyes, 1995). the results of this research showed that the person reliability criterion gets a score of 0.85 in the good category and item reliability gets a score of 0.99 in the excellent category. based on these results, the reliability of the psychological well-being scale developed by ryff can be said to be very good. meanwhile, the person separation criteria get a score of 2.38 in the fair category, and item separation gets a value of 12.21 in the excellent category. table 2. the person and item criteria criteria value description person separation 2.38 poor item separation 12.21 very good person reliability 0.85 good item reliability 0.99 very good it indicates that the validity of the psychological well-being scale in terms of the person and item strata separated criteria in the rasch model showed good results but has a drawback that the statement items provided are not broad enough to reveal psychological well-being condition. furthermore, in terms of the variance in data explained by measure, the psychological well-being scale developed by ryff scored 38.5%, which means that the scale is still contaminated with factors that have no correlation with psychological well-being or things that do not really need to be measured. meanwhile, from the function of the available answer choices, the psychological well-being scale with five answer choices has a good function. table 3. the diagnosis category function category label percentage of observed category measure 1 23 -2.25 2 24 -0.98 3 16 -0.38 4 14 0.01 5 10 0.40 6 8 0.98 8 4 21.19 it is evidenced by the percentage of each answer chosen by the respondents. ffor choice 1 a percentage of 23%, choice 2 is 24%, choice 3 is 16%, choice 4is 14%, choice 5 is 10%, choice 6 is 8% and choice 8 is 4%. from the misfit test, the majority of items on the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 228 psychological well-being scale are in the range of 0.5-1.5 which means they fit with the rasch model, but there are still four items that have a value above 0.5, namely items number 34, 5, 14, and 31. according to wright (1994), it does not reduce the fit value of the scale, only on the unproductive items for the construction of measurements in this context of measuring psychological well-being. the results of previous research showed that the psychological well-being scale is valid and reliable (abbott et al., (2006); sasaki et al., (2020). however, from the results of the person and item strata separated items on this scale, it is not sufficient to reveal psychological well-being, and the results of the analysis on the variance in data explained by measure criteria which get a percentage of 38.5% which indicates there are still factors that have no correlation with psychological well-being on this scale. table 4. the explained and unexplained variance criteria criteria value description variance in data explained by measure 38% poor unexplained variance data in contrast 1-5 pca residuals 11.9% fair however, according to sumintono and widhiarso (2014), the raw variance tolerance value in the rasch model is at least 20%. the variance in the explained data as 38.5% indicates that this scale is still a good measuring instrument. meanwhile, in the misfit test, some items can still be refined to meet the criteria determined by wright, namely items 34, 5, 14, and 31. these results are in line with kurniawan (2016), whose subject is islamic psychology students about the correlation between pwb level and student happiness which states that most items meet wright's criteria. it indicates that several items do not meet the criteria for answer choices. additionally, fatima et al. (2018) also found a correlation between religiosity and pwb with a correlation coefficient of 0.480, and a confidence level of 99%. the correlation is at a moderate level. religiosity, which is appreciation and self-processing, shows a fairly high correlation with respondents of pwb. the psychological well-being scale will be more perfect if several items that have values that do not match the vulnerability determined by the rasch model are readjusted so that the percentage of variance in the data explained by measure increases. therefore, it indicates that it is more accurate in measuring psychological well-being, avoids contamination of the factors involved, and is not associated with psychological well-being. regarding the answer choices in this research, there are choices 1 to 5. based on the answer function analysis result, the available answer choices are good because the percentage results in each answer choice are evenly distributed. these results update previous research, which only provided answer choices 1 to 6 (garcia et al., 2016). conclusion this research aimed to explore whether ryff’s six-factor model of psychological well-being could be applied in higher education students in indonesia. the scales of psychological well-being (pwb) were adapted to assess the students at universitas negeri irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 229 yogyakarta. the psychological well-being scale developed by ryff is valid and reliable to measure psychological well-being of higher education students in indonesia and fits the rasch model. this version of the pwb-42 showed acceptable reliability and convergent validity when applying the original scoring method for the six subscales. however, the validity factorial based on the original six-factor model was not well supported in this research. meanwhile, most factors observed in this research seem compatible with the original factors. further examination is needed to know if the factor structure of the pwbs-42 is different for higher education students in indonesia. disclosure statement no potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors. acknowledgments this research was financially supported by the institution of research and community service of universitas negeri yogyakarta. references abbott, r. a., ploubidis, g. b., huppert, f. a., kuh, d., wadsworth, m. e., & croudace, t. j. (2006). psychometric evaluation and predictive validity of ryff's psychological well-being items in a uk birth cohort sample of women. health and quality of life outcomes, 4(1), 1-16. alfawaz, h. a., wani, k., aljumah, a. a., aldisi, d., ansari, m. g., yakout, s. m., ... & al-daghri, n. m. (2021). psychological well-being during covid-19 lockdown: insights from a saudi state university’s academic community. journal of king saud university-science, 33(1), 101-262. caldwell, c. h., antonakos, c. l., tsuchiya, k., assari, s., & de loney, e. h. (2013). masculinity as a moderator of discrimination and parenting on depressive symptoms and drinking behaviors among nonresident african-american fathers. psychology of men and masculinity, 14(1), 48–58. cheng, s. t., & chan, a. c. (2005). measuring psychological well-being in the chinese. personality and individual differences, 38(6), 1307-1316. dziuban, c., moskal, p., parker, l., campbell, m., howlin, c., & johnson, c. (2018). adaptive learning: a stabilizing influence across disciplines and universities. online learning, 22(3), 7-39. fatima, s., sharif, s., & khalid, i. (2018). how does religiosity enhance psychological well-being? roles of self-efficacy and perceived social support. psychology of religion and spirituality, 10(2), 119. fisher, w. p. (2007). rating scale instrument quality criteria. rasch measurement transactions, 21(1), 1095. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 230 garcia, d., al nima, a., & kjell, o. n. (2014). the affective profiles, psychological well-being, and harmony: environmental mastery and self-acceptance predict the sense of a harmonious life. peerj, 2, e259. kurniawan, r. (2015). eksplorasi dimensi psychological well-being mahasiswa psikologi islam [exploration of the psychological well-being dimensions of islamic psychological students]. al-qalb: jurnal psikologi islam, 6(2), 81-88. kurniawan, r. (2016). apakah mahasiswa psikologi islam bahagia? gambaran psychological well-being dengan pendekatan pemodelan rasch [are islamic psychology students happy? psychological well-being description with rasch modeling approach]. al-qalb: journal of islamic psychology, 8(1), 65-83. li, r. h. (2014). reliability and validity of a shorter chinese version for ryff’s psychological well-being scale. health education journal, 73(4), 446-452. lingelbach, k., piechnik, d., gado, s., janssen, d., eichler, m., hentschel, l., ... & peissner, m. (2021). effects of the covid-19 pandemic on psychological well-being and mental health based on a german online survey. frontiers in public health, 9-15. mokhlesi, v., & patil, c. b. (2018). a study of gender differences in emotional intelligence and learning behaviour among children. the international journal of indian psychology, 6(4), 2349-3429. roothman, b., kristen, d. k., & wissing, m. p. (2003). gender differences in aspects of psychological well-being. south african journal of psychology , 33 (4), 212-218. royer, n., & moreau, c. (2016). a survey of canadian early childhood educators’ psychological well-being at work. early childhood education journal, 44(2), 135-146. ryan, r. m., & deci, e. l. (2001). on happiness and human potentials: a review of research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. annual review of psychology, 52,141-166. ryff, c. d. (1989). happiness is everything, or is it? explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. journal of personality and social psychology, 57(6), 1069. ryff, c. d. (2018). well-being with soul: science in pursuit of human potential. perspectives on psychological science, 13(2), 242-248. ryff, c. d., & keyes, c. l. m. (1995). the structure of psychological well-being revisited. journal of personality and social psychology, 69(4), 719-819. ryff, c. d., & singer, b. h. (2008). know thyself and become what you are: a eudaimonic approach to psychological well-being. journal of happiness studies, 9(1), 13-39. sasaki, n., watanabe, k., imamura, k., nishi, d., karasawa, m., kan, c.,& kawakami, n. (2020). japanese version of the 42-item psychological well-being scale (pwbs-42): a validation study. bmc psychology, 8(1), 1-11. sumintono, b., & widhiarso, w. (2014). aplikasi model rasch untuk penelitian ilmu-ilmu sosial (edisi revisi) [application of the rasch model for social science research (revised edition)]. trim komunikata publishing house. vinayak, s., & judge, j. (2018). resilience and empathy as predictors of psychological well-being among adolescents. international journal of health sciences and research, 8(4), 192-200. wright, b. d. l. j. (1994). reasonable mean-square fit values. rasch meas trans, 8(3),70. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 231 biographical notes diana septi purnama is a faculty member at the universitas negeri yogyakarta, sleman, daerah istimewa yogykarta indonesia, email: dianaseptipurnama@uny.ac.id muh farozin is a faculty member at the universitas negeri yogyakarta, sleman, daerah istimewa yogykarta indonesia. budi astuti is a faculty member at the universitas negeri yogyakarta, sleman, daerah istimewa yogykarta indonesia. mailto:dianaseptipurnama@uny.ac.id this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 124 teachers of english assessment literacy: unveiling what they know and do soni mirizon* abstract conducting assessment is one of the crucial responsibilities every teacher has to do. a teacher needs to assess his students both during and at the end of instruction; therefore he needs to have good assessment literacy in order to be able to carry out assessment successfully. this study investigated teachers’ of english assessment literacy at two different senior high schools in palembang. this case study involved six teachers of english as participants. the data were collected using questionnaires, semi-structured interview, classroom observation, and documentation. data obtained from questionnaires were analysed using descriptive statistics, while data obtained from the semi-structured interview were analysed using thematic analysis through coding. data obtained from classroom observation and documents were used to verify the ones from the questionnaire and interview. the findings revealed that teachers of english were in fairly literate category of assessment literacy; not every teacher carried out formative assessment regularly; they encountered difficulties in assessing students learning due to lacked understanding in interpreting the basic competence of the curriculum which led to inappropriate indicators formulation; assessment items did not match with the formulated indicators; and lacked of variety in constructing question items for formative assessment. these difficulties are due to that they lacked of experience in constructing assessment items and lacked of formal training related to test items construction. these findings lead to the conclusion that teachers assessment literacy needs to be enhanced so that they could carry out accountable assessment to support their students learning. keywords assessment literacy, formative assessment, teachers of english * associate professor, faculty of teacher training and education, sriwijaya university, indonesia; smirizon@unsri.ac.id mailto:smirizon@unsri.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 125 introduction it is almost impossible for students to have attended school without having been exposed to a wide variety of educational assessment. assessment has become a part of student learning process. it is an essential portion of teaching and learning activities. in this case, conducting assessment is one of the crucial responsibilities every teacher has to do in education process. particularly, a teacher needs to regularly carry out classroom assessment as part of his or her duty to improve student learning. classroom assessment plays central role since students achievement in learning is likely influenced by such assessment. butler and mcmunn (2006) point out that research reveals that when the assessment sets clear standards for learning, provides good feedback to students related to their performance, and is conducted continuously to monitor student learning progress, it is likely to increase student achievement. classroom assessment has been much discussed in educational research for the last thirty years. a lot of literatures put more emphasis on teacher accountable classroom assessment (black & wiliam 1999) and statement about effectiveness of classroom assessment for student learning has been much acknowledged (black & wiliam 1998). russel and airasian (2012, p.3) assert, ―classroom assessment is the process of collecting, synthesizing, and interpreting information to aid in decision making.‖ in this case, assessment becomes a continuous part of classroom life. ―classroom assessment that involves students in the process and focuses on increasing learning can motivate rather than merely measure students‖ (chappuis & stiggins, 2002, p.1). classroom assessment can be used to measure the three domains: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor. although cognitive domain tends to receive more attention, teachers make assessment decisions for all three domains throughout the school year. what is necessary in classroom assessment is whether a teacher carries out assessment regularly. it is sad to say that most teachers find it not easy to give effective assessment that could give good impact on student learning. the difficulty is caused by limited direct assistance for classroom assessment (black & william, 1998), complex nature of such assessment, and dispute between the practice of classroom assessment and existing policy (martin-kniep, 1998). consequently, teachers have appeared sluggish to take action. teachers are required to understand classroom assessment, standard to follow, and prototype to imitate, critics on the attempt they make, and continuous back up. in learning english, a teacher of english needs to carry out classroom assessment to assess his or her students both during the instruction (formative) and at the end of instruction (summative). these two assessment approaches contribute to student learning in vastly different ways. the former promotes assessment for learning. assessment for learning requires that assessment occurs regularly and that the information gained is used to mould teaching and learning. this kind of assessment helps students recognize what they can or cannot do so that teacher can anticipate what best to do. in other words, it focuses on providing feedback for student improvement. the latter, also known as assessment of learning, does not emphasize on providing feedback for student achievement but rather focus on rating or comparing students’ achievement. to get a balance on the two is important. unfortunately, most classroom assessment tends to focus on the latter. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 126 whichever assessment is dealt with, a teacher is required to be assessment literate in order that he is able to carry out assessment successfully. a teacher competence in carrying out assessment on student learning will give great influence on student achievement. in relation to this, stiggins (2004, p. 26) states, ―a teacher needs to know and understand the principles of sound assessment‖. in other words, a teacher needs to be assessment literate. popham (2009) asserts that an adequate level of assessment literacy is necessarily needed for teachers. further, popham (2011) points out, ―assessment literacy consists of an individual’s understanding of the fundamental assessment concepts and procedures deemed likely to influence educational decisions‖. in line with this, stiggins (1991) argues that assessment-literate teacher knows what he assesses, why he assesses, how to assess, what obstacles may present in assessment, and how to apprehend the obstacles. in addition, gamire and pearson (2006) claim that assessment literacy include ―knowledge about assessment, critical thinking and reflective judgement skills, and capabilities in the use of content knowledge to solve practical problems‖. research in assessment demonstrate that teachers of english still lack of assessment literacy in various countries such as in iran (jannati, 2015), in united states (popham, 2011; steadman, 1998), in greek and cypriot (tsagari & vogt, 2017). in indonesian context, similar findings were also found (azis, 2012; bilmona, 2013; mirizon, 2009; saefurrohman & balinas, 2016). there has been much research on teacher assessment literacy but the one related to teacher of english is still limited, especially in indonesian context. this study focuses on the assessment literacy of the teachers of english at two senior high schools in palembang; particularly teachers’ literacy in formative assessment in english teaching and learning from the perspective of indonesian 2013 curriculum. therefore, this study aims at finding out: (1) to what extent the teachers of english at the two schools are literate on the formative assessment, (2) how the teachers of english at the two schools carry out formative assessment, and (3) difficulties encountered by the teachers of english in assessing students learning at the two schools. literature review the 2013 curriculum is adopted as theoretical framework of this study. the data analysis was seen through the lens of formative assessment according to 2013 curriculum. in 2013 curriculum, classroom assessment has been set to fulfil the following principles: valid (measure what has to measure), objective (based on clear criteria and procedure), fair (neither benefited nor unbenefited students), integrated (an unseparated part of learning activity), open (assessment procedure, criterion, and rationale of decision making are accessible to others), holistic and continuous (cover all aspect of competencies), systematic (planned and gradual), criterion-referenced (based on set criteria), and accountable (can be accounted for the technique, procedure and result). the assessment scope and instrument have also been determined in 2013 curriculum. the assessment scope covers attitude, knowledge, and skill, while the assessment instrument includes test, observation, individual/group assignment, or other assessment forms appropriate for certain competence characteristics. assessment to measure learning outcomes covers formative and summative. the former is used to monitor learning irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 127 progress and to detect the need for improvement in the learning process, while the latter is used to find out the level of mastery of competencies, to determine the completeness of mastery of competencies, and to determine improvement or enrichment programs based on the level of competency mastery. the 2013 curriculum is manifested in some syllabus of different subjects. according to the minister of national education and culture regulation no.59 year 2014, the syllabus is developed by three parties: the central government, the school, and the subject teacher. the national government sets the core competence (kompetensi inti, ki) and the basic competence (kompetensi dasar, kd), while the school and the teacher are responsible to determine the indicator of competence achievement, commonly known as learning indicator (indikator pencapaian kompetensi, ipk) in which later developed into learning objectives, learning material, learning activities, learning resources/media, time allocation, and assessment. this syllabus needs to be developed by the school/teacher in order to address students’ needs, to actualize the institutional goal, and to develop content standard (core competence and basic competence into teachable materials used in learning activities of the school). figure 1 below illustrates the process how learning indicator is developed from basic competence. figure 1. determination of competency achievement indicator the learning indicator is developed from basic competence to measure the cognitive, psychomotor, and affective domain and is formulated using operational verbs (kata kerja operasinal, kko). table 1 is the example of formulating learning indicators from the basic competence of year 10 learning material in knowledge area. basic competence has been set by the central government but the learning indicators have to be developed by the schools or the teachers of english. the learning indicators, which are derived from the basic competence, consist of two—the bridging and targeted indicators. learning indicators 3.4.1 to 3.4.3 are the bridging indicators which function as the bridge to reach indicator 3.4.4, the targeted indicator. the targeted learning indicator has to have higher cognitive domain than the bridging indicators. learning indicator 3.4.4 is in the c4 (analysis) level of the cognitive domain, while learning indicators 3.4.1, 3.4.2, and 3.4.3 are in lower level (c1, c2, c3, knowledge, comprehension, application respectively) of the cognitive domain. competence hots learning indicator material basic competence lots irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 128 table 1. formulation of learning indicator determining the learning indicator basic competence k.d. 3.4 differentiating the social function, text structure, language features of some descriptive texts by asking and giving information related to famous tourism destination and historical buildings based on the given context subject matter social function, text structure, language features of descriptive texts related to tourist destination and famous historical buildings learning material learning indicators 3.4.1. identifying the social function, text structure, language feature of descriptive text related to famous tourism destination. 3.4.2. explaining the social function, text structure, language feature of descriptive text related to famous tourism destination. 3.4.3. using text structure, language feature of descriptive text related to famous tourism destination. 3.4.4. differentiating the social function, text structure, language feature of descriptive text related to famous tourism destination. social function: sell, introduce, identify, criticize, justify, stress text structure: could cover 1. identify (name), 2. character (size, color, number, shape, etc.), 3. function, benefit, action, habit. language features: 1. vocabulary and related terminology to tourist destination and famous historical buildings. 2. adverbs, such as quite, very, extremely, etc. 3. declarative and interrogative sentences in correct tenses. 4. using comparison with other object. referring to the basic competence 3.4 in table 1 above, it is expected that students are able to differentiate the social function, text structure, language features of some descriptive texts by asking and giving information related to famous tourism destination and historical buildings based on the given context, in which then derived and developed into four learning indicators 3.4.1, 3.4.2, 3.4.3, and 3.4.4. these learning indicators determine what learning materials to learn, how the learning materials are taught in the classroom, what learning sources can be used, what teaching media are appropriate, the time allocated to teach learning materials, and how learning materials are measured in the formative and summative assessment. the assessment is made to measure the students’ mastery of the learning materials which are derived from the learning indicators. in other words, assessment has to agree with the learning indicator because if it is, then the assessment is valid, which means it measures what it has to measure. so, learning indicators determine what to measure in the classroom assessment both formative and summative. methodology research design, site, and participants a case study was adopted as the design of the research. this study involved two different high schools in palembang, one public and one private. these two schools shared similar characteristics, such as both schools were located in the same city district, were accredited a, and had been established for more than twenty years. the public school had six teachers of english, while the private one had five teachers of english. they were all invited to participate in the study, but not all were available and able to take part in the study. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 129 some of them were taking leave, were out of school attending in house training, and others were busy studying for higher degree. as a result, only six teachers of english participated as the subject of the study. each school was represented by three teachers of english teaching at year 10, 11, and 12 respectively. data collection and analysis the data of the study were collected using questionnaires, semi-structured interview, classroom observation, and document. two questionnaires were used to find out the subjects’ understanding of (formative) assessment literacy. the first questionnaire was classroom assessment literacy inventory (cali) developed by mertler (2003) consisting of 30 items. it was used to see the teachers’ of english classroom assessment literacy in general. the second questionnaire was adopted from pratiwi (2015) consisting of 20 items. it was used to see the teachers’ of english classroom assessment literacy related to the current curriculum implemented in indonesia—curriculum 2013. this questionnaire has three constructs: (1) concept of assessment (5 items), (2) assessment principles and coverage (5 items), (3) assessment techniques and instruments (5 items), and (4) scoring guide (5 items). semi-structured interview was used to explore how the (formative) assessment literacy was put into practice by the teachers of english in the classroom. the questions were adopted from classroom assessment literacy inventory. classroom observation was conducted to see whether the teachers of english really applied formative assessment as what they reported in the interview. this observation was conducted for twelve times during four months period of data collection. document was used to see the written evidence of the implementation of the formative assessment carried out by the teachers during teaching and learning process, such as the syllabus, lesson plans, teacher’s book, students’ books and workbooks, and teacher-made tests that were used for formative assessment. the quantitative data obtained from questionnaire were analyzed using descriptive statistics, while the qualitative data obtained from the semi-structured interview and classroom observation note were analyzed using thematic analysis through coding. to check and ensure the consistency of the analysis, transcriptions of the interview were given to the subjects in order to confirm their answers and to keep the trustworthiness of the study. they could see the interview transcription in order to recheck the originality of the answers and avoid the ambiguity or uncertainty of the interview results. data obtained from documentation were used to crosscheck the ones from the questionnaires and semi-structured interview. in short, triangulation of the data obtained from questionnaires, semi-structured interview, classroom observation, and documentation was carried out to get the credible and accurate conclusion. findings the questionnaires were used to find out to what extent the teachers of english at the two schools were literate on the formative assessment. findings from the questionnaires revealed that teachers of english were fairly literate in formative assessment which was indicated by the score of the responses as summarized in table 2 and table 3. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 130 table 2. teachers’ of english assessment literacy based on mertler (2003) questionnaire score category* senior high school 1 (private) teacher 1# teacher 2 teacher 3 10 12 22 not literate fairly literate literate senior high school 2 (public) teacher 4 teacher 5 teacher 6 16 10 25 fairly literate not literate literate note: *scoring category: 1-30, where 1-10 is not literate, 11-20 is fairly literate, and 21-30 is literate. #teacher 1: ba, 1-5 years teaching experience teacher 4: ma, 1-5 years teaching experience teacher 2: ba, 6-10 years teaching experience teacher 5: ba, 6-10 years teaching experience teacher 3: ma, 11-15 years teaching experience teacher 6: ma, 11-15 years teaching experience table 3. teachers’ of english assessment literacy based on pratiwi (2015) questionnaire score category* senior high school 1 (private) teacher 1 teacher 2 teacher 3 17 38 41 not literate fairly literate literate senior high school 2 (public) teacher 4 teacher 5 teacher 6 39 19 43 fairly literate not literate literate note: scoring category: 1-60, where 1-20 is not literate, 21-40 is fairly literate, and 41-60 is literate. based on the data in table 2 and table 3 above, it can be seen that teachers of english at both schools fell in the fairly literate category in average. in particular, teachers of english at each school were in not literate, fairly literate, and literate categories and the score of their responses were quite similar at both questionnaires. finding from the interviews the interview was used to explore the teachers of english formative assessment literacy, how it was put into practice in conducting classroom assessment, and what difficulties encountered by the teachers of english in assessing students learning at the two schools. five key findings emerged from the analysis of interview data: (1) teachers’ fairly literate category of assessment literacy, (2) not every teacher carried out formative assessment regularly; it was only given after teachers finished teaching one basic competence, (3) teachers lacked of understanding in interpreting the basic competence of the curriculum which led to inappropriate indicators formulation, (4) most of assessment items did not match with the formulated indicators, and (5) lacked of variety in construction question items for formative assessment. these difficulties are due to that they lacked of irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 131 experience in constructing assessment items and lacked of formal training related to test items construction. when all the subjects were asked about the essence of assessment in education, especially formative assessment, they reported that assessment is compulsory to help student learning as indicated below. ―… i believe assessment is important and needed in education. we use it to see how far students make progress in studying english. if there is no assessment, how do we know they are progressing or regressing? …‖ [teacher 3] ―you know, i usually assess or test my students when we finish discussing a chapter or a topic. besides to know whether they meet the instructional objectives in studying english, it can also be used to know how successful i teach them …‖ [teacher 6] although those teachers of english believed that good assessment literacy is crucial and is required in supporting student learning, not all of them seemed to have good assessment literacy when they were asked about the concept and procedures of assessment, as indicated by the following interview quotes. ―i think assessment is the test… yes only using test… i don’t think teachers can assess student learning without test… how can we decide the score?... [teacher 1] ―what i know test is the best way to assess student learning… you know what… using test teachers can measure student progress, i only use test when i want to assess my students…‖ [teacher 5] the above statements indicate that those teachers were not literate toward the assessment. however, other teachers of english had better understanding about assessment. they knew what they assessed, why they assessed, how to assess, and what obstacles might present in assessment, as reported below. ―every subject matter teachers teach needs to be assessed in order to know students’ progress. assessment should be carried out periodically… so that students are encouraged to learn…assessment can be done using test, portfolio…‖ [teacher 6] ―i sometime gave test to assess my students understanding of what i taught… but sometime i also used observation when i wanted to know their understanding … even test was more frequently used…‖ [teacher 4] ―when i gave oral test such as speaking, i found it difficult to do because there were so many students to test in a class. since it would take much time if every students was tested individually, then i asked them to work in groups… by doing so, it was easier to assess them in group…‖ [teacher 3] irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 132 compared to teachers 1 and 5, teachers 3, 4, and 6 appeared to have better assessment literacy. they knew the assessment concept and procedures better than teacher 1 and 5. when it is examined, it seems that teaching experience and educational qualification affect teachers 3, 4, and 6 responses. these teachers have been working for ten years or more, while teachers 1 and 5 have shorter teaching experience. usually the longer the teachers work, the more experience and knowledge they get. in addition, teachers 3, 4, and 6 have better educational qualification compared to teachers 1 and 5. the former are master’s degree graduates whereas the latter are bachelor degree graduates. academic qualification seems to affect their competence. in relation to how frequent the teachers of english at the two schools carried out formative assessment, it was found that even they did the assessment but not all of them conducted formative assessment every time they finished teaching a topic. in other words, the holistic and continuous principle of classroom assessment is not fulfilled, as reported in the interview quotes below. ―i know a teacher has to assess student learning every time he or she finishes teaching a given topic… since it has been prescribed so i did it regularly…‖[teacher 6] ―… assessing student learning regularly is very important… that’s what i know and put in mind. if it is not done regularly, how do we know students’ progress or at least how do we know whether they got what we taught? ―[teacher 3] ―… for me, sometime i gave formative assessment once i finished discussing the targeted topic… but sometime i didn’t… especially if the time was not enough…‖ [teacher 2] ―i tried my best to give formative assessment every time i finished teaching one basic competence in the syllabus… but… due to some reasons such as limited time available, not all students seemed to understand the material, and students’ extracurricular activities… i did not do it…‖ [teacher 4] interview excerpts above revealed that actually those teachers realized that conducting formative assessment is required every time a teacher has finished teaching a given topic in one basic competence. they were aware that such an assessment was useful to measure student learning to see whether students were able to achieve the targeted learning objectives or not and whether they were successful in teaching or not. however, not every of those teachers could make it due to some reasons such as limited time available, not all students seemed to understand the material taught so that they deserved extra explanation, or due to other reason such as some students had extracurricular activities to do during the teaching hours so that not every students could join the formative assessment. when those teachers of english formative assessment literacy was further explored, especially the one related to the underlying competence to do classroom assessment based on the curriculum 2013, it was found that not all teachers understood what exactly to assess irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 133 from the topic discussed. it was due to their lack of understanding in interpreting the basic competence of the curriculum which led to inappropriate learning indicators formulation. it is plausible that it might be not easy to derive the basic competence into the learning indicators and develop them correctly. teachers need to be able to understand the basic competence, know appropriate operational verbs, and consider the level of the cognitive domain in order to formulate the indicators. moreover, the assessment of the student learning has to be in line with the indicators. when teachers lack of understanding of how the indicators are derived from the basic competence and do not know how to formulate the indicators, they would probably make mistakes in constructing appropriate assessment items that match with the indicators. this was apparent from the interview quotes below. ―what i know… teachers need to assess what they teach… and it should be based on the targeted competence stated in the curriculum. the problem is… you know… it is not easy to derive the basic competence into the learning indicators… we need to know the learning domain and appropriate operational verbs to use…‖ [teacher 1] ―i think i get difficulties in formulating the learning indicators from the basic competence… it’s confusing… most of the time i just copied from colleagues from other schools…‖ [teacher 5] such responses indicate that those teachers had problems related to the understanding of the curriculum 2013. their lack of understanding in interpreting the basic competence and indicators formulation affected their ability in constructing the assessment items. in other words, the assessment items they constructed were not in line with or did not match with the indicators which were stated in the lesson plan. as the result, the assessment items did not assess what they had set in the lesson plan. it has been proved that most of assessment (test) items those teachers made did not match with the formulated indicators. in this case, the test items are not valid since they did not measure what they had to measure. the following quotes reported such limitation. ―when i assessed the students learning after i finished teaching a topic or a chapter, i sometime gave them formative test. in deciding what to test i usually selected some questions from the students’ workbook and also tried to find the related ones from the internet… you know… not easy to make ones…‖ [teacher 1] ―i also made assessment items such as a test by myself. usually i checked what the students have learned. i tried to do my best… when i found it difficult to make some test items; i just took it from a collection of test items from the compiled test book…‖ [teacher 2] the above quotes indicate that those teachers were ignorance about what exactly to assess in giving the formative assessment. they should have checked the learning indicators and targeted basic competence and constructed the test items based on them. this was for the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 134 sake of constructing test items that were in line with what to achieve as stated in the learning indicators. instead of doing this, they only selected some from the students’ workbook or found ones from the internet or even took them from a compiled test book, which were not necessarily related to and matched with the basic competence set in the syllabus and learning indicators written in the lesson plan. if that is the case, the assessment did not actually assess what it had to assess. in other words, the instructional objectives which were derived from the indicators would not have been able to achieve. limitation in writing or constructing assessment or test items did not end in the above issue but also in providing the variety of test question types. instead of using a variety of test question types such as multiple choices, true-false, matching, rearrangement, cloze procedure, completion, etc. in the objective test question types and short-answer essay, extended-response essay, problem solving and performance items in the subjective test, they preferred using a few of those question types. the most commonly used question type in the objective test was multiple choices, while the most commonly used one in the subjective test was short answer question type. it was apparent that the teachers lacked of variety in writing or constructing question items for formative assessment. the following interview quotes reveal such a limitation. ―to assess students’ knowledge, i preferred using multiple choices question types when i gave formative test. it’s easy to check and to score… besides, there were many stocks of such type available i could choose…‖ [teacher 2] ―… yes multiple choices… it’s quite easy to assess and score, of course. students could answer them relatively easy. the best thing is availability of question items… i could find it from many sources… so i did not need to make it by myself…‖ [teacher 3] ―if i wanted to assess students’ language skills using essay test, i mostly used short answer type. the students could answer it relatively easy and i could check their answers in relatively easy as well…‖ [teacher 4] ―as one criteria of good test is practicality, so i just wanted to be practical in assessing students’ work in formative test… i always gave them multiple choice questions… easy to check. i know it’s not easy to make the good ones but i could choose the test items from books and internet…‖ [teacher 6] as it is known every question type has weaknesses and strengths. if the same question type is used all the time, its weaknesses cannot be covered by other question types. besides, one question type cannot measure all of the levels in cognitive and psychomotor domains. it is recommended to use a variety of question types in both of the objective and subjective tests since the weaknesses of a certain type can be covered by other question types. in addition, students’ various levels of cognitive and psychomotor domains can be measured. when it was further investigated, those teachers of english limitation in constructing assessment items that matched the indicators was caused by two factors, namely: teachers irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 135 lacked of experience in constructing assessment items and teachers lacked of training related to test items construction. from those six teachers of english interviewed, four of them got difficulties in constructing test items that matched with the learning indicators, while the other two could relatively construct test items required, as shown by interview quotes below. ―i’ve been teaching for almost five years now... so far i tried to do my job by myself… in preparing a lesson… teaching the lesson…, including preparing assessment of student learning. i learned from documents such as syllabus, sample lesson plan, internet… and tried to do it by myself… i never had experience in constructing test by myself…‖ [teacher 1] ―when i needed to do formative assessment, all i did… i tried my best to make the test item by myself… when i got stuck… when i found it difficult to make some items; i just took it from a collection of test items from the compiled test book… well i was not experienced…‖ [teacher 2] ―… not easy… i tried already… i preferred selected test items from last year’s documents made by colleagues… even sometime i made it by myself, but i was not sure.‖ [teacher 4] ―… i was not experienced in making the test items… but i always tried and tried, but i had no idea whether the items matched with the indicators, i think yes, but i didn’t know…‖ [teacher 5] such responses reported above are apparent. they lacked of experience in constructing assessment items. even they have tried to construct the formative assessment items by themselves but in many parts the items were not matched with the learning indicators stated in the lesson plans. when further asked why such a limitation happened, they reported that they lacked of training related to test items construction, as reported below. ―i’ve been working as teacher for quite long time, but i never had a training dealing with test item writing. what i had was knowledge i learned when i studied in undergraduate education… not enough i think… (teacher 5) there was a number of in house training i joined during my employment as a teacher of english, such as teaching methodology, ict in teaching, etc.… but i never had one about assessment or language testing…‖ [teacher 2] ―so far… it’s not easy to get a chance for joining training, may be because i am still junior. i’ve been working for less than five years… wait for an opportunity for professional development like training about assessment or testing… but there are other seniors who also need such opportunity for professional development…‖ [teacher 1] irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 136 ―… no… not yet… i hardly had a chance for pd… such as training, especially about test item construction for assessment… i don’t know why… it seems that not every teacher can get a chance…‖ [teacher 4] the above statements indicate that those teachers were in need for academic recharging such as training about assessment in general or language testing, especially the one related to test items construction which could support them in conducting formative assessment using test. unfortunately such an opportunity was rare. without a chance to have one, they would not have sufficient knowledge of how to construct good test items for classroom assessment. lack of this knowledge may cause the teachers cannot construct valid test items for assessment. finding from the classroom observations classroom observation was held to examine whether the six teachers of english applied formative assessment as what they reported in the interview. therefore the focus was on seeing how the teachers of english at the two schools planned and carried out the formative assessment when they were teaching in the classroom. findings from this classroom observation uncovered that not every teachers consistently conducted formative assessment when they finished teaching a targeted topic of one basic competence. in other words, not every of them gave the assessment regularly. sometime they assessed students learning and sometimes they did not. they should have assessed students learning every time they have finished teaching a targeted topic of one basic competence. in addition, when they gave assessment after teaching the targeted topic, they lacked of variety in writing or constructing test question types. for example, in giving an objective test, instead of using a variety of ways in assessing different language skills or aspects such as multiple choices, true-false, fill-in, matching, rearrangement, etc. they tended to use multiple choices. this is in line with the finding from the interview. these findings also support the findings from the questionnaires where most of the teachers of english from the two schools were fairly literate in assessment. in other words, they were not really assessment literate. their fairly literate category in assessment literacy was reflected in the assessment items they constructed. finding from the documents the focus of the documentation was to review the written evidence of formative assessment implementation made and used by the teachers in teaching and learning process. in this case, the english syllabus, lesson plans, and assessment instrument such as test items that the teachers constructed were paired to see whether they matched each other or not. besides, teacher’s book, student’s book, and student’s workbook were also examined to see whether the test items written in the lesson plans and used in the formative assessment were actually taken from those documents or were written by the teachers themselves. the data obtained from the document analysis showed that not all items used in the formative assessment were made by the teachers themselves. also, the test items used for the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 137 formative assessment lacked of variety. only certain question types such as multiple choices and short answer were used. besides, non-test assessment instrument such as portfolio, observation, individual/group project were hardly used. moreover, not all test items constructed were in line with the indicators or instructional objectives stated in the lesson plan. ideally test items which were constructed should have assessed the knowledge or skills which had been taught. these findings supported the ones obtained from the questionnaires where teachers of english were fairly literate in formative assessment literacy, semi-structured interview where teachers encountered difficulties in assessing student learning, and classroom observation where not all teachers gave formative assessment after they finished teaching a given topic. discussion it goes without saying that teacher competence is a vital constituent of student achievement, including teacher’s assessment literacy. teacher good assessment literacy is one of the competences a teacher must have. looking at the findings of the first objective of this study, it is apparent that in average teachers of english from the two schools were in fairly literate category of formative assessment literacy. from six respondents only two were literate (teacher 3 and teacher 6); the rest were not literate (teachers 1 and teacher 5) and fairly literate (teacher 2 and teacher 4) respectively, as shown in table 2 and table 3 above. when further examined it was found that teachers who worked longer and had better educational qualification (teacher 3 and teacher 6) were more assessment literate than that of others who had shorter teaching experience and lower educational qualification (teachers 2, 4, 1, and 5). it seems that length of working experience and higher educational qualification gave benefit to their competence. this finding cohered with previous research reporting that length of working experience gave teachers more experience and made them confidence in their own abilities (dickson, mcminn, & kadbey, 2019); short experience of novice teacher in teaching affect their efficacy in performing expected task where guidance was still needed (faez & valeo, 2012). however, other studies informed that self-efficacy of teachers contribute more on students’ achievement rather than teachers’ length of teaching experience and qualification (guo, connor & morrison, 2012) and teachers’ advanced degrees did not necessarily affect students’ achievement although teachers teaching experience may influence students achievement (buddin & zamarro, 2009). these imply that teachers’ length of working experience and/or education qualification does not necessarily determine their performance, including having good assessment literacy. in other words, teachers need to have good competence in content knowledge and pedagogical knowledge in order to be able to carry out their job regardless of the length of working experience and qualification they have. referring to the findings of the second objective of this study, it is plausible that teachers of english did not regularly conduct formative assessment after they finished teaching one topic in a meeting but rather after finish teaching one basic competence (usually after three to four meetings) of a given syllabus. it was due to teaching time constraint or student mastery learning was not yet reached or not all students were available in the classroom. this action is certainly not recommended as formative assessment has to irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 138 be carried out based on some principles, such as unseparated part of learning activity (integrated), planned and gradual (systematic), and cover all aspect of competencies (holistic and continuous). absence in assessing student learning in a meeting reflects teachers’ illiteracy of the principle of formative assessment, while a teacher willy-nilly needs to know and understand the principle of sound assessment as reminded by stiggins (2004). besides, it is detrimental to student learning as it did not provide feedback that students need related to their performance, and is not conducted continuously to monitor student learning progress (mcnunn, 2006). indeed, in this case an adequate level of assessment literacy is inevitably needed for teachers (popham, 2009). in regard to the findings of the third objective of this study, it is reasonable that the teachers of english of the two schools encountered difficulties in assessing students learning. as it was reported, they lacked of understanding in interpreting the basic competence of the curriculum which led to inappropriate indicators formulation, assessment items did not match with learning indicators, and lacked of variety in constructing question items. it was admitted that these difficulties are due to their lacked of experience in constructing assessment items and lacked of formal training related to test items construction. when further learned, it was uncovered that the difficulties they confronted were definitely related to their illiteracy in assessment for learning. ideally a competent teacher is free from such shortcoming, as argued by stiggins (1991) that assessment-literate teacher knows what he assesses, why he assesses, how to assess, what obstacles may present in assessment, and how to apprehend the obstacles. lack of teachers’ of english assessment literacy found in this study are in the same sound as the ones reported in azis (2012), bilmona (2013), jannati (2015), popham (2011), saefurrohman and balinas (2016), steadman (1998), and tsagari and vogt (2017) that assessment illiteracy were also experienced by teachers in many parts of the world. conclusion, implication, and recommendation this article aimed at reporting teachers’ of english assessment literacy, especially formative assessment at two different senior high schools in palembang. particularly it investigated to what extent the teachers of english at the two schools were literate on the formative assessment, how they carried out formative assessment, and what difficulties they encountered in conducting formative assessment at the two schools. findings from the questionnaire revealed that in average teachers of english at the two schools fell in fairly literate category of assessment literacy. only two of six teachers were literate, the other four were not literate and fairly literate respectively. their illiteracy was apparent as they hardly had profound knowledge about assessment in general and formative assessment in particular regardless of number of years they devoted their time working as teachers of english at the schools and further education some of them had. findings from the interview were in line with the ones from the questionnaire where respondents in general showed similar trend of literacy in the formative assessment. in particular, teachers of english from the two senior high schools encountered difficulties in assessing students learning indicated by their lacked of understanding in interpreting the basic competence of the curriculum which led to inappropriate learning indicators irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 139 formulation, most of assessment items they wrote did not match with the formulated learning indicators, and their lacked of variety in constructing question items for formative assessment. findings from the classroom observation indicated that not every teacher carried out formative assessment regularly after they finished teaching one topic in a meeting. they sometime gave formative assessment in case the time allocated was still available, while the findings from documentation showed that not all assessment items were made by the teachers; some were taken from various sources. besides, those items lacked of variety; only certain question types were used and items were not in line with the learning indicators stated. the findings of the study imply that teachers of english of the two schools in general were relatively not competent in assessing student learning as one main job of a teacher apart from planning and teaching. good competence merely in planning and teaching is not sufficient. it has to be completed with good competence in assessing student learning as it determines whether students are successful in learning or not in which also reflects the success or failure of the teacher in planning and teaching the lesson. in order to be competent in assessing student learning a teacher needs to have good assessment literacy, especially formative assessment. thus, assessment literacy is a compulsory competence a teacher of english has to have. the findings of this study lead to the conclusion that teachers assessment literacy needs to be enhanced so that they could carry out accountable assessment to support their students learning. in relation to that, some recommendations are offered. first, teachers of english need to really understand 2013 english curriculum, especially the components stated in the syllabus such as the core competence, basic competence, learning indicators, learning objectives, learning materials, learning resources/media, assessment, and the relationship of each component to another so that problems such as lack of understanding in interpreting the basic competence of the curriculum which lead to inappropriate indicators formulation, assessment question items which are not in line with the indicators, lack of variety in conducting formative assessment would not happen. second, they need to have continuing professional development related to assessment such as workshop on formative assessment, test item specification, test item construction, etc. so that they would be assessment literate. sadly, such continuing professional development was hardly provided; mostly those related to teaching and learning english issue in general was discussed. besides, not every teacher has equal opportunity to take part in the continuing professional development. since this study focused on limited number of schools and participants, the results do not represent other teachers of english from other schools although similar trend may likely be to happen. therefore, further research on formative assessment involving larger number of participants or schools focusing on specific issues related to english skills and aspects are necessary. other possible issues to investigate and explore are teachers’ literacy in summative assessment (assessment of learning) and assessment as learning. disclosure statement the author declares that there is no conflict of interest in relation to the publication of this article. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 140 acknowledgments the author would like to extend his sincere appreciation and gratitude to the indonesian research journal in education (irje) for serving as an avenue for the publication of this article. references azis, a. 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(2004). new assessment beliefs for a new school mission. phidelta kappan, 86, 22-27. steadman, m. (1998). using classroom assessment to change both teaching and learning. new directions for teaching and learning, 75, 23-35. tsagari, d., & vogt, k. (2017). assessment literacy of foreign language teachers around europe: research, challenges and future prospects. papers in language testing and assessment, 6(1), 41-63. biographical note soni mirizon is an associate professor at the english education study program, language and arts education, faculty of teacher training and education, sriwijaya university, palembang, indonesia. he obtained his doctoral degree in english learning and instruction at flinders university, australia. his research interest includes assessment in education. he has been in the academe for more than 28 years. he is currently the head of master’s degree in language education study program, faculty of teacher training and education, sriwijaya university. email: smirizon@unsri.ac.id mailto:smirizon@unsri.ac.id this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 91 teacher’s delivery format and addie model to adjust the online learning system during the pandemic period kartika hajati 1* and nur amaliah 2 abstract the type of the research is research and development by using the addie model. the addie model of instructional design is a generic instructional model that provides an organized process for developing instructional materials. this systemic model is a five-step cyclical process that can be used for both traditional and online instruction. the five steps are analyzing, designing, developing, implementing, and evaluating. the sample of the research were 36 students of biology study program at one public university in sulawesi barat. the learning tools developed consist of semester learning plan (rps), lecture contracts, learning media, and evaluation instruments. the research found that the validity of the learning device was 90.4% and in the very valid category with minor revisions. then, the practicality of learning devices based on the implementation of rps and observation results was 94% which indicates a very practical category to use. the effectiveness of learning devices based on student learning test results was 80.45% which indicates an effective category. thus, the results of this research were valid, practical, and effective. keywords development, learning tools, online learning, pandemic, research and development article history received 26 september 2021 accepted 16 may 2022 how to cite hajati, k., & amaliah, n. (2022). teacher’s delivery format and addie model to adjust the online learning system during the pandemic period. indonesian research journal in education |irje|, 6(1), 91–104. https://doi.org/ 10.22437/irje.v6i1.14649 1* fakultas keguruan dan ilmu pendidikan, universitas sulawesi barat, indonesia, corresponding author’s email: kartikajamil@unsulbar.ac.id 2 fakultas keguruan dan ilmu pendidikan, universitas sulawesi barat, indonesia mailto:kartikajamil@unsulbar.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 92 introduction the covid-19 pandemic that hit the world has implications for all aspects, not least in education praxis. responding to this, the government through the ministry of culture, education, research and high education issued the circular letter no. 4 of 2020 on the conduct of online learning, ranging from the elementary school level to universities. the learning process that was originally carried out face-to-face in the classroom is transferred to the online learning process, so that all learning is carried out by teachers and students from their respective homes/places of existence. the basis for the temporary closure of educational activities in schools and campuses due to the readiness of all parties (teachers, students, communities, and the government) is not adequate. the ministry does not support learning activities with strict health protocols during the covid 19 pandemic. the circumstances in question, including the provision of facilities, tools, personal protective equipment (apd), and habituation attitudes behave disciplined disciplined obeying the rules of protocol covid-19 (still low). this condition is a challenge as well as an opportunity for teachers to transform the learning process from offline systems to online systems (pusdiklat kemdikbudristek ri, 2020) online learning is an advancement from conventional distance learning that still uses printed teaching materials such as books or modules. in the era of conventional distance learning, there is no technology that allows information sharing like the current era, where all information can be connected to the internet. according to anderson and mccormick (2005), there are 10 principles in online learning, including related to curriculum, planning, material design, learning process, teaching process, and assessment. this principle can be achieved if the learning tools used in the implementation of online learning are designed and made in accordance with the needs of curriculum and learning characteristics. currently, the main problem for lecturers to enter the lecture process in the odd semester ta 2020/2021 is that the learning tools available are still in the form of learning devices designed for face-to-face meetings and have not adapted to online / non-face-to-face learning, including learning devices in learning and learning courses at fkip west sulawesi university. the preparation of learning devices is the initial stage in learning. according to nababan and tanjung (2018), the quality of the device used determines the quality of learning to be produced, so the learning device must be carefully arranged. if the problem is not immediately addressed, then it can be ascertained that the learning process will run in no uncertain direction. this is due to several factors including: (1) on the learning device, there is a lecture contract. the lecture contract is important to be conditioned in accordance with the covid-19 situation. in the lecture contract will be contained a contract agreement between lecturers and students for one semester. in this contract, it is also necessary to emphasize the policy of lecturers if there are students who are constrained by networking during the learning process. (2) on the learning device there is a semester learning plan (rps). rps contains materials that will be taught in accordance with the lecture schedule. rps must also adjust to the online / non-face-to-face learning process because it will have a direct effect on the substance and depth of the material to be achieved. (3) in the learning device there are teaching materials and teaching media. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 93 the selection of the right teaching materials and media determines the continuity of learning. there needs to be adjustment of teaching materials and media applied in online / non-face-to-face learning. (4) in the learning device there is an evaluation instrument. in the evaluation process, there is an evaluation process and an evaluation of the results. of course, the evaluation process applied during face-to-face meetings and evaluations applied in online/non-face-to-face learning will differ in indicators and method. therefore, this research aims to develop learning tools in learning and learning courses that are systematically designed based on online learning characteristics and student needs. the learning tools developed consist of rps (semester learning plan), lecture contracts, teaching materials in the form of handouts, learning media and evaluation instruments. developing learning model is very important to do in the era of the covid-19 pandemic. so, the researchers consider that this study is very important. addie model is highly recommended to be used in this research. methodology the type of the research is research and development (r&d) by using the addie model. the development model consists of 5 stages, namely an analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation. the sample of the research were 36 students of biology study program at one public university in sulawesi barat. the 36 students were from two classes, namely class b with 18 students and class a with 18 students. the research instrument used was a validation questionnaire to test the feasibility of the product and evaluation questions to find out the effectiveness of the product that had been developed. the stages carried out in this research consist of several steps as in figure 1 below. figure 1. addie stages irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 94 analyzing, at this stage, there are several steps that have been done, including: (1) analyzing problems during online learning, (2) analyzing the characteristics and needs of students / learners, (3) analyzing the characteristics of learning and learning lecture materials, and (4) mapping the relatedness of material substance, media types, and evaluation instruments. designing, at this stage that is done is designing products that will be applied based on the results of analysis that has been done in the next stage. developing, there are several activities carried out at this stage, namely: (1) developing learning devices, (2) consulting with the teaching team related to the results of learning device development, (3) revising based on the results of consultation with the teaching team, (4) doing validation by three validators of material and media experts, this validation activity aims to find out the validity of the product developed and (5) make revisions based on improvement suggestions and ma sports of validators. to assess the feasibility of the product developed, the results of the validator assessment are adjusted to the following mortality level table. table 1. product validity level mortality rate (%) qualification information 81 – 100 excellent very valid but needs minor revisions* 61 – 80 good valid but needs minor revisions* 41 – 60 enough quite valid and needs major revisions* 21 – 40 less good less valid and needs major revision* 0 20 very lacking invalid and needs major revision* *description = the concept of material must be 100% correct (modified from arikunto, 2009) implementing, the implementation activity is the implementation stage of a learning device that has been valid based on validation results by material and media expert validators. this stage aims to test the practicality and effectiveness of the learning tools developed. the categorization of practicality and effectiveness can be seen in table 2 and table 3 below. table 2. product practicality level mortality rate (%) qualification information 81 – 100 excellent very practical but needs minor revisions. 61 – 80 good practical but needs minor revisions 41 – 60 enough quite practical and needs major revisions 21 – 40 less good less practical and needs major revisions 0 20 very lacking impractical and needs major revisions modified from arikunto (2009) irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 95 table 3. the level of effectiveness of the product mortality rate (%) qualification information 81 – 100 excellent very effective but needs small revisions 61 – 80 good effective but needs minor revisions 41 – 60 enough quite effective and needs major revisions 21 – 40 less good less effective and needs major revisions 0 20 very lacking ineffective and needs major revisions modified from arikunto (2009) evaluating, the evaluation applied to this study is horizontal, so that every step / stage that is done, there will be an evaluation process to see the shortcomings / errors contained in each stage. the evaluation is important to look at what happened in every stage that was conducted in this study. ethical considerations in this study, participation was voluntary. additionally, our participants’ data were concealed in order to keep the privacy of their identity such as the names, gender, etc. this was done in order to ensure ethical research practice and to protect participants’ safety, privacy, and confidentiality. results and discussion in this study, our findings will be presented by following what we presented in our methodology part. therefore, the results and discussions in this study are divided into several stages including analyzing, designing, developing, implementing, and evaluating. i every stage, we will pres that will be discussed in the following. the analysis stage according to putri and amir (2018), a product can be said to be viable if it meets valid, practical, and effective criteria. therefore, a structured initial analysis is needed to collect all the problems or obstacles found related to online learning. in the analyzing stage, there are several steps taken to analyze the learning device to be developed including the analysis of online learning problems, analysis of student needs, analysis of materials, media and evaluation instruments, and mapping the relatedness of material substances, media types, and evaluation instruments. table 4. learning device analysis stages results of analysis analysis of online learning problems unavailability of learning devices that are suitable for distance learning / non-face-to-face. the existence of the covid pandemic makes some learning materials unable to adjust to online learning. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 96 table 4. learning device analysis (continued) there is no teaching material that can be used as the main source of learning of students learning methods that do not vary due to lack of online learning preparation some students are constrained by unstable networks that inhibit live online learning for example through zoom meetings. analysis of student needs characteristics of students are mostly passive looking for teaching materials / media that can be used as an alternative learning source or literature as a support for lectures, students tend to prefer teaching materials provided directly by lecturers. analysis of materials, media and evaluation instruments the characteristics of the material in mk learning and learning consist of 4, namely material that is factual, conceptual, procedural and metacognitive. learning media used are learning videos, movies, journal articles and handouts the evaluation instrument applied will be adjusted to the type and technical assessment and substance of the material mapping the relatedness of material substances, media types, and evaluation instruments this mapping aims to adjust between the characteristics of the material with the appropriate type of media and the evaluation instrument that can be applied. this is done so that the assignment methods given vary, improve problem-solving skills in students and add new references. table 5. analysis of evaluation instruments types of assessment of learning outcomes technical materials assessment of learning outcomes with traditional approaches standardized tests teacher made test (teacher made test) test essays on material 1. the nature of learning 2. the nature of learning 3. neuroscience learning in this material selected essay tests to find out the cognitive level of students alternative assessment portfolio rubric journal of learning/learning journal a brief note about learning logs learning log behaviorism learning social cognitive log learning log constructivism irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 97 table 5. continued… learning log of industrial revolution era 4.0 learning log learning problems in this material selected learning log because the learning source used in the form of film / video / novel related to the material to increase the understanding of students self assessment concept map focus group discussion investigation analysis of articles on classroom planning and management materials learning design on scl learning materials, hots-based learning, biology learning and learning the design stage the design stage is the stage of learning device design activities based on the results of analysis that has been done in the previous stage, namely the analyze stage. according to rahma (2012), the proficiency and creativity of educators in designing learning tools can optimize the ability of learning indicators and educational goals. at this stage there are several activities carried out starting from the first stage of rps design and lecture contracts. the format used in the creation of rps and lecture contracts uses forms that have been predetermined by the faculty. the rps section consists of identity, learning achievement, short description of courses, study materials / subject matter, reference list, name of powerful lecturers, prerequisite courses, lecture meetings, sub-cpmk, form and method of learning, time estimation, student learning experience, and assessment column consisting of assessment criteria and forms, assessment indicators, and assessment weights. while in the lecture contract contains the identity of the course; description of the course; cpmk; sub cmpk; learning strategies; materials and learning structures in which contained meeting schedules, subjects, sub-subjects and sources of reference; references; assessment system; order, others, and attachments. the second stage is to design learning media and evaluation instruments that are in accordance with material characteristics. the results of learning media design can be seen in table 6 below. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 98 table 6. design of materials, media and evaluation instruments material media evaluation instruments kind heading the truth of learning and learning handout the truth of learning and learning essays theory of learning behaviorism handout theory of learning behaviorism form learning log novel totto chan little girl in the window social cognitive learning theory handout theory of cognitive social learning form learning log film front of the class theory of learning constructivism handout theory of learning constructivism form learning log film freedom writers neuroscience learning video what is the difference between the right and left brain? how do nerve cells work? essays industrial revolution 4.0 in learning video industrial revolution 1.0-4.0 form learning log scl learning learning plan form hots-based learning learning plan form classroom planning and management journal article journal critical analysis form learning problems learning video learning difficulties form learning log film pencil bridge study and study biology learning plan form the learning media used in this study are divided into two types, namely (1) learning media compiled by researchers themselves, such as handouts and learning videos on learning problem materials and (2) media obtained from internet literature, such as films, journal articles and other learning videos. the design on the handout uses the canva application that can be accessed online on the www.canva.com website. to help design cover templates while for learning video creation using wonder share filmora 9. there are several educational-themed films that have been used for the making of learning videos, including rainbow warriors, in the east of the sun, freedom writers, front of the class, pencil bridges, ananda's dream of reaching the universe, wonderful life, the great debater, jungle sokola, stand and deliver, how funny this country is, dahlan shoes, the dreamer, the land of 5 towers, and several other relevant videos. early prototypes on handouts and learning videos can be seen in the following image. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 99 figure 2. the handout covers a b c d e f g h i irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 100 figure 2. a. handout cover of the nature of learning and learning; b. cover handout theory learning behaviorism; c. cover of social cognitive learning theory; d. the cover of constructivism learning theory; e. the contents of the handout theory of learning constructivism; f. the contents of the handout theory of learning behaviorism; g. the content of handout theory of social cognitive learning; h. fill the handout of learning and learning; i. a learning video titled learning difficulties. the development stage at this stage, the initial prototype that has been designed in the previous stage is then validated by an expert validator of materials and media to determine the validity of the product that has been developed. development activities on learning devices are intended to get input on the development carried out to improve or revise the deficiencies contained in all components of the learning device and in its application (listyawati, 2012).there are several suggestions and inputs from validators, including: (1) from the aspect of material feasibility, the examples presented need to be adjusted to the conditions in the surrounding environment and support student understanding. (2) in terms of language eligibility, it is best to use a simpler language and adjusted to the level of cognitive understanding of early semester students. (3) it is necessary to pay attention to the allocation of time for learning log assignments whether it can be completed in accordance with the predetermined duration of time, so that students can collect tasks in a timely manner. more complete suggestions and feedback can be seen in table 7. as for the results of product feasibility assessments from the three validators, namely 86.25%; 95% and 90. the average validity value obtained by him, based on validation results obtained is concluded if the learning device that has been developed is very feasible to use with small revisions. similar research has been conducted by zagoto and dakhi (2018) that on the development of mathematical learning tools based on valid scientific approaches used to improve the learning ability of students of grade xi sman. table 7. validators’ suggestions on learning device prototype validators’ suggestions rps add more cpmk to sub cpmk 2 cpmk-3 needs to be reviewed whether it can be implemented in online learning, otherwise it should not be written down. in the short description column of the course needs to be included about learning higher order thinking skill (hots) as a logical consequence of the development of the situation in the era of the industrial revolution 4.0 in the study material / learning material column, the word hots added higher order thinking skills. in the reference list column, it is necessary to add a handout developed, as well as other supporting articles all terms in a foreign language are written/italic printed irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 101 table 7. continued… in the sub-cpmk 2 column of meeting 2, add the sentences of obstacles that occur that occur in the lecture contract and introduction to learning and learning. in the student's learning experience column at the second meeting, add one more point that provides common examples of learning barriers (individual assignments). in the criteria column and meeting assessment form 2, add the results of the individual task assessment in the indicator column of meeting assessment 2 add clarity in making individual tasks about examples of learning barriers in the student experience column, all films or videos given to students are written the title. college contract in the section of the reference source column, the literature is written in full (each meeting), just write the order number in accordance with the order in the reference and the page. in the order section, make detailed details of the rules, including how the agreement if students experience network barriers, what if they cannot follow virtual zoom meetings, and others handout each page, please be numbered in the fact handout of learning, a person who stops learning is an elderly person, even though he is still a teenager. a person who never stops learning will forever be a young man.henry ford – these quotes should be replaced because they are not in accordance with the concept of lifelong learning. in the handout of behaviorism theory, providing reinforcement (maybe positive reinforcement or negative reinforcement), or punishment in the handout of behaviorism theory, there needs to be an independent task, students are asked to identify the advantages and disadvantages / limitations of behaviorism theory in learning, as well as ways / efforts to minimize the effects of these shortcomings / limitations (asked to include a list of references in the answer sheet) in the handout of constructivism theory, the steps of learning according to the theory of learning constructivism in the handout of constructivism theory, there needs to be an independent task, students are asked to identify the advantages and disadvantages / limitations of constructivism theory in learning, as well as ways / efforts to minimize the effects of these shortcomings / limitations (asked to include a list of references in the answer sheet) in the handout of social cognitive theory, the level of learning steps according to social cognitive learning theory in the handout of social cognitive theory, there needs to be an independent task, students are asked to identify the advantages irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 102 table 7. continued… and disadvantages / limitations of social cognitive theory in learning, as well as ways / efforts to minimize the effects of these shortcomings / limitations (asked to include a list of references in the answer sheet) "learning difficulties" video at the end of the video, the appropriate conclusions are appeared for relaxation. the word "normal" in the underachiever explanation should be replaced with the word "average." evaluation instruments in the material of the nature of learning, for the problem no. 5 point a, "give an example of an overview to find out the achievement of each of these realms" in the learning log instrument, the question column after reading literature / watching a movie, the word "explain" is added "put forward by deciphering it" the implementation stage implementation of learning devices that have been developed is carried out for one semester to determine the practicality of use and effectiveness of the final prototype produced. according to kurniawan (2016), the practicality of learning devices can be analyzed through the implementation of rps during the learning process, student activities, and obstacles during the learning process as measured through observation. the results of the analysis on the implementation of rps in class a 88% and class b 100%, so that the average implementation of rps is 94%. during the learning process, students do not find any significant obstacles or obstacles related to the use of learning devices used. based on the results of the analysis, it can be concluded that mk learning and learning tools are very practical to apply to fkip students of west sulawesi university. as for the effectiveness of the learning device, based on the results of final assessments in both classes that were used as research subjects obtained on average in class a which is 77%, there is 1 student who rarely does the task. while in class b obtained the average final value is 83.9%. the average for all study subjects was 80.45%. therefore, it was concluded that the learning tools in mk learning and learning are effectively used at fkip university of west sulawesi. similarly, research conducted by sulistyani and retnawati (2015) that the learning device builds space with a problem-based-learning approach that has been developed effectively used in junior high school which is seen based on the results of kd achievement tests, critical thinking and student attitudes. indicators to state the effectiveness of a product can be seen from several components, including (1) student learning outcomes; (2) student activities; and (3) students' abilities in some skills, such as creative thinking, being able to solve problems, and others (rahma, 2012). according to akhlis and dewi (2014) in their research related to the development of cultural deviance solution-oriented learning devices that learning devices are developed as well as possible, not only produce graduates with high cognitive abilities but can also follow the development of information and technology, creative, independent and responsible. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 103 the evaluation stage evaluation is a data collection activity to measure the extent to which the effectiveness of learning activities and learning goals are achieved. in this study, two types of evaluation were conducted, namely process evaluation and evaluation of results. evaluation of the process is carried out from the problem analysis stage to the implementation stage. at each stage, an evaluation is carried out to find out what aspects need to be improved, improved or maintained for the improvement of all stages of research by discussing with the teaching team. the evaluation of results is carried out with two stages as well, namely formative evaluation and summative evaluation. formative evaluation is given to students at each meeting with varied assessment work, while the summative evaluation is carried out twice, namely at mid test meetings and final tests. according to wu, huang, han, & zhang (2022) without evaluation researchers cannot determine whether a problem has been solved satisfactorily or not. the evaluation stage is required in each phase and is carried out repeatedly until the desired problem solving is achieved (amir, 2018). conclusion through the research and development by using the addie model including analyzing, designing, developing, implementing, and evaluating, the development of online learning and learning courses during the covid-19 pandemic, the learning devices have been produced, including lecture contracts, rps, teaching materials and teaching media, and instrument evaluation which are valid, practical, and effective. references akhlis, i., & dewi, n. r. 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(2016). development of science learning tools based on a guided discovery approach to train process skills of elementary school students. jurnal review pendidikan dasar: jurnal kajian pendidikan dan hasil penelitian, 2(2), 175-183. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 104 listyawati, m. (2012). development of integrated science learning tools in junior high school. journal of innovative science education, 1(1), 62-69. nababan, s. a., & tanjung, h. s. development of learning instrument based on realistic mathematics approach to improve mathematical disposition ability. advance in mathematics: scientific journal, 9(12), 10325-10333. pusdiklat kemdikbudristek ri. 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(development of inquiry model learning tools with a set of material solubility and solubility product approaches to foster critical thinking skills and students' empathy for the environment). journal of research and educational research evaluation, 1(2), 134-138. sulistyani, n., & retnawati, h. development of spatial learning tools in junior high school with a problem-based learning approach. jurnal riset pendidikan matematika, 2(2), 197-210. wu, w., huang, j., han, c., & zhang, j. (2022). evaluating peer feedback as a reliable and valid complementary aid to teacher feedback in efl writing classrooms: a feedback giver perspective. studies in educational evaluation, 73, 101140. zagoto, m. m., & dakhi, o. (2018). (development of specialization mathematics learning tools based on a scientific approach for class xi high school students). jurnal review pendidikan dan pengajaran, 1(1), 157-170. zhu, y. q., chen, l. y., chen, h. g., & chern, c. c. (2011). how does internet information seeking help academic performance?–the moderating and mediating roles of academic self-efficacy. computers & education, 57(4), 2476-2484. biographical notes kartika hajati is a lecturer, fakultas keguruan dan ilmu pendidikan, universitas sulawesi barat, indonesia, corresponding author’s email: kartikajamil@unsulbar.ac.id nur amaliah is a lecturer, fakultas keguruan dan ilmu pendidikan, universitas sulawesi barat, indonesia mailto:kartikajamil@unsulbar.ac.id this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 61 cohesive devices in efl students’ essays and problems encountered during wiring rita zahara 1 , yunisrina qismullah yusuf 2* , iskandar abdul samad 3 , and charanjit kaur swaran singh 4 abstract the research investigated the cohesive devices used in efl students‟ recount texts and the problems encountered during their writing. 33 high school students‟ essays were analyzed, and the students were interviewed. the findings showed that all five types of cohesive devices appeared in the students‟ writings, with reference the most, followed by a conjunction, lexical cohesion, ellipsis, and substitution the least. three types of cohesive devices were identified as problematic to the students: conjunction, reference, and lexical cohesion. four reasons were further found for the students‟ difficulty in using the cohesive devices: pure error, absence of knowledge, overuse, and lack of writing practice. these findings may give new insights for language teachers in the attempt to understand the causes that lead to cohesion problems in students‟ writing so that proper measures can be taken to address them and improve the quality of their writing generally. keywords cohesive devices, efl learners, recount texts, problems article history received 30 december 2022 accepted 15 april 2023 how to cite zahara, r., yusuf, y.q., samad, i. a., & singh, c. k. s (2023). cohesive devices in efl students‟ essays and problems encountered during writing. indonesian research journal in education |irje|, 7(1), 61 – 76. https://doi.org/10.22437/irje .v7i1.23128 1, 3, syiah kuala university, banda aceh, indonesia 2 syiah kuala university, banda aceh, indonesia; corresponding author: yunisrina.q.yusuf@unsyiah.ac.id 4 universiti pendidikan sultan idris, tanjung malim, malaysia https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v7i1.23128 https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v7i1.23128 mailto:yunisrina.q.yusuf@unsyiah.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 62 introduction researchers in elt (english language teaching) have widely agreed that writing, of all english skills, is the skill that students find the most difficult to become skilled at (ayub et al., 2013; ong, 2011; rassouli & abbasvandi, 2013). one challenge in writing is when students must organize ideas into a text to be easily understood by readers. efl (english as a foreign language) students across the world have been reported to struggle with this problem, and indonesian student are no exception (kurniawan et al., 2020; saputro et al., 2022; sudirman et al., 2021; susilo et al., 2021). preliminary research conducted by the researchers of this research on efl students in aceh, indonesia, confirmed this problem, in which students expressed difficulty in producing cohesive writing in english. interviews with a few english teachers from various high schools in the research also revealed the lack of clarity in students‟ writing because they tended to use cohesive devices incorrectly. researchers have been trying to explain students‟ difficulties when using cohesive devices. among them is that students often find it challenging to create a sense of cohesion in their compositions because of first language interference, which confuses them in creating discursive meaning in their texts (yusuf et al., 2021). the minute the mother tongue interferes, students, tend to adopt the convention of their first language, which may not always work the same way with the target language; in the case of this research, between english and the indonesian language. when proper meaning is not formed, the intended ideas do not get across to the readers (hyland, 2003). consequently, cohesive devices may be used incorrectly or inappropriately by language learners. it is also possible that they are underused or overused due to students‟ poor knowledge of the writing component (bagheri & riasati, 2016; ghasemi, 2013). the research conducted by ong (2011) on chinese efl learners found hundreds of errors in ten students‟ expository compositions. the students had the most difficulty using reference cohesion, followed by a conjunction and lexical cohesion. the students‟ repetition and misuse of cohesive devices were the most significant challenges. moreover, chinese efl learners used lexical devices the most compared to other cohesive devices, such as reference and conjunctive (liu & braine, 2005). furthermore, liu and braine (2005) discovered that besides lexical devices, students of all proficiency levels deal with difficulties using cohesive devices. the most identified problems in their writing were in the use of references. in indonesia, english has been prioritized in its curriculum since the 1960s, considering the tremendous advancement of information and communication technology in this language (hamied & musthafa, 2019). in the english syllabus at the high school level, cohesive devices are embedded in their writing lessons in to improve students‟ writing. hence, among the common problems in composing an english text is the misuse of cohesive devices (emilia et al., 2018). these devices are especially prominent in the teaching of recount text composition. however, given that students still need help producing a cohesive text, it is imperative to investigate the issue further to get to the bottom of the problem. this current research aims to investigate the types of cohesive devices used by indonesian high school students, specifically in aceh, indonesia, and further explore the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 63 students‟ problems with using these devices. only a few studies have been conducted on students in aceh on this topic, and thus, the researchers tend to fill in this gap. cohesive devices in indonesian and english may be different. the students face difficulties using the linking words. therefore, the following research questions were formulated for this research:  what cohesive devices are used by efl high school students in writing recount texts?  which cohesive devices are the most difficult for the students to use in writing recount texts?  why is it problematic for the students to use cohesive devices in writing recount texts? the current research is paramount as the results can provide better insights into this issue. efl teachers, especially in the indonesian context, can further understand the problems students face in incorporating cohesive devices in their compositions to help them improve and enhance their motivation in writing. in addition, studies have shown that the better students‟ writing motivation is, the better students‟ writing practice will be (tridinanti et al., 2020). efl teachers must bear in mind that the level of student motivation impacts how engaged and persistent they will be despite the challenges of learning a foreign language. hence, a more thorough comprehension and knowledge of cohesive devices can help them express their ideas more coherently in their texts, eventually contributing to their overall readability compositions. literature review types of cohesive devices cohesive devices play a paramount role in creating a good flow in writing. their significance has been firmly established in literature. according to rassouli and abbasvandi (2013), the appropriate use of these devices allows the readers to connect between what was said, what is being said, and what will be said. furthermore, these devices will allow consistency and connectedness throughout the passage in a text to be preserved (adiantika, 2015). eventually, when cohesion is established, it will enhance the meaning of texts (rassouli & abbasvandi, 2013). therefore, students must be assisted in generating and organizing ideas well to produce a coherent text. coherence and cohesion have been cited as one of the most problematic areas in writing for efl learners, and producing cohesive writing are incredibly effortful for students (shokrpour & fallahzadeh, 2007). one proposition to tackle this problem would be to teach students the proper use of cohesive devices (nilopa et al., 2017) since the reason learners who struggled to produce an easy-to-understand written work often mentioned was the lack of teaching and training in the use of these devices (adiantika, 2015). moreover, according to halliday and hasan (1976), text elements must be tied together using specific devices for readers to make sense of a text. therefore, a text that makes sense to readers‟ features appropriately used cohesive devices. cohesion is achieved when the interpretation of one item is dependent on the interpretation of the other, i.e., one item assumes the other irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 64 (halliday & hasan, 1976). consequently, a clearly defined relationship between elements contributes to greater comprehensibility and meaningfulness of the text. a coherent text can be produced through two types of cohesion: grammatical and lexical cohesion (alarcon & morales, 2011). the former includes reference, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction, while lexical cohesion has two types: reiteration and collocation. the five major types have been used to assess cohesion in students‟ writing by several researchers in the past (liu & braine, 2005; meisuo, 2000; yang & sun, 2012). first, reference is a situation in which one textual element cannot be interpreted without reference to another (bahaziq, 2016). reference items include personal pronouns, demonstratives, and comparatives to establish a cohesive relation between the cohesive item and its antecedent (ong, 2011). second, substitution happens when a writer replaces one text component with another (ayub et al., 2013). it can occur in nouns, verbs, and clauses (bahaziq, 2016). third, an ellipsis refers to the omission of a word or phrase that has been mentioned in a text, and this omission is not a problem since the meaning can still be understood from the context (bahaziq, 2016). fourth, conjunctions are best known as linking words or connectives that help connect ideas between sentences (paltridge, 2006). it also allows readers to construct representations and understand the relationship between different text parts (sanders & noordman, 2000). finally, lexical cohesion comprises reiteration and collocation; they are ties that are created in a text through the repetition of a noun phrase or the use of another noun phrase that bears a relation to the antecedent noun phrase (ayub et al., 2013; bahaziq, 2016; halliday & hasan, 1976). halliday and hassan (1976) further specified the sub-types of reiteration, including the same item, general item, super-ordinate item, and a synonym or near-synonym. meanwhile, cutting‟s (2008) categorization of reiteration consists of synonyms, repetition, general words, and super-ordinates. the quality of students‟ writing relies on using these types and sub-types of lexical cohesion (alotaibi, 2014). good quality writing is written with syntactic complexity and adequate organization of connected ideas (kyle & crossley, 2018). studies on the use of cohesive devices in efl students’ writings some research has been conducted on using cohesive devices by efl learners. for instance, research by adiantika (2005) examined the use of cohesive devices in expository texts that indonesian efl students produced. it was found that four devices were used in the students‟ compositions, namely reference, substitution, conjunction, and lexical cohesion. the research also explained that the reasons for errors in the use of cohesive devices were mainly the lack of training in the proper use of the devices. hence, previous studies show a tendency for efl learners to use some types of cohesive devices and ways to face difficulty using them appropriately. when some learners overuse cohesive devices, others misuse the features. meanwhile, in the case of thai undergraduate students, chanyoo (2018) found that students frequently used four types of cohesive devices: reiteration, reference, conjunction, and ellipsis. the research also showed that the students‟ writing scores were positively correlated with the total number of words used in the writing task, cohesive devices, and several references. in another research, dastjerdi and samian (2011) investigated iranian irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 65 graduate non-english majors‟ use of cohesive devices in argumentative essays and the relationship between the number of cohesive devices and their writing quality. their research revealed that lexical devices had the highest percentage of the total number of cohesive devices. nevertheless, dastjerdi and samian (2011) found no significant relationship between the number of cohesive devices used and the quality of the student‟s writing. this finding differed from other researchers (chanyoo, 2018; ghasemi, 2013; liu & braine, 2005; yang & sun, 2012), who proved that using cohesive devices could directly impact the students‟ writing quality. meanwhile, ghasemi (2013) found a general pattern of cohesive devices in efl/esl learners‟ academic and non-academic writing. in the case of cohesive devices in english writing used by native and non-native speakers in frequency, variety, and control, rahman (2013) investigated arabic (of omanis) and native english speakers. the research concluded that there was a difference between the use of cohesive devices by the two groups of speakers. native english speakers could use a balanced use and frequency on the various cohesive devices. in contrast, non-natives (i.e., arabic students) tended to overuse some types of cohesive devices in their english writing, such as repetition and reference, while neglecting the other types. methodology research design, site, and participants this research adopted the descriptive qualitative method. this method analyzes words or figures and does not involve numerical analysis (brink, 1993; mohajan, 2018). the sample consisted of 33 students in the twelfth grade in a senior high school in aceh, indonesia, jeumala amal boarding school. the research instruments used to collect data were documentation and interviews. in this research, the students were coded as s1 for student 1, s2 for student 2, and so forth until s33 for student 33, respectively. data collection and analysis in the curriculum of indonesian high schools, twelfth-grade students are taught recount text composition. accordingly, the cohesive devices analyzed were those used in these recount texts written by the students. data collection started by having students write recount texts on the topic of “spending time during holidays”. these students did not receive any training on using cohesive devices before the data collection, nor did they get any guidance on correctly using these devices. their knowledge was based on their english skills, which had been taught to them formally since the seventh grade. 33 texts were collected from these students without any intervention. each text consisted of an essay of 200 words. the analysis of the essays on cohesive devices was based on halliday and hasan‟s (1976) on the five major types of cohesive devices, which has been well adopted in previous research on this topic as well (adiantika, 2015; bahaziq, 2016; ghasemi, 2013; nasser, 2017; ong, 2011). here, the types of cohesive devices that the students used and the errors they made were identified, and their frequency of occurrence was calculated using simple statistics of percentages. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 66 once data analysis was completed, and problematic cohesive devices identified, ten students were purposively chosen for interviews based on their performance using the cohesive devices. it was to answer the third research question about why students faced difficulties using cohesive devices. each one-on-one interview lasted about 15 minutes, and the sessions were recorded with a handphone. to analyze the interview data, the recordings were first transcribed. then the researchers adopted the interactive model that miles et al. (2014) proposed, involving condensation, data display, and conclusion/verification. in condensation, the raw data went through the processes of selection, focusing, simplification, abstraction, and transformation (miles et al., 2014). responses relevant to explaining the students‟ difficulties when using cohesive devices were singled out and categorized based on themes that emerged within their answers. in the data display, the themes were posed with pertinent excerpts to explain and elaborate on each of them. finally, a conclusion was made after verifying and rechecking the data findings from documents and interviews. findings and discussion types of cohesive devices used in students’ writings each of the 33 students‟ essays was studied to determine the cohesive device type used. all five types of cohesive devices were found in their writings. the number of occurrences for each is in table 1. table 1.the types of cohesive devices found in students’ writings no. type of cohesive devices number of occurrences 1. reference 2133 2. conjunction 86 3. lexical cohesion 200 4. ellipsis 2 5. substitution 1 total 3203 the research found that students used 24 reference items in their compositions. the most frequently used ones are „i‟, „the‟, „my‟, and „we‟, whereas reference items students used the least were „your‟, „him‟, and „its‟. next are conjunctions, where 20 conjunction items were found in the students‟ recount texts. conjunctions „and‟, „because‟, and „for‟ take up the most significant portion of conjunctions used, and „however‟ and „by the way‟ were used the least. as for lexical cohesion, 200 items were found in students‟ writing. one type of lexical cohesion, reiteration, has approximately 50 occurrences, with repetition being the type found the most (34 occurrences) and antonymy the least (1 occurrence). others stood between synonymy (5 occurrences) and hyponymy (8 occurrences). meanwhile, collocation, the other type of lexical cohesion, has 152 occurrences, meaning this type appeared more frequently in students‟ composition than the reiteration type. the next type, ellipses only appeared twice. finally, only one substitution item was found in all 33 texts analyzed, making the device students used the least in their recount texts. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 67 the results of this research show some differences from those of previous studies. the research by liu and braine (2005) in china found that chinese efl learners used more lexical devices in their argumentative essays, followed by references and conjunctive. meanwhile, in another research, adiantika (2015) found that students mostly used reference followed by substitution, conjunction, and lexical cohesion in their expository essays. nevertheless, these differences could be rooted in the different texts each study focuses on. when this research focused on recount texts, liu and braine (2005) focused on argumentative texts, and adiantika (2015) investigated expository texts. in conclusion, the use of cohesive devices that occurred also varies according to text type. most difficult types of cohesive devices to the efl learners out of 3203 cohesive devices found in the students‟ writing, 213 were used incorrectly, roughly 6.7%. here, each student‟s writings were examined to find the errors in cohesive devices. then, each error was listed according to its type of cohesive device. the errors found in this research are in table 2. table 2.the inappropriate use of cohesive devices no. type of cohesive devices number of inappropriate uses 1. reference 67 2. conjunction 113 3. lexical cohesion 31 total 213 as shown in table 2, there were 213 cases of students‟ errors in using cohesive devices. other errors also occurred regarding grammar usage; however, this research only focused on the inappropriate use of cohesive devices. hence, other errors in writing (i.e., grammar, spelling, punctuation, capitalization) were excluded. from the five types of cohesive devices, there were three types recorded that have been used incorrectly. they are reference with 67 cases, conjunction with 113 cases, and lexical cohesion with 31 cases. these errors explanation is in the following sub-sections. conjunction the conjunction was found to be the most difficult cohesive device for the students to use because it is the type in which most errors occurred; 113 cases. the students were struggling with using conjunction items correctly. it could be seen in e1 (e refers to extracts in the students‟ writing, and the cohesive devices in focus are underlined): e1: “when we take picture on an animal, but my mother calls me at handphone and i up.” (s19) the conjunction „but‟ was inappropriately used in this sentence. the student should not put „but‟ since it did not need it. the correct sentence should be, „when we took a picture of an animal, suddenly my mother called my handphone and i answered it‟. the sentence made by irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 68 the student was incorrect from both views of the english and indonesian languages. nevertheless, this did not occur due to interference. in this case, the student made the wrong choice of conjunction. the cause of misuse was most likely due to the absence of knowledge in using the correct conjunction to fit the sentence. according to adiantika (2015), the lack of knowledge was due to insufficient training and guidance in using cohesive devices. many students also made errors in using conjunctions without adding a comma. for example: e2: “then i look at my father, my mother and also my sisters.” (s4) this sentence could be corrected into, „then, i looked for my father, mother, and sisters‟. here, the student did not recognize the proper way of using conjunction in the sentence, which is probably due to improper mechanical exercise in writing (darweesh & kadhim, 2016). there were also some instances where the students incorrectly used „for‟ in their sentences. for instance: e3: “five minutes later we went to matahari plaza for buy the clothes.” (s31) the student used „for‟ instead of putting a „to infinitive‟ verb. the correct sentence should be „five minutes later, we went to matahari plaza to buy clothes‟. both „to‟ and „for‟ could have the same meaning in indonesian, which is untuk „to, for‟. it means that the student failed to recognize the correct conjunction to use. darweesh and kadhim (2016) regarded the student‟s first language interference as the main factor that leads to this misuse. reference the results showed that there were 67 cases of incorrect use of reference. out of 33 recount texts, 27 contain mistakes in how reference items are used. the students seemed confused in choosing a reference item as an object and a subject in a sentence. for example, s17 made an error on the reference item „we‟ which should be written as „us‟ as seen in e4: e4: “but we are is not boring just stay at home because my father always make we felt happy.” (s17) in e4, the correct sentence should be, „but we were not bored to just stay at home because my father always made us feel happy‟. this case happened due to the student‟s inadequate knowledge of how to use the reference correctly. besides proper exercises, dastjerdi and samian (2011) argued that the limited exposure of authentic materials in the target language is another cause for the improper use of cohesive devices. another common error made by the students is the use of „i and my family‟. as seen in e2: e5: “i and my family went to banda aceh.” (s4) the sentence in e5 should be corrected as „my family and i went to banda aceh‟. from the indonesian language structure, the student‟s order choice was not wrong when student 4 wrote, „i and my family‟. thus, the first language interference caused the error because, in indonesia, it is correct to say saya dan keluarga saya „i and my family‟. in this case, the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 69 interference of the first language to the target language was revealed to be the cause of the student‟s problem (dastjerdi & samian, 2011). then, there is an incorrect use of putting a reference even though it was not needed, such as shown in e6: e6: i was alone at home and didn‟t knew what should i did it. (s8) the reference „it‟ written by the student must be deleted. the correct sentence should be, „i was alone at home and didn‟t know what i should do‟. the student lacked knowledge that the reference „it‟ should not be inserted in such sentence structure; even in the indonesian language, this structure is incorrect. besides lacking practice and exercise, inadequate direct exposure to the target language texts also leads to improper use of cohesive devices (olateju, 2006). lexical cohesion the next erroneous cohesive device was lexical cohesion, with 31 cases of incorrect uses. some of the errors are in the data below: e7: “i and my family back to home”. (s6) the phrase „back to home‟ is incorrect, while the correct one is „back home‟. the student seemed to think that „back‟ is a verb. the sentence could be corrected into „my family and i went back home‟. the student made this error when they tried translating a sentence from indonesian to english in word-for-word translation (aziz, 2015). in indonesia, saying „going back home‟ is kembali ke rumah, with its word-for-word translation to be „back to home‟. in this case, the translated words turned out incorrect in english. again, the learners‟ lack of exposure to the language in use could cause difficulties when dealing with cohesion and coherence in the efl context (rassouli & abbasvandi, 2013). some students also chose the wrong words in writing a phrase, such as done by s13 in e8: e8: “and then i remembered that i cannot to drived the motorcycle”. (s13) her chosen word in e8 should be „ride‟ instead of „drive‟. the phrase „ride a motorcycle‟ is a collocation, so changing the word with another one makes it incorrect. the correct sentence should be, „then, i remembered that i could not ride a motorcycle‟. collocational errors are a prominent feature of the errors made by non-native speakers due to the lack of exposure to the natural expression and word association in the target language. when such exposure is lacking or limited, foreign language learners will resort to their first language lexical resource and translate it into the target language, which seems to be the case here. the student chose the wrong pair of words for the collocation. in this matter, ong (2011) explained that the errors in the misuse of collocation were due to the students‟ deficiency in a wide range of vocabulary. other errors in this type of cohesive device are in using adjectives. it is depicted in e9, as made by s19. e9: “we went to grandma‟s house 5 people, my parent, i and my young sister”. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 70 in e9, the correct sentence should be „we went to grandma‟s house, there were five people; my parents, my younger sister and me‟. again, the error was rooted in insufficient exposure to the correct writing of cohesive devices in the target language texts. as previously mentioned, rassouli and abbasvandi (2013), olateju (2006), and dastjerdi and samian (2011) believed that inadequate resources or exposure to how cohesive devices were appropriately used could result in students‟ errors. as for the three types of cohesive devices that became problematic for the students. ong (2011) who investigated cohesive errors in expository compositions of efl learners in china, also revealed that the students had difficulty using reference, followed by a conjunction and lexical cohesion. the corresponding result could be caused by similar participants where both indonesia and china regarded english to be a foreign language. thus, the students‟ first language played a heavy role in their cohesive device selection due to the interference during the acquisition. in this research, the researcher realized that it took more work to understand the students‟ sentences due to the inappropriate usage of cohesive devices. according to ong (2011), inappropriate use of cohesive devices could easily lead the readers to misunderstand the initial intention of the writer. thus, the readers could not comprehend the points that the writer was trying to convey. afterward, rassouli and abbasvandi (2013) regarded cohesion as one of the paramount factors that must be focused on in writing. without cohesion, a text could only be built by several unrelated sentences. adiantika (2015) also mentioned that cohesive devices allowed a text to preserve consistency and connectedness throughout the passage. as a part of writing ability, cohesive devices held a great stance of importance in a piece of writing, and it is the most crucial characteristic (rahman, 2013). problems encountered in using the cohesive devices the interview result showed that the students‟ difficulty in using cohesive devices is engrained in common reasons. when they were asked about the use of cohesive devices in their essays, their answers showed several themes related to their mistakes. the most common reason was revealed as pure errors, followed by the absence of knowledge, overuse (due to their assumptions or predictions), and lack of writing practice. each of these answers is explained in the following sub-sections. pure error most of the students answered that their mistakes were due to pure error. it means that when the students were shown their errors in using a cohesive device, they could instantly recognize that their sentence contained an error. for example, when the researchers showed s27 the errors she made in her writing, she immediately corrected the use of „her‟ while referring to her father, which should be „his‟. she informed: e10: “ooh, right. it is wrong. it should be „his‟, not „her‟. i am sorry, i am not careful”. (s27) s24, despite being reluctant at first, also identified and confessed her mistake when shown the results of her essay. e11: “um… i don‟t really know what‟s wrong, but is it because i did not use a comma after this „so‟?‟ i was rushing because i am afraid, i will be late (to submit the essay)”. (s24) irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 71 another student, s9, gave a similar response as well. she was shown her essay and pointed out how she used „neither‟ in an incorrect way. she realized her error immediately and responded: e12: “yes, yes, i‟m sorry miss. not „didn‟t bring jacket‟, actually (it should be) „bring a jacket‟. so, the sentence is „neither me nor my family bring a jacket‟. i did not re-read my writing”. (s9) from the interview responses, as shown above, they knew how to use cohesive devices correctly. however, errors were made due to their carelessness during the writing process. this reason could connect with another reason: the lack of time to write. practicing students need sufficient time and opportunity to strengthen their knowledge in writing. this finding corresponded with adiantika (2015), who claimed that following students‟ difficulty in applying cohesive devices appropriately is due to insufficient training and guidance in using cohesive devices. in this regard, students need more opportunities and guidance provided by english teachers to improve their ability to use cohesive devices correctly. absence of knowledge the second reason for their mistakes in using cohesive devices was their absence of knowledge. when asked about their errors, they did not know why they were incorrectly used. it means they did not know enough about using cohesive devices correctly. s3, regarding her sentence of „i think your idea is safer than me‟ (which should be „i think your idea is safer than mine‟) revealed that she had no idea why her sentence was incorrect. she said: e13: “what? hm…i think this sentence is correct miss”. (s3) according to s3, her sentence was correct, and the reference was also used appropriately. in this regard, s27 also felt that there was nothing wrong with her sentence „i just look my sister and my young sister play the sand‟ (which should be „i just look at my sister and my younger sister play in the sand‟). she informed: e14: “wait, let me read it again…is this wrong miss? „i look my sister and my young sister play the sand‟. yeah, no miss, there is nothing wrong (with it)”. (s27) when they were informed of their mistakes, they were surprised and informed that some of the cohesive devices were not taught by their previous teachers. they further informed that even though they commonly found the words of conjunctions and references when reading english materials or textbooks, they only focused on the main idea of the text or sentence. in this regard, they only read texts to get the content ideas but ignore how cohesive devices were used in the texts. they did not pay special attention to the cohesive devices they encountered, and it led to the absence of knowledge on how to use some of the cohesive devices correctly. according to nilopa et al. (2017), it was important for students to be provided with the knowledge of cohesion and the skill of cohesive devices. it means that irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 72 english teachers should teach their students to ensure they have proper knowledge about how to use cohesive devices correctly. overuse another reason was the overuse of cohesive devices when the students felt the need to use a cohesive device even though it was unnecessary. for example, s24, who used three „because‟ in one sentence, said she wanted to make her sentence clear, so she used „because‟ to explain her story. e15: “i used „because‟ many times because i want to tell about my vacation. using „because‟ is important so people can understand me, so i can keep on explaining what happened during that time and connecting them with „because‟”. (s24) s19 also overused a conjunction when she paired „although‟ with „but‟, when „although‟ was sufficient to write her sentence without adding the conjunction „but‟. she answered: e16: “although i went to grandma‟s house 3 years ago, but i and my cousin is near‟. it means i am close with my cousin even though i only met her three years ago. that‟s why i used „although‟ here, and „but‟ here‟”. (s19) e16 shows a good case of mother-tongue interference. in indonesian, it is common for its native speakers to add „but‟ following „although‟ clauses. since it is a native grammatical feature, this does not cause any comprehension problems in indonesian, but it might be problematic in english. lack of writing practice the students also admitted that they rarely wrote in english. they only write when their english teachers asked them to (i.e., gave a writing assignment or homework). s15 said she did not often write since she had no time to practice independently. she informed: e17: “i have a lot of homework and exercises, so i can‟t write in english often. but the teacher sometimes gives us writing assignments just like this”. (s15) similarly, s4 also did not write often. according to her, writing in english was difficult, so she was not fond of writing in english. she informed: e18: “i don‟t write in english often, because i don‟t really like it. english is difficult, so i have to think hard when i try to write. i often forget the words that i want to write. it is also difficult to translate indonesian into english”. (s4) hence, the lack of writing practice made the students struggle to use cohesive devices properly. the researchers found it difficult to read their essays due to the incoherency of the use of these devices and grammar problems. meanwhile, there should be a correlation between the use of cohesive devices and the readability of a text. in this case, ghasemi irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 73 (2013) asserted a connection between the use of cohesive devices and the quality of writing. it means that the inappropriate use of cohesive devices by the students could potentially obstruct their achievement in developing their writing skills. based on the students‟ reasons, it seemed that learning how to use cohesive devices properly takes time and practice. indeed, dastjerdi and samian (2011) noted that learning to write efficiently is a long process; thus, it requires much practice and sometimes explicit and formal instruction. these acehnese students are not alone in the struggle. it was common for efl learners to face the same difficulties. according to shokrpour and fallahzadeh (2007), efl learners tend to find cohesion and coherence to be the most problematic factors influencing their writing tasks. furthermore, nugraheni (2016) stated it was common for non-native speakers to face a problem regarding using cohesive devices in writing english essays. due to this matter, rassouli and abbasvandi (2013) stated that english learners should study more about establishing clear relations between sentences and connecting the statements in a text. in addition, adiantika (2015) argued that students need to be encouraged to make sure their text flows through a sequence of sentences. in this case, dastjerdi and samian (2011) believe that when students cannot acquire the skills to write their ideas into a coherent text, their writing process is quite tricky and effortful. conclusion this research sets out to find the types of cohesive devices in efl students in aceh, indonesia, on recount text composition and identify the types that were problematic to them. the investigation into the types of devices has shown that all five types of cohesive devices (reference, conjunction, lexical cohesion, ellipsis, substitution) were present in students‟ texts. the finding on the problematic device type revealed that students struggled the most with conjunction, followed by reference and lexical cohesion. the error causes that were cited during the interview with selected students were pure error/slips, lack of knowledge, overuse of devices, and lack of writing practices. hence, considering these findings, it is paramount that english teachers pay serious attention to the use of cohesive devices in students‟ writing and not ignore the errors made by students when using these devices. particular attention should be made to the devices where they make the most errors and guide them to their correct use. it is also essential to provide more writing opportunities for them, especially an emphasis on practicing the right and appropriate use of cohesive devices. the findings in this research are subject to at least three limitations. first, the small samples mean the result cannot be generalized to a broader population, especially efl countries. second, only one type of text (recount) was used in this research. it limits the interpretation of the findings to this topic only. finally, the student participants were those living in residential schools where established/regular interaction in english is in place. therefore, the results do not represent students who go to public schools with limited english-speaking opportunities among peers. furthermore, further research could include non-residential school students, investigate the use of cohesive devices in other text types, and even investigate spoken english (students‟ utterances, conversations, and speeches). irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 74 declaration of conflicting interests the authors declared no potential conflicts of interest. references adiantika, h. n. 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(2020). a correlation among writing theory, motivation and writing practice of tridinanti university students. indonesian research journal in education, 4(1), 91-104. https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v4i1.8041 yang, w., & sun, y. (2012). the use of cohesive devices in argumentative writing by chinese efl learners at different proficiency levels. linguistics and education, 23(1), 31-48. yusuf, y. q., mustafa, f., & iqbal, r. m. (2021). an inquiry into grammatical errors in writing committed by high achieving efl students. international journal of language studies, 15(2), 1-22. biographical notes rita zahara completed her master‟s degree in english education at universitas syiah kuala, banda aceh, indonesia prof. dr. yunisrina qismullah yusuf, s.pd, m.ling. is a professor in phonology at universitas syiah kuala, banda aceh, indonesia assoc. prof. dr. iskandar abdul samad, s.pd., ma. is a senior lecturer in english education at universitas syiah kuala, banda aceh, indonesia assoc. prof. dr. charanjit kaur swaran singh is a senior lecturer in language education at universiti pendidikan sultan idris, malaysia https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326950dp2901_3 https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v6i1.17528 https://doi.org/10.24815/siele.v8i3.19105 https://doi.org/10.24815/siele.v8i3.21149 this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 29 multilingualism, teaching, and learning foreign languages in present-day hungary judit navracsics 1 and claudia molnár 2 abstract hungary is a monolingual state in central eastern europe, where the hungarian language, as the official language, is spoken by the whole population, including persons belonging to national and linguistic minorities. on the territory of hungary, in the course of history, there have always lived representatives of other cultures and speakers of other languages. nevertheless, in terms of the ability of speaking more than one language, within the european union, hungary is left behind, according to the latest eurobarometer survey. in this paper we will highlight some of the facts and problems undermining real multilingualism in hungary. keywords multilingualism, hungary, hungarian language, linguistic minorities 1 institute for hungarian and applied linguistics, chair of multilingualism doctoral school and chair of pannon state language examination centre at the university of pannonia, hungary; navju@yahoo.co.uk 2 multilingualism doctoral school, the university of pannonia, hungary; claudia.molnar13@gmail.com irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 30 introduction the hungarian language is a language island in the middle of europe surrounded by germanic, neo-latin and slavic languages. in spite of its uniqueness, it has survived many centuries and even now the hungarian language has 15 million speakers worldwide. it may play different roles in its speakers’ lives; an l1, a heritage language, a language of the environment and a foreign language. hungarian is a nonindoeuropean language, and like other finnougric languages is agglutinative, which means word meanings are modified by adding different and multiple endings or suffixes to the words, rather than by using prepositions. it differs greatly from indoeuropean languages and thus is considered ‘unlearnable’ for most speakers of european languages. the modern hungarian language is written using an expanded latin alphabet, and has a phonemic orthography, which means the hungarian alphabet contains 44 letters, where there is a onetoone correspondence between phonemes and graphemes. hungarian has 14 vowel and 25 consonant phonemes. letters ‘w’, ‘q’, ‘x’ and ‘y’ that are used in loan words are not considered as parts of the hungarian phonemic inventory. for the sound [j] hungarian has two graphemes to represent phoneme /j/: ‘j’ and ‘ly’, which only applies to its orthography, not the pronunciation. in addition to the latin alphabet, hungarian uses several modified latin characters to represent the additional vowel sounds of the language. it has seven pairs of corresponding short and long vowels: a – á, e – é, i – í, o – ó, ö – ő, u – ú, ü – ű. some of these pairs show only quantitative differences in pronunciation varying only in their duration. however, pairs of a – á and e – é differ both qualitatively in closeness and quantitatively in length. their phonetic values do not totally correspond with one other; ‘e’ represents ɛ and ‘é’ represents eː; likewise, ‘a’ represents ɒ while ‘á’ represents aː (hegedűs, 2012). the hungarian writing system uses 9 diagraphs (consonant pairs read out as a single sound) which are regarded as single graphemes and always have the same corresponding phonemes during reading. letters c, s, z are used alone (t͡s, ʃ, z) or combined in diagraphs cs, sz, zs (t͡ʃ, s, ʒ), while y is used only in diagraphs ty, gy, ly, ny as a palatalization marker. diagraphs used in hungarian may contribute to reading problems in some cases. for instance, ‘cs’ is pronounced as ‘ch’ (as in much) and not c + s. it may seem that the hungarian orthography is not as simple as it is often described, while once the nearly one-to-one grapheme-phoneme correspondences are learned, even non-word reading becomes easy (csépe, 2006). hungary – a monolingual or multilingual state? although hungary is officially declared as a monolingual country, it has been a multilingual area ever since hungarians populated the region. several national communities have lived in the territory of hungary since the foundation of the state in 896 ad. slavic tribes lived in the carpathian basin when the hungarians settled here therefore the hungarian language has many loanwords of slavic origin. after the ottoman occupation in the 17 th -18 th centuries, the mass spontaneous migration and organized resettlement of people began and as a result of this, there are also many people of german origin. towards the end of the 19 th century, non-hungarian irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 31 nationalities living within the borders of the country constituted more than 50 per cent of the total population. figure 1. great hungary (before 1920) following the revision of the borders following world war i, this proportion changed significantly (fig. 1 and 2). some 33 percent of hungarians living in the carpathian basin (3.3 million people) found themselves outside the country’s borders and the number of minorities living within the borders declined, and today, the minorities make up some 10% of the population. figure 2. present-day hungary irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 32 national and linguistic minorities in hungary according to act lxxvii of 1993 of the rights of national and ethnic minorities, chapter 1, section 1, subsection (2), “all groups of people who have lived in the territory of the republic of hungary for at least one century, who represent a numerical minority in the country's population, whose members are hungarian citizens, who are distinguished from the rest of the population by their own languages, cultures, and traditions, who demonstrate a sense of belonging together that is aimed at preserving all of these and at expressing and protecting the interests of their historical communities that are national and ethnic minorities recognized as constituent components of the state”. altogether there are 13 ethnic and linguistic minorities; bulgarian, roma, greek, croatian, polish, german, armenian, romanian, ruthenian, serb, slovak, slovene and ukrainian ethnic groups, who live geographically scattered throughout the country, in around 1,500 settlements. at a national level, there are institutions that are responsible for the welfare of ethnic and linguistic minorities; research institute of ethnic and national minorities, parliamentary commissioner for national and ethnic minority rights and minorities’ self-governments. the minority act of 1993 requires respects for minorities, esteem for moral and historical values, and the consistent representation of the shared vital interests of the minorities. the hungarian state provides rights to national minorities to use their own mother tongue, to begin education in their own first languages, to run their own cultural institutions, and to keep their traditions, media and representation in the national assembly. the demographic data of ethnic groups in hungary the 20th century was critical for the linguistic and ethnic minorities living in hungary. on the one hand, in 1920, following world war i and as a result of the versailles treaty, the status quo changed by moving the borders of some countries. hungary lost two thirds of its territory, and many hungarians became citizens of a neighbouring country. on the other hand, after world war ii, people belonging to the german and slovak minorities were transported to germany and slovakia if they defined themselves as germans or slovaks. under such political circumstances, most people with a minority identity decided to deny their belonging to that national minority group, thus were allowed to stay in hungary. therefore the results of the censuses before 1980 were not reliable, hence we cannot present the data from before 1980. the 1980s was the final decade of the socialist era and the change of the regime occurred in 1989. since 1990, politics has changed tremendously with the apprearance of the multi-party system. table 1. changes in the population size of nationalities between 1980 and 2011 nationality 1980 1990 2001 2011 hungarians 10,579,898 10,222,529 9,416,045 (97.3%) 8,314,029 (78.2%) roma 6,404 142,683 190,046 (2.0%) 308,957 (3.6%) germans 11,310 30,824 62,233 (0.6%) 131,951 (1.6%) irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 33 slovaks 9,101 10,459 17,693 (0.2%) 29,647 (0.3%) croats 13,895 13,570 15,620 (0.2%) 23,561 (0.3%) romanians 8,874 10,740 7,995 (0.1%) 26,345 (0.3%) other nationalities 4,536 4,835 20,473 (0.6%) 31,723 (0.3%) foreign nationalities no data no data 16,081 (0.2%) 47,948 (0.5%) no answer no data no data 570,537 1,455,883 total 10,709,463 10,374,823 10,198,315 9,937,628 the new government started a new, open and accepting policy towards the national minorities living in hungary. studying table 1, it is apparent that the number of members belonging to national minorities, e.g. roma and germans, has risen drastically in the past 30 years. figure 3 shows the proportion of the 13 minorities, who claimed that their l1 is a minority language based on the number of their population in 2011. figure 3. l1 speaking minorities in hungary in 2011 the proportions are slightly different when they were asked about their national identity. figure 4 shows that there are more people identifying themselves culturally as members of a national minority than claiming that their l1 is a minority language. it also represents the politics of the 20 th century when the main idea was to assimilate the minority people into hungarian existence, both culturally and linguistically. thus, many people lost their minority l1 languages and became speakers of hungarian albeit preserving their cultural heritage, customs, and traditions. this led to a mostly monolingual hungary at the turn of the 20 th -21 st centuries. bulgarian 2% roma (romany, bea) 37% greek 1% croatian 9% polish 2% german 26% armenian 0% romanian 9% ruthenian 1% serbian 3% slovakian 7% slovenian 1% ukrainian 2% irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 34 figure 4. self-definition of minorities in 2011 what we can conclude from the previous century’s linguistic and cultural changes in hungary is that national and linguistic minorities have been assimilated to a great extent, though assimilation was peaceful, no force was used (apart from the traumas of the german and slovak minorities). we can also claim that national identity is influenced by the linguistic and social immediate environment and that language loss is greater than identity loss. even though minorities can cultivate their own cultures, traditions, and can run their own institutions, hungary has basically become a monolingual and monocultural country where language education has to be reshaped both for the minority people and for the majority, who need to speak at least two languages besides hungarian. minority people are losing their l1s as there is no education in their vernacular varieties; only the standard varieties of the minority languages in present hungary are available for the minority children at schools in hungary. language teaching in hungary hungarian schools provide foreign language teaching in general from the third grade, with some exceptions, where children can start learning a foreign language from the first grade. there are a number of types of schools which differ in the number of foreign language classes they offer a week, and there are also bilingual schools where subjects are taught in two languages: some in hungarian, others in the standard variety of the minority language. dual language schools were implemented at the end of the 1980s. they provide education in a high number of hours (usually 20 per week) taught in a world language (e.g. english, german, french, spanish), these subjects, in addition to the general language, are bulgarian 1% roma (romany, bea) 49% greek 1% croatian 4% polish 1% german 29% armenian 1% romanian 5% ruthenian 1% serbian 2% slovakian 5% slovenian 0% ukrainian 1% irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 35 often civilisation, biology, geography and history. however, clil (content language and integrated learning) classes are becoming more and more prominant, especially in the primary sector, with the instruction of physical education, music, maths and it also being offered in the foreign language and only the hungarian humanic related topics (the history of hungary, hungarian literature and language) are conducted in the hungarian language. these are elite schools which recruit students from all over the country and the standards are generally much higher than in standard of comprehensive schools. there have been debates lately about the usefulness of these schools. some politicians say the cost does not meet the benefit. however, the educational policy, according to which at least one langauge exam is required at university admission from 2016, justifies that both dual language and bilingual schools are required. students have the freedom to choose from among four foreign languages (english, german, french, chinese) according to the national curriculum of foreign languages. the number of hours spent learning a foreign language is normally three or four hours a week, which is identical to most of the eu countries’ practice. in addition, secondary schools can provide a ’zero’ year, which is a preparatory year with 20 hours of any given foreign language per week and only a minimal number of hours is devoted to basic mathematics, literature and history. this is a generous gesture from the ministry of education in order for the students to be able to fulfil the proficiency requirements, which is a2 – b1 level at the end of primary school and b2 at the end of secondary school, with the exception of dual language courses where the expectation can be as high as c1 level. in spite of all these steps and measurements, according to eurobarometer 2012 (special eurobarometer 386/ wave eb77.1 special eurobarometer), countries where respondents are least likely to be able to speak at least two foreign languages are portugal and hungary (13% in each), the uk (14%) and greece (15%). what is more, the proportion of respondents able to speak at least one foreign language has decreased in hungary (-7 points to 35%). the proportion of german speakers has dropped to 18%. at the same time, the proportion of respondents rating their skills level in english as ‘very good’ has increased to 21%. barriers to learning foreign languages were claimed to be the costs, although 87% of the respondents underlined that improving language skills should be a policy priority for the eu. the number of language exams in each language, especially in english, increased between 2003 and 2009 (table 2), at the same time, there is some decrease in each language, while spanish was increasing until 2011. this trend may continue as this year the government has implemented a policy offering one free language exam per person if someone successfully passes their language exam, she or he can claim back the exam fees from the state. this is another attemp to increase the number of foriegn language speakers in hungary and to improve the levels to which they speak the languages. table 2. number of language exams between 2003 and 2011 number of language exams, 2003–2012 2003 2006 2009 2011 english 88 062 111 240 114 739 111 768 irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 36 french 2 778 3 499 3 917 3 438 german 40 986 53 994 42 355 38 104 italian 1 937 2 170 2 136 1 877 russian 1 094 805 740 619 spanish 1 220 1 537 1 518 1 583 additionally, a positive change is that the proportion of people claiming that they do not speak foreign languages at all has dropped from 74% to 63% within four years (table 3), and at the same time, the number of those who speak one or two languages has increased. these changes will increase as multilingualism spreads throughout the world, and here in hungary. access to and the use of multimedia and language education policy means that the increasing numbers of children are exposed to many languages from an early age. in addition to the internet, hungarian television companies have bought a wide range of foreign channels and have allocated a number of hungarian television channels to now show films in the original language. this will, in time, give rise to qualitative distinctions of multilinguals in hungary and around the globe, as cenoz (2003) posits that bilinguals and multilinguals differ as to the nature of their experience in learning languages table 3. the proportion of people speaking (or not speaking) foreign languages in hungary in 2007 and 2011, according to eurobarometer while the language command of hungarians keeps increasing, their self-esteem is staying unchanged as can be seen in table 4. table 4. self-evaluation of level of foreign language proficiency of hungarians. 2007 2011 excellent 23% 23% good 28% 30% fair 48% 47% 2007 2011 do not speak any languages 74% 63% 1 language 18% 26% 2 languages 6% 9% 3 languages 1,3% 1,7% irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 37 real motivation for hungarians to learn a foreign language the increase in foreign investment in hungary has opened up many employment opportunities for those speaking the required languages and as hungarian is not spoken elsewhere in the world, hungarians are required to learn foreign languages in order to survive on the international stage. working for an international company is an attractive ambition for many hungarian graduates and with about 80 multinational companies in hungary housing 35,000 employees, offering work as part of an international team, while earning a competitive salary with attractive job conditions, in a friendly working atmosphere and the prospect of off-site training (abroad), competition for these positions, is extremely high. as is the tendency all over the world, english is seemingly the most important foreign language for most hungarian people. the commonsense stereotype that most people in hungary speak german as a foreign language appears to be fading away. this could be due to the working language of companies being english even in french, german or any other international company. rises in globalization have also impacted on an increase in migration; the european union offers educational and employment mobility programs in the form of erasmus, tempus (in hungary), and other similar international projects. additionally, more and more young people are moving abroad for both higher educational and employment purposes. according to ksh and seemig (managing migration and its effects in south-east europe), the statistics for the number of hungarian emigrants in 2016 are estimated to be around at 500,000 to 800,000. over the last six years, the rate of emigration has increased six fold. with this ebb, and flow of demographics comes multinational, and very often, multilingual relationships, often resulting in bilingual children. as hoffman states “dispersion of a language does not necessarily result in bior multilingualism.” (2000, p. 1). however, since hungary joined the eu in 2004, english has been a great promoter of the social, cultural, political, and economic developments of the country. the effects of multilingualism on hungarian language classrooms as multilingualism is currently very high on the efl platform, due to the growth of english as a lingua franca and globalization in terms of business, commerce and personal gain and, as previously mentioned, the language policy here in hungary implementing the requirement for foreign language exams for higher education and employment, often starting from a very young age, this results in an increased number of bilinguals. this drive has taken some of the joy out of language learning especially in the cases where learners are attempting to master more than one language at once and language teaching does not always take this phenomenon into consideration. at this point, it seems pertinent to define what is actually meant by bior multilingual persons in hungary; it is those “whose proficiency is native-like across both/all their languages and across the range of language skills”. in our context we most closely align with macnamara’s (1967) characterization of a bilingual as “anyone who possesses some proficiency in any one of the four language skills, in a language other than his/her mother tongue”. however, it would be desirable to accept the definition of grosjean’s (1992), according to which “the bilingual is a fully competent specific speaker-hearer who has developed competencies (in the two languages and possibly in a third system that is a irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 38 combination of the first two) to the extent required by his or her needs and those of the environment. the bilingual uses the two languages, separately or together, for different purposes, in different domains of life, with different people. because the needs and uses of the two languages are usually quite different, the bilingual is rarely equally or completely fluent in the two languages.” (grosjean, 1992, p. 55). if hungarians are to become more multilingual, they do so against the odds as the language of the home will primarily be hungarian plus another language if the family is multilingual, thus creating a ‘home language’, which more often than not will also result in codeswitching or mixing. there will then be the ‘school language(s)’, those children or adults are consciously learning and additionally there will be those who expose themselves to foreign languages (in the main english) through media channels. this results in a nation of language learners who are taught their foreign languages, albeit english, german or any others, from and often through hungarian and as if they are monolingual speakers learning their second language. there is little consideration in the language classroom and on the teacher training programs of adopting a more multilingual approach to language teaching. the primary problem with this is that as third language acquisition (tla) is more complex than sla “the process and product of acquiring a second language can potentially influence the acquisition of a third” (cenoz & jessner, 2000). therefore, if children are to be brought to a state of multilinguality through formal education, thus sequentially teachers and learners alike need to consider the impact of the other languages, albeit l1, l2 or l3 on one another (aronin ‎& singleton, 2012). as singleton & ryan (2004) points out, the success of formal instruction depends on “a range of factors; societal attitudes, the amount of exposure to additional language(s) involved, the appropriateness of the pedagogy and materials deployed, the competence and motivation of the teachers, and so on (p. 101 ).” taking into consideration, this phenomenon of simultaneous multilingual development where two or more languages are acquired from infancy and successive or sequential multilingual development (aronin ‎& singleton, 2012). further, schwab (2014) suggests a pluralingual approach, emphasizing an individual learner’s experience of language as its cultural context expands. she goes on to state that learners do not mentally compartmentalize these languages and cultures, however, “develop a communicative competence to which all knowledge and experience of language contributes and in which languages interrelate and interact (council of europe, 2001, p. 4).” in order to do this, teacher training programs need to demonstrate how teachers can incorporate teaching and learning materials, including a wide range of authentic language materials (especially for younger learners) and following didactic principles. additionally, teachers need to move away from following strict grammatical progression and begin to support the transfer of linguistic knowledge, of the additional languages, the language itself as well as the learning experience (through reflective learning). through increased learner training, the incorporation of language learning strategies and language comparisons could greatly improve and ease language learning, both inside the classroom and independently. common problems of teaching english in hungary and their impact on learning due to the above mentioned features of the hungarian language, there are many common errors that hungarian learners of english make; l1 interference and the continued irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 39 desire to translate is one of the most common. this habit has generally been formed over learners’ years of tuition as. in the main, hungarian language teachers still rely quite heavily on grammar translation, which was a very prominent method in language teaching until the introduction of communicative language methods in the 1970’s and their growth in popularity from the 1990’s. today, however, translation is re-establishing its place in the elt classroom and is now being used more to learn the language rather than to learn translation (duff, 1989). today, translation activities move between l1, l2 and l3, where appropriate, and back again (forward/back translation) and have clear communicative aims and real cognitive depth and increase motivation levels. another reason for embedded errors is often due to a lack of accuracy on the part of the teacher; before the change of political regime in hungary in 1989, english language learning materials were hard to come by and there was no access to the internet. therefore, many materials were produced ‘in house’ by teachers, among whom quite a few were trained as russian teachers, whereas under the new regime were now re-trained and re-positioned as english teachers which resulted in a number of teachers with limited language knowledge themselves. additionally, common errors develop and persist in the cases of bi/multilingual learners. with the language learning initiatives and policies in hungary today, many learners are learning two foreign languages, whether in tandem or closely following one another. primarily these are english and german, as either first or second foreign languages. however, italian and french are now becoming more popular. despite this there is little focus on multilingual approaches to teaching foreign languages; hungarian learners are taught as hungarian learners have always been taught. this is the general consensus. at the same time, we know that this in not effective as if, as is commonly accepted l1 has an impact on l2, then why has the concept of l2>l3 or l1>l3 or l3>l1 impact not been considered, particularly within training programs? as cook mentions l1 and l2 processing cannot be separated on a neurological level (1993, cited in herdina & jessner, 2002). these learner problems have seeped into the teacher training programs, insomuch as the pre service teacher’s own language proficiency, and still, to some extent, remain in the schools today. that said, the quality of elt in hungary is improving, primarily due to access to materials, increases in training opportunities and incentives for teachers continually develop their professional practice. general errors hungarian and english are orthographically different languages. in hungarian, there is a relatively fixed grapheme-phoneme correspondence, for hungarians it is relatively easy to learn how to read in hungarian. however, hungarian learners often have problems with reading and writing in english where this correspondence does not exist. typical word problems are: success, access, etc. which contain the ‘cc’ combination which is non-existent in hungarian. additionally, words containing q (queen), w (window), x (xylophone) and y (yellow/bendy), as these did not originally exist in hungarian meanwhile entered its alphabet through ‘borrowed’ words. error correction teachers often fear their students’ making errors as they feel that students might learn their mistakes. therefore teachers must ensure that everything students produce is irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 40 correct (naimi, 2015). it is now widely recognized that making errors is a natural aspect of the language learning process and should not be feared or avoided. in the hungarian classroom, error correction is often explicit and unfortunately in many cases damning, leading to lack of willingness to communicate by learners, thus reduced opportunities to practice and correct their errors, leading to a cycle of inherited, embedded errors. this situation is improving slowly in hungary with more, usually newly qualified, younger teachers, recognizing the ‘learner’ within themselves and creating more open, secure, communicative classrooms, which foster the sharing of errors through delayed open class feedback and supportive united correction. developing learner autonomy in the language classroom learner autonomy (la) in hungary is a relatively new concept with some not quite sure what it is all about, and perhaps in some respects hungary is not quite ready for the fully autonomous learner, in terms of the original concept of learners having control over their learning programs. however, hungarian language learners are more than ready to start taking responsibility for their own learning. we just need to show them how to do it and by getting language teachers in hungary on board is the first step forward. classes in hungary have always been very teacher centered and teacher led, which is not entirely conducive to developing learners’ autonomy. benson (2011, p. 17) stated that “learner autonomy has now been brought into the mainstream of research and practice within the field of language education and hungary has been making some real railroads in research into learner autonomy with a growing number of projects having been completed since 2005 and many are still underway.” one of the ways forward could be shift in the perception of what 21 st century language teaching and learning is and “whether the perception of learner autonomy that is promoted in language pedagogy is suitable for preparing students to perform successfully in the changed circumstances of the use of english (illés, 2012, p. 1).” further, this idea suggests an approach that shifts the attention to language use, where autonomy is developed through tasks and activities that engage learners on their own terms and allow them to effectively exploit their linguistic resource. it presents an alternative or additional view of la as being the ability to manage the flexibility and fluidity of the language and to engage with the differing uses of the language imposed by the context in which it is being used. all of these are hugely valid points, since, as previously mentioned, more and more hungarians are choosing to continue their higher education abroad or move away for work. unfortunately, much of the language teaching in hungary places a greater focus on preparing students for language exams rather than for real life language use. encouraging our learners to take some of the responsibility for their language learning themselves will greater ensure they are prepared for the language use they will require in the future. it is not until learners get to tertiary level of education that they are required to become autonomous and the secondary and primary schools do not prepare students for this. additionally, universities in hungary still favor lecturing and learners act as passive recipients and it is difficult to create a shift in their thinking when they enter the language classroom. learner autonomy is a prerequisite for lifelong learning; the development of these skills is a fundamental aspect of education. universities lecturers need to develop these skills through teacher support, modeling, and instructional practices that allow learners to take a more active role in their learning processes, while encouraging self-assessment. irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 41 there is also a greater emphasis required on developing learners’ abilities to exploit learning opportunities outside language classrooms through the use of traditional and computer-assisted learning resources. this means a greater need for the use of technology in the language classrooms and clear signposting by teachers, of the various language learning tools and opportunities available to students at different levels and for different purposes but, of course, this is very much dependent on access to resources within teaching establishments. language teaching in hungary is developing rapidly and as we can see la is gradually becoming part of that progression. by raising the awareness of the benefits of learner autonomy, in not too distant future our language classrooms will be places for both teachers and students to share their language and language learning experiences and be active language communities. conclusion during a time when english is taking over all other language learning and with expectations and an increase in measuring rapidly creeping higher and higher, where does that leave the teaching and learning of english in hungarian classrooms?. as language teaching and learning continues to evolve and develop in hungary, the idea of a more multilingual approach to teaching, through advanced training methods, taking into account that most learners, particularly in the secondary and tertiary sectors, are learning more than one foreign language and may, additionally be bior multilingual themselves (due to coming from minority backgrounds or the increase in international students and mixed nationality relationships) will become the norm. with this ,there will be a greater acceptance and understanding of the types of errors learners make and why they exist and more autonomous and confidence building learning environments should create classrooms learners feel able to make errors in, which they can learn, rather than fail from. this will enhance a development of self-esteem, confidence and self-evaluation of learners, which will gradually lower the anxiety level in the use of l2. eventually, hungarians will be willing to communicate with pleasure with speakers of other languages, inhibition will disappear, and the next eurobarometer survey will show much more positive results. teacher training programs in hungary need to recognize that ‘multilingualism is vibrant, dynamic and very much alive’ (figel 2005, cited in aronin & singleton, 2012), and in order to truly support our language learners, albeit in sla or tla, we must ensure we raise awareness of and support the acquisition and benefits of multilingualism. references aronin, l. & singleton, d. (2012). multilingualism. amsterdam: john benjamins. benson, p. (2011). teaching and researching autonomy. pearson. uk cenoz, j., & jessner, u. (2000). english in europe. the acquisition of a third language. multilingual matters, uk cenoz, j., huffiesen, b. and jessner, u. (2003). the multilingual lexicon. kluwer academic publishers. dordrecht. cook, v. (1993). linguistics and second language acquisition. macmillan, london. in herdina, p, & jessner, u. (2002). a dynamic model of multilingualism. multilingual matters ltd. irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 42 csépe, v. (2006). literacy acquisition and dyslexia in hungarian. in: joshi, r.m., and aaron, p.g. (eds) handbook of orthography and literacy. mahwah; london: lawrence erlbaum associates. duff, a. (1989). translation, oup. figel, j. (2005). multilingualism: a vibrant and dynamic idea in an enlarged e.u. in aronin, l., & singleton, d. (2012). multilingualism. amsterdam: john benjamins. grosjean, f. (1992). another view of bilingualism. in harris, r. (ed.). cognitive processing in bilinguals. amsterdam: north-holland. hegedűs, r. (2012). pons grammar practical and easy – hungarian. budapest: klett kiadó. herdina, p. and jessner, u. (2002). a dynamic model of multilingualism. multilingual matters ltd. hoffman, c. (2010). the spread of english and the growth of multilingualism with english in europe. illés, é. (2012). learner autonomy revisited. elt journal, 66(4). naimi, a. (2015). errors correction in foreign language teaching. the online journal of new horizons in education, 5 (3). schwab, s. (2014). a multilingual approach to language teaching. vuw, wellington. biographical note judit navracsics is head of institute for hungarian and applied linguistics, chair of multilingualism doctoral school and chair of pannon state language examination centre at the university of pannonia, hungary. her research fields are biand multilingual development in early childhood, the bilingual mental lexicon and bilingual processing. she wrote her phd thesis on early third language acquisition. recently she has been working on bilingual word recognition and sentence comprehension with eeg and psychophysical tests carried out among bilinguals and hungarian learners of english with different l2 proficiency levels. based on her scientific findings, she with her colleagues has developed a smart phone application ‘lystra’ for learners of english who prepare for b2 level language examination. she is the author of five books, 10 edited books and more than 80 articles and book chapters. she is also the main organizer of the summer school of psycholinguistics held each year in balatonalmádi, hungary. claudia molnár was born and raised in north london and moved to hungary. she did her initial celta training in 1998 and has been teaching efl/esol since then. she went on to study for delta, pgce and a master’s in education (tesol). she is currently studying for a phd in multilingualism through instruction with the main area of her research being developing confidence and learner autonomy in a teacher training context. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 72 measurement model of professional learning community: a malaysian teacher context mohd faiz mohd yaakob1 abstract the main purpose of the study was to develop an empirical empirically measurement model for professional learning community (plc) among teachers in malaysia primary schools. structural equation modelling (sem) utilizing amos version 22 was employed to develop the model. exploratory factor analysis (efa) was utilized to identify the underlying factors, whereas confirmatory factor analysis was employed to test the construct of the plc. the study involved 450 primary school teachers from 5 zones in malaysia represented by the states of kedah, selangor, johor, terengganu and sarawak. professional learning community model (plc) was found to be fit and reliable model with all fit statistics set well above the threshold level. the finding has also encouraged a fresh look at the implementation of plc program aimed at successful change in schools. the findings of the plc will also benefit educational practitioners in designing a teacher professional development. keywords education, educational administration, professional learning community, educational policy, structural equation modeling 1 faculty of management and economics, universiti pendidikan sultan idris, tg malim, malaysia; p20131001410@siswa.upsi.edu.my mailto:p20131001410@siswa.upsi.edu.my irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 73 introduction teachers are the agents of change for student achievement and school improvement. one strategic way to improving schools is fostering and promoting professional learning in which teachers develop their practice and build learning communities (ho, lee, & teng, 2016). educators can gathering and composed to help instructional activity inquire about that points and focuses at fruitful the nature of instructing readiness (vanderlinde & van braak, 2010). numerous researchers have conceptualized every one of these practices as plcs. meanwhile, malaysian continuous professional development (cpd) for teachers clearly stated the plc programme should be conducted in school to improve the quality and performance (ministry of education, 2014). indeed, plc is an initiative and trend to improve quality of teachers, student achievement, and professional development among developed country (chichibu, 2013; dufour & mattos, 2013; pektas, 2014). indeed, the idea of plc at first risen up out of the possibility of the teachers proficient group which can be followed back to the 1980s. later, another organizational feature, called organizational learning was added to the concept of a professional community, resulting in the coining of the term plc (senge, 1990). successful implementations of plcs enable schools to effectively address some of the problems that education in the twenty-first century faces. for instance, availability of effective professional learning communities is found to be a considerable driving force for building teacher and school capacity which is correlated with improved achievement for all students (youngs & king, 2001). meanwhile, through plcs, teachers are provided with an access to resources with the learning opportunities, which are necessary to restructure learning environments to meet the educational prerequisites of their increasingly diverse students. thus, there is not much knowledge regarding current status of plc and factors associated with its practices in malaysia primary school context. this study, therefore, aims to assess plc capability of malaysia primary schools and explore factors and create the model that explain plc model among malaysian primary teachers. literature review shirley hord’s (1997) model of plc is based into school improvement and school reform. her work with the creating communities of continuous inquiry and improvement (cccii) project, which began in the mid-1990’s, gave rise to learning more about promoting and nurturing learning communities (hord, 1997). hord also draws upon senge’s learning organization theory in her work with professional learning communities. according to hord, there are five scopes or dimensions of a professional learning community: i) supportive and shared leadership, ii) shared values and vision, iii) collective learning and application of learning, iv)supportive conditions, and v) shared practice. supportive and shared leadership the school reform and educational leadership literatures clearly identify the role and inspiration of the educational administrator on whether reform will occur in the school. it appears to be certain that changing a school association into a learning group should be possible just with the pioneers and the dynamic sustaining of the whole staff's change as a irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 74 group. thus, a look at the educational leader of a school whose staff is a professional learning community seems a good starting point for relating what these learning communities look like and how the educational administrator or principal accepts a collegial relationship with teachers. this new relationship produced amongst overseers and teachers prompts shared and collegial administration in the school, where all develop professionally and figure out how to see themselves as all playing on a similar group and utilized toward a similar objective: a superior school (hoer, 1996; hord, 1997). shared values and vision vision is a trite term these days, and at many times it refers to mission, purpose, goals, objectives, or a paper sheet posted near the principal’s office (isaacson & bamburg, 1992). sharing vision is not recently affirming with a smart thought; it is a particular mental picture of what is critical to an individual and to an organization. staff are urged not exclusively to be required in the method of building up a mutual vision, but to utilize that thought as a guidepost in leadership of educating and learning in the school (hord, 1997). collective learning and application of learning collective learning is form senge's paradigm shift was discovered by educators and shared in educational journals, the label became learning communities. in schools, the learning group is shown by people from various voting demographics, at all levels, cooperatively and constantly working and adapting together (hord, 1997; louis & kruse, 1995). supportive conditions supportive conditions control when and where and how the staff frequently comes together as a unit to do the learning, decision making, problem solving, and creative work that describe a professional learning community. there is two types of conditions are necessary for learning communities to create function productively: the physical or organizational setup and the human capacities of the people involved (hord, 1997; louis & kruse, 1995). shared practice shared practice is shared personal practice among colleagues. review of a teacher's behavior by colleagues is the norm in the professional learning community (louis & kruse, 1995). this activity is not evaluative but is part of the "peers helping peers" practice. such review is conducted frequently by teachers, who visit each other's classrooms to observe, script notes, and discuss their observations with the visited peer. the process is based on the desire for individual and community enhancement and is enabled by the mutual respect and trustworthiness of staff members (hord, 1997). methods a quantitative approach with a survey research design was chosen for this study because the intent is to ask narrow objective questions generating quantifiable data that can be analysed using statistics (cresswell, 2008). the target respondents are among all the irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 75 primary school teacher in malaysia. the samples were selected using the multistage cluster sampling techniques. the study involved 450 primary school teachers from five zone areas of malaysia represented by the states of kedah, selangor, johor, terengganu and sarawak. this sample saiz achieve the minimum sample saiz according to krejcie & morgan (krejcie & morgan, 1970). there is 112 (18.3%) from kedah, 163 (26.6%) from selangor, 114 (16.5%) from terengganu, 101 (18.6%) from johor and 122 (19.9%) from sarawak. the measurement instrument the instrument is adapt and modification from of the plca-r (olivier, hipp, & huffman, 2010). previous studies on the plca-r have gone through construct validity and have yielded satisfactory internal consistency for the subscales of the plca-r (olivier, hipp, & huffman, 2010). the adaption and modification questionnaire consists of 52 items and five subscales: shared and supportive leadership, shared values and vision, collective learning and application, shared personal practice, and supportive conditions. the questionnaire as shown as appendix. modelling professional learning community five distinct approaches were applied to ensure the development and modelling plc. first, the plc was initially peer reviewed by the teachers and supervisors after systematically literature review. second, ten face-to-face discussions with the expert including academician and practitioner. in fact, each subsequent instrument was constructed based on the preceding instrument. some of the items were modified and redrafted based on the outcome of each discussion so as to ensure their precision and clarity. third, a pilot study was conducted in order to assess the internal consistency reliability (cronbach’s alpha), and efa procedure to explore the factor. forth, a field study was conducted to run cfa, convergent validity and discriminant validity. finally, this model successfully developed through all of the procedure. normality prior to analysing the data, descriptive statistics were examined to check the normality of plc model. normally, the data should be conducted to investigate how the standard of the data collected so that the developing model suits the parametric technique in the future research. using skewness and kurtosis approach, our data is claimed to be highly significant indicating as normal data. each item is ranging between -2 to +2 (garson, 2012). table 1. multivariate normality variable min max skew c.r. kurtosis c.r. cd4 4.000 10.000 -.285 -2.468 1.338 5.796 cd7 4.000 10.000 -.290 -2.516 1.324 5.732 cd6 4.000 10.000 -.232 -2.009 .816 3.533 cd3 4.000 10.000 -.019 -.163 .354 1.531 cc7 4.000 10.000 .019 .164 .919 3.979 cc4 4.000 10.000 -.015 -.128 .210 .909 irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 76 variable min max skew c.r. kurtosis c.r. cc6 4.000 10.000 .003 .029 .602 2.608 cc5 4.000 10.000 -.321 -2.778 .842 3.644 cf2 4.000 10.000 -.231 -2.003 .435 1.882 cf1 4.000 10.000 -.441 -3.820 1.038 4.494 cf3 4.000 10.000 -.466 -4.039 1.468 6.355 cf4 2.000 10.000 -.679 -5.883 .391 1.695 cf5 2.000 10.000 -.696 -6.031 .839 3.631 cf6 2.000 10.000 -.692 -5.993 .582 2.520 ca6 2.000 10.000 -.280 -2.427 1.957 8.473 ca4 4.000 10.000 -.392 -3.391 1.368 5.924 ca9 4.000 10.000 -.221 -1.915 .800 3.464 ca1 4.000 10.000 -.892 -7.722 1.210 5.238 ca7 2.000 10.000 -.467 -4.044 1.594 6.902 ca5 4.000 10.000 -.475 -4.113 1.367 5.918 ca8 6.000 10.000 .083 .722 -.162 -.702 cb5 4.000 10.000 .118 1.024 -.054 -.235 cb6 4.000 10.000 -.010 -.090 .126 .547 cb9 6.000 10.000 .118 1.022 -.819 -3.545 cb8 6.000 10.000 -.020 -.173 -.793 -3.433 cb2 6.000 10.000 .166 1.440 -.764 -3.308 cb7 6.000 10.000 .346 2.995 -1.027 -4.446 cb4 4.000 10.000 .039 .337 -.059 -.257 cb3 4.000 10.000 -.017 -.150 -.262 -1.136 multivariate 474.695 114.905 convergent validity the convergent validity is the validation processes on measurement model. according to kline (2011), convergent validity is a set of items in one construct are inter-correlation, at least, moderate in magnitude and is measured through average variance extracted (ave) where the threshold is above >0.5 indicates a high convergent validity (fornell & larcker, 1981). factor loading of each item at ≥ 0.6 considered high convergent validity (hair et al., 2010). table 2 showed all the ave and factor loading achieved the minimum value for convergent validity. table 2. factor loading, ave, cr and √ave item factors factor loading (>0.6) ave( >0.5) cr(> 0.6) √ave ca1 supportive and shared leadership 0.715 0.720 0.959 0.848 ca2 0.813 irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 77 ca4 0.859 ca5 0.915 ca6 0.879 ca7 0.899 ca8 0.844 ca9 0.837 cb2 shared values and vision 0.866 0.757 0.965 0.870 cb3 0.906 cb4 0.896 cb5 0.906 cb6 0.819 cb7 0.891 cb8 0.8 cb9 0.808 cc4 collective learning and application of learning 0.795 0.697 0.902 0.824 cc5 0.793 cc6 0.894 cc7 0.852 cd3 shared practice 0.791 0.687 0.897 0.828 cd4 0.831 cd6 0.831 cd7 0.86 cf1 supportive condition 0.829 0.588 0.894 0.766 cf2 0.867 cf3 0.82 cf4 0.697 cf5 0.682 cf6 0.682 discriminant validity table 3 showed that the diagonal value (in bold) are higher than any other values in its row and column. thus, the discriminant validity for the plc constructs was achieved. the discriminant validity is to avoid any redundant items in the measurement model (zainudin, 2012). the items should not be related are in reality not related. it involves the relationship between a latent construct and other constructs of a similar nature. discriminant validity can be identified by comparing the variance shared by the average ave between these two constructs (bove, pervan, beatty, & shiu, 2009). table 3. discriminant validity supportive and shared leadership shared value and vision collective learning and application of learning shared practice supportive condition 0.848 0.66 0.870 irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 78 0.64 0.77 0.824 0.62 0.70 0.72 0.828 0.62 0.65 0.70 0.63 0.766 measurement model of the plc figure 1.1st order cfa figure 2. 2nd order cfa notes: svv: shared values and vision, ssl: supportive and shared leadership, sc: supportive condition, cla: collective learning and application of learning, sc: supportive condition fitness indexes in sem, there is several fitness indexes that reflect how fit is the model to the data at hand. however there is no agreement among researchers which fitness indexes to use. hair et al. (2010) and holmes-smith (2006) recommend the use of at least one fitness index irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 79 from each category of model fit. there are three model fit categories namely absolute fit, incremental fit, and parsimonious fit. the value of fitness indexes used in this study is the rmsea (absolute), cfi (relative), and pcfi (parsimonious) and this model was achieved the model indexes. table 4. model fitness indexes model fitness indexes findings rmsea < 0.1 0.073 cfi > 0.9 0.925 pcfi > 0.5 0.850 findings and discussion finally plc’s model successful developed empirically. the findings have explored and confirm factor structure of plc. it is revealed all dimensions of the plc, such as supportive and shared leadership, shared value and vision, collective learning and application of learning, shared practice and supportive condition in malaysian context. in reality, there are the challenges for plc implementation such as: 1) teachers’ workload, 2) ambiguity of plc processes and effectiveness, and 3) hierarchical work structure (hairon & dimmock, 2012). but with the suitable model, plc implementation should be structured and effective. factor supportive and shared leadership has their own capacity. supportive leadership is compulsory to create an atmosphere in which leadership capacity is developed for all community members. shared leadership capacity empowers all members of plc to share in the vision and mission of the school and make effective and real decisions that positively affect student learning and achievement. factor shared value and vision is connected by mission, focus, goals. a shared sense of the vision and goals of a learning community is assembled by its members, embedded in daily practice and visible to all. such vision, focus and goals are woven into the fabric of school and community life and are centred on the enhancement of student achievement, learning and growth. meanwhile, factor collective learning and application of learning is about collaborative relationships within the school community. there are centered on developing informed decision making and a knowledge base that positively influences practice. it emphasizes the cognitive processes that result from effective plcs and the significance of working collectively with curricular outcomes, instructional processes and the best practices. factor shared practice is about collaboration with colleagues and factor supportive conditions that are necessary in order to accept and embrace change within school communities are identified. this includes both logistical supports, such as scheduling and resources, and social and cognitive supports, such as opportunity, leadership and communication. professional learning communities have been held up as powerful structures for teachers’ continuing professional development. the factor shaped the plc’s model could guide the development of plcs within the context of school improvement initiatives. irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 80 conclusion initiating and sustaining the plc model concept requires hard work. a school staff must focus on learning rather than teaching, work collaboratively on matters related to learning, and hold its members accountable for the kind of results that fuel continual improvement. when educators work hard to implement these principles, their collective ability to help all students learn will improve. the study of these factors is important to clarify the strengths and weaknesses that should be considered by the authorities. this will facilitate the relevant parties to measure for improvement in the event of weaknesses and to promote in order to be expended and implemented. in conclusion, this model of plc will help in achieving the national vision and agenda of the national education policy. references bove, l.l., pervan, s.j., beatty, s.e., shiu, e. (2009). service worker role in encouraging customer organizational citizenship behaviors. journal of business research, 62(7), 698-705. chichibu, t. (2013). how japanese schools build a professional learning community by lesson study. international journal for lesson and learning studies, 2(1), 12–25. creswell, j. w. (2008). research design qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (2nd edition). new york: sage. cronbach, l. j. (1951). coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. psychometrika, 16(3), 297-334. dufour, r., & mattos, m. (2013). how do principals really improve schools ? educational leadership. fornell, c., & larcker, d.f. (1981). evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. journal of marketing research, 18 (1), 39-50. garson, g. d. (2012). testing statistical assumptions. blue book series, 1–52. retrieved from http://www.statisticalassociates.com/assumptions.pdf hairon, s., & dimmock, c. (2012) singapore schools and professional learning communities: teacher professional development and school leadership in an asian hierarchical system, educational review, 64 (4), 405-424, hair, j. f., back, w. c., babin, b. j., & rolph, e. a. (2010). multivariate data analysis (seventh.). prentice hall. ho, d., lee, m., & teng, y. (2016). exploring the relationship between school-level teacher qualifications and teachers’ perceptions of school-based professional learning community practices. teaching and teacher education, 54, 32–43. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2015.11.005 hoerr, t.r. (1996).collegiality: a new way to define instructional leadership. phi delta kappan, 77(5), 380-381. holmes-smith, h., coote, l., & cunningham, e. (2006). structural equation modelling: from the fundamentals to advanced topics. melbourne: school research, evaluation and measurement services. holmes-smith, p. (2001). introduction to structural equation modelling using lisreal. perth: acspri-winter training program. http://www.statisticalassociates.com/assumptions.pdf http://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2015.11.005 irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 81 hord, s. (1997). professional learning communities.communities of continous inquiry and improvement. texas: sedl. isaacson, n., & bamburg, j. (1992). can schools become learning organizations? educational leadership, 50(3), 42-44. jc nunnally, i. b. (1994). psychometric theory (3rd ed.). new york: mc graw hill inc. johnson, b., & christensen, i. (2008). educational research: quantitative, qualitative, and mixed approaches. thousand oaks, ca: sage publications. kaiser, h. (1974). an index of factorial simplicity. psychometric, 39(1), 31-36. kline, r. b. (2005). principles and practice of structural equation modelling (2nd ed.). new york, ny: guilford. kline, r. b. (2011). principles and practice of structural equation modelling (3rd ed.). new york: guilford press. krejcie, r. v., & morgan, d. w. (1970). determining sample size for research activities robert. educational and psychological measurement, 38(1), 607–610. louis, k.s., & kruse, s. d. (1995). professionalism and community: perspectives on reforming urban schools. thousand oaks,ca: corwin press.. meyers, l.s, gamst, g., & guarino, a.j. (2006). applied multivariate research: design and interpretation. sage publication: london. ministry of education. (2014). pembangunan profesionalisme berterusan. putrajaya. neuman, w. l. (2006). social research methods: qualitative and quantitative approaches (6th ed.). boston: pearson education inc. saunders, m., lewis, p., & thornhill, a. (2007). research methods for business students. london: pitman. senge, p. (1990). the fifth discipline: the art and practice of the learning organization. london,uk: doubleday. walker, j. (2009). creating space for professional learning. professional learning in early childhood settings. rotterdam: sense publishers. vanderlinde, r., & van braak, j. (2010). the gap between educational research and practice: views of teachers, school leaders, intermediaries and researchers. british educational research journal, 36(2), 299-316. youngs, p., & king, m. b. (2001). principal leadership for professional development to build school capacity. educational administration quarterly, 38(5), 643–670. zainudin hj awang. (2012). structural equation modelling using amos graphic. kuala lumpur: uitm press biographical note mohd faiz bin mohd yaakob is a ph.d in educational planning and policy graduated from universiti pendidikan sultan idris, malaysia. he was awarded the anugrah perkhidmatan cemerlang, an award for malaysian teachers. he presented international conferences and is very active in publishing his academic work in some international journals. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 120 making a rhombicosidodecahedron: mathematical thinking revisited özlem çeziktürk 1 , sinem i̇nce 2 , kübra karadeniz 3 , zülal kenar 4 , and gülay yalim 5 abstract a rhombicosidodecahedron (an archimedean solid with 30 square, 20 triangles, and 12 pentagon faces) was redeemed from 60 pieces by modular origami. this study used a qualitative research case study as it asked about how participants experienced this construction process of rhombicosidodecahedron. preservice primary mathematics teachers from a mathematics and art course were participants of the study. additionally, one student; the first student who came out with the totally symmetric and no damaged object was interviewed for the assembly process. mathematical thinking throughout the process was noted. student brought her/his previous experiences as much as specific aptıtudes. student took this project as a creative writing piece so that the process gone through similar phases as intro, progress, and artifact. deformations and sinking occurred but student investigated the specifics of the real mathematical object did it without a fault. to deal with problems occurred in the phases; students used a creative insight as using paperclips to attach modules and assembly of half spheres. two main processes; organizational and structural took place in the creative model formation and assembly. suggestions and future studies are also discussed. keywords mathematics and art, modular origami, rhombicosidodecahedron 1. *corresponding author: department of mathematic education, ataturk faculty of education, marmara university, istanbul, turkey; ozlem.cezikturk@marmara.edu.tr 2. department of mathematic education, marmara university, istanbul, turkey; sinemince@marmara.edu.tr 3. department of mathematic education, marmara university, istanbul, turkey; kubrakaradeniz44@gmail.com 4. department of mathematic education, marmara university, istanbul, turkey; zlal_10@hotmail.com 5. department of mathematic education, marmara university, istanbul, turkey; yalimgulay@gmail.com mailto:ozlem.cezikturk@marmara.edu.tr mailto:sinemince@marmara.edu.tr mailto:kubrakaradeniz44@gmail.com mailto:zlal_10@hotmail.com mailto:yalimgulay@gmail.com irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 121 introduction in 2017, turkish middle school math curriculum, art and aesthetics sensitivity as much as psychomotor abilities and concrete materials are emphasized. modular origami is a special type of origami in which the folder creates many identical units and then places the units to form a larger shape such as a platonic solid. here, the folder experiences a three dimensional mode of thinking (spatial reasoning), which is a much higher level of thinking (wenciker & flynn, 2004). modular origami helps generation of unique solutions and resultantly enhances the mathematical power of the students. through modular origami, teachers may increase learning through problem solving phenomenon. two things are enriched: procedural thinking and cooperative learning. identical pieces fit together so that a final shape is developed in a more spatial and creative way. wenciker and flynn (2004) name this stage as “elevated thinking” because students experience mathematics in a very different way, not only specific and simple shapes but also their relationships with each other geometrically are explored. it is a constructivist and student-centered activity for students in all ages. in modular origami mostly, what is challenging is the assembly of individual parts. meyer and meyer (1999) list strategies to develop mathematical thinking: procedural thinking, spatial manipulation, mathematical discourse through directions, diagrams, “talking” of mathematics, and hands–on and minds-on instructional practices. students learn from each other; even though there is a designated teacher. neatness is important. it helps the final piece to fit together much better and without any unwanted flaws. students explicitly use geometric terms and discover relationships in the action. the folding process frequently reveals certain symmetries. studying those helps in understanding symmetry concept in context. origami can act like an activity; open-ended, inter-connected, reflective of the epistemology of the mathematics that our students can experience. shimabuku (2010) points to the necessity of defining terms in modular origami for un-informed students. vertex is the corner of the origami where mostly three modules meet. an edge is either a module folded in half or two or more modules meet to build edges of polygons. face; is either stellated corners come out, or where polygons are positioned through the connection of two, three, four, five, or six modules making the corners of the polygons. a polyhedron is a 3-dimensional figure made up of polygons in the faces with straight edges. the word comes from two origins: hedron means “base” or “seat” and poly means “many.” august ferdinand mobius gave a description of polyhedra in 1865 with two specialties (krishnan, 2002): (1) the sides of exactly two polygons meet at every edge and (2) it is possible to travel from the interior of one polygon to interior of any other without passing through a vertex. while naming polyhedra –hedronis the greek word meaning “base” or “seat” and the preceding word stands for the number of faces that each solid has. from a couple of classifications, platon named five polyhedra. there are 5 platonic solids: cube (uniform 6 square faces), tetrahedron (uniform 4 equilateral faces), octahedron (uniform 8 equilateral faces), and dodecahedron (12 pentagon faces), and icosahedron (uniform 20 triangle faces) (krishnan, 2002). platonic solids are convex polyhedra with each face congruent while on the other hand, archimedean solids are convex figures that can be made up of two or more types of regular polygons. a rhombicosidodecahedron is counted as an archimedean solid by kepler. the rhombicosidodecahedron is also known as the irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 122 small rhombicosidodecahedron. it is a uniform polyhedron with 20 triangles, 30 square, and 12 pentagon faces (eusebeia, 2014). hence, it has 62 faces altogether (figure 1). one important feature of a polyhedron is its number of vertexes, edges, and faces. descartes-euler formula stands for v+f-e=2 (pearce, 2010). here v stands for number of vertexes, f is for number of faces and e is for edges. most of the polyhedrons suits to this formula though, there are some which does not. if we check whether rhombicosidodecahedron suits to this formula or not, we see that 60+62-120=2, hence it is applicable. in the book of simon, arnstein, and gurkewitz (1999), rhombicosidodecahedron is assembled from a module called gyrescope module (figure 2). it is made of 60 modules. each module consists of two square positioned on 45-degree rotation of the other. in each square, diagonals and middle creases are made. in the 2nd stage of the module construction, one square is folded into squares of 1/4th of the first square. and the other square is folded into two triangles of again ¼ th of the first square. in the 3rd stage of the module, these two pieces are folded one in the other. in this stage, also down parts are folded inside. in the fourth stage, assembly is so that each module is part of a one 3-sided ring, one 5-sided ring, and two 4-sided rings. its vertex description is seen as (3, 4, 5, 4) in some books (figure 3). bell (1986) comments on freudenthal’s (1905-1990) “didactical phenomenology” through stating that the aim is the constitution of the mental objects in relation with the concept and its context. bell (1986) states that freudenthal (1905-1990) points to not only the places of objects but also the places of perceivers both in mutual physical and mental relations. yes, the start is the object but it follows with more abstract properties of the objectplane, direction, perspective, polygons, circles (rings), surfaces of revolution etc. in that fashion, it should be the basis of the curriculum (bell, 1986). by talking about the object, students become aware of the final output more deeply. its presence is felt and its transformation into the mental arena follows through (brookes, 1986). freudenthal’s (1905-1990) mission is building the strong theory behind as brookes (1986) points out. here, conception is a two-sided coin from abstract into concrete and from concrete into abstract (roth & thom, 2009). conception flourishes as unintended but as a result of bodily experiences. there is web of relations between the experience of the object and the conception of the object. we even learn from others’ touching and manipulating the objects if we are aware of the fact. conceptions also activate prior experiences (roth & thom, 2009). in the literature, there are many examples of constructing modular origami pieces however there are not many studies on asking how students experience this process mathematically. in this study, we studied one special student and her experience with the construction of rhombicosidodecahedron from modular origami modules of simon et al. (1999). in our study, the following questions aroused from semi-constructed interviews on possible mathematical thinking emerging out of the construction of rhombicosidodecahedron from 60 gyrescope origami modules: (1) how does mathematical thinking emerge in constructing mathematical object with modular origami? (2) how does previous learning affect the construction of math models with modular origami? (3) how do the different assembly techniques flourish through construction process? (4) how is the module formation affected by math thinking? irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 123 here from these questions, 2, 3, and 4 came out of the findings. first question was aimed by the study at the beginning. transcriptions with student gave insight on answers of 2, 3, and 4. literature review origami models of mathematical objects pope (2002) identifies origami as a way to teach problem solving to middle school students. by giving them a math origami object, they can be asked to discover how to make it. then, they can share their experiences with their peers. this practical experience develops visualization and ability to deal with geometrical properties. they may gain insight as they reflect on the mathematics they had used. figure 1. vertex centered view of a rhombicosdidodecahedron by mathematica software . arıcı and aslan-tutak (2015) investigated if origami-based instruction has an effect on spatial visualization, geometry achievement, and geometric reasoning. their experiment included 184 students divided into control and experiment groups. they gathered data on spatial visualization test of ekstroum, french, herman, and derman (1976). and data on geometry achievement and geometric reasoning came from tests they developed. results indicated that origami-based instruction significantly affected all. they point to the use of manipulative to foster geometrical understanding (clements & battista, 1992 cited in arıcı & aslan-tutak, 2015). manipulative achieves this by transitioning from empirical to abstract thinking. this finally enhances geometrical reasoning and spatial visualization. olkun (2003, cited in arıcı & aslan-tutak, 2015) argues that spatial ability is mainly on mentally manipulating things and their components. for example, through origami it is supposed that students can visualize certain geometric concepts and relationships by making constructions with paper (olkun, 2003). and then, these origami pieces can act like manipulative. irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 124 figure 2. example rhombicosidodecahedron by simon, arnstein & gurkewitz figure 3. construction of gyrescope module from simon, arnstein & gurkewitz (1999) coloring is a problem stated by pearce (2010) so that some coloring conditions produce spectacular models. for this two things need to be considered: 1) no two modules of the same color are joined 2) the distribution of colors over the model is symmetric or regular in some sense. these conditions give a rise to the questions in graph theory. a module can be thought of an edge with the help of an ad-joint module. a module also can be a vertex where three modules meet. çakmak et al. (2013) studied the effect of origami-based instruction on spatial ability. they founded positive significant effect. they also have seen positive opinions of students regarding origami use in the classroom. they irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 125 created geometric shapes and transform paper from 2-d into 3-d. origami models provide experience in spatial reasoning. also students’ visualization skills could be developed through active exploration with physical models. they have searched for if there is any difference with respect to different grades and they have found no difference with respect to grade. treatment longed for 10 weeks. it looked for pretty much origami-based instruction inside a classroom other than origami courses. they found that students were given an opportunity to learn the mathematical concepts through paper folding. flourishing concepts were triangle, square, rectangle, angles, diagonal, pentagon, trapezoid, sides, quadrilateral, symmetry, hexagon, parallelogram, geometrical object, fractions, rhombus, deltoid, area, length, line and rotation. cognitive skills are used as well. also, they develop psychomotor skills, improve imagination, creativity, intelligence, make them feel relaxed (levenson, 1995; tuğrul & kavici, 2002) . in the study, there was no control group. also, çakmak (2009) studied 38 4-6 th graders in her dissertation to see the effect of origami based instruction on spatial ability (spatial visualization and spatial orientation). students also gave reflection papers related to origami-based instruction in order to examine their perceptions. the origami pieces were crane, jumping frog, magic star, water bomb, fish and hat, spinner, cube, box, heart and star box. gür and kobak-demir (2017) studied qualitatively, with 18 secondary pre-service math teachers. they used semi-structured interviews and 3-d tangible materials. robichaux and rodrigue (2003, cited in gür & kobak-demir, 2017) identified origami helpful for math problem solving abilities via a case evaluation method. they have carried the study for 14 weeks. by triangulation, the results indicated that origami improves geometry success and geometric reasoning ability. sze (2005) saw origami as an entry point to mathematical discourse. the idea of perspective becomes an important point of discussion. teachers can also discuss the viewing angle of the audience. in geometry of paper folding, a straight line becomes a crease or a fold. folding paper is analogues to mirroring one half of a plane in a crease, thus folding means both drawing a crease and mapping one-half of a plane onto another. this procedure can be named as finding symmetry as well. it also facilitates higher order thinking opposed to belief in general. higher order thinking is developed by asking beforehand what will be made, asking to visualize in mind, encourage generalizations on the effects of folds, asking and keeping track of symmetries in models while folding. here neatness, accuracy, and precisions become highly important. these can be achieved by soft fold and sharper crease after being sure. matsubara and celani ((2007) gave examples of physicians and engineers for origami as structural applications of it as the fold as a structural edge, which gives rigidity without creating excessive weight. other kinds of mortises for the same types of modules apply. here, the difficulties lie exactly in the mortises. two kinds of symmetry groups as bi-dimensional symmetry groups and 3-d symmetry groups are listed. former includes frieze patters, wallpaper cyclic and dihedral groups while latter includes crystallographic structures as of kusudama. budinski (2016) studied faces of the polyhedral, and consequently, polygons of which the polyhedron faces are made. the faces meet along their edges; the edges meet at the vertices which are the point each vertex of the platonic solid has the same number of meeting faces. surface area of a tetrahedron (√2) a 2 , of an octahedron (2√3) a 2 , of an icosahedron (5√3) a 2 . here a stands for the edge of the smallest face building unit. total area finding irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 126 could act like an origami project that could be experienced by whole class. thinking of the flexibility and compactness of origami structures, this is not a surprising fact. even in space research some sun energy panels reflect the structure of origami since origami preserves space and valuable material. resultantly, a new kind of cell phones may include some origami reflecting structures so that they become more flexible at hand and in pockets and they hold a smaller space. mathematical thinking in the middle school mathematics curriculum, meb (2013) listed mathematics thinking one of the musts of the curriculum. it is assumed that to think mathematically, in the 2013 and in 2017, 5-8 curriculum, use of mathematical terminology for explaining and sharing mathematical thinking is thought to be ability all students must have (meb, 2017). stacey (2006) saw schooling as the main aim and way of mathematics learning. as her perspective, mathematical thinking covers investigation of examples, generalizing, deducing relational facts, and explains reasons systematically (stacey, 2006). a mathematicians’ mathematical thinking is a long process as can be seen and understood from this definition. modeling and building functional relationships may be a way to experience what mathematician study (stacey, 2006). some other researchers widen the definition of the mathematical thinking as guessing, induction, deduction, descriptions, generalizing, giving examples, reasoning with or without figures, correcting, perception, representational modes, pattern identification (alkan & bukova-güzel, 2005; ersoy & güner, 2014;, schoenfeld, 1992; yıldırım, 2015). it may even include, understanding problems, abstract thinking, numerical thinking, mathematical modeling, looking for certainty and pattern, evaluation of arguments, building hypotheses, and testing them (alkan & bukova-güzel, 2005; kahramaner & kahramaner, 2002; wares, 2016). ultimate product may become important. analysis with graphics, and figures may help understanding the structure and relations within (schoenfeld, 1992; yıldırım, 2015). stacey (2006) points to teachers’ mathematical thinking education to foster mathematical thinking in students. from many methods to teach mathematical thinking, tataroğlu-taşdan et al. (2013) stress discovery learning, problem solving, mathematization and constructive learning. it should be thought as a dynamic process rather than a static one (henningsen & stein, 1997; tataroğlu-taşdan, 2013). there may be some faults in processes, underlying meaning may be surpassed and this may cause in hindering mechanical reasoning. sometimes, the process may not be as systematic as intended. most importantly, mathematical focus point could be missed. sometimes, the task or the question may not be suitable for the student. or the time may be less than needed. thinking generators of the task should be carefully detected and used. in all these problems, teacher should be a fighter, not the student. fraivillig, murphy, and fuson’un (1999) state that teachers mostly favor mathematical thinking but they act inadequately in flourishing and expanding it. since, mathematical thinking is a deep concept; case studies are a must in identifying and investigating it. origami is stated in terms of instructions in internet so that it is open to more in-depth research studies on mathematical thinking and origami. for every stage in irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 127 education, it becomes a thinking tool. mathematical thinking emerges in following stages: preparation of model, in module construction, in assembly, and in artifact. methodology rationale to deal with the extremities, qualitative research design ideas help. sooner or later all students came up with a finished product. but some came with symmetry problems; some came with deformations and sinks. qualitative research points the most and the least. here, the student who came up with a correct artifact was interviewed under the case study approach. interviews are good for investigating procedures. here the construction process was analyzed from student’ sayings. this study used a case study approach. a case study deals with specific cases, situations, person’s experience with the topic. we used yin’s (2014) and merriam’s (1998) approach to case study. in yin’s approach (2014), an empirical inquiry investigates a contemporary phenomenon (the case) in depth and within its real-world context. in merriam’s (1998) approach, an intensive, holistic description and analysis of a bounded phenomenon such as a program, an institution, a person, a process, or a social unit. here, a holistic analysis of the experience of a student with building a modular rhombicosidodecahedron origami was aimed. student was special since she was the first student who came with a correct and flawless model in the given time frame. the modules of the structure were well formed, colors, and the shape of the mathematical object was structurally correct. case study is a bounded study since there is no chance to generalize the findings but in itself this kind of study gives a full description of the case whether it is a program, or a person or a situation. interviews help in getting the story behind a participant’s experiences. the interviewer can pursue in-depth information around the topic (mcnamara, 1999). data generation and collection in the course, students studied foundations of origami, mathematical explorations with origami as of modules from square and rectangle papers, investigated area divisions and how they can be demonstrated via origami and origami theories. they were able to fold platonic solids from sonobe modules. as one final work, they would form rhombicosidodecahedron from 60 sunkated gyrescope modules. modules consisted two squares put on top of each other by 45 degrees’ rotational transformation (figure 3). from the formed octahedron, modules were bounded into each other by 4-3-4-5 rule. the mathematical object formed has 62 faces (20 triangle-30 square and 12 pentagon). its symmetry group is listed under ih, h3, [5, 3], (+532), order 120 and listed under archimedean solids. the name comes from 30 square faces lie in the same plane as of rhombic triacontahedron which is dual to icosidodecahedron. through partially constructed interview questions, student felt free in answering main questions, then researcher posed follow up or probe questions to detail the information student stated. it is important that the researcher should describe the essential features of the case; nothing more and nothing less irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 128 (abakpa et al., 2017). we have started with a mathematical object but we did not know we would come up with such innovative assembly techniques as used (using paper clips and half spheres). information rich cases should be driven. in our case, the student was with highly rich background even though we were unaware of. for quality assurance, trustworthiness in qualitative research is tested through four corners: credibility, transferability, conformity and dependability. credibility answers if the findings are true and accurate, transferability looks for applicability to other contexts, circumstances, and situations. conformity is the degree of neutrality and dependability is for the extent the study could be repeated by other researchers with the consistency. confidentiality was assured via not using names or identifying any other information such as gender. we have showed our curiosity regarding what we might not know, hence the subject felt freely to express himself or herself (chan, fung, & chien, 2013, cited in abakpa et al., 2017). case study assures connections between a mathematical concept, in our case; rhombicosidodecahedron, and the complex world in the form of architectural background etc. in this study, it is researched if a highly complex mathematical object developed by many modules could produce a sparkle to withhold meaningful mathematical agenda in the minds of the students. for this reason, a class of students built and origami model of a rhombicosidodecahedron by 60 sunkated modules of simon et al. (1999). from this class of students, the first student who mentioned that she got the piece right was interviewed and the conversation was taped. the interview was a semi-structured interview. hence, the researcher somehow leaded the conversation to detect the answers about the construction process, even though there were some questions to begin with as what did you feel?, what kinds of problems occur?, what could be your suggestions to other origamists? by this project, we asked undergraduate math teachers to search for the mathematical relationships underlying the module while developing the mathematical object. their answers were collected for lines of mathematical thinking in their writings as their answers to the origami question. the artifacts they made were photographed from many dimensions. mixed methods research established the study. number of students was 62 students. these students never made an origami piece that big by themselves before. although some students’ symmetric insight did not help to the formation of the origami piece, some of them did a marveling job. for this project, we only reported the interview results that we obtained with the best student who made rhombicosidodecahedron in the meantime. as the requirements of the “mathematics and origami” course for undergraduate mathematics education majors, students made a rhombicosidodecahedron from 60 sunkated gyrescope modules, named and developed by simon et al. (1999). participants participants’ characteristics: participants of the study were from one of the top three public universities in istanbul. student profile is in the first % 1. some of them took the course mathematics and art. in math and art course, two weeks in 14 weeks are allocated for origami and modular origami students. students first learn basic folds and very simple module called sonobe. they learn to make five platonic solids from sonobe modules. study group was spring semester third year pre-school primary math teachers taking the course irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 129 “math and origami”. data was obtained after students returned back their homework’s photos. a rhombicosidodecahedron by modular origami. the module was gyroscope module created by simon, arnstein, and gurkewitz (1999). all students send photos of the models. the first student who sent her model photo as early as possible and correct in symmetry, vision etc. was called for interview. interview took place in the office of the instructor. all interview was audio-taped and then transcribed line by line. partially constructed interview took place. in other words, some questions were pre-decided. some were follow-ups and probe questions that flourished during the interview. student was open to share her/ his experience without hesitance. sayings were neither judged nor criticized. those were only reported. and she was told so. some interview questions are; “what kind of problems emerged during the assembly process?”, “how can you explain the process of construction?”, “what would be your suggestions to your classmates who still work on these?” etc. it is hoped that similar type of research could be carried by other researchers as well. degree of neutrality (conformity) was ensured by inter-judge reliability. transcriptions were read by four experts and the themes were decided by them succinctly. this may ensure dependability. in turkey, recently there are at least three undergraduate courses in different universities as math and origami course. it is possible to create the model rhombicosidodecahedron by required support and help in all levels. because, the module instructions are fairly easy to follow. assembly could be a problem but teacher guidance could solve this specific problem. figure 4. an example rhombicosidodecahedron made by students irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 130 figure 5. perspective makes differences on what you see figure 4 and figure 5 show some different examples of rhombicosidodecahedron constructed by mathematics and origami course students. here it can be seen that, photos focus on some features and not show others. for example, figure 4 and figure 5 on the right balls show five rings but figure 5 shows 3 ring instead. the size is related to the size of the module square. all three are different examples. and here all examples were chosen for their representing ability of the rhombicosidodecahedron. hence, these example balls do not include any sinks, deformations or any symmetry problems. a 3 ring is associated with a triangle face, and 4-ring is associated to a square face and a 5–ring is associated to a pentagon face. in these examples the role of the color may be seen in different photos succinctly (figures 3, 4, 5, 6, 7). figure 6. colors may point 5 rings irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 131 figure 7. colors may produce harmony as choices in the following semester, we asked our students to build a hexadecahedron (an egg) by triangular gyrescope module and this time there were two 4 loops in top and bottom and all other loops were either five loop or six loop. we could not talk of the symmetry of this piece in the same way we talked of the rhombicosidodecahedron. findings terminology emerging it is thought that following emerging terminology is an example of the mathematical thinking formation. student first used her daily life wordings to explain what was going on in the model. throughout the study, new terms are needed to be defined: sinking, asymmetry, deformation and ring. sinking: happened due to either lacking modules in the system or gravity. it was some “u” shaped connections where the system had some problem. asymmetry: the system; rhombicosidodecahedron is a full symmetric solid i.e. it has a ball shaped structure with 3-4-5-4 module construction structure. each vertex had either a connection with a 3 ring, or with a four ring or with a five ring. deformation: it aroused due to repeated use and touch to paper and modules. paper became either soft as a tissue or leaving some spaces in between while in the assembly process. irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 132 concepts used in explaining the model then student tried to use the wording she already knows from mathematical background of hers. these words were much more like concepts from mathematics courses that she took. taped interviews were transcribed. first, mathematical concepts used by interviewee were listed. some of these concepts were identified as daily life wording: round, emptiness, likeness, form, scale, flat. some of these concepts were definitely mathematical: corner, triangle, square, cm, proportion, length, number, article, object, perspective, module, 45 degrees, angle, division, constant proportion, calculation, symmetry, multiple, half sphere, point, whole, quadrilateral, pentagon, 1 day, 10 hours, origami, and standard. here, even though it was hypothesized that more of the daily life mathematical wording would be used and less of the formal mathematical wording. the result conflicted with this guess. this could be due to the fact that the student was a third year mathematics education major and since she was talking to her professor, she felt like using formal mathematics more. but also, this could be explained by student’s feeling of more mathematized than she would be in her normal life. also, instructions of the modular origami, professors’ usage of the more formal mathematical concepts could trigger this result. from these listed concepts, most of them are basic geometrical concepts (e. g., square, quadrilateral, angle, point, etc.), some of them were basic arithmetic (division, multiple, calculation, etc.), some were on algebraic relationships (proportion, half sphere, whole, number, etc.) and finally some were measurement concepts (length, hour, 45 degrees, etc.). hence, by constructing a rhombicosidodecahedron, students’ mathematical concept formation and usage was uplifted. emerging themes from construction process here, the student tried to explain the assembly process of the model from the particular modules. as she was having some confusion on how to explain the construction process, she tried to make use of her special background on architecture. from transcriptions, emerging themes were identified. following themes were found to be hidden: 1) building a round object s: “since we build a round object from left to right, from all faces…” s: “while doing artifact, i have found that it was not hard to build a round object going from a small unit to bigger unit” 2) bringing out all modules s: “while gluing small units’ unsuitableness occurs.” s: “we decided all colors, measures of squares by ourselves. you set us free.” 3) sinking s: “since it is done by paper some sinking happens unwillingly” s: “from the first point till i bring it to you, certainly some damages will flourish” irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 133 s: “some sinking occurs resultantly; modules should be that small” 4) aptitude s: “at the beginning, i did not think i have the aptitude of handy-crafts” 5) experience (architecture) s: “i attend to architecture in university for 1.5 year. it might have helped me in doing this” 6) mathematical rules (perspective, similarity, proportion, symmetry, mathematical object etc.) s: “it was supposed to be a totally symmetric object.” s: “one raw is from square rings, one from pentagon and one from triangle rings” 7) module integration techniques (paper clip, gluing, two half spheres etc.) s: “i built my squares first, from there, i made my figures. when you both glue and make, there happens a chaos in ones’ brain. hence, you must do it in order.” s: “with help of my friend, i made two half-spheres separately and then i brought them together.” 8) paper corrosion s: “while you are making a whole, unwillingly you may make errors. thinking if they were due to my mistakes or if they were due to gluing, took some time”. 9) artifact s: “if more receding object would come out, i would not use two half spheres” these themes were decided by a group of four researchers. after themes, it is decided if these themes fall into some categories as personal readiness, deformation, construction or mathematics and product. mathematical thinking within the process then, we tried to analyze the mathematical thinking process from the construction process, we agreed upon the following structure. irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 134 table 1. the construction process intact personal readiness (4, 5) introduction deformation (3, 8) process construction (1, 2, 7) mathematics and product (6, 9) result personal readiness was where student mentioned about her architecture educational experience. she/he was architecture major in another university. she/he was educated there for one and a half year. then she/he said that she thought this major was not for her/him since it was asking for a lot of dreamy mind while she/he was much more a realist. but she/he said that her/his education as an architect could be a reason why she/he was the first to establish the rhombicosidodecahedron from the class of 60 students. it might have affected her/his creativity and her/his interest in such a kind of constructions. the researcher did not know her/his special status before contacting and interviewing her/him. even tough, one should be really careful about generalizing the facts coming out of qualitative research; we can infer some general results. we can say that previous learning affects and shapes the construction process since the student tries to build mental structure first by these previous learning sources (table 1). deformation and construction phases acted like a process part of the themes. we may call this stage as process underlying process. there were some problems of the construction as she faced while construction and assembly. for example, some collapses occurred due to gravity and paper’s deformation. same problem occurred in many students as can be seen from some example photos. it may be due to three main reasons: constructors’ fault or paper’s fault or as a problem occurring by the time passes. this object was totally symmetrical mathematical object hence; the correct piece would be without any collapses. however, many students brought examples with two of three collapses of the object. one was mostly due to construction without obeying the rules given by the simon et al. (1999) book. some were not aware of the properties of the mathematical object to begin with. some did the construction by trial and error, hence the paper lost its formation and some deformations occurred unwantedly. in some, problem was time since thin papers like hand craft papers were not suitable for a construction experience and at least an a4 paper or a cardboard paper was a necessity. some asked for peer help, and this turned into construct and rebuild phases one following each other. and this resultantly affected the wholeness of the object since it could be a reason of losing the way while working on little problems like those. 3-4-5-4 was a mathematical rule given by simon et al. (1999) paper. this was in parallel to the mathematical relationships of the rhombicosidodecahedron since it asked for two squares, one triangle and one pentagon in a ring of the module attached (table 1). as the final phase, the product (table 1) came out to think about. student thought mathematics of the object via the wholeness of the object together. hence, similarity, perspective, proportion brought the object as a correct whole. she/he certainly was aware of the physical properties of the mathematical object as 20 triangles, 30 square, and 12 irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 135 pentagon faces. in the vertex view (figure 1) one can see each vertex having corner of one triangle, two squares and one pentagon. in figure 6 it can be seen the vertex view of the rhombicosidodecahedron where triangle occurs as the petals of the flower in the middle and pentagon occurs at the middle and rectangles are hidden in left and right of the triangle due to paper construction. researchers named these themes as intro, progress and result since they thought that this worked for students as a creative writing piece. in the introduction, their readiness was highlighted by their experience with such origami and constructions, and their aptitude. in the progress phase, they have solved the problem of construction by paperclips, gluing and half spheres. student said that paper clips were highly helpful but problematic after the artifact since it could be a mess while clearing out those. half sphere, researchers thought as the most creative since it is not easy to do but object’s symmetrical value certainly helped it through. in case of modular origami most of the time, it is advised to add modules one at a time rather than three or more together. this is due to the fact that assembly of bigger modules done by little modules is hard to establish. figure 8. the concepts stressed in the creative process whole module proportion organization symmetr y similarity perspecti ve two half squares round rings quadrilateral pentagon triangle st ru c tu re o rg a n iz a ti o n a l so lu ti o n irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 136 discussion in figure 8, a concept map of the concepts focused on the explanation of the experience could be seen. the whole represents the rhombicosidodecahedron while module represents the unit of construction. left hand side of the map was in line with the organizational solution of the problem of construction. right hand side of the concept map was in line with the underlying structure of the rhombicosidodecahedron. similarity as much as proportion acts on the module to build the whole or in other words; rhombicosidodecahedron. similarity also acts on the organizational solution process as a piece placement tool. as can be seen from the concept map, each concept helps in building the mental model of the whole as freudenthal (1905-1990) suggests. total experience is based on the simultaneous processes of organizational and structural development of the whole mental model and vice versa real mathematical model. results of the study are parallel with the positive effects of the studies of origami instruction both as an aid and both as by itself (çakmak, 2009; çakmak et al., 2013; gür & kabak-demir, 2017). even tough, both formal and in-formal concepts are used by student’s thinking; there is evidence that their formal relations are favored by the processes of modular construction (figure 8). this is in the line of the mathematical thinking studies in the literature (alkan & bukova-guzel, 2005; kahramaner & kahramaner, 2002; tataroglu-tastan et al., 2013). it is also beneficial to look into the definition of the mathematical model to decide upon the formal mathematical concepts and their required relationships. mathematical thinking is itself a creative process if it happens naturally. each piece is sticked into the previous pieces as concept development one on top of the former ones, creation becomes a process situated in other structural processes (ersoy & güner, 2014; meyer & meyer, 1999; wares, 2016). using origami in instruction helps in student achievement as this study shows with even one student; hence it is required to imagine what kind of difference it makes to a class of students (arıcı & aslan-tutak, 2015; çakmak et al., 2013; meyer & meyer, 1999; pope, 2002; sze, 2005). last but not least, origami polyhedra construction with students helps in advanced mathematical thinking to develop through emerging mental models of 3-d, 4-d mathematical advanced concepts giving birth to many other concepts and processes in between. suggestions the study might be done again but this time the artifacts could be videotaped from different angles and if possible in 360-degree view. this may show possible deformations, collapses, and symmetrical flows more easily and without hesitation. a group of students could be selected as 3 from top points, 3 from most flowed ones, and 3 from intermediate students. this could give more information on all different types of students in the process. students could be asked to build the resultant object in certain colors and certain coloring techniques. then, they could see how coloring takes the specific role and how mathematical problems arise from coloring. students could be given a questionnaire regarding the process of construction and mathematization. studies on rme (realistic mathematics education) and mathematical mode origami could be fruitful. since, it suits to the perpendicular mathematization of rme. although, students in the following term were given an egg like shape (hexadecahedron) to construct from origami modules (triangle gyroscope module), irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 137 this series of research could be carried with many different mathematical objects. origamics (data not given in this study) should not be left aside since; its mathematical investigations part is so valuable. origami may ease visualization 3-d, 4-d visualization of mathematical solids could set project ideas for students at all ages. from simple cubes to egg shaped, torus shaped or rhombicosidodecahedron shaped solids could act as spatial visualization aid. students can be asked of which concepts/terms they use in explaining/defining/identifying mathematical solids. interconnectedness between different mathematical concepts, geometrical rules can be investigated from handson models. complex models can be used to trigger mathematical thinking. induction from first model to nth one and assembly of them; deduction from mathematical relations one can deduct from visual model, guessing of pattern in assembly, generalization and specialization in discovering modules for same models and using same modules to construct different mathematical solid models etc. direction of the study study may act as a starter of these kinds of process studies with math model building origami projects. use of origami can take a new role as trigger of mathematical thinking. origami models may promote part to whole relationships, spatial reasoning (in the form of rounding the object), similarities, proportional thinking, geometrical relationships of simple shapes, mathematization, etc. references alkan, h., & bukova-güzel, e. 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(2004). modular origami in the mathematics classroom. bridges conference proceedings, 293296. http://www.fec.unicamp.br/~lapac/papers/matsubara-celani-2007.pdf http://www.mapnp.org/library/evaluatn/interview http://math.sfsu.edu/cm2/papers/ashleyorigami.pdf https://www.researchgate.net/publication/254408829 https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ed490352.pdf http://digitalcommons.georgiasouthern.edu/stem/2016/2016/1 irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 140 yıldırım, c. (2015). matematiksel düşünme. i̇stanbul: remzi kitabevi. yin, r. (2014). case study research: design and methods. los angeles, ca: sage. biographical notes dr. özlem çeziktürk is assistant professor at department of mathematic education, ataturk faculty of education, marmara university, istanbul, turkey. interested in origami, mathematical thinking and reasoning, technology use, islamic geometrical pattern construction, dynamic geometry, mathlets, mathematics and art. email: ozlem.cezikturk@marmara.edu.tr sinem i̇nce has a master’s degree in mathematics education from the department of mathematic education, ataturk faculty of education, marmara university, istanbul, turkey. email: sinemince@marmara.edu.tr kübra karadeniz has a master’s degree in mathematics education from the department of mathematic education, ataturk faculty of education, marmara university, istanbul, turkey. email: kubrakaradeniz44@gmail.com zülal kenar has a master’s degree in mathematics education from the department of mathematic education, ataturk faculty of education, marmara university, istanbul, turkey. email: zlal_10@hotmail.com gülay yalim has a master’s degree in mathematics education from the department of mathematic education, ataturk faculty of education, marmara university, istanbul, turkey. email: yalimgulay@gmail.com mailto:ozlem.cezikturk@marmara.edu.tr mailto:sinemince@marmara.edu.tr mailto:kubrakaradeniz44@gmail.com mailto:zlal_10@hotmail.com mailto:yalimgulay@gmail.com this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 105 home-school partnership: how do indonesian elementary school principals perceive it? yantoro, 1 and dian nisa istofa, 2 abstract home-school partnerships are defined as the collaboration between family and school and to improve students' achievement. this study sought to understand the perceptions of indonesian elementary school principals to capture the recent partnerships in the elementary education perceived by indonesian school principals. the data were collected through interviews with indonesian school principals in exploring their perspectives and practices of the home-school partnership in indonesian elementary education. the participants were six elementary school principals from six indonesia elementary schools. all the interview data were analyzed through within case-cross case analyses. the study revealed that indonesian elementary school principals had perceptions which are consistent towards the important roles of the home-school partnership. besides, they reported that the implementation of the home-school partnership existed; however, a parent-teacher association was not established. the school principals involved in this study also informed that parents‟ lack of knowledge and insufficient time were the two barriers from a home-school relationship. recommendation and suggestion are offered to tackle the barriers. the results of the study suggest the improvement of training for teachers to build communication with parents various backgrounds of culture and experiences are needed. keywords home-school partnership, indonesian elementary school, principals, perception 1 faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, jambi, indonesia; yantoro@unja.co.id 2 universitas islam negeri sultan thaha saifuddin, jambi, indonesia; diannisaistofa@uinjambi.ac.id mailto:yantoro@unja.co.id mailto:diannisaistofa@uinjambi.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 106 introduction home-school partnerships as an active relationship between home and school in order to maximize pupils‟ learning achievement (epstein & dauber, 1991). despite the availability of empirical and theoretical studies for the term “home-school partnership”, gaps in the literature should always be continuously supported. in this regard, most of the available research is based on families within western and developed country backgrounds namely la paro and pianta, (2000), lau and ng (2019), and lagacé séguin and case (2010). little research has been conducted focusing on home-school partnership outside these two contexts of social and economic, and cultural backgrounds. in addition, the study for basic education is also limited, as in indonesian elementary education. regarding the development of the students, a report from izzo, weissberg, kasprow, and fendrich (1999) informed that decrease in home‟s involvement to maximize students‟ learning outcome when students are growing up (epstein, 1995; jeynes, 2005). some reasons might appear to cause this is the limited opportunity for parents to get involved in the last years of elementary education. in addition, the fact that parents are difficult to deal with advance materials of learning in higher grades. since it would benefit educational stakeholder to introduce an appropriate policy and encourage long-lasting program for home-school partnership, it is significant to inform more academic result of studies involve the partnership for elementary education, especially in developing countries. previous studies have shown an indication that that parties of both schools and families have various perspectives that could block the positive effects of the relationship (flessa, 2008; lau, 2014; lau, li, & rao, 2011). the limitations of these studies are the lack of perspective of school principals. the researchers just informed the perspectives of parents and/or teachers. it is also limited to focus group discussions as the data collection approaches. since the relationship is a result of the interrelationship between home and school barriers, our study went beyond the boundaries of the perception of teachers or parents towards factor affecting home-school partnership. this study sought to understand the perceptions of indonesian elementary school principals to capture the recent partnerships in the elementary education perceived by indonesian school principals. four major research questions guided this study: 1) how is the partnership perceived by indonesian elementary school principals? (2) what are the partnership practices in their schools? (3) what are the barriers influencing home-school partnership in indonesian elementary education? and (4) what strategies employed to address the barriers? literature review the importance of the home-school partnership the partnership has been introduced as a solution to improve students learning outcomes with diverse needs (brown & medway, 2007; hedges & lee, 2010). different irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 107 context of studies informed that if school and students‟ family work hand in hand, they will make a better partnership for the betterment of the school, family, and also students (el nokali, bachman & votruba-drzal, 2010; lau & power, 2018; phillipson & phillipson, 2007). previous studies suggested parent involvement in school activities can contribute to improving the school community. researchers informed that home-school partnership might not only offer a significant contribution for the school-related community to work together for the improvement, but it also boosts valuable resources for school daily operation (westrich & stroebel, 2013; yamamoto, & holloway, 2010). parents' participation in school, such as contributing to school functioning such as collaboration motivation and teachers turnover can be essential. park, stone, and holloway (2017) reported that these are all vital in forming a maximal learning environment. schools with active parents were reported to become more responsive to educational concerns, helping develop a program related to the need of the public. hong and ho (2005) reported that the partnership was related to the range of positive student achievements within elementary schools, for their academic and social competence. it is crucial during basic education because the students adjusted to the new learning environment (rimm-kaufman & pianta, 2000). parents' who involved themselves could be vital to help student face the challenges in relation to learning, a reliable factor for learning adjustment (fantuzzo, mcwayne, perry, & childs, 2004). perspectives of educational stakeholders research has recommended that teaching organization and culture affect the merits and activities of education within home-school relationship. previous studies offered information that home-school partnership affects school parties produce a chance of involvement and available resources to encourage the collaboration (ho, 2009). the various school bases decide the practice of the collaboration. in the other words, home-school partnership will be better if schools have a clear and better plan for communicating with parents (rimm-kaufman & pianta, 2000). studies also investigated that the perception of teachers, parents, as well as school principals influences, determine the effectiveness of the program implementation in building home-school partnership (epstein, 2001). while many teachers agree with the home-school partnership, others may be negative about it since there was a lack of trust between home and school (schulting, malone, & dodge, 2005). other researchers have informed that parent social and education factors determine the implementation (ice & hoover-dempsey, 2010; morris & taylor, 1998; murray, finigan-carr, jones, copeland-linder, haynie, & cheng, 2014; ng, 1999). the better the factors, the more flexible the opportunity obtained by the school to bridge the home-school partnership. moreover, family with confidence will be likely supporting their children academic outcome and achievement than those who have no such a kind of confidence (hoover-dempsey & sandler, 1997; kohl, lengua, & mcmahon, 2000; kroeger & lash, 2011; waanders, mendez & downer, 2007). irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 108 indonesian home-school partnerships indonesia is ranked fourth in population in the world. its total population reaches over 250 million people. indonesia is the 17th largest country in the world consisting of five main islands and other thousands of small islands. in this study, the research was conducted in sumatra island, the secondmost densely populated. specifically, the current study was done in an urban area in jambi, indonesia. urban settings are characterized by cultures that may affect student parents‟ motivation to get involved in home-school partnerships. it also refers to the process of how they involve themselves into the development of the implementation of the partnerships. forms of the home-school partnerships in indonesia that have been revealed by some researches were: a). holding a meeting with parents of students at school. b). making agreements about school discipline with parents of students c). schools conduct home visits. d). receiving student parents' visits. e). involving parents in developing student character f). providing counseling services at the school (juliani, 2019; yulianti, denessen, & droop, 2019). methodology research design, participants, and locale of the study the current study is a qualitative study. it aimed at examining home-school partnership in improving students‟ learning outcomes in indonesia. the current study involved interview sessions with six indonesian elementary school principals with four main research questions; (1) how is the partnership perceived by indonesian elementary school principals? (2) what are the partnership practices in their schools? (3) what are the barriers influencing home-school partnership in indonesian elementary education? and (4) what strategies employed to address the barriers? the site for this study was a province in jambi, the southern part of sumatra island, indonesia. table 1. participants’ biographical information principals school age working experience education a 1 45 20 bachelor b 2 53 30 bachelor c 3 51 25 bachelor d 4 48 21 bachelor e 5 49 22 bachelor f 6 52 26 bachelor irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 109 data collection and analysis based on a review of the literature, the interview questions were developed in previous studies in the indonesian context. all interviews were conducted by the researchers. a semi-structured interview protocol was used to make sure consistency across participants. on the other hand, it allowed the exploration of new issues. some techniques were applied for the interviews, for example, to avoid leading questions, to use probing techniques, and to let the participant leads the interview sessions. all interview session lasted for about thirty minutes. all interviews were recorded using a smartphone. the recording was transcribed through a microsoft office application. all six participants of the interview can be seen in table 1. the constant comparative method of the grounded theory approach developed by glaser and strauss (1967) were used. specifically, the method of comparing and contrasting the respondents' responses to each interview question was used to form categories, assign codes to the categories, summarize the content of each category for developing themes, and find negative evidence (boeije, 2002). each interview was carefully studied to examine its internal consistency. as soon as more than one interview was completed, comparisons between interviews within the same kindergarten were conducted. upon the completion of all within-group analyses, between-group comparisons were conducted with regard to the experience of home-school collaboration to validate the story told by one group. different aids (i.e., memo writing, close reading and rereading, and coding) were used to facilitate the identification of relevant quotes and to support the systematization of the analysis process. the second author analyzed all interview responses. however, six randomly selected transcripts (two transcriptions of each stakeholder) were cross-coded by the authors. the authors also held discussions to ensure the congruency between the emerging findings and the respondents' responses. we implemented triangulation and member checking in this study (mukminin, 2012; mukminin & mcmahon, 2013) to exam the trustworthiness of the data collected. we performed triangulation in the research by analyzing data from interviews to verify the accuracy of the data. we returned the interviewed transcript data to each participant participating for verification. this was done to ensure that each teacher agreed with the data we obtained and used, and each teacher or participant allowed us to use the data that came from them in our research. creswell (2014) states that researchers should explicitly define their own biases, values, and interests on the topic of their research and the process of their access to research participants. through reflexivity, we actively participated in critical self-reflection about our potential biases. through reflexivity, we have become more self-conscious to control our biases. we have self-reflection by discussing whether we have a bias and if so, what bias do we have in our analysis. johnson and christensen (2019) explain that qualitative data analysis is “a messy, time-consuming, creative, mysterious and brilliant process and there is no doubt that there is no consensus on the analysis of qualitative data forms” (creswell, 2014). in data analysis, interviews were recorded with a irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 110 recorder and transcribed, then carefully analyzed and categorized into one of several topics. in the first step, we did what miles and huberman called (1994) "within the analysis of the situation." after interviews and audiotapes of the discussion group were transcribed, we analyzed and categorized them into sub-topics and topics. then we did what miles and huberman (1994) called "a comprehensive analysis of the issues." we re-analyzed and compared the texts of all eight teachers in order to find the frequency of data between the participants for each general topic and for each sub-topic. we analyzed between cases in order to remove redundant data (for example, a participant did the same statement several times). ethical considerations we protected the identities of all participants in this study through covering their real names and places. we also convinced all participants that their statements and views would not be shared with other parties and would be used only for the study. findings perceptions of the home-school partnership: the importance of the home-school partnership when the indonesian school principals involved in this study were asked about their school‟s vision and their attitude regarding home-school partnership, they were very consistent supporting the program and its activities. the partnership between teachers and parents was consistently perceived by principals as a way to improve parents' comprehension of the students‟ process of learning and the practices of the schools as well as their rationale. this support parents to make efforts sustainable strategies to support their children at home. the participants of the study thought that the parents should get involved in the partnership to make them more realize the practice of teachers in the school. since the parents support the teacher, a problem will be easier to overcome. one of the school participants reported, “teachers work will make much more flexible as if parents know and respect the work. as a result, the parent would be more supportive of all activities in improving the quality of the learning. in addition, it will also be a problem solving for the school.” (principal 2) besides helping parents understand the school practices, the close partnership between school and home will also support the long school plan for the betterment of the school. principal 5 stated that the partnership could make a good impact on improving school plan; the parents will be more supportive of making school plans work. the consistency of the partnership will also be beneficial for nurturing decision for students future. principal 3 had his opinion, irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 111 “because for students at elementary school, they don‟t decide for themselves and are dependent on the decision they parents do and the various kind of condition and environment that parents facilitate for them. so when a parent attends school more often or gets participated participates in various activities to learn about the school's future plan for students, then the things that parents have in nurturing the students would be consistent with the school.” (principal 3) diverse home-school partnership practices since the participants of the study believe in the positive impacts of the home-school partnerships, indonesian elementary schools have been introducing a variety of initiatives such as facilitating communication between parents and teachers, volunteering activities, and parent education. in particular, the schools have registered channels in formal and informal ways, written and oral. they also communicated to the parents about school teaching and learning processes. two of the participants had their opinion, “apart from regular use of handbooks, teachers in her kindergarten were required to phone parents at least three times every month.” (principal 4) “for example, we request the class teacher make at least three phone calls per month with parents to communicate. so, we would also mark something special in the children's handbook. if parents have any special questions, there is a message box in the handbook for the parents to leave messages, and teachers would also write some notes. the communication would be mainly through the handbook and phone call. volunteering was also a common practice.” (principal 2) three different concepts and practices of handling parent volunteers were highlighted in the interview. they are perceived as a teaching resource, learners of the teaching pedagogy, and a resource of logistic. in the value of a teaching resource, the expertise of various family members can develop the curriculum implemented in the school. oppositely, the activities by parents are viewed as a chance for the parents in observing their children teachers and obtain relevant skills to help the students learn. principal 3 elaborated how volunteer parents are viewed as learners of teachers' pedagogy. principal 1 said that there was a team of volunteers from parents that were invited in a certain schedule to the school to help conduct school events. they were educated on the ways to teach students when the events took place. they could understand how to deal with the students who are also their students. teachers can also support the learning activities from school to home; they could involve helping the students complete home activities. barriers based on the results of the study, the obstacles or barriers in the implementation of the home-school partnerships were the collaboration between family and school and improving students' learning outcomes. there are parents who are too busy with their work irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 112 so that they do not care too much about their children's development. they seldom attend the meetings conducted in the school. this time limitation has prevented parents in partnerships to improve students‟ learning outcomes. “some parents need to make time to attend school meetings. they always had reasons that they were always busy with their work. therefore, they seldom attend the meeting.” (principal 6) besides the hectic day of the parents, it was also found that few participants of the study did not want to accept suggestions and recommendations from the teacher. teachers always consulted with parents about the students‟ activities and behaviors. principal 5 informed that a few parents can be very upset when they were informed about the problems done by their children. the information was given so that parents can work together with the teachers to solve the problems. another finding of this study suggests that barriers including parents‟ lack knowledge are also among the barriers found in this study. student parents‟ commonly do not understand the importance of the home-school partnerships in improving students learning outcomes. so that, the contribution given by parents in establishing cooperation with the school can be categorized as less optimal. parents have not fully realized that involvement in the administration of education is absolutely essential. as it is known that, the school really needs collaboration with parents. the collaboration established has a clear goal which is to get participation, support, trust and understanding from the students' parents. this support directly or indirectly greatly helps the school in carrying out the program and implementation of education itself. “based on the report of the teachers, student parents still have limited knowledge about the importance of the home-school partnership. when it comes to elaboration between teachers and parents, it should be realized that this weakness emerged.” (principal 5) thus it can be seen that parents play an important role in fostering student character. parents have a very important role in educating children at home so that it helps the school in carrying out the process of education and learning in school so that the child's character can be formed as expected. strategies to face the barriers when talked about barriers, the school principals in this study informed some solutions offered by the participants. they informed about the willingness of the school stakeholders in managing home-school partnerships. school should take time in establishing partnerships with parents to corporate with teachers and school principals to achieve well in their educational activities. one of the school principals mentioned the information in the interview session, “our consistency in building relationships between home and school to improve students‟ learning process can be a solution for overcoming barriers faced within the relationship.” (principal 2) irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 113 building communication with parents should also be recommended by the participants of this study. the communication must be maintained to help them understand the importance of the partnerships to improve learning outcomes. two of the principals in this study revealed, “the communication between school and students‟ family should always be promoted in order to face barriers found in this study.” (principal 4) “should there be any strategies to overcome the barrier, the communication between teachers and parents should be always available.” (principal 2) in practice, teachers can have regular visits to students‟ home as frequent as possible. principal 1 mentioned in his comment that home visit is done to make the communication better. it also provides the opportunity to create a tighter relationship between home and school. discussion the study aimed at elaborating the perspectives of indonesian elementary school principals on home-school partnership in kindergartens. the study refers to the ways that they view and do home-school partnerships, the barriers perceived for the home-school partnerships, as well as the strategies for overcoming the barriers. similar to previously existing studies (lau, 2014), the results of this current study have an indication that indonesian principals have a consistent understanding regarding the value and usefulness of the home-school partnership. because of the strong belief in this partnership, indonesian elementary schools have facilitated various activities to involve students‟ families, especially parents both at home and in school in supporting students learning process and the achievement development. these kinds of activities were significant to inform parents about the students‟ learning process and progress, to help the parents comprehend the students‟ development, and to facilitate information about learning in school, as well as to help them apply strategies effective to aid student learning at home. the findings of the study informed that all participants who were indonesian elementary school principals have been ready for home-school partnership; various barriers were found based on the data analysis. these barriers can prevent students‟ development. previous studies have highlighted that lack of time as main barriers to family participation in the partnership (bryan & henry, 2012; cheung, & pomerantz, 2011; chiu & ho, 2006; mendez, carpenter, laforett, & cohen, 2009). this study also informed that the indonesian school principals perceive time as the main barrier of home-school partnerships. prior research also found that teachers should encourage home-school partnerships by exposing frequent contact within various strategies (cohen & wills, 1985; pang, 2004; patrikakou & weissberg, 2000; uludag, 2008). the barrier has been revealed that working parents with much work often prioritize the daily activities they viewed to obtain practical things to be related with the partnership activities, for instance, monthly meeting and online group services. another barrier found in this study was that the parents had no knowledge of the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 114 home-school partnerships relationships; they sometimes did not want to discuss their children develop in the school. fantuzzo, tighe, and childs (2000) and rimm-kaufman and pianta (2005) revealed that this finding is similar to other previous studies revealing that the less awareness of the parents was one of the barriers in home-school partnership. based on the results of the study, it was explained that the solutions taken in overcoming the barriers from the implementation of the home-school partnerships are: parents should take the time to establish cooperation with the school in growing student character. be diligent in controlling the child and conducting deliberations and communication with teachers at school. teachers do home visits as much as possible if needed to obtain complete data, both regarding students, parents, and the state of the house. there have been many obstacles faced by schools and also parents of students in establishing cooperation in growing student character. so that harmonious cooperation that helps each other between the school and parents is needed for the birth of a generation that has character in accordance with religious teachings. the school and parents need to make the same perception in educating children through continuous collaboration. so what is taught in school is not different from what is expected at home by parents and public. thus the values taught at home are the same as the values taught at school. in addition, schools and parents can easily carry out discussions in solving problems faced by children in the learning process both at school and at home. conclusion and implications principals, across the elementary schools have a consistent perception of the importance of the home-school partnership. while various activities have been applied in the participating school of the principals of the study, they were mostly initiated and organized by the kindergartens. the establishment of the home-school partnerships is not common informed in this study. different barriers, including limited time and parents' lack of knowledge were reported by the principals involved in this study. various strategies were applied to face the time barriers. strategies were also offered to tackle the challenges. the findings suggest that more training should be facilitated in focusing on skills. it enables educators to have better communication and efforts with parents from various backgrounds to facilitate their participation in home-school partnerships. some limitation of the current study should also be noted. first, indonesian is defined as a populous developing country that cannot be compared to other developing countries. so, future research regarding home-school partnerships in various context and setting can be more developed. this study is limited to qualitative report; other methods are also suggested to be done, such as survey, observation, and documents. future studies should be done home-school partnership research with a larger sample size which can depict a different pattern of a wider scope for a more complete examination of the home-school partnership. this will provide efficient and effective programs to provide an appropriate partnership between home and school in different contexts across developmental and educational stages. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 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(2010). parental expectations and children's academic performance in sociocultural context. educational psychology review, 22(3), 189–214. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-010-9121-z. yulianti, k., denessen, e., & droop, m. (2019). indonesian parents' involvement in their children's education: a study in elementary schools in urban and rural java, indonesia. school community journal, 29(1). biographical notes dr. yantoro is lecturer at the faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, jambi, indonesia; yantoro@unja.co.id dian nisa istofa is lecturer at universitas islam negeri sultan thaha saifuddin, jambi, indonesia; diannisaistofa@uinjambi.ac.id https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-010-9121-z mailto:yantoro@unja.co.id mailto:diannisaistofa@uinjambi.ac.id this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 515 the gender portrayal in english textbooks for junior high school students in indonesia: is it equal? dian erlina, 1* fikri yansyah 2 , lenny marzulina 3 , muhamad holandyah 4 , herizal 5 , kasinyo harto 6 abstract gender equity is vital for the realization of human rights in society. gender should be portrayed with careful attention in all forms of information and communication media, including textbooks, to avoid gender stereotypes or the superiority of one gender over the other. textbooks can be the most effective media for promoting and raising awareness of gender equality. therefore, this research was to investigate gender portrayal in english textbooks for junior high school students in indonesia. the pattern of this research was content analysis research. three series of english textbooks with characters and images as the research data were scrutinized by identifying, classifying, and coding into a male and female division. the results showed that the representation of males and females was equal in quantitative data but not in qualitative analysis. these imply that textbook developers and publishers must provide equal representation for both genders in their future textbooks. also, educators should have materials selection, evaluation, and adaptation in teaching to promote gender equality awareness among their students. . keywords english textbooks, equality, human right, gender portrayal article history received 1 june 2022 accepted 28 september 2022 how to cite erlina, d., yansyah, f., marzulina, l., holandyah, m., herizal., & harto, k. (2022). the gender portrayal in english textbooks for junior high school students in indonesia: is it equal?. indonesian research journal in education |irje|, 6(2), 515 – 525..https://doi.org/10.2243 7/irje.v6i2.24717 1*universitas islam negeri raden fatah palembang, south sumatra, indonesia; corresponding author: dinerlina_uin@radenfatah.ac.id 2 yayasan teach indonesia 3,4,5,6 universitas islam negeri raden fatah palembang, south sumatra, indonesia. https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v6i2.24717 https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v6i2.24717 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 516 introduction education is a progressive process that will be tied to human life and is considered paramount in shaping the paradigm in society (hidayat et al., 2021; marzulina et al., 2021; . education is a bridge for people to face the future (johan & harlan, mukminin, 2021) 2014). it might lift people‟s knowledge, manner, and intelligence for improvement. thus, education should be designed to reach an academic purpose and social impact. substantially, it should be well-formulated by giving equal rights to everyone without considering the economic background, race, gender, speech, belief, political view, and nation or origin (fredriksson, 2004; muazza et al., 2019; mukminin et al., 2019). in short, education is part of human rights because everyone deserves to acquire it. one of the aspects of human rights is gender equality. thenceforth, education should be projected to prepare for gender equality. gender equality means giving equal rights to both genders by treating the same without any difference (wanner & wadham, . gender equality is also defined as giving the same value to 2015; mukminin et al., 2019) both males and females in society (rolleri, 2013). therefore, gender equality is important because it would lead to the development of the community by enhancing productivity and outcome for both genders for the future generation (world bank, 2011). thus, promoting gender equality for students is highly fundamental. upholding gender equality started with the presentation of males and females in the material given to the students. material is paramount in shaping mindset, including gender equality. richard (2001) revealed that materials are crucial elements as sources. pardo a n d téllez (2009) assumed that materials form a key aspect in creating effective teaching and learning environments. even more, teaching materials impacted dominant on the activity (nguyen, 2014). therefore, the material given to the students would be paramount in addressing gender equality. however, the imbalanced arrangement of gender in the materials given could be an imperceptible barrier to equality in the educational framework (ebadi et al., 2015). learning materials that are free from gender biases and promote gender equality are good practices for education and may contribute to more inclusive and cohesive societies in the long run (load et al., 2010). hence, arranging the material given with the equal gender presentation is a good scheme for admitting gender equality for the students. the material in the learning process can be presented in many formats. nunan and carter (2001) revealed what can ease learning. the most well-known instructional materials exist in the form of textbooks. a textbook is a primary source in the learning process (cheng & hung, 2011). furthermore, textbooks might be the best tools that might support the completion of gender equality in society (nofal & qawar, 2015). it is also a potential vehicle for gender equality (brugeilles & cromer, 2009). furthermore, textbooks are a great teaching medium for endorsing gender equality to students. it can be an effective medium for promoting and raising awareness of gender equality among students. however, some researchers in indonesia found that gender is not equally presented in textbooks. yansyah (2018) found that the textbooks for senior high schools in indonesia could not promote gender equality for both males and females. additionally, darni and irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 517 abidah (2017) also analyzed that textbooks for elementary school students in indonesia cannot show balance proportions for both genders. those studies open people‟s eyes to some textbooks in indonesia that presented unequal gender representation. then, it triggered the researchers to do more investigation in the context of english language teaching in indonesia. this research would like to analyze gender portrayal in quantitative and qualitative representation in english textbooks for junior high schools in indonesia. the english textbooks entitled when english rings a bell vii and viii and think globally act locally ix from curriculum 2013 became the research subject. literature review education and gender equality education should be designed to reach the purpose of society in academic and social impact. substantially, it should be well-formulated by giving equal rights to everyone without considering someone‟s economic background, race, gender, speech, belief, political view, and nation or origin therefore, education (fredriksson, 2004; mukminin, & habibi, 2019). must be free from gender-based stereotypes, bias, and discrimination. however, ensuring gender equity within schools is a challenge for policymakers, curriculum planners, and teachers around the world. in many countries, education systems provide examples of curricula and teaching materials that reinforce stereotypes of teachers with biased expectations and other different means that contribute to gender inequity promoted through the teaching and learning processes (bursuc, 2013; mukminin et al., 2019). gender equality is a crucial facet of social justice, inclusiveness, and social cohesion based on the values and practices of human rights, such as the fundamental respect for human dignity and the right to equal and fair treatment regardless of differences among people. furthermore, equality of rights between men and women, especially as it applies to access to education, has contributed to the concept development of the right to education for all. as a result, the education sector‟s greater openness to girls has made it possible to re-examine the issue of social justice and promote egalitarian gender relations (brugeilles & cromer, 2009). to sum up, education could be a vehicle for promoting gender equality. textbooks in a language learning program in language learning programs, teaching materials are one of the components for teaching materials that serve as the basis for language input received by students and practice the use of language in the classroom (richards, 2001). materials contain the content that students will use to achieve learning objectives (dick et al., 2009). these opinions are under several research publications in various countries that demonstrate the power of teaching materials in facilitating the process of language learning (erlina et al., 2016; tomlinson & masuhara, 2010). therefore, teachers should use appropriate instructional materials in teaching the students the skills and contents needed to be successful language learners. then, language teaching materials refer to everything that is used by teachers and students to facilitate the language learning process (tomlinson, 2011). teaching materials can be in the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 518 form of a textbook, video, dictionaries, grammar books, workbooks, photocopying materials, newspapers, photographs, direct conversations with native speakers, or something that is used to improve the knowledge and experience of students of the language. in addition, teaching materials also refer to the systematic description of the techniques and exercises used in the learning process in the classroom. the experts‟ statements above clearly emphasize the importance of instructional materials like textbooks or others in language learning. gender equality and textbooks the textbook is the presented material of an educational program (yansyah, 2018). information presented in textbooks plays a fundamental function in shaping the progression of classroom teaching and learning, designing the assessment system and evaluation with students‟ remembering and creating the information presented in textbooks (mahmood, 2011). the textbooks offer the establishment for the content of lessons, the balance of the capabilities taught, and the kinds of language, carry out the students connect during class activities (cheng & hung, 2011; erlina et al., 2018). therefore, textbooks are fundamental to the learning of gender roles. representations of males and females are legitimized here by a high-status medium. the textbook is a potential vehicle for gender equality (brugeilles & cromer, 2009). learning materials, such as textbooks and learning processes that are free from gender biases and promote gender equality, are good practices and may contribute to more inclusive and cohesive societies in the long run of education (load et al., 2010). in conclusion, textbooks might be media in acknowledging gender equality for the students in the educational process. methodology research design, site, and participants in conducting this research, the researchers applied content analysis towards gender representation in english textbooks for junior high schools from the curriculum 2013 in indonesia. this research aimed to examine gender portrayal in english textbooks and whether they presented an equal proportion of gender representation. this research used both quantitative and qualitative data. a mixed method was applied for the practical data collection using numerical and verbal data to gather reliable data (cohen et al., 2007). the focus data of this research were characters and images in the english textbooks for indonesia junior high schools from the curriculum 2013. this research measured gender representation contents in three series of english textbooks from curriculum 2013 which was published by the indonesian government, the ministry of education and culture affairs. the following table 1 shows the textbooks which were analyzed in this research. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 519 table 1. data of english textbooks for junior high schools in indonesia title publisher when english rings a bell vii the ministry of education and culture affairs when english rings a bell viii the ministry of education and culture affairs think globally act locally ix the ministry of education and culture affairs data collection and analysis in collecting the data, the researchers identified and classified the characters and images in the three series of english textbooks under this research. the researchers made two main divisions, male (m) and female (f) categories, and six subcategories based on six aspects promoted by brugeilles and cromer (2009), namely (1) category, sex, and age of the character, (2) designations, (3) activities, (4) attributes, (5) interactions, and (6) locations. in doing the analysis, the researchers identified, classified, and coded the data of the characters in the textbooks into a male or female category according to six gender representation aspects of brugeilles and cromer (2009). the researchers also coded the data of the images or pictures under the male or female division. the researchers displayed the data in the form of percentages. therefore, the number of male and female representations quantitatively was discovered. afterward, the researchers used these quantitative data for further discussion and interpretation of how gender was described in the english textbooks. then, the researchers analyzed the data qualitatively to see the quality of male and female representation in the textbooks. these qualitative data were analyzed descriptively. the discussion of the data would draw inferences based on the analysis results, related theories, and previous studies. overall, the representation of males and females would be seen quantitatively and qualitatively in presenting gender equality. finally, the researchers summarized and made some recommendations by considering all our analysis results. findings the findings of this research were presented in the form of percentages for quantitative data (characters and pictures) and obtained from the english textbooks in descriptions form for qualitative analysis results. characters analysis three english textbooks were analyzed in this research. they were published by the indonesian government for junior high school students. overall, there were 5218 characters from those three textbooks. the textbook entitled when english rings a bell vii presented the domination of male characters. meanwhile, the textbooks entitled when english rings a irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 520 bell viii and think globally, act locally ix mostly presented female characters. the complete data analysis is in table 2 below: table 2. results of characters analysis textbooks characters male female when english rings a bell vii 979 53% 869 47% when english rings a bell viii 726 49% 762 51% think globally, act locally ix 854 45% 1028 55% pictures analysis there were 1408 pictures taken as research data in this research. the data showed that all the textbooks entitled when english rings a bell vii, when english rings a bell viii, and think globally, act locally which were analyzed, presented more male characters than female characters. the comprehensive data analysis is in table 3 below: table 3. results of pictures analysis textbooks characters male female when english rings a bell vii 261 54% 215 46% when english rings a bell viii 304 54% 263 46% think globally, act locally ix 189 52% 176 48% qualitative analysis the qualitative analysis focused on how both genders are treated in the activities or representations in the english textbooks. then, the researchers described the analysis results. some of the results of the analysis are as follows. picture 1. how both genders are treated in the activities source: when english rings a bell vii, p. 4. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 521 the pictures showed two activities from how the parent treated their son and daughter. the activity is waking up in the morning. the first picture shows a father who has just greeted his son in the bedroom in the morning. the second picture displayed a girl who greeted her mom in the kitchen in the morning while cooking. picture 2. how the parent treated their son and daughter source: when english rings a bell viii, p. 25. both pictures showed each statement from boys and girls for break time. the statement from a boy to invite his friend, “udin, let‟s go out. don‟t be lazy. get up and have some exercise outside.” besides, a girl invites her friend to have break time with the statement, “lina, it is break time, stop working. let‟s go out for some fresh air.” picture 3. each statement from boys and girls for break time source: think globally, act locally, p. 11. the picture presented a conversation between a mother and her daughter. the daughter reported to the mom that she had cleaned up her room, and her mother replied happily to the daughter by praising, “good girl! it looks tidy now, isn‟t it? i love it.” irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 522 discussion the discussion of the research findings displayed the inferences data in quantitative and qualitative analysis. the results were related to theories and correlated to the previous studies to find similarities and differences. based on the results for quantitative data both under characters and pictures analysis, all the textbooks showed the same presentation for both male and female portrayals because the peripheries of the percentages were not so far different. the textbook entitled when english rings a bell vii showed 53% for male representation and 47% for female representation under character analysis, 54% for male characters, and 46% for female characters from the picture analysis. then, the textbook entitled when english rings a bell viii showed 49% male presentation and 51% female presentation for character analysis. meanwhile, 54% of the male character and 46% of the female characters are under the picture analysis. after that, for the textbook under the title think globally, act locally ix got 45% for male performance and 55% for female performance for character analysis and 52% for males, and 48% for females under the picture analysis. the findings of our research above were contrary to some previous studies on gender representation in english textbooks. for example, in the context of senior high school, yansyah (2018) analyzed english textbooks in indonesia by calculating the presentation of males and females. the results showed that both genders were not equally presented in those textbooks. furthermore, darni and abidah (2015) measured gender bias in nine textbooks for elementary school students used in east and central java, indonesia. the results also showed that gender bias was found in the textbooks that they analyzed. to sum up, the results of the quantitative analysis of our research were different from yansyah (2018) and darni and abidah (2015). this research showed genders are quantitatively equal. however, qualitatively, the representation of male and female characters in those textbooks was not the same. the first pictures showed that the male was treated with treatment by the parent in the morning. meanwhile, a girl was shown as unequal, because in the morning, a girl should be in the kitchen with her mother. another example was given in the second picture and third picture. in the second picture, it presents that usually, boys would be lazy, and girls would be diligent. the last picture shows that a girl should clean up as the routine. it was also in line with several previous studies which examine the presentation of males and females in the textbooks for indonesian students. they reported that males and females were not equally presented in the textbooks. they often portrayed male characters as superior to female characters. male characters were assigned typical masculine traits, and female characters were assigned feminine traits (ariyanto, 2018; emilia et al., 2017; suhartono & kristina, 2018). all in all, the results of quantitative data analysis in this research were in line with the principle of education that gender representation should be displayed equally. it supports the idea from brugeilles and cromer (2009), bursuc (2013), and ), which frederiksson (2004 emphasized that education should give equal rights to anyone without considering someone‟s economic background, nation, race, and gender. education must be free of irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 523 gender-based stereotypes, bias, and discrimination. on the contrary, the results of qualitative data analysis of this research revealed that the representation of male and female characters was not equal in the english textbooks. it was not under the principle of education. it showed that ensuring gender equity within schools is still challenging for teachers, material developers, publishers, and policymakers. conclusion this research was to find out the gender portrayal for both quantitative and qualitative data in english textbooks for junior high school students from curriculum 2013 in indonesia. three english textbooks were analyzed by using a mixed-method study. the results revealed that the representation of males and females was equal in quantitative data but not in qualitative analysis. these research results suggest the researchers or materials developers and publishers produce textbooks that possibly give equal representation for both genders. then, to address this inequality issue, teachers who utilize these textbooks can make some adaptations or adjustments to the materials to provide equal representation for both genders to their students in the classrooms. the last is for the government and policymakers to design further textbooks to be equal in presenting 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(2018). an educational research on gender and cultural study: gender representation in english textbooks of 2013 curriculum in indonesia. international journal of social sciences and educational studies, 5(1), 110-117. biographical notes dian erlina is working at the universitas islam negeri raden fatah palembang, south sumatra, indonesia. fikri yansyah is working at yayasan teach indonesia. lenny marzulina is working at the universitas islam negeri raden fatah palembang, south sumatra, indonesia. muhamad holandyah is working at the universitas islam negeri raden fatah palembang, south sumatra, indonesia. herizal is working at the universitas islam negeri raden fatah palembang, south sumatra, indonesia. kasinyo harto is working at the universitas islam negeri raden fatah palembang, south sumatra, indonesia. research this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| irje | vol.4 | no. 1| year 2020 |issn: 2580-5711 2 the mission of the irje |indonesian research journal in education| is to serve as a vital and international forum for a different group of scholars and researchers who are of interest in exchanging ideas in order to enrich the theory, policy, and practice of education in indonesia and around the world and who can grasp a noteworthy voice in discussions and decision-making around issues of education. irje is a free, twice-yearly, open access, peer-reviewed, international, and e-journal, published in indonesia, which accepts unpublished, high quality, and original research manuscripts in english, resulting primarily from quantitative, qualitative, and mixed research methodology related to or associated with education. all research articles appearing in irje have undergone a thoroughly peer-review. editorial team lead editor amirul mukminin, universitas jambi, indonesia managing editors akhmad habibi, universitas jambi, indonesia dairabi kamil, state islamic university of kerinci, indonesia muhaimin, universitas jambi, indonesia mukhlash abrar , universitas jambi, indonesia herlambang, universitas jambi, indonesia assistant editors masbirorotni, universitas jambi, indonesia siti rahma sari, universitas jambi, indonesia failasofah, universitas jambi, indonesia nunung fajaryani, universitas jambi, indonesia international editorial board jeffrey ayala milligan, the florida state university, usa thomas f. luschei, claremont graduate university, usa shen chen, university of newcastle, australia abdul jalil bin othman, university of malaya, malaysia tiago neves, university of porto, portugal saedah siraj, university of malaya, malaysia judit navracsics, university of pannonia, hungary irina golubeva, university of miskolc, hungary pedro sanchez escobedo, universidad autónoma de yucatán, mexico muhammad kamarul kabilan, university of science, malaysia jennifer elsden-clifton, griffith university, australia farrah dina binti yusof, university of malaya, malaysia dina belluigi, queen's university belfast, north ireland, uk. florante p. ibarra, central luzon state university, the philippines yunisrina qismullah yusuf, syiah kuala university, indonesia rafiza binti abdul razak, university of malaya, malaysia lourdes villardon, university of deusto, spain nor azmi mostafa, sultan idris education university, malaysia https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=-jksvt8aaaaj&hl=en https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=ip8-bosaaaaj&hl=en https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=4lk2yumaaaaj&hl=en https://www.researchgate.net/profile/failasofah_failasofah https://www.researchgate.net/profile/nunung_fajaryani https://umexpert.um.edu.my/jalil https://umexpert.um.edu.my/saedah https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=k5skd70aaaaj&hl=en https://umexpert.um.edu.my/rafiza irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| irje | vol.4 | no. 1| year 2020 |issn: 2580-5711 3 mohd rashid bin mohd saad, university of malaya, malaysia hadiyanto, jambi university, indonesia muazza, jambi university, indonesia anton widyanto, ar-raniry state islamic university, indonesia eddy haryanto, jambi university, indonesia mohd faiz mohd yaakob,universiti utara malaysia, malaysia focus and scope irje |the indonesian research journal in education| accepts unpublished, high quality, and original research manuscripts in english, resulting primarily from quantitative, qualitative, or mixed research methodology related to or associated with education. these issues include, but not limited to, practices, policies, and research in education from early childhood education to higher education which cover the areas of instruction, learning, teaching, curriculum development, educational policy, language education and policy, bilingual education, multicultural education, art education, teacher education, educational technology, educational developments, educational psychology, and international education in indonesia and other parts of the world. publication frequency irje is published 2 times per year (june and december) by universitas jambi publisher irje|indonesian research journal in education| universitas jambi, jl. raden mattaher no.16, jambi, indonesia 36113 issn 2580-5711-e-mail: irje@unja.ac.id https://umexpert.um.edu.my/msaadmr https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=ohvkfocaaaaj&hl=en mailto:irje@unja.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| irje | vol.4 | no. 1| year 2020 |issn: 2580-5711 4 content 1 editorial 6 work-related stress and teaching performance of teachers in selected school in the philippines aurora sarabia, leila m. collantes 28 analyzing the effect of need for achievement and locus of control on student entrepreneurial intentions ekawarna, yusdi anra, qurotta ayun, seri romios, tarnak 43 blended learning in a reading course: undergraduate efl students’ perceptions and experiences nova lingga pitaloka, hesti wahyuni anggraini, dedi kurniawan, erlina erlina, hariswan putra jaya 58 are trainee language teachers autonomous in developing their own language skills? claudia molnar 78 metacognition awareness and its correlation with academic achievement of educational students elfa eriyani 91 a correlation among writing theory, motivation and writing practice of trdinanti university students gaya tridinanti, rusman roni, farnia sari, nurulanningsih 105 home-school partnership: how do indonesian elementary school principals perceive it? yantoro yantoro, dian nisa istofa 120 students’ demotivating factors in english language learning at one state madrasah tsanawiyah in palembang, south sumatera, indonesia dian erlina, deta desvitasari, lenny marzulina, almirah meida risfina 137 postgraduate efl students’ response t o feedback: what feedback do students prefer? siti zulaiha, akhmad haqiqi ma'mun, herri mulyono 151 the correlation between school principal leadership competence and teachers’ social behaviours burhanuddin yasin, faisal mustafa irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| irje | vol.4 | no. 1| year 2020 |issn: 2580-5711 5 171 in search of commonly used language learning strategies by efl students masbirorotni, nunung fajaryani 188 the extent of principals’ empowerment and their functions towards management of public elementary schools paula anjelica p. rivera, florante p. ibarra 204 the effect of different approaches to learning strategy instruction on vocabulary development by efl learners darin nshiwi 223 investigating the plights of nigerians in diaspora: a case study of nigerians studying in malaysian universities yusuf suleiman, ibrahim kawuley mikail 246 learning resource development: an online-based learning for indonesian teachers sofyan sofyan, dameria sinaga, rubiati rubiati 263 the development of the basic obstetric ultrasound learning media for undergraduate medical students herlambang, amelia dwi fitri, nyimas natasha ayu shafira, elfiani, anggelia puspasari, susan tarawifa 273 managing quantity or quality? students’ voices for english subject in the national standardized exam fridiyanto, marzul hidayat, miftahul khairani, imelda yose this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 433 a survey on investigating data-sharing behavior among stem researchers: the context of a developing country wilda syahri 1 , yusnaidar 1 , muhaimin 2* abstract based on an extended theory of planned behavior (tpb), this study focused on five exogenous constructs (perceived benefits, facilitating condition, normative belief, behavioral belief, and control belief) that was established to predict behavioral intention and behavior of data-sharing. the research model was tested with 157 indonesian researchers from science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (stem). we applied the partial least squares (pls) techniques to analyze the data. seven out of eleven hypotheses are supported based on the significance test in through the pls-sem procedure. the study’s findings show that the proposed extended tpb is a valid and reliable framework for describing the data-sharing behavior of stem researchers. this paper facilitates an advanced investigation through pls-sem approaches toward behavioral intention and behavior regarding data-sharing; the findings are among the first elaborated data-sharing report in the indonesian context, a country with more than 200 thousand researchers. keywords stem researchers, data-sharing, pls-sem 1faculty of education and teacher training, universitas jambi, jambi, indonesia 1faculty of education and teacher training, universitas jambi, jambi, indonesia 2faculty of pharmacy, universitas padjadjaran, jl. raya jatinangor km 21, sumedang, jawa barat 45363, indonesia; muhaimin@unpad.ac.id mailto:muhaimin@unpad.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 434 introduction data-sharing could be critical in modern science, particularly in disciplines that rely on collaborative processes produced through data-based activities and publications. data-sharing could be distributed by academicians using a variety of research methodologies, namely experiments, simulations, and surveys (tenopir et al., 2020). scientists might have benefited from data-sharing such as findings verification, ideas development, and research extension (heymann, 2020; kim & zhang, 2015; meyer, 2018). raw-shared datasets resulting from a project can be used with comparative studies, and more complex analyses can help scientists expand their ideas (federer et al., 2018; kim & zhang, 2015; zhang et al., 2020). it can also improve collaboration and enable large-scale studies. the research was traditionally published through printed materials, having data-sharing more difficult. however, current researchers could share their publications and dataset easily with the availability of technology such as emails, research applications, publication websites, and data repositories. although data-sharing is considered beneficial and can make more discoveries in academia, the practice has not been widely adopted and is difficult to understand; therefore, this study was conducted in the context of indonesia with samples of stem researchers. data-sharing in this study is defined as raw dataset sharing of published articles to understand how researchers decide to release their data. even though data-sharing is beneficial for all fields of study (e.g., social sciences, business/management, and humanities), this study limits the context in the field of stem, focusing on determinants that predict indonesian stem researchers. the research focuses on five exogenous constructs (perceived benefits, facilitating condition, normative belief, behavioral belief, and control belief) that were developed to predict data-sharing behavioral intention and behavior. two research objectives were addressed: a) to examine the validity and reliability of the determinants predicting indonesian stem researchers’ data-sharing behaviors; b) understand and elaborate these determinants predicting indonesian stem researchers’ data-sharing behaviors. literature review potential difficulties in listening comprehension even though data has been an essential forum for scientific communication, data-sharing as a research practice is still limited. (federer et al., 2018), who gathered data availability statements from 47,593 papers published in a journal by plos between march 2014 and may 2016, inform that only about 20% of the papers were deposited in a repository in which the publisher policy states the preferred method. despite its potential to accelerate academic progress, public data-sharing remains relatively uncommon in some disciplines (houtkoop et al., 2018). another study (melero & navarro-molina, 2020) that involved researchers from several institutes of the spanish research council reports some barriers of researchers to open their data, namely lack of a data-sharing culture, fear of being scooped, and confusion between the concepts of the working plan and the data management irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 435 plan. in addition, (zenk-möltgen et al., 2018), through the theory of planned behavior (tpb), show that data-sharing would improve if journals had explicit data-sharing policies. however, authors also need support from other institutions (their universities, funding councils, and professional associations) to improve data management skills and infrastructures. the results indicate that authors’ attitudes, past behavior, social norms, and perceived behavioral control affected their intentions to share data. although prior research on data-sharing has yielded valuable results, the improvement in further studies is suggested by broadening the scope of the study to report key affecting determinants, establishing more empirical data. in this study, the tpb was adapted to meet the improvement. the tpb is a well-known social theory that explains how a person’s core beliefs impact his/her behavioral intentions and/or behaviors. the idea asserts that an individual’s attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control impact behavioral intentions and behavior. the tpb, as a motivational theory, has the potential to enlighten how people make decisions based on their personal motives (ajzen, 1991a). in this study context, this theory refers to a framework to assess data-sharing behaviors. in addition to tpb’s exogenous factors (attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral), this study involved two external variables, namely perceived benefits and facilitating conditions. similarly, prior researchers have also extended the tpb in their study model (al-emran et al., 2020; kim & zhang, 2015; lubida et al., 2015; nguyen et al., 2019; sadaf et al., 2012; yusop et al., 2021). in the model development, the current research relies on self-reported behavior (behavioral intention and behavior) as two expected outcomes; the framework is associated with eleven hypotheses, shown in figure 1. perceived benefits perceived benefits regarding data-sharing could promote better communication, planning, and future demand in research (powell et al., 2021). in this study, we define the perceived benefits as the value that academics obtain from presenting working performance, getting a higher rate of citations, and improving images and credits from data-sharing activities. researchers’ opinions of data-sharing advantages would improve their positive attitudes since they value credits, performance, and reputation (kim & zhang, 2015; yoon & kim, 2020). studies using data that had been placed in repositories received a better quantity of citations than studies with data that had not been deposited; thus, data-sharing promotes academic incentives and higher citations (park & wolfram, 2017; piwowar & vision, 2013). when researchers have more citations, they might realize that the activity generates the quality of their work (rowhani-farid et al., 2017; sanderson et al., 2017). however, (thelwall & kousha, 2017) informed that an insignificant relationship appears between data-sharing and research impact or citation. therefore, perceived benefits are suggested to support more positive attitudes toward data-sharing. to understand the phenomena, two hypotheses are established based on the prediction of impacts resulting from perceived benefits toward attitudes and behavioral intention: h1. perceived benefits significantly affect attitudes toward data-sharing. h2: perceived benefits positively predict behavioral intention regarding data-sharing. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 436 facilitating conditions the extent to which people feel that accessible technological and organizational support systems will drive them to utilize a system referred to as the facilitating conditions (venkatesh et al., 2003). the availability of infrastructure is one of the facilitating conditions indicated in the research on open data-sharing (zuiderwijk et al., 2020). in the context of this study, facilitating conditions relate to the availability of essential resources, namely data repositories for researchers’ data-sharing, a website for data storage, emails synchronization, and research applications (harper & kim, 2018; mooney & newton, 2012). prior studies in data-sharing have investigated facilitating conditions to significantly influence attitudes toward data-sharing and behavioral intention (harper & kim, 2018; mooney & newton, 2012; zuiderwijk et al., 2020). these prior studies informed that facilitating conditions encouraged stem researchers’ attitudes and behavioral intention regarding data-sharing. two hypotheses were proposed to disclose the role of facilitating conditions towards attitudes and behavioral intention. h3. facilitating conditions significantly affect attitudes. h4: facilitating conditions are a significant predictor of behavioral intention. subjective norms one of the fundamental constructs in tpb is subjective norms, described as a construct that measures the extent to which an individual feels that people who are close and important to them want them to behave in a certain way (ajzen, 1991). subjective norms in this study refer to the influence of other researchers that are connected to the participants of the study (kim & zhang, 2015); perceptions that other researchers feel that the respondents should do data-sharing to share their publication(s). previous studies found that subjective norms significantly predicted attitudes and behavioral intention for knowledge sharing (alajmi, 2012; khalil et al., 2014; mousa et al., 2019). regarding data-sharing, prior studies highlighted the important role of subjective norms in affecting attitudes and behavioral intention regarding data-sharing (kim & nah, 2018; kim & stanton, 2016; kim & zhang, 2015). therefore, two hypotheses were proposed regarding subjective norms on data-sharing among indonesian stem researchers. h5. subjective norms positively affect attitudes. h6. subjective norms are significantly correlated with behavioral intention. attitudes attitudes refer to an individual’s opinions of a specific behavior (ajzen, 1991b). in this study, attitudes are described as the level to which stem researchers who responded to the survey have negative or positive opinions on data-sharing behavior (howe et al., 2018; kim & zhang, 2015). researchers who published their articles in journals would prefer to open their data when they have positive opinions on the sharing (joo & kim, 2017; zhu, 2020). on the other hand, if they have negative perceptions toward data-sharing, the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 437 researchers will not open their data (kim & nah, 2018; kim & stanton, 2016; kim & zhang, 2015). kim and zhang (kim & zhang, 2015) reported that attitudes on data-sharing that included several sub-constructs (perceived career benefit, career risk, and effort) had significant relationships toward behavioral intention to open or share research data. in this research, the correlation between attitudes and behavioral intention regarding data-sharing was assessed. one hypothesis was proposed: h7. attitudes toward data-sharing significantly affect behavioral intention. perceived behavioral control ajzen (ajzen, 1991b) introduced the construct ‘perceived behavioral control’ into tpb as a determinant of behavioral intention and actual behavior. on a conceptual basis, perceived behavioral control refers to the person’s belief that the behavior in question is under his or her control—but operationally, perceived behavioral control is often assessed by the ease or difficulty of the behavior (ajzen, 1991b). in this study context, the ease of data-sharing was highlighted in the perceived behavioral control aspect that was expected to significantly influence attitudes, behavioral intention, and behavior regarding data-sharing among stem researchers in indonesia. prior studies explored the relationship by informing perceived behavioral control as a strong predictor of attitudes, behavioral intention, and behavior regarding data or knowledge sharing (hau & kang, 2016; houtkoop et al., 2018; lubida et al., 2015). h8. perceived behavioral control positively affects attitudes. h9. perceived behavioral control is significantly correlated with behavioral intention h10. mediated by behavioral intention, perceived behavioral control has an indirect effect on behavior. behavioral intention and behavior stem researchers that engage in data-sharing behavior make research data available through data repositories, public online spaces, supplemental materials, or personal communication channels upon request. individual motivational variables, namely attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control, are thought to be captured by behavioral intention. at the same time, the decision to engage in the behavior is a direct determinant of the actual conduct (ajzen, 1991a). in this study, behavioral intention refers to the motivational factors affecting stem researchers to open their data when they publish their articles in journals. the stronger the data-sharing intention among researchers, the more likely they open their data. prior studies have explored this relationship and found that behavioral intention was a significant predictor of behavior on data-sharing (jeon et al., 2011; kim & nah, 2018; kim & stanton, 2016). therefore, the data-sharing behavior could be predicted by behavioral intention in the current study: h11. behavioral intention is a strong predictor of behavior. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 438 figure 1. the proposed model to examine determinants affecting data-sharing behavior, stem researchers methodology this study adapted tpb in which we extended the theory by adding two external variables: perceived benefits and facilitating conditions to support the original tpb variables; attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, behavioral intention, and behavior regarding data-sharing. eleven hypotheses were included in this study (fig 1). the current study could facilitate beneficial understanding for all stakeholders like librarians and researchers to support scientific data-sharing in stem. empirically, we applied a survey approach to validate the research model and to investigate the constructs and connections. it also yielded broad conclusions regarding academics’ data-sharing habits across fields. population and sample stem researchers in indonesia are the target population of the current study. we obtained data from indonesian science and technology index for its sampling pool. based on the data, 223,662 listed scholars in 4 main major fields of disciplines classed by the indonesian science and technology index scholar database. the four major discipline categories included science and engineering, health, social, and art and humanity. we categorized science and engineering, and health fields as the stem researchers (n= 73,673) as the population in this study; 50,820 researchers from science and engineering major and 22,853 from health. the target population was represented in the sampling pool for this study. thus, the sampling was extrapolated to the entire population. a probability random sampling approach was used to choose the survey respondents (creswell, 2013). from the indonesian science and technology scholar database, respondents were randomly selected irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 439 from researchers who work at three institutions. in addition, they should have published at least one paper within the previous two years. the minimal sample size for this research is 107 participants based on *g power assessment, sample size calculation for a correlation between two continuous variables with five predictors and two outcome variables (erdfelder et al., 2009). instrumentations twenty-seven indicators were adapted from previous studies (kim & nah, 2018; kim & stanton, 2016; kim & zhang, 2015). in the development initiation, a panel of 5 experts and 5 users reviewed the indicators in three focus group discussions as part of the content validity process. based on the discussions, we revised a few items as a refinement effort to make the indicators suitable for the study samples; three indicators were dropped. indicators with likert scales of 1 to 5 (strongly disagree to strongly agree) were applied for five constructs’ indicators (perceived benefits, facilitating conditions, attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control). meanwhile, different measures (likert scales from 1–5, never to always) were implemented for behavioral intention and behavior. we piloted the instrument to thirty-seven stem researchers to assess its reliability through the cronbach’s alpha test in spss 23.0; as a result, all indicators were reliable with no alpha values less than .700 data collection and analysis the instrument was distributed to three indonesian institutions from 28 april 2021 to 15 august 2021. from more than 1000 researchers listed in stem disciplines (science and engineering, and health), we obtained only 157 responses or around 15% return rate. the assumption for the low responses is that because most stem invited researchers did not share their data. in the first part of the questionnaire, we provided the option of whether they have ever shared their data or not; if not, the questionnaire cannot be filled in. ninety-three respondents are females, while 64 are males. thirty-one respondents have doctoral degrees; 126 respondents are master’s degree holders. in addition, 124 respondents are from science and engineering and 33 from health. this study used a structural equation modeling (sem) method to explore connections among components in the research model. because the goal of this study is exploratory rather than confirmatory, a component-based sem employing partial least squares (pls) was selected (hair, et al., 2019). smartpls 3.3.3 was utilized as the data analysis tool in this study. the pls analysis was conducted in two phases. a measurement model was applied to see how closely the indicators for each latent variable referred to a similar conceptual construct (hair, et al., 2019). a structural model was addressed to evaluate the connections between the constructs (dijkstra & henseler, 2015; leguina, 2015). irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 440 findings measurement model for the measurement model, we first examined reflective indicators loadings. this initial phase refers to a data computation in pls-sem through the pls algorithm, informing that the values higher than 0.708 are the recommended values (habibi et al., 2020; hair, et al., 2019). however, loading values above 0.500 could still be retained (noor et al., 2019; ogbeibu et al., 2021). the threshold refers to the constructs elaborated 50% of the variance or above, facilitating the items’ reliability. using smartpls 3.3.3, the data were statistically processed to report the loading of all items. no items dropped since all loading values are above 0.500. table 1 exhibits sufficient values of the loadings from all twenty-four items. the lowest loading was gained from behavior (b4; 0.7080), while the highest value was derived from behavioral intention (bi2; 0.9290). afterwards, reliability and internal consistency were assessed; the assessments were facilitated by calculating cronbach alpha, rho_a, and composite reliability (cr). in table 1, values (+0.700) of cronbach’s alpha, rho_a, and cr confirm all constructs’ reliability and internal consistency (ogbeibu et al., 2021). table 1. reflective indicator loadings, internal consistency reliability, and convergent validity construct item load β rho_a cr ave vif attitudes at1 0.7960 0.7430 0.7810 0.8290 0.5500 1.467 at2 0.8310 1.646 at3 0.6890 1.982 at4 0.6330 1.821 behavior b1 0.7980 0.8420 0.8520 0.8870 0.6120 1.836 b2 0.7810 1.659 b3 0.8100 1.847 b4 0.7080 1.707 b5 0.8080 2.027 behavioral intention bi1 0.9080 0.8150 0.8240 0.9150 0.8430 1.898 bi2 0.9290 1.898 facilitating conditions fc1 0.8540 0.8120 0.8310 0.8880 0.7250 1.725 fc2 0.7950 1.736 fc3 0.9020 2.276 perceived benefits pb1 0.8770 0.8410 0.8400 0.9050 0.7600 2.259 pb2 0.8420 1.979 pb3 0.7990 1.821 pb4 0.8110 1.938 perceived behavioral control pbc1 0.9020 0.8530 0.8660 0.9000 0.6940 2.729 pbc2 0.8880 2.557 pbc3 0.8240 1.593 subjective norms sn1 0.9130 0.8150 0.8670 0.8890 0.7280 2.138 sn2 0.7690 1.575 sn3 0.8720 1.977 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 441 the average variance extracted (ave) values of greater than 0.500 have an indication of satisfactory convergent validity (habibi et al., 2021; henseler, 2017); all ave data show good values of more than 0.500, ranging from 0.5500 to 0.8430 (table 1). to avoid the multicollinearity issue, vif values were examined. vif values informed in table 1 indicate that the study’s data are free of multicollinearity issues since they all are below 4 (hair et al., 2010). in addition, the discriminant validity was addressed by examining the heterotrait-monotrait ratio (htmt), suggested as the highest boundary criterion for discriminant validity (hair, et al., 2019). consistent with (hair, et al., 2019) notes, the htmt results of table 2 indicate that all constructs are different, supporting the model’s discriminant validity. table 2. heterotrait-monotrait ratio (htmt) of all constructs, below 0.900 attitudes behavior behavioral intention facilitating conditions perceived behavioral control perceived benefits subjective norms attitudes 0.7420 behavior 0.6970 0.7820 behavioral intention 0.4010 0.5140 0.9180 facilitating conditions 0.5670 0.5390 0.4640 0.8520 perceived behavioral control 0.4790 0.5240 0.6220 0.3490 0.8720 perceived benefits 0.5410 0.5070 0.5500 0.4290 0.6700 0.8330 subjective norms 0.5610 0.5330 0.3250 0.4310 0.4460 0.3430 0.8530 structural model the current study applied consistent bootstrapping in smartpls 3.3.3 with 5,000 subsamples in estimating the structural model. prior to the elaboration of the structural model, we estimated the model’s fit criteria by providing the elaboration of standardized root mean square residual (srmr), the squared euclidean distance (d_uls), and the geodesic distance (dg) that are based on prior extant research (dijkstra & henseler, 2015; hu & bentler, 1998, 1999; ogbeibu et al., 2021). to achieve the model’s fits, the srmr value should be less than 0.800. as exhibited in table 3, the srmr value (0.060) refers to an appropriate model fit for the current study and indicates that the proposed model has an adequate value of model fit. the d_uls and dg have also performed good values of 2.002 and 0.698, respectively. to examine the structural model, studies (ringle et al., 2020; sarstedt et al., 2016) recommend assessing measures such as statistical significance, f 2 (effect sizes), r 2 (coefficient of determination), and q 2 (predictive relevance). for the statistical significance, the results inform that seven out of eleven relationships are positively significant. the seven supporting hypotheses are h1, h3, h4, irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 442 h5, h9, h10, h11. the strongest relationship between subjective norms and attitudes emerges with a t value of 5.0740 (β = 5.0740; p < 0.001), supporting h5. on the other hand, the weakest relationship that confirms h11 is between behavioral intention and behavior with the value of 3.1730 (β = 0.3080; p < 0.05). four relationships are not statistically significant that are perceived benefits -> behavioral intention, subjective norms -> behavioral intention, attitudes -> behavioral intention, and perceived behavioral control -> attitudes. in terms of effect sizes (f 2 ), ringle et al. (2018) advocate that f 2 scores of 0.02, 0.15, and 0.35 suggest small, medium, and large effects; no large effects are found in the current study. the effect sizes of all exogenous constructs to all endogenous constructs are informed in detail in table 3. the coefficient of determination r 2 is defined as the value measuring the predictive accuracy—the computation functions as the correlation of squares among endogenous variables. figure 2 exhibits the endogenous constructs’ r 2 , values of 0.67, 0.33, and 0.19 refer to strong, moderate, and weak predictive relevance. a q 2 value of more than 0 for endogenous constructs indicates good predictive accuracy. recommended by prior research (hair, et al., 2019; ogbeibu et al., 2021) for reporting models’ predictive accuracy, q 2 results of attitudes (0.245), behavioral intention (0.372), and behavior (0.194) indicate a good predictive relevance for all exogenous variables. table 3. statistical significances, effect sizes, and model’s fits h path β p sig. f2 remarks model’s fits h1 perceived benefits -> attitudes 0.2690 0.0010 yes 0.076 small srmr 0.06 0 h2 perceived benefits -> behavioral intention 0.1660 0.1070 no 0.024 small d_uls 2.00 2 h3 facilitating conditions -> attitudes 0.2960 0.0000 yes 0.131 medium d_g 0.69 8 h4 facilitating conditions -> behavioral intention 0.2710 0.0010 yes 0.089 small h5 subjective norms -> attitudes 0.3170 0.0000 yes 0.149 medium h6 subjective norms -> behavioral intention -0.0250 0.7350 no 0.001 no effect h7 attitudes -> behavioral intention -0.0420 0.6450 no 0.002 no effect h8 perceived behavioral control -> attitudes 0.0540 0.5160 no 0.003 no effect h9 perceived behavioral control -> behavioral intention 0.4480 0.0000 yes 0.188 medium h10 perceived behavioral control -> behavior 0.3330 0.0000 yes 0.102 medium h11 behavioral intention -> behavior 0.3080 0.0020 yes 0.087 small irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 443 figure 2. bootstrapping (t value and r 2 ) and blindfolding results (q 2 ) of the structural model to examine determinants affecting data-sharing behavior, stem researchers discussion the scale development was done to produce a valid and reliable instrument (davis et al., 2018). firstly, previous literature sources were analyzed for the instrumentation process, generating and initiating twenty-seven indicators. the instrument was then validated through face and content validity by discussing all indicators with experts and users for contextual and setting suitableness. face validity and content validity, though qualitative methods are important steps in survey validation to evaluate to what extent the instrument can measure the study purposes (wynd, et al., 2003). from these processes, three items were dropped. afterwards, the study’s instrument was piloted and analyzed through cronbach’s alpha test in spss 23. twenty-four indicators were included for the main data collection. the data, 157 responses, were computed for the measurement model within the pls-sem approaches (j. f. hair et al., 2020). no indicators were eliminated in the measurement model processes. srmr, d_uls, and d_g were reported to understand the model’s fits before the structural model assessment was conducted with the remaining indicators (24 items). validation of a survey instrument is an important activity in the research process (ferketich et al., 1993). this valid and reliable instrument was intended to investigate how the extended tpb factors established in this study affect stem researchers’ attitudes, behavioral intention, and behavior regarding data-sharing. three constructs are significant in predicting attitudes toward data-sharing: perceived benefits, facilitating conditions, and subjective. when stem researchers perceive more benefits, more supporting facilitating conditions such as accessible technological and organizational support systems for data-sharing, and irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 444 more supports from their important friends and colleague, they are more likely to have positive attitudes toward data-sharing. the significance of facilitating conditions in predicting attitudes toward data-sharing supports prior studies (harper & kim, 2018; mooney & newton, 2012; zuiderwijk et al., 2020). in addition, perceived benefits were also reported as factors that predict attitudes in research (kim & zhang, 2015; park & wolfram, 2017; piwowar & vision, 2013; powell et al., 2021). prior studies in knowledge sharing also informed that subjective norms are a key preditor for attitudes (alajmi, 2012; khalil et al., 2014; mousa et al., 2019). however, perceived behavioral control does not significantly impact attitudes that contradict prior studies (hau & kang, 2016; houtkoop et al., 2018; lubida et al., 2015). regarding behavioral intention, facilitating conditions that refer to the facilitation of important resources, such as data repositories, website storage, and other facilities for data-sharing, significantly predict behavioral intention. the findings agree with prior studies (harper & kim, 2018; mooney & newton, 2012; zuiderwijk et al., 2020), encouraging that facilitating conditions support stem researchers’ behavioral intention regarding data-sharing. perceived behavioral control also significantly predicts behavioral intention; this significance confirms studies investigating the relationships between the two (hau & kang, 2016; houtkoop et al., 2018; lubida et al., 2015). however, two core factors of tpb (perceived behavioral control and attitudes) and one extended construct (perceived benefits) are insignificant in predicting behavioral intention. unlike the previous findings that reveal the significances of perceived behavioral control (hau & kang, 2016; houtkoop et al., 2018; lubida et al., 2015), attitudes (kim & nah, 2018; kim & stanton, 2016; kim & zhang, 2015), and perceived benefits (kim & zhang, 2015; rowhani-farid et al., 2017; sanderson et al., 2017), the insignificances reported in this study should be more comprehended with bigger samples to see the reality, fact, and reasons on why the insignificances emerged. the last endogenous construct, behavior, was hypothesized to be predicted by perceived behavioral control and behavioral intention. based on the analyses with the structural model, perceived behavioral control is significantly related to behavior that is similar to previous research (hau & kang, 2016; houtkoop et al., 2018; lubida et al., 2015). the more respondents believe that they can handle the data-sharing process, the better they do the data-sharing activities. in addition, behavioral intention is also reported to significantly predict behavior. individual stem researchers’ decision in engaging within the behavior significantly determines the behavior of data-sharing. the motivational factors triggering stem researchers to do data-sharing can improve the behavior (jeon et al., 2011; kim & nah, 2018; kim & stanton, 2016; kim & zhang, 2015). data-sharing behavior was significantly determined by the researchers’ intention. conclusion the findings of the study include several implications. based on tpb, this research considers attitudes, behavioral intention, and behavior as outcome variables. the data resulting from this study quantifies data-sharing behavior. the findings inform the measurement of the three endogenous variables that can work as important outcome variables. the findings need for future studies to elaborate more on the data-sharing irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 445 behavior. several practical implications can be considered for all stakeholders and policymakers providing data-storage services. the study’s findings consider that stem researchers perceived behavioral control and behavioral intention are important to bridge researchers’ data-sharing behaviors. related stakeholders should have a good decision on how to ease researchers for appropriate data-sharing tools and management, providing researchers better facilities. reports revealed that data-sharing activities need a lot of hard work and effort (kim & nah, 2018; kim & zhang, 2015). to encourage data-sharing, researchers should be supported to manage their data sets, thus permitting them to share their data with their colleagues more easily. the small sample obtained by the current study is one of the main limitations. we have tried to send the survey questionnaire to more than 1000 stem researchers; however, the 15 % responses might indicate that stem researchers are not accustomed to data-sharing (kim & stanton, 2012). other limitations refer to the specific field of study, stem, that general fields of study with bigger samples can be addressed for future research. demographic information involvement (gender, institution, and fields of study) in the data analysis through tests of differences like t-test, analysis of variance, multi-analysis of variance, and multi-group analysis can also be recommended for future studies. the method is also limited to quantitative data, specifically surveys; therefore, both quantitative and qualitative approaches are recommended. for instance, an interview can be addressed to gain a more in-depth understanding of the data-sharing phenomena. experimental studies can be more beneficial to see how a treatment works in the data-sharing activities. the model can also be extended for future researchers with more outcomes and predicting variables. disclosure statement no potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors. acknowledgments the research/publication of this article was funded by universitas jambi. references ajzen, i. 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(2020). what drives and inhibits researchers to share and use open research data? a systematic literature review to analyze factors influencing open research data adoption. plos one, 15(9 september). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0239283 biographical notes dr. wilda syahri is a senior lecturer at the faculty of education and teacher training, universitas jambi, indonesia. dr. yusnaidar is a senior lecturer at the faculty of education and teacher training, universitas jambi, indonesia. dr. muhaimin is a full professor at faculty of pharmacy, universitas padjadjaran, jl. raya jatinangor km 21, sumedang, jawa barat 45363, indonesia; muhaimin@unpad.ac.id https://doi.org/10.2307/30036540 https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440211027572 https://doi.org/10.1108/jd-09-2017-0126 https://doi.org/10.1177/0165551518823174 mailto:muhaimin@unpad.ac.id this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 243 measuring indonesian efl learners’ beliefs about english language learning: a stochastic modeling approach dairabi kamil* abstract this research sought to assess the validity and reliability of the indonesian translation of the beliefs about language learning inventory (balli) and using it to measure indonesian english as a foreign language (efl) learners’ beliefs about language learning (ball). data were collected by administering balli to 58 conveniently sampled english department students at a state higher education institution in indonesia. data analyses were conducted within a stochastic modeling approach using the rasch analysis method. the results show that the inventory meets the psychometric property criteria of a valid and reliable instrument for a meaningful measurement of ball within a stochastic modeling approach. the majority of the participants believed that everyone can learn to speak english, some languages are easier than others, the most important part of learning english is learning new words, it is important to practice a lot, and they wanted to learn to speak english well. keywords approach, beliefs about language learning, efl, rasch analysis, stochastic article history received 27 july 2022 accepted 14 december 2022 how to cite kamil, d. (2022). measuring indonesian efl learners’ beliefs regarding english language learning: a stochastic modeling approach. indonesian research journal in education |irje|, 6(2), 243–260. https://doi.org/10.22437/irje .v6i2.19966 * associate professor, institut agama islam kerinci, jambi, indonesia; drbkml@gmail.com https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v6i2.19966 https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v6i2.19966 mailto:drbkml@gmail.com irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 244 introduction language learners’ beliefs about language learning (ball) play an important role in the whole process of their learning, and consequently, impact on the results. research shows that language learners’ ball are correlated to, among others, their language learning strategy use (abedini, rahimi, & zare-ee, 2011; mokhtari, 2020; ergen, 2021), engagement in out-of-class learning (shibata, 2019), levels of syntactic complexity used of the language learned (kovačević, 2017), english proficiency (al momani, & al-oglah,2021; li & liang, 2012), perceived linguistic self-confidence (jee, 2017), english academic achievements (hayati, 2020), and emotional intelligence (ghanadi & ketabi, 2014). in this light, it is imperative for language educators to be aware of their students’ ball as they contribute to the students’ learning behaviors and outcomes (saito & maeda, 2018). studies on foreign language learners’ ball have been conducted in different native (l1) and target language (l2) contexts and mostly approached quantitatively using the beliefs about language learning inventory (balli) which was originally developed in english by horwitz (1987). for that purpose, balli has been modified and translated into, for example, persian (saeb & zamani, 2013), turkish (tan, 2010), thai (apairach & vibulphol 2015), arabic (daif-allah, 2012), chinese (manfred, 2008), and hungarian (rieger, 2009). all shared a similar reason for using a translated version of balli, i.e. to ensure a full understanding of the inventory by the respondents of different language backgrounds. most of these studies also assessed the validity and reliability of their versions of balli prior to further data analyses. in indonesian context, study on ball is still scarce. only few studies have been conducted, mainly on english learners, ad used the original balli (e.g., amrullah,vianty & fiftinova, 2018; hayati, 2020; rahmawati, 2020; febriani, 2017; iswati, 2020; inayati & emaliana, 2017). yet, so far, only one study (taufiqurrohman, 2016) has been identified to have used an indonesian translation of balli. however, evaluation of the psychometric properties, including the validity and reliability of the translated version of the inventory has been overlooked in the study. furthermore, most quantitative studies on ball, including ones conducted in indonesian context, were approached with a deterministic modeling approach. in this approach, variables, like a learner’s ball, are predicted “from a given set of circumstances'' (taylor & karlin, 1998, p.2), and are assumed to be “uniquely determined by parameters in the model and by sets of previous state of these variables. therefore, deterministic models perform the same way for a given set of parameters and initial conditions and their solution is unique.” (renard, alcolea, & ginsbourger, 2013, p.1). this approach is prone to instability as small deviations in the parameters and the initial conditions can lead to significant changes in the results of measurement (renard, alcolea, & ginsbourger, 2013). an alternative that can be used to address the problem is the stochastic approach which “predicts a set of possible outcomes weighted by their likelihoods, or probabilities.” (taylor & karlin, 1998, p.2). in this approach, parameters and variables are not described by a single value, but by probability distributions. thus, the results of measurements come in the form of a series of likely solutions, and this make it possible to evaluate the extent to which measures of the variables being studied are certain (renard, alcolea, & ginsbourger, 2013, p.2). in addition, the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 245 stochastic approach was adopted in present study because beliefs are dynamic and subject to changes overtime (hoogland, 2015), and ball are of no exception (özmen, 2012; fujiwara, 2015). however, research on ball with stochastic approaches is hardly available, and one that is conducted in indonesia using an indonesian translation of balli is still absent. in light of the aforementioned gaps, the present study sought to fill the voids by trying out an indonesian version of balli, assessing its validity and reliability and, and using it to measure the ball of the participating indonesian efl learners. particularly, the present study used rasch analysis (rasch,1980; bond & fox, 2013), a method under stochastic modeling approach, to meet its objectives. the method: 1) enables conversion of the inventory’s non-linear ordinal responses into interval data and measure them on a common linear logit scale (wright, 2000); 2) provides information on idiosyncrasies of items and respondents’ responses in the form of unique values of individual thresholds among categories in each item of polytomous data. thus, specific information about the characteristic of the variable under question are available for evaluation (bond & fox, 2001); 3) is robust to missing responses; 4) presents the results of analysis in the form of graphical summaries of population and detailed individual profiles that could be easily understood and interpreted by non-specialist audiences (wright, 2000); and 5) is robust to small sample size (wright, 1996). specifically, the present study sought to answer the following research questions: (1) to what extent does the indonesian translation of balli meet the psychometric criteria of a valid and reliable instrument for measuring ball within a stochastic modeling approach? (2) what are the indonesian efl learners’ belief about english language learning? literature review this section discusses the concepts and understandings of ball and studies that have been conducted on it. the development of theories related to ball are chronologically highlighted, and relevant selected research findings are discussed. beliefs about language learning attention to ball started to grow in the 80s. ever since, scholars have proposed different approaches to the understanding of it based on their perspectives on the nature and relationship between beliefs and knowledge. some (e.g., horwitz, 1985, 1987,1988; bell, 2005; levine, 2003) see beliefs as a cognitive entity that language learners have in their mind. others (e.g., flavel, 1987; ryan,1984; schommer, 1990, 1993) sees ball as part of metacognitive knowledge that determines one’s epistemological beliefs and intellectual performance. from this perspective, ball comprises learners’ conceptions about themselves as learners, their learning needs and objectives (flavel,1987). on the contrary, although concurs with the concept of metacognitive knowledge, wenden (1999) sees beliefs as a distinct construct independent from metacognitive knowledge because they are value-related and can be strongly held by their believers. while, metacognitive knowledge, in her view, is “a system of related ideas, some accepted without question and other validated by their experience” (p. 436).furthermore, proposing another perspective, irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 246 kalaja and barcelos (2003) conceptualise beliefs as a social constructs shaped by experiences and problems one goes through in their life. they see ball principally concern the nature of language and language learning and conceptualise it as “opinions and ideas that learners (and teachers) have about the task of learning a second/foreign language” (p. 1). the present study refers to this understanding of ball. reseach on ball the most widely used instrument to measure ball is the beliefs about language learning inventory, henceforth called balli, which was constructed by horwitz (1985, 1987). balli was intended “to assess student opinions on a variety of issues and controversies related to language learning” (horwitz, 1988).the inventory was developed based her logical conceptualization that ball is comprised of beliefs in 5 major aspects: 1) difficulty of language learning; 2) foreign language aptitude; 3) the nature of language learning; 4) learning and communication strategies; and 5) motivation and expectation. these 5 areas of ball are represented by 34 items of statement. except for 2 items, the other 34 items have a 5-point likert scale responses.interestingly, balli is not purported to produce a composite score as most other inventory are. rather, it is meant to produce descriptions of individual students’ ball. a great number of studies, some have been mentioned in the previous sections of this report, used either the original or translated versions of balli. based on their purposes, the studies can be distinguished into those that focus on (1) measuring learners’ ball; (2) the structural dimensions of learners’ ball; and (3) the relationship between learners’ ball and other factors of l2 learning (cui, 2014). studies that focus on measuring learners’ balls in different l1 and l2 contexts showed variations in the beliefs. researching the ball of 143 turkish learners of english, french, and german in one study, ariogul, unal, and onursal (2009) found that the learners held different beliefs in the level of the difficulty of the l2 they were learning. the majority of the french and german learners perceived the l2 were difficult to learn, which was in contrast to the majority of their english counterparts who saw english not a difficult language to learn. they also showed dissimilar beliefs on the importance of learning the culture of the l2, grammar, translation, and vocabulary. however, regarding the foreign language aptitude, learning and communication aspects, all the learners agreed that there are people with innate ability to learn foreign languages, practicing with audio materials is important. pertaining to the motivations and expectations aspect, most of the learners believed that l2 mastery would help them find a better job and get to know the speaker of l2 better. other researchers (mohebi & khodadady, 2011), who studied 423 iranian learners of english found that the majority of the learners disagreed on the importance of learning grammar, l2 to l1 translation, but agreed on the importance of learning new vocabulary, excellent pronunciation, practicing with audio materials. they also believed that:1) english mastery would help them find a good job and get to know english native speaker better, 2) they had an aptitude for learning english; 3) english is not a difficult language to learn; 4) learning english is different from other subjects; 5) they should not say anything in english until they could say it correctly, indicating their greater belief in the importance of accuracy; and 6) everyone could learn to speak english. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 247 in indonesian context, studying 75 learners of english at a university, amrullah, vianty, and fiftinova, (2018) found that, in general, the learners held comparatively stronger beliefs on the nature of language learning and motivations and expectations aspects than the other three aspects. specifically, they strongly believed that:1) everyone can learn to speak english; 2) they will learn to speak english very well; 3) learning new vocabulary and practicing a lot are important;and 4) they wanted to learn to speak english well. another study (rahmawati, 2020), on 144 indonesian learners of english at university as well, found that the learners strongly believed that: 1) everyone can learn english; 2) practicing and learning new vocabulary are important; 3) they would finally speak english very well; and 4) if they speak english fluently, they will have many chances to use the language. as horwitz (1987) developed balli based on her logical conceptualization of ball, several researchers, mostly using the deterministic modeling approach, have studied the validity and the structural dimensions of the 5 aspects of it. the results varied across different l1 and l2 contexts. for example, using principal component analysis (pca) technique, hong’s (2006) studies on 428 university students who spoke korean and another 420 who spoke both chinese and korean resulted in 10 latent variables. in contrast, in a study on 432 iranian university students, ghobadi (2009) found 5 components, while khodadady and hashemi’s (2010) study, using principal axis factoring (paf) technique and a persian translation of balli, on iranian 418 university students found 14 components. furthermore, similar to horwitz’s (1987) conceptions, rieger’s (2009) study with a hungarian version of balli also yielded 5 components, but with different item loadings on each of the components. these instances illustrate how the construct validity of ball varied across different contexts of study. research that evaluates the validity of the original balli or translations of it with a stochastic approach is hardly available. so far, only one available, i.e. li & li (2015). using rasch analysis technique, this study confirmed the multidimensionality of the chinese translation of inventory, or in other words balli measures more than one aspect. this study also identified one item, i.e. item 15, did not fit the model well. in addition, other 13 items were also found to fail to meet the criteria for a meaningful measurement in rash analysis because they had disordered categories. thus, overall, 14 items were removed from the inventory, leaving 20 items for further analysis of which a better reliability measure was reported. nevertheless, one issue that needs to be addressed in the study is its treatment of balli multidimensional data with rasch analysis that is purported to identify and work with the unidimensional ones (linacre, 2011). although the study confirmed the multidimensionality of the data, the subsequent analysis seemed to have overlooked that fact. this might have led to the findings and removal of the 14 items. alternatively, the analyses could be separately conducted on data from individual aspects or dimensions to meet rasch analysis unidimensional characteristics, as employed in the present study. studies on the relationship of learners’ ball and other factors of l2 learning showed that they were correlated to the learners’ related variables and the external ones. for example, studying 250 iranian english major students, daif-allah (2012) found significant differences in the students’ ball aspects of language aptitude,’ learning and communication strategies, and motivations and expectations. however, such variations as well as those of age and l2 proficiency were not al identified in arslan and kafes’s (2021) study of 242 turkish efl irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 248 learners.furthermore, other studies show that relationship between language learners’ ball and their second language anxiety (tandang, & arif, 2019); perceived linguistic self-confidence (jee, 2017); emotional intelligence (ghanadi & ketabi, 2014); pedagogical beliefs (inayati & emaliana, 2017); self-efficacy beliefs (genc, kulusakli, & aydin, 2016), and level of education (khodadady, 2009). overall, these studies support horwitz’s (1999) suggestions on the influences of cultural and situational backgrounds on learners’ ball. methodology this section presents the design of the study, the participants, method of data collection, instrument, data analysis technique. where deemed necessary, reasons for the use of specific research techniques are also given. design and participants this study drew on a quantitative design. in particular, it used survey technique to gather the data. the design and technique were suited to the objectives of the study that sought to assess the validity and reliability of the indonesian translation of balli using rasch analysis, and measure the indonesian efl learners’ ball using the indonesian translation of the inventory. this study involved 58 conveniently sampled english department students of a state higher education institution in indonesia who responded voluntarily to an online survey for data collection. 39 of them were female and 19 were male. they were in their 6th semester and part of 71 of the total population of the semester. data collection the data for the present study were collected online through the administration of an indonesian translation of the belief about language learning inventory (horwitz, 1987) using google form application. the administration of the indonesian version of the inventory was opted for in order to ensure a full understanding of the inventory by the participants. the distribution of the of inventory to the participants was conducted by sending the form’s url to the participants’ class whatapp groups. the 58 participants responded to the inventory within one week. instrument the indonesian translation version of the balli used for collecting the data consisted of three parts. the first part contained an explanation of the purposes of the study and invitation to participate in it with an assurance that their personal information would be kept confidential. the second part was the consent form where the prospective participants indicated their agreement to voluntarily participate in the study. this part also informed that the participants’ personal information would be kept confidential during and after the study. the third part contain the inventory items. resembling the order items of the original balli, the inventory measures the five aspects of the beliefs, i.e. 1) foreign language aptitude, 2) the difficulty of language learning, 3) the nature of language irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 249 learning, 4) learning and communication strategies, and 5) motivations and expectations. the distribution items that the five aspects comprised of are as follows: the data for the present study were collected online through the administration of an indonesian translation of the belief about language learning inventory (horwitz, 1987) using google form application.the distribution items that the five aspects comprised of are as follows: table 1. balli’s items distribution aspects item number of item 1. foreign language aptitude 1,2,6,10,11,16,19,30,33 9 2. the difficulty of language learning 3,4,15,25,34 5 3. the nature of language learning 8,12,17,23,27,28 6 4. learning and communication strategies 7,9,13,14,18,21,22,26 8 5. motivations and expectations 5,20,24,29,31,32 6 except for items 4 and 15, all the other items had a 5-point likert scale response category, with which the participants rated their agreement to the statements of the items by choosing either 5 =strongly agree, 4= agree,3= neutral, 2=disagreement and 1=strongly disagree. as for item 4 that asked the participants to rate the level of difficulty of english, the response categories were: 1=very difficult, 2=difficult, 3 =medium difficult, 4= easy, and 5=very easy. for item 15 that reads “if someone spent 1 hour a day learning english, how long would it take them to speak the language very well”, the response categories were 1= less than a year, 2=1-2 years,3= 3-5 years, 4=5-10 years, and 5= you can;t learn a language in 1 hour per day. the accuracy of the indonesian translation of the inventory was ensured by conducting a back-translation procedure whose results were then evaluated by two competent lecturers of english. both evaluators agreed on the accuracy and appropriateness of the translation to be used in the present study. in addition, to suit the inventory with the participants of the study, i.e. indonesian efl learners, some necessary word addition and replacements were also made on a few items. for example, item 1 that originally reads “it is easier for children than adults to learn a foreign language” was modified into “it is easier for children than adults to learn english”. data analysis to assess the validity of the inventory, the data were analysed for their item polarity as indicated by the value of point measure correlation that shows the extent to which the items represent the construct being measured, i.e. ball, and item fit statistics, particularly the infit mean square (infitmnsq), that shows the direction of the representation. as balli is multidimensional, assessment of validity was also conducted by examining the dimensionality of the inventory which refers to the extent to which the items measure a single dimension at a time (bond & fox, 2001). this was performed by using pca on the residuals, with eigenvalue >2.0 of unexplained variance explained by the first factor indicating the presence of an extra dimension as the criterion (linacre, 2006). assessment of the reliability of the instrument was performed by examining item separation index that shows the extent to which the items were separated in terms of their increasing agreeability, and item reliability index that indicates the reproducibility of the item separation when the inventory is administered on a irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 250 group of other participants with similar characteristics as those participated in present study (bond & fox, 2013). investigation of the participants’ beliefs about language learning was conducted by examining the item measure that indicates the agreeability of an item to the participants. the lower the measure of an item, the more agreeable the item is to the participants, or in other words, the item received more agreement than items with higher measures. hence, the lower the measure of an item, the stronger the magnitude of the participants’ belief measured by the item and vice versa. as balli is not meant to produce a composite score (horwitz, 1985; hong, 2006), data analysis, interpretation and presentation of results related to the participants’ ball were conducted on individual item and aspects of the beliefs. findings this section presents the results of data analysis on the validity and reliability of the indonesian version of the inventory, and the participants’ beliefs about language learnimg. the findings of the latter are presented under each of the five aspects of the beliefs. overall validity and reliability of the indonesian version of balli although balli is not meant to produce a composite score (horwitz, 1985; hong, 2006), it is important to assess the overall validity and reliability of the indonesian version of the inventory which was used in the present study. this is because the inventory was designed to measure a single construct, i.e. beliefs about language learning. thus, theoretically, all the items it contains must align with the construct and the measures it produces should be reliable. regarding validity, drawing on the criterion that all items should have a positive point measure correlation (ptmeacorr) value (linacre, 2006), the values (table. 2) show that item 3 (some languages are easier than others) of the difficulty of language learning aspect and item 21 (i feel shy speaking english with other people) of the learning and communication strategies aspect had a negative value of -.08 and -.06 respectively. these indicate that the two items were not representing the construct. furthermore, with the criterion of acceptable value-range of 0.5 to 1.5 (linacre, 2006), examination of infitmnsq (table 2) found that item 12 (it is best to learn english in an english speaking country) of the nature of language learning aspect and item 15 (if someone spent 1 hour a day learning a language, how long would it take them to speak the language very well?) of the difficulty of language learning aspect had a value of 3.44 and 1.77 respectively, which are outside the range. this indicates that the two item were not contributing to the measurement in a meaningful way. furthermore, the result of pca on residuals showed an eigenvalue of 3.4 (4.3%), slightly larger than 2.0, indicating possible presence of another dimension. thus, the inventory is possibly multidimensional as it is designed to be. as for reliability, item separation index had a value of 6.19, suggesting that the item could be categorised into six agreeability levels. in addition, the data also had a very high reliability index of .97, suggesting that similar order of item agreeability will be produced if the inventory is administered on a group of other participants with similar characteristics as those participated in present study (bond & fox, 2013). pertaining to items with negative polarity, linacre (2006) suggested that irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 251 they should be removed from the instrument as they may distort the results of the measurement. while for misfitting items, smith (1991) suggested that up to 5% of items may misfit by chance. this could be due to variations in respondents’ demography (bond & fox 2001). therefore, further examination on misfitting items should be conducted in terms of their wordings and instrument administration errors. in the present study, the suggestions had been conducted and found no such issues. however, as the inventory was not purported to produce a composite score (horwitz, 1985; hong, 2006), and all the items would also be individually analysed within their respective aspect, the two items with negative polarity, i.e. item 3 and item 21, and other two misfitting items, i.e item 12 and item 15 were retained for the analyses that would also focus on the issues of validity and reliability. table 2. items statistics items measure ptmeacorr infitmnsq 3 21 4 15 9 2 34 14 11 12 33 19 8 6 1 23 26 22 32 28 7 30 29 13 16 17 27 18 10 31 25 5 24 20 .06 1.62 1.38 2.04 2.15 .22 .83 .50 2.04 -.18 -1.71 1.38 -.02 .24 -.57 .16 -.54 .14 -1.48 .29 -1.05 .27 -1.08 -.51 .65 -1.12 -.63 -2.48 .27 -2.25 .11 -1.23 .63 -.12 -.08* -.06* .01 .07 .14 .20 .20 .23 .25 .27 .28 .28 .29 .29 .30 .32 .32 .32 .33 .35 .36 .37 .38 .38 .38 .39 .40 .40 .41 .42 .44 .48 .50 .50 .96 1.42 .85 3.44** 1.26 1.16 1.07 .77 .91 1.77** 1.31 .64 1.22 .90 1.17 .80 .56 .97 .79 .78 .86 1.08 1.00 .68 .72 .97 .61 .76 .74 .97 1.03 .79 .83 .63 separation: 5.77 reliability: .97 notes: *: negative polarity; **:misfitting irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 252 indonesian efl learners beliefs about english language learning this section presents the results of data analysis pertaining to the participants’ ball. the results of analysis for each item are presented under the headings of their respective aspects. the main focus is on their measures that indicate the magnitude of the participants' beliefs in them. then, the items ptmeascorr, fit statistics, and reliability indices are also analysed to further address the issue of validity and reliability. considering the limitation of the space of this report, only the main features of the results are highlighted. foreign language aptitude table 3 shows that all the 9 items of foreign language aptitude aspect have positive values of ptemeacor and are within the range of 0.5 to 1.5 of infitmnsq values. these indicate that all the items measure the aspect in a meaningful way. furthermore, the item separation of 5.73 indicates that the items can be grouped into almost 6 levels of agreeability. the reliability index of .97 was also very high. table 3 also shows that item 33 (everyone can learn to speak english), measure=-2.17 was the most agreeable item of the aspect, indicating that most of the participants had a strong belief in the possibility of everybody learning the language. most of the participants also seemed to have a strong belief that “it is easier for children than adults to learn english (item 1, measure=-1.04) .on the contrary, item 11 (people who are good at math or science are not good at english), measure=2. was the item that got the fewest agreement from the participant. this indicates that the participants did not strongly hold such a belief. they also did not believe that “women are better than men at learning english” (item 19, measure=1.26). table 3. items statistics for foreign language aptitude items measure ptmeacorr infitmnsq 11 19 16 10 30 6 2 1 33 2.27 1.26 .32 -.14 -.14 -.17 -.20 -1.04 -2.17 .35 .51 .47 .40 .54 .44 .49 .36 .26 1.52 .70 .79 .87 1.02 .88 1.04 1.16 1.25 separation: 5.73 reliability: .97 the difficulty of language learning results of the first run of data analysis (table 2) showed that item 3 (some languages are easier than others) had a negative ptmeacorr value of -.08 and item 15 (if someone spent 1 hour a day learning a language, how long would it take them to speak the language very irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 253 well?) had an infitmnsq value of 3.39 which is outside the acceptable range of 0.5 to 1.5 (linacre, 2006). the second run of analysis that was conducted within it respective aspect only showed that item 3 had a positive ptmeacorr value of .54 and an infitmnsq value of .79. thus, this item was retained for further analysis. however, item 15 had an infitmnsq of 2.05 which was still outside the acceptable range, therefore, the item was not included in the further analysis. the removal left the other 4 items for the third run of analysis. the third run of analysis for the difficulty language learning aspect (table 4) shows that all the items had a positive ptmeacorr value and a very high reliability index of .93. these indicate that the remaining 4 items measured the aspect and yielded the results in a meaningful way. furthermore, the item separation index of 3.64 indicates that each of the items almost had their own unique level of agreeability. item 3 (some languages are easier than others), measure=.74 was the most agreeable item of the aspect followed by item 25 (it is easier to speak than understand english), measure=-.67 as the second most agreeable item, indicating that most of the participants hold the beliefs reflected in the two items. comparably, the participants seemed to have lesser beliefs in “it is easier to read and write english than to speak and understand it” (item 34, measure=.31). most importantly, item 4, that measured the participants’ belief of the level of difficulty of learning english yielded a measure=1.11, the highest among the four items, suggesting that the participants believed that english was a relatively difficult foreign language to learn. table 4. items statistics for difficulty of language learning items measure ptmeacorr infitmnsq 4 34 25 3 1.11 .31 -.67 -.74 .54 .49 .51 .54 .79 1.21 1.20 .76 separation: 3.64 reliability: .93 the nature of language learning results of data analysis for the items that came under the nature of language learning aspect (table 5) showed that all the six items had a positive ptmeacorr value and measure within the range of 0.5 to 1.5. the items were separated into 2.82 levels of agreeability with a high index of reliability of .89. item 17 (the most important part of learning english is learning new words), measure=-1.07 turned out to be the belief that most of the participants strongly held, followed by item 27 (learning english is different than learning other academic subjects), measure=-.46. comparatively, the participants seemed to have less strong beliefs that “it is best to learn english in an english speaking country” (item 12, measure=.09) and that “it is necessary to learn about english speaking cultures to speak english” (item 8, measure=.28). furthermore, most of the participants also seemed to be against the beliefs that “the most important part of learning a foreign language is learning grammar” (item 23, measure=.50) and that “the most important part of learning english is learning how to translate from irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 254 indonesian” (item 28, measure=.66). the two item received the least agreement from the participants. table 5. items statistics for nature of language learning items measure ptmeacorr infitmnsq 28 23 8 12 27 17 .66 .50 .28 .09 -.46 -1.07 .49 .59 .58 .44 .60 .54 .85 .71 1.05 1.89 .57 .92 separation: 2.82 reliability: .89 learning and communication strategies examination of ptmeacorr and infitmnsq of the 8 items that came under the learning and communication strategies aspect of the inventory (table 6) showed that all of them had a positive value and fit statistics that were within the range of 0.5 to 1.5. the items were of 7.75 levels of agreeability with an almost perfect reliability index of .98. principally, table 6 shows that the strongest beliefs held by the participants regarding the aspect was that “it is important to repeat and practice a lot” (item 18, measure=-3.16). most of them also seemed to believe that “it is important to speak english with an excellent pronunciation” (item 7, measure=-1.33) which was contrary to their majority disagreement with item 9 (you shouldn’t say anything in english until you can say it correctly), measure=2.61. the majority of participants also felt “...shy speaking english with other people'' (item 21, measure=2.02). table 6. items statistics for learning and communication strategies item measure ptmeacorr infitmnsq 9 21 14 22 13 26 7 18 2.61 2.02 .75 .30 -.57 -.61 -1.33 -3.16 .48 .35 .36 .55 .52 .16 .39 .52 1.16 1.24 .85 1.01 .84 .94 1.18 .75 separation: 7.75 reliability: .98 motivations and expectations all the 6 items under this aspect (table 7) had a positive ptmeacorr value and a infitmnsq value that was within the range of 0.5 to 1.5. the items were separated into 5.88 level of agreeability with a very high reliability index of .97. the results suggested that the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 255 participants’ most prominent motivation in learning english was “...to learn to speak english well” (item 31, measure=-2.02) with a dominant expectation of having “...native speaker of english friends'' (item 32, measure=-.95). however, these seemed to be contrary to their responses to two items that got their least agreement, i.e. item 24 (i would like to learn english so that i can get to know better), measure=2.67 and item 20 (people in my country feel that it is important to speak english) measure=1.25 which also dealt with similar motivation and expectation expressed by item 31 and item 32. table 7. items statistics for motivations and expectations item measure ptmeacorr infitmnsq 24 20 29 5 32 31 2.67 1.25 -.36 .59 -.95 2.02 .59 .68 .56 .52 .56 .59 1.31 .78 1.16 .94 .81 .70 separation: 5.88 reliability: .97 to sum up, the results of data analysis showed that when the data from the indonesian version of balli were analysed in an omnibus manner, 4 items had either negative polarity or infit mean square values that did not meet the criteria for a meaningful rasch measurement. hence, they were a threat to the validity of the instrument. however, when the data were analysed separately under their respective aspects, only 1 item, i.e. item 15 (if someone spent 1 hour a day learning a language, how long would it take them to speak the language very well?) of the difficulty of language learning aspect still exhibited a negative polarity and, therefore, was removed from further data analysis. furthermore, separate data analyses under each of the 5 aspects showed that the participants mostly believed that : 1) everyone can learn to speak english; 2) some languages are easier than others; 3) the most important part of learning english is learning new words; 4) it is important to repeat and practice a lot; and 5) they wanted to to learn to speak english well. discussion using a stochastic approach, the present study confirmed the multidimensionality of the indonesian version of balli. this concurs with li and li’s (2015) finding with their chinese translation of the inventory that was also analysed using a stochastic approach. in fact, item 15 which was found to misfit in the present study was also found to behave identically in li and li’s (2015) study. however, their study continued with the removal of 14 misfitting items, including item 15, resulting from their omnibus initial data analysis, leaving only 20 items for further analysis. in the present study, the initial omnibus data analysis also yielded 4 misfitting items. but, as the inventory was meant to measure a multidimensional construct and, hence, not to produce a composite score(horwitz, 1985; hong, 2006), removal of misfitting items was not performed. rather, further assessments of validity and reliability were conducted under each aspects of ball measured by balli. the results showed that, except irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 256 for item 15, the other 3 misfitting items actually did not misfit when analysed under their respective aspect and all showed a very high reliability index. to some extent, the findings of the present study that pertain to the participants’ ball were partly similar to and different from the findings of previous similar studies on indonesian learners of english that used deterministic modeling approaches. for instance, the finding that the majority of the participants believed that vocabulary is the most important part in learning english was also identified by amrullah, vianti, and fiftinova (2018), rahmawati (2020) and iswati (2020). the strongly held belief of the importance of practice,that some languages are easier to learn, and that learners wanted to learn english well were also found in one or two of the mentioned studies. however, the belief that everyone can learn to speak english which was strongly held by the participants of the present study was not a predominant belief in amrullah, vianti, and fiftinova (2018), rahmawati (2020) and iswati (2020). furthermore, the belief that they will eventually can speak english very well that was strongly held by participants in rahmawati (2020) and iswati (2020) was not evident in the present study. variations in the ball held by indonesian learners of english across different contexts and research approaches, including the present study, discussed above seem to suggest that a generic typology of indonesian language learners’ ball is not yet possible to draw. the variations also signify the suggestions made by horwitz (1999) on the influences of contexts and situations on language learners’ ball. conclusions, implications, and suggestions the present study shows that, after a close examination and revision, the indonesian translation of balli used to collect the data meets the psychometric property criteria of a valid and reliable instrument for a meaningful measurement of ball within a stochastic modeling approach, especially rasch analysis technique. thus, it can be used for future similar study research, not only on those learning english, but also other languages. in addition, the fact that some items that had a negative polarity and misfitted in the initial omnibus data analysis turned out to be valid and reliable when analysed under their respective separate aspects seems to suggest that when using a stochastic approach in measuring ball using balli it is important to assess the construct validity of the items under their respective aspects before deciding removal. it is also suggested that future research using balli takes attention on item 15 of the difficulty of language learning aspect as it was not proven to reflect ball. most importantly, as studies have shown that ball also impact language learners’ thinking, and actions in learning a language and eventually their language learning achievements, language educators’ awareness of the issue is important in order to understand and respond to relevant recurring phenomena in language classrooms. finally, as the sample of the present study was limited in terms of size and variations of demographic variables, the results may not apply for generalization beyond its context. therefore, future research with bigger sample size and demographic variations is also suggested. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 2|dec|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 257 disclosure statement the author certifies that he has no affiliations with or involvement in any organization or entity with any financial or non-financial interest in the subject matter or materials discussed in this paper. references abedini, a., rahimi, a., & zare-ee, a. 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(2000). rasch analysis for surveys. popular measurement 61. https://www.rasch.org/pm/pm3-61.pdf biographical note dairabi kamil is an associate professor in teaching english as a foreingn language (tefl) at the faculty of education and teacher training, state islamic institute of kerinci, jambi, indonesia. he holds a phd from international islamic university malaysia (iium) in curriculum and instruction, an m.ed in tesol–international from monash university, australia, and ba in english education from universitas jambi. he received a jambi province government scholarship to pursue his phd and was a recipent of australian development scholarship (ads) for his master study. in 2013-2014, he received a sabbatical research grant from the government of the republic of indonesia for his sabbatical leave resarch on anti-corruption education at the education university of hong kong. his research interests include teaching english as a foreign language (tefl), language curriculum and instruction, teacher professional development and the use of ict in education. in 2011-2012, he was involved as a researcher in a nationwide program of analytical and capacity development partnership (acdp) on environmental education in indonesia, jointly funded by the government of the republic of indonesia and the asian development bank. https://doi.org/10.2307/747695 https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164491513003 https://doi.org/10.24191/ajue.v15i3.7813 https://www.rasch.org/rmt/rmt94h.htm this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 6 issues and challenges of applying e-learning: the case of one state islamic university shohibul kahfi alam putra 1 , sofendi 2 , and margaretha dinar sitinjak 3 abstract indonesia is now overwhelmed with the issues and challenges in utilizing e-learning in many state islamic universities. moreover, this situation became worst when the covid-19 influenced the teaching and learning process exponentially. this mixed methods study aimed to explore primary issues and challenges of using e-learning faced by one indonesian state islamic university in south sumatra province, indonesia, and the solutions to overcome those hindrances. three primary participants included students, academic staff, and faculty boards contributed to this study. the data obtained from closed and open-ended questionnaires and interviews were analyzed by using a thematic analysis. the findings revealed five primary issues and challenges of using e-learning such as infrastructure, digital content, individual constraints, technical support, and financial support. keywords challenges; e-learning; indonesian state islamic university; issues article history received 11 july 2021 accepted 30 january 2022 how to cite putra, s. k. a., sofendi, & sitinjak, m. d. (2022). issues and challenges of applying e-learning: the case of one state islamic university. | irje |indonesian research journal in education|, 6(1), 6 – 27. https://doi.org/ 10.22437/irje.v6i1.13951 1 faculty of teacher training and education, universitas sriwijaya, palembang, indonesia; shohibulkahfiofficial@gmail.com 2 faculty of teacher training and education, universitas sriwijaya, palembang, indonesia. 3 faculty of teacher training and education, universitas sriwijaya, palembang, indonesia. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 7 introduction information and communication technology (ict) has progressively acquired a prominent role in the educational sector. in higher education, ict growth has dramatically redesigned the process of teaching and learning (pulkkinen, 2007; wood, 1995). as stated by ghavifekr and rosdy (2015), ict integration enables to shift of the traditional teaching methods to a technology-based teaching and learning method equipped with tools and amenities which have links to the use of technologies in any school and university across the globe. regardless of whether or not indonesia is a developed country, many students and educators of state islamic universities throughout indonesia argue if e-learning amenities are always available. in line with the statement above, al-araibi, mahrin, and yusoff (2016) claimed that the limitation of the absence of technical aspects is the main hindrance for most higher education institutions. besides, the condition becomes uncontrollable when covid-19 strikes. consequently, educators face difficulties since they have little or no e-learning experience and have not produced any e-learning resources, specifically when operating online platforms (zaharah, kirilova, & windarti, 2020) overall, many state islamic universities in indonesia are overwhelmed with various hindrances to using e-learning. the first hindrance came from individual constraints comprising of personal electronic resources, the unfamiliarity of e-learning, it mastery, and internet package (alim, linda, gunawan & saad., 2019; azhar, 2021; fauzi & asri, 2021; muhajarah & fabriar, 2020; nisa, mujizatullah, idham, nawawi, darwis, amiruddin, israpil & arsyad, 2020; octaberlina & muslimin, 2020). the infrastructures also took part as an issue, including e-learning platforms initiated by the university and electricity outages (alimron, 2018). besides, students criticized the way lecturers provided digital content since they demanded interactive and innovative teaching materials (hartanto, 2018). the majority of research aims to investigate e-learning barriers were piloted in normal circumstances or before the covid-19 outbreak, where e-learning is an optional method to improve teaching and learning (al-azawei, parslow & lundqvist, 2016; arinto, 2016; gamdi & samarji, 2016). besides, many studies have investigated e-learning hindrances during pandemics (mailizar, almanthari, maulina & bruce, 2020; mesiono, 2020; shahzad, hassan, aremu, hussain & lodhi., 2020). in addition, those topics took place in public universities (al-azawei et al., 2016; aldowah, ghazal & muniandy, 2015; tarus, gichoya & muumbo, 2015). in terms of research novelty, this research provided valuable insights. it was worth investigating since it concerns issues and challenges of using e-learning at a state islamic university before and during pandemics. this study seeks to find out the primary issues and challenges of using e-learning at one indonesian state islamic university and how the participants of the representative university cope with the issues and challenges of using e-learning. literature review many researchers have already investigated and found various hindrances to using e-learning at the tertiary education level, both in international and national contexts. these irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 8 hindrances below were varied and influenced more by geographical location, political situation, economic constraints, and many more. in the international context, using a quantitative approach, aldowah et al. (2015) stated that the e-learning hindrances can be categorized into five scopes such as human constraints, financial and physical constraints, technical constraints, and administrative constraints. more specifically, aboderin (2015) mentioned that the problems include insufficient computers, internet router shortages, inability to access e-learning tools and facilities, expensive software, electricity outages, and many more. besides, qureshi, ilyas, yasmin, and whitty (2012) confirmed that one of the major impediments to successful e-learning integration is the lack of electricity. however, they claimed that students‟ english proficiency also took part as a challenge of using e-learning. in a national context, the implementation of e-learning faces enormous challenges. by a qualitative approach, a researcher claimed that infrastructure is a long-lasting issue, especially when it comes to e-learning platforms initiated by the university and electricity outages (alimron, 2018). besides, the way lecturers provided digital content was also criticized by the students since they demanded interactive and innovative teaching materials (hartanto, 2018). a previous study conducted by anggraeni and sole (2018) showed that e-learning hindrances have something to do with internet access, technical skills, inadequate teaching material designs, and administration support. regardless of the help from the university, pratama and arief (2019) and chaeruman (2018) remarked that the current e-learning issue stems from students‟ motivation in terms of their willingness to be accountable for their studies. besides, other individual constraints such as personal electronic resources, the unfamiliarity of e-learning, it mastery, and internet packages take part (alim et al., 2019; azhar, 2021; fauzi & asri, 2021; muhajarah & fabriar, 2020; nisa et al., 2020; octaberlina & muslimin, 2020). methodology research design, site, and participants in this study, the researchers used a mixed method. this study involved three primary groups of informants; 2 faculty boards (the dean and the head of the department of english education), 4 academic staff (i.e., lecturers), and 8 students of the sixth-semester from the english education study program of a state islamic university in south sumatra. to sum up, there were 14 participants in this study. their participation was obtained through the purposeful sampling. in this study, the researchers used their judgments to select the participants expected to provide the data needed to answer the problems of the study (fraenkel & wallen, 2012). therefore, the participants were selected based on two criteria; (1) those who experienced using e-learning at the representative university for more than one year, (2) those who had good speaking and writing skills levels as they provided information through questionnaires and interviews. data collection and analysis in this study, two instruments were used such as questionnaires and interviews. there were six main aspects on issues and challenges of using e-learning comprising irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 9 infrastructure, digital contents, individual constraints, cultural barriers, technical support, and financial support. additionally, both closed and open-ended questionnaires were to answer research question number one regarding the primary issues and challenges of using e-learning. according to creswell (2002), along with open-ended type, the closed-ended responses may provide important information and support both concepts and theories in the literature. besides, it functions as the first instrument before the interview, used to obtain as many follow-up questions (mcnamara, 1999). during the interviews, open-ended questions were to get unbiased responses, and closed-ended questions may force participants to respond in a definite way (creswell, 2002; mcnamara, 2009). it should also be noted that there were 12 items in total where 6 closed and 6 open-ended questions, respectively. in the closed-ended questionnaire, the participants needed to choose one of the available options (strongly agree, agree, undecided, disagree, strongly disagree). the items were non-ready-made. it means the questions were made or modified by the researchers. to distribute questionnaires, the researchers used google form to collect the data due to the covid-19 outbreak. in the interview session, the researchers conducted a semi-structured focus group discussion (fgd) and face-to-face interviews using an open-ended approach with the undergraduate students, academic staff, and faculty boards to answer thoroughly both of the research questions mentioned. approximately, they were interviewed twice as the researchers had follow-up questions. however, due to the interaction restrictions in the pandemic outbreak, it was conducted online via zoom platform, voice note via whatsapp, and audio recorder (for face-to-face interview) with a strict health protocol. leavy (2017) confirmed that an open-ended interview would allow the interviewees to talk about the issues they think are essential using their languages and describe their experiences in detail with stories and examples. there were 25 questions in total lasting for one hour in one session. it represented fully six aspects on issues and challenges of using e-learning. the interview processes were taken for 4 days, from may 3 to may 6, 2021. the questions were also non-ready-made; that is, made or modified by the researchers. also, the answers were recorded and eventually be analyzed thoroughly using thematic analysis. to analyze the closed-ended questionnaire data, the researchers used descriptive statistics in a frequency distribution table form and explained the data from the open-ended questionnaire. meanwhile, the data obtained from semi-structured fgd and face-to-face interviews were analyzed using thematic analysis, and the recorded interview data in the field were transcribed. to have a safe description and categories of data, the researchers used coding of the interview data. this step involved creating codes to use for data analysis. according to miles and huberman (1994), codes are labels or tags of meaning to data and allow the easy identification of segments related to the research questions and any relevant themes. this step was essential for identifying the themes or categories of interview data. next, the codes were organized around several themes that had been determined. finally, the researchers conducted analytic interpretations of the interview results of each student‟s statement that had been systematically collected, categorized, and encoded. member checking was to measure the credibility and control of biases in this study. it is the process when the researchers wanted to check the accuracy of the data by returning the report to participants and asking them whether it is accurate or not (creswell, 2002). in irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 10 addition, the researchers used participants‟ validation as a technique for exploring the credibility of research data. after sharing all the interview results in a transcript (either in indonesian or english) to the participants involved, they were asked to affirm whether yes or not the content reflected their perspectives. they were also allowed to comment when the results did not reflect their views, feelings, or experiences. this process aimed to obtain corrective feedback from the participants involved to revise the incorrect data and interpretation for the trustworthiness of this research. ethical considerations to protect all the confidentiality of the research site and all participants in this study, the researchers masked the university as “university x” and our participants under pseudonym names (e.g., student 1, lecturer 1, faculty board 1, etc.) findings as stated above, the questionnaires were to answer the first research question, which is the primary issues and challenges of using e-learning. meanwhile, interviews gave additional information for the first research question and thoroughly answered the second research question. those findings were respectively described below. finding from the questionnaires to begin with, the findings from the closed-ended questionnaire, as seen in table 1. would remark and answer the first question (primary issues and challenges of using e-learning) where the participants checked themselves by choosing one of the available options before answering the open-ended items. the options are strongly agree, agree, undecided, disagree, and strongly disagree. if the participants chose either strongly agree or agree, it meant they claimed that there were issues and challenges about the topic. if the participants chose undecided, it meant they were uncertain about the answer. last, if the participants chose either disagree or strongly disagree, it meant they believed that there were no issues and challenges relating to the topic. table 1. issues and challenges of using e-learning issues & challenges strongly agree agree undecided disagree strongly disagree freq % freq % freq % freq % freq % infrastructure 8 57 6 43 0 0 0 0 0 0 digital contents 0 0 4 29 2 14 8 57 0 0 individual constraints 2 14 6 43 0 0 6 43 0 0 cultures & ideologies 0 0 0 0 0 0 12 86 2 14 technical support 0 0 6 43 4 29 2 14 2 14 financial support 1 7 11 79 2 14 0 0 0 0 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 11 from the results of the questionnaires, the researcher also investigated an aspect, namely culture, and ideology. however, it was not an issue or a challenge for the participants. therefore, only five aspects were hindrances to using e-learning. based on the information depicted in table 1 above, more than half of the participants (57%) strongly agree that the institution‟s e-learning platform and v-meet (virtual meeting) are the most significant issues and challenges on infrastructure, followed by wi-fi internet access and electronic resources. most students complained that the platform was terrible and missed many features, including no-editing tools, unavailability of voice notes, and many more. meanwhile, the rest of the population (43%) agrees that they are still dealing with power outages and a lack of comfortable classrooms. in addition, the situation worsens when the rain comes, resulting in blackouts and the class carpet and walls getting wet. based on the data obtained in table 1 above, it was assumed that most people (57%) chose the disagree, describing their lecturers as good and innovative educators. moreover, the students claimed that the materials shared were interactive, eye-catching, and well served. a few agree (29%) since they argue their old lecturers are not technology savvy and cannot visualize the materials. meanwhile, a couple of respondents (14%) were undecided as they believe the lecturers have joined and participated in any webinars, although the majority of academic staff are not supported entirely by the university. based on the depiction from table 1 above, a couple of students (14%) strongly agree if they have individual constraints comprising of running out of internet packages, spending a high amount of money to buy a sim (subscriber identity module) card provider, and an internet package, and having technophobia. in addition, nearly half of the participants (43%) agree that they are struggling with many hindrances, such as the lack of attention and awareness, time management, personal internet connection package, and the lack of feasible electronic devices used for online learning. meanwhile, the rest of the sample (43%) claimed that they had nothing to do with their individual constraints as they were supported by people and families around them. table 1 above also depicts participants‟ perspectives on technical services provided by university technicians. nearly half of respondents (43%) agree that the university still has a shortage of efficiency in serving students and academic staff and solving e-learning platform issues. meanwhile, a few people (29%) are undecided as they think they have no idea and somehow enjoy the usage of e-learning. on the contrary, a couple of respondents disagree (14%), and another pair strongly disagree (14%), claiming that the technicians are getting better and always helpful in helping when students and lecturers have problems with the university‟s e-learning or electronic media. based on the portrayal from table 1 above, it is also obvious that most of the participants (79%) agree if their university lacks any financial support. they claimed if the university did not support their internet package funds that seemed expensive. besides, university x only accommodated the students‟ internet package once or twice through affiliation with the government. the temporary lecturers at university x also felt the same things; they did not get electronic gadgets and premium zoom accounts for teaching. meanwhile, a participant (7%) selects a strongly agreed-upon option as her best response to irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 12 the situation since she did not get any internet package fund until now. however, a couple of people (4%) are undecided about expressing their attitude. finding from the interviews the objectives of this study were to highlight the primary issues and challenges of using e-learning at one state islamic university in south sumatra and the efforts which the participants reached. in the coding process, the researchers revealed several themes and subthemes as presented in table 2. it should mention that each of the hindrances in subthemes followed by the efforts was to overcome those hindrances done by the participants. table 2. themes and subthemes themes sub-themes infrastructure bad e-learning platform inadequate wi-fi internet connection lack of suitable classroom lack of electronic resources insufficient electricity supply digital contents uninteresting teaching materials lack of workshops and seminar individual constrains unsupported personal internet package unsupported electronic devices lack of attention and awareness issue on giving direct feedback lack of ict and language skills too many tasks technical support bad services bad management system financial support lack of internet package funds lack of electronic resource funds lack of premium zoom account funds infrastructure in addition, infrastructure may be seen as the determinant of how developed an institution is. however, university x is still problematic when it discusses infrastructure, including an e-learning platform, wi-fi internet connection, suitable classrooms, electronic resources, and electricity. v-meet (virtual-meeting) has been a platform used by both educators and students in this university during this pandemic. nonetheless, many participants found it hard to use and even criticized it. “v-meet is more terrible. i‟m so sorry to say that, but we need speed access and easiness to transfer knowledge.” [lecturer 2, june 6, 2021] irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 13 “i often find a situation that whenever i use e-learning and a lot of people access e-learning, then the e-learning website turns down.” [student 6, mei 29, 2021] “when there is a video submission, we cannot upload any videos due to space capacity. therefore, whenever we have a task, we will use youtube instead of our e-learning platform.” [student 4, mei 29, 2021] to overcome the hindrances, they can complain directly to the website provided by pustipd (pusat teknologi informasi dan pangkalan data). if the students and academic staff still did not get the answer from pustipd, they could go to the crisis center or the study program. “when you got a problem, just make the complaint by writing it down on the link, and they will fix for you, not in a long time. within a short moment, they will fix it for you.” [lecturer 4, june 6, 2021] “if that‟s the case, you can go to the crisis center or report it to the study program.” [faculty board 1, june 1, 2021] wi-fi internet connection was the next hindrance; university x is still catching up with this fundamental amenity. “some lecturers from english education, they find it quite difficult to connect to the internet.” [faculty board 2, june 1, 2021] “it has a bad connection, especially if the people are crowded.” [student 2, mei 29, 2021] “before the coronavirus pandemic, i always asked my students about the speed of the internet when they used it. they said it‟s sometimes not bad, ma‟am, and sometimes it‟s very hard to get the access because the students are too crowded.” [lecturer 2, june 6, 2021] while waiting for improvement from university x, some students found many ways when they could not connect to the internet. “i totally agree with what all of my friends say about our campus wi-fi. it sometimes has a bad connection, so we have to use our own cellular data. in addition, we have to find an internet provider that the signal is smooth in university x because the signal is different in each class. in my experience, when we are in pbi 1 class, there is wi-fi and telkomsel is smooth. however, when we go to pbi 3, there is no either signal or wi-fi. the internet provider like im3 is also the same. therefore, we have to find the best provider which has decent signal in many classrooms like that.” [student 8, mei 29, 2021] irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 14 furthermore, the situation deteriorated when they reported that the classrooms were full and could no longer be used. regarding classrooms on campus a and campus b, the head of the study program explained, “it‟s so difficult to find the room because we have a class from the first semester to the six-semester students regarding the availability of offline classrooms.” [lecturer 4, june 6, 2021] “i think there are so many broken air conditioners and it affects our e-learning class environment.” [student 1, mei 29, 2021] to overcome this issue, the study program‟s director explained classes on both campuses a and campus b, as seen below. “to overcome that, we just need to make the schedule until saturday. however, if we are provided with the classes in campus b too, we will have no problem with the lacks of classes. i think that‟s what we need to get.” [faculty board 2, june 1, 2021] besides, university x is still facing issues and challenges with the lack of tools that it should have. “at campus a, those things [computers] exist. however, campus b doesn‟t have them yet.” [faculty board 1, june 1, 2021] “for speakers, i think no.” [faculty board 1, june 1, 2021] due to the urgent needs, students sometimes borrow their lecturer‟s sound speaker to continue learning in offline classes. “sometimes, we have to find the speaker as it is hard to find it. thus, we borrow the lecturers‟ speaker.” [student 7, mei 29, 2021] the electricity in both campus a and campus b were good. however, a blackout might happen anytime since it did not have a generator set. “in some points, we cannot access the website or everything regarding university x because when there is shutdown from the pln, so we cannot access anything.” [faculty board 2, june 1, 2021] alternatively, if the blackout occurred when the students had classes, they would go to another building where the electricity network is not the same as each other. “we will come to the place [another building] with the electricity is on or a place which has good air circulation.” [student 5, mei 29, 2021] irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 15 digital contents regarding this second aspect of issues and challenges of using e-learning, the lecturers at university x still faced difficulties creating a goog teaching materials and having adequate seminars or workshops. “sometimes the lecturers give their video presentation for us. however, it is not eye-catching because they are from the old lecturers. meanwhile, some of the younger lecturers have provided eye-caching and interactive materials.” [student 4, mei 29, 2021] “i don‟t have this kind of issue, but some lecturers might have such that difficulty; they cannot visualize the material into the graphic one. i guess it‟s an issue.” [lecturer 4, june 6, 2021] to cope with the problems, the lecturers used youtube for forming and sharing teaching material. “youtube is also helpful for us to show the guidelines on how to operate any kind of technology or things that we do not know yet.” [lecturer 1, june 6, 2021] “it was a coincidence for me to use canva, for example and i find out it was really useful.” [lecturer 4, june 6, 2021] the lecturers have also questioned the limited numbers of workshops and seminars on e-learning offered by the institution, especially for the temporary dlb lecturers (dosen luar biasa). “i need more guidance and i didn‟t get it from the campus.” [lecturer 2, june 6, 2021] “the university once held workshops to improve lecturers in learning skills. however, it was only limited for at least three lecturers maximum from each faculty. the three lecturers should be able to teach other lecturers the things that they had learned there. however, up to now the three lecturers from tarbiyah faculty haven‟t done it yet.” [faculty board 2, june 1, 2021] to cope with this issue, the lecturers took individual initiative to join any online webinar. “i also joined the webinar or workshop. the last workshop that i joined was from cmo asia. it is a very good platform for teachers or lecturers. i realized that i need more and i have to increase my knowledge related to the it on how to bring my class to become more life, more cheerful and my students will not get bored when i‟m teaching.” [lecturer 2, june 6, 2021] irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 16 individual constraints this third issue and challenge part outline the kinds of individual hindrances experienced by both students and lecturers which have no link with the facilities or funds from the institution. they are regarding internet connection, lack of electronic devices, attention, awareness, financial problems, etc., which can be seen below. “the problem is from our students. they are difficult to get the signal from the specific internet provider since most of them live in the remote area.” [lecturer 1, june 6, 2021] “it‟s not only from e-learning but also from our signal and internet quota because the signal can always be strong, smooth, and sometimes very slow.” [student 8, mei 29, 2021] as a result, the internet connection problems encountered by students and lecturers were serious and might grow exponentially if not appropriately addressed. to overcome the problem, they did the following ways. “we have to find internet provider that the signal is smooth in university x because the signal is different in each class.” [student 8, mei 29, 2021] “we share the wi-fi.” [student 5, mei 29, 2021] the absence of technological gadgets was also one of the main problems, and it challenges students and lecturers face with specific restrictions. “sometimes our gadgets or the resources that we have do not support us. just like me. i have a computer, but my computer somehow doesn‟t work. well, that‟s why i use my phone to teach via zoom.” [lecturer 4, june 6, 2021] “but if many applications used will make us confused and my phone memory is full. [student 8, mei 29, 2021] to overcome this hindrance, student 5 told the solution below. “i will ask my friends from another university, or i will ask my mother or my sister to lend me the gadget.” [student 5, mei 29, 2021] some lecturers claimed that their students did not follow the subject and catch the essence of the materials by turning off the webcam camera. on the other hand, the students showed their rebuttal that they paid attention during an online class. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 17 “we do multitasking housework (sweeping the floor, washing the dishes, etc.). we are sometimes just too lazy to put on our hijabs, so we turn off the camera.” [student 6] “maybe my connection last week was bad, so i turned off the camera to make it smoother.” [student 7, mei 29, 2021] to cope with this issue, lecturer 4 would have a quiz to test if the students followed the teaching materials or not. “i will use quizzes just like open-ended question because you cannot force the students to speak.” [lecturer 4, june 6, 2021] besides, students were arguably aware in relation to filling attendance lists during the pandemic outbreak. “sometimes i‟m typical of person who is easy to forget. if my friends don‟t remind me filling in the attendance list, i will not check it anymore.” [student 6, mei 29, 2021] to overcome the issue above, a lecturer gave a solution. “sometimes, some lecturers provide our attendance list from google form, but it‟s not all of the lecturers provides it. it‟s just one or two lecturers do like that.” [student 8, mei 29, 2021] sometimes the lecturers also encountered difficulties giving direct feedback during this pandemic. “i will use quizzes just like open-ended question because you cannot force the students to speak.” [lecturer 4, june 6, 2021] besides, students were arguably aware in relation to filling attendance lists during the pandemic outbreak. “sometimes i‟m typical of person who is easy to forget. if my friends don‟t remind me filling in the attendance list, i will not check it anymore.” [student 6, mei 29, 2021] to overcome an issue above, a lecturer gave a solution. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 18 “sometimes, some lecturers provide our attendance list from google form, but it‟s not all of the lecturers provides it. it‟s just one or two lecturers do like that.” [student 8, mei 29, 2021] sometimes the lecturers also encountered difficulties giving direct feedback during this pandemic. “the barriers that i have already explained to you are in the matter of giving feedback as many as i can and making sure whether my students can get what i have already explained to them.” [lecturer 1, june 6, 2021] regarding this issue, the only thing that students and lecturers did was pray and wait until the government enabled the offline class to give direct feedback to students, as stated below. “i think we just need to pray a lot. actually, we just need to get free to go to campus.” [student 5, mei 29, 2021] furthermore, several students and lecturers believed their ict and language skills are inadequate and require further development from the university. “in the first semester, we learned about computers. however, we only learn about microsoft word, powerpoint, and excel.” [student 4, mei 29, 2021] “it seems i lack of language, but not on direct conversation in writing and grammar. i think i have a bad grammar.” [student 8, mei 29, 2021] to overcome it, they did the following ways. “i like sharing with my friends, especially with those who really i regard as the expert of technology.” [lecturer 1, june 6, 2021] “i use it to communicate with my friends. her name is student 2. i usually call her to improve my speaking and writing. i often use english to communicate with her and we both correct each other if we make mistakes.” [student 6, mei 29, 2021] using e-learning can make college life easier in some cases, but a student claimed that their lecturers assigned them more tasks than in a traditional class. “when we are using e-learning, the lecturers often give so many tasks to us with a deadline that is too fast.” [student 4, mei 29, 2021] in an effort to overcome the problem, they did a following action. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 19 “based on my experience, we can discuss with the lecturer to ask for a reduction in assignments or an extension of time to complete the assignments if there are many. but if the lecturer still gives a lot of assignments or doesn‟t give an extension of time, we still do it.” [student 8, mei 29, 2021] technical support pustipd is a university body responsible for managing complaints and maintaining the teaching and learning process. this section emphasizes issues on services and management systems empowered by it technicians. “maybe they got bored, especially when e-learning platform [v-meet] had just been launched at the first time. that‟s why when i don‟t know something, or when i talk about something, especially e-learning, i will always contact the technicians.” [lecturer 2, june 6, 2021] “to be honest, i don‟t really like them because they are too sensitive. sometimes, they only contact us using email.” [student 2, mei 29, 2021] those concerned about the unsatisfactory performance offered by the technicians were told to report it through pustipd. “it has become a helpful unit since they provide as much training to the lecturers to familiarize the e-learning system to all lecturers, and they are open whenever the lecturers have difficulties. so we as the lecturers are free to ask the stops which pustipd provides to ask questions to them. and i believe the response is a bit fast, and they respond to all questions and we are really helpful by that.” [lecturer 1, june 6, 2021] besides, some participants complained as whenever a user had a problem, they should fill in the form and frequently check the website to see if the bug had been fixed. “as far as i know, we can only see the answers just by logging in to the website. i think the it technician team should link their response towards any issues to the email address of the people who put the complaint in. therefore, we can also see the answers in the email, because if we do not open the website again after we put in the complaint, we wouldn‟t know if they have answered our questions or not.” [faculty board 2, june 1, 2021] for now, to deal with this issue, students and lecturers or even faculty boards only may be able to send their complaints on the website provided by pustipd. “yes. the lecturers always told us to contact the technicians if something goes wrong on e-learning.” [student 1, mei 29, 2021] irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 20 financial support this final part of the issues and challenges of using e-learning illustrates the kinds of financial support students and educators mostly complained about, including internet package funds, electronic resource funds, and premium zoom account funds. each issue is thoroughly described below. “last semester, all the lecturers were told by the faculty or the administrators and they told us to register ourselves to get free data from telkomsel. once i tried to register my name, i still didn‟t get it. i don‟t know what the reason is and i don‟t want to ask what happened because it‟s going to waste my time.” [lecturer 2, june 6, 2021] “i only got one and it‟s only 4 gb, and i only need two days to spend it for zoom class.” [student 6, mei 29, 2021] “because university x does not provide internet package assistance, but the campus has provided it. i think while on campus it can still be used. but when it comes to studying from home, especially now that there are still many students in areas that require them to study online, they have to provide their own extra budget.” [faculty board 1, june 1, 2021] in addition to this, the head of the english language department also shared the tips for temporary lecturers to buy internet connections from the best sim provider who offered the lowest prices through educational packages. “for the internet packages, actually only permanent lecturers who got internet packages or discount. therefore, for lecturers who doesn‟t have internet discount, if i am not mistaken every provider has a cheaper price. we just bought for the education stuff. for example, indosat only costs less than idr 10,000 to get 30gb. it also for telkomsel if i‟m not mistaken it costs idr 10,000 if they want to buy the education package. thus, i think the lecturer doesn‟t have any problems with the internet package.” [faculty board 2, june 1, 2021] after an interview with the faculty board 1 as the fitk‟s dean, he also told the writers that the university did not give away or lend electronic resources (laptop, smartphone, and many more gadgets) to students and lecturers during this pandemic. “no, the fitk does not give away or lend any electronic resources to lecturers and students.” [faculty board 1, june 1, 2021] as an alternative, he suggested students and lecturers allocate their living allowance or transportation budget to buy gadgets to support their teaching and learning during this pandemic, as stated below. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 21 “but if you think about it, since this pandemic, previously students paid a boarding house per year, it‟s best to just switch to buying an internet package with a small amount of money. i think there are pluses and minuses to the impact of this pandemic; even they can help their parents. and their parents also have to realize that they have needs such as internet packages or books that can be purchased online. i think that as long as there is a will and effort, there will be no problem, even parents can save on the budget because it doesn‟t cost a lot of money. [faculty board 1, june 1, 2021] using the zoom as an additional platform after v-meet also became a hindrance for dlb lecturers as the basic version only lasted for 40 minutes. “if we agreed with using the online class, the university should provide something like the connections. i don‟t have any unlimited zoom class for your information. there‟s 40 minutes time limitation and then the class turns off, so i should begin another 40 minutes to begin my class.” [lecturer 3, june 6, 2021] however, during the interview session, the head of the study program gave a tip for having a premium zoom account, as illustrated below. “actually, lecturers in university x do not have access to some premium accounts. however, if the students arrange it, they could get a free unlimited zoom when they registered at the first time, they will also get it when they arranged it for the next class. this is what we usually do. when we need unlimited zoom accounts, we ask the students to make a new account that previously they register. after that the account was used for at least two times, the students would create another new account. if it‟s scheduled after the meeting, they will get also unlimited one time if i‟m not mistaken. we just do that if the lecturers don‟t have premium zoom account.” [faculty board 1, june 1, 2021] discussion infrastructure is debatably the primary issue and challenge of using e-learning, particularly when it comes to the e-learning platform. mesiono (2020) explained that e-learning is the presence of a system (in the form of software) that manages and monitors interactions between educators and students, both immediate (synchronous) and delayed (asynchronous). by means, the university should keep facilitating the users with high performance and fix the bugs of the platform whether it is in online or offline classes. from the findings, the researchers are in line with ajadi, salawu, and adeoye (2008), who emphasized the importance of internet connection, which enables access to information and resources on platforms intended for educational reasons. therefore, the participants should anticipate purchasing the internet package. speaking about the technology era, the researchers demanded to have the basic knowledge to operate the machine, as stated by qureshi et al. (2012), that the instructors and students of an institution are supposed to have irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 22 basic skills to utilize e-learning. besides, the lecturers are supposed to join any academic education and non-academic training (wang, liu, & zhang 2018). information and communication technologies (icts) have given several methods to make higher education more accessible. however, to accomplish the needed academic goals, their efficient usage necessitates technical knowledge. every elearning system develops a basic „infrastructure‟ of computers, networks, and communications, as well as a technical department staffed by ict experts to maintain and improve the infrastructure system, train the users and continuously provide technical support when required by them regularly (nawaz & khan, 2012). financial support is somehow also seen as the most challenging problem for university x to have online classes. insufficient financial support has been identified as another key impediment to e-learning in several studies (khan, hasan, & clement 2012; sife, lwoga, & sanga 2007; tarus et al., 2015). therefore, the university should pay more attention to the hindrances regarding the funds, or else the problems will grow more exponentially. this recent study has three limitations. firstly, two faculty board members (the vice dean 1 and the secretary of the english study program) were excluded from the participants‟ list due to the hindrance to contacting them during this pandemic. therefore, the data collection was assumed completed so that the study only needed 14 participants as the sample. secondly, this research was supposed to use focus group discussion for each participant. however, it used face-to-face interviews (online and offline) due to some participants‟ errands and time management problems. thirdly, the it technicians from pustipd did not contribute to this study since they were not the samples. therefore, the writer did not further analyze the results regarding issues and challenges in the technical support section. conclusion and recommendations/implications to conclude, university x still encountered many primary issues and challenges of using e-learning. infrastructure was the dominant major issue that the researcher found, including e-learning platform, wi-fi internet connection, suitable classroom, electronic resources, and electricity. digital content also became another issue for lecturers as they felt it hard to create teaching material content and were dissatisfied with the university‟s lack of workshops and seminars. the participants also seemed to have many individual constraints with no link to university facilities or funds, such as personal internet connection, lack of electronic devices, lack of attention, lack of awareness, draining data package and battery, giving direct feedback, lack of ict and language skill, and too many assignments. besides, technical support (i.e., service and management system) also needed many improvements as the users criticized pustipd performance. moreover, financial support was also an endless-debated topic that the university should overcome, including internet package funds, electronic resource funds, and premium zoom account). regardless of the issues and challenges of using e-learning, it should be noted too here that all participants, such as students, lecturers, and faculty boards, have shown their unique ways to overcome those five hindrances. from the conclusions above, the researchers of this study would like to give suggestions to those following kinds of professions or institutions. firstly, for the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 23 government of indonesia, it is suggested that institutions help all universities, including university x with a large amount of money and free unlimited internet packages for students and lecturers. if that is not possible, the researchers may suggest the country allow face-to-face interaction with strict health protocol at the site since they suffer a lot in the remote area somehow during this pandemic. secondly, for faculty boards of fitk of university x, it is suggested for the faculty to concern more on students and lecturers (permanent and temporary ones) without exceptions, including financial help allocation to give away free unlimited internet package to maintain teaching and learning process in online classes. at least, to have more affiliations with internet providers so that students and lecturers will get discounts in buying internet package. thirdly, for lecturers and students, the researchers think they should keep the teaching and learning process, even though it is in the pandemic year, and hope they read this thesis as additional information to cope with primary issues, and challenges of using e-learning. disclosure statement the researchers declare no conflict of interest in the design of the study; 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(2020). impact of corona virus outbreak towards teaching and learning activities in indonesia. salam: jurnal sosial dan budaya syar-i, 7(3), 269-282. https://doi.org/10.15408/sjsbs.v7i3.15104 biographical notes shohibul kahfi alam putra is a graduate student of english education study program, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas sriwijaya. sofendi is a professor in english education study program, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas sriwijaya. margaretha dinar sitinjak is a faculty member of english education study program, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas sriwijaya. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 239 motivation and attitude of international students toward learning hungarian alaeddine khelifa 1* and szilvia batyi 2 abstract in second/foreign language learning, motivation, anxiety, and attitude play a role. dörnyei (2001) pointed out that the classroom is such a complex place that a single motivational principle cannot explain what happens within because motivation is a complex, composite entity with distinct and state-like context-specific components. additionally, anxiety and attitude are complex constructs, and despite the differences in research methods used and the conceptualization of various motivational configurations, the general view among these studies is to treat motivation, anxiety, and attitude as dependent constructs characterized by multiple guiding variables current approaches have also called for integration between these constructs and language learning situations in the fl classroom. these multi-variable approaches help this research explores motivation, anxiety, and attitude in 280 international students in hungary taking courses in l2 hungarian with a 34-item questionnaire. as expected, motivation, anxiety, and attitude are strongly related, and the self-guides emerge as strong predictors of motivated behavior and attitudes and have a negative correlation with language anxiety. anxiety integrates with self-confidence, and language proficiency has the highest correlation with attitude. finally, the attitude toward the course correlates highly with the attitude toward the community. learners who report high ideal selves are thus most likely linguistically self-confident and exhibit a motivated behavior that encourages them to be exposed to hungarian outside their classrooms and to have a positive attitude toward the community, the hungarian language, and their teachers. keywords anxiety, attitude, dynamic motivation, l2 motivational self-system, second language learning article history received 27 april 2023 accepted 20 june 2023 how to cite khelifa, a., & batyi, s. (2023). motivation and attitude of international students toward learning hungarian. indonesian research journal in education |irje|, 7(1), 239 – 255. https://doi.org/10.22437/irje .v7i1.24828 1* multilingualism doctoral school, university of pannonia, veszprém, hungary; corresponding author: khelifaalaeddin@gmail.com 2 department of applied linguistics, university of pannonia, veszprém, hungary https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v7i1.24828 https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v7i1.24828 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 240 introduction motivating students in the language classroom and developing positive attitudes toward language learning have been challenging for language teachers for decades. furthermore, research in applied linguistics could only give partial and context-dependent answers. due to the students’ differences, it is a typical one-size that does not fit all situations. however, with the help of large samples, general tendencies, and patterns can be shown. furthermore, motivation, anxiety, and attitude intervention in the learning process need to be addressed as they often occur in interaction with the teacher, the language course, and the community. this research aims to study the international students' main influencing factors, following a cross-sectional approach to visualize the macro motivation, attitude, and anxiety levels. these elements are the basis of the study of international students taking hungarian lessons in hungarian universities. through a questionnaire, the researchers aim to understand the correlation between motivation, language anxiety, and attitude (toward the community, the course, and the teacher) and how they affect each other. literature review language learning motivation the motivation to learn a language is one of the most intensively studied variables in sla (dörnyei, 2005; dörnyei & ushioda, 2009; gardner, 2006; ushioda, 2008). motivation can be described as a complex, composite entity with more distinct components and state-like context-specific components (dörnyei, 2006). motivation is to explain why people choose to behave in a particular way and how intensely they are willing to engage in a task (dörnyei & skehan, 2003). according to gardner (1985), the level of motivation in the target language is influenced and maintained by means and attitudes toward learning status and integration in the target language (tl) group). studies have shown a strong correlation between the degree of integrativeness and sla success and a weaker correlation between the degree of instrumentality and foreign language success (dörnyei, 2001; gardner, 2006). dörnyei (2005) suggested focusing on aspect identification and learner self-concept rather than interactiveness. an individual envisions an 'ideal l2 self', an expression of all the desired traits in the l2, their 'ought-to l2 self', a belief of the required traits. dörnyei (2006) then explained the learner's desire to bridge the gap between the actual l2 self and the ideal l2 self and introduced the 'l2 learning experience', which is a context-specific motivation during the learning experience. shoaib and dörnyei (2005) and ushioda (2001 focused on motivational changes or 'emergent motives' over time. ushioda (2001) stated that successful learners are likely to undergo a substantial motivational process, while less successful learners focus more on external incentives. shoaib and dörnyei (2005) noted a characteristic repetitive temporal pattern and several episodes that altered motivational tendencies. myriad variables that may influence language learning. motivation, anxiety, and attitude are usually considered in language learning studies. the ideal research design would include all conceivable factors in a single model, but it is hardly practical. most instruments irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 241 either focus on the cognitive or the affective definitions of these factors. different operationalization has a significant impact on the measurement of these factors. meanwhile, the amtb distinguishes between integrative and instrumental orientations (gardner, 1985), and the l2mss redefined integrativeness and highlighted the learners’ visualization of their possible selves (dörnyei, 2005). study abroad and learner motivation studying abroad is still the most effective way to learn a language (freed, 1995, 1998). it can motivate and authenticate learning. ryan and mercer (2011) noted that students who have not been abroad reported language use insecurity compared to those who have been abroad and acquired the language in the target language setting. experiences with language use abroad can be a significant part of an individual's l2 self-concept and influence learner competence (barron, 2006; segalowitz & freed, 2004). studying abroad (henceforth sa) has always been regarded as an efficient context for language learning. several studies investigated the sa effect on language development and attitudes toward the language and community. recent studies emphasize the changes in attitudes and language learning motivation after sa programs. varela (2017) found that sa may lead to positive cognitive and affective gains, which is one of the main focuses of the study. several studies have shown that sa increased interest in intercultural sensitivity (anderson et al., 2006; yashima & zenuk-nishide, 2008) and positively influenced attitudes towards the target language and community and linguistic gains (paris et al., 2014; streitwieser & light, 2018; watson & wolfel, 2015; zaykovskaya et al., 2017). hanada (2019) and nowlan (2020) also noted that environment and study programs play significant roles in intercultural competence. several studies have also shown that the duration of stay abroad affects motivation and learners’ intrinsic motivation. consequently, learners’ attitudes toward the teacher and their visualization of their self-efficacy may change (amuzie & winke, 2009; martin, 2020; sasaki, 2011). during the sa program, language proficiency and study programs may influence motivational changes (miura, 2010; yang & kim, 2011). considering the length of stay, martin (2020) and nguyen et al. (2018) claimed that shorter study programs may have little effect on motivation. dörnyei and ushioda (2009) also noted that students’ views of themselves may develop while studying abroad. additionally, dörnyei and ushioda (2009) highlighted the causal relationship between the learning experience and motivation. in this regard, changes in self-image (ideal l2 self and ought-to l2 self) also affected willingness to community and attitudes toward the community. based on the literature review, the researchers predicted some variables would be the most influential and proposed to investigate what characterizes the interrelationship of motivation, anxiety, and attitudes throughout learning hungarian in the classroom. according to the empirical studies, the researchers predict the ideal self would correlate with linguistic self-confidence (ushioda, 2001), which are also influenced by language experience and attitudes (dörnyei, 2005; dörnyei & chan, 2013; dörnyei & ushioda, 2009). furthermore, macintyre and serroul (2015) also predicted that language anxiety would negatively affect linguistic self-confidence and the ideal self. the ideal self-own emerges as a irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 242 strong predictor for motivated behavior in papi et al. (2019), which is also the hypothesis in this research. methodology research design, site and participants this research aimed at young adult learners enrolled in hungarian language courses and programs at hungarian universities. they form various l1 backgrounds and cultures, a range of ages from 18 to 30+ years old, different lengths of stay, and study majors. most are reportedly multilingual and have studied english as their l2/l3. the classification of this sampling is based on student financial status, whether learners were self-supporting or scholarship holders. they take their hungarian lessons at a beginner level twice a week, as their universities offer textbooks and a language teacher. they all studied the same textbook ’magyarok’ for relatively the same number of weekly sessions during an academic year to achieve a1 proficiency. the participants share common characteristics, as they are all studying abroad and taking hungarian courses. two-hundred and eighty (280) international university students (124 males and 156 females) enrolled in hungarian courses at 21 hungarian universities and from a wide variety of disciplines offered by their host institutes including, ba degree students (30.8%), ma degree students (23.8%), one tier student (7%), ph.d. degree students (24.5%) and others (14%). their age ranged from 18 to 57 (m= 25.56, sd= 6.65). the participants were from different nationalities, almost worldwide. their student status ranges from stipendium hungaricum scholarship holders enrolled in an english program (sh) (76.2%), sh scholarship holders enrolled in a hungarian program (3.5%), self-financed students (16.4%), and others (3.8%). their duration of stay in hungary goes from 2 months to 10 years. on a five-point scale ranging from beginner to upper-intermediate and over (see table 12) based on the common european framework of reference for languages cefr levels, most of the participants (63.3%) reported their hungarian proficiency to be at the beginner level, (24.5%) reported post-beginner level, (10.5%) reported lower intermediate level, and equally (3.8%) for intermediate level and upper intermediate level. pilot study: the questionnaire the questionnaire used in this research included a likert scale based on the exploratory study, which preceded the pilot. furthermore, it was connected to the combined grouped item pool of motivation (dörnyei, 2010), the attitude/motivation test battery (amtb) (gardner, 1985), the 2x2 model of l2 self-guides (papi et al., 2019), and developed based on various reviews. the questionnaire consists of six sections and includes items related to nine motivational factors (own ideal l2 self, other ideal l2 self, own ought-to l2 self, other ought-to l2 self, linguistic self-confidence, attitudes toward the l2 community, language anxiety, motivated behavior, attitudes towards the learning situation; teacher and l2/fl course), with insistence on two types of l2 self perspectives (own and other) (see table 1). irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 243 the questionnaire’s scale was based on the likert scale, from 1 being ’strongly disagree’, to 6 being ’strongly agree’. the third part of the questionnaire covers participants’ background information, including their gender, age, nationality, university, major, education level, student status, hungarian ability/skill/proficiency, duration of stay, and frequency of contact with hungarian. the fourth parts cover exposure to contexts in hungary on a different scale. table 1. motivational scales of this research questionnaire (for the pilot) motivational scales explanations l2mss (l2 motivational self-system) ideal l2 self own representing the l2 attributes that the learner (own standpoint) would ideally hope (promotion focus) to possess in the future. other representing the l2 attributes that the learner’s significant others, such as his or her family (another standpoint), would ideally hope (promotion focus) the learner will possess in the future. ought to l2 self own representing the l2 attributes that the learner (own standpoint) believes he or she ought to possess (e.g., obligations, duties, and requirements) to avoid negative consequences (prevention focus). other representing the l2 attributes that the learner believes other people (another standpoint) expect him or her to possess (e.g., obligations, duties, and requirements). the learner foresees negative consequences in failure to meet those expectations (prevention focus). linguistic self-confidence representing the belief of achieving a proficient level in the language if enough effort is made. attitudes toward the l2 community representing the attitudes toward hungarians, their culture, and their language. anxiety language anxiety representing the language anxiety associated with learning hungarian in the classroom. motivated behavior representing the learner’s level of time, effort, and cognitive investment in the l2 learning pursuit. attitudes toward the learning situation language teacher representing the student-teacher attitude and their experience with the language teacher l2 course representing students’ experience with the hungarian course and language pilot study: reliability of the questionnaire the pilot study took place in december 2021. it was preceded by an exploratory study in which students were asked about their motivations in an open-ended questionnaire. these irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 244 qualitative data made questionnaire item selection easier. the questionnaire was piloted in english with 50 international students using the google forms platform. the questionnaire showed strong content validity and construct support (see table 2). the internal consistency coefficient of the instrument was cronbach’s alpha which showed a high internal consistency for most factors. however, the ought to self l2 own/other motivation factor had to be omitted because the questions do not correlate, and the reliability is low. another question was deleted from the linguistic self-confidence as it weakened the reliability of the construct (note: for the number of items less than 10, cronbach’s alpha is moderately reliable at α > .5). table 2. cronbach’s alpha and inter-item correlation of the pilot study factor cronbach’s alpha number of items inter-item correlation cronbach’s alpha if deleted ideal l2 self-own α = .902 3 ideal l2 self-other α = .564 3 ideal l2 self-own/other α = .831 6 ought to l2 self-own α = .437 3 .221 ought to l2 self-other α = -.207 3 .006 ought to l2 self-own/other α = .188 6 linguistic self-confidence α = .693 4 .361 item 2 total correlation .244 if item 2 is deleted α = .764 attitudes toward the l2 community α = .803 5 anxiety α = .810 5 motivated behavior α = .895 5 attitude toward language teacher α = .856 5 .572 attitude to the l2 course α = .860 5 the initial model included 41 observed variables (questionnaire items) that loaded on three latent variables (three items for each self-guide) and five latent variables for the rest of the factor grouping (five items for any other category). six items that did not load properly on ought to l2 self-own/other were deleted, along with an item from the linguistic self-confidence. the final model included 34 observed variables that strongly loaded onto the ideal l2 own/other self-guide and other factors. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 245 findings and discussion reliability test and descriptive analysis the reliability of the questionnaire was analyzed by piloting the instrument and modifying it based on the reliability analyses. furthermore, a reliability analysis was also used with the data of the final questionnaire (see table 3). cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficient was .907 for ideal l2 self-own based on three items with an interitem correlation of .766, suggesting the internal consistency of the scales. the reliability coefficient for ideal l2 self-other was .694 based on three items, with an interitem correlation of .436, which suggested a weaker internal consistency than the ideal l2 self-own. cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficient for ideal l2 self-own and other factor grouping was .877 with an acceptable interitem correlation at .541. for linguistic self-confidence, cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficient suggests the internal consistency of the scales at .832 and .627 for interitem correlation based on three items. for attitude toward l2 community, the reliability coefficient also suggests an internal consistency of the scales at .845 with an interitem correlation at .518 based on five items. cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficient was .793 for anxiety based on five items with an interitem correlation of .436 and .920 for motivated behavior based on five items with an interitem correlation of .699. for attitude toward language teacher, the item grouping suggests internal consistency of the scales with cronbach’s alpha coefficient at .899, based on five items, with interitem correlation at .655. cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficient for attitude toward the course was .867 based on five items with interitem correlation at .552. table 3. reliability and internal consistency of the questionnaire factor grouping sub-categories number of items cronbach’s alpha coefficient interitem correlation ideal l2 self own/other ideal l2 self-own 3 .907 .766 ideal l2 self-other 3 .694 .436 own/other combined 6 .877 .541 linguistic self-confidence 3 .832 .627 attitudes toward the l2 community 5 .845 .518 anxiety 5 .793 .436 motivated behavior 5 .920 .699 attitudes toward the language teacher 5 .899 .655 attitudes toward the course 5 .867 .552 the reliability coefficients, means m and standard deviations (sd) of the measured scales are presented in table 4. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 246 table 4. cronbach’s alpha values and descriptive statistics for the scales used (n=280) variables m (sd) α ideal l2 self-own 3.35 (1.49) .907 ideal l2 self-other 3.96 (1.25) .694 linguistic self-confidence 4.2 (1.28) .832 attitude toward the l2 community 3.97 (1.18) .845 language anxiety 3.07 (1.10) .793 motivated behavior 3.35 (1.31) .920 attitude toward language teacher 4.77 (1.13) .899 attitude toward course 3.46 (1.19) .867 the average response from the 280 participants for each item was between 3 (slightly disagree) and 4 (slightly agree) based on the means (m) and standard deviation (sd). it is borderline a neutral opinion on average. however, the attitude toward the language teacher was the average near 5 (agree) (m= 4.77, sd = 1.13), which is notable based on the sample size. confirmatory factor analysis based on likelihood estimation with ibm spss amos 23.0, the researchers looked at the confirmatory factor analysis (cfa) to examine the presented motivation models in the questionnaire. chi-square to degrees of freedom was x² (499, n = 280) = 1401.400, p <.001. for samples over 250, as in this case with 280 responses, other measures of goodness of fit were considered. the amos output confirmed the questionnaire was an adequate fit with the root mean square error of approximation (rmsea) > .05, the comparative fit index (cfi) near .9, and the tucker-lewis index (tli) near .9 as well, which are borderline fine. table 5 shows that these values strongly confirm a good fit for the questionnaire. table 5. model fit summary x²/df (n = 280) rmsea cfi tli the questionnaire 1401.400/499*** .081 .871 .855 note. *p, .05; **p, .01; ***p, .001 the groups represent the unobserved latent factors that explain the set of observed variables represented by the items. the models for the structural equation modeling sem with latent variables require observable variables to produce a structural model for the sample size covariance/correlation matrix of the manifest variables. the latent variables covariance/correlation matrix is presented in table 6 in order from the most positively correlated to the negatively correlated. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 247 table 6. latent variables covariance latent variables 1 latent variables 2 covariance/correlation ideal self-other linguistic self-confidence .99 ideal self-own ideal self-other .91 ideal self-own linguistic self-confidence .84 attitude toward community attitude toward course .83 ideal self-own attitude toward course .73 ideal self-other attitude toward course .70 linguistic self-confidence attitude toward course .67 ideal self-other motivated behavior .63 motivated behavior attitude toward course .62 ideal self-own motivated behavior .61 ideal self-other attitude toward the teacher .60 linguistic self-confidence attitude toward community .55 linguistic self-confidence attitude toward the teacher .53 linguistic self-confidence motivated behavior .53 motivated behavior attitude toward teacher .41 attitude toward community attitude toward teacher .40 attitude toward community language anxiety .04 ideal self-other language anxiety -.6 ideal self-own language anxiety -.8 language anxiety attitude toward community -.8 linguistic self-confidence language anxiety -.16 based on table 6, the following latent variables’ relations are concluded:  ideal self-own and others positively correlate the best with linguistic self-confidence.  both ideal self-guides are in a positively high covariance.  the attitude toward community is closely related to the attitude toward the course more than the ideal self-own and others.  ideal self-other is closely related to motivated behavior more than ideal self-own.  ideal self-other is also closely related to the attitude toward a teacher.  language anxiety negatively correlates with ideal self-own and others, linguistic self-confidence, and attitude toward the community. factors intercorrelations the item grouping means were run through spss to check for intercorrelations between the self-guides and other factors and in-between self-guides, as presented in table 7. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 248 table 7. intercorrelations ideal l2 self-own ideal l2 self-other linguistic self-confidence attitude toward l2 community language anxiety motivated behavior attitude toward the teacher attitude toward the course ideal l2 self-own 1 ideal l2 self-other .700** 1 linguistic self-confidence .718** .701** 1 attitude toward l2 community .641** .558** .587** 1 language anxiety -.082 -.053 -.155** .025 1 motivated behavior .609** .551** .511** .602** .117 1 attitude toward the teacher .313** .543** .507** .416** -.010 .423** 1 attitude toward the course .696** .568** .616** .746** -.068 .640** .423** 1 the findings from table 7 show the following relationships: participants’ ideal self-own perspective is in synchronization with their other self-guide, ideal self-other, linguistic self-confidence, motivated behavior, and positive attitude toward the community, teacher, and course. a strong positive correlation is also determined for the listed variables. moreover, participants who report language anxiety tend to report low linguistic self-confidence. exposure frequency to the environment and context based on the 280 responses, each participant rated their frequency of exposure to definite contexts as discussed in the methodology. the most common contexts are interacting with hungarian teachers (m= 3.22, sd= 1.112) and shopping (m= 3.46, sd= 1.154), which falls in the rough estimation of ‘sometimes’. most of the participants rarely interact with their hungarian friends (m= 2.49, sd= 1.145) and rarely read in hungarian (m= 2.18, sd= 1.146) or watch any videos in hungarian (m= 1.95, sd= 1.075). cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficient for context exposure was (.728) for five items, which suggests a moderate internal consistency. as expected, the latent variables referred to in the confirmatory analysis have a positive moderate correlation with the exposure contexts at p < .001. table 26 describes this correlation. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 249 table 8. latent variables correlation with frequency of context exposure to hungarian interacting with friends interacting with hungarian teachers watching movies/videos reading shopping language anxiety .057 -.018 .104 -.008 .118* motivated behavior .358** .365** .459** .428** .276** attitude toward teacher .167** .422** .184** .119* .280** attitude toward community .364** .310** .327** .292** .203** attitude toward course .410** .292** .428** .367** .193** linguistic self-confidence .316** .372** .348** .315** .299** ideal self-own .389** .339** .412** .343** .237** ideal self-other .319** .408** .341** .262** .223** note. *p < .01, **p <.001 discussion research on motivation should encompass various motivation concepts and motives with different regulatory orientations. following the previous theoretical developments, the researchers adapted some components of the self-guides to study the relation, covariance, and correlation. the use of self-guide measures is promoted as the best way to study motivated learning strategies even though, as common as it is, the constructs’ content varies depending on individuals and contexts. in other words, the individual differences extend to self-guides’ perception. higgins (1987) explained the contrast between the ’own’ personal and the ’other’ dimensions. in the l2mss, the ideal l2 self has been attributed a personal dimension ’own’, and the ought-to l2 self an ’other’ dimension. these aspects of self-guides, which are others for the ideal l2 self and ought to self-own, are taken into consideration as suggested by teimouri (2017) and papi et al. (2019). ideal l2 self and ought-to l2 self were divided into own and other perspectives. however, the operationalization ought to l2 self-include promotion and prevention items because the regulatory distinction was not considered. ought to l2 self in this research was omitted because it did not load properly and had a lower internal irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 250 consistency coefficient. the ought to l2 self-guide must be developed with an exclusive prevention regulatory focus with sensitivity to negative outcomes. the confirmatory factor analysis findings support the choices and strategies of the procedure. the model fit analysis determined that this questionnaire was a perfect fit for the sampling population. the findings support the adaptation of the 2x2 model from papi et al. (2019), which included ideal l2 self-own/other and excludes the ought to l2 self. ideal l2 self-own/other emerged as the guides with the strongest internal consistency coefficient and the most correlating manifested variables that share high covariance. in this research, motivated behavior has the highest reliability coefficient and positively correlates with both self-guides. along with predicting the variance in motivated learning behavior, the ideal self-own correlates with the individual’s constructs and self-refinement (ushioda, 2001), such as their linguistic self-confidence, while the ideal self-other is closely related to the attitude toward teachers given their influential role on the learning process. dörnyei (2005), and dörnyei and ushioda (2009) define the ideal l2 self as students’ visualization of themselves in the target language and the learning experience including the attitudes toward the learning environment, which is consistent with the results. the ideal self-guides (ideal self-own and others) also share a positive and strong correlation with the attitude toward the community, the course, and the teacher. to answer the research question, motivation, anxiety, and attitude correlate throughout the learning process. while the questionnaire items are either answered ‘slightly disagree’ or ‘slightly agree’ on average, the attitude toward the language teacher was roughly near ‘agree’ which is significant based on the sample size. while the desired self-guides emerged as a strong predictor of the motivated behavior and the attitude toward the teacher, the language proficiency/skill in hungarian has the highest significant relationship with most of the questionnaire items including the attitudes. participants report 24 other contexts where their hungarian language skills and proficiency are essential, which justifies this emergence. it is based on dörnyei and chan (2013) that the ideal self may also be influenced by exposure to language instructional material and experience. the attitude toward the course emerged as a stronger predictor of the attitude toward the community variance than the desired self-guides, presenting a strong latent variable covariance based on the confirmatory factor analysis. language anxiety seems to be associated with the desired self-guides (ideal self-own and others), linguistic self-confidence, and attitude toward the community. individuals who report language anxiety tend to report low linguistic self-confidence and low desired self in the target language, which affects their motivation (macintyre & serroul, 2015) and perception of their abilities (dewaele et al., 2008). it is in line with schlenker and leary’s (1985) theory on inadequacy and contradiction in their self-expression. the negative correlation between language anxiety and the attitude toward the community is also like gardner and macintyre (1993) that the effect of anxiety depends on the social environment and settings. clément (1980) also noted that this complex structure combines anxiety, self-perception of ability, attitude, and motivation. however, there is no direct correlation between language anxiety and motivated behavior which is in contrast with gardner’s and macintyre’s (1993) notion of a reciprocal pathway between these latent variables. however, in contrast to the previous l2mss studies where papi et al. (2019) found that ideal l2 self-own emerged as a strong predictor for motivated behavior, ideal l2 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 251 self-other is closely more related to motivated behavior in this research. based on the same research, both ideal self-guides are in positively high covariance and correlation. sato and lara’s (2019) results demonstrate that the ideal l2 self goes in harmony with the self-system, influenced by contextual factors. in this research, ought l2 self-own/other questions present low internal consistency coefficient and reliability, which is similar to previous empirical findings (e.g., csizér & kormos, 2009; kormos & csizér, 2008; lamb, 2012; moskovsky et al., 2016; papi, 2010; papi & teimouri, 2012, 2014; ryan, 2009; taguchi et al., 2009; teimouri, 2017). according to higgins (1987, 1997), the ought self-guides emerged as primary motivators. nonetheless, the present research does not suggest the ought l2 self-guide to be a dependable self-guide. it is due to the formulation of the ought to l2 self-guides questions, wherein the ought to l2 self-own questions were formulated with negative consequences (e.g., “if i don’t work on my hungarian, i will fail in university), which excluded learners’ positive consequences. whereas ought to l2 self-other emerged as weaker predictors which is supported by deci and ryan (1985) about self-determination theory that favors the most-internalized motives. the results confirmed the possibility that the l2mss could account for language learning motivation and the interplay of cognitive and affective variables. the present research also explored the study abroad sa experience of international students in hungary under the framework of the l2 motivational self system. allen and herron (2003) claimed that students in the sa context would cope with language anxiety, which was not the case in the research as the participants reported anxiety and any significant difference between them. the findings also revealed that the sa experience helped hungarian language learners consolidate the reliability of their learning motivation: the ideal l2 self (own and other), linguistic self-confidence, and attitude were the impetus for motivated behavior. the findings of this research may contribute to the understanding of how language learning motivation works in a study-abroad context. language learners abroad are motivated by motives that match their own regulatory focus and motivational strategy. a large variety of differences in regulatory orientations and strategies should be addressed in future research on self-regulation. this research joins the l2 motivation research to employ descriptive studies in motivational interventions to understand cognitive and learning processes, following han and mcdonough’s (2018) suggestions to bring research on motivation and second language acquisition together. pedagogical and scientific implications learners’ ideal selves should be integrated into language lessons. the quantitative results show a correlation between the ideal self and the other learning factors. for these reasons, a linguistic assessment may be completed with a self-assessment questionnaire to own a complete image of the learners’ ideal and current selves. teachers may consider the situations in which learners use hungarian to develop the course based on learners’ specific use. international students who are enrolled in hungarian language courses may diversify their language use outside the classroom to use hungarian more often and improve their proficiency levels. consequently, teachers can also include situational communication in the classroom to familiarize their students with different contexts. learning abroad is a great opportunity for language learners to practice their languages with native speakers. by placing irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 7| no. 1|june|year 2023| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 252 the learner in the heart of learning, it is necessary to understand the motivation and the influencing factors. in addition, learning does not only happen in the classroom, and the teacher may consider the learners’ prior knowledge and representations as well as their attitudes towards the language taught, the teacher, and native speakers of this language. much of the research on motivation and foreign languages is about learning english in the context of second language learning. to have a better understanding of the different motivational processes that accompany foreign language learning, it is important to experiment with different languages other than english in different contexts. disclosure statement no potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors. acknowledgments the researchers acknowledge the support of tempus public foundation in sharing 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(2017). learner beliefs for successful study abroad experience: a case study. system, 71, 113-121. biographical notes alaeddine khelifa, phd. recently submitted his dissertation for the public defense in hungary. alaeddine does research on motivation, anxiety, attitude, and language development from the dynamic systems theory perspective. szilvia bátyi currently works at the department of applied linguistics, university of pannonia, veszprém. szilvia does research in psycholinguistics, bilingualism, language attrition, linguistic landscape. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 7 indonesia’s active, creative, effective and joyful learning: from a university teacher training program to high school classrooms michael sean young 1 abstract this study asked how and to what extent professors were modeling and encouraging active-learning methods in the students’ english and education courses in response to decentralization reforms at the university of banten, in serang, indonesia. a discussion of the background of pakem (pembelajaran aktif, kreatif, efektif dan menyenangkan) policy and its implementation builds a framework for identifying and interpreting specific challenges which impact english teacher preparation and the knowledge and implementation of pakem active learning methods. pakem represents a major element of ongoing decentralization policy and was explored thematically through an ethnographic analysis of in-depth accounts of professors, teachers, and students at the campus over ten months. the discussion provides extensive and diverse evidence of dynamic responses to pakem policy changes. lecturers were well informed about and engaged in the implementation of active learning methods in instruction. findings are situated amongst similar case studies on the implementation of active learning pedagogies and consistencies are identified and discussed. keywords pakem, indonesia, university teacher training, high schools, decentralization 1 thomas university, thomasville, georgia, the usa; msy05@my.fsu.edu irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 8 introduction the indonesian school system serves over 50 million students with about 2.6 million teachers in more than 250,000 schools. it is the fourth largest education system in the world (behind china, india, and the united states). the ministry of national education (mone) manages 84 percent of public and private schools and the ministry of religious affairs (mora) 16 percent (the world bank, 2009). since the 1980’s, and assertively in the new millennium, the mone and mora have encouraged the adoption of student-centered and active teaching and learning methods nationally, and these are officially proscribed in policy. the purpose of teacher law no. 14/2005 as to improve education quality by upgrading teacher qualifications and improving education quality is the second of three pillars in the ministry of education’s strategic plan for 2005-2009. in addition to upgrading all teachers’ qualifications to include a minimum bachelor’s degree (s1) and passing the national certification exam, the utilization of active learning methods is viewed as a means of improving teaching quality. pembelajaran aktif, kreatif, efektif dan menyenangkan (pakem) or “active, creative, effective and joyful learning,” is the indonesian conceptualization of actively engaged, student-centered teaching and learning. menyenangkan can also be translated as “fun,” “pleasurable,” “nice,” “agreeable,” etc.…). pakem is used primarily in elementary (sekolah dasar; sd) schools, while the term “contextual teaching and learning” (ctl) is often used at the junior secondary (sekolah menengah pertama; smp) and senior secondary (sekolah menengah atas; sma) school levels. the purpose of active, creative, effective and joyful learning, and contextual teaching & learning, is to improve the quality of teaching and learning in schools, and to make schooling more meaningful and enjoyable for teachers and students. by extension, it is hoped that this will result in greater student participation, especially at the junior and senior high school level, and fewer drop-outs. the philosophical foundations of pakem and ctl run deeply throughout western pedagogical thought, most notably that of john dewey, and also in the cultural and constitutional heritage of indonesia, as well. dewey’s (1916) “democracy and education” and “experience and education” (1938) inspired progressive education and experiential education movements in the u.s. and around the world. dewey’s (1938) pragmatic or instrumentalist philosophy emphasized curriculum and methods that are relevant and meaningful to students’ lives, that promote critical thinking and social interaction for solving real-life problems, and that model the school as a microcosmic democracy within a larger social and national democracy. therefore, this democratic, student-centered paradigm opposes authoritarianism in the classroom as well as in society. dewey (1938) also emphasized change, and the dialectic nature of life. when we learn, we gain knowledge and understanding that provides us with agency to control our lives, and to deal with today’s and tomorrow’s challenges. we need to be able to think and learn in this way; learning what we want to know and need to know, and thus we become intrinsically motivated learners. finally, dewey’s (1938) theory of continuity proposed that each and every experience of an individual influences his or her perception and ability to learn and understand future experiences. consequently, every experience, positive or negative, influences the understanding and effects of all future experiences for an individual. his theory of interaction explains how the continuity of our total experiences serve our perception and understanding irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 9 as we perpetually confront, and deal with a reality day after day. students must be able to connect their learning— the curriculum and classroom activities—with their everyday lives. dewey (1938) asserted that education wasn’t preparation for life—it is life, and we all must re-create ourselves with each passing day and every passing moment. these philosophical and psychological underpinnings support the need for pedagogy of active, creative, effective and joyful learning. among the five principles of the pancasila, the national ideology, the third affirms the unity of indonesia (persatuan indonesia) and strong sense of the nation as a family (keluarga) the fourth affirms the principle of democratic representation, and the fifth affirms the principle of social justice for all indonesians. president yudhoyono has strongly supported the conviction to uphold the ideals of pluralism and tolerance in this socially-conscientious, collective and inclusive indonesian philosophy. again, the pedagogical strengths of pakem and ctl methods for teaching and learning are consistent with the principles guiding the development of indonesian citizens and society: promoting critical thinking skills, problem-solving, productivity, cooperation, inclusivity, active participation, and democracy. it is helpful to understand that the curriculum national standards for each subject are mandated and utilized in the production of textbooks and the development of syllabi, lesson plans and curriculum in all public and private elementary, junior and senior secondary schools. these are the standardized objectives that teachers are trying to accomplish for each subject and grade level. the national competency-based curriculum (cbc,) kurrikulum berbasis kompetensi (kbk) standards have been adapted and structured as the ktsp, or kurrikulum tengkat (levels) satuan (units) pendidikan (education); thus, curriculum levels and units for education (clue) in order promote implementation which is consistent with pakem instructional methods. ultimately, the attainment of the concepts and skills delineated in the cbc and ktsp standards are assessed with the national examination, ujian nasional, for higher education and called eptanas at the elementary, junior and senior high school levels. the purposes of the study were to provide background on the development of the pakem policy, to define and establish criteria for identifying characteristics of pakem and ctl, and to provide a concise rationale of how and why active learning is desirable. next, to provide and analyze ethnographic data selected from a case study of a university teacher training program and senior high schools connected with the lecturers and students of the program. the following research questions guided this study: (1) do lecturers understand pakem? (2) was active, creative, effective and joyful teaching and learning occurring? how do we know this, and why was it, or was it not, occurring? and (3) what factors seem to be involved— i.e., teacher characteristics, education, and experience— that constrained or enabled active learning approaches? the answers to these questions, at this qualitative level, inform our planning and more broadly-based future research on the progress of pakem active learning approaches in teacher training programs and in schools. finally, the findings of this case study can be situated with, and related to, similar efforts to develop and implement active learning approaches internationally, and consistent factors and patterns are apparent. irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 10 literature review usaid’s role in promoting pakem and ctl: the mbe and dbe programs from february 2003 until june 2007, the managing basic education (mbe) program of the usaid and rti international consultants worked in 23 districts in east and central java, aceh and jakarta, building capacity at district and school levels to manage basic education. the project worked to create models of good practice in basic education, including public and private elementary (sd) and some junior secondary schools (smp) because this is the largest sector managed by local governments. the most important objectives the mbe program were first, developing and using models for the management of resources and education funding at the district level and second, improving and expanding school based management (sbm), community participation, and active, creative, joyful and effective learning (pakem) at the school level. the mbe expected that working to promote sbm, pakem and community participation (psm) would serve to stimulate other neighboring schools that wish to improve their quality of education using their own resources. the mbe worked to build models of good management practice in twenty schools, ten in each sub-district within a district, including primary and junior secondary schools, conventional and religious (sd, mi, smp and mts), state and private, in the areas of sbm, community participation and pakem and ctl. 1 the program intentionally worked to build up local government capacity to develop and adapt models, and to perpetuate the best use of these practices, with the purpose of building local ownership and ensuring sustainability. activities generally included each of the groups of stakeholders, in order to develop a common vision, cooperative approaches and a well-informed group of stakeholders. it worked with a cross section of education stakeholders, including the democratic institutions, local parliament (dprd), education council (dewan pendidikan), school committees, local government institutions: the local development agency (bappeda), the education office (dinas pendidikan), ministry of religious affairs and the finance department; schools and local communities: school committees, parents, principals and teachers. the mbe built an interpretation of the “active, creative, joyful and effective learning” (pakem) program upon the active learning through professional support (alps, or cbsa in bahasa indonesia) program, which started in cianjur in 1980 and ran until 1993 (mbe, 2005). the school cluster and teachers’ working group systems, (peningkatan kemampuan guru, pkg or kkg; and mgmp at the junior high school level) adopted throughout indonesia, were also developed at this time to function as major supports for teachers in carrying out the objectives of sbm, pakem, and community 1 acknowledgements: this mbe program was based on the sbm program developed by the government of indonesia, unesco and unicef, and used materials developed by that program. the funding of schools to support the sbm program follows the pattern developed by the dssd program which was funded by the asian development bank (adb). irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 11 participation. principles the mbe established according to alps/cbsa for active, creative, joyful and effective learning are (mbe, 2005): the children do more practical tasks (for example in science), including using the social and natural environments, the children use more teaching aids, libraries and library corners are set up and used, the children’s work is written in their own words, children’s work is displayed in class, teachers show more flexibility in organizing and grouping pupils’ in their learning. decentralized basic education 2 (dbe2) the main purpose of the usaid dbe2 program (in coordination with dbe1 and dbe3) is to provide the government of indonesia (goi) with technical services and resources to improve the quality of teaching and learning in indonesia’s public and private elementary schools, with limited assistance to junior secondary schools. monitoring and evaluation demonstrate the efforts of dbe2 have significantly improved the quality of teaching and learning in targeted schools, as well as strengthening in-service professional development (usaid, 2008). in one component of dbe2, florida state university, one of three u.s. universities partnering with a total of 14 indonesian universities, carried out a project with 7 of them, connecting usaid staff, lecturers from the universities, principals and master teachers with elementary schools in their communities, and training them in pakem methods. two lecturers from one of the university teams will be discussed in this report. manuals, examples of teaching aids and other materials, appropriate for various school subjects like math, science, and bahasa indonesia were used in the trainings, as well as technology such as power-point presentations, cameras and recorders. there are manuals for a total of nine modules for the trainers and participants, including a general manual, or foundation package, “introduction to effective learning in (pakem) subject matter (pengenalan pembelajaran efektif dalam mata pelajaran pokok, 2007) the subject-specific manuals, entitled “paduan untuk fasilitator: what is active learning?” (2007). the texts are all in indonesian language, “what is active learning” provides detailed definitions of each of the terms that make up the acronym, as well as characteristics of active, creative, effective and joyful learning in action. the translated definitions themselves contain examples: with active teaching and learning students “question, discuss, express ideas, discover, and seek information to build knowledge…” (2007). with creative teaching and learning “teachers promote a variety of approaches and activities and are able to create low-cost materials and teaching aids that facilitate understanding” and with effective teaching and learning the “innovations in the learning process lead to optimum student achievement of the competencies in the curriculum, and increased knowledge, skills and abilities” with “joyful teaching and learning the “atmosphere of learning is comfortable, without pressure… enjoying the process of learning, with freedom to try new things without fear of mistakes.” finally, pakem teaching and learning uses principles of contextual learning, cooperative learning, and the accommodation of diverse learning styles and gender (pengenalan pembelajaran efektif dalam mata pelajaran pokok, 2007). a mentoring section of “what is active learning” describes what an observer would see in a class where pakem teaching and learning is taking place, or evidence of the process in action (pengenalan pembelajaran efektif dalam mata pelajaran pokok, 2007). these irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 12 include many of the characteristics mentioned thus far, and compiled in the following rubric “criteria and characteristics for assessing pakem and ctl.” aspects of the classroom environment, such as displaying students’ work (what work, what should not be displayed, how it can be beneficial, keeping it updated) and the idea of flexibility in seating arrangements, like with the clustering of desks for small group work, are discussed in detail. establishing reading corners with shelves and books, their usage, and the use of teaching aids are described, and many photos of the materials are included in the manuals. between 2003 and 2010, several provinces in indonesia made great progress in the adaptation, implementation and effectiveness of school-based management (sbm,) pakem and community participation (psm) for improving schools, due to support from the regional and district education offices. this had been achieved by making systemic changes concurrently with organizational cultural changes, commonly lead by dedicated and dynamic school principals. a clear understanding of the roles of all stakeholders was necessary, with the overall objective being to provide the maximum support possible for the teachers in the field, and thus the teaching and learning process. it was observed at that time that: in turn, strong sbm in schools is improving not only with leadership and allocation of resources, but also with the diffusion and enhancement of pakem (rekdale, 2005). indonesia’s pakem approach encourages learning how to learn, learning by discovery, creativity, and analytical and critical thinking. methods of facilitating and stimulating these types of learning include having students engaged in individual, pair, group and class-wide learning activities, participation in individual and group projects, research, discussion, independent reading and study, creating journals and portfolios, as well as traditional methods such as lecture listening, note-taking, recitation, and textbook, workbook, and paper-based exercises. as the data from this study showed, it can be difficult and at times impractical to utilize pakem methods for instruction, depending upon the nature of the learning objectives, skills, and tasks undertaken. however, according to indonesian policy (unesco, 2008), active learning methods should accompany and supersede traditional methods, when possible, integrated with the schools’ curriculum, which is developed in synchronization with the national subject-area standards of the cbc/ktsp, and realized at the school-level in the syllabi and lesson plans designed by individual teachers. research and evaluations from the usaid and consultants have indicated the benefits of active learning methods for improving education quality (cannon, 2005) and a component of the dbe2 project is currently researching the effects of active learning interventions and the practice of active learning in classrooms. it is appropriate to acknowledge that even these proposed characteristics for a “pakem criteria” are culturally-biased and are open to discussion and consensus. the dbe2 pakem teams there were a total of eight teams from four provinces representing seven universities on the dbe2 project, who developed pakem modules, conducted training with elementary school teachers, and carried out action research on the progress of these teachers to incorporate pakem methods and resources in their instruction. in addition to the study, the dbe2 team research also provided feedback on the progress of the pakem training irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 13 modules and implementation of pakem methods in elementary schools. two male lecturers, tubagus and john, and one female were team members in banten. at workshops held in march 2009, members from the eight teams reported the following issues related to the progress of the pakem training modules and implementation of pakem methods in elementary schools. methodology the university of banten college of education 2 teacher training program, or facultas keguruan ilmu pendidikan (fkip) is the most common form of teacher education programs within a larger university offering diverse programs such as law, political & social science, agriculture, and engineering, among others. the majors within the fkip program include programs of study in early childhood, math, science-biology, indonesian and english language (bahasa inggris) education. this ethnographic study employed individual and focus group interview sessions assembled with professors, lecturers and prospective teachers in this university, as well as administrators, and regional officials involved in the teaching of language arts. participants of varying ages and experience with the language arts curriculum were invited to act voluntarily as members of the purposive sample, nine lecturers and twenty-five student-teachers at ub, for a total of 34 lecturers and student participants. teachers at four senior high schools, three in the city of serang in one in a rural part of the province, were also interviewed. interviews conducted in english and partially in indonesian (with the help of translators) lasted from 40 to 60 minutes each. the questions were thematic, open-ended, and sequenced with each participant responding in turn and listening to one another’s responses in the focus groups. observations were primarily as a participant-observer in classes and campus activities. field notes were fundamentally descriptive, including portraits of subjects, the reconstruction of dialogue, description of the physical setting, accounts of particular events, depiction of activities, and reflexive accounts of the researcher’s thoughts and behaviors. peer reviewers, participants themselves, were involved as partners in the study through the ongoing qualitative practice of member-checks to verify perspectives and accuracy of data collected. the case study focused on six female and five male lecturers in the fkip english education program, the english and education courses they teach, and the students enrolled in those courses. the lecturers and students were self-selected as volunteers, and had varying lengths of experience at the university of banten. students ranged from first year to fourth year and beyond. data were collected through primary interviews, followup conversations, classroom participant-observations, and campus activities participant-observations, from november 20, 2008 to august 19, 2009. class visits were chosen and planned based upon availability and schedule coordination, an attempt to have a balanced number of visits per 2 i will use “college of education” or “education department,” not to be confused with the national “department of education,” or mone. in indonesian it is simply “fkip,” in english: “faculty of teacher training in education.” irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 14 lecturer, and the likelihood of the courses contributing data relevant to the research questions. in the first months, all class visits were scheduled, but later many class visits were unscheduled. all interviews and classes were in english, except for the introduction to education (pengantar pendidikan) and education management (pengalaloan pendidikan) courses, which were taught entirely in indonesian. a longitudinal continuation of this study is planned for 2018, to examine the progress of the pakem initiative. findings state influence on teaching methods: active learning (pakem) pembelajaran aktif, kreatif, efektif dan menyenangkan, (pakem) or “active, creative, effective and joyful learning,” is the indonesian (mone) conceptualization of actively engaged, student-centered teaching and learning. pakem is used primarily in elementary (sekolah dasar; sd) schools, while the term “contextual teaching and learning” (ctl) is often used at the junior secondary (sekolah menengah pertama; smp) and senior secondary (sekolah menengah atas; sma) school levels. the purpose of active, creative, effective and joyful learning, and contextual teaching & learning, is to improve the quality of teaching and learning in schools, and to make schooling more meaningful and enjoyable for teachers and students. by extension, it is hoped that this will result in greater student participation, especially at the junior and senior high school level, and fewer drop-outs. though i have presented a rubric for “active learning,” the “criteria and characteristics for assessing pakem and ctl” based upon trends in indonesian education, i asked lecturers what their views are. for example, one question i asked was “can you describe or further elaborate on what you mean by ‘active learning,’” and “what kinds of methods and activities would this include?” i also asked (and observed) if the teaching behaviors and method were being modeled and discussed in classrooms. the lecturers and students at the ub fkip showed implicit attitudes and offered explicit statements and descriptions that they feel teaching for “active, relevant, and engaged learning” could be accomplished while following a highly-structured national curriculum, resulting in greater student involvement, enjoyment, and achievement. use of discussion, media, research and extracurricular projects to engage students while all lecturers agreed that teaching about and modeling active learning methods was important for their students, who would be expected to incorporate these methods in elementary and secondary schools, the extent of inclusion of active learning methods in all of the classes in this ub program was not clearly agreed upon. several lecturers suggested that differences in the subject matter of courses strongly influenced the nature of integrating active learning methods for different fkip english education classes, and that the goal of maximizing active learning in these classes was not always feasible, desirable or appropriate. these lecturers explained that for some activities in courses like reading and writing, class time was allotted for individual student reading and writing. however, all lecturers and irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 15 students indicated that they thought the extent of incorporation of active learning methods was, and should be greater in the elementary, junior and senior high schools. interviews revealed that all of the lecturers had themselves studied in classes, from elementary school to their own teacher-training programs, with some teachers using active-learning methods. tubagus and john described their own schooling and teacher training experiences, and also were trainers on an active learning elementary school teacher training project. i observed many of their classes and we participated in numerous campus activities together as well. at the university of banten, especially in fkip, principles of pakem and ctl are taught explicitly and modeled and experienced implicitly by many lecturers in diverse courses in the program of study. john’s favorite classes to teach were language lab management and translation. besides teaching the language lab course, in the interview he explained “i work with the english language lab, and with media software that promotes and encourages motivation, and gives support for teachers. in the language lab the students do listening and dictation…they practice translations…work in groups, collaboration with a variety of tasks…” during the course of the fall 2008 semester, “odd” or ganjil, and the spring, “even” or ganap, i observed in this lab management class and in addition to those activities described by john, he and students used power-point presentations, overhead projectors, recorders, and the computers and materials in the language lab itself. typically, there was always a good deal of question and answer, and group discussion. john graduated from lampung university fkip for english education, in lampung province, sumatra, across the sunda strait to the west of banten. he described the incorporation of active learning in his classes there, john: “since junior secondary my teachers have used active learning techniques, such as games, media, using theory to practice…that institution (lampung university) encouraged us to use active learning techniques because the students get bored learning english so that’s why we have to solve that problem by having more interesting ways of teaching and learning. take for one example, at that time (his undergraduate study at lampung) we learned how to operate a language laboratory in the subject of language lab and management to teach english, so how we can combine software and hardware, and using media to encourage the students’ motivation and can help the teacher to be more comfortable with english and the students….when we are trained at the university in this area, yes this applies especially at the junior and senior high levels…when we learn about theories we are trying to apply it in our actual teaching…” me: “so, in coming here to ub, have you tried to keep the same methods and teaching style that you were trained in?” john: “yeah, we do our best to teach our students, because the difference between secondary and university is the students, of course they are already quite mature enough, so that’s why you have to treat them different…but the principles of teaching are the same; we have to teach them actively, in a way that is interesting and to enjoy…let’s say, at that time i was teaching listening or dictation, so i tried to provide or to make my class feel active, and that the students are really getting practice, not only learn about some theories without practical exercise… well, in 2002 i taught first dictation, and then also language laboratory, and education irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 16 management, and translation and english for specific purposes. i have also taught, let’s see, teacher training experience, that’s what we call pplk1…” from the statement above, john emphasized his views that the lecturers in the ub fkip must integrate active learning in the english education courses there in order to model the methods for the students, so that they will understand active learning techniques and use them in their own teaching, at all levels. all of the lecturers shared the attitude that their students need to have teachers as role-models of the best teaching practices, including active learning, so that they will emulate these practices as teachers themselves. john continued to elaborate on the integration of technology and materials with active learning methods, he expressed, john: “i worked with the english language lab, and with media software that promotes and encourages motivation, and gives support for teachers. in the language lab the students do listening and dictation…they practice translations and work in groups, with collaboration and with a variety of tasks…what is my favorite class to teach? i like to teach language laboratory management, but actually my mastery is in translations…one of the principles is to work in groups and collaborative learning, and i try to provide them with a variety of tasks, and i try to guide them to have a source of texts of many varieties, so they have many sources…” me: “the class i visited was esp, and you were using a laptop and projector, and a variety of media to teach the lesson…yes…” john and the other lecturers also repeatedly mentioned the importance of the language laboratory to the program. i visited the laboratory and it had functioning computers that were integrated with lessons that focused primarily on speaking and listening exercises. i observed a lesson in which tubagus had different cards with job descriptions written on them, for the “employers,” and cards with personal and professional attributes on them, for the “job candidates.” these cards were distributed amongst the students, and after a brief moment to prepare, the interviews commenced. this lesson clearly met several criteria presented in the “20 characteristics for assessing pakem and ctl.” many of the lessons in all nine lecturers’ classes combined the use of games and puzzles linked with the learning objectives and the use of teaching aids, as with object lessons. this particular lesson links the practical tasks of interviewing and role playing, including using the students’ social environment, with the speaking course objectives of describing oneself, and one’s qualifications for a job position. regarding research on an active learning training project, which was still in progress at that time, tubagus stated these observations based upon data collected at that point, he noticed, “observing and interviewing both students and teachers in the madrasah gives me a light that active learning, so far, has been considered as an ideal way in helping students learn and actively participate in the classroom. discussion for example, has helped students to be more active under supervision from the teacher. implementing active learning through various games and instructional media, to my observation, attracts many students to be more active and to learn better.” irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 17 these statements underscore many of the positive characteristics attributed to pakem methods, and it also indicates that tubagus believed the active learning modules and training had been helpful for teachers and students. two major problems for teachers in the elementary schools he was studying were described by tubagus next, “however, the biggest barrier so far, as many teachers in the madarash said, is supporting teaching media and facilities. some of them are well trained in active learning to be implemented but they still find the lack of media and facilities are quite disturbing. another problem is related to students' “basic characters.” many of them are introverted (say, "shy") in the classroom. this condition hinders them to fully participate and aspire in their learning process within the classroom.” a shortcoming is that the “shy students” find it difficult to cope with active learning more than “brave students” who “naturally like being active in the classroom.” these observations of tubagus were confirmed by teachers that i visited in the senior secondary schools. a lack of resources and class materials are a hindrance for teachers implementing active learning, as others are the cultural norms of deference to authority and the reserved nature of some students. however, i observed many students who embraced and enjoyed participating actively in lessons at the ub fkip and in the senior high schools. many students i observed over the long course of the study were as ebullient and outgoing as i’ve seen anywhere. there is a likely possibility of the “hawthorne effect” taking place in class observations, as students will often “be on their best behavior,” or sit still and be quiet, when a stranger is visiting a classroom. yudi explained how the use of active learning in the ub english classes is intended not only as a means for effective teaching, but also as a model to be emulated by the students when they are teaching. he said, “i like teaching toefl and learning and planning elt because of learning more about concepts of teaching, and how to relate concepts and practices…this is what i want to know…it gives students ideas on recent ideas and issues which students should know, or be familiar with…we try to integrate principles of active learning… we do not want our classes to be teacher-centered here…for example, we have students go to the internet and share with your friends, then highlight major points for discussion, and we try to select our own materials…for example, learning concepts but also producing, as in speaking and listening, if it’s 60% to 70% passive, then we need to draw together to speak, to talk, and to encourage the students to produce language…” furthermore, ayu related similar experiences in her teaching first at an islamic elementary school in semarang for grades four and five, she expressed, “it was nice explore how to make lesson, they moved around a lot…we sang a lot, and told stories…there was a separation of classes—boys and girls, and the stories would make them more calm. and they really liked the games and songs… like irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 18 ‘keep baby brother, baby sister, pa and mom safe allah…’ a lot about the family, but all in english…” ayu also showed an integration of local culture with active learning as this song for her elementary school students is a popular traditional song for children in indonesia. ayu later taught english speaking and writing at a private university, and described how she enjoyed helping students to understand other cultures, especially american through learning english. she said, “i use these kinds of stories in my ccu course, also, when we talk about cultural backgrounds…and in my introduction to literature course. in my class for example, we will have a topic… i ask the students to use the internet or library for sources, and they do group presentations. in our group discussions i will let them choose themes, like the mosaic or cultural melting pot…and that many ethnicities together don’t have to be mixed…like ‘bhineka tunggal ika’… ‘berbeda beda tapi tetapa satu saja’… ‘different but one’… and the garuda pancasila is the national bird, the condor…they are not sculptures… they are human…give them a chance to speak— this is not meditation class—so please speak up’ i say… and being a friend is important…” additionally, ayu consistently modeled these best practices of active learning and encouraging the affective domain in her teaching of cross-cultural understanding and literature and poetry. in this description, she had also included elements of the state ideology of pancasila, and of the idea of “unity in diversity.” ayu incorporated interactive and fun activities in most of her classes. in a literature and poetry, i observed, after analyzing poetic elements of robert burns and emily dickinson poems, such as rhythm, tone, stress, and metaphor, students were encouraged to give poems and songs in english that they liked, and which they would analyze in small groups. the lecturers and students at ub are very well-informed and engaged with active learning methods in their studies. strategies for active learning in indonesia presented in the rubric from chapter two were consistently integrated and modeled in english and education courses during the school year, and seemed to be the status quo. students assumed personal responsibility for their assignments and were often eager according to their abilities in english, to participate in classroom activities. lecturers and students encourage one another to “not to be shy” and to be self-directed and independent in responding to the challenges of course requirements like reading, writing, and participating in class discussions and activities. the english student association (esa) carnival and the english debate club (edc) the english student association (esa) and the english debate club (edc) are both very popular extracurricular groups for the ub students. virtually, all students in the fkip english teacher training program are members of the esa. in some cases, non-english majors are in these groups and attend meetings and activities, especially in the case of the debate club. i asked john about his views of these groups and he responded, irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 19 mike: “is there, what are the best things you can say about the ub and the fkip english programs here? are there some kind of ratings nationally or awards that students have won? like the edc for example?” john: “well, the students are very active in extracurricular and intra-curricular activities, this is proved with several data that all of the budgets for the student activities are covered by the english student association and english student activities, and then, if we try to have a competition we have the most dynamic and valuable activities. also, the edc english debating club participated here local in banten and national or even international, and is preparing the team for the national competition…sometimes they have won at the national level, so this is also shows and proves to us that the english student association and english student activities really are active at the level of national, and also at the level of this university…” the english student association is a major extracurricular event coordinated mainly by the esa student committee. all of the students take great pride in the event, which is held in the main auditorium and lasts all day. the lecturers were all present and participate as planned by the students. several students from the committee serve as emcees, and the event is almost entirely in english. there is a good deal of language code-switching, and students sometimes speak back and forth from indonesian to english to better express themselves. there were competitions and games of various kinds, in english, and skits, dance performances, songs, and poems read. the competitions match the various cohorts within the year, one through four, against one another and a champion is crowned at the end. awards are also given for the most outstanding students. yudi, as head of the english education program welcomed all in the introduction and gave a closing speech. the event combines the accomplishments of the students’ english studies with fun and comradery, and there was a great deal of noise and excitement throughout the day. this event and its activities demonstrated the self-directed motivation for learning by the esa and debate club students and are substantial evidence of the “attitude that learning can occur anywhere is encouraged; learning inside and outside of school is stressed” and that “students are responsible for interacting with teachers and other students, for finding information, for assessing their own work, and for participating in planning their learning from the pakem rubric, and the students autonomously pursue their own mastery of english and debate skills independently in their own free time. the remaining components of the pakem characteristics, such as recognizing the importance of emotion in learning (the affective domain)—therefore teachers actively promote joy and pleasure in learning, a focusing on learning cooperatively with other students (and teamwork), greater flexibility in arranging learning and teaching facilities (rooms, desks, locations) and grouping pupils in their learning, accommodating diverse learning styles and diverse qualities of past experience, emphasis on activity (problem solving, discussion, inquiry) and higher-order thinking such as application, analysis, evaluation, and intrinsic motivation to learn through interest, curiosity, and responsibility (cannon, 2005) were all observed in practice over the course of the study. irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 20 sani, defi, and reza, and students in the university of banten fkip sani was a second-year student in the ub fkip english program, and a leader of the english debate club. she and fellow students in the club extended their speaking and rhetorical skills, and were able to practice discussing educational issues in english in the development of debate proposals. she was also active as a coach of the serang senior high school debate team, and i attended practices and a major competition with them in tangerang. she was actively involved beyond her own university classrooms and campus by sharing her english and debate skills with the high school student level, and modeling the most effective forensic strategies to win competitions. leading the ub debate club, with minimal interference from the lecturers, sani showed incredible enthusiasm and commitment along with the other club members. debate also falls in the thirteenth characteristics of pakem, and important endeavors (like project-based learning) including current issues (i.e., environmentalism, technology, and politics) is the eleventh; so active learning is taking place beyond the classrooms at ub as well. the topics pursued by the ub debate club and the senior high school debate club included all of these current issues and more, especially issues directly related to students. sani was one of the best performing students in her fourth-year class at ub, and she took the initiative to lead and coach the debate club at senior high school 1, with aiyda as the club’s sponsor. she is only one example of the self-motivation and conviction of the ub english education students i encountered. i asked sani about her knowledge and understanding of the cbc-ktsp and pakem active learning methods based on her experiences at ub, and which courses she felt helped her most as far as incorporating pakem active learning methods, and she expressed, mike: “sani, you said speaking, pronunciation, and structure were courses that helped you most? why is that?” sani: “i would say why i chose these courses first is just because the lecturers. in the speaking class, as a new student, i needed time to adapt with the new environment, which is totally different from senior high school. this kind of transition is pretty hard. but, i thought that the lecturer was successful. he encouraged me to be brave; to speak my thoughts and my mind. the lecturer started from simple things like daily questions that he always asked before starting the material, like ‘how was your day?’ ‘how was the holiday?’ or ‘what did you do last night?’ i admitted that the first time that we had this class, only a few people were brave to speak in front of the class, because maybe they’re not used to it. it’s only about three or four students who are brave to come in front of the class. as the time goes by on the second and third semester, there were more students who made positive progress in terms of speaking. well, i think this is the rule of the lecturer to encourage the students through the very simple things and talking.” english teachers i interviewed and observed at five senior high schools, all were familiar with the national cbc standards for their english classes, and i observed the integration of the skills identified in these standards in their classes. in one case i observed a graduate of the ub fkip english program, aiyda, at senior high school integrating pakem active learning methods with the cbc standards with students happily and playfully using critical thinking irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 21 skills to compose comprehensible sentences out of a collection of words and phrases. aiyda said that she thought the ub fkip english program was an excellent teacher training experience for her, because “at that time both the english program and the university were new, and the lecturers were very great professional educators, and had very many experiences to share. i really liked studying at ub. i liked shafira’s classes, and i got very good grades. i liked songs and movies in english, and dance and theatre. i want to meet ‘hanson’ and speak to them in english! do you know ‘mmm bop?” i said, “of course,” and we laughed. aiyda was in her mid-twenties, had an ebullient demeanor, and was excellent in speaking english. she also had attended this sma 1 for senior high school. i discovered after visiting her classes she also had a highly competent understanding of english grammar and the logical sequencing of sentences in narrative composition, as was demonstrated in a lesson that featured many of the pakem characteristics. aiyda’s lesson plans for the classes i observed were detailed, organized, and engaging. i asked aiyda about the development of the curriculum for the english courses, and she explained, “there are two senior english teachers who work together with the mgmp school curriculum committee, which is like an association of teachers for each subject area, and they follow the cbc-ktsp curriculum to determine the syllabus for each grade level. we apply and develop in lessons plans that we make for each class based on the syllabus, which is based on the standards from the two senior english teachers on the curriculum team.” i replied that this process seemed very similar to our curriculum development and instruction in the u.s. aiyda further elaborated that she understood “ktsp” stands for “kurikulum tengkat satuan pendidikan,” or structuring of skills and competencies for instruction of national cbc standards. she further thought the purpose of the ktsp in the following, “so that students can enjoy the subjects more, and be more active… so they can develop themselves in skills and knowledge spontaneously, and fluently. the lesson plans and activities are different for different skills. it depends, if you want to teach speaking, we have conversational role-play and dialogue. in general, i try to ask students to speak english as much as they can, even simple words like ‘hello.’ in grammar or studying text, or how they can read and understand the text, for example, we use description, giving instructions, and procedural text, like the process of how to follow steps… you know about the debate team—we use debate in the classroom, too. they work in teams and do ‘pros’ and ‘cons’ and deliver it to the class…sometimes i want to make new creations and games” based on aiyda’s statements regarding the cbc-ktsp curriculum standards to the syllabi, lesson plans, instruction. she had similar views with the lecturers at ub, in that ultimately in the classroom the standards, objectives, concepts and skills influence the types of activities the teacher uses to engage the students with the material. i noticed that overall, more students in the high schools were not as proficient in english as those in the ub fkip english program, meanwhile, their enthusiasm and strongly-positive attitudes toward their school work was the same. i met some students, especially three students at sma 1, getting irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 22 involved in the high school’s english debate team, and were very fluent in english. i accompanied these students, along with their coach, sani, to a province-wide english competition held by sma 1 tangerang, and the students excelled in the english debate competition. they affirmed that active engagement with language learning was essential. in aiyda’s classes, as with teachers at the other senior high schools, the english teachers were very fluent in english and demonstrated active learning methods in the implementation the cbc-ktsp curriculum standards in their lessons. discussion active learning and student-centered approaches have been increasingly embraced internationally since the progressive era, culminating in the education for all (efa) world conference on education endorsed by the undp, unesco, unicef, and the world bank in jomtien, thailand, 1990. indonesia is one of many countries incorporating active learning methods for instruction in an effort to improve learning outcomes, and the approaches vary according to unique contexts such as former and developing educational policy, sociocultural factors, resources and external support and existing teacher training. the data analysis and findings for this study showed remarkable parallels to similar efforts to implement active learning methods in other countries. ginsburg (2010) identified four major areas or themes prevalent from studies in cambodia, egypt, jordan, kyrgyzstan, and malawi: (1) reform documents and active-learning pedagogies, (2) professional development initiatives and active learning pedagogies, (3) teachers’ understandings and behaviors related to active-learning pedagogies, and (4) factors that constrain/enable implementation of active-learning pedagogies. these same four themes identified by ginsberg (2010) became apparent inductively for this study with some variations, and these consistencies and variations are discussed in the following findings and conclusion. though these countries and indonesia have unique historical, cultural and political contexts regarding education, involvement from the federal level, and international influences reveal many similar trends in adapting active learning pedagogies. it is important to consider that factors within the four areas are interconnected. analysis of data obtained and experienced from this study showed repeated and authentic evidence of the indonesian acronym pakem “active, creative, effective and joyful learning,” and actively-engaged, student-centered teaching and learning. fieldwork and interviews indicate the university lecturers, teachers and student-teachers observed and interviewed in banten province consistently approach the integration of active learning in teaching practice with high levels of enthusiasm, thoughtfulness and competence. the following findings are linked with the four overlapping areas discussed by ginsburg (2010), along with strengths, challenges and implications for pakem in indonesia. reform documents and active-learning pedagogies studies of policy development and implementation of active learning pedagogies invariably include extensive background research, literature and government documents pertaining to the development of education policies preceding current active learning reforms. common purposes for this are to provide historical and cultural contexts of irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 23 teaching methods in a country or region, to define just what “active learning methods” means for those contexts, and to provide an official rationale for implementing these policy and teaching reforms. this case discussed the evolution of indonesia’s national policies pakem and ctl, and national and international resources such as manuals and modules provided in teacher training, including the 20 characteristics for assessing pakem and ctl” compiled by cannon (2005) the mbe/dbe, and myself. the background research for indonesia shows active learning pedagogies gaining attention and building toward a series of policy development and implementation during the 1990’s and into the new millennium. the explicit description of the meaning and reasons for active learning methods (in the “20 characteristics for pakem” chart), and their observed interpretation, reflect both the cognitive and behavioral dimensions of teaching and learning. the rationales for active learning in indonesian education emphasize improved learning outcomes (ostensibly measured by scores on national standardized tests and other less-tangible means,) increased critical thinking skills as citizens and workers, and the practical purpose of retaining students in school and encouraging progress from grade to grade. elements of these rationales are evident in comparison with the five countries in ginsburg’s study, including the purpose of nurturing problem-solving skills and dispositions favorable for participating in the global economy as in cambodia and jordan (2010). professional development initiatives and active learning pedagogies as with all five cases from the ginsburg’s (2010) study, government and international initiatives supported the professional development of trainers and teachers for understanding and implementing active learning pedagogy and methods in indonesia. workshops, conferences and related activities, as well as the inclusion of active learning in the teacher training curriculum were approaches designed to disseminate and sustain the methods across the province of banten. emphasis was placed on fundamentally understanding and planning of a.l. methods in instruction. the lecturers and students in the fkip program and teachers in secondary schools agreed that the school year, semesters, units and lessons must be well-planned and coordinated with pakem methods and materials integrated with instruction. since planning also applies for the classroom environment and materials, it was agreed that training should include emphases on the importance and careful performance of comprehensive planning and implementation. during my study, john and tubagus were conducting usaid-supported research on the integration of active learning in public and private elementary schools in banten, and rizal and yudi had previously done studies on active learning for english education in banten. shafira and arsi had been actively involved with the mgmp teacher’s association, meeting and working together with english teachers in banten to discuss and improve the teaching and learning process. the lecturers used their own research as examples in the english teacher training program at ub, encouraging students to pursue their own research projects in the form of the undergraduate thesis. lecturers and students from the ub fkip department also actively participated in nationally and provincially sponsored workshops on active learning methods, at times working together with elementary and secondary teachers (shafira and arsi) and john and tubagus with the action research project assessing and promoting the use of active learning methods in banten. irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 24 the findings and implications are largely consistent with some major points of the analysis of teacher training in indonesia, part b (evans et al., 2009). for example, point 9: build upon the dbe successes in school and district management, student centered methods and materials, and junior secondary and life-skill training, points 10-12, deals with coordination between dbe, provincial and district governments, education institutions specifically teacher training colleges, and kkg’s, mgmp’s, mkk’s, pgpt’s, and dbe crc’s), and point 13: “work at the provincial level to establish a “center for effective schools” either at a university or lpmp.” the breadth and depth of pakem dissemination, as well as its sustainability, can be improved with the collaboration of all possible stakeholders. furthermore, these collaborating partners can continue to reach out within provinces to train increasing numbers of teachers and to provide resources and materials. as for training and practice effective pakem instruction requires that teachers have support from school leaders in a context of sbm, communities of practice, and constructive school cultures. many teachers said they would like more and more thorough training and practice. the cluster resource centers, kkg and mgmp teacher groups and “master” or “lead” teachers can be utilized to improve pakem methods and to sustain them independently. these recommendations are all consistent with the emphasis on capacity-building for diffusion and sustaining of professional development programs found in ginsburg’s (2010) case study. teachers’ understandings and behaviors related to active-learning pedagogies participants described how their families influenced their pursuit of teaching, as many lecturers and some students have relatives who are also teachers. many lecturers, teachers and student-teachers stated that they themselves had been taught with active-learning methods at the elementary, junior, and senior high school levels. they also reported that these teachers were the “best” and “favorite.” thus, pakem methods are not entirely new for many teachers. we found that trainers need to get to “know” pakem teachers’ own experiences, build upon them, and identify and involve accomplished teachers in the training. this strategy also embodies and serves as a rationale for utilization of pakem methods: students and teachers enjoy learning more. the essential enjoyment of learning was not noted as a rationale for active learning methods in the ginsburg’s (2010) cases, whereas likely is a prevalent rationale in these countries as well. lecturers, teachers, and students shared university and secondary experiences involving both traditional and active learning teaching methods, and described their own teacher training experiences (many at the university of lampung, nearby sumatra) involving the use of active learning methods. they also explained how and why they believed active learning methods can be more effective for engaging students and increasing the relevance of course material, as demonstrated by the data presented here, and how pakem strategies are easier to integrate with instruction in some courses as opposed to others, depending on the subject matter and objectives. this relates to constraining factors as well. i also observed the implicit and explicit modeling of active learning instruction in classrooms and in activities around the ub campus, including the use of discussion, media and technology, research, and extracurricular activities to engage students. lecturers incorporated many active learning approaches in their instruction, such as utilizing group work in and out of the class, role irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 25 playing, interviewing, debating, cooperative learning, flexibility in arranging learning and teaching facilities, and showing care and concerning for the students’ success, as my data here has shown. lecturers and students also participated in workshops on active learning methods, at times working together with elementary and secondary teachers (shafira and arsi) and as mentioned by several lecturers including john and tubagus, working on an action research project assessing and promoting the use of active learning methods in the province of banten supported by usaid. this involvement deepened their understandings and teaching of active learning. the lecturers, students and teachers all shared the opinion that active learning strategies, together with clearly-structured learning objectives and planning, can help to promote retention and progress of students, and encourage interest in learning and better achievement. all five countries in ginsburg’s (2010) case study analysis reported progress in understandings and implementation behaviors of varying aspects of active learning, as with this case study, was not surprising considering the substantial guidance and resources supporting the instructional reforms from the national and international levels. factors that constrain and enable implementation of active-learning pedagogies lecturers, teachers and students expressed that understanding and using active learning methods is complex, and teachers must actively guide and facilitate pakem instruction. they emphasized, for example, that simply clustering desks and using group presentations do not constitute effective pakem teaching, and that unguided, poorly planned active learning can create distractions from learning. this should be clarified for teachers and school leaders in training. some veteran, civil-service teacher level are resistant to changing their traditional ways of teaching and adopting pakem methods, and we agreed that school leaders and teacher colleagues can demonstrate the benefits of pakem for their colleagues. elements of pakem methods could be included in performance standards, if desired, employed from a national or provincial level, while this might include incentives as well. consideration of the cbc-ktsp standards on national tests, along with a lack of classroom resources and incentives was frequently voiced as challenges to integrating active learning methods. i found that integration of pakem methods will vary for different subjects, such as math, science, civics and language arts, and within skill areas of subjects, for example with speaking-listening, grammar, reading and writing in language arts. thus it is unrealistic to expect every lesson of every course to be taught strictly as “active-learning.” pakem methods should be integrated in a holistic manner with the planning of an entire semester. teachers need to collaborate and mutually support each other. teachers need to be creative in the development of methods and materials; to create, access and utilize various resources, including technology and their teaching colleagues. thus, pakem training should also include guidance to overcome obstacles to resources, materials and teaching aids, and teachers should work together to assess what is provided and what more could be provided in terms of books, materials, activities and websites. “civil service culture” or “institutional culture” (bjork, 2005, 2006) comes from being a civil-service teacher level, which is achieved with experience, a portfolio, and by passing a civil service exam. it may be considered a form of tenure, and once attained, irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 26 according to bjork’s (2005, 2006) study, complying with formal daily routines is the highest priority, and teaching and learning a much lower priority. there are multiple perspectives from which to examine this phenomenon. one prominent perspective that the over-reaching structure of the education system, historically, strongly reinforces authority roles and loyalty and compliance from all actors, students, teachers, and administrators alike, within the hierarchy. these relationships seem authoritarian and even possibly un-democratic and anti-autonomous. an alternative explanation of this is that, if actors are customarily loyal and compliant, they will do what is expected and increase their own knowledge, qualifications and credentials, and will integrate the educational standards with effective active learning teaching methods. bjork (2005) contends this culture affects public junior high school teachers in east java who were generally indifferent to the quality of instruction and actual learning. public senior high school teachers that i interviewed and observed, in the subjects of english and local content curriculum (lcc), did not seem so adversely affected by civil service culture. these teachers i worked with as participant-observer prepared and implemented quality lessons, and showed a commitment to student learning while also adhering to the formal protocols of school relationships. my observations in fkip teacher training courses at ub showed that contemporary school management structures promote parental and community involvement; during visits and observations at high schools i witnessed parents in the administration offices meeting with teachers. while in this case study, the interests of students, parents and the community are more strongly considered in relation to national influences than bjork’s model suggests, there is ubiquitous variation in schools across indonesia and surely an ongoing need for improvement. conclusion: state and international influence and active learning teaching active learning pedagogies, combined with more traditional teaching approaches, are widely recognized for improving learning outcomes internationally. pakem active learning methods have been integrated for instruction in indonesian schools to increase student attendance, involvement, interest, and achievement. i witnessed many elementary and secondary teachers, beyond the scope of the case of lecturers and students in the fkip at ub, who were developing and using active learning methods for instruction, as identified in in the appendix table i have provided and developed. in addition to making learning more relevant to students’ lives and school more enjoyable, these diverse approaches, in addition to traditional lecturing, recitation, and bookwork, are intended to more effectively help teachers and students meet the national standards of the cbc-ktsp. i observed the implicit and explicit modeling of active learning instruction in classrooms and in activities around the ub campus and in secondary schools in banten province, including the use of discussion, media and technology, research and extracurricular activities to engage students. lecturers incorporated many other elements of the “20 characteristics for assessing pakem and ctl” in their instruction, such as utilizing group work in and out of the class, role playing, interviewing, debate, cooperative learning, flexibility in arranging learning and teaching facilities, providing students with helpful feedback, and accommodating diverse learning styles and diverse qualities of past experience and generally caring about the students in regard to the affective domain. john and tubagus were involved with research on active learning methods in banten as part of a usaid irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 27 decentralized basic education (dbe2) project, which may explain their thorough understanding of the pakem initiative. all of the lecturers shared the attitude that their students need to have teachers as role-models of the best teaching practices, including active learning, so that they will emulate these practices as teachers themselves. a primary finding of this study was that pakem methods were well-understood and utilized by lecturers in this university fkip case, and teachers in sma public high schools in the city. an implication of this is that university, particularly, fkip, and all higher learning institution professors and lecturers, as well as “master” or “lead” teachers in provinces and cities of indonesia should be involved with, and leaders of, the in-service professional training of existing teachers. it became apparent in the study that positive teacher characteristics, and personality traits such as enthusiasm, empathy, caring, and being ethical, as described in the indonesian teacher law (2005), and essential conduct such as consistent attendance and involvement with students are necessary for successful pakem instruction and quality teaching in general. teachers’ earlier experiences as students, through college teacher training showed a strong influence on their understanding and implementation of new teaching approaches. teaching traditionally has been widely viewed as a high status profession in indonesia (geertz, 1960). lecturers, teachers and students were generally very sociable, genial and cooperative. code switching between languages was very common in english-taught classes and around the campuses. lecturers and students consistently showed respectful and supportive attitudes toward one another, and this group-centered social dynamic has been described as “asian communitarianism” in the work of tan and ng (2007). asian communitarianism can be learned from huat (2004) and rawls (1971, 1993). pakem teaching reinforces characteristics of best-teaching practices, from planning to assessment and feedback. elements of the affective domain, such as socialization and cooperation are enhanced with pakem methods, as are the promotion of creativity, critical thinking, and problem solving. pakem also stresses the accommodation of diverse learning styles and experiences. pakem, “contextual teaching and learning” (ctl) and active learning in general, by various names like “discovery” or “experiential” learning, are synonymous with good teaching. while traditional methods such as lecture, worksheets and workbooks, memorization, drills, and solitary work at reading and writing can be useful approaches for learning. teachers’ education and experience with pakem, and use of planning, lesson plans, and materials, together with students’, lecturers’, teachers’ and leaders’ expectations, commitments, and collaboration will contribute to improved utilization of active learning in indonesian classrooms. the lecturers, students and teachers all shared the conviction, in concert with the national education policy development; active learning strategies, combined with clearly-structured learning objectives, can help to keep students in school and progressing from grade to grade, and promote engaged interest in learning and better achievement. it is ironic that the mandating of pakem active learning methods by the national government reflects the state’s ongoing influence on educational practice, and simultaneously devolves greater autonomy to schools and teachers in the implementation of these methods. active learning methods are meant to be fundamentally democratic in nature, encouraging participation, and representing the core rationale and purposes of decentralization reforms. for these lecturers, teachers and students, pakem was viewed as an advantageous means irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 28 for improving schooling and learning outcomes. international and national level resources have helped to support the diffusion of the pakem educational reforms, together with enthusiasm and cooperation among many lecturers, teachers and students. however, as identified by ginsburg (2010) in multiple countries, the challenges of national standards and high-stakes tests, limited resources and teaching conditions, and a dearth of incentives all pose challenges to the effective implementation of active learning teaching methods in schools. references bjork, c. (2005). local responses to decentralization policy in indonesia. comparative education review, 47(2), 88-95. bjork, c. (2006). indonesian education: teachers, schools, and central bureaucracy. new york: routledge. cannon, r. (2006). consultant’s guide to pakem & ctl. jakarta, indonesia: usaid. huat, c. b. (2004). communitarian politics in asia. new york: routledge curzon. dewey, j. (1916). democracy and education: an introduction to the philosophy of education. new york, ny: macmillan. dewey, j. (1938). experience and education. new york, ny: kappa delta phi. geertz, c. (1960). the religion of java. chicago, il: the university of chicago press. geertz, c. (1984). culture and change: the indonesian case. man,19(4), 511-532. ginsburg, m. (2010). improving educational quality through active-learning pedagogies: a comparison of five case studies. educational research, 1(3), 62-74. ginsburg, m., & megahed, n. (2008). global discourses and educational reform in egypt: the case of active-learning pedagogies. mediterranean journal of educational studies, 13(2), 91-115. managing basic education (mbe) program. (2005). usaid & rti international consultants. retrieved from http://mbeproject.net/indexe.html. ministry of national education (mone) (2005). strategies of the republic of indonesia, 2005 – 2009. jakarta: ministry of national education ministry of national education of indonesia unicef (2008). vcd videopakem learning english and ips for class v and vi semester i). jakarta: ministry of national education. rawls, j. (1971). a theory of justice. cambridge, ma: harvard u. rawls, j. (1993). political liberalism. new york, ny: columbia u. press. rekdale, p. (2005). indonesian pendidikan (education) network. retrieved from http://pendidikan.net/eindex.html tan, c., & ng, p. t. (2007). dynamics of change: decentralized centralism of education in singapore. journal of educational change, 8(2), 155-168. usaid indonesia. (2008). impact, result and progress: dbe2 monitoring and evaluation report fy 2008. jakarta: education development center, inc. usaid indonesia. (2007). introduction to effective learning in (pakem) subject matter. jakarta: education development center, inc. usaid indonesia. (2007). paduan untuk fasilitator: what is active learning? jakarta: education development center, inc. http://mbeproject.net/indexe.html http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/a_theory_of_justice irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 29 the world bank. (2009). the world bank education in indonesia. retrieved from www.worldbank.org/id/education young, m. s. (2011). a case of the global—local dialectic: decentralization and teacher training in banten, indonesia (unpublished doctoral dissertation), florida state university, the united state of america. biographical note michael sean young, ph.d is a professor of education at thomas university in thomasville, georgia, the u.s.a. he specializes in international and comparative education and earned his doctorate in this from florida state university and masters in international and intercultural education from florida international university. he has taught and researched in the fields of education and english in the philippines, indonesia, the u.a.e., india, south korea, and saudi arabia. he has a book published on education policy and teacher training in indonesia. http://www.worldbank.org/id/education irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 30 acronyms and abbreviations ikipinstitute keguruan ilmu pendidikan. teacher training university. the title ikip is no longer used; i.e., university of pendidikan indonesia, bandung (upi). fkipfakultas keguruan ilmu pendidikan. faculty, or college, of teacher education. pgsmtpteacher training college for junior secondary school teachers (pendidikan guru sekolah menengah tingkat pertama) currently being phased out. pgsltateacher training college for senior secondary school teachers (pendidikan guru sekolah menengah tingkat pertama) currently being phased out. stkipschool of higher learning of teacher education (sekolah tinggi keguruan dan ilmu). often extensions or satellites of ikip programs in teacher training universities. irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 31 criteria and characteristics for assessing pakem and ctl 20 characteristics for assessing pakem and ctl 1 students are responsible for interacting with teachers and other students, for finding information, for assessing their own work and for participating in planning their learning. 2 emphasis on activity (problem solving, discussion, inquiry) and higher-order thinking such as application, analysis, evaluation. 3 intrinsic motivation to learn through interest, curiosity, and responsibility 4 recognizes the importance of emotion in learning (the affective domain)—therefore teachers actively promote joy and pleasure in learning. 5 focus on learning cooperatively with other students (and teamwork) 6 attitude that learning can occur anywhere is encouraged; learning inside and outside of school is stressed. 7 greater flexibility in arranging learning and teaching facilities (rooms, desks, locations) and grouping pupils’ in their learning 8 greater emphasis on a long-term perspective: emphasis on lifelong learning and learning how to learn to face future challenges and changes. 9 assessment of learning (tests and examinations) used to provide students with feedback to help them learn (cannon, 2005). 10 accommodating diverse learning styles and diverse qualities of past experience. 11 important endeavors (like “project-based learning”) including current issues (i.e., environmentalism, technology, politics) 12 service learning (social causes like helping less-fortunate people) 13 debate, creative writing, poetry, music, journals, portfolios, art. 14 games and puzzles linked with learning objectives 15 students use more teaching aids; object lessons 16 practical tasks, including using the social and natural environments 17 libraries and library corners are set up and used 18 student’s work is written in their own words 19 student’s work is displayed in class 20 interview and role playing nos. 1-9 from “student-centered, active learning” (cannon, 2005). 10-20 from mbe, dbe, and myself. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 192 development of an authentic assessment model in mathematics learning: a science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (stem) approach i wayan widana 1 , agus tatang sopandi 2 , and agus tatang sopandi 3 abstract stem (science, technology, engineering, mathematics) approach in mathematics learning is very suitable for improving higher-order thinking skills. however, the ability of teachers to develop authentic assessment models based on the stem approach is still low. this study aims to develop an authentic assessment model suitable for learning based on the stem approach in mathematics at senior high school. this study used a research & development design adapted from the borg & gall model. data were collected using a validation sheet and a questionnaire. the data source was 269 teacher respondents selected using multistage random sampling technique, while two experts from higher education as validators and 21 senior high school math teachers experienced as panellists were determined by purposive sampling technique. data were analysed through a quantitative approach. the product of this research is an authentic assessment model consisting of twenty project tasks. the results of the analysis show that 16 project tasks with very good quality and four project tasks with good quality, declared appropriate and in accordance with the stem approach-based learning. keywords authentic assessment, stem-based learning approach, mathematics 1. mathematics education study program, faculty of teacher training and education, pgri mahadewa university, indonesia, denpasar, bali, indonesia; i.wayan.widana.bali@gmail.com 2. elementary school teacher education study program, teacher training and education faculty, universitas terbuka; upbjj denpasar, bali; atatang@ecampus.ut.ac.id 3. statistics study program, faculty of science and technology, universitas terbuka; upbjj denpasar, bali; isuwardika@ecampus.ut.ac.id mailto:i.wayan.widana.bali@gmail.com mailto:atatang@ecampus.ut.ac.id mailto:isuwardika@ecampus.ut.ac.id asus rectangle asus rectangle asus rectangle asus typewriter gede suwardika3 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 193 introduction one of the most dominant features in the industrial revolution 4.0 is the rapid use of information and communication technology in various aspects of life, including education (morrar et al., 2017). the development of science and technology is increasingly sophisticated and integrated with social sciences and humanities. this progress has resulted in geographic barriers of space and time, which have been the determinants of the speed and success of human mastery of science, which can be done easily and quickly (andersson & mattsson, 2015). everyone can easily interact, communicate, and transact anytime and from and wherever they are. thus, mastery of information technology is an important issue to do through education (dutton, 2014). the 21st-century education paradigm can be formulated as follows (lee et al., 2014; marolt et al., 2015): (1) education must be oriented towards mathematics, science, social sciences, and humanity; (2) science not only makes a person knowledgeable but also adopts a scientific attitude, namely critical, logical, analytical, innovative, and creative with adaptability; (3) at every level of education, it is necessary to instill a spirit of independence because individual independence underlies the independence of the nation. thus, for the indonesian nation to have high competitiveness in the association of the international community, students should be equipped with some competencies needed in the era of globalization, namely: creativity, critical thinking, communication, and collaboration (widana, 2020). mathematics trains the ability to think logically, analytically, systematically, critically, innovatively, and creatively, as well as the ability to work together (sudiarta & widana, 2019). mathematics is used in various aspects of life and other scientific disciplines. the use of mathematics as a means of communication-based on symbols, which are brief and clear, can present information in various ways and develop creativity (isnawan & wicaksono, 2020). mathematical skills are part of life skills that students must have, especially in developing reasoning, communication, and solving problems faced in everyday life. learning mathematics cannot be separated from the context of life and civilization (widana et al., 2019). the mathematics learning process should be carried out through interactive, inspirational, fun, challenging, and motivating students to participate actively and provide sufficient space for initiative, creativity, and independence according to students’ talents, interests, and physical and psychological development. the teacher tries to inspire students with challenging and fun mathematical ideas packaged in interactive mathematics learning (kheruniah, 2013). the space for the concept discovery process for students allows the development of student initiative and creativity. therefore, teachers must be creative in choosing the learning approach used by the characteristics of the subject matter. the learning approach should also consider integrating information technology users and promoting the development of higher-order thinking skills. according to sun and wu (2016), project-based mathematics learning can increase student participation in learning and increase creativity to solve problems. project-based learning is designed to solve complex problems through investigative activities and develop real problem-solving skills. projects/activities presented in form of learning are a medium for students to explore, assess, interpret, synthesize, and draw conclusions to produce various learning outcomes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 194 (richard, 2018). activities carried out to complete projects can improve higher-order thinking skills because students are trained to think from planning, project implementation, analysis, evaluation, and developing ideas creatively. the achievement of learning objectives should be measured using an assessment instrument according to the learning approach used. the coherence between the learning approach and the assessment model used is very important for teachers to pay attention to. a good assessment instrument should describe the achievement of learning outcomes objectively and can be used as material for reflection to improve the learning process (weinstein & preiss, 2017). assessment of learning outcomes can help teachers improve the quality of learning and provide feedback for students to improve learning outcomes. thus, if the teacher uses a project-based learning approach, the assessment instrument will also use a project-based assessment model. theoretical framework stem approach in learning mathematics stem-based learning uses science, technology, engineering, and mathematics approaches in real contexts that connect schools, the world of work, and the global world so that students can compete in the industrial revolution 4.0. wang & degol (2017) state that to determine learning objectives using the stem framework, it is necessary to conduct an assessment using an authentic assessment model according to the characteristics of stem-based learning. the assessment model can be carried out in two ways, namely: (a) assessment for learning, namely assessment during the learning process (on-going), which aims to improve the learning process, diagnose learning difficulties, and determine the development of student competency achievements, and (b) assessment of learning, namely an assessment carried out at the end of the lesson to determine the achievement of student competencies. the stem approach in mathematics learning is very suitable for developing higher-order thinking skills and improving students’ ability to solve problems based on contextual cases (galloway et al., 2013). stem-based learning can connect the knowledge learned in schools, the world of work, and the global world so that students can compete in the industrial revolution 4.0. two main aspects characterize stem learning: the science and engineering design processes (edp), both closely related to supporting learning. the scientific process is a tiered process consisting of 5 main stages, namely: (1) asking questions or making observations; (2) compiling hypothesis; (3) compile an estimated answer; (4) conducting tests/experiments; and (5) finding and suggesting conclusions (stout et al., 2011). while edp is a cycle stage: (1) mapping the problem, (2) designing solutions for problem-solving, (3) modeling aims to prove that problem solving is possible, (4) testing the model and the results will be evaluated whether the solution model is solving the problem is already effective in solving the problem or not, if it is deemed ineffective, an improvement in the design of the problem-solving model is carried out (roberts, 2012). models introduced in the design of engineering processes can be in products, processes or systems. the relationship between scientific processes and engineering process design can be explained in figure 1 below. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 195 figure 1. relationship between science process and edp scientific process engineering design process  ask question  observe  experiment  measure investigating evaluating  imagine  reason  calculate  prediction developing, explanations, and solutions in the picture on the left: the dominant activity is a scientific process with an observation, inquiry, and experiment approach based on phenomena and problems in the real world. the results of these observations can be linked to edp (image at right) through the analysis process. this process is the first stage of edp in problem mapping, which is carried out with a scientific process to provide a comprehensive picture of the problem. analysis of the results of observations of problems will be solved using theory and modeling that arise from finding solutions, critical thinking, and creative thinking, which are predominantly carried out with edp (national academy of sciences, 2011). in the next stage, the science process and edp are needed to analyze whether the theory and model proposed can solve problems by collecting, testing, and analyzing problem-solving solutions for later evaluation and refinement. in the three parts in the picture, analysis is the key part of linking science and edp. scientists and engineers will work together to do the best problem solving with all available resources (breiner et al., 2012). to solve problems, the two parts in the picture analyze the problem, and the data is easier to describe through modeling, including using sketches, diagrams, mathematical relationships, simulations, and prototypes to ensure that the solution can solve the problem at hand. the use of these models requires good mathematical skills. this problem-solving pattern is introduced to students through stem-based learning. real word collect data, test solutions theories and models formulate, hypotheses, proposed solutions analyze irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 196 authentic assessment assessment is an integral part of the learning process, so the assessment model used must be in accordance with the learning approach used in teaching in the classroom. the assessment model used to test the achievement of learning objectives must be in line with the learning process that has been carried out (manurung & aryni, 2019). to determine the achievement of learning objectives using the stem framework, it is necessary to evaluate using an authentic assessment model according to the characteristics of stem-based learning. the assessment model can be carried out in two ways: assessment for learning carried out during the learning process (on-going), which aims to improve the learning process, diagnose learning difficulties, and determine student competency achievements. while the assessment of learning is carried out at the end of the lesson to determine the achievement of student competencies. authentic assessment is an assessment carried out comprehensively to assess starting from input, process, and learning output (suarimbawa et al., 2017). authentic assessment collects information by the teacher about the development and achievement of learning through various techniques that can reveal, prove, or demonstrate precisely that the learning objectives have been truly mastered and achieved. some of the characteristics of an authentic assessment are as follows (fatonah et al., 2013): (1) is a comprehensive part of the learning process; (2) reflects the results of the learning process in real life, not only based on existing conditions in school; (3) using a variety of instruments, measurements, and methods under the characteristics and essence of the learning experience; (4) is comprehensive and holistic covering all aspects of attitudes, knowledge, and skills; and (5) includes an assessment of the learning process and learning outcomes. an authentic assessment model based on the stem approach the authentic assessment model based on the stem approach is a project-based assessment model that can comprehensively assess the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains. this assessment model integrates the components of the stem approach, including science, technology, engineering and mathematics (sagala et al., 2019). students’ attainment of attitudinal competence is carried out through observations of students’ attitudes (affective) in carrying out given project tasks or the results of implementing given project assignments. assessment of competence in the cognitive realm is carried out through problem-solving abilities, including analyzing problems, evaluating, and designing problem-solving using a mathematical model based on information technology. meanwhile, assessing the psychomotor domain is carried out to assess students’ skills in completing the project in its entirety, starting from planning, implementation, reports, and presentation skills. an authentic assessment model based on the stem approach is packaged in project tasks that can be done individually or in groups. arikunto (2013) states that authentic assessment based on project tasks is an assessment that measures the competence of knowledge, attitudes, and skills towards an investigative process to find meaningful benefits irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 197 for human life that must be completed within a certain time. the assessment criteria use a rubric. a guideline is used to assess a certain set of activities in project tasks (ekawarna et al., 2020). rubrics are needed to minimize the subjectivity of the assessment, so the availability of rubrics is essential in project-based assessments. methodology research design, respondents, and locale of the study this study used a research & development design adapted from the borg & gall (2003) model. the borg and gall design consist of ten stages, including 1) preliminary study and preliminary information gathering, 2) planning, 3) product design development, 4) product design validation, 5) initial product revision, 6) limited scope field testing, 7) further product revisions, 8) extensive field testing, 9) final product revisions, and 10) product finalization and dissemination. this research is only focused on the implementation of the seven development stages of the borg and gall design, starting from the stages: 1) preliminary study and information gathering, 2) planning, 3) product design development, 4) product design validation, 5) initial product revision, 6) limited scope field test, 7) further product revision. the reason is, this research was only conducted for one year, and at the time this research was carried out, it was still in the conditions of the covid-19 pandemic so that extensive trials involving high school students could not be carried out. the preliminary study stage and initial information collection involved 269 high school math teachers selected from 15 provinces throughout indonesia. the sample selection used a multistage random sampling technique. preliminary studies and preliminary information collection are focused on obtaining data on the understanding of high school mathematics teachers on learning mathematics using the stem approach and developing authentic assessments of learning based on the stem approach. the validation activity of the product design of the authentic assessment model of learning based on the stem approach aims to test the feasibility of the authentic assessment model that has been developed in terms of the material aspect, the suitability of the authentic assessment with the learning approach, as well as the quality of project tasks. the validation of the authentic assessment model was carried out by two experts selected from universities. the limited scope field test phase involved 21 high school math teachers as panelists selected based on academic competence, teaching experience using the stem approach, and experience developing assessments at both the provincial and national levels. activities focused on analyzing the quality and feasibility of authentic assessment models on learning based on the stem approach. data collection and analysis in this study, there were three types of data collected in accordance with the focus on each stage of the research. considering that this research was conducted during the covid-19 pandemic and following health protocols, all data collection instruments were irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 198 distributed to respondents online using a google form. likewise, the collection of research data is carried out online. data at the preliminary study stage and information collection were collected using a questionnaire consisting of 20 questions/statements using a likert scale. the validity test of the questionnaire was carried out using the pearson product moment formula, while the reliability test of the questionnaire used the cronbach alpha formula. analysis of the validity and reliability of the questionnaire was conducted using the spss 23.0 for windows program. furthermore, the data obtained were analyzed descriptively quantitatively. the data from the validation of the authentic assessment model of stem-based learning by two experts from universities were collected using a validated instrument developed by the researcher referring to the characteristics of authentic assessment and stem learning approaches. furthermore, the data from the validation results of the assessment model by experts were analyzed using the gregory formula (2000). limited trial data for authentic assessment models of learning based on the stem approach were collected using an assessment sheet of the assessment model, which was prepared to refer to the characteristics of authentic assessment of learning based on the stem approach, including material aspects, construction, language, and elements of the stem approach. limited trial data were analyzed by panelists using the thurstone 11 scale, based on the value of mean (me), median (md), mode (mo), and interquartile range (q3-q1) as follows: [1] the higher the me value, shows that the items have better quality of; [2] the higher the md value, the better the quality of the questions; [3] the value of mo shows the tendency of the results of the assessment of each panelist on the quality of the items; and [4] the smaller the value of the interquartile range (q3-q1), indicating that the stronger the panel agreement is (dja’ali & muljono, 2008). ethical considerations the data from this study were fully obtained from participants who had volunteered to contribute to this study. to protect participants’ privacy, their names and agency addresses are not explicitly written in this article. this was done as a form of respect to all participants for their honesty and sincerity. findings preliminary study and information gathering data at the preliminary study stage and initial information collection were collected using a questionnaire consisting of three main dimensions, namely (a) teachers’ understanding of the concept of learning based on the stem approach, (b) teachers’ understanding of the characteristics of authentic assessments, and (c) teachers’ skills in preparing authentic assessments. on learning based on the stem approach. each of these dimensions is translated into several indicators presented in the form of questions/statements. the complete research results on each of the main dimensions can be seen in tables 1, 2, and 3 below. in statement number 1 of the table above, cumulatively as irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 199 many as 49.81% of mathematics teachers chose responses 4 and 5, which means that the teachers understand the basic concepts of learning mathematics based on the stem approach, 35.21% of the teachers expressed doubt, and 14.98% the teacher said he did not understand at all. likewise, in statement number 2, the teacher chose responses 4 and 5 cumulatively of 46.07%, which means that theoretically, high school mathematics teachers have understood the importance of the stem approach in mathematics learning, 40.07% of teachers stated that it was normal, and 13.86% said it was not important. according to bloom’s taxonomy, the teacher’s understanding of operational verbs is good. this can be seen in the statement/question indicator number 3. it can be seen that cumulatively the teacher chooses the 4 and 5 responses as much as 75.28%, 19.48% of the teachers expressed doubt, and 5.24% of the teachers stated they did not understand. table 1. teachers' understanding of learning based on the stem approach statement 1 2 3 4 5 6 response 1 (%) 2.25 1.50 1.12 0.75 7.49 12.73 response 2 (%) 12.73 12.36 4.12 3.75 27.34 36.33 response 3 (%) 35.21 40.07 19.48 25.47 34.46 26.59 response 4 (%) 41.20 38.95 53.18 54.31 22.10 20.97 response 5 (%) 8.61 7.12 22.10 15.73 8.61 3.37 total (%) 100 100 100 100 100 100 in statement number 4, the cumulative number of teachers who choose responses 4 and 5 is 70.04%, which means that most teachers have understood the operational verb grouping according to bloom’s taxonomy. 25.47% of the teachers expressed doubts, and the remaining 4.50% of the teachers stated that they did not understand. however, in statements 5 and 6, the opposite condition occurs in statement number 5 regarding the teacher’s understanding of the characteristics of basic competencies presented using the stem approach. as many as 30.71% of the teachers chose responses 4 and 5, the teachers understood. meanwhile, 34.46% expressed doubt, and 34.83% said they did not understand. in statement number 6, cumulatively, 24.34% of teachers who chose responses 4 and 5 stated that they were ready to carry out stem-based learning, 26.59% said they were unsure, and 49.06% said they were not ready. table 2. teachers' understanding of the characteristics of authentic assessment statement 7 8 9 10 11 response 1 (%) 5.24 2.25 4.12 4.49 0.37 response 2 (%) 32.58 21.72 11.24 17.23 4.12 response 3 (%) 42.32 40.45 23.22 38.58 13.86 response 4 (%) 17.60 28.84 48.69 30.34 41.95 response 5 (%) 2.25 6.74 12.73 9.36 39.70 total (%) 100 100 100 100 100 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 200 table 2 in question/statement number 7 is a negative statement, indicating that 37.82% (responses 1 and 2) teachers really need models or examples of authentic assessment, and 42.32% say they do. only 19.85% (responses 4 and 5) of high school mathematics teachers stated that they did not need authentic assessment models or examples. this is reinforced by statement number 11, which states that only 0.37% of teachers do not need examples or authentic assessment models of learning based on the stem approach. on the other hand, 99.63% of the teachers stated that they even need 39.70% of them really need authentic models or examples of learning based on the stem approach. in statement number 8, as many as 35.58% (responses 4 and 5), the teachers stated that they could not distinguish between authentic assessments or not, 40.45% expressed doubts, and 23.97% stated that they were able to distinguish between authentic assessments or not. statement number 9 states 61.42% (responses 4 and 5) teachers need a guide/literature to write authentic assessments on learning based on the stem approach, 23.22% say it is necessary, and 15.36% say it is not necessary. statement number 10, as many as 39.70% of teachers stated that they did not understand the characteristics of authentic assessment based on the stem approach, 38.58% expressed doubt, and 21.72% stated that they understood. table 3. teachers' skills in preparing authentic assessments statement 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 response 1 (%) 0.00 1.12 1.50 2.62 5.24 1.12 1.12 3.75 3.75 response 2 (%) 6.37 13.48 12.73 17.60 30.34 6.74 15.36 20.60 22.10 response 3 (%) 28.09 38.58 41.95 36.70 34.83 32.96 40.45 39.33 36.70 response 4 (%) 46.44 35.96 33.71 32.96 25.47 45.32 32.58 26.97 26.97 response 5 (%) 19.10 10.86 10.11 10.11 4.12 13.86 10.49 9.36 10.49 total (%) 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 in statement number 12, table 3 above shows that teachers have not developed project-based question indicators according to the demands of basic competencies. cumulatively as much as 65.54% (responses 4 and 5) stated that the teachers had not been able to develop project-based question indicators, 28.09% (response 3) stated that teachers were still in doubt whether the indicators compiled were correct or not, and 6.37% of other teachers stated that they were able to prepare project-based question indicators according to basic competencies. whereas in statement number 13, a cumulative amount of 46.82% (responses 4 and 5) states that teachers have not been able to develop authentic assessments that fully measure the domains of knowledge, attitudes, and skills, 38.58% of teachers stated that they did not know whether the assessment was prepared an authentic assessment or not, and 14.6% (responses 1 and 2) stated that they were able to develop authentic assessments. in statement number 14, a cumulative amount of 43.82% (responses 4 and 5), the teacher stated that they were very motivated to learn to develop an authentic project-based assessment model in accordance with the stem approach based learning because of moral irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 201 responsibility, 41.95% stated that they were motivated to learn to develop authentic assessments because it was teacher obligations, and 14.23% stated that they were not motivated to develop authentic assessments because it was difficult to compile them. furthermore, statement number 15 cumulatively of 43.07% states that high school mathematics teachers do not compile the question grids. the teachers immediately write the question items on the test or exam question manuscript without writing the grid first. only 20.22% (responses 1 and 2) of the teachers arranged the question grid before writing the question cards, while 36.70% of the teachers stated that sometimes. statement number 16 states that cumulatively, as many as 29.59% (responses 4 and 5) teachers conducted a qualitative analysis of the assessment before it was tested, 34.83% stated that sometimes they did the qualitative analysis, for example, during school exams or final semester tests only, and 35.58% stated no have carried out a qualitative analysis of the assessment before being tested. statement number 17 states that cumulatively 59.18% (responses 4 and 5) teachers are not yet skilled at compiling activity/practice-based questions, 32.96% of teachers say that they have tried to compile activity/practice-based questions, and 7.86% of teachers say they are used to developing activity-based questions. in statement number 18, the teachers (cumulatively 43.07% for responses 4 and 5) stated that they still had difficulty preparing assessments based on contextual problems, 40.45% of teachers stated that they had tried but were not skilled, and 16.48% of teachers stated that they were used to developing contextual problem-based questions. in addition, statement number 19 cumulatively amounted to 36.33% stated that teachers still had difficulty developing information technology-based assessments, 39.33% of teachers stated that they were not used to it, and the remaining 24.35% of teachers were used to developing information technology-based assessments. statement number 20 (negative statement) states that mathematics teachers do not understand the mechanism for preparing authentic assessments based on stem-based learning well as much as 37.46% (responses 4 and 5), as many as 36.70% are still unsure, and the remaining 25.85% teachers state already understand the mechanism of preparing authentic learning assessments based on the stem approach. based on the data analysis above, the following findings were obtained: (a) the understanding of high school mathematics teachers of the basic concepts and characteristics of authentic assessment of learning based on the stem approach is theoretically quite good, (b) teachers’ understanding of the importance of learning mathematics based on the approach stem is good, but it is not accompanied by the teacher’s ability to compile an authentic assessment of learning based on the stem approach, (c) in the preparation of the assessment, most high school math teachers have not compiled a grid and conducted a qualitative item analysis this means that the assessment preparation mechanism is not in accordance with the proper mechanism, and (d) high school mathematics teachers need an authentic assessment model for learning based on the stem approach. therefore, it is necessary and urgent to develop an authentic assessment model for learning based on the stem approach. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 202 planning at the planning stage, several activities were carried out as follows: (a) analyzing basic competencies (kd) that could be presented with stem-based learning; (b) formulating question indicators as a reference for writing questions or project assignments, and (c) compile an authentic assessment grid based on the stem approach. another activity undertaken is looking for contextual cases related to basic competencies for authentic assessment models via the internet and other sources. product design development the product developed is an authentic assessment model based on the stem approach in high school mathematics subjects. the development of the initial product design was carried out by designing an authentic assessment model based on the stem approach by referring to the arranged grid. in this study, 20 authentic assessment models based on the stem approach were developed in high school mathematics subjects. product design validation two university experts carried out the initial product design validation. validation is carried out using a validation instrument containing the results of the assessment of each expert, notes/suggestions for each evaluation, and conclusions on the appropriateness of the assessment instrument developed. to determine the content validity coefficient, it can be calculated using the gregory (2000) formula. b remarks: a : the cell that shows the disagreement between the two experts b and c : the ells that show different views between the first expert and the second expert (the first expert agrees/is very relevant and the second expert disagrees/is less relevant and vice versa). d : the cell that shows valid agreement between the two experts. table 4. content validity content validity coefficient content validity criteria 0,80 – 1,00 very high 0,60 – 0,79 high 0,40 – 0,59 normal 0,20 – 0,39 low 0,00 – 0,19 very low irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 203 table 5. the results of the validation of authentic assessment models by experts expert 1 less relevant relevant expert 2 less relevant 1 10, 13 relevant 9, 11 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20 in accordance with table 5 above, the value of the validity of the contents of the authentic assessment model for learning based on the stem approach can be calculated as the high category. some important notes given by experts include: (1) for project model number 1, the rubric needs to be made more explicit so that the objectivity of the assessment could be appropriate. attitude assessment indicators should be made more operational so that the assessment can be carried out more accurately and objectively; (2) in project model number 9, students cannot factorize the problems given in accordance with predetermined learning objectives, the assessment must be revised. the problems that are presented as stimuli in the project are less contextual; (3) in project model number 10, if the concept of other subjects is applied to mathematics, it is advisable to provide a brief explanation of the concept to deliver better student understanding; (4) in project model number 11, the project is too complicated for students to complete, it needs collaboration with other subjects; (5) in the project model number 13, the implementation instructions need to be clarified regarding the implementation period, the location of the work, and the instructions for writing the report; (6) for other project authentic assessment models to be improved editorial refers to the puebi writing guidelines. early-stage product revision the revision of an authentic assessment model for learning based on the stem approach was carried out based on input and important notes provided by experts. improvements were made to editorial refinement, layout rearrangement, and adjustment of the stimulus by changing the stimulus to be more contextual and carry novelty. each authentic assessment model is given a special note, refined by the research team while still paying attention to basic competencies supported by other scientific concepts. limited scope field test after completing the revision of the initial product in the form of a learning assessment model based on the stem approach, a limited trial was carried out involving 21 high school math teachers as panelists. the results of the limited scope field test assessment are presented in table 10 below. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 204 table 6. panelist assessment results no. mean modus q1 q2 q3 q3-q1 quality and interpretation 1 9.88 9.83 9.78 9.89 10.17 0.39 good, decent enough, relevant, and very strong panelist approval 2 10.21 10.33 9.83 10.33 10.61 0.78 very good, appropriate, relevant, and very high panelist approval 3 10.24 10.39 9.94 10.39 10.56 0.61 very good, appropriate, relevant, and very high panelist approval 4 10.32 10.61 10.00 10.44 10.61 0.61 very good, appropriate, relevant, and very high panelist approval 5 10.26 10.22 10.06 10.28 10.67 0.61 very good, appropriate, relevant, and very high panelist approval 6 10.46 10.50 10.39 10.50 10.78 0.39 very good, appropriate, relevant, and very high panelist approval 7 10.30 10.11 10.06 10.28 10.72 0.67 very good, appropriate, relevant, and very high panelist approval 8 10.25 10.22 10.11 10.28 10.56 0.44 very good, appropriate, relevant, and very high panelist approval 9 9.88 9.50 9.50 9.83 10.22 0.72 good, decent enough, relevant, and very strong panelist approval 10 10.06 10.06 9.83 10.06 10.33 0.50 very good, appropriate, relevant, and very high panelist approval 11 10.05 10.06 9.83 10.06 10.33 0.50 very good, appropriate, relevant, and very high panelist approval 12 10.41 10.56 10.17 10.53 10.61 0.44 very good, appropriate, relevant, and very high panelist approval 13 10.02 10.00 9.78 10.00 10.28 0.50 very good, appropriate, relevant, and very high panelist approval 14 9.93 9.78 9.67 9.83 10.11 0.44 good, decent enough, relevant, and very strong panelist approval 15 10.29 10.17 10.11 10.22 10.61 0.50 very good, appropriate, relevant, and very high panelist approval 16 10.32 10.44 10.00 10.44 10.50 0.50 very good, appropriate, relevant, and very high panelist approval 17 10.31 10.44 9.94 10.44 10.56 0.61 very good, appropriate, relevant, and very high panelist approval 18 10.49 10.50 10.44 10.50 10.67 0.22 very good, appropriate, relevant, and very high panelist approval 19 10.13 10.17 9.83 10.17 10.39 0.56 very good, appropriate, relevant, and very high panelist approval 20 10.07 9.83 9.83 9.89 10.17 0.33 good, appropriate, relevant, and very high panelist approval the data in table 6 above show that the panelists assessed the quality of the authentic assessment model for learning based on the stem approach as follows: (1) as many as 16 authentic assessment models expressed in very good quality, this can be seen from the mean value above 10 or close to the maximum score of 11 according to the thurstone scale, the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 205 median value (q2) is also above 10, the mode value is above 10, and the panelist agreement is also very strong; (2) as many as 4 authentic assessment models are stated in good quality, this can be seen from the mean value above 9 on the 11 thurstone scale, the median value (q2) is also above 9, the mode value is above 9, and the panelists’ agreement is also very strong. ; (3) the panelists suggested that the indicators be refined to be more specific in measuring the achievement of basic competencies; and (4) to make improvements to the language elements so that students can understand them more easily. discussion the findings in the preliminary study indicate that high school mathematics teachers need to be assisted by examples or authentic assessment models of learning based on the stem approach. although, in theory, some of them already understand the basic concepts of stem learning, in practice, the teachers have not been able to develop an authentic assessment model for learning based on the stem approach. many factors affect the ability of teachers to develop an authentic assessment of learning based on the stem approach, including (bertschy et al., 2013): (a) creativity, teachers who have low creativity tend to just wait for examples and do not have ideas to try to develop. teacher’s creativity is very important to be developed through periodic exercises; (b) mastery of information technology is currently one of the mandatory competencies for teachers. what’s more, the teacher will develop an assessment based on the stem approach. one of the elements of stem is a technology that demands the ability of teachers to learn to use information technology in learning and assessment. teachers who master information technology will be richer in knowledge, especially getting stimuli downloaded via the internet. so that mastery of information technology becomes mandatory for teachers at this time; (c) high work motivation, highly motivated teachers will do anything related to the teacher’s ability to develop authentic assessments based on the stem approach. they have a high responsibility, a genuine commitment to producing authentic assessments based on the stem approach. the authentic assessment model is not entirely new for teachers. it has been discussed for a long time in various meetings. however, in practice, it is still rare for teachers to try to develop authentic assessments. theoretically, authentic assessment is an assessment of collecting information by teachers about the development and achievement of learning through various techniques that can reveal, prove or demonstrate precisely that learning objectives have been truly mastered and achieved (habibi, 2015). some of the characteristics of an authentic assessment are as follows: (1) assessment is a comprehensive part of the learning process; (2) the assessment reflects the results of the learning process in real life, not only based on conditions in school; (3) using a variety of instruments, measurements, and methods in accordance with the characteristics and essence of the learning experience; (4) comprehensive and holistic assessment covering all aspects of attitudes, knowledge, and skills; and (5) assessment includes an assessment of the learning process and learning outcomes. authentic assessment of stem-based learning must reflect the following characteristics: (1) assignment design must reflect what activities students have to do; (2) the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 206 physical context, in which the assessment must be carried out so that it reflects how to measure attitudes, knowledge, and skills; (3) social context, with regard to social interactions according to the real world with whom to do it; (4) what products are produced, the assessment must be able to reveal the students’ ability to demonstrate, present, or communicate with others; (5) what criteria and standards should be evaluated. some of the advantages of authentic assessment include (1) authentic assessment oriented to the assessment of the learning process, thus through authentic assessment, the teacher will be able to find out where the strengths and weaknesses of students are; (2) authentic assessment can describe the achievement of a student in learning in the form of learning gain or progress, not just indicated by the numbers stated on the report card; (3) more authentic assessment and results will improve the teaching and learning process, students know more clearly their obligations to master the assigned tasks, and teachers believe that the results of the assessment are meaningful and useful for improving teaching; (4) the curriculum does not merely increase student knowledge, but competence as a whole that reflects knowledge, skills, and attitudes according to the characteristics of each subject. some of the limitations of authentic assessment can be explained as follows. the obstacles to carrying out authentic assessments on knowledge competencies, namely: (1) developing authentic assessment instruments is not easy for most teachers, and (2) it takes a long time to check and assess student work. constraints in the authentic assessment of skills competencies, namely: (1) not all students are active in class project activities and rely more on clever children to complete assignments; (2) students have not yet seriously worked on the project; (3) project assignments are often seen as difficult for students; (4) inadequate practice tools, making it difficult to measure individual student skills; (5) sometimes requires a quite expensive fee. the teacher should bring an authentic assessment sheet during the assessment to be completed immediately. meanwhile, the limitations of implementing authentic assessments on attitude competency assessments include: (1) the required assessment time is quite long; (2) no honesty indicator can describe honesty aspects objectively, and (3) difficulty in monitoring the limited behavior of students in the school environment. conclusion and recommendations based on the results of the analysis and interpretation that have been carried out previously, it can be stated that the authentic assessment model of the stem approach-based learning developed in this study has good quality as many as four project tasks and 16 other project tasks are of very good quality. the project assignment cards that have been developed have been revised several times so that what is judged by the panelists is the final product. before assessing the panelists, the project assignment cards were assessed by experts related to the material aspects, construction, language, stem elements, and authentic assessment characteristics. however, in the assessment by the panelists, there were still some weaknesses that should be taken into consideration for the next revision. the process of refining the model has been carried out many times in accordance with the research & development procedure. the products produced in this study are expected to inspire teachers to develop authentic assessments based on the stem approach in high irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 207 school mathematics subjects. teachers should creatively develop authentic assessment models to improve the function and objectives of the assessment so that the assessment results can be used to improve the learning process and as a measuring tool to determine the achievement of learning objectives. references andersson, p., & mattsson, g. l. 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(2017). scaffolding to promote critical thinking and learner autonomy among pre-service education students. journal of education and training, 4(1), 69-87. doi:10.5296/jet.v4i1.9871. widana, i. w., suarta, i. m., citrawan, i. w. (2019). application of simpang tegar method: using data comparison. jour of adv research in dynamical & control systems, 11(2), 1825-1832. widana, i. w. (2020). the effect of digital literacy on the ability of teachers to develop hots-based assessment. journal of physics: conference series 1503(2020), 012045, doi:10.1088/1742-6596/1503/1/012045. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 209 biographical notes i wayan widana is a lecturer at the mathematics education study program, faculty of teacher training and education, pgri mahadewa university, indonesia, denpasar, bali, indonesia; i.wayan.widana.bali@gmail.com agus tatang sopandi is a lecturer in elementary school teacher education study program, teacher training and education faculty, universitas terbuka; upbjj denpasar, bali; atatang@ecampus.ut.ac.id gede suwardika is a lecturer at the statistics study program, faculty of science and technology, universitas terbuka; upbjj denpasar, bali; isuwardika@ecampus.ut.ac.id mailto:i.wayan.widana.bali@gmail.com mailto:atatang@ecampus.ut.ac.id mailto:isuwardika@ecampus.ut.ac.id this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 105 the utilization of flashcard to enhance students’ writing performance: an action research muhammad eko saputro 1 , ulfa amalia 2 , and juhansar 3* abstract the development of science and technology facilitates teachers to conduct their learning-teaching processes effectively. however, it does not mean that all conventional media are ineffective at all to be used in the learning-teaching processes. therefore, this present research aimed to explore the utilization of flashcards as learning-teaching media to improve students' writing performance and to discover students' performance in writing english sentences through flashcards. this research applied action research, employing interviews, observation, and tests to collect qualitative and quantitative data. the qualitative data were analyzed using interpretations, while the quantitative data were analyzed using ibm spss version 24.0. the results of qualitative data showed that students were active, enthusiastic, diligent, brave, and motivated in writing english sentences using flashcards. meanwhile, the quantitative data showed the mean score of the pre-test was 2,86; the post-test i was 3,14, and the post-test ii was 3,89. the percentage was 10% from the pre-test to post-test i and 12% from the post-test i to the post-test ii. it indicated that the scores and the mean in the post-test ii were better than in the post-test i. it proved that using flashcards as a learning-teaching medium is sufficient to enhance students' performance in writing english sentences. this research recommends further research to discover the flashcard utilization in the learning-teaching processes at a different school or educational institution levels and conduct experimental research to seek the effectiveness of flashcards as a medium in english writing learning-teaching processes. keywords english sentence, flashcard utilization, mix method action research, students’ performance, writing article history received: 20 march 2022 accepted: 23 june 2022 how to cite saputro, m.e., amalia, u., & juhansar. (2022). the utilization of flashcard to enhance students’ writing performance: an action research. indonesian research journal in education |irje|, 6(1), 105–122. https://doi.org/10.22437/irje .v6i1.17528 1 universitas teknologi yogyakarta, yogyakarta, indonesia; ekos92166@gmail.com universitas 2 universitas teknologi yogyakarta, yogyakarta, indonesia; ulfaamalia.psi@uty.ac.id *3universitas teknologi yogyakarta, yogyakarta, indonesia; ulfaamalia.psi@uty.ac.id https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v6i1.17528 https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v6i1.17528 mailto:ekos92166@gmail.com mailto:ulfaamalia.psi@uty.ac.id mailto:ulfaamalia.psi@uty.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 106 introduction in indonesia, english becomes one of the main subject matters of the national curriculum that must be learned, including listening, speaking, reading, and writing. writing is a sophisticated english skill to be mastered, among others. writing has become a crucial issue (mukminin, ali, & ashari, 2015), where the learners need to express their idea in a written form. it is an activity of communicating and developing the concept in a written way (utami, pabbajah, & juhansar, 2018). therefore, the concepts and ideas must be clear before writing. in english writing, students learn to arrange a proper order of words to be phrases, clauses, and sentences. it is considered an essential skill since it is not only an object of education but also a skill leading to professional development (yuliarto, 2015). it is the most difficult skill for learners. its complexity lies not only in inventing, expressing, and organizing ideas but also in translating or interpreting them into readable texts. writing an english sentence will not be easy since students should understand its form. the form helps students analyze and place the word order correctly. furthermore, the structure allows students to put a subject or verb in the sentence correctly. every sentence has its form of word order. a sentence is a group of words that people use to communicate and explore their ideas. every simple, complex, compound, and compound-complex sentence forms complete thoughts (oshima & hogue, 2007). a simple sentence is one independent clause that needs a subject and a verb to express a complete thought. therefore, a better technique is needed to enhance the students' english sentence writing performance in the learning-teaching processes. the media used as the tool in the learning-teaching process aims to develop students' interest, attention, and confidence in exploring ideas. eodice, geller, and lerner (2019) offered a writing project as an approach to developing students' performance in writing english. writing project is meaningful when students can extend a personal connection, i.e., experiences or histories, social relationships, and subjects and topics for writing based on the teacher's description. based on the preliminary research, most vocational high school students, where the researchers conducted this study, regarded that writing an english sentence such as a simple sentence was quite difficult since students lacked vocabulary, creativity, and grammar understanding (interview with mt, an english teacher). meanwhile, students should explore ideas and imagination in writing a simple sentence. lillge (2019) stated that to enhance student writing performance, english teachers should rely on professional literacy development to improve the quality of their writing instruction. indeed, to stimulate and encourage students to explore ideas and imagination, the teacher should be more creative in delivering the subject. a teacher needs to use appropriate media in the learning-teaching process. drawing and deepening characters, making mind mapping, and developing a shorter text (nuraeni & fadhly, 2017) and flashcards (nuraeni & fadhly, 2017) are interactive media to explore the students' imagination in english writing. as a medium in the learning-teaching process, a teacher uses a flashcard to stimulate the students' creativity (senzaki, hackathorn, appleby, & gurung, 2017). besides, it also helps teachers in the learning-teaching process to improve their performance (chien, 2015). irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 107 students can enhance their ideas and opinions through flashcards (ngarofah & sumarni, 2019). students can analyze the picture or the word in the flashcard (harisanty et al., 2020). it makes the class alive because the activity in the class is taken from the students’ opinions. students are required to make a sentence by themselves. it makes students more active in classroom activities (azhima, meilanie, & purwanto, 2021). this research aimed to explore the utilization of flashcards as a learning-teaching medium in the learning-teaching processes to enrich students' writing performance and to discover students' performance in writing english sentences through flashcards. literature review writing english sentence writing is a productive skill (kempenaar & murray, 2019). it is one of the four language skills; reading, listening, speaking, and writing. it focuses on how to produce language rather than receive it (jackson, 2018). therefore, it has several steps to take. oshima and hogue (2007) argued that writing is a continuous activity that is open with the result of thinking and what the writer will say. after finishing text writing, the writer should read the draft and make corrections. it is not a one-step action. writing needs some processes of thinking. students need to gather ideas to write a good story or text. evans, gruba, and zobel (2014) stated that the task of writing a comprehensive document such as a thesis is a very different process from that of writing a shorter work. therefore, several stages include brainstorming, making notes, planning, writing a draft, editing, producing another manuscript, and proofreading or editing again. those stages can help students in the writing process. besides, the one dominant theme in pedagogical research on writing is the nature of the composing process of writing (evans, howson, forsythe, & edwards, 2021). it means communicating through signs or symbols on paper. it needs to make a series of words or sentences in the writing process in the written language. it is one of the essential skills that students must develop because it is significant for the academic context, business, and the relationship with others in the world. students are indeed required to develop this skill to express their idea in written form in the educational setting. writing is an activity that explains one's idea in written form. it can be a sentence, a phrase, or a paragraph. ardiasih, emzir, and rasyid (2018) mentioned that writing is a productive skill that a learner must master in learning a language. a learner also must be able to put his or her ideas into a writing product. writing is a productive skill because its output is a product. it focuses on how to produce language rather than receive it. therefore, there should be several steps to follow. abbas and herdi (2018) stated that writing is an activity of expressing, developing, and organizing ideas into a written form. it means that writing is never a one-step action. it is one of the productive skills that needs a process. this process asks a learner to write in sequence stages. the writing process is the stage that a writer goes through to produce something before coming to the final draft. a sentence is a set of words arranged and written in systematic and grammatical order to form meaning. according to andersen (2014), there are four sentence categories: simple sentences, compound sentences, complex sentences, and compound-complex sentences. the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 108 first is a simple sentence. a simple sentence is a sentence that contains one independent clause. a simple sentence should be meaningful and have one subject and one predicate, for example, 1) johnny rode his bike to school; 2) where is your best friend?; 3) she loves her mother. the researchers use the type of sentence that best communicates the purpose of an idea (andersen, 2014). andersen (2014) also mentioned that using a simple sentence is when presenting a limited amount of information. although a simple sentence may be shorter, it is not less academic than other sentence types. the second is a compound sentence. a compound sentence contains two independent clauses (andersen, 2014). it means that a compound sentence is a long sentence with two phrases. having an independent clause and forming meaning are the characteristics of a compound sentence. a compound sentence usually has coordinating conjunctions. coordinating conjunction often links the two independent clauses preceded by a comma. the following examples are: 1) she wanted to go on vacation, so she waved up to her money; 2) i like apples, but my sister loves bananas; 3) tio loves to read, and he also loves to hike. the third is a complex sentence. its word order has one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses that include at least one subordinating conjunction (andersen, 2014). in this type, one clause is the main clause. therefore, every clause cannot be independent and always needs the other clause. a complex sentence includes at least one subordinating conjunction as the following examples: 1) she went to class even though she was sick; 2) as john was arriving to work, he realized that he had forgotten his lunch; and 3) while i enjoy classical music, i prefer rock and roll because i play the drums. the last is a compound-complex sentence that combines complex and compound sentence forms (andersen, 2014). a compound-complex sentence contains one or more independent and dependent clauses that include at least one subordinating conjunction. the following are examples of the sentence. 1) although he felt guilty for missing his friend's birthday, he took him out to have dinner the next day, and they had a great time. 2) she tries to eat healthy food, but because fast food is so convenient, she cannot maintain a healthy diet; and 3) if i got a job, i would have to commute 50 miles to work, so i decided the job was worth it (andersen, 2014). instructional media according to clark (2008), the instructional media are the media used within the instructional design, determined by the actual content and instructional method requirements. furthermore, kirkwood and price (2014) asserted that media are all aids that the teachers and learners may use to attain educational objectives. moreover, they are used to improve the learning-teaching output. the instructional media provide concrete experiences and help students integrate prior experiences. besides, eady and lockyer (2013) stated that instructional media use the power of pictures, words, and voices to get students' attention, help them understand ideas by acquiring information, and help them solve the limitation of time, size, and space. a teacher uses instructional media in the learning-teaching process to help the students integrate their prior knowledge or experiences so that the learning-teaching process can be successful. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 109 many kinds of instructional media can be used in the learning-teaching of english. those instructional media are divided into three types: audio-visual, visual, and audio aids (bahar & soegiarto, 2020; dewi & kareviati, 2021; omenge & priscah, 2016; sukmahidayanti, 2015; syahril, nabawi, & prasetya, 2020). the visual aids are in the forms of real objects, boards, models, miniatures, puppets, clocks, time boards, pictures, photos, wall charts, flannel boards, flashcards, posters, and slides (dewi & kareviati, 2021). audio aids could be radio and tape recorders; meanwhile, audio-visual aids such as television, video, and powerpoint (baker, goodboy, bowman, & wright, 2018; gao, 2020; knight, paroutis, & heracleous, 2018). flashcard flashcard is a teaching medium implemented in the learning-teaching process, such as writing (harisanty et al., 2020). it is the most widely used teaching medium in the language classroom. it may contain a word, a sentence, or a simple picture. herlina and dewi (2017) mentioned that using a flashcard as a graphic medium promotes the sense of sight. this medium presents visual symbols, numbers, and ideas by word and image. a flashcard is a medium to help the teacher and students in the learning-teaching process to improve students' performance in writing english sentences. flashcard is also a simple form of a visual aid, which is a picture or word on a card. there are at least two flashcard types, i.e., picture card and sentence card. the first card is a picture card. picture cards are beneficial for learning-teaching writing and enhance students' writing skills (tiara, 2020). these picture cards can be drawings or cut-outs from magazines or perhaps photos or any other picture cards of a teacher's creativity. it is easiest to sort these picture cards — the size is based on the classwork, the smaller ones for individual or group work. the second card is a sentence card. there is a word or a sentence in the flashcard that is familiar to students. the sentence should have meaning, for example, "phone." the teacher chooses one of the students to share ideas after the students see the flashcard. finally, a teacher asks the students to write a simple sentence with his word. it can be used as a group or as an individual work. methodology research design, site, and participants research designs are inquiries within qualitative, quantitative, and mixed-method approaches that provide specific research design procedures (creswell, 2009). this research applied action research (ivankova & wingo, 2018). this action research used both qualitative and quantitative data to achieve the research objectives or to answer research questions. the first research objective was achieved using qualitative data, and the second was achieved using quantitative data. furthermore, in this research, the researchers acted as teachers and observers in the classroom during the learning-teaching process by using flashcards at vocational high school 1 pleret yogyakarta. the research participants were 30 tenth-grade students of tkj b and two english teachers. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 110 research procedures research procedure describes the process involved in collecting and conducting a topic for research investigation (ten have, 2011). it means that a research procedure guides the process of collecting data and conducting research. the researchers used a pre-test before utilizing a flashcard in the learning-teaching process. in the pre-test, the researchers asked the students to write ten simple sentences in english on "holiday" to know the students' understanding of the materials. in implementing flashcards as a medium in the learning-teaching process by using mixed methods of action research, there were four steps in every cycle, i.e., planning, acting, observing, and reflecting. in planning activities, the researchers did some activities such as making lesson plans based on the interview, observation, and pre-test data; preparing the test to measure the result of the study; doing a simulation and examining the action in the class, and students should be involved actively in the learning-teaching process. in acting activities, the researchers asked students to show and learn the flashcards from the researchers. the researchers asked the student to make some sentences in english from the picture and the word in the flashcard. then, researchers asked the students to ensure that the sentences were simple. the researchers conducted the acting in two cycles. cycle one had two meetings. in meeting one, the researchers explained making a simple sentence in english using a flashcard as a medium in a group. in meeting two, the researchers corrected the result of students' group works in writing a simple sentence in english. it was to ensure the students' understanding of the material. then, the researchers conducted post-test i in cycle 1. after doing cycle 1, the researchers did feedback and innovation. in this phase, the researchers took the feedback on the learning-teaching process by implementing a flashcard as a medium. from this feedback, the researchers got the new problems of the students' difficulty in implementing flashcards as a medium in the learning-teaching processes. the challenges found were then analyzed. based on the analysis results, the researchers made innovations. the innovation was the implementation of a flashcard as a medium in the learning-teaching processes from group work to individual work. the change indeed made the classroom more conducive. it helped students to understand the materials to improve their writing performance. based on cycle 1, cycle two should have a better effect than cycle 1. this cycle has a similar action to cycle 1. however, the researchers hoped that in cycle 2, there was improvement and betterment in this cycle as it was the last cycle at all. furthermore, the researchers also ensured that the feedback and innovation from cycle 1 succeeded in getting the best result in cycle 2. cycle 2 consisted of two meetings. in the first meeting, the researchers asked students to explain their difficulties related to post-test i. after that, the researcher gave more explanations to students about the materials learned by using flashcards as a medium in the learning-teaching process. in the second meeting, the researchers reviewed the students' understanding of the subject matter based on individual work by using a flashcard as a medium for writing a simple sentence in english. if the post-test i result was unsuccessful, the researchers conducted the post-test ii. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 111 in the observing activity, the researchers observed the processes that occurred during the learning-teaching process. it focused on improving students' performance in writing an english sentence using a flashcard. it was a way of finding more information about the students' and teachers' activities toward implementing flashcards as a medium, including the factors improving students' performance in writing english sentences. the last step was reflecting. the reflection was conducted to know the result of every cycle. in this research, the reflection was after analyzing the data of students' test results and implementing flashcards as a medium in the learning-teaching process. it could also guide the researchers to know the weakness in the previous cycles. then, the researchers made feedback and innovation to improve students' performance in writing english sentences using flashcards. research instruments and data collecting techniques the researchers used observation and interviews to find qualitative data. observation and interviews were conducted to find preliminary data on student-teacher perspectives in english writing learning-teaching. the observation was conducted in the classroom during the learning-teaching processes, while interviews with students and teachers were conducted before and after the learning-teaching processes. furthermore, tests (pre-test, post-tests i, and ii) were used to get quantitative data. the purpose of using observation and interview was to see the condition of the classroom atmosphere during the implementation of flashcards as a medium in the learning-teaching processes and to know the responses (students' problems, i.e., preliminary research) of the participants (students and english teachers) related to its implementation. meanwhile, the pre-test and post-test i and ii aimed to discover the students' performance in writing a simple sentence of english utilizing a flashcard. data analysis techniques before analyzing qualitative data, the researchers first classified, displayed, coded, and verified data to make interpretations easier. qualitative data interpretation was conducted based on the relevant theories mentioned in the literature review. meanwhile, to analyze the quantitative data, the researchers used ibm spss 24.0 by calculating the mean of writing aspects and the mean of improvement percentage by using scoring rubric criteria that consisted of some english writing aspects: grammar, vocabulary, and creativity. there were five criteria used to decide the students' means. they were excellent (5), good (4), average (3), poor (2), and very poor (1). findings flashcard utilization in the learning-teaching process pre-cycle and problems identification 1, the results of the interview, observation, and pre-test in the preliminary research showed some students’ problems in writing english irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 112 sentences. those problems are explored in the following data as the sample, starting from english teacher perspectives to students’ perspectives: ―students often find difficulties exploring their ideas and imagination in writing english sentences. students also lack vocabulary, word organization, creativity, grammar patterns, understanding, and misunderstanding about the meaning.‖ [et] ―teacher just explains the material and gives assignments to students by using a handbook. thus, students could not understand the content clearly.‖ [es] interview data showed that besides students having difficulties writing english sentences, english teachers also had less creativity and innovation to solve students’ problems in the learning-teaching processes. to support the above interview data, the researchers explore the following preliminary observation, and pre-test data that support previous data related to students' problems in writing english sentences as following table 1 and table 2: table 1. the results of observation no. observed items pre-cycle 1 2 3 4 1 the teacher comes on time √ 2 teacher’s performance in opening class √ 3 a teacher explains the assignment clearly. √ 4 teacher’s performance in organizing the class √ 5 the teacher gives a task to the students. √ 6 students respond to the explanation of the teacher. √ 7 the students ask a question to the teacher if there is something unclear. √ 8 students follow the rule of the teacher. √ 9 teacher’s performance in closing the class √ note: give (√) in each column, where 4 (very good), 3 (good), 2 (enough), and 1 (poor) the observation results showed teachers' and students' enthusiasm in the learning-teaching processes with no significant problems. to support the interview and observation data above, the researchers explored the following pre-test data: table 2. students’ pre-test score no. students id grammar (g) vocabulary (v) creativity (c) total score mean 1 a d r 3 3 3 9 3 2 aa 2 2 3 7 2,3 3 a d i 3 2 4 9 3 4 af 3 3 3 9 3 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 113 no. students id grammar (g) vocabulary (v) creativity (c) total score mean 5 d e s 3 2 3 8 2,6 6 d r a 3 2 3 8 2,6 7 f am 2 1 4 7 2,3 8 fs 2 3 2 7 2,3 9 f h 2 3 2 7 2,3 10 h a 3 4 4 11 3,6 11 h n j s 3 2 2 7 2,3 12 i w h 2 3 3 8 2,6 13 is z 1 3 4 8 2,6 14 m h r 3 3 4 10 3,3 15 m b f n 2 1 2 5 1,6 16 m m f 3 2 4 9 3 17 m z a 3 2 3 8 2,6 18 n i r 3 3 4 10 3,3 19 r p 2 3 4 9 3 20 r t a 3 2 4 9 3 21 r of 3 4 4 11 3,6 22 r ka 2 2 3 7 2,3 23 r a 3 3 4 10 3,3 24 s h 2 3 3 8 2,6 25 s t h 4 2 4 10 3,3 26 t f z 2 4 3 9 3 27 v hp 4 2 4 10 3,3 28 w e s 2 3 3 8 2,6 29 w i m 3 3 4 10 3,3 30 y h n 2 4 4 10 3,3 total 78 79 101 overall mean = 2,86 mean 2,60 2,63 3,36 according to interviews, observation, and pre-test data, students' problems became a preliminary understanding for the researchers to identify the english writing issues encountered by students in the learning-teaching processes before implementing flashcards as a learning-teaching media. the data above show some students' problems, i.e., less creativity in the learning-teaching process, lack of grammar understanding, and lack of vocabulary understanding. cycle 1: the utilization of flashcard in the learning-teaching process in this cycle, the researchers had three meetings. two-first meetings were for learning-teaching a simple sentence using a flashcard, and one session was for conducting the post-test 1 to examine students' pre-understanding of writing simple english sentences. cycle 1 steps were planning, acting, observing, and reflecting. the first is planning; in this step, there were some preparations for the researchers. they were the appropriate learning-teaching materials related to the syllabus. another development was standard preparation, which would irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 114 be applied in the learning-teaching process. the researchers took writing simple english sentences as the material and flashcards as a medium in the learning-teaching. to make it clear, the researchers designed a lesson plan. when the preparations were ready, the researchers asked the english teacher to ensure that the flashcard could be applied in the learning-teaching process. the researchers also prepared the research instruments to collect the data in this phase. the second is acting; in the acting phase, the researchers served as what was planned in the lesson plan, which consisted of two meetings. in every session, the researchers did some activities to apply the flashcard as the medium in learning-teaching to write simple english sentences. the researchers divided the acting into two sections to ensure the acting, i.e., the two-first meeting and the one-second meeting section. in the two-first meeting, one of the researchers acted as a teacher who explained the materials using a flashcard. this section was organized into pre-activity, main activity, and post-activity. in the pre-activity, the researchers began the learning-teaching process by greeting the students. after greeting, the researchers asked students to pray together based on their religious beliefs. in the main activity, the researchers asked the students to explain their understanding of the simple sentence and then told them about it. furthermore, the researchers applied flashcards as the medium in the learning-teaching process. after explaining the materials and using a flashcard, the researcher asked students to make groups of 4 students in every group. in this activity, the researchers gave a packet of flashcards to every group. every package has a different topic. there are some parts of the flashcard and an assignment for every member in the pack. the researchers then asked every member to make some simple sentences using the topic in the flashcard. the assignment was submitted to the researchers at the end of the learning-teaching process. in the post-activity, the researcher ended the learning-teaching process by evaluating the learning-teaching process. the purposes of the evaluation were to know the students' understanding of the material and the students' difficulty related to using flashcards as a medium in writing simple english sentences. the researchers asked students to prepare the post-test i, conducted in the next meeting. in the one-second meeting, one of the researchers acted as a teacher by explaining a simple sentence as a type of english sentence. after giving a theory on the subject matter, the researcher, again, used a flashcard as a medium in the learning-teaching process. the activities in the second meeting were similar to the first meeting, only different in a particular case. the difference was in the assignment of post-test i in cycle 1. as the sections did in the first meeting, the second meeting consisted of three activities. the activities are pre-activities, main activities, and post-activities. however, in this meeting, the researchers were not going to explore them one by one since they were almost similar to the first meeting. the researchers only would like to explore the different actions. the difference action was just about the students' assignment in the post-test i in cycle 1. after planning and acting, the researchers did the third step, namely observation, using the observation checklist, which was prepared before. in this phase, the english teacher helped researchers. according to the observation results, by using flashcards as a medium in learning-teaching writing about simple sentences, the class could also be active, but some students have difficulty in the learning-teaching process. therefore, the researchers needed to do feedback and innovation. the fourth step, conducted in cycle 1, was reflecting. in this cycle, irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 115 the researchers evaluated the learning-teaching process at the end of the meeting of the first cycle. the researchers found that some students had difficulties and problems understanding the subject matter. the evaluation results of the two meetings became the primary consideration for the researchers to do cycle two in this research, even though there was an improvement in students' performance in writing english sentences. problem solving in this phase, the researchers did feedback on the learning-teaching process based on the implementation of flashcards as a medium in the learning-teaching process result in the first cycle. the first cycle results showed students' understanding improvement of english sentence writing. some students still have problems with it, such as a lack of vocabulary knowledge and understanding of grammar patterns. the researchers implemented a flashcard as a medium in the second cycle to get a better result and solve the issues. from this cycle, the researchers found some students got difficulties exploring their idea because their group was noisy. therefore, in cycle 2, the researchers changed the flashcard implementation from group work to individual work. the researchers believed this innovation could help students increase their vocabulary and grammar pattern understanding. problem identification 2, related to post-test 1, the researchers identified the implementation of flashcards as a medium in the learning-teaching process. the students' challenge was that some students still lacked vocabulary knowledge, and some even got difficulty with the grammar that students used to make a simple sentence in english. related to the problem above, the researchers applied the flashcard as a medium in the second cycle to improve the students' performance in the second cycle. the researchers made innovations by changing how flashcards were implemented as a medium from group work to individual work. then, in the end, the researchers gave a post-test 2 to discover the improvement of students' writing performance. cycle 2: the utilization of flashcard in the learning-teaching process based on the implementation results of flashcards as a medium in the learning-teaching process in cycle 1, the researchers applied some innovations by revising the planning to improve the student's performance in writing simple sentences in english. since this research design was classroom action research, the researchers did four steps in implementing flashcards as a medium in the learning-teaching process. the steps were similar to the first cycle. the steps are re-planning, acting, observing, and reflecting. the first is the re-planning step; in this step, the researchers changed students' assignments from group work to individual work to get a student responsible more for his work. the second is performing the step. in acting action, the researchers asked students' problems in doing post-test i. students found difficulties understanding grammar patterns, word organization, and vocabulary understanding. the researchers grouped the activities into three kinds to organize the implementation, i.e., pre-activity, main activity, and post-activity. in the pre-activity, the researchers began the learning-teaching by greeting students. after greeting, the researchers asked students to pray based on their religious beliefs, then irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 116 checked the students' attendance. the researchers asked students to express their understanding of a simple sentence in the main activity. to ensure students' knowledge, the researchers re-explain the subject matter and then apply flashcards as a medium in the learning-teaching process. in the implementation, the researchers gave a flashcard to each student. based on the flashcard taken, the researchers asked students to analyze the picture and the word in the flashcard and then make ten simple sentences in english based on the flashcard they got. in the post-activity, the researchers ended the class by doing the evaluation. the assessment purposes were to know the students' understanding of the material and to know the students' difficulties in the learning-teaching. the researchers asked students to prepare everything for the post-test ii in the next meeting to end the learning-teaching process. at the last meeting in cycle 2, the researchers, again, tested students' understanding of the subject matter. if there was no problem, the researchers conducted the planned activities. the activities were the same as the previous activities, i.e., pre-activity, main activity, and post-activity. in this part, the researchers would not explain the actions one by one since they were almost similar to the activities mentioned previously in each meeting. the researchers would only like to explore the innovative activities conducted in the main action. the activities were of emphasized students' understanding of the subject matter. besides, the other main activity in this meeting was to solve students' difficulties in post-test i in cycle 2. students' difficulties are solved together between researchers and students. if there was no problem, the researchers gave post-test ii to measure students' understanding of english sentence writing after implementing flashcards as a learning-teaching medium. the third step is observing. observation in cycle 2 showed that students were more active and enthusiastic in the learning-teaching process by properly responding to the researchers. furthermore, students did post-test ii with high confidence to get the best results. this result is proved by increasing the students' mean scores from the pre-test to the post-test i and the post-test ii, as mentioned in the next part. their responses were also confirmed when the researchers asked them to explain what researchers asked in the classroom. most, if not all, students raised their hands to answer. the fourth step is reflecting. in this step, the researchers evaluated and revealed the results of the post-test ii. the results of the post-test ii showed a better improvement in students' performance in writing a simple sentence in english using flashcards as a medium in the learning-teaching process. the researchers considered that the cycle could be stopped because the students had already gotten better results. implementing flashcards as a medium in the learning-teaching process of writing a simple sentence in english helped students explore their idea and imagination to write an excellent and correct simple sentence in english with fewer grammar and vocabulary mistakes. problem solving the result of the post-test ii showed that the problems faced by students have already been solved. it means that flashcards as a medium used in the learning-teaching improved students' performance in writing a simple sentence in english. it showed that the classes ran effectively as the researchers wished during the flashcard implementation. students seemed more active and enthusiastic in learning the subject matter. students' difficulties understanding irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 117 a simple sentence in the first meeting have already been solved. it indicated that the students were familiar with the medium used. indeed, students said that it was easy to understand the subject matter and to explore and express their idea and imagination using the chosen technique or medium in the learning-teaching process. besides, the english teacher also agreed that the medium used was suitable for students' performance in writing an english sentence. after using flashcards in the english writing learning-teaching process, the following table shows students’ english writing performance in the pre-test, the post-test i, and the post-test ii. table 3. students’ tests scores and means no students id pre-test post-test i post-test ii total score mean g v c g v c g v c 1 a d r 3 3 3 3 3 4 3 5 4 31 3,44 2 a a 2 2 3 4 4 3 3 3 4 28 3,11 3 a d i 3 2 4 3 3 3 3 4 4 29 3,22 4 a f 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 3 4 30 3,33 5 d e s 3 2 3 3 3 3 4 5 4 30 3,33 6 d r a 3 2 3 4 3 4 3 4 4 30 3,33 7 f am 2 1 4 2 4 3 4 4 4 28 3,11 8 fs 2 3 2 3 2 3 4 3 4 26 2,89 9 f h 2 3 2 2 3 4 4 3 3 26 2,89 10 h a 3 4 4 4 3 3 3 4 4 32 3,56 11 h n j s 3 2 2 4 4 4 4 3 5 31 3,44 12 i w h 2 3 3 2 3 3 5 5 4 30 3,33 13 is z 1 3 4 3 3 3 3 5 4 29 3,22 14 m h r 3 3 4 3 3 3 3 3 4 29 3,22 15 m b f n 2 1 2 3 3 3 5 4 4 27 3,00 16 m m f 3 2 4 3 2 4 3 4 4 29 3,22 17 m z a 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 27 3,00 18 n i r 3 3 4 2 3 3 4 4 4 30 3,33 19 r p 2 3 4 3 2 4 5 3 5 31 3,44 20 r t a 3 2 4 3 4 3 3 5 4 31 3,44 21 r of 3 4 4 2 2 3 5 3 4 30 3,33 22 r ka 2 2 3 3 3 4 3 4 5 29 3,22 23 r a 3 3 4 3 4 4 4 3 4 32 3,56 24 s h 2 3 3 4 3 3 3 4 4 29 3,22 25 s t h 4 2 4 3 2 3 5 3 4 30 3,33 26 t f z 2 4 3 3 3 4 5 3 5 32 3,56 27 v hp 4 2 4 3 3 3 5 5 4 33 3,67 28 w e s 2 3 3 3 4 3 4 3 3 28 3,11 29 w i m 3 3 4 4 3 3 4 4 4 32 3,56 30 y h n 2 4 4 3 3 4 4 5 4 33 3,67 total score 78 79 101 91 91 101 115 114 122 total score 892 mean 2,60 2,63 3,36 3,03 3,03 3,36 3,83 3,80 4,0 6 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 118 the tables above show that students’ performance in writing english sentences before implementing flashcards as a learning-teaching medium was lower than in the post-test i and the post-test ii. the post-test i and ii were the tests given to students after implementing flashcards as a medium in the learning-teaching process. discussion the utilization of flashcards in the english writing learning-teaching process indicates students' scores and means for grammar aspect; in the pre-test, students scored 78 with a mean of 2,60; the post-test i score was 91 with a mean of 3,03, and the post-test ii score was 115 with a mean of 3,83. for the vocabulary aspect in the pre-test, students scored 79 with a mean of 2, 63; the post-test i score was 91 with a mean of 3,03, and the post-test ii score was 114 with a mean of 3,80. for the creativity aspect in the pre-test, students scored 101 with a mean of 3,36; the post-test i score was 101 with a mean of 3,36, and the post-test ii score was 122 with a mean of 4,06. english writing aspects show that students have good performance in the creativity of writing a simple sentence in english, followed by the grammar aspect and vocabulary aspect. it is in line with studies conducted by azhima et al., (2021); chen & chan, (2019); nuryani & fadloeli, (2021); sun et al., (2021); wen et al., (2020). indeed, the student's performance in writing a simple sentence in english based on the result of post-test ii (3, 89) is considered above average or almost good. ibm spss 24,0 analysis shows that the improvement percentage of student scores from the pre-test to the post-test i and ii in cycle 1 and the cycle 2 was outstanding. the mean score and percentage improvement in every test. students' mean from the pre-test (2, 86), the post-test i (3,14), and the post-test ii (3,89) increased significantly. the percentage of the students' performance improvement in writing a simple sentence in english from the pre-test to the post-test i increased by 10% and 12% improvement from the post-test i to the post-test ii. it is in line with several studies that show students' performance in using flashcards in the learning-teaching process (khairunnisa, riyadi, & mahfud, 2018; kusumawardhani, 2020; musyaffa, 2020; rahman & haryanto, 2014). in short, implementing a flashcard as a medium in the learning-teaching process could improve the students' performance in writing simple english sentences. the results of this study support the statement of habsari (2014) that flashcard is used to stimulate the students' imaginations in all grades and ages. pictures can work to describe an object which is shown. indeed, flashcards could solve students' problems understanding the subject matter and help english teachers deliver the material efficiently and effectively. conclusion and recommendations this research concludes that using flashcards as a medium in the learning-teaching process toward students' performance in writing a simple sentence in english is recommended. flashcards help vocational high school students of the computer network engineering department improve their performance in writing a simple sentence in english by exploring their idea and imagination and help the teacher teach english writing efficiently and effectively. through the utilization of flashcards in the learning-teaching process, students are active, enthusiastic, diligent, brave, and motivated to learn. meanwhile, students' scores and irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 6| no. 1|june|year 2022| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 119 means in cycle 2 are better than in cycle 1. the improvement percentages are 10% from the pre-test to the post-test i and 12% from the post-test i to the post-test ii. student’s difficulties in writing english sentences, such as less grammar and creativity, including word order understanding and lack of vocabulary knowledge, could be solved by using flashcards as a medium in the learning-teaching process. this research is limited to using flashcards in the learning-teaching process at the vocational high school level. therefore, the current researchers recommend further research to discover flashcard utilization in the learning-teaching process at a different school or educational institution levels and conduct experimental research to seek the effectiveness of flashcards as a medium in the english writing learning-teaching process. disclosure statement the authors of this article declare no potential conflict of interest in this research. acknowledgment the researchers highly appreciate all respondents' participation and cooperation 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(2015). utilizing peer and teacher feedback in academic writing class. english review: journal of english education, 4(2), 1–10. biographical notes muhammad eko saputro is an alumnus of english language education department, faculty of business & humanities, universitas teknologi yogyakarta, indonesia. ulfa amalia is a lecturer and a head of guidance and counseling department, faculty of business & humanities, universitas teknologi yogyakarta, indonesia. juhansar is a lecturer and a secretary of english language education department, faculty of business & humanities, universitas teknologi yogyakarta, indonesia. corresponding author: juhansar@uty.ac.id mailto:juhansar@uty.ac.id this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 6 20 years of timss: lessons for indonesia thomas f. luschei 1 abstract the trends in international mathematics and science study (timss) has been administered to countries around the world every four years since 1995, generating rich cross-national data on school resources and student achievement that can inform policy and classroom practice. although indonesia has participated in every round of timss, there is very little published research in english drawing educational lessons from these data for indonesia. in this article, i described indonesia’s performance on timss over time and relative to other countries. reviewing timss reports on mathematics and science, i offered both positive and negative lessons from indonesia’s participation in timss since 1995. keywords timss, indonesia, education, math, science 1 school of educational studies, claremont graduate university, 150 e 10th st. claremont, ca 91711, usa; thomas.luschei@cgu.edu irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 7 introduction in 2016, the international association for the evaluation of educational achievement (iea) issued a report drawing lessons from 20 years of data generated by the trends in international mathematics and science study (timss), a cross-national assessment of students’ knowledge in mathematics and science in the fourth and eighth grades. at the beginning of 1995, the iea has administered timss every four years with the most recent round occurred in 2015. drawing on 20 years of student test score data and information from surveys of school leaders and teachers across dozens of countries, the iea’s 2016 report offers insights related to trends in cross-national educational performance, curriculum, instruction, the distribution of student achievement, and students’ attitudes about mathematics. the iea’s 2016 20 years of timss reports offers good news and bad news for many countries participated consistently in timss since 1995. several east asian countrieshong kong, japan, singapore, and south koreahad consistently high performance across 20 years of timss assessments. three of these countries actually improved their performance in fourth and eighth grade math and science from 1995 to 2015 (japan’s performance in eighth grade math remained unchanged during this period) (mullis et al., 2016). on the other hand, “the performance of dutch fourth graders declined in both math and science, while norway declined in fourth grade science and eighth grade math and science. similarly, math and science performance are declined among eighth graders in both hungary and sweden (mullis et al, 2016, p. 11).” in terms of the distribution of student achievement, the iea’s report identifies many countries increased overall performance at the same time they reduced differences in achievement between low and high performing students. most prominently, portugal improved its overall performance in mathematics by 99 scale score points with low achievers improved their performance by 123 points and high achievers improved by 78 points (mullis et al., 2016). like many of the countries discussed in the iea’s 20 years of timss report, indonesia has participated consistently in timss since 1995. what lessons does the report offer for indonesia? it is almost none. the iea’s 2016 report mentions indonesia only twice in the following: exhibit 10, page 19; indonesia is listed as one of eight countries where girls had higher math achievement than boys in 2015. page 29; in a section on problem solving and inquiry in mathematics and science curricula, the report observed that indonesia has a new curriculum, introduced in 2013, includes observing, questioning, exploring, associating, and communication. surely, participation in 20 years of timss assessments must offer more lessons related to student performance and equity in indonesia, the world’s fourth largest country. unfortunately, due to idiosyncrasies in indonesia’s timss participation, discerning 20-year trends presents somewhat of a challenge that the iea’s report did not take on. to further exacerbate the lack of timss-based lessons for indonesia, there has been relatively little peerreviewed research published in english that used the timss data to draw lessons for or from indonesia. 1 1 a google scholar search for the terms “indonesia” and “timss” in the title yielded only 15 results. only 5 of these were in english. irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 8 in this article, i attempted to shed some light on the question of what we can learn from indonesia’s participation in timss. i review indonesia’s performance on each timss assessment since 1995, paying special attention to the key dimensions; participation in timss, student performance, relative performance to other nations in southeast asia, gender gaps in performance, students’ attitudes on math, and school climate and safety. after briefly reviewing related literature, i described the results of my review of indonesia’s performance on timss, offered both good and bad news for indonesia. i concluded with a call for greater examination of the timss data to draw lessons for indonesia. literature review despite a lack of published research pertaining to indonesia’s timss performance, the country’s participation in timss and other international assessments nonetheless represents an important signal of interest on the part of indonesian policy makers and educators to understand indonesia’s educational performance from an international perspective. in this brief review of literature, i described why participation in international assessments is important. further, i described timss, and i discussed some key international lessons from 20 years of timss assessments, as reported by the iea. the value of international assessments from the perspective of a nation’s educational policy makers and educators, international assessments like the iea’s timss and progress in early literacy study (pirls), as well as the oecd’s program for international student assessment (pisa), it serves several purposes. to begin, these assessments provide an assessment of student learning that can be compared to international averages and regional neighbors which allow the development of benchmarks to gauge educational performance and progress. relative performance on international assessments can either provide educational “bragging rights” for countries that do well, or serve as motivation to catch and surpass neighbors that perform better. student performance data also allow the identification and comparison of achievement gaps between different student groups, such as between boys and girls, poor and wealthy children, and students with different ethnic, racial, or language backgrounds. in addition to collecting student performance data using common instruments and procedures, international assessment efforts also collect information on school systems, schools, teachers, and students themselves. as a result, data from these assessments can be used to compare educational resources and contexts, as well as to measure students’ self-confidence and attitudes about school. furthermore, these data can be used to answer a number of key descriptive questions, such as whether teachers or school leaders are distributed equitably across students, schools, or regions (chudgar & luschei, 2016). when analyzed in a multivariate framework, these data can also provide insights into whether certain school inputs are positively related to student performance, and whether relationships between inputs and outcomes vary within and across nations. as an example, a long line of research in the field of international comparative education has used data from international assessments to examine whether school inputs have a greater impact in lowerincome contexts, where students have fewer resources in the home. although the evidence on this question is mixed, there appears to be a stronger relationship between school resources and student achievement in contexts where resources are scarcer and more skewed toward the irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 9 wealthy (chudgar & luschei, 2009; heyneman & loxley, 1983). although this research has focused on cross-national comparisons, researchers could use international assessment data to examine withincountry relationships to identify contexts where educational investments might yield greater impacts in order to increase the efficiency of these investments. finally, international assessment data allow researchers to examine the impact of crossnational variation in policy contexts that vary little within a given country (chudgar & luschei, 2014). for example, it is difficult for researchers to examine the impact of educational decentralization within a country because in most case, the education system is either centralized or decentralized. however, examination across countries allows researchers to examine a variety of systems that fall along the spectrum of centralization to see how these countries compare along a range of educational outcomes. besides, there are also disadvantages in participating and conducting research related to international assessments. first, participation in assessments like pisa and timss requires substantial resources in terms of financial investment and technical capacity. as a result, very few truly low-income countries participate in these assessments which limit the global generalizability of the data. further, because these assessments do not track students longitudinally, researchers cannot assess within-cohort progress of students. the data also do not lend themselves easily to research that can draw causal inferences about the relationship between educational inputs and student outcomes. despite these limitations however, the benefits of participating in international assessments outweigh the costs, especially if the resulting data are used to inform decisions about educational policy and practice. 20 years of timss the iea pioneered the use of international assessments in the 1960s with the first international study of mathematics in 1964 and the second international mathematics study in 1980-1982, along with the first international science study in 1970-71 and second international science study in 1983-84. although these studies primarily compared educational performance in europe and north america, the iea’s third international mathematics and science study (timss) in 1995 included 41 educational systems or countries spanning 6 continents, participating across third, fourth, seventh, and eighth grades, as well as the final year of secondary school. 2 the 1999 timss included 38 countries or education systems and tested students only in the eighth grade. since then, timss has been administered every four years in both fourth and eighth grades, witnessing consistent and growing participation. in 2015, 57 countries or education systems, along with seven benchmarking participants (i.e., states or provinces) participated in either fourth or eighth grade, or both. of the dozens of countries participated in timss since 1995, the iea’s 2016 20 years of timss report identifies 17countries that have participated and released data at the fourth grade level every four years between 1995 and 2015 (1995, 1999, 2003, 2007, 2011, and 2015). with a few exceptions, these countries have improved their educational performance. of the 17 countries, 14 improved their mathematics performance in fourth grade between 1995 and 2015, while 2 countries decreased in achievement (czech republic and netherlands). in the fourth grade science, 11 countries improved, while 2 countries 2 over time, the name of the assessment was changed to the trends in international mathematics science and study. irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 10 declined (netherlands and norway). at the 8 th grade level, 16 countries participated in each round of timss from 1995 to 2015. in both mathematics and science, 9 countries improved their performance, 3 countries had lower achievement, and average student achievement did not change in 4 countries. in 2015, more students than previous succeeded in reaching the most difficult benchmarks of achievement on math and science tests. the iea’s 2016 report also describes key trends in achievement equity from 1995 to 2015. gender gaps between girls and boys generally narrowed during this period. additionally, while the number of countries where boys out performed girls decreased, the number of countries where girls outperformed boys increased. in the fourth grade math and science, gaps between low performers and high performers decreased, suggesting an improvement in achievement equity from 1995 to 2015 (mullis, martin, & loveless, 2016). indonesia’s participation in timss: lessons learned table 1 illustrates indonesia’s participation and performance on timss from 1995 to 2015. although indonesian eighth graders participated in the 1995 assessment in grades 4 and 8, the data from indonesia were not reported by iea. according to the iea’s report, “indonesia and italy were unable to complete the steps necessary for their data to appear in this report (mullis et al., 1997, p. 11).” indonesia participated in all rounds followed by, and data from these rounds were reported. in each round except 2015, indonesia participated in grade 8 only. in 2015, indonesia participated in grade 4 only. in the following, i discuss salient results in terms of participation in timss, student performance levels, relative performance to other nations in southeast asia, gender gaps in performance, students’ attitudes about math, and school climate and safety. table 1. selected results from indonesia’s participation in timss, 1995-2015 year & subject grade score (rank) performance in se asia gender gaps students’ valuing of subject students’ self-confidence in subject students’ perceptions of school safety 19951 4 & 8 n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a 19992 mathema tics 8 403 (34/38) below malaysia & thailand (ss); above philippines (ss) boys scored 5 points higher (ns) like a lot: 22% like: 70% dislike: 8% dislike a lot: 1% high: 4% medium: 83% low: 13% n/a science 8 435 (32/38) below malaysia & thailand (ss); above philippines (ss) boys scored 17 points higher (ns) high: 52% medium: 47% low: 0% high: 8% medium: 73% low: 19% 2003 mathema tics 8 411 (34/45) below malaysia (ss); above philippines (ss) girls scored 1 point higher (ns) high: 71% medium: 28% low: 1% high: 27% medium: 59% low: 15% high: 39% medium: 45% low: 16% science 8 420 (36/45) below malaysia (ss); above philippines (ss) boys scored 11 points higher (ss) high: 66% medium: 33% low: 1% (biology) high: 40% medium: 53% low: 7% (biology) 2007 mathema 8 397 below malaysia girls scored high: 95% high: 28% high: 36% irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 11 tics (36/49) & thailand (ss) 4 points higher (ns) medium: 5% low: 1% medium: 58% low: 14% medium: 45% low: 19% science 8 427 (35/49) below malaysia & thailand (ss) boys scored 2 points higher (ns) high: 88% medium: 10% low: 1% (biology) high: 41% medium: 54% low: 5% (biology) 2011 mathema tics 8 386 (38/45) below malaysia & thailand (ss) girls scored 13 points higher (ss) value: 31% somewhat value: 61% do not value: 8% confident: 3% somewhat confident: 52% not confident: 45% safe & orderly: 37% somewhat safe & orderly: 61% not safe & orderly: 2% (reported by teachers) science 8 406 (40/45) below malaysia & thailand (ss) girls scored 7 points higher (ss) value: 24% somewhat value: 62% do not value: 14% (biology) confident: 5% somewhat confident: 67% not confident: 29% (biology) 2015 mathema tics 4 397 (44/49) n/a girls scored 10 points higher (ss) n/a very confident: 23% confident: 53% not confident: 24% very safe & orderly: 89% safe & orderly: 11% less than safe & orderly: 0% (reported by teachers) science 4 397 (44/49) n/a girls scored 8 points higher (ns) n/a very confident: 35% confident: 46% not confident: 19% 1in 1995, timss conducted assessments in grades 3-4, 7-8, and the final year of secondary education. although indonesia participated in grades 4 and 8, the iea did not release the data (mullis et al., 1997). 2timss tested only 8th grade students in 1999. ns: difference is not statistically significant ss: difference is statistically significant participation in timss perhaps, the most important finding in table 1 is that indonesia has participated consistently in each round of timss since 1995, providing a wealth of data for educational researchers. in contrast, indonesia’s neighbors in southeast asia, especially the philippines and thailand, have not participated consistently. malaysia did not participate in 1995, while has participated in eighth grade in each round since 1999. the philippines has not participated in timss since 2003, whereas thailand did not participate in fourth or eighth grades in 2003. additionally, indonesia has participated in both eighth grade (1999-2011) and fourth grade (2015), which allows for examination of performance and school conditions across different grades and school configurations. on the other hand, several idiosyncrasies related to indonesia’s performance on timss complicate attempts to draw educational or policy lessons from the data. as i discussed above, despite the risks and costs associated with participating in international assessments, the benefits are far greater. any failure to participate in an international assessment is bad news for a country seeking knowledge upon which to base educational decision making. see in this light, the failure to release indonesia’s results in 1995 can be considered as a double disadvantage because the country incurred associated costs without receiving benefits of knowledge about the educational system or student performance. irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 12 similarly, indonesia’s lack of participation in the fourth grade timss from 1999 to 2011 limits information available to educators and policy makers. participation in fourth grade is important for a number of reasons. first, in many developing countries, student enrollment in school drops markedly in the upper primary and lower secondary grades. since students who leave school during this period tend to be less advantaged in terms of their socioeconomic status and academic achievement, students who remain in school at the secondary level are less representative of the population of children at the age than students in the fourth grade. in other words, the fourth grade data capture a more diverse and representative group of students. second, by participating in both the fourth and the eighth grades, a country can roughly estimate whether a cohort of students has improved over time, by comparing the fourth grade achievement in one assessment to the eighth grade achievement four years later. this is not possible in indonesia, given the country’s pattern of participation. finally, indonesia’s failure to participate in the eighth grade in 2015 limits the ability to draw lessons related to relative performance and trends over time. in the first case, most southeast asian countries that do participate consistently in timss (especially malaysia and thailand) tend to participate at the eighth grade rather than the fourth grade level. as a result, we cannot compare indonesia’s 2015 fourth grade performance with performance in malaysia and thailand, which participated in the eighth grade, while not the fourth grade. second, indonesia cannot compare the eighth grade achievement in 2011 to the eighth grade achievement in 2015. whereas, the iea’s 20 years of timss report describes trends across countries from 2011 to 2015, indonesia is not included in these discussions because it did not participate in the same grades in these two years. this reason, in addition to the failure to release indonesia’s data in 1995, explains why there is such little mention of indonesia in the iea’s 20 years of timss report. student performance in each round of timss, scores are standardized so that the average of all student scores is 500 and the standard deviation is 100. in 1999, indonesia scored 403 in the eighth grade mathematics and 435 in the eighth grade science. in other words, indonesia scored 97% of a standard deviation below the international average in mathematics and 65% of a standard deviation below the international average in science. 3 of the 38 countries participating in 1999, indonesia ranked the 34 th and the 32 nd in math and science respectively. in 2003, performance in math increased to 411, while the science score slipped to 420. the reverse occurred in 2007, with math performance decreased to 397 and science improved to 427. scores in both math and science fell in 2011 to 386 and 406 respectively. in 2015, math performance increased to 397, while science performance decreased to 397. however, these data come from the fourth rather than the eighth grade, so it is difficult to compare them to earlier rounds of timss. student performance data indicated that; first, indonesian children generally perform better in math than in science. second, scores in both math and science have not increased 3 although scores are not strictly comparable across years due to differences in participating countries, comparing standard deviations from the international mean provides a rough estimate of indonesia’s relative performance over time. irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 13 steadily over time. instead, scores in mathematics have fallen since 2003 (with the exception of the fourth grade scores in 2015), while science scores have fallen since 2007. relative to other southeastern asian nations participating in timss, indonesia has scored consistently below malaysia and thailand, whereas consistently above the philippines. however, given the patterns of participation by these countries in timss (discussed above), we can only make straight comparisons for malaysia in 1999, 2003, 2007, and 2011; for thailand in 1999, 2007, and 2011; and for the philippines in 1999 and 2003. gender gaps in performance among the countries participated in all rounds of timss from 1995 to 2015, gender gaps between boys and girls generally declined, and the number of countries where girls outperformed boys in science and math increased. this has been the case in indonesia. in 1999, the eighth grade boys outscored girls by 5 points in math and 17 points in science (differences were not statistically significant, or ns). by 2003, girls had closed the gap in math, scoring 1 point above boys (ns); in science, the gap between boys and girls dropped to 11 points (a statistically significant difference, or ss). in 2007, girls’ advantage in math increased to 4 points (ns) while boys’ advantage in science further declined to 2 points (ns). by 2011, girls had statistically significant advantages in both math (13 points) and science (7 points). in 2015, which tested fourth grade students, girls outscored boys by 10 points in math (ss) and 8 points in science (ns). differences in student performance provide good news as they demonstrate that boys’ advantage over math and science has completely vanished. unfortunately, a new gap favoring girls emerged during this period. ideally, indonesia will be able to achieve gender parity in student performance in the future. students’ attitudes and self-confidence in math and science in each round of timss, the iea has asked students about how much they enjoy or value math and science. however, the exact question and response framework have changed over the years. in general, these questions demonstrate that indonesian students place a high degree of value on both math and science. in 1999, 92% of students reported that they “liked a lot” or “liked” mathematics, while 97% of students placed a high value on science. in 2003, 71% of students placed a high value on math, while 66% of students placed a high value on science (biology). in 2007, these percentages jumped to 95% of students placed a high value on math and 88% of students placed a high value on science (biology). in 2011, the iea changed the question to directly assess how much students valued math. here, the percentages dropped to 31% of students said that they valued math, and 24% of students said that they valued science (biology). in 2015, timss participated at the fourth grade; since the iea did not ask the fourth grade students on how much they valued math and science, we cannot compare 2015 data to data from earlier assessments. given the changing nature of questions related to students’ attitudes, it is difficult to discern trends over time. however, we can infer that in general, students like or value math more than science. additionally, while students appear to like math and science a great deal, they do not place as much value on math and science as one might expect given their positive attitudes about these subjects. irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 14 an additional anomaly emerges when we examine students’ responses to questions about their self-confidence in mathematics. with a few exceptions, indonesian students appear to have very little confidence in either mathematics or science. in 1999, only 4% of the eighth grade students reported having a high degree of confidence in math, compared to 8% of students in science. in 2003, these figures jumped to 27% of students in math and 40% of students in science, and remained stable in 2007 at 28% and 41% of students respectively. in 2011, the iea changed the response scale to “confident,” “somewhat confident,” or “not confident.” in that year, only 3% of indonesian eighth grade students reported being confident in math, compared to 5% in science. in 2015, the scale changed again, and the fourth grade students participated, rather than the eighth grade students. the good news is that 23% of indonesian fourth grade students reported they were “very confident” in math and 53% reported they were confident; scores for science were even higher, with 35% of students reported they were “very confident”, and 46% of students reported they were “confident.” again, changes in questions, response scales, and grades make discerning trends in confidence over time. however, it seems that for the most part, indonesian students are more confident in science than math, and the fourth grade students are more confident than the eighth grade students in both math and science. school climate and safety one of the brightest spots for indonesia’s timss participation over time is a high degree of school safety reported by students. although the iea did not ask a related question in 1999, in 2003, 39% of eighth grade students reported a high degree of safety in school. this figure dipped slightly to 36% in 2007. in 2011 and 2015, the iea asked this question of teachers rather than students. in 2011, 37% of teachers reported that their schools were safe and orderly; in 2015, 89% of the fourth grade students’ teachers reported that their schools were safe and orderly, the highest percentage across all countries participated in the 2015 fourth grade timss. like the other measures reported above, it is difficult to discern trends in school safety due to changes in the nature of questions and responses over time. however, it is clear that at the fourth grade level, teachers feel a high degree of safety and orderliness at the school. further, at the eighth grade level, a large majority of the eighth grade students reports that their school has a high or medium degree of safety, while a small minority of students reports a low degree of feeling safe at school. discussion indonesia’s 20 years of participation holds both good and bad news for student performance and related research. on the positive side, indonesia’s consistent participation in timss has produced a great deal of rich comparative data to analyze key trends and policy questions over time. although published research using these data may be extensive in bahasa indonesia, a review conducted for this study yielded only a handful of peer-reviewed published studies in english. on the negative side, indonesia’s participation patterns, beginning with the failure to report data in 1995 and continuing through the decision to participate at the fourth grade level in 2015, have complicated efforts to compare performance over time within indonesia and across southeast asia. irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 15 in terms of student performance, math and science scores have generally remained quite low relative to other countries participating in timss, with a negative trend in both math and science since the early 2000s. further, indonesia has consistently scored below its neighbors malaysia and thailand, while above the philippines. since 1999, the gender gap favoring boys has been completely reversed, with the fourth grade girls outscored boys in both math and science in 2015. in examining students’ attitudes about math and science, we find that students place high value on both subjects (somewhat higher on math), whereas have low degrees of confidence in both subjects, with student confidence somewhat higher in science and in the fourth grade. finally, both students and teachers report relatively high levels of school safety and orderliness, with the fourth grade teachers reported the highest level of safety and orderliness among participating countries in 2015. implications, limitations, and future research this study provides a very simple descriptive analysis of indonesia’s performance on timss over time, and i use only a handful of measures of educational performance and equity. consequently, i cannot offer major implications for educational research or policy making in indonesia. the main conclusion of this review is that indonesia faces many challenges as it seeks to improve educational access and quality for the millions of children in its primary and secondary schooling systems. educational performance in indonesia has appeared to stagnate, and students’ confidence in math and science is low. however, students have positive attitudes about these subjects and appear to feel safe in school. rather than providing definitive lessons and implications, this study points the way for future researchers wishing to explore key questions related to educational access, quality, and equity in indonesia. to explore and answer these questions, however, researchers will need to apply both descriptive and multivariate analysis to the timss data. many questions await these analyses. for example, how does educational performance vary across indonesia’s diverse regions, language groups, and socioeconomic groups, and what are the determinants of gaps between groups? additionally, what accounts for the reversal of indonesia’s gender gap in math and science, from a gap favoring boys to a gap favoring girls? has boys’ performance decreased, has girls’ performance increased, or have both occurred? further, what has been the impact of important policy reforms, such as indonesia’s 2005 teacher certification law, on the percentage of certified teachers, the distribution of certified teachers across regions and schools, and student performance? finally, what are the determinants of students’ and teachers’ perceptions of being safe at school, and do students and teachers in different locations perceive safety differently? the timss data provide a world of data to be explored. meanwhile participation in timss is not enough. indonesian researchers must take the lead in using these data to answer the big questions that will lead to improved educational practice and policy in the world’s fourth largest country. irje | vol. 1 | no. 1| year 2017 |issn: 2580-5711 16 references chudgar, a. & 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(2000). timss 1999 international mathematics report: findings from iea's repeat of the third international mathematics and science study at the eighth grade. international study center. mullis, i.v.s., martin, m.o., gonzalez, e.j., & chrostowski, s.j. (2004). findings from iea’s trends in international mathematics and science study at the fourth and eighth grades. chestnut hill, ma: timss & pirls international study center, boston college. mullis, i. v. s., martin, m. o., loveless, t. (2016). 20 years of timss: international trends in mathematics and science achievement, curriculum, and instruction: boston: timss international study center. biographical note thomas luschei is an associate professor in cgu’s school of educational studies, where he teaches courses on international comparative education, urban education in the united states, and teacher quality and teacher policy. his research interests include international and comparative education, the economics of education, teacher labor markets and teacher quality, bilingual education policy and practice, and the global applications of colombia’s escuela nueva rural school improvement model. the primary focus of his research is the impact and availability of educational resources—particularly high-quality teachers—among economically disadvantaged children. he has conducted related research in africa, asia, and north, central, and south america. in 2013, he served as a fulbright visiting scholar at the centro de investigación y formación en educación at the universidad de los andes, bogotá, colombia. in 2016, he was a fulbright specialist at the universidad de san andrés, buenos aires, argentina. luschei is the author (with amita chudgar) of teacher distribution in developing countries: teachers of marginalized students in india, mexico, and tanzania (2016, palgrave macmillan). his research has appeared in numerous scholarly journals, including the american educational research journal, american journal of education, comparative education review, international journal of educational development, education policy analysis archives, international review of education, phi delta kappan, teachers college record, and prospects: unesco’s comparative journal of curriculum, learning and assessment. he serves on the editorial boards of the journals educational researcher, evaluation and program planning, interaction design and architecture, forum for international research in education, journal of teacher education, panorama, and prospects. he has been invited to present his research in argentina, colombia, india, indonesia, mexico, and south korea. from 2011 to 2014, he served on the board of directors of the comparative and international education society. prior to pursuing graduate studies, he worked as a bilingual elementary, high school, and adult education teacher in the los angeles unified school district, where he taught students ranging in age from six to 84. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 120 students’ demotivating factors in english language learning: a case study dian erlina, 1 deta devitasari, 2 lenny marzulina, 3 and almirah meida risfina 4 abstract demotivation in english language learning was discussed in this article based on a case study at one islamic junior high school in palembang, indonesia. most of the previous studies focus on positive motivation in learning, but in fact students may also be negatively affected by several factors that can diminish their motivation and may lead to their failure in learning. therefore, this study was aimed at exploring the factors causing demotivation among students in english language learning. the participants were the second-grade students being demotivated in learning. the data were gained by using document reviews and face-to-face interviews and were analyzed by using thematic analysis. member checking was used to measure credibility and control of biases in this study. the findings revealed there were five students‟ demotivating factors, namely insufficient school facilities, lack of teachers' competence and teaching styles, inappropriate learning materials and contents, uncomfortable classroom condition and negative classmates' attitudes, and lack of self-confidence. school and teachers must take these factors into account in their english instruction as they have several impacts on the students‟ overall learning. some improvements must be taken accordingly to minimize the possible causes of student demotivation in english language learning. keywords demotivation, demotivating factors, english language learning 1 english education study program, faculty of tarbiyah and teaching sciences, state islamic university of raden fatah, south sumatra, indonesia; dianerlina02@gmail.com 2 english education study program, faculty of tarbiyah and teaching sciences, state islamic university of raden fatah, south sumatra, indonesia 3 *corresponding author: english education study program, faculty of tarbiyah and teaching sciences, state islamic university of raden fatah, south sumatra, indonesia; hj.lennymarzulina@gmail.com 4 state junior high school number one at ogan komering ulu, indonesia. mailto:dianerlina02@gmail.com mailto:hj.lennymarzulina@gmail.com irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 121 introduction english has become a global matter. it is one of the most widely spoken languages and used in many areas of human interactions. house (1999) states that its uses have expanded to cover virtually anything from the language of international relations to the language of science; from the language of international business to the language of tourism and popular culture (as cited in majanen, 2008). moreover, it has been prerequisite in the job fields (pandey & pandey, 2014). this great usefulness of english as a world language has the main consequences of second language motivation, especially in the context of efl (mehrpour & vojdani, 2012). therefore, there is also a need for indonesian students to learn english to get success in their respective fields and be able to compete in this global era. manaj (2015) supports that there are four necessities that plays a vital role in english language learning quest or commonly known as the four skills namely, reading, writing, listening and speaking. fromkin, rodman, and hyams (2011) state there are several language components that must be studied like phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics. in learning those four skills and also the language components with of all their complication, students really need motivation. alizadeh (2016) claims motivation is an essential factor for determining the success or failure of any difficult task or activity. hence, efl students must have motivation in learning to drive their learning desire and engagement for optimal learning outcomes. meanwhile, several factors could decrease students‟ motivation in learning. when motivation to learn decrease, it can be called as demotivation. dörnyei (2001) mentions that demotivation do not mean that his motivation lost completely. this only means that a strong negative factor limits the present of motivation, while other positive motives still stay ready to be activated. in other words, the presence of demotivation could diminish students‟ motivation. in their research, sakai and kikuchi (2009) divides demotivation into internal and external factors that can reduce student motivation in learning. demotivation was also experienced at several levels of education, including at public school of madrasah tsanawiyah (haryanto et al., 2018; mukminin, muazza, hustarna, & sari, 2015). it means that demotivation is also an important determinant of students' learning behaviors and outcomes. then, teachers should understand and be aware of the factors that motivate their students to learn and but also those that demotivate. furthermore, there are several characteristics associated with demotivation in language learning. chambers (1993) put forwards the main characteristics of students who experience demotivation in english language learning such as, demonstrate no effort to learn, show no interest to learn, have poor concentration, produce little or no homework, do not bring materials; lack of trust in their own capabilities, indicate lethargy, give negative or bad response to praise, unwilling to cooperate and distract other students. according to dornyei (2001), students who felt demotivated in english language learning are not active to follow the process of learning and do not have positive attitude towards the lesson, and might not have desire to reach their goals in learning. referring to those characteristics, we identified after a three-month preliminary study at one islamic junior high school in palembang that the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 122 majority of the 2 nd grade students experienced demotivation in their english learning activities because of some conditions. based on document review, we found that some of them got lower english scores compared to their scores at the first grade. our observations indicated that some of them did not pay attention to the teacher‟s explanation. they were busy with their own chats, preferred sitting at the back of the classroom, and disturbed other students who were focusing on their assignments. besides, several students felt that learning english was not as interesting as in the first grade. it can be said that they became demotivated in their english learning. several studies about demotivating factors of english language learning have been undertaken in different samples. for instance, kikuchi and sakai (2009) explored possible demotivating factors in high school english classes in eastern japan. using a principal axis factor analysis, then five factors were extracted: learning contents and material, inadequate school facilities, test scores, lack of intrinsic motivation, and teacher competence and teaching styles. sahragard and alimorad (2013) reported demotivating factors affecting iranian high school students‟ english learning. several factors were considered as demotives such as lack of interest and self-confidence in learning english, teachers‟ competence and teaching styles, lack of school facilities, and learning contents and context. while, habibi and sofwan (2016) investigated demotivation factors of teachers in indonesian pesantrens in implementing efl teaching. they reported that teachers‟ demotivation factors in teaching english at indonesian pesantrens were related to working condition, curriculum, facilities, and students. in reference to the previous studies above, it can be concluded that demotivation is experienced at different types of school and levels of education, so it is necessary to conduct research on similar topic in different setting. therefore, this current study is aimed at exploring students‟ demotivating factors in english language learning at one islamic junior high school in palembang city. for achieving the aim of this study, the research problem was formulated in the following question: what were the students‟ demotivating factors in english language learning? hopefully, this study can enrich discussions on demotivation in english language learning and provide information for the schools, teachers, and students themselves about the possible causes of student demotivation in english language learning, especially in the context of indonesian islamic junior high schools. literature review demotivation in english language learning demotivation is a very common phenomenon. chambers (1993) supported there was motive that have a positive effect on motivation, but there is also those that have a detrimental effect on motivation. the detrimental motive that has negative effect on motivation can be called as demotivation. it usually conceptualizes negative power motives whose strengths range from a continuum from strong to declining dornyei (2001). in short, if there was a negative power that comes from within a person and the person's environment that can affect the decrease in motivation then it was called demotivation. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 123 most of researchers focus their study on positive motivation in learning a foreign language. however, students may also be negatively affected during the learning process of a language. these negative factors are called „demotivating factors‟ which have not received much attention until the past few years. dörnyei and ushioda (2011) have significantly contributed to the general awareness of demotivation and increased interest in an issue that was not so long ago left with little attention. according to dörnyei (2005, p. 143), demotivation refers to “specific external forces that reduce or diminish the motivational basis of a behavioral intention or an ongoing action”. there have only been a few studies that focused on student demotivation, in spite of how important role demotivation plays in learning and teaching in general, and foreign language learning in particular. students’ demotivating factors in english language learning many researchers already investigated the demotivating factors in the area of instructional communication. demotivating factors in the area of instructional communication just focus on l2 and efl field. just like students in japan, students in indonesia are also efl students. sakai and kikuchi (2009) explored possible demotivating factors in japanese high school english classes. the results of their study showed five factors on demotivation: (a) learning contents and materials, (b) inadequate school facilities, (c) test scores, (d) lack of intrinsic motivation, and (e) teachers‟ competence and teaching styles. basically, everything that presents or informs about the english language being learned, can be used as learning materials. richards and schmidt (2002) supports that availability of learning materials can be used like textbooks. teachers can also develop their own by compiling from some sources such as newspaper, internet, article, and the like and then adapt them to adjust with learner needs. there are several conditions that must be considered in material development such as materials should achieve impact; materials should help learners to feel at ease; materials should help learners to develop confidence; what is being taught should be perceived by learners as relevant and useful; materials should require and facilitate learner self-investment; and learners must be ready to acquire the point being taught (tomlinson, 1998). consequently, it is very important to pay attention to whether the condition of the material being taught is reliable and appropriate for the students, so that it does not become the students‟ demotivating factors in learning english. good facilities appear to be an important precondition for student learning, provided that other conditions are present that support a strong academic program in the school. according to brubaker (1998), an effective school facility is responsive to the changing programs of educational delivery, and at a minimum should provide a physical environment that are comfortable, safe, accessible, well illuminated, well ventilated, and aesthetically pleasing. inadequate facilities in the classroom can make students less eager to learn english (meskhat & hassani, 2012). a growing body of research has linked student achievement to the physical building conditions and overcrowding. in short, inadequate school facilities in teaching and learning activities can demotivate students in english language learning. a test score was a piece of information, usually a number that conveys the performance of an examinee on a irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 124 test. according to littlejhon (2008), learning result is a response that given by students. learning results were found not only show students‟ knowledge, but also students‟ behavior. test score can also be seen from changes in input results personal motivation and hope to succeed. the input is in the form of a motivational management design that does not have a direct effect on the amount of effort devoted by students to achieving learning goals. there are factors affecting student motivation. some of them are in the form of intrinsic motivational factors. the absence of intrinsic motivation was a more demotivating factor for students with moderate and high motivation (hosseini & jafari, 2014). intrinsic motivation affects student learning passion. legault (2017) states intrinsic motivation refers to engagement in behavior that is inherently satisfying or enjoyable. additionally, tsuchiya (2006) states that learner generally feel that the english taught at school is different from the one spoken by native speakers. it means that demotivation to learn from within students can greatly influence the passion of students to learn english. teachers serve important role in the classroom. they are responsible for helping students to gain knowledge, competence, and values. karsli (2007) defines that teaching is the process in which the individual develops talents obtained during the education phase in proportion to their capacity. the most important factor in education and teaching activities is the teacher. gundogdu and silman (2007) emphasize a teacher, in the most general terms, is a person working in educational institutes who enables students to reach cognitive, sensory and behavioral aim and gains within the range determined by the educational system. in conclusion, the role of teachers is very important for students. their competences and teaching styles greatly influence their students‟ motivation in learning. methodology research design, participants, and locale of the study qualitative research with a case study approach was used in this study. case study research was relevant to analyze the research question of this study as proposed by creswell (2007) and mukminin et al. (2017), a case study is a qualitative approach that involves the study about issue explored through one or more cases over time through detailed, in-depth data collection involving multiple sources of information. to gain in-depth information on the students‟ demotivating factors in english language learning, document review and semi-structured interview were used. semi-structured interview was used since its flexibility allowed researchers to ask follow-up questions to obtain additional information and gain more in-depth understanding of the participants‟ perspectives. this study was carried out in two stages. the first, document review was used to obtain the data of students being demotivated in english language learning. those who experienced demotivation in their english language learning were determined to be interviewed. the second, semi-structured interview was employed. it consisted of general and specific questions on students‟ demotivating factors in english language learning. the participants in this study were selected by using purposeful sampling technique. it has logical and powerful sampling in selecting research participants. researchers define the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 125 characteristics of research participants and locate individuals who meet those characteristics to be involved as the participants (creswell, 2007; habibi et al., 2018). in purposive sampling, sample size was determined by data saturation not by statistical power analysis (patton, 2002). this sampling technique was in line with the objective of this study to explore the factors contributing to student demotivation in english language learning. the appropriate way to reach that objective was by purposefully selecting the participants. in this case, participant selection was based on the results of document review of students‟ english achievement at the first and the second grades. students‟ english scores at the second and the first grades were compared to find out the students who had declined scores. the results indicated that there were eleven students with declined english scores. they were considered being demotivated in their english language learning and have typical characteristics for this study, then could be involved as the participants. it was believed that they have rich information cases for study in depth and the best potential sources of data in this study. data collection and analysis, and establishment of trustworthiness two kinds of techniques were applied for collecting the research data, documents review and semi-structured interview. documents and interviews are possible sources of evidence for case studies (yin, 2003, as cited in kohlbacher, 2006). firstly, document review was used as the first way in collecting the data. creswell (2014) supports that documents review is a way of collecting data by reviewing existing documents. in this case, the researchers reviewed documents of students‟ english achievement to see the decline in their english scores. secondly, a semi-structured interview consisted of 13 questions adapted from kikuchi and sakai (2009) was conducted to the students selected to be the participants based on the results of documentation review. the questions were asked to elicit information about students‟ demotivating factors in english language learning. in the process of interview, follow-up questions sometimes asked in order to get extra or deeper information. researchers carried out face-to-face interview in indonesian language and sometimes in palembang language to avoid misunderstandings and enhance clarity from the interviewee. a recorder was used to record the conversation in the field so we could concentrate on the interview rather than writing notes. using a recorder was much faster and more comprehensive than note-taking. in analyzing the data, thematic analysis was used in this study. research data obtained from the recorded interview in the field were transcribed by the researchers. to have careful description and categories of data, researchers used coding of the interview data. this step involved creating codes to be used for data analysis. it was supported by miles and huberman (1994, p. 56), “codes are tags or labels that assign units of meaning to the data and for the quick identification of the segments relating to the research questions and any potential themes.” this step was very useful for identifying the themes or categories of interview data. next, the codes were organized around several themes that had been determined. finally, researchers did analytic interpretations of the interview results of each student‟s statement that had been systematically collected, categorized, and encoded. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 126 the interpretation was done by comparing the findings with theories and relevant literature. the results of all these steps described the students‟ demotivating factors in english language learning based on their perspectives. member checking was used to measure credibility and control of biases in this study. member checking is the process when the researcher wants to check the accuracy of the data by return back the report to participants and ask them about whether the report is accurate or not (creswell, 2012). we used participants‟ validation as a technique for exploring the credibility of our research data. we shared all the interview results in transcript (either in indonesian or english) to the participants involved. they were asked to affirm whether the transcripts‟ content reflected their perspectives or not. they were also allowed to comment when the results did not reflect their views, feelings, or experiences. the purpose of this process was to obtain corrective feedback from the participants involved to revise the incorrect data and interpretation for the trustworthiness of this research. ethical considerations to protect all participants‟ identities, we masked our participants‟ real names and places. the data related to their identities were also masked and we informed all participants regarding this issue. we also allowed our participants to discontinue their participation in the study because their involvement was fully voluntary. findings the purpose of this study was to explore students‟ demotivating factors in english language learning at one islamic junior high school in palembang. in the coding process, we discovered several themes and subthemes as presented in table 1. table 1. themes and subthemes themes subthemes school facilities 1. insufficient electricity supply and (2) inadequate equipment teachers‟ competence and teaching style 1. unclear instructional delivery, 2. unfair learning assessment 3. less varied teaching methods teaching materials and contents 1. lack of supporting materials, 2. grammar oriented materials 3. uninteresting contents classroom condition and classmates‟ attitude 1. uncomfortable classroom 2. negative attitude from classmates students‟ self confidence 1. speaking anxiety and 2. lack of learning desire school facilities based on the interview, we found that school facilities became the major concerns because most of the students complained about insufficient electricity supply and inadequate equipment in their classrooms such as fans for cooling the room and lcd (liquid crystal irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 127 display) projector for displaying video, image, or computer data on a screen. due to insufficient electricity supply, most of the lamps did not work at all in the classroom. this became a very serious problem when the day got darker in the cloudy afternoon. without enough light in the classroom, the students could barely see and do their learning activities. this gloomy classroom had negative effect to the students‟ concentration and spirit in the classroom. besides, the teacher and students could not use teaching and learning equipment and media like laptop and lcd projector due to insufficient electricity supply. related to this issue, some participants proposed these following statements, “classroom fans do not function properly, no electricity here.” (mfg, may 15, 2019) “the lights cannot function well because there is no electricity in this classroom.” (ief, may 18, 2019) “we never learn with a laptop or lcd projector. charging cell phone battery is just something possible to do, not enough electricity here.” (mrp, may 18, 2019) most of the participants complained about classroom fans. some did not work properly, and even some classrooms did not have fans at all. they supported that without using fans, the classroom got hotter and made them uncomfortable, especially in the afternoon class. as the results, the students found it hard for them to concentrate on the lesson. “the fan is not working. i get very hot and uncomfortable. this makes me feel difficult to concentrate on the lesson.” (nam, may 15, 2019) “there is no fan in my class. we need a fan for cooling the room.” (aff, may 15, 2019) “if there is a fan installed, it can be my encouragement to be more disciplined with my study in the class.” (mnw, may 15, 2019). they also complained about inadequate equipment to support their english learning process. in english listening practice, they had to use audio device, but speakers were not available, so the teacher just skipped listening practice part. similar thing happened when they need to watch videos and short movies. it was impossible to integrate language textbooks with audio and video as additional or supplementary resources for listening activities without audio equipment. this made students bored and less enthusiastic in their english language learning. concerning this issue, these were some of the interview results, “teaching materials are never presented in the form of video or film because there was no installed lcd projector in the classroom.” (mnw, may 15, 2019). “suppose there are speakers in this class so listening material is not always skipped by the teacher.” (nar, may 18, 2019). “we do not have enough equipment in learning english; there should be speaker and lcd projector, so our teacher can use a variety of teaching materials.” (lm, may 15, 2019). irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 128 teachers’ competence and teaching style we found that there were three causes of students‟ demotivation in english language learning related to the teacher, namely, unclear instructional delivery, unfair learning assessment, and less varied teaching methods. several participants felt their teacher was not objective in giving scores for their english assignment. they assumed that they always got the same score as the others. they only need to do and submit the assignment given by the teacher. no matter whether their work was true or false, as long as they submitted the assignment, they would get an “a”. as a result, they did not do their assignment seriously. “the most important thing is that i have to submit my assignments and definitely i will get an a.” (aff, may 15, 2019) “just complete the exercises randomly, then submit our works, our english teacher surely will give us good scores.” (mnw, may 15, 2019) “we do not have to think seriously for finding the right answer, because our scores will be the same.” (mrp, may 15, 2019) they also complained about the teacher‟s teaching method. teacher always taught in the same way, and this was too monotonous for the students. textbook was the only teaching material used by the teacher to present the subject matter. the teacher simply explained what was in the textbook and asked students to do the tasks provided in the textbook. students were bored and expected something new in their learning activities. “the teacher comes to the class, asks the students to open the textbook on certain pages, then explains what is on the pages. after that the teacher gives us assignments.” (mfg, may 15, 2019) “in english lesson, the teacher only uses textbook as the teaching materials, so we may not forget to bring our english textbook.”(lm, may 15, 2019) “i expect to study english through watching english films, singing english songs, or playing games.” (ief, may 18, 2019) six participants found the teacher‟s explanation was difficult to understand. they reported that their teacher did not use a variety of teaching method and media in delivering the lessons such as using videos, music, or everything that could be more interesting for them. although very limited english was used by the teacher during instruction, they found their teacher‟s explanation was unclear. they were not motivated to practice their english because most of the lessons were delivered in indonesian language and even in palembang language. for examples, some of them stated, “she delivers the lesson in very limited english, but dominant in palembang language.” (nam, may 15, 2019) “the teacher only uses english when reading the instructions in the textbook, the rest uses indonesian.” (mfg, may 15, 2019) irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 129 “i observe that she is not able to speak english well, my english course teacher is much better than her.” (mrp, may 15, 2019) teaching materials and contents the interview data indicated that teaching materials and contents also affected students' demotivation in english language learning. most of the students claimed that english instruction put more emphasis on grammatical aspect in the textbook. it was difficult for them to comprehend the reading texts in the textbook because of inadequate information and related to vocabulary and grammatical items appeared in the texts. they supported that the teaching materials and contents were merely from the textbook, without any supporting materials provided by the teacher. therefore, it was difficult to develop students‟ curiosity and interest in the subject. they needed a variety of teaching materials. “the contents of the textbook are only written explanations and tasks with limited illustration.” (mnw, may 15, 2019) “i prefer to learn english through youtube.” (nar, may 18, 2019) “i rarely use english textbook.” (lm, may 15, 2019) seven participants felt their english lessons were difficult to understand such as several unfamiliar words and complicated grammar items in tenses section. "the materials are difficult and confusing.” (aff, may 15, 2019) “the materials are not interesting.” (ief, may 18, 2019) “i find it difficult to write sentences using correct tense” (lm, may 15, 2019) besides, they were not interested in the textbook which mostly provide stories and tenses formula. the result of interview could be seen below: “i open my english textbook only when studying english in the class.” (mrp, may 15, 2019) “nothing interesting in our english textbook, i never read it outside the class hours.” (mnw, may 15, 2019) “it mostly contains stories and the instructions to write sentences according to the tenses formula.” (lm, may 15, 2019) classroom condition and classmates’ attitudes it was also revealed that the students‟ demotivating factors in english language learning came from their classroom conditions and classmates‟ attitudes. six participants complained that their classrooms were too crowded and noisy. there were a large number of students in the classroom. this made them difficult to concentrate in learning. in relation to this issue, some of their points can be seen in the following statements, irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 130 “when the teacher gives the assignment and leaves the classroom, the class immediately starts to be very noisy. it is hard for me to concentrate and do that assignment.” (nam, may 15, 2019) “i can concentrate well in learning because there are around 40 people in the class.” (nar, may 18, 2019) “if my friends are so noisy, i cannot listen to the teacher‟s explanation clearly. i see my friend‟s work in doing my assignment.” (mrp, may 15, 2019) “because there are more than 40 students in my class, so in the afternoon the class gets hotter.” (ief, may 18, 2019) this study also revealed that the majority of participants were reluctant to speak english in the class. usually, they were afraid to be ridiculed due to mispronunciation of words. they prefer to be silent in order not to be laughed at by their classmates. according to them it was better not participate in speaking session as they were afraid of getting negative comments and looking foolish in front of their friends. some of their statements could be seen below, “i ever try to answer the teacher's question, because of my incorrect answer, my friends laugh at me. then, i do not want to do that anymore.” (nar, may 18, 2019) “i am worried about my mispronunciation of words when my teacher asks me to read a story in the textbook.” (lm, may 15, 2019) “i ever saw my friend who dared to speak english. when he made a mistake, our friends immediately laughed at him, i cannot imagine if i am in that position.” (mnw, may 15, 2019) lack of self-confidence lack of self-confidence also affected students‟ demotivation in learning english. seven students felt anxious to ask questions or seek for clarification from their teacher for something unclear in their english language learning. they were afraid of getting negative response from the teacher. asking question might be considered by the teacher that they did not pay attention on her explanation before. they preferred to ask their friends rather than their teacher. lack of self-confidence made them difficult to express their ideas and feelings in english. the presences of anxiety made them prefer to be silent, especially in question and answer session in speaking session. these following statements were some of the students‟ demotivating hints: “i prefer to ask my friend rather than my teacher for something i do not understand.” (mfg, may 15, 2019) “i am afraid, if i give a question to my teacher, she will think i am not paying attention when she explains the material.” (mrp, may 15, 2019) “i am afraid when my teacher asks me to answer a question, because i won't be able to answer it.” (lm, may 15, 2019) irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 131 discussion the findings of this study revealed that there were five students‟ demotivating factors in english language learning, namely (a) inadequate school facilities, (b) lack of teachers‟ competence and teaching style, (c) inappropriate teaching materials and contents, (d) uncomfortable classroom condition and negative classmates‟ attitudes, and (e) lack of self-confidence. these indicated that contributing factors of students‟ demotivation in english language learning came from inside and outside of the individual. in the context of english language learning and teaching, brown explains that internal factors are specified personally by the individual (2007). in this study, lack of self-confidence was dealt with an individual element that had an impact on student demotivation in language learning. furthermore, mirhadizadeh (2016) reports that internal factors in language learning are influenced by other factors which persist in the environment of a learner. it was in line with the findings of this study that the students were reluctant to speak english because of being afraid of getting negative responses from their teacher and classmates. lack of school facilities became the major concerns of the research participants. insufficient electricity supply, inadequate equipment like fans, lcd projector, and speakers for audio materials had a great impact on their english language learning. due to insufficient electricity supply, most of the lamps did not work at all in the classroom. this gloomy classroom had negative effect to the students‟ concentration and spirit in the classroom. besides, the teacher and students could not use teaching and learning equipment and media like laptop and lcd projector for displaying video, image, or computer data on a screen. this was similar to the results of previous studies that found insufficient use of facilities in english classes could highly discourage students in learning english. the students proposed that their school facilities had to be improved and upgraded in order to meet their needs for successful learning (meskhat & hassani, 2012; sakai & kikuchi, 2009). it can be said that sufficient school facilities have an impact on the overall learning and performance of students. students demotivation also affected by teachers‟ lack of english competence and teaching styles. most of the students found their teacher was not objective in giving scores for their english assignments, teaching method was also less varied, and teacher‟s explanations were difficult to understand. relevant studies also put emphasis on the importance of teacher‟s role in teaching and learning activities (dornyei, 2001; karsli, 2007; sakai & kikuchi, 2009). furthermore, santrock (2012) proposes several main instruction components that must be considered by the teacher to facilitate student learning optimally. they are learning objectives, assessments, and instructional activities. therefore, it was obvious in study that teacher‟s unclear instructional delivery, unfair learning assessment, and less varied teaching methods had negative impacts on students‟ motivation in learning english. another students‟ demotivating factor was inappropriate teaching materials and contents. most of the students were not satisfied with their english materials. the content irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 132 did not meet their need and interest. kojima (2004) claims that uninterested or unsuitable materials might demotivate students in learning. for this reason, the teachers have to develop materials that incorporate elements of the learners‟ first language and culture, or at least provide opportunities for acknowledgment and use alongside english (thomas and collier, 1997). in relation to this study, the teacher can develop teaching materials in a larger content with rich and meaningful learning activities to attract students‟ motivation and engagement in learning english, instead of just focusing on the grammatical items in the textbook. for example, to attract students‟ motivation and engagement in learning, the teacher can use some supporting materials taken from different sources like videos, you tube, google, etc., as required by most of the research participants. classroom condition and classmates‟ attitudes also caused students‟ demotivation in english language learning. the students complained that their classroom was overcrowded, so noisy, hot, and uncomfortable. being uncomfortable made them hard to concentrate and engaged in learning. several studies also claim that class environment can be one the factors that contribute to student demotivation in english language learning in terms of classroom condition and classmates‟ attitude (arai, 2004; hirvonen, 2010; kiwa, 2004). another important demotivating factor among the students was negative attitude of the classmates towards their mistakes in speaking english. they did not like to be laughed at by their friends because of their mispronunciation of the words. in this case, students had to be informed and encouraged to learn from their mistakes. the teacher could develop in pairs or small group learning activities to correct students‟ mistakes in spoken and written language (valero et al., 2008). students‟ demotivation in english language learning was also caused by their lack of selfconfidence. majority of the participants had similar ideas that they were reluctant to ask questions or seek for clarification from their teacher as they were afraid of getting negative response from the teacher. dornyei and csizer (1998) confirmed lack of confidence is an internal problem. students can be demotivated in a stressful learning environment where they cannot practice their english. stress in the classroom environment generates learning problems in terms of attentiveness, expressing feelings, showing sensitivity, and presence of anxiety. in short, learning problems in the form of negative classroom conditions negatively affect students their english language learning. this study only focused on exploring students‟ demotivating factors in english language learning at one islamic junior high school in palembang. it did not provide a complete discussion on demotivation in english language learning. for instance, the alternative solutions for the students‟ demotivating factors were not discussed in this study. it might serve as a part of discussion for more thorough and wide scope of discussions on student demotivation in learning. due to the limited scope of this study, further studies can be conducted in a much wider range of research fields because demotivation might be experienced by the students at different types of school and levels of education. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 133 conclusion and implications this study revealed there were five students demotivating factors in english language learning, namely inadequate school facilities (insufficient electricity supply and inadequate learning equipment), lack of teachers' competence and teaching styles (unclear instructional delivery, unfair learning assessment, and less varied teaching methods), inappropriate learning material and content (lack of supporting materials, grammar oriented materials, and uninteresting contents), negative classmates' attitudes (uncomfortable classroom, classmates‟ negative attitude), and lack of self-confidence (speaking anxiety and lack of learning desire). these contributory factors of students‟ demotivation in english language learning came from inside and outside of the individual. related to those findings, some suggestions were addressed to the school, the english teacher, and the students. the school must provide sufficient electricity supply so the classroom can have enough lighting and good air circulation. adequate learning facilities such as fans, lcd projector, and speaker must be available in the classroom to meet the students‟ needs and make them more enthusiastic in learning. english teachers must improve their instructional delivery by using various teaching methods and supporting materials, songs, videos, and games taken from different learning sources like you tube, google, etc. then, the students themselves need more practices, not only during class hours but also at home. nowadays, they can use social media as a tool in learning english. for example, they can learn from you tube how to have a good pronunciation and be confident in speaking english. finally, this study might serve as a starting discussion for more thorough and wide scope of discussions on student demotivation in english language learning. therefore, it is necessary for other researchers to conduct further studies on similar topic in different research fields because demotivation might be experienced by the students at different types of school and levels of education. disclosure statement there is no conflict of interest reported by the authors. acknowledgments we would like to thank all participants who participated in this study. also we would like to thank irje and reviewers for accepting our article. references alizadeh, m. 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(2006b). profiling of lower achievement english learners at college in terms of demotivating factors. annual review of english language education in japan (arele), 17, 171-180. valero, l. a., fernandez, e. e., iseni, a., & clarkson, p. c. (2008). teachers‟ attitudes towards correcting students‟ written errors and mistakes. porta linguarum, 10, 21-30. biographical notes dr. dian erlina works as a lecturer at english education study program in the faculty of tarbiyah and education, state islamic university of raden fatah, palembang, indonesia. deta devitasari works as a lecturer at english education study program in the faculty of tarbiyah and education, state islamic university of raden fatah, palembang, indonesia. lenny marzulina works as a lecturer researcher and head of english education study program in the faculty of tarbiyah and education, state islamic university of raden fatah, palembang, indonesia. she obtained her undergraduate and graduate degrees in english education from sriwijaya university, indonesia. her research interests are on the area of education, language teaching, material development, and tefl. almirah meida risfina works as a teacher at the state junior high school number one at ogan komering ulu, indonesia. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 159 perceptions on the utilization of mobile technologies for learning among postgraduate students ayotunde a. falade 1 , gboyega ayodeji aladesusi 2 , and oyeronke olufunmilola ogunlade 3 abstract this study determined the perceptions of the utilization of mobile technologies for learning among postgraduate students in kwara state. the study adopted survey approach. the population for this study was made up of all the postgraduate students in kwara state. proportional sampling techniques were used to allocate a number of respondents in each school based on their estimated population using israel model. the instrument for data collection was an adapted questionnaire. descriptive and inferential statistics were used to answer the research question and test the stated hypotheses with the aid of stastistical product and service solution (spss) version 20.0 at 0.05 level of significant. the findings indicated that postgraduate students had positive perception of the utilization and ease of use of mobile technologies for learning. no significant difference exists in the postgraduate students‟ perception of the utilization of mobile technologies for learning based on gender and the field of study. the study concluded that learning can be enhanced among postgraduates‟ students if appropriate mobile technologies are deployed for learning. therefore, postgraduate students are encouraged to deploy mobile technology for learning irrespective of their gender. keywords gender, mobile technology, perception 1department of educational technology, university of ilorin, ilorin, nigeria; falade.aa@unilorin.edu.ng 2department of educational technology, university of ilorin, ilorin, nigeria; aladesusigboyega@gmail.com 3department of educational technology, university of ilorin, ilorin, nigeria; bleglom@gmail.com mailto:falade.aa@unilorin.edu.ng mailto:aladesusigboyega@gmail.com mailto:bleglom@gmail.com irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 160 introduction mobile technologies in this study include any portable, connected technology, such as basic mobile phones, smartphones, e-readers, netbooks, tablets, ipads and computers (united nations educational, scientific and cultural organization, 2013). mobile technologies related to education are mobile devices such as laptops, smartphones ipad and so on used by students to support learning activities. mobile technologies have been gaining wider acceptance in education in recent years. school and government level initiatives have rolled out these technologies in the classroom (west, 2012). potential benefits of using mobile technologies for learning include facilitating learning across contexts, facilitating contextual learning, and providing personalization in both personal and collaborative environments (cochrane & bateman, 2010). these potentials make mobile technologies seem ideal tools for learning. mobile technologies such as mobile phones have evolved rapidly to become lightweight, more powerful and small enough to fit in one‟s pocket (crompton, 2013). smartphones and tablets, in particular, will continue to evolve in capacity and functionality, tending to replace laptops. we are now living in a mobile age where people use internet-enabled mobile technologies anytime and anywhere to execute various activities. the most used mobile communication tools that help to access; use and process information quickly can be listed as follows: smart mobiles, mobile computers, tablet computers, laptop computers, netbook, ipad, ipod touch, digital audio recorders, portable mp3 player, personal digital assistant, portable gadgets and usb memory (agah & husniye, 2018). the characteristics of mobile technologies, which includes wide usage areas, time and space independence, and portability is remarkable. these features provided to the user, the idea of using mobile technologies in education. the use of mobile technologies in education has influenced the formation of mobile learning (agah & husniye, 2018). mobile learning can be seen as the application of mobile or wireless devices to learn on the move (park, 2011). studies reported that m-learning is an extension of e-learning, but that it differs because it uses mobile technologies rather than computers as a medium (keengwe & maxfield, 2015). park (2011) attributed the increasing popularity of mobile learning to innovations in application and social networking sites, including wikis, blogs, twitter, facebook, and myspace, among others. mobile learning also involves learning from different perspectives and the use of mobile devices to learn. some benefits of m-learning over other forms of learning include life-long learning, learning inadvertently, learning in the time of need, learning independent of time and location, and learning adjusted according to location and circumstances (korucu & alkan, 2011). mobile technologies play a vital role in the contemporary educational system as it provides numerous opportunities for students to learn anytime and anywhere. the use of mobile technologies for learning provides opportunities for students to collaborate in the learning process, irrespective of gender, level, ability and disability. through mobile technologies, students access the views, thought of educators, experts and researchers all over the globe and communicate directly with them (sarkar, 2012). mobile learning is emerging as a powerful medium delivering knowledge and changing students‟ expectations of learning anytime and anywhere. current university students, who mostly belong to irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 161 generation y (and can be called the next-generation), are ideal candidates for m-learning because they were born into an emerging world of technology and have grown up surrounded by smartphones, laptops, tablets, and other gadgets. in times ahead, educational institutions will be forced to meet the changing requirements of learners to stay competitive. nevertheless, before launching any m-learning initiative at the university level, students‟ perception of m-learning should be investigated (cheon et al; 2012). pollara and broussard (2011) noted that most studies on mobile learning reported positive students‟ perception of mobile technologies used in the classroom. students found mobile technologies engaging and useful (lai et al; 2012). baya‟a and daher (2009) reported that students saw mobile technologies as useful learning tools because they facilitated visualization, encouraged collaborative learning and enabled exploration of an outdoor environment. researchers have done several types of research regarding the assessment of mobile learning in higher education in different countries. alhajri (2016) indicated that students and lecturers both had positive perceptions of m-learning, and they agreed that m-learning could enhance the teaching and the learning process. however, it was found that some social and cultural issues might act as barriers to the adoption of m-learning. while students‟ perception towards mobile technologies use is positive, studies that report on how this positive perception is affecting their attitudes to learning is limited. the attitude in a general sense is seen as intensity and direction of the total of a person„s inclinations, feelings, prejudices or bias, conceived notions, ideas, fears and other convictions about any specific objects or products (kpolovie et al., 2014). some students have a favorable attitude, while others may have an unfavorable attitude towards a particular technology. the attitudes of postgraduates towards mobile technologies could influence how they use technologies for learning. students who have positive attitudes towards mobile technologies are more likely to use them for learning, while negative attitudes could constrain the use of mobile technologies (williams & iruloh, 2014). the researcher presumed variations among postgraduate students‟ perception and attitude towards the utilization of mobile technologies to include gender and field of study. gender is a socio-economic variable for analyzing roles, responsibilities, constraints, and needs of men and women in a given context. it also refers to the social and cultural constructs that each society assigns to behaviors, characteristics, and values attributed to men and women (sanda & kurfi, 2013). daramola et al.(2016) posited that gender refers to the gender identity of an individual, regardless of the person‟s biological and outward gender. gender can also be examined in males and females based on the individual's background and surrounding culture. daramola (2013) noted that females are relatively more excited than males in embarking on any project but lack the confidence to carry it to a successful end without any assistance. daramola further stressed that males interact independently and confidently with any electronic device while males depend on pairs and family members to build up confidence during their search. to boys, the most important task in research is gathering information resources and completing the project, whereas girls prefer to investigate and formulate. field of study refers to studies intended to provide general knowledge and intellectual skills in students. it refers to the discipline of students in the universities, polytechnics or colleges. (anaza, 2017). the field of study of students influences their utilization of mobile technologies. there is a variation in the level of utilization of mobile irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 162 technologies across the discipline. tunkun, nordin, and bello (2013) revealed that field of study has a significant influence on both perceived and objective knowledge in favour of ict related courses than others. this implies that for every field of study, there required level of ict competence as some field of study requires higher skills in icts as it is used in their daily life. despite the benefits of mobile technologies and variation in variables as its influences its usage in supporting students in their learning, the researcher observed that its potentials have not been fully realized among postgraduate students. soetan et al;(2017) posited that most students currently underutilize mobile technologies facilities and applications, as students purchase expensive mobile technologies just for calling, text messaging, music, video streaming and social networking as whatsapp, facebook, twitter, instagram and so on. moreover, the researcher observed that some students who have the potential to utilise mobile technologies for learning are discouraged by lack of subsidized or inadequate internet connectivity at their various learning institutions. similarly, some postgraduate students still patronize hardcopy textbooks as sources of information rather than embracing online resources using mobile technologies that are more efficient and reliable (soetan, 2017). hence, the researcher intends to explore postgraduate students‟ perceptions of the utilization of mobile technologies for learning in universities in kwara state. specifically, this study explores i) perception of postgraduate students on the utilization of mobile technologies for learning based on perceived usefulness ii) determined the perception of postgraduate students on the utilization of mobile technologies for learning based on perceived ease of use iii) investigated the perception of postgraduate students on the utilization of mobile technologies for learning based on gender; and iii) examined the perception of postgraduate students on the utilization of mobile technologies for learning based on the field of study. literature review mobile learning in higher education mobile learning refers to using mobile and handheld it devices, like personal digital assistants (pdas), mobile telephones, laptops, and tablet pc technologies, in teaching and learning. as computer and the internet become essential tools for education, technology becomes more mobile, affordable, effective and straightforward to use. this offers many opportunities to widen participation and access to ict, particularly the web (infodev, 2010). mobile technologies like phones and pdas are far more affordable than a personal computer and thus represent less costly access to the web (infodev, 2010). the introduction of the tablet pc can now access the mobile internet with much functionality than desktop computers. education (he) institutions are experiencing an influx of students‟ mobile technologies on their campuses. mobile technology is one of the newest extensions of technological innovations which will be integrated into education. with the help of those devices, students learn faster outside the classroom by having quick access to the web and straightforward retrieval of required learning resources to stay alongside recent trend and development. students need to update continuously his/her knowledge and mobile irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 163 technologies will function as tools for self-directed learning (rakesh et al., 2016). personal gratification and achievement in mobile learning technologies hang on to different personal qualities. the personal qualities required to adopt the latest technology are often divided into four categories: technical skills, learning preferences, attitude towards technology, and computer self-efficacy (shih, chen, chang, & kao, 2010). students having required technical skills can better engage themselves within the use of the latest technology than those that don‟t have those skills. different students have different learning styles and their preference for the tactic of learning some students are easier within the online environment than others (iqbal & bhatti, 2016). similarly, some users show a greater inclination towards using new technology if they need the power and confidence in accomplishing tasks using the proposed technology. the utilization of mobile technologies provides many positive outcomes for college kids, staff, and community. it improves writing skills and the gravity of students‟ research and increases student interest in learning and ownership of the training process. there are reductions in lecture presentation instruction and a rise in project-based learning activities. (lina & angelin, 2017). sundari (2015) observed that mobile technologies enable postgraduate students to exchange useful information with their classmates concerning their studies. sundari (2015) further explained that this practice could positively influence the tutorial performance of scholars. sarwar and soomro (2013) observed that smartphone users have the chance to utilize their phones to urge educational benefits within their available time, regardless of their location. they indicated that “smartphone within and without the classroom make it easier for college kids and teachers to collaborate”. sarwar and soomro (2013) further explained that students who would have omitted classes or lectures thanks to some unforeseen circumstances like leave or other health issue are ready to attend the lectures through their smartphones and continue with their work without falling behind. the opposite advantage of using mobile technologies in education includes the social and emotional presence and pedagogical change where learners are ready to learn anytime and anywhere, through mobile learning, which has emerged as an innovative learning approach (rogers & michelle, 2017). studies on students’ perception of the utilization of mobile technologies for learning perception, during this context, is that the way by which something is regarded, understood, or interpreted. postgraduate students adopt mobile technologies use in learning mainly due to their perceived benefits and importance to their studies and it‟ll help reinforce the training process. therefore, users‟ perception of the utilization of mobile technologies in research is extremely vital to its adoption. consistent with sarrab, al shibli, and badursha (2016), the key success factors concerning m-learning essentially depend upon students‟ desire and intellectual engagement in m-learning activities. thus, examining students‟ perceptions and readiness to adopt m-learning is significantly important for successfully implementing this technology in education. gikas and grant (2013) conducted a study on student perspectives on learning with mobile technologies. the participants were students irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 164 from three universities within the us. focus group interviews were wont to collect the information. the findings show that the participants have good perceptions concerning the utilization of mobile devices. the themes that emerged from the study were the advantages and challenges of using mobile devices in learning. the benefits mentioned in gikas and grant‟s (2013) study are accessing information quickly communication and content collaboration, a spread of thanks to learning and situated learning. however, teachers got to consider some challenges which may occur when incorporating mobile devices in instruction. gikas and grant (2013) found several challenges are an anti-technology instructor in other classes, device challenges and device as a distraction. meanwhile, shakeel, muhammad, and imran (2017) conducted a study on mobile usage and students‟ perception towards m-learning. therefore, the findings of this study indicated that students have a positive attitude towards m-learning. also noted that a big difference is found within the perception of scholars belonging to different degree programs towards the usage of mobile phones in an academic context. it means educators and developers got to confine mind these differences when designing any m-learning program. quite 60% surveyed indicated a positive perception towards m-learning. however, a big difference was found within the perception of scholars belonging to different disciplines towards m-learning during a study conducted at makerere university within two courses where moodle was used as a learning platform, (asiimwe & grönlund, 2015) reported that students had positive attitudes towards the utilization of mobile phones to access the university learning management systems, which enabled them to access learning materials, accomplish learning tasks, communicate and acquire better grades (mtebe & raisamo, 2014). chu, hwang, tsai, and tseng, 2010) also found that students have positive attitudes toward mobile learning. gender factors on the utilization of mobile technologies for learning sanda and kurfi (2013) stated that gender is the fact of being a male or a female, especially within social and cultural differences. bhuasiri, et al .(2011) explain that cultural dimensions like masculinity versus femininity, absence of individualistic perspective, and economic dependence play a neighborhood in creating barriers that prevent easy adaptation mobile technologies, particularly within the third world countries. a gender situation has continued to increase interest among researchers in recent years and, therefore, the difference in terms of usage and adoption of mobile technologies within the teaching and learning processes. several barriers are advanced as being liable for the varying degree of ict uptake, especially among postgraduates. (pessu & danner, 2013). palmen (2011) opined that barriers like interests, drive, experience, personality characteristics, abilities, self-efficacy, stereotypes, and socialization explains gender differences, especially against female postgraduates. contributing to the dimension of gender disparity among postgraduate students, palmen (2011) explain that the low embrace of icts by females at this level are often explained through the differences existing in how males and females gain unhindered access to technology, how they use them and their respective experiences in its use. palmen further explained that of equal importance are the females‟ attitudes, confidence, and self-efficacy. furthermore, sanda and kurfi (2013), highlights some factors that contribute irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 165 to the observed gender gap in icts. they listed factors like insufficient ict infrastructure, low level of education, ict skills, socio-cultural issues, and economic problems. to bridge this gap nevertheless, the researchers recommended an escalation in educational empowerment, economic empowerment, increase attitudinal adjustment and provision of affordable and adequate ict infrastructures. mcginty and moore (2008) opined that gender issues are at the forefront of impassioned ventilation regarding education. gender remained a possible factor influencing ict utilization as widely identified within the literature during a study on gender analysis of ict use. manda and mukangara (2007) used a sample of 100 postgraduate students using sampling to pick the sample. data were analyzed using cross-tabulation and qualitative descriptions. manda and mukangara (2007) further reported that gender is related to the utilization of ict and male postgraduates‟ students were more likely to use ict than female students were. ahmad (2015) had a contrary result because it was revealed that there‟s no significant difference between males and females based on their utilization of mobile technologies for learning. it implies that male and feminine user of ict resources has 50/50 percentage of use between them. mostafa and said (2017) conducted a study on students‟ attitudes towards the utilization of mobile technologies in e-evaluation. therefore, the findings indicated a statistically significant difference among the scholars regarding their gender where the differences were in favor of male students. however, the results revealed no statistically significant differences among the students‟ attitudes regarding their age, degree, and department. methodology research design, site, and participants the study adopted descriptive research of the survey type. it had been considered appropriate because the descriptive research method involves the systematic collection and analysis of knowledge collected from an outsized population that helps to explain the characteristics of population or event as they seem to support the phenomenon into account for this study without external manipulations by the researcher. the population for this study was made from all the postgraduate students in kwara state. the target population contains 9,319 postgraduate students within the three selected universities in kwara state. a stratified sampling technique was used to allocate various respondents in each school supported their estimated population using israel model (2012). additionally, sampling was utilized in each school to select the 384 postgraduate students from the sampled universities to participate as the respondents during this study. validity and reliability of the instruments validity explains how well the collected data covers the actual area of investigation (ghauri & gronhaug, 2005). validity means “measure what‟s intended to be measured” (field, 2005). the instrument was validated for face and content validity by the researcher‟s supervisor and three other lecturers within the department of educational technology, university of ilorin, ilorin, nigeria. following the lecturers‟ validation reports, some items of irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 166 the research instrument were corrected, adjusted and modified as directed to reinforce the validity. reliability concerns the extent to which a measurement of a phenomenon provides a stable and consistent result (carmines & zeller, 1979). reliability is additionally concerned with repeatability. for example, a scale or test is claimed to be reliable if repeat measurement made under constant conditions will give the same result (moser & kalton, 1989). a pilot study was administered from a specific university in oyo state for the reliability of the research instrument. the research instrument was reliable at 0.84 for items on perception at 0.05 level of significance, using cronbach alpha spss statistical tool. data collection and analysis the instrument for data collection was an adapted questionnaire from david (1989) titled “postgraduates‟ perception on the use of mobile technologies in kwara state (ppamt)”. the instrument was divided into three sections (a, b, and c): section a addressed the demographic data of the respondents; section b elicited information on postgraduate students‟ perceived usefulness of mobile technologies for learning, and section c examined the postgraduate students perceived simple use of mobile technologies. the questionnaire responses for section b & c were rated on a 4-point likert scale mode: strongly agree (sa); agree (a); disagree (d); and strongly disagree (sd). the researcher obtained a letter of introduction from the head of the department, educational technology, university of ilorin, to seek permission from the acceptable authority within the sampled schools to facilitate easy administration of the questionnaires. the researcher read and explained the aim of the study to the participants. the respondents got sufficient time to answer the questionnaire. after which, the researcher personally collected the answered questionnaire and reviewed the qualified and sufficiently completed questionnaire. insufficient information or a doubtful answer like showing observable patterns was removed for those particular items only. through the assistance of the statistical analyst, the researchers tabulated the data collected from the participants using microsoft excel and eventually process the data collected using spss (statistical package for social sciences). the data collected were analyzed employing descriptive and inferential statistics. according to bhat (2019), descriptive design may be a research design that aims to explain the participant or a phenomenon of the study. moreover, it aims to answer the question which focuses on the demographic information of the study. this defines respondent characteristics, data trends, and comparison of groups validating existing conditions and duplicating research. to analyze the target of the study which were determining the characteristic of the participants concerning socio demographic characteristics, perceived usefulness and perceived simple use of mobile technology among postgraduates‟ students for learning, descriptive statistics were used. moreover, the various specific statistical tools like frequency, percentage, mean, and variance were utilized to measure the quantitative variables to give an overview descriptive of the respondents in analyzing the info for socio-demographic characteristic, gender, field of study, perceived usefulness and perceived simple use of mobile technology for learning. hence for the research questions, the researcher-designed questionnaire was structured on a four-point likert scale, the selection rule was supported the mid-point of the dimensions irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 167 2.50. therefore, items with a mean of 2.50 and above were considered agreed or positive responses, while items below 2.50 were considered disagreed or negative responses. furthermore, to check the hypotheses, inferential statistics were employed. hypothesis one was tested using an independent t-test. independent t-test was wont to determine the mean of two groups that both groups are independent of one another (kim, 2015). using the independent t-test yield on answering the target of finding the difference between male and feminine postgraduate students perceived simple use of mobile technologies for learning. to check hypothesis two was also tested with analyses of variance (anova). anova was wont to determine any statistically significant differences between the means of three or more independent (unrelated) groups. hence using anova, the researcher was able to determine the difference among humanity and social social science, management, natural science, science and technology postgraduate students‟ utilization of mobile technologies for learning. ethical consideration ethical consideration was maintained through the period of data collection. the researcher ensured that respondents were not coerced to fill the questionnaire and respondents were allowed to participate voluntarily. also, utmost confidentiality and secrecy of the respondents was maintained during the administration, collation, and report of research findings. findings and discussion the perception of postgraduate students on the utilization of mobile technologies for learning based on perceived usefulness table 1 revealed the perception of the utilization of mobile technologies for learning based on perceived usefulness. based on a benchmark of 2.50 of a modified 4-point likert scale, all the items have a mean value greater than the benchmark. this implies that postgraduate students agreed to each of the items. significantly, postgraduate students believed that mobile technologies would assist them in building up successful lifelong learning habits (3.39); they stated that using mobile technologies enables them to accomplish postgraduate learning tasks more quickly (3.37); they claimed that using mobile technologies would increase their chances for better postgraduate learning achievement (3.34); they find mobile technologies useful in their postgraduate studies (3.28); and they averred that using mobile technologies would enable them to be more effective and productive in their research (3.17). cumulatively, the grand mean of 3.31>2.50 indicates that the perception of postgraduate students on the utilization of mobile technologies for learning based on perceived usefulness was positive. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 168 table 1. perception of the utilization of mobile technologies for learning based on perceived usefulness among postgraduate students the perception of postgraduate students on the utilization of mobile technologies for learning based on perceived ease of use table 2 revealed the perception of the utilization of mobile technologies for learning based on perceived ease of use. based on a benchmark of 2.50 of a modified 4-point likert scale, all the items have a mean value greater than the benchmark. it implies that postgraduate students agreed to each of the items. significantly, postgraduate students believed that the utilization of mobile technologies is flexible, effortless and user-friendly (3.61); they believed that it is easy for them to become skillful at using mobile technologies (3.56); they stated that using mobile technologies makes it easier for them to access postgraduate course materials (3.40); they averred that their interaction with mobile technologies was clear and understandable; and they find the utilization of mobile technologies easy (3.28). cumulatively, the grand mean of 3.43>2.50 indicates that the perception of postgraduate students on the utilization of mobile technologies for learning based on perceived ease of use was positive. table 2. perception of the utilization of mobile technologies for learning based on perceived ease of use among postgraduate students s/n questionnaires items mean rank order 1 using mobile technologies would enable me to be more effective and productive in my research 3.17 5th 2 using mobile technologies would assist me in building up successful lifelong learning habits 3.39 1st 3 i find mobile technologies useful in my postgraduate studies 3.28 4th 4 using mobile technologies enables me to accomplish postgraduate learning tasks more quickly 3.37 2nd 5 using mobile technologies would increase my chances for better postgraduate learning achievement 3.34 3rd grand mean 3.31 s/n questionnaires items mean rank order 1 using mobile technologies makes it easier for me to access postgraduate course materials 3.40 3rd 2 utilization of mobile technologies is flexible, effortless and user-friendly 3.61 1st 3 it is easy for me to become skillful at using mobile technologies 3.56 2nd 4 i find the utilization of mobile technologies easy 3.28 5th 5 my interaction with mobile technologies is clear and understandable 3.31 4th grand mean 3.43 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 169 hypotheses testing based on research questions 3-4, research hypothesis 1 and 2 were developed. the results related to hypotheses one and two formulated for the study in chapter one were shown in subsequent tables. all hypotheses were tested at a 0.05 level of significance. there is no significant difference between male and female postgraduate students’ perception of the utilization of mobile technologies for learning table 3. t-test analysis of gender difference in the perception of postgraduate students on the utilization of mobile technologies for learning gender n x sd df t sig. (2-tailed) remark male 175 3.44 .35 376 1.163 .246 accepted female 203 3.48 .37 from table 3, it can be deduced that there was no significant difference between male and female postgraduate students‟ perception of the utilization of mobile technologies for learning. this is reflected in the findings of the hypotheses tested df (376), t= 1.163, p>0.05. thus, the hypothesis states that “there is no significant difference between male and female postgraduate students‟ perception of the utilization of mobile technologies for learning” is accepted. there is no significant difference in the perception of postgraduate students on the utilization of mobile technologies for learning based on the field of study table 4. anova of difference in perception of postgraduate students’ utilization of mobile learning technologies for learning based on field of study sum of squares df mean square f sig. between groups .582 3 .194 1.499 .214 within groups 48.395 374 .129 total 48.977 377 table 4 revealed the anova of difference in perception of postgraduate students‟ utilization of mobile learning technologies for learning based on the field of study. the result revealed that “there was no significant difference in the perception of postgraduate students on the utilization of mobile technologies for learning based on the field of study” (f (3,377) = 1.499, p>0.05). the null hypothesis is therefore accepted. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 170 discussion this study investigated postgraduate students‟ perception and attitude towards the utilization of mobile technologies for learning in kwara state. research question one seeks to examine the perception of postgraduate students on the utilization of mobile technologies for learning based on perceived usefulness. different items were tested and from the data gathered, it was revealed that most postgraduate students have positive perception towards the utilization of mobile technologies for learning based on perceived usefulness. research question 2 determined the perception of postgraduate students on the utilization of mobile technologies for learning based on perceived ease of use. this sought to check whether postgraduates have a positive or negative perception towards the use of mobile technologies for learning. from the data analyzed, it was revealed that postgraduate students have positive perception towards the use of mobile technologies for learning base on perceived ease of use. this is seen in the grand mean score. this conforms to pollara and broussard ( 2011), whose study noted that most studies on mobile learning reported positive students‟ perception of mobile technologies use for learning. students found the use of mobile technologies engaging and useful (lai, lai, shen, tsai, & chou, 2012). the influence of male and female postgraduate students on their perception towards the utilization of mobile technologies for learning was research question 3 and hypothesis 1. from the analyzed data, it was deduced that there is no significant difference between male and female postgraduate students‟ perception of the utilization of mobile technologies for learning. it showed that male and female postgraduate students equally utilize mobile technologies for learning. this finding is in line with the study of ahmad, (2015) that revealed that there is no significant difference between male and female base on their utilization of mobile technologies for learning. it was revealed in the study that male and female users have a 50/50 percentage of use of mobile technologies. research question 4 and hypothesis 2 sought to determine the influence of the field of study and its significant difference in postgraduate students' perception towards the utilization of mobile technologies for learning. the findings in this study revealed no significant difference among postgraduate students on their perception towards the utilization of mobile technologies for learning based on the field of study. this finding does not conform to the findings of shakeel, muhammad, and imran (2017), where it was revealed that there is a significant difference in the perception of students towards the utilization of mobile technologies for learning base on the area of specialization. conclusion this study examined postgraduate students‟ perception and attitude towards utilising mobile technologies for learning in kwara state. the findings revealed that postgraduate students show a positive perception of the utilization of mobile technologies for learning. the findings also established no significant difference between male and female postgraduate students‟ perception of the utilization of mobile technologies for learning. this irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 171 serves as eye-opener that there is no gender bias in the utilization of mobile technologies for learning. finally, the field of study did not influence the utilization of mobile technologies among postgraduate students for their learning in kwara state. the study, therefore, recommended that postgraduate students should be encouraged to deployed mobile technology for research irrespective of their gender since there is no significant difference between male and females‟ postgraduates‟ students in their perception of the use of mobile technology for research, and university authority should ensure adequate power supply and internet facility to postgraduates students for easy access and utilization of mobile technologies for learning irrespective of the field of study. disclosure statement the authors declare no conflict of interest in the design of the study; in the collection, analysis, or interpretation of data, in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the 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(2013). the state of green computing knowledge among students in a malaysian public university. journal of asian scientific research, 3(8), 831-842. united nations educational, scientific and cultural organization. (2013). the future of mobile learning implications for policy makers and planner.journal of cultural science, 6(4),6-14. west, m. (2012). turning on mobile learning: global themes. paris: scientific and cultural organization: united nations educational. williams, e., & iruloh, b. (2014). the attitude of hiv /aids patients toward antiviral drugs in bonny local government area, rivers state. a journal of the department of educational psychology, guidance, and counselling, faculty of education, university of port harcourt, 5(3), 71-79. biographical notes falade, ayotunde. a (phd) is a lecturer 1 in the department of educational technology of the university of ilorin. aladesusi, gboyega ayodeji is a lecturer in the institute of education, university of ilorin nigeria and a doctoral student in the department of educational technology, university of ilorin. ogunlade, oyeronke olufunmilola is a professor in the department of educational technology of the university of ilorin, nigeria irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 55 perceptions and actions of educational policy makers regarding parental engagement in education wahyuddin 1 abstract this study aimed to examine perceptions and actions of educational policy makers regarding parental engagement in children’s education within a district in west sulawesi province, indonesia. the study employed a qualitative study using a phenomenological approach. data were collected from five participants through a semi-structured interview, involving the head of the district, the education department head, a sub-district head, a village head, and a school principal. the collected data were analyzed by applying moustakas’s (1994) analytical methods consisting of three steps namely bracketing, creating clusters of meaning, and textural description. the results showed that the policy makers within the district had an appropriate perception about the increment of parental involvement in education, not only for students but also for schools, parents, and local governments. however, positive perceptions of educational policy makers within the district were not consistent with their actions, proved by no particular policy intending for parental involvement. keywords actions, parental engagement, perceptions, policy makers 1 universitas tomakaka, mamuju, indonesia and the university of adelaide, adelaide, australia; my.wahyuddin@gmail.com irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 56 introduction student improvement is not only determined by learner-teacher interactions in classroom settings but also significantly affected by the simultaneous and collective presence of all educational actors; the government, students, principals, teachers, parents, communities, and educational stakeholders. however, some people including educational policy makers consider parents as the least important actors who have less stake in education because they do not formally perform educational tasks in schools. moreover, a negative belief of administrators which tends to feel that parents are not capable of making school decisions because of their lack of training experience becomes a challenge of parental involvement implementation (cotton & wikelund, 1989). in fact, research has shown that parents’ contribution to school programs has a positive impact on efforts to accomplish educational goals such as improving student attendance, fostering a positive attitude towards school, pursuing academic achievement, building networks, maintaining good health, and increasing their sense of well-being. for example, a study conducted by wang and sheikh‐khalil (2014) found that parental involvement through behavioral and emotional engagement can be explored to predict students’ academic achievement and mental health. epstein and sheldon (2002) then confirmed that the implementation of specific activities for family and community involvement could enhance students’ presence in elementary schools. in some institutions, policy makers may have a positive point of view about parental engagement, which believes a vital role of parents in children’s development. however, they do not interpret this belief in a real policy so that they do not allocate enough budget and exert effort for parental programs. expectedly, policy makers are not only to have a genuine perception of the importance of parental engagement but also to implement such belief in policy documents. another factor hindering parental programs is different and contrasting decisions taken by educational policy makers in the same organizational unit. this situation can be seen in the district government structure in indonesia that consists of five kinds of functionaries ranked from the highest to the lowest position, namely, the regent or the district head, the education department head, sub-district heads, village heads, and school principals. the regent is the top leader and has the most power to create and implement policies in the entire district. yet, the success of these policies is strongly affected by how the regent subordinates execute them at the bottom levels. in addition, the district head’s programs are determined by how policy makers in the lower units make their own policies that are coherent with the ones created by those in the higher units. if they do not have coherent perceptions and actions regarding an issue, the decisions they produce can be contradicted each other. therefore, it is interesting to investigate perceptions and actions of educational policy makers within a district in indonesia concerning parental engagement in education, including the extent of the consistency of policy makers’ beliefs with their actions on the issue. the study also intended to examine the conformity of perception and action of one policy with another in employing parental involvement. irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 57 literature review parental involvement negative behaviors of learners are viewed as serious problems in learning (bobbitt & rohr, 1993; pipan, 2004; poulou & norwich, 2000) because they can prevent teachers from implementing high-quality instructions (wehby, lane, & falk, 2003). several literatures discuss that parental involvement can solve unacceptable behaviors of students (eccles & harold, 1993; matthews et al., 2011), such as the study of gonzalez-dehass, willems, and holbein (2005) saying that there is a beneficial association between parental involvement and students’ school engagement, motivation, perceived competence, perceived control, self-regulation, and mastery goal orientation. moreover, school-family partnership can solve pupils’ emotion and mentality problems, enhance students’ self-esteem and decrease the number of discipline referrals (burke & hara, 2008). this is very important because emotions can bolster or impede students’ academic engagement, commitment, and ultimate school success (durlak, weissberg, dymnicki, taylor, & schellinger, 2011). meanwhile, negative emotion such as anger, indifference, stress, anxiety, depression, and offence can lead to teachers’ negative feelings and thoughts (poulou & norwich, 2000). parental involvement also has a strong and positive influence on learners’ academic accomplishment (fan & chen, 2001; goddard, goddard, & tschannen-moran, 2007; gordon & cui, 2012; ing, 2014; jeynes, 2003; jeynes, 2007; steinberg, lamborn, dornbusch, & darling, 1992; sui-chu & willms, 1996). through behavioral and emotional engagement, it can be used to predict adolescent academic achievement and mental health (davis & lambie, 2005; wang & sheikh‐khalil, 2014). even partnership between schools and families could help youngsters succeed in their later lives (epstein, 1995). not only children, educators, schools and parents themselves also receive the positive impact of parental involvement. engaging parents will make parents view schools in positive ways so schools will obtain more parents’ support (davies, 1993), that helps teachers’ works more manageable (epstein, 1995). then, parents will also obtain a greater appreciation of their important roles, strengthened social networks, access to information and material, personal efficacy, encouragement to continue their further education (davies, 1993), and will enhance skills and leadership (berlyn, wise, & soriano, 2008; epstein, 1995). educational policy makers’ belief and behaviors perspective is equivalent to point of view which often determines what is known, thought, said, and intended (campos & gutiérrez, 2015). belief is different with knowledge. knowing something means assertion that it is incontrovertibly true, whereas believing something means stating that it is true but accepting the possibility that it may not be true (britton, 1998). in other words, knowledge can be interpreted as fact, while belief may refer to as a view of something. however, our emotional reactions and actions often do not wait for knowledge but are based on belief because we initially see beliefs as facts (britton, 1998). initiation and execution of parental programs are highly determined by belief or perspective of policy makers, who are principals in school level and executive officers in irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 58 government level. policy makers realizing the urgency of parents tend to develop a policy facilitating parent participation in education. if principals simply view children as students, they are likely to see parents separately from the schools, but if they look students as children, there is a tendency they see family as school counterparts (epstein, 1995). educational decision-makers may have positive values and beliefs towards parental involvement but their beliefs are not applied to a policy which can facilitate families to possess more roles in educational practices. according to gonzalez-mena (1994), both teachers and teacher educators believe that involving parents is important and results in a positive impact but when they are confronted by a parent seeing things differently, they may not change their actual relations. in addition, the challenge of implementation of parental programs is regarded to how policy makers in district level understand and apply existed standards. according to spillane and callahan (2000), for example, implementation failure of the standards occurs when policy makers in district level do not comprehend the spirit of the criteria. necessarily, each policy maker in education should have not only positive belief but also understanding regarding the significance of parental engagement and intention to implement parental policy. methodology general background of research this study employed a phenomenological approach to focus on individual perception. phenomenology attempts to understand the meanings from the participants’ experience, perspective or point of view (baker, wuest, & stern, 1992; brogden & knopp bilken, 2007; hancock, ockleford, & windridge, 2009; lester, 1999; selvi, 2008). this approach is not intended to give descriptions and logical inferences for situations, but it is only centered in an existent situation that is imaginative or a real-life experience (selvi, 2008). by applying this theory, policy makers within the district can reveal their primary beliefs regarding parental involvement in education and describe their actions as a response to such beliefs. perspectives could be feelings, thoughts, ideas, reactions, and responses related to the research questions. the reason why perceptions and actions are the focuses is because they are related each other. southgate and vernetti (2014) stated that people’s behaviors or actions are driven by what they think and believe. therefore, it is assumed that educational policy makers will have expected actions in creating a policy of parental involvement if they possess affirmative perspective of parental engagement. on the other hand, it is almost impossible for them to cooperate with parents if they do not believe that parents can make a positive alteration in education. participants of research this research was undertaken in a district in west sulawesi province, indonesia. the participants were chosen based on their positions as top leaders in their units within the district’s local government. these positions allowed them to initiate and develop an educational policy in the units they lead. moreover, they had authority to sign policy documents and to allocate funds for education programs. policy makers who could not irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 59 directly make decisions and did not have power on the educational sector, such as the head of other departments (e.g. health department, agriculture department, and tourism department), were excluded in this research. five people between 28 to 60 years old were purposively chosen as participants, namely the district head, the education department head, a sub-district head, a village head, and a school principal. for ethical reasons, the names of the district and the organization units were not mentioned. this number was somewhat small and determined in advance (hancock et al., 2009). participants were taken purposively because the researcher knew the informants who have lived the experience being investigated (baker et al., 1992). data collection and analysis interviews were conducted through formal conversation, categorized as a semi-structured interview in which the researcher followed predetermined questions as an interview guide, but he could ask typical or unplanned inquiries which might stray from the guide when he felt this to be appropriate. the form of in-depth semi-structured interviews is a common method of collecting information from respondents in phenomenology (reeves, albert, kuper, & hodges, 2008; ryan, coughlan, & cronin, 2007). this method allows an interviewer to probe participants to elaborate on an original response or to ask follow-up question aiming to receive clarification (hancock et al., 2009). the education department head, the district head, the subdistrict head, the school principal and the village head were interviewed in once occasion respectively from 30th january to 3th february 2017. the conversations were recorded using phone recorders at participant’s discretion with the interview durations less than 30 minutes for each person. to be more detailed, the length of interview arranged as the list of participants above were 18:17, 11:59, 16:56, 24:02, and 23:03. although the durations of interview were relatively short for some participants, all main questions in the interview guide had been asked to them and they had already explained what the researcher wanted to hear. these are some examples of the main questions in the conversation: (a) what are the current student-related problems that are of concern to you? (b) do you think parents can affect behaviors of their children (such as attendance, discipline, doing homework and participating in extracurricular activities)? (c) have you tried or done developing policy or program(s) ruling parent involvement? if yes, what is that? should such program(s) be compulsory for parents? and (d) what instruction(s) do you give to your subordinates to make parents involved in schools? the process of data analysis applied analytical methods in phenomenological research which was proposed by a phenomenologist clark moustakas (creswell, 2012; moustakas, 1994). the first step is bracketing where transcripts were entirely read over and over, so the researcher might be familiar with the transcript contents and obtain an overall sense of the data. in this step, the researcher temporarily coded with exact words used by the participants to prevent the researcher from interpretations influenced by expectations, preconceptions and early assumptions regarding the issue of parental engagement. after that, initial codes (the significant meanings of the data or data expressions) were noted to the relevant words, phrases, and sentences. the codes could be actions, feelings, concepts, beliefs, perceptions, or opinions regarding parental involvement. something could be considered relevant when it was mentioned several times, participants explicitly stated that it was important, it was associated with a theory or concept, or it was considered related to the unit of analysis. irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 60 the second step was creating clusters of meaning from the significant statements into themes (creswell, 2012). themes were consistent expressions and the essence of respondent experiences. the expressions that were unclear, duplicated, and overlapping underwent reduction and elimination. in this study, the researcher categorized four themes; problems related to students, roles of parents in children’s education, reasons why parents were not involved in education, and actions to make parents engage in their children’s education. the third step was textural description, in which themes were used to write illustrations of participant responses to the phenomenon. this action was taken after validating the themes to ensure they were compatible and explicit with participant experiences. in this stage, the researcher rewrote descriptions of the themes, supported by quotations of participant expressions in the data transcripts, and then discussed them in the discussion part. findings problems related to students participants were asked to explain the issues around students to examine if the policy makers understand current student problems and believe that parental involvement can be employed as a solution to the problems. lack of repetition was considered a serious issue by the district head (dh) as he said that children do not relearn and fathom subjects in their homes. dropout was another main problem mentioned by dh and the sub-district head (sh) due to lack of parent control to their children. meanwhile, the education department head (edh), the village head (vh) and the school principal (sp) believed that indiscipline defined as not following school instructions such as absence and truancy is an alarming subject in education system. edh claimed that the main reason for this situation was the influence of a negative social environment, whereas vh blamed the teachers as a scapegoat of student absence. differently, sp accused parents behind this situation since many students help their parents work in their farms. again, edh, vh, and sp have the same point of view that drug consumption among students has been a dangerous situation in education. the negative influence of social environment is strongly linked to this circumstance. edh added that student misbehaviors are also influenced by the technological devices accessed by the students: “the very rapid advancement of technology makes them difficult to differentiate what is right and wrong, ethical and unethical.” another educational problem which makes parents and the educational policy makers in a dilemmatic situation is child labors. sp and sh claimed that they should accept it because by working, children can help their families to fulfil financial needs. sp understood parents’ economic difficulty, so he gave students’ permission not to attend the school. the last problem identified from vh and sp answers is lack of student motivation, defined as not interesting in attending classes, staying at schools, and enjoying learning. vh argued that teachers are the key to overcome this problem. meanwhile, sp claimed that parents do not have many options to increase their children’s motivation, as he said: irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 61 “some parents want to send their children to schools. they want their kids adequately to study at schools, and they are ready to support their children. however, their children do not interest in and do not want to go to the schools. i am sad looking at those parents. … those parents said in a sad expression and crying, that i had asked my children to attend the school, but they did not want. sometimes, they go to the school today, but tomorrow they don’t.” in brief, this section indicates that all participants could identify student problems faced by schools and families in their area of authority. the problems were related to misbehavior of students such as indiscipline and lack of effort to learn. interestingly, the participants seemed well understood this issue because they were able to explain the reasons why the problems appeared. roles of parents in children’s education all policy makers have the same opinion that parents are in a vital position for child development. dh said that the first role of parents is fulfilling educational needs of their children such as books, modules, and uniform. he also thought that lack of parental involvement contributed to many dropout cases: “if children do not want to go to schools, parents have the responsibility to encourage them, so they intend to go to the schools. if children come late to the schools, parents also have the responsibility to urge them to arrive on time.” dh argued that parents are role models for their children, so they can profoundly influence actions committed by their children. similarly, edh explained this function in more detail in her comment below: “they highly affect their kids’ behaviors. if parents educate and guide their children, their children will have positive behaviors. for example, if parents control their children very well, their children will be more disciplined. they may be influenced by social environment when they leave homes, but as long as parents conduct controlling duty, the negative influence towards their children can be prevented or overcome.” in addition to behaviors, edh believed that parents could affect students’ emotion and health. she said that this function is crucial because health and emotion can affect student achievement. parents helping children’s academic achievement are also argued by sh: “parents determine student achievement. parents are assistants of their children especially for those who are not smart. they can do this in many ways, especially in supporting fees for education. the principle of the assistance is encouraging children to be better and more developed in education.” moving to vh, he argued that parents must contribute to educating their children and preventing them from the negative influence of communities by acting as motivators, such as irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 62 prompting their children to attend schools. more importantly, parents should not give all fostering tasks to teachers because teachers just have about six hours a day to interact with pupils in schools. moreover, vh thought that parents should show a strong confidence to their children that only education can make someone succeed in life. sp commented that parents have more chance to influence child behaviors or habits. this is because parents own authority over their children, so they possess rights to instruct their children to do something, and generally, children want to follow the instructions. in addition, parents also contribute to mental development of their children. however, sp admitted that this role is not optimally reached because parents do not give their children opportunity to learn how to solve their own problems and to accept their mistakes. reasons why parents are not involved in education although parents’ contributions in education were needed, the participants admitted that majority of parents were still not optimally involved in education. according to dh, economic, cultural, educational, and social reasons cause parents to disconnect from schools: “….. because of the economic conditions, parents should give children responsibility to collect money. thus, children are working and leaving schools. the second one is the cultural factor. for example, if parents never study at formal education, their children may not attend the classes as well. parents feel this situation is natural and not wrong. ……… the level of education affects their participation, but this also depends on their social environment. although they have low educational attainment, such as just passing primary school, they can be well engaged in school if they live with many educated people.” edh realized that limited education of parents could hinder their involvement, yet she considered awareness regarding the significance of education was more influencing than that. she illustrated that parents could still motivate and encourage their children to attend schools when they had awareness regarding the importance of education although they had low educational attainment and had no much knowledge about parenting. financial situation was also believed by edh as the main reason why parents do not fully involve in schools because this situation made them very busy to work in their farms. this statement was supported by sh and vh saying that education level, financial problems and lack of awareness were the reasons why parents were not participating in children’s education. it was problematic because not working much meant parents could not support their children’s needs. sp also agreed with this explanation. he said that parents were farmers that must go to farms every day so they were difficult to present at school forums. meanwhile, in vh’s expression, less engagement of parents was caused by their incorrect paradigm believing that education was not important and it could not make a meaningful change in their lives. this was quite intriguing because parents think everyone had already been in each position. they believed that they had already had the regent, governor, headmasters, teachers, and etc., so they did not need to spend children’s time at schools to be like them. again, this negative mindset was much affected by parents’ limited education. to conclude, all participants thought that parent factors were the cause why parents were not involved in education. these factors consisted of economic, cultural, educational and social irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 63 situation. meanwhile, factors other than parents such as no policy ruling parental involvement were not mentioned by the policy makers. actions to engage parents when asked about actions, dh confirmed that there was no specific action to build trust and communication. he just instructed the policy makers in lower units to exploit parent association: “i optimize the function of parent association which is called school committee. we encourage the committee to establish a productive relationship between parents and schools because effective communication and trust between parents and schools can be well established if the committee optimally runs their functions.” dh claimed that he had just launched let’s back to school movement, commanding parents who had dropout children to register them back to school. this program was compulsory for parents, and there had been 3,376 children brought back to schools. this program also provided free school uniform for new students from low-income families in primary and junior high schools. the program was regarded as an effort to promote parent-school collaboration which was monitored and evaluated every month. edh who was directly responsible to dh for educational matters initiated a program called siola, which literally means together. in this program, education, health, and economy are integrated. however, edh admitted that siola was not a program specifically aimed to engage parents in education because she thought that the specific program for parental engagement was currently not necessary: “there is no formal program in the education department which specify rules in parental engagement in education because each school has a school regulation for this purpose. besides, there has been a regulation created by the national government about involving parents in education. therefore, i don’t think a new regulation should be made because too much regulation is not okay. what i do is just execute current regulations. probably, it may be a good idea to develop a policy about this issue, but recently, we have not created any policy to involve parents in schools. in the future, we may create it.” for engaging parents, edh relied on the program movement of back to schools, which had been explained by her boss. in this movement, the government brought back 3,376 children to schools, consisting of children who were dropouts, children who did not continue their education, and children who never registered in schools at all. although edh did not have any program for parental involvement, she used to speak to school staff to pose as examples for parents and students. becoming an exemplar was the key to build trust and gain parent commitment. she said that if schools want to build positive characters of their students, they must start by showing the same traits. that’s why she asked headmasters that they must motivate parents to involve in schools: irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 64 “i only tell my expectation to principals, and it will be explained in a forum attended by headmasters and parents. in this forum, an example of instruction i give to headmasters is that they must ask students’ parents to accompany their children to schools at the first-day of school.” in the subdistrict level, a program requiring parents to involve in schools was not found. sh said that to build trust and communication between parents and schools, he just depended on instruction to village heads and believe that god will help his good intentions. for example, he asked village heads to inform parents that parents should look for solutions regarding students working at school time. similar to sh, vh also did not have a specific program to engage parents in schools. to promote collaboration, vh relied on verbal explanation in some forums by asking parents to act as educators and motivators for their children. he also posed as a mediator that facilitated and mediated the relationship between parents and schools by creating a forum for parents, schools, village government, and public figures in his village. the absence of a formal program to involve parents also happened in the school headed by sp. so far, he and teachers just depended on verbal communication with parents in schools and homes as an approach to engage parents. the optimum effort having been taken by sp to engage parents was mediating teachers and parents when a conflict occurred through a forum in the school. discussion parental involvement in solving the student problems students’ lack of repetition is the first issue thought as a serious problem by the participants. they are right about this because repetition is a basic principle in learning, in which it can improve human retention (karpicke & roediger, 2008). in addition, repetition is very vital due to our limited capacity to know and understand a subject in one trial of association (rock, 1957). in fact, limited time of teaching in schools makes teachers can just transfer lessons in one instruction, which can result in only several students receiving the contents so many pupils may not understand teachers’ explanation, or they may forget what they have learned. re-learning lessons at homes could help children recall and comprehend lessons achieved from their teachers and parents are expected to drive this activity. leichtman et al. (2017) claimed that student retention on academic lessons obtained at schools could be increased through discussion between students and their parents at homes although parents did not own specific knowledge about what their children experience at schools. another problem in this study is that students are unmotivated to be involved in schooling activities. the problem was identified when students were not interested in attending classes, disliked staying at schools, and did not enjoy learning processes. pupil motivation, in common terms, indicates willingness, needs, and desire to engage to be successful in learning processes (said & al-homoud, 2004). absolutely, pupils who do not have willingness to engage in academic and extracurricular activities cannot be blamed as they may not obtain inspiration to do so. someone will not act if he has no aspiration to do that, but he will commit it when he is energized by motivation (ryan & deci, 2000). here, parents are supposed to be an external factor that extrinsically motivates their children to commit irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 65 right things. for example, parents are expected to convince their children that formal education is very useful for their future lives, so they must attend school and enjoy learning activities, and not being active in school may affect dismal lives in the future. student misbehaviors such as nonattendance in school, indiscipline, truancy, non-involvement in teaching instruction, drug consumption, and fighting each other are other enormous problems in the district. the policy makers believe that these are the result of a negative influence of social environment. a student can behave unethically, for instance, because of unethical attitudes showed by his friends, neighbors, television and social media. parents are in the best position to tackle this situation, at least preventing their children from the negative atmosphere of communities. for example, children will not be exposed to inappropriate television programs if parents control the use of the device for their children. unfortunately, sometimes parents play the role that makes the situation worse. as an illustration, some parents always blame their children’s friends and teachers when a fighting involving their children happens, even though they do not really understand the causes. they do not care if their children are guilty or not. finally, child laboring is thought as one of the worried issues that can hinder educational programs although this situation can be accepted when it happens among disadvantaged families. the policy makers find it very dilemmatic as children need to help their parents to work in farms. furthermore, children working with their parents are not strange because this circumstance is culturally accepted in the district. on the other hand, they realized that children have right to play and learn in formal institutions as preparation for their better lives. the explanation above illustrates that parents play an important role to deal with student problems. ironically, instead of becoming solution, parents are regarded by the policy makers as part of problem causes. misbehaviors, lack of motivation, and lack of repetition can be caused by parents not being able to be the inspiration for their children. the contribution of parents to student problems clearly appears in the issue of child labors. children will not leave schools for working in farms if parents do not permit them to work. therefore, to overcome student problems, the policy makers, especially in school level, must consider parents as the main target of their policy. perceptions about why parents disengage from the educational policy makers’ perspective, some parents realize that education is an escalator from misfortune to better life. reaching an elevated level of formal education is believed to make children in the future experience a different life with their parents who currently work as farmers. farmer is a job regarded as underpaid in the district because those who work as a farmer cannot raise sufficient money to fulfil their needs. hopefully, if children graduated from a university, they can easily work as employees in the government, public or private companies, and get well salary. this ambition is good to motivate parents to send their children to schools and actively collaborate with teachers. unfortunately, economic difficulties are picked as a convincing justification for parents to disengage from education. the term ‘economic’ here is not ‘human capital’ point-of-view set out by stafford, lundstedt, and lynn jr (1984) saying that education consists of various costs, including money paid for tuition and fees, books, and irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 66 additional outlays going to schools. the policy makers are confident that such costs are not a big deal because the government has provided much assistance for parents to cater those needs. the economic factor hindering education programs mentioned by the policy makers is defined as a situation in which parents struggle to overcome their families’ difficult financial burdens, not specifically children’s educational cost. this statement is consistent with the study conducted by berry (2008) stating that low classes of society contribute less in the community compared with the social capital elites who participate in almost all kinds of activities. in one hand, parents want to allocate their time and effort to help their children. on the other hand, they must fulfil their families’ needs by working from morning to afternoon and sometimes spending nights at their farms, which are quite far from schools. the busy parents, due to working too much at farms, make school programs not going smoothly. for example, when parents are invited to come in a discussion forum, they cannot attend because they are in their farms. consequently, schools are likely left alone to handle student problems. ironically, schools seemingly have no idea how to deal with this situation because they cannot force parents to come to the schools. teachers and principals are aware of and can justify the reason why parents cannot attend the school invitation. the busy parents are also considered the root of student problems because they have insufficient time to watch and control their kids. this is pertinent to the study conducted by berry (2008) that busy working parents made them time-pressured and less engaged in a community participation. busy working results in lack of parent communication to their children, so they cannot ensure if their children attend the schools or just hang around with their friends, who they mingle with, and what they do after school time. the worse thing is that some parents ask their children to work with them in the farms. this practice is very common in the district in which children assist their fathers in preparing lands, planting, growing, harvesting, and selling agricultural products. this means that parents are not only causing uninvolved children in schooling, but also they cause child labors that make children lose their right to study at schools, either temporarily or permanently. some child workers struggle to keep attending classes despite not every day, but this is not effective because without an intensive attendance, they cannot follow all lessons conveyed by teachers. moreover, low-level education of many parents in the district is one of the obstacles in parental engagement since there is a tendency that uneducated families do not have self-awareness of how important education is. indeed, attitude, behavior, and communication set are influenced by self-awareness (duval & wicklund, 1972). if parents have consciousness towards the virtue of education and they realize their position to reach it, they will endeavor to make their children more educated, yet they cannot possess such positive mindset unless they have experienced formal education (hoover-dempsey & sandler, 1997). social-cultural is another factor that makes parents possess unawareness or negative feeling towards education. a person surrounded by people having a negative mindset can also possess the negative feeling although he has sufficient education. this is because social and cultural relationship produce motivational properties, in which the positive or negative behavior of a person was affected by whether direction outside himself is positive or negative (duval & wicklund, 1972). more sadly, if something bad is culturally and socially expected, it can be seen as a normal thing, so people do not view it as a problem. irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 67 unawareness goes hand in hand with the ability to educate children. uneducated parents usually do not have enough parental knowledge and skills. it is admitted that experiencing education in high schools or universities is not a guarantee that people automatically possess parenting ability, but at least, when people have studied in formal education, they can be easy to process feedback given through school and government programs, or learn independently from books or self-reflection regarding their role as parent teachers. this attempt might be more difficult for uneducated parents because of some challenges, such as language barrier, deviant mindset towards education, and inexperience in interactions of formal educational. perceptions about the importance of parental engagement all policy makers in the district clearly believed that involving parents in education notably affects the successfulness of educational programs. this is because parents can pose as educators, facilitators, and motivators for their children. they take over teacher roles when children are outside schools. catsambis argued that students as the ultimate outcome of education will obtain optimum advantages from parental involvement, not only for their academic culture but also for their lives after completing schooling (as cited in mo & singh, 2008). besides, the policy makers agree that student problems occur due to the lack of parent contribution in education. negative behaviors of students such as indiscipline, absence, truancy, and drug consumption emerge since parents are unsuccessful in guiding and controlling their children. if they look after their children very well, the negative influence of social surrounding can be tackled. moreover, parents are also thought as the reason why many children work and leave their studies since without permission of parents, children cannot work in farms. there are three elements of parental involvement asked to the policy makers in the present study, namely, trust, communication, and collaboration. all of them believed that the elements are very crucial and are the key to solve student problems. at the same time, they admitted that those components had not been occurred effectively. home-school collaboration may be the best solution to handle student absence and truancy and to improve student learning. moreover, collaboration should be the best option for families from social and economic disadvantages as the government and schools can strive to understand and assist their difficulties, especially for financial matters so that parents and schools can reduce the number of child labors in the district. not only that, can collaboration help parents improve their parental skills although they do not have background as educators because one of the principles of collaboration is empowerment, reached through a meaningful two-way communication on mutual respect and trust (raffaele & knoff, 1999). in the other way, the policy makers also gain a tremendous advantage from parent contribution because in an effective collaboration, parents will also endeavor to assist school and student difficulties (raffaele & knoff, 1999). thus, collaboration between parents and schools as a component of involvement are very crucial, in which it will help both sides to take many advantages relating to their roles as educators. for example, schools can assist parents to increase their parental knowledge and skills, whereas parents can help schools ensure students participation in schools. irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 68 communication is another element determining if school and home can collaborate each other. information about student problems and student progress achieved from school will help parents track academic and social activities and then take appropriate actions over their children. for example, parents can increase their control and intervention when they identify their children behave inappropriately. meanwhile, reports from parents regarding their children can also assist schools to make evaluation and design policies to enhance student competences. information from parents can be utilized by teachers to tailor teaching approach and philosophy to their pupils in classrooms. failing to establish an effective communication may result in mistake approaches taken by teachers and parents, and after all, students are the most aggrieved in this situation. trust is the key to building an effective relationship between home and school. according to moran, ghate, van der merwe, and bureau (2004), parents are likely more engaged with parental programs when they are given trust and respect. however, the principal seems to underestimate parent ability because majority of them are uneducated. he thinks that insufficient knowledge and skills possessed by parents are obstacles in educating their children even in homes. in contrast, principals and teachers expect parents trust them 100 percent. this is understandable as lasky (2000) stated that schools feel more comfortable with parents who fill a related set of expectations and share their value system. however, the principal’s perception about trust may need to be corrected because trust cannot be built just on one side, but both parents and school at the same time must respect each other. actions to engage parents it is obvious in the explanation above that the policy makers have a right perception regarding the importance of parental involvement in children’s education. they understand very well the problems of home-school relationship, and they have high expectations of realizing effective collaboration between both sides. however, it is confusing that the policy makers have not established any formal programs or policies that particularly rule parental involvement. indeed, people recognize policy makers as the only one who has the power to undertake public decisions (cornélis & brunet, 2002). logically, when someone believes something is very important, he will strive to achieve it, as albion and ertmer (2002) noted that belief can be the best indicator to predict decision-making in human lives. in fact, the policy makers only attempt to involve parents through an informal action, which is conversation with parents in discussion forums and other occasions that are not designed as parental programs. this method can be a clever idea in encouraging parents to contribute to school programs if it is well established. however, inviting parents to engage obtains a limited success if schools are not able to address parental role construction and parental sense of efficacy for assisting children progress in education (hoover-dempsey & sandler, 1997). the policy makers also mandate their subordinates or staff to inform parents that they are supposed to engage in children’s education. this action is not considered as a policy because it has no outcome indicators, strategy of development, and evaluation process. thus, the policy makers cannot depend only on communication methods. they must create a policy or program that can measure the involvement of parents. this result indicates that positive irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 69 beliefs or opinions and attitudes (george, 1969) are not adequate for policy makers to create an educational program. this saying seems to be contradictive with sakui and gaies (1999) and rifkin (2000) revealing that beliefs are a stable predictor of human behavior. the result more reflects a finding from the case study conducted by richardson, anders, tidwell, and lloyd (1991) that beliefs did not influence people’ actions. billings and hermann (1998) argued that decision-making can be taken if policy makers comprehend how and why problems happen. this step is required in a policy development. yet, the result shows that although the policy makers can explain in detail parental problems and the reasons why parents do not engage in education, the policy of parental involvement is still not created. thus, it can be said that understanding the root of problems very well is not a guarantee for policy makers to create a program to handle the problems. positive beliefs over parental involvement and deep understanding regarding parental problems are potency for the policy makers in taking appropriate decisions to develop an educational policy. however, policy cannot be created with just these potencies. said that policy makers’ actions rely on three factors—issue, context, and data. the issue defined as problems of needs or objectives had by the policy makers. yet, the context relating to the knowledge and experience may not be possessed by them so they have no decisional strategies to involve parents. the last factor is the data, which refers to information for decisional analysis. conclusion and recommendations it can be concluded that policy makers in the district from the highest to the lowest position had positive perceptions regarding the increment of parental involvement in education, not only for students but also for schools, local government, and parents. the policy makers believed that by involving parents, students could gain enormous advantages for their academic enhancement, mental and health development, the fulfilment of school needs, and reaching a higher level of education. this finding is similar to parents’ opinion in a study conducted by zarate (2007) that engaging in monitoring of their children’s lives and providing moral guidance had a positive impact on children’s classroom behaviors, which in turn allowed for higher academic learning opportunities. moreover, the policy makers believed that parents have a vital role in solving problems related to students such as misbehaviors, lack of repetition, indiscipline, absence and truancy, lack of motivation, drug consumption, and child labors. parent disengagement would make these problems unlikely to be tackled. meanwhile, involving in education would help parents improve their parenting knowledge and skills, and low-income families could receive financial assistance that was used to meet their children’s school cost. this belief was supported with a good comprehension of the policy makers about how parents must help their children to be successful in education through parental engagement. they knew that effective communication, trust, and collaboration were the key elements to the school-home relationship, and they are supposed to initiate to build this connection. however, they admitted that these elements had not been reached because of the limitedness of parent contribution as a result of financial difficulty, education barrier, and fallacious mindset of parents. irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 70 having a proper point of view regarding parental engagement and comprehending very well the problems of parents did not ensure policy makers creating a program or policy specifically organizing position of parents in education. the only effort committed by them was a conversation through visits of school staff to parents’ houses and discussion forums in which many parents were not able to attend them due to time limitation. lack of knowledge and experience might be the cause of the policy makers not to put a parental policy on the list of priority agendas. meanwhile, the head of the education department thought that the policy has not needed yet at the district level because there had been a national regulation regarding the function of parents, so school were just supposed to refer to this regulation. therefore, positive beliefs of the policy makers regarding parental engagement were not coherent with their actions. although admitting that parents were pivotal for children’s academic advancement and for solving student problems, each policy maker within the district has not created any parenting program or policy in his or her unit. consequently, effective communication and collaboration between home and schools could not be established and student problems, which were necessarily overcome through school-home relationship, still existed and even became worse. it can also be said that beliefs and actions among the educational policy makers were linear each other, but in unsatisfactory condition. all of them have similarity in terms of having not created any expected action to make parents intensively involve in education. however, positive perspective about the benefits of parental engagement is linear from one policy maker to the others. a good coordination among the policy makers can cause this coherency, in which starting at the regent; they instruct their subordinate to ask parents to contribute to education. based on the conclusions above, creating a policy that is especially intended to organize parental engagement is strongly recommended for educational policy makers in district level in indonesia. national and international standards can be taken as guidance in formulating an explicit policy in local context. to actualize this kind of policy development, the educational policy makers are required not only to have positive beliefs regarding the importance of parental engagement but also to have accurate data and problem understanding about the issue. for other scholars, they can find out the implementation and comparison of parental involvement policy in other times, places, institutions, and government levels. they can increase the number of participants to collect more data so that there is a possibility to interview more heads of sub-districts, heads of villages and principals because a district consists of several sub-districts, villages, and many schools. lastly, next research can study parents’ perspective regarding parental engagement to answer the question: what do parents believe regarding their roles and supposed actions in relation to their children’s educational growth and solution for student difficulties? disclosure statement no potential conflict of interest was reported by the author. irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 71 acknowledgments sincere thanks to indonesia endowment fund for education (lpdp), which provided the author the indonesia education 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(2007). understanding latino parental involvement in education: perceptions, expectations, and recommendations (pp. 1-20). los angeles: tomas rivera policy institute of university of southern california. biographical note wahyuddin is a current lecturer at universitas tomakaka, mamuju, west sulawesi, indonesia. he obtained master of education at the university of adelaide, south australia and bachelor of education at universitas negeri makassar in 2011, south sulawesi, indonesia. he was the chairman at student research institute of penalaran and the general secretary of association of indonesia student research organizations (ilp2mi) from 2010 to 2011. his research interests include teacher quality and learning, educational policy, informal education, parental involvement, student engagement, and higher education. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 151 the correlation between school principal leadership competence and teachers’ social behaviours burhanuddin yasin, 1 faisal mustafa, 2 abstract it has been predicted that the leadership competence of school principals indirectly influences the achievements of students because it has a positive impact on the social behaviour of their teachers. however, the correlation between those variables has not been supported by data. this research was therefore aimed at finding evidence for any correlations between the leadership competence of principals and the social behaviour of teachers under them. the samples were selected randomly, resulting in the selection of 110 efl teachers in the province of aceh, indonesia. the data for this study were collected using two questionnaires, a questionnaire about the social behaviour of teachers and a questionnaire rating the leadership competence of school principals. the data were analyzed using the spearman correlation formula at significance level of 0.05. the results showed that almost all the constructs for leadership competence of principals were correlated to all the constructs of social behaviour of teachers at low level (0-0.29, p-value < 0.05) and moderate level (0.30 – 0.49, p-value < 0.05) of correlation. it was unexpected that teachers’ punctuality and accountability was not well-correlated to leadership competence of principals (p-value > 0.05). based on the research results, it is recommended that the recruitment of school principals involve a standardized test consisting of all constructs of leadership competence. keywords correlation, efl teacher, leadership competence, school principal social behaviours 1 faculty of teacher training and education, universitas syiah kuala, banda aceh, indonesia; e-mail: burhanyasin@unsyiah.ac.id 2 faculty of teacher training and education, universitas syiah kuala, banda aceh, indonesia; e-mail: faisal.mustafa@unsyiah.ac.id mailto:burhanyasin@unsyiah.ac.id mailto:faisal.mustafa@unsyiah.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 152 introduction teacher professional identity refers to the perceived importance of a teacher as a person and as a professional, and this perception can change based on the perception of others, (karaolis & philippou, 2019). the concept of teacher professional identity has been studied comprehensively, so it has become a separate field for educational research (akkerman & meijer, 2011; beijaard et al., 2004). one of its most important constructs, the social behaviour of teachers, has been claimed as an important identifier for measuring the influence and the professional performance of teachers (jermolajeva et al., 2019) in this, our research study we proposed that the social behaviour of teachers can be influenced by external factors such as (1) training in social behaviour, (2) exposure to an environment where certain social behaviour is reinforced, and/or most importantly (3) the leadership competence of the school principal. the leadership competence of school principals is an area which has received attention by some researchers in the field of education management (antoniou & lu, 2018; aydın & pehlivan, 2010; erlangga et al., 2015; khan, 2012). based on their research, there was consensus that the managerial competence of the principal can contribute to the academic achievement of students by improving the quality of instructions from their teachers (gulcan, 2001; ismail et al., 2018). thus, a school principal should be selected based on their leadership competence, and tests have been developed to measure this competence. despite the significance of school principal leadership competence and its influence on teacher’s social behaviour, research on how the leadership competence of a school principal affects the social behaviour of their teachers is rare. research in this area has mostly focused on the impact of the leadership competence of the school principal on the motivation (arman et al., 2016), functional competence (ismail et al., 2018), performance (erlangga et al., 2015), and work life quality (rossmiller, 1992) of teachers under them. information regarding the correlation between constructs of school principal leadership competence and those of teachers’ social behaviour is very significant for education practitioners and policy makers in recruiting and training school principals. therefore, this research was aimed at finding evidence to fill gaps in previous research by answering this research question ―is there any significant correlation between the level of managerial competence of a principal and the social behaviour performance of their teachers?‖ this question was answered through a quantitative study, whose purpose is to make a generalization of the results to the context outside the current study. this article first gives a brief overview of the variables to be analysed, and the next section is concerned with the methodology used for this study. the results and discussion are provided separately to make the article readable by both readers interested in either quantitative or qualitative information. the final section concludes the results of this study, along with the implications of the results. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 153 literature review this section presents the theoretical framework for this study. it includes discussions regarding the variables involved in this research, viz: the leadership competence of principals and the social behaviour of teachers leadership competence leadership competence is ―the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics‖ possessed by a leader to motivate or instruct other people to perform work, which leads to reaching organizational goals (fowler, 2018, p. 1). in the field of educational organization, a school principal needs to perform well in four aspects of leadership, which are treated as the one construct of leadership competence, viz: (1) instructional competence, (2) professional competence, (3) motivational competence, and (4) management behaviour (goden et al., 2016). these aspects have been claimed to be associated with the school atmosphere (ross & cozzens, 2016), teachers’ motivation in working (arman et al., 2016), and teachers’ competencies (ismail et al., 2018). instructional competence, this first component of leadership competence refers to the ability to exercise power to influence learning (yang, 1996). the main purpose of instructional leadership is to influence classroom instruction delivered by teachers (gulcan, 2001). therefore, a school principal needs to be competent to help teachers develop their lesson plans, assessments and tests. according to ismail et al. (2018), instructional leadership practice can directly improve the’ self-efficacy of teachers which can result in better classroom instructional quality. instructional quality is strongly associated with the achievements of students (huth, 2015). therefore, instructional competence is a key competence which needs to be developed by a school principal to get better school performance. professional competence, this component of leadership competence is defined as the ability to supervise teachers, evaluate their performance, provide feedback and facilitate their professional development (goden et al., 2016). erlangga et al. (2015) considered that this competence was the key requirement for a school principal in terms of its effect on the performance of their teachers. accordingly, there is agreement regarding the need for professional development programs for school principals (valiente sandó et al., 2018). in addition, in order to have a high level of professional competence, a school principal usually should have had a long career as a teacher (burkhauser et al., 2012) to develop professional teaching competence. motivational competence, teachers require a school principal to have motivational competence, the ability to directly and indirectly motivate teachers to perform better in their jobs and hence to motivate students to perform better (goden et al., 2016). according to bitterová et al. (2014), school principals need to be able to create motivational strategies because teachers rate these as very significant for improving performance. a previous study by lynet et al. (2008) found that school principals in kenya provided rewards, guidance and irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 154 counselling to motivate their teachers. in addition, motivational strategies used by the school principals influenced the quality of classroom instruction delivered by their teachers (apolline, 2015). referring to the conceptual framework and motivational role of school principals provided by lynet et al. (2008) motivation competence provided by the principals creates more effective teaching by their teacher’s, which results in higher academic achievements by their students. management behaviour, there have been many studies which deal with the behaviour of school principals in managing their schools, known as management behaviour (karaköse, 2008; soucie et al., 2000). some studies have linked the principal’s management behaviour to achievements such as student test scores (agasisti et al., 2016). yulk (2013) has categorized management behaviour into four components, viz: giving-seeking information, making decisions, influencing people and building relationships. studies related to the preferred management behaviour of school principals have had conflicting results (soucie et al., 2000; stott & tin, 2000). differences in preferred management behaviour are to be expected because management behaviour is influenced by various factors including education level, gender, background, culture and age (soucie et al., 2000). however, according to yulk (2013), effective leaders use specific types of behaviour that are relevant for their leadership situation. the social behaviours of teachers the social behaviour of teachers, often known as good character, may indirectly influence academic achievements (shah, 2009b; shahmohammadi, 2014). an empirical study by jermolajeva et al. (2019) showed that the social behaviour of teachers is positively correlated with their effective professional work. ađalsteinsdóttir (2004) has stressed the importance for teachers to recognize and understand their own behaviour because it has a significant effect on the students’ educational and social development. according to lickona (1997), teachers’ social behaviour is based on seven constructs, viz: (1) politeness, (2) honesty, (3) punctuality, (4) accountability, (5) care, (6) tolerance, and (7) helpfulness. politeness, to maintain a close relationship with students, teachers should always maintain a high level of polite behaviour with all their students (rahayuningsih et al., 2020). teachers must always use polite strategies to maintain effective classroom interaction and control (mahmud, 2019). brown and levinson (1987) divided politeness strategies into positive politeness(showing that students’ actions were desirable), negative politeness(correcting students’ negative actions or words), and off –the-record politeness(producing language which needed to be interpreted) honesty, students consider that their teachers need to be honest (mehdipour & balaramulu, 2013). in fact, students rated ―honesty‖ as one of the most important behaviours expected from their teachers (shah, 2009b). in this case, honesty does not merely mean ―not telling lies‖, but nillsen (2005, p. 86) referred to honesty as ―a general state of the person.‖ however, we have not found any empirical studies which have investigated how teachers’ honesty has contributed to better academic achievements. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 155 punctuality is another most important behaviour which students considered of paramount importance (shah, 2009a). according to sahito et al. (2016), punctuality is linked to time management, and thus it requires careful planning. in addition, teacher punctuality has been predicted to influence punctuality amongst their students (butakor& boatey, 2018). there is a consensus that punctual students tend to have better academic achievements (elly, 2016; sultana & rashid, 2013; wadi, 2016). therefore, it can be concluded that the punctuality of their teacher will directly contribute to better academic achievements by their students. accountability, teachers ―can be held accountable for the performance of their students,‖ as can schools (de fraine et al., 2002). however, the most direct accountability for the students’ progress lies with the teacher because they are perceived as the school component which contributes the most to learning achievements (schalock, 1998). in fact, many governments have made teachers accountable to achieve the standardized test scores required by their education programs (berryhill et al., 2009). therefore, policy is required to ensure that it is the responsibility of teachers to create a professional culture in their class rooms (garver, 2019). care, for a better teaching and learning process, teachers should create a caring environment for their students (garza et al., 2014). caring refers to ―providing the necessary scaffolding‖ (garza, 2007, pp. 81–82; garza et al., 2014, p. 2), supporting students to exhibit their best performance (gay, 2000), and listening to them attentively (alder, 2002). according to mayeroff (1971, pp. 9–20), the aspects of caring include ―knowing, alternating rhythms, patience, honesty, trust, humility, hope, and courage.‖ having a caring teacher can motivate students to put their best efforts into learning, and thus they can obtain better academic achievements (lumpkin, 2007). tolerance means accepting ―different views and beliefs, behaviours and practices‖ (baklashova et al., 2015, p. 335). teachers need to be tolerant to maintain harmony in their classrooms (lee et al., 2011). this component of social behaviour has not been well documented. in fact, how the tolerance of teachers can affect achievements has not been explicitly explored or studied. helpfulness, teachers who are available for students outside the class are perceived as helpful teachers (brown et al., 2009). students rated their best teachers to have helpful inter-personal behaviour (sztejnberg & hurek, 2004). in addition, an effective classroom requires, among other things, the helpfulness of teachers (slethaug, 2007). according to teachers, they feel more confident when they are perceived to have helpful interpersonal behaviour (brekelmans et al., 2002). however, due to lack of research in this area, we know little about how interpersonal behaviour is correlated with academic achievements. the current study some studies have been conducted to seek correlations between school principal leadership competence and teachers. arman et al. (2016) analysed correlations between school principal leadership competence and teachers’ motivation and performance. they found that the competence of the school principals positively affects both response variables. erlangga et irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 156 al. (2015), conducted a similar study and found teachers’ motivation correlated to performance, which was correlated to principal leadership competence. ismail et al. (2018), conducted a research study on the correlation between school principal leadership competence and teachers’ functional competence, and found that both variables showed strong positive correlation. among research studies which investigated correlation between school principal leadership competence, teachers’ social behaviour has been neglected. therefore, linkages between these two variables need to be investigated through a systematic quantitative study. since the leadership competence of a school principal is associated with the school environment, as proposed by ross and cozzens (2016), and a teacher is a part of the school environment it is hypothesized that the social behaviour of teachers is correlated to the leadership competence of the school principal. the information regarding this correlation is significant for stakeholders to decide which construct of leadership competence should be the focus in the school principal recruitment and pre-service or in-service training. therefore, the quality of education at school can to some extent be improved. therefore, this empirical research was done to answer the research question: is there any correlation between the leadership competence of a school principal and the social behaviour of their teachers? methodology research design, participants, and locale of the study the purpose of this study was to find the correlation between constructs of school principal leadership competence and those of teachers’ social behaviour. therefore, this research falls under a correlational study that is a study design in quantitative research. in addition, the variables to seek for correlation was based on previous assumptions proposed in previous research; therefore, this study was exploratory research. this quantitative study was based on observational data obtained from two questionnaires administered under supervision. quantitative method is appropriate when the research deal with numbers and its purpose is to make generalization of the result (roever & phakiti, 2018). this research utilized nominal data converted to number and the analysis was performed using statistics, as suggested for a quantitative study (neuman, 2014). since this study was to employ statistical analysis, which aimed to generalize the results, the sample size follows the requirement proposed for a correlational analysis, i.e. 50 (vanvoorhis & morgan, 2007). however, we have accessed to larger sample size to arrive at better conclusion for our study. 110 teachers in the province of aceh were randomly recruited to collect the data for this study. amongst those teachers, 46 teachers (41.8%) were public senior high school teachers, 8 (7.3%) were vocational senior high school teachers, 52 (47.3%) were junior high school teachers, and 4, (3.6%) were elementary school teachers. all of them were efl teachers who came from all the districts in the province of aceh, including western, eastern, and central regions. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 157 data collection, establishment of reliability, and data analysis the behaviours of teachers was assessed using a questionnaire designed based on the seven social behaviour constructs proposed in lickona (1997), which include (a) politeness, (b) honesty, (c) punctuality, (d) accountability, (e) care, (f) tolerance and (g) helpfulness. these constructs are also known as good character constructs. responses to all the questionnaire items for teachers’ behaviour used a four-rating scale, viz: from 4 = always to 1 = rarely. meanwhile, the leadership competence of the school principals was assessed based on a questionnaire recommended by goden, lumbab, niez, and coton (2016). this questionnaire was designed based on the constructs of leadership competence which include (1) instructional competence, (2) professional competence, (3) motivational competence and (4) management behaviour. the scales used for the management behaviour sub-scale used a 5-scale rating (from 5 = very competent to 1 = incompetent), and the other questions also used a 5-scale rating from 5= ―very effective‖ to 1 = ―ineffective/ not effective‖. all the questionnaire items were written in bahasa indonesia, the teachers’ l1, to ensure that they did not misunderstood any items in the questionnaire, as suggested by mackey and gass (2005). the reliability levels of the questionnaire were determined for all constructs using split-half technique, which determines the questionnaire internal consistency. the technique utilizes cronbach’s alpha formula, which uses a more sophisticated version of ―the split-half analysis as it examines the average inter-item correlation of the items in the questionnaire‖ (hinton, 2004, p. 302). the results of reliability analyses show that the questionnaire had high levels of internal consistency. the reliability levels for teachers’ social behaviour constructs range between 0.85 and 0.93. in addition, the reliability levels for the constructs of principal’s leadership competence range between 0.95 and 0.98. those levels of internal consistency are considered very high, and thus no item needs to be removed (stangor, 2011). before both of the questionnaires were administered, the teachers were gathered in a classroom and the researchers explained the purpose of the questionnaires and how to complete them, accompanied by examples. the instruction was made in the participants’ native language as suggested by mackey and gass (2005). after that, each teacher was instructed to write down five colleagues who were so close to them that they could describe their personality. because the participants were to report their colleagues’ social behaviour, it is essential that they know each of them well (moss, 2013). after that, the researchers randomly selected two of these colleagues. they were not allowed to select their colleagues because they tended to select the person with the best behaviour. finally, the teachers each completed the two questionnaires delivered online using a google questionnaire form, first about their two colleagues, who were not necessarily english teachers, and second about their school principal. the researchers were present in the classroom to supervise the participants in completing the questionnaires. it took about half an hour to complete both questionnaires. because two colleagues were selected for each teacher, the scores for each questionnaire item were the average of the two answers. each construct in the questionnaires contained more than one question; therefore, the average results were used for the final irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 158 analyses. finally, to compare whether there were any correlations between the social behaviour of the teachers and the leadership competence of the principals, the spearman correlation analyses were used. this correlation formula is a non-parametric analysis for categorical data (roever & phakiti, 2018). these analyses were performed separately for each construct in both questionnaires. correlations were decided at the 0.05 level of significance. this small significance level was used to avoid type i error, i.e. rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true (stangor, 2011). the levels of correlations for the variables which significantly correlate were categories into three levels proposed by cohen (1988), i.e. low (0.00 – 0.29), moderate (0.30 – 0.49), and high (0.50 – 1.00). this interpretation might be distorted by each data average if two colleagues randomly selected for each teacher had completely different social behaviour. ethical considerations since this research was self-funded, no external ethical approval was required. however, the informed consent was obtained from all the participants and their answers in the questionnaires were treated with confidentiality. they were not required or allowed to write their names, their colleagues’ names, or their school principal’s names in the questionnaire. findings the objective of this research was to find out correlation between constructs of school principal’s leadership competence and those of teacher’s social behaviour. for systematic description of the analysis results, this section is divided into two parts, i.e. the first part where the description of the data is presented and the second part where the results from the inferential statistical analyses are displayed. descriptive statistics in administering the questionnaire for the social behaviour of teachers, the participating teachers filled in questionnaire ratings for their two self-selected colleagues. the subjects that the selected colleagues were teaching are set out in table 1 that follows. table 1. subjects taught by colleagues selected by participating teachers subjects male female totals frequency english 3 41 44 23.0% math 4 25 29 15.2% indonesian language 4 18 22 11.5% natural science 0 15 15 7.9% social science 0 13 13 6.8% chemistry 2 8 10 5.2% biology 2 6 8 4.2% irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 159 table 1. continued…… subjects male female totals frequency religion 1 6 7 3.7% moral education 3 3 6 3.1% sports & health education 4 2 6 3.1% economics 1 4 5 2.6% arts 0 5 5 2.6% physics 1 3 4 2.1% history 3 1 4 2.1% arabic 0 3 3 1.6% general subject 0 3 3 1.6% geography 0 2 2 1.0% japanese 0 1 1 0.5% fashion 0 1 1 0.5% productive 0 1 1 0.5% counselling 0 1 1 0.5% special education 0 1 1 0.5% total 29 162 191 100.0% the table showed that teachers of english (efl) were the most numerous with 44 or 23% of the total of the selected colleagues. this was expected because it was english teachers who provided the five names of their closest colleagues, and it is common for teachers to be close to other teachers teaching the same subject at their school. in addition, 85% of the selected colleagues were females, and this is representative of the gender distribution of teachers in schools in indonesia. the ages of the selected colleagues are presented in table 2 which follows. table 2. age ranges of the selected teachers age range number of teachers frequency 25-30 28 14.7% 31-35 60 31.4% 36-40 58 30.4% 41-45 19 9.9% 46-50 16 8.4% 51-55 8 4.2% 56-60 1 0.5% >60 1 0.5% totals 191 100.0% table 2 shows that over half of the teachers selected were between 31 and 40 years of age. only 5% of them were over 50 years old. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 160 descriptive results of questionnaire constructs table 3 provides descriptive statistics of the results of the questionnaire for the social behaviour of the teachers and for the leadership competence of the principals. table 3 a for the social behaviour of teachers and table 3b for the leadership competence of principals include seven values, viz: minimum values, quartile 1, median, quartile 3, mean, maximum and standard deviation. table 3a. social behaviour of teachers no construct min q1 med q3 max mean sd 1 politeness 1.00 3.26 3.55 3.86 4.00 3.49 0.47 2 honesty 1.86 2.71 3.14 3.57 4.00 3.14 0.53 3 punctuality 2.00 3.00 3.33 3.69 4.00 3.31 0.47 4 accountability 2.06 3.00 3.38 3.75 4.00 3.35 0.44 5 care 2.06 3.00 3.38 3.70 4.00 3.34 0.45 6 tolerance 1.42 3.00 3.33 3.67 4.00 3.29 0.54 7 helpfulness 2.00 3.00 3.50 3.83 4.00 3.39 0.51 table 3b. leadership competence of principals no construct min q1 med q3 max mean sd 1 instructional competence 1.20 2.40 3. 20 3.93 4.80 3.14 0.91 2 professional competence 1.10 2.48 3.25 4.00 4.80 3.14 0.88 3 motivational competence 1.40 2.80 3.60 4.10 5.00 3.45 0.96 4 management behaviour 1.37 2.69 3.45 3.84 4.77 3.25 0.81 table 3 shows that the data only deviates about 0.5 from the mean for the social behaviour of teachers, and close to 1 for leadership competence of their principals. in addition, the means for the social behaviour were higher than those for leadership competence. correlation analyses the correlations between constructs in leadership competence of principals and the social behaviour of teachers were obtained based on the spearman correlation coefficient. the results of the correlation analyses are presented in the following correlation matrix table. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 161 table 4. correlations between leadership competence and social behaviour instructional competence professional competence motivational competence management behaviour r p-value r p-value r p-value r p-value politeness 0.4156 0.0000 0.4102 0.0000 0.3501 0.0003 0.4356 0.0000 honesty 0.3516 0.0002 0.4341 0.0000 0.3356 0.0005 0.3977 0.0000 punctuality 0.2912 0.0027 0.2914 0.0027 0.1853 0.0597 0.2840 0.0035 accountability 0.2588 0.0079 0.2390 0.0145 0.1621 0.1001 0.2072 0.0348 care 0.4271 0.0000 0.3236 0.0008 0.3067 0.0015 0.3597 0.0002 tolerance 0.3456 0.0003 0.3207 0.0009 0.3176 0.0010 0.3365 0.0005 helpfulness 0.3138 0.0012 0.2663 0.0063 0.3174 0.0010 0.3493 0.0003 table 4 shows that almost all pairs are significantly correlated at the important cut-off level of 0.05, except for the motivational competence of principals and the punctuality and accountability of teachers. however, the levels of the correlations are mostly rather weak, especially for motivational competence. the strength of correlation was categorized using the range provided by cohen (1988), i.e. low (0.00 – 0.29), moderate (0.30 – 0.49), and high (0.50 – 1.00). thus, based on table 4, the correlations ranged from low to moderate. for better visualization, the low and moderate correlations are presented in the following figures. figure 1. low correlations between leadership competences of principals and social behaviour of teachers irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 162 figure 2. moderate correlations between leadership competences of principals and social behaviour of teachers figure 1 and figure 2 above show that the linear correlation lines are uniform across all pairs for each figure, and there is a slight difference between the lines in figure 1 (low correlation) and figure 2 (moderate correlation). discussion the objective of this study was to find correlations between the constructs of leadership competencies for high school principals and the social behaviour of teachers. the correlations were obtained by analysing the results of two questionnaires using the spearman correlation formula. the results showed that the politeness, honesty, care, and tolerance of teachers were all positively correlated to all the constructs of managerial competencies of the principal at a moderate level (0.30 – 0.49). the helpfulness of teachers was only lowly correlated to the professional competence of the principals but was moderately correlated to other constructs of managerial competence. in addition, the punctuality and helpfulness of teachers were lowly correlated to all the constructs of managerial competence of their principals except for motivational competence, where there was no evidence of correlation. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 163 as much as the results were interesting, it was unexpected that punctuality and accountability were not correlated to all constructs of leadership competence, and when they were, the correlations were low. an explanation for the uncorrelated construct of punctuality has been given by levine et al. (1980) who found that punctuality is a complex behaviour, and it requires a high degree of internal force. meanwhile, the leadership competence of the principals is not an internal force, but rather, it is an external force. although an external force is influential for other constructs, it does not have much effect on punctuality, nor does it have much effect on accountability. as for accountability, according to bivins (2016) accountability is a very important element of human character due to the power that it possesses. accountable behaviour requires strong beliefs and attitude (hall et al., 2017), and it seems that the leadership competence of a principal, especially motivational competence, cannot trigger those requirements. a weak correlation was also found between professional competence and the helpfulness of teachers. the professional competence of a principal was found to be related to the performance and development of their teachers (goden et al., 2016), which are more related to competency than social behaviour. when implementing professional competence, school principals must give feedback for the performances of their teachers, which must be related to their performances in their classrooms. on the other hand, teachers are considered helpful when they are available for counselling outside their classroom settings (brown et al., 2009). the results showed that these variables were lowly correlated. on the other hand, the helpfulness of teachers was moderately correlated with the motivational competence and management behaviour of their principal because principals can motivate their teachers to be helpful and to show a model of how to be helpful. in addition, helpfulness was also moderately correlated to the instructional competence of their principal because principals can instruct teachers to participate in activities that are perceived as helpful by their students. the other four constructs for the social behaviour of teachers were moderately correlated to all the constructs for the leadership competence of principals, viz: politeness, honesty, care, and tolerance. these results suggest that, first, the better the leadership competence of a school principal, the more polite, honest, caring and tolerant the teachers will be in the given school. if this correlation signals causation, it is suggested that school principals be selected after meeting a standard in leadership competence to ensure that they can lead their staff to be better teachers. according to mahmud (2019), shah (2009b), garza et al. (2014), and lee et al. (2011), when teachers are polite, honest, caring, and tolerant students will have a better learning experience, which is a strong predictor of better academic achievement (diseth et al., 2006). the results of this study have confirmed that most of the constructs of leadership competence of principals are significantly correlated with the social behaviour of their teachers, at the 0.05 level of significance. correlation, where no other variables are controlled, does not imply causation. thus it is not wise to conclude that constructs of the social behaviour of teachers which were correlated to those of the leadership competence of principals were actually influenced by the leadership competence. however, this causal relationship can be presumed as this relationship is predicted in other literature. in this study, irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 164 experts in educational management have claimed that leadership competence can contribute to the social behaviour of teachers without statistical evidence; hence, in this case a causal relationship can be assumed. also, this study has shown that the leadership competence of school principals did not influence the punctuality of their teachers because punctuality needs strong intrinsic motivation. therefore, due to the significance of punctuality in education, a test of punctuality should be included in teacher recruitment tests. in addition, pre-service teachers should be exposed to activities which can develop punctuality during their formal training at university. in addition, accountability also needs to be holistically accessed to ensure that teachers achieve a standard level of accountable behaviour. an accountability assessment scale has been developed by hochwarter et al. (2007), which can be adapted for schools although it was initially intended for use to assess political accountability. the objective of a quantitative study is to generalize the results of statistical analysis in a broader context. however, the generalizability of the results from this research must be subject to some limitations. first, some school principals who were included in these analyses had just been appointed, so it was not clear whether their leadership competence had had an adequate effect on the social behaviour of teachers under them. second, the effect of demographic data such as age, level of education and social status might play a role in these correlations. however, in this study, it was not possible to separate the data for such analyses due to the small sample size. possibly, in future, new studies can base their conclusions on larger samples. finally, no other variables were controlled in this study. although the literature supports causal relationship, there is a possibility for other confounding variables. therefore, when further experimental studies are done in future, more confident conclusions can then be drawn. conclusion and implications the objective of this research study was to find out whether the leadership competence of school principals could be correlated to the social behaviour of their teachers. the study data was obtained from questionnaires distributed to 110 teachers of english as a foreign language. two questionnaires were used in this study, viz: one about the social behaviour of teachers and the other concerning the leadership competence of their principals. in the first questionnaire the teachers rated the constructs of social behaviour for two of their colleagues, and in the second one they rated the leadership competence of their school principal. correlations were calculated for each construct of both variables using the spearman correlation formula at the 0.05 level of significance. the results showed good evidence of correlation between variables except for those between the constructs of motivational competence for the principal and punctuality and accountability for the teachers where there was low correlation. another low correlation was found between the helpfulness behaviour of teachers and the professional competence of their principal. all other variable pairs were moderately correlated. based on the study results, it is recommended that school principals should be recruited using a standardized test which includes constructs of leadership irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 165 competence because their competence will indirectly contribute to the academic and other achievements of their students. the results of this study have provided some implications in the field of educational management. first, based on these unexpected results, we can conclude that a school principal needs to take a more serious approach to ensure that teachers are punctual and accountable. dorsel (1987) has suggested that severe punishment for not being punctual and accountable, which are both external factors, might help. second, this study has shown that leadership competence is so significant for teachers that it can have a significant effect on the academic achievement of students by improving the performance of teachers in terms of their social behaviour. therefore, recruitment for school principals should be based on a standardized test consisting of all constructs of leadership competence outlined in this study. disclosure statement there is no conflict of interest reported by the authors. acknowledgments we would like to thank all participants who participated in this study. also we would like to thank irje and reviewers for accepting our article. also, the authors would like to express their gratitude to the management of the in-service teacher training program for the support provided for this research study. in addition, we greatly appreciate the time and effort of the in-service teacher trainees for completing the survey questionnaires used in this research. references ađalsteinsdóttir, k. 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(2013). leadership in organizations (8th ed.). pearson education limited. https://doi.org/10.19030/tlc.v6i1.1183 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.12.672 https://doi.org/10.1038/352273c0 https://doi.org/10.1080/02188791.2000.10600186 https://doi.org/10.5923/c.economics.201301.10 https://doi.org/10.1177/1741143217725321 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 170 biographical notes burhanuddin yasin holds a phd in education management and is a senior lecturer at the study program of english language education, faculty of teacher training and education, university of syiah kuala, banda aceh, indonesia. he is currently the head of the study program of english language education at the same university. e-mail: burhanyasin@unsyiah.ac.id faisal mustafa graduated from syiah kuala university with a bachelor’s degree in english language teaching in 2008 and earned a master’s degree in linguistics from the university of manchester in 2011. he is currently the vice chief editor of the studies in english language and education, an academic journal managed by the department of english education at the syiah kuala university, banda aceh, indonesia. e-mail: faisal.mustafa@unsyiah.ac.id mailto:burhanyasin@unsyiah.ac.id mailto:faisal.mustafa@unsyiah.ac.id this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 188 the extent of principals’ empowerment and their functions towards management of public elementary schools paula anjelica p. rivera, 1 and florante p. ibarra 2 abstract this study examined the relationship between the extent of empowerment of public elementary school principals and their functions towards school management in the district of aliaga, nueva ecija, philippines. 18 public elementary principals/school heads were involved. anchored on zimmerman‟s (2000) empowerment theory, both process and outcomes-based empowerment had been carefully assessed. this lens provided principles and framework in looking at processes such as individual action and engagement activities within a particular social context. survey questionnaire was used involving statements measured through likert scale. with a six-month period of data gathering, pearson r was utilized in the analysis. results revealed that instructional (r=.408, p <0.01) and administrative empowerments (r=.776, p <0.01) established highly significant relationships with school safety and orderliness, opportunities to learn, time on task and instructional leadership respectively. recommendations on sustainability of quality instruction in relation to school-based management are further taken into account as these might likewise impact the teaching and learning process to enhancing the identity of instructional leadership. keywords administrative output, instructional empowerment, instructional leadership, quality instruction, school management system 1 department of education and related studies, college of education, central luzon state university, philippines; paprivera@clsu.edu.ph 2 department of education and related studies, college of education, central luzon state university, philippines; fpibarra@clsu.edu.ph mailto:paprivera@clsu.edu.ph mailto:fpibarra@clsu.edu.ph irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 189 introduction empowerment of school heads to enhance school management is one of the major concerns of department of education (deped) considering its gigantic bureaucratic structure for effective and efficient delivery of educational service. this can only be achieved if proper attention is given to the people who manage the different schools in the country, whether they are in the elementary or secondary level. principal empowerment is technically defined as the authority given to the school administrators in discharging management function. it denotes that the principal may be empowered to instructional, administrative and financial aspects. the logic of principal empowerment is to give the development and implementation of appropriate reform initiative at their own level and context (hatcher, 2015). the principals‟ extent of empowerment as stipulated in decs order no. 17 s. 1997, adopting a policy of empowering school principals stating that all school principals shall henceforth be vested with instructional, administrative and fiscal autonomy for more effective and efficient delivery of quality basic education. school heads shall have the authority, responsibility and accountability in managing all affairs of the school. it simply means that the lives of the school principals are packed with challenges (symonds, 2003). in the philippines, the elementary school principals shared the administrative and supervisory responsibilities of the division superintendent and district supervisors. decentralization of power, duties and responsibilities paved the way to the empowerment of school principals. this proves to be reasonable with the basis that principals, being the brain of the school, know more in as much as needs, problems and developments of their respective schools are concern. in recent years, more attention has been given to the need to enhance school management system and strengthen the authority given to the school heads. much research has demonstrated that the quality of education depends primarily on the way schools are managed (taylor et al, 2004), more than on the abundance of available resources (wilson, 2005), and that the capacity of schools to improve teaching and learning is strongly influenced by the quality of power provided by the school heads (sun et al., 2007). at the same time, policy makers in various educational organizations used these research results to move towards more school-based management and autonomy. it is imperative to look at how school heads exercise instructional leadership since this would be contributory to the great extent of school operations. as such, empowerment plays pivotal role to school safety, orderliness, parents‟ involvement, and proper implementation of curriculum and instruction. in the locale of the study, it was believed that school heads‟ empowerment seemed either be applied very broadly or politically. majority of them encountered problems about to what extent should one acts and makes such decisions. given this rationale, this research study attempted to examine how the empowered principals are obliged to infuse systematic change in managing the school and the people in them, including the non-human resources. this would address and provide basis on the perceptions of department of education authorities in the philippines who believe that with such empowerment, principals will take a more active role in the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 190 development and implementation of appropriate reform initiatives at their own level and context. literature review the study was based primarily on empowerment theory by zimmerman (2000). empowerment theory is to explore relationships between individuals within specific social, organizational, educational, and political environments. it mainly focuses on participation and collaboration of individuals within an organizing structure to focus their efforts on an identified outcome or common goal. empowerment is the “process by which individuals and groups gain power, access to resources and control over their own lives. in exercising educational leadership capacity, they increase their competence to accomplish their highest individual and communal desires and targets (alfadli & al-mehaisen, 2019; hussein, 2011; mehdinezhad & sardarzahi, 2016). empowerment is likewise process and outcomes-based (wiley, 2010). processes, such as an individual‟s actions and activities of engagement within a particular social context, can result in an outcome of either empowerment or disempowerment. when an individual feels empowered, he/she has a greater sense of intrinsic motivation and self-confidence; alternatively a feeling of disempowerment can result in decreased levels of motivation and self-confidence. by looking through this lens, issues related to school control and management had been given prime emphasis. power structure as to who controls specific school situation and how such leadership imbalance in control that might impact individual performance at school had been critically evaluated. similar to bandura‟s (1986) notion of developing self-efficacy, empowerment theory is achieved through an experience in which the outcome results in an increase to the individual‟s self-efficacy and motivation. viewing empowerment as an enabling process has shown important results as it targets self-determination, self-efficacy, intrinsic motivation, and engagement (babelan et al., 2019) and may help transform struggling principals into striving principals in the school management. the study was based also in the implementation of republic act 9155; putting emphasis on empowerment of principals encourages local initiatives for improving the quality of basic education. in here, governance of the said basic education begins at the national level. through this, the re-shaping, re-directing and re-orienting of the department in general and of the local school in particular shall lead to a learning revolution and a new environment nurtured which eventually results to citizens provide with the skills, knowledge and values they need to become caring, self-reliant, productive and patriotic citizens. researchers suggest that principals‟ function towards school management and the performance of principals in terms of their instructional, administrative and financial task are correlated (mehdinezhad & sardarzahi, 2016; shuck &mogan, 2012; xu & cooper, 2011). to xu and cooper (2011), principal empowerment is a variable that affects the school management. and the principal empowerment should be one of the products of successful school management. challenged by the notion that principal empowerment tends to overshadow fairness through political pressures, this study hoped to define how schools had irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 191 been managed critically adherent to certain standards. anchored on empowerment theory of zimmerman (2000) and implementation of republic act 9155, this study conceptualized the relationship of socio-demographic profile of principals in terms of age, gender, civil status, monthly family income, educational attainment, designated position, length of service, school category and seminars attended and in the extent of empowerment of school principals in terms of instructional, administrative and fiscal empowerment. likewise, the relationship of empowerment of school principals and principals‟ functions towards school management had all been assessed to fill the gap in the literature of principal empowerment. these include instructional leadership, school safety and orderliness, clarification of mission and vision, high expectations for success, parents‟ involvement and community partnership, opportunity to learn and time on task. methodology research design, participants, and locale of the study two groups of respondents were used namely 18 principals or school heads. purposive sampling was used to the former and random sampling to the latter. using purposive sampling, the main sources of data were principals in the division of nueva ecija, district of aliaga, philippines. a purposive sampling is a type of non-scientific sampling design on selecting the individuals as samples according to the purposes of the researcher as his control (calmorin, 2016). principal-respondents were chosen as part of a sample due to good evidence that they represent the total population. only those with principal i-iv designations were considered since philippine republic act (ra 9155) stated that these public schools heads have been more empowered because of their qualification standards. descriptive research design was used to examine the relationship between extent of empowerment of public elementary school principals and their functions towards school management. calmorin (2016) noted that this design is used describe an existing relationship between variables and the degree to which two or more quantitative variables are related. in this study, it was used to illustrate principals‟ socio-demographic profile, their extent of empowerment as observed by school heads and teachers, and principals‟ functions towards school management. data collection and analysis survey questionnaires were personally administered by the researchers to the respondents after seeking approval from the division superintendent of nueva ecija, philippines. principal respondents were likewise provided with orientation and explanation about the purpose of the study. survey questionnaires for teacher respondents were entrusted to their respective principals. questionnaires were retrieved within 2-month administration with 98.08 percent retrieval rate. data were tabulated and analyzed using statistical package for social sciences. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 192 descriptive statistics such as mean, standard deviation, frequency count and percentage was employed in determining the socio-demographic characteristics of respondents. pearson product moment correlation coefficient was used to evaluate the relationship between the socio-demographic profile of the principals and principals‟ functions towards school management, and the relationship between the extent of empowerment and principals‟ functions towards school management. ethical considerations to cope with the ethics of investigation, mainly, we camouflaged the names of the participants and research site. also, participation in this study was totally voluntary and participants were allowed to resign anytime they wanted. all participants were given an informed consent form. findings and discussion principals’ socio-demographic profile principals‟ socio-demographic profile comprises ofage, sex, civil status, monthly family income, educational attainment, designated position, length of service, school category and seminars attended. respondents‟ age had been grouped into four distinct categories. it is shown in table 1, that principals‟ age had a mean of 53.17 and standard deviation of 6.17. their ages ranged from 48 years old to 59 years old. as shown in the table, the youngest among the principals was within the age range of 47-49 years old with 33.30 percent. it was followed by 5 principals with age bracket of 57-59 years old or 27.70 percent. four principals whose age ranged from 54-56 years old or 22.20 percent were included in the last bracket. these findings implied that the elementary school principals in the aliaga district, division of nueva ecija were generally „middle aged‟. according to gonong (2012), 47-50 age-bracket was generally characterized by some degree of emotional and intellectual maturity as collected in that work and dealings with people. moreover, lopez (2010) reinforced that at this age; the individuals must have acquired the sense of achievement and have reached their peak of productivity. in this context, principals started as classroom teachers and it took some years for them to become school heads. within such period, these principals must have developed themselves emotionally and intellectually brought about by their dealings with their colleagues, pupils, community people, and with their supervisors. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 193 table 1. the socio-demographic profile of principal respondents socio-demographic profile frequency (n=18) percentage age 4749 years old 6 33.33 50 53 years old 3 16.67 54 56 years old 4 22.20 57 59 years old 5 27.70 mean: 53.17 sd: 6.17 sex male 10 55.60 female 8 44.40 civil status single 1 5.60 married 16 88.90 widowed 1 5.60 estimated monthly income ₱49,999-below 6 33.30 ₱50,000-₱59,999 6 33.30 ₱60,000-above 6 33.30 highest educational attainment ma/ms degree 11 61.10 with doctoral units 4 22.20 doctoral degree 3 16.70 designated position principal i 12 66.70 principal ii 5 27.80 principal iii 1 5.60 length of service 2 years 1 5.60 3 years 3 16.70 4 years 4 22.20 6 years 2 11.10 7 years 1 5.60 8 years 1 5.60 9 years 5 27.80 12 years 1 5.60 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 194 table 1. continued… school category small school 7 38.90 medium school 7 38.90 large school 4 22.20 seminars/ trainings attended regional level 4 22.20 national level 14 77.80 sex determined respondents‟ physical biological structure as to male or female. majority of the principals were male (10) with 55.60 percent while female principals comprised of8 or 44.40 percent. it had been assumed that male principals dominate handling school management at aliaga district, nueva ecija. this result conformed with seed (2006),that majority of the principals at all three levels of public schooling (elementary, secondary and tertiary) are males. this finding challenged the study of alejo (2018) that full pledged elementary school heads were dominated by females. however, with the introduction of gender issues related to school management, this belief paved its way to provide equal opportunities to both sexes. civil status were classified into single, married and widowed. there were 16 or 88.90 percent (16) of principals were under married status. it was interesting to note that sole principal was beneath both single and widowed equally comprising 5.60 percent. results on civil status coincided with the findings of faraclas (2018) noting that majority of school head respondents were also married. he also stated that married principals possessed higher degree of sense of responsibility and accountability. estimated monthly income mainly into three distinct brackets. three categories of estimated monthly income defined their earnings. principals were equally divided into these categories in philippine peso (49,999-below, 50,000-59,999 and 60,000-above) of estimated monthly income with six respondents or 33.30 percent for each category. it has been noted in salary standardization law (ssl) and in the study of kintanar (2017) that principal‟s position is considered as the basis in salary adjustments wherein principal i, ii, and iii receive basic monthly salaries of p40,637.00 under salary grade 18, p45,269.00 under salary grade 19 and p51,155.00 under salary grade 20 respectively. school principal iv is compensated with salary garde 22 amounting to p65, 319.00.00 per month. educational attainment among respondents illustrated that majority of the principals graduated with master‟s degree (11 or 61.10 %) followed by those who obtained doctoral degree units (4 or 22.20%).there were only three principals (16.70%) who finished doctoral degree. abrami (2001) confirmed this finding, that graduate studies were seen as very important in the academe. school heads will not be promoted to principal unless they passed the national principal‟s test conducted by neap and an earned graduate degree would offer higher points in employment ranking which irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 195 would mean priority to be promoted regardless of age and years of teaching experience. these findings implied that the principals were educationally qualified, that is, they had at least completed a master‟s degree. as revealed in the unstructured interviews with the principals, those that had undergone and completed their master‟s degrees find it easy to manage their schools. according to marks (2004), principals tend to constantly apply the school management principles and skills learned from their graduate studies. designated position represented the three major highest ranks as school heads. majority of the principals (12 or 66.70 %) were designated as principal i followed by principal ii, having five school heads with 27.80 percent. only one school head was assigned with rank beneath principal iii with 5.60 percent. this result was also aligned with castillo (2003) that school heads designated as principal i, were said to be young in the position. castillo also stated that they are still in the process of mastering the „ins‟ and „outs‟ functions in school management. this scenario had been emphasized that majority of the school principals who have less than a decade of school management functions, were familiar to such management situations. length of service comprised two to twelve years of school head experience. data revealed that 5 school heads or 27.80 percent served the longest time as principal for nine years. it was then followed by 4 school heads with 4 years school management experience or 22.20 percent. three of them with 3 years in service or 16.70 percent while two respondents already served for 6 years or 11.10 percent. it was remarkable to note that only one respondent for each category belonged to 2, 7, 8 and 12 years in service as school head respectively. school category comprised three distinct types namely small, medium and large in population. among the type of school being managed by the principals, seven schools were both under the small school and medium school categories with 38.90 percent respectively. data likewise disclosed that only four among the school head respondents managed large schools with 22.20 percent. this implies that the public elementary schools in the district of aliaga, division of nueva ecija were not thickly populated. this was accounted to the fact that every village or barangay has an elementary school. seminars or trainings attended by respondents revolved into regional and national levels. most respondents attended seminars and trainings in national level comprising of 14 individuals or 77.80 percent. four respondents revealed of constantly attending regional level conferences with 22.20 percent. these data indicated that many school principals had already gained trainings from attendance to conferences since most of them have already rendered long years of school head experiences which offered them many opportunities to run an educational institution. the findings supported faraclas (2018) who noted that principals who were able to attend national and regional trainings depend largely on the school administrators or their educational supervisors assigned to their respective school jurisdiction. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 196 variables instructional leadership school safety and orderli ness clarification of vision and mission expecta tions of success parents involvement community partnership opportunities to learn and time on task age .002 .054 .151 .351 -.114 .541 * sex -.313 -.097 -.147 .197 .040 -.394 civil status .067 .565 * -.316 .499 * .318 .124 monthly income -.044 .005 .194 -.234 .433 .311 educ. attainment .008 .538 * -.013 -.314 .055 -.138 length of service .257 -.339 .174 -.209 .516 * .092 school category .335 -.362 -.082 -.537 * .077 -.008 seminars .258 .069 -.058 .315 -.104 -.083 position .092 -.345 .281 -.255 .695 ** .027 relationship between principals’ socio-demographic profile and their functions towards school management table 2 presents the relationship between principals‟ socio-demographic profile (age, sex, civil status, monthly income, educational attainment, length of service, school category, seminars attended, positions) and their functions towards school management (instructional leadership, school safety and orderliness, clarification of vision and mission, expectations of success, parent involvement community partnership, opportunities to learn and time on tasks). age and opportunities to learn and time on task, to determine whether the principals‟ socio-demographic profile is related to their functions towards school management, correlation using pearson r was computed. table 2 shows that age established a moderate positive relationship with opportunities to learn and time on task (r=.541, p<0.05). this means that senior or older school heads or principals tend to take the opportunities to learn as their functions in school compared to younger principals or school heads. this finding confirmed babelan et al. (2019) that in order to improve the quality of students and teachers, older school heads capacities must be sufficient and knowledgeable to meet their demands, so as principals also provide his/her development opportunities. table 2. relationship between principals’ socio-demographic profile and their functions towards school management *p < .05. **p < .01. furthermore, this result of correlation was in conformity with the findings of shuck and mogan (2012) that older principals with lesser opportunities to learn tended to perceived significantly lower than those younger principals. this can be a logical reason that from day to day, younger principals are pursuing higher degrees and educational degree improves their functions as a school principal. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 197 civil status and school safety and orderliness, correspondingly, further analysis of the data revealed that civil status of the principal established a moderate positive relationship with school safety and orderliness (r=.565, p<0.05) and expectations of success (r=.499, p<0.05). the findings revealed that civil status likewise greatly contributed to school safety as well as its success. results were in consonance with the findings of welch (2011) that married school heads tend to have higher concerns with school safety and success than single principals. being men and women, these principals carry over their roles in their respective families the same responsibilities as they take care of school to a safe and orderly environment. this however, does not discredit the concern and love shown by the unmarried principals to their subordinates. highest educational attainment and school safety and orderliness, similarly, highest educational attainment had a moderate positive correlation with school safety and orderliness (r=.538, p<0.05). this finding disclosed that educational qualification is imperative to implementing school security. results further suggest that principals with earned higher degree most likely manifest greater concerns and accountability about school safety and orderliness. a principal must be equipped with knowledge about on methods of teaching, organizations and educational psychology. the principal should have up-to-date knowledge of the theories and principles of education presented by modern educators. this result was in accordance with wiley (2010) who stated that those principals who received higher degree and had a continuous professional development system established and institutionalized in the education system, are well equipped with knowledge and skills in executing an orderly, purposeful, businesslike environment, which is free from the threat of physical harm. length of service and parents’ involvement and community partnership, likewise, length of service established moderate positive correlation with parents involvement and community partnership (r=.516, p<0.05). the results revealed that the length of service of a school principal is significant on how they influenced the parents and the community. the study of xu et al. (2011) confirmed these findings that parents recognize understand and support the principal‟s basic mission of the school because of the years in service. principal are treated as respected partners who bring important perspectives and open the untapped potential to grow in their capacity to support their children‟s education. principals’ position and parents’ involvement/community partnership, meanwhile, principals position established a highly positive relationship with parents involvement/community partnership (r=.695, p<0.01). this finding showed that being principal has been treated as the highest authority in every school that has the power to influence others. thus, the result most likely advocates that the higher the principal‟s rank, the greater it its influence to parents to participate at schools as well as the school‟s linkage to community partnership. findings coincided with gordon (2013) that higher positions tend to have the power to perceive authority to make and enforce policies designed to promote good behavior and discipline. principals plan and do whatever they have to in order to get the parents involved and strengthen the parent-child-school relationship. school category and expectations of success, on the other hand, school category established moderate negative correlation with expectations of success (r=-.537, p<0.05). the result irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 198 variables instructional leadership school safety and orderlin ess clarification of mission/ vision expectation for success parents involve ment / commun ity partner ship opportunities to learn and time on task instructional empowerment .295 * .408** -.095 .159 .079 .554* administrative empowerment .404 * .037 .066 .054 .776** -.041 fiscal empowerment .058 .240* -.025 .134 .059 .058 revealed that schools with small population could easily be handled by the principals as compared to schools with large population. this might propose that principals tend to manifest higher expectations of success in leading small group of teachers and students rather than the opposite. results conformed mehdinezhad and sardarzahi (2016)who pointed out that students and teachers based on “outcomes”, e.g., student achievement, school completion rates, less tasks, and student attendance generally recommend smaller size. studies based on “inputs” e. g., teacher salaries, instructional materials, specialized staffing etc., favour for larger schools. on the other hand, the findings contradicted haberman (2003), who concluded that size alone, is not the issue, but how it interacts with other school factors, school climate, curricular, offerings, student participation in activities, teacher-student relationships, home-school relationships and student opportunities etc. all of these have important roles to play in determining the success in handling the school. among the nine variables being run for correlations, there were six variables that established significant relationships namely age, sex, educational attainment, length of service, school category and designated position. therefore, the null hypothesis stating that there is no significant relationship between principals‟ socio-demographic profile and their functions towards school management was hereby rejected. relationship between principals’ extent of empowerment and their functions towards school management table 3 presents the relationship between principals‟ extent of empowerment and their functions towards school management. table 3. relationship between principals’ extent of empowerment and their functions towards school management *p < .05. **p < .01. instructional empowerment and school safety and orderliness, to determine whether the principals‟ extent of empowerment is related to their functions towards school management, irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 199 correlation using pearson r was computed. as depicted on the table, results showed that instructional empowerment established high correlation with school safety and orderliness (r=.408, p<0.01), followed by moderate positive correlation with opportunities to learn and time on task (r=.554, p<0.05) and weak positive correlation with instructional leadership (r=.295, p<0.05).this finding disclosed that instructional empowerment is imperative implement of school security. as stated by lezotte et al. (2002) and lezotte (2010), principals who are more committed in instructional empowerment had the tendency to enhance their success to become a healthy, safe, orderly and disciplined school environment. instructional empowerment and opportunities to learn and time on task, further, instructional empowerment established a moderate positive correlation with opportunities to learn and time on task(r=.295, p<0.05). the result revealed that principals who carried instructional empowerment in their schools easily handle the time management. principals smoothly solved the unbalance issues of increasing curricular demands with limited instructional time. similarly, the results revealed that principals provide and ensure adequate learning materials and time for effective instruction. this result of correlation was in conformity with the findings of hoy (2009) for schools to improve student outcomes principals need to dedicate higher level of authority in instructional tasks to establish preconditions and interventions directed at improving teaching and learning, and reduce time devoted to administrative, managerial and financial roles. they actually need to be leaders in learning, rather than just leaders of learning. conversely, lezotte (2010) argued that principal‟s consideration should always be given to instruction materials and the limited time for effective learning. school heads as instructional leaders ensure that the mission of the school is being fulfilled. principal monitors the quality instruction and performs supervisory powers. in the same manner, horng and loeb (2007) described that the schools require good leaders to organize the process of teaching and learning to ensure that the mission of the school is achieved. additionally, the findings implied that the principals who showed high empowerment in terms of instruction had the greater tendency to become a successful instructional leader. the result was in lined with the findings of taylor et al. (2004) stating that when school principals play a role in shaping the instruction (instructional empowerment) delivered in their schools, they are said to play instructional leadership role. such principals have been found to affect the type of instruction that teachers use in their classroom as stated in devoset et al. (2014), they bear the responsibility for developing instructional strategies to ensure the success of all children along with their staff. administrative empowerment and parent involvement/ community partnership, similarly, administrative empowerment established high positive correlation with parent involvement/ community partnership (r=.776, p<0.01). this means that principals who execute high empowerment in administrative tasks most likely to have a greater chance to influence parents to participate at schools as well as the school‟s linkage to community partnership. this context likewise coincided with alfadli and al-mehaisen(2019) who considered administrative task behaviors of school principals as essential in ensuring effective relationships with the community councils, community development associations, irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 200 parent-teacher associations (pta), parent groups and other local organizations that have interest in the schools. administrative empowerment and instructional leadership, administrative empowerment established weak positive correlation with instructional leadership (r=.404, p<0.05). the result implied that principals who carried high level of administrative empowerment tended to possess a clear direction to establish a set of common core values among the instructional staff. however, this result had been argued by henderson (2004) that instructional leadership is distinguished as key for successful school principals, it refers to all tasks of school principals that they carry out leaving impact on curriculum and instructions. in the same way, the results affirmed that fiscal empowerment established weak significant correlation with school safety and orderliness (r=.240, p<0.05). the study revealed that principals who showed high empowerment in financial matters had the greater tendency to implement school security as well as the orderliness of the school. these findings were in conformity with hussein (2012) who stated that since school principals are the chief of finance to execute the budget, they must be committed to financial tasks in order to have a safe and secure facility environment. among the six variables being run for correlations, there were four variables that established significant relationships namely instructional leadership, school safety and orderliness, parents involvement or community partnership and opportunity to learn and time on task. consequently, the null hypothesis stating that there is no significant relationship between the extent of empowerment and the principals‟ functions towards school management was hereby rejected. on the other hand, other variables that did not established significant relationships most likely due to a small sample size versus many outcome measures used for the number of respondents involved. conclusion and recommendations/implications based on the results of this study, the following conclusions were drawn. with the current trend in philippine educational system, more males than female emerged as school heads or principals. this implies that males dominated the school administration responsibilities/tasks and they are more attracted to handle school management. to aptly put, middle to old aged principals tend to be more effective in school management, communication and competence. it is imperative to consider years of experience since school heads having long productive years of handling school management most likely to be more productive that would emphasize their educational leadership expertise. principals‟ extent of empowerment played significant role in terms of instructional empowerment which centered on assigning the most qualified teachers to handling courses and planning school activities that would address the needs of poor pupils. this research offers that the best way to lift student achievement is to ensure a qualified teacher in every classroom. principals are primarily concerned in administrative empowerment to keep, maintain and beautify their school sites, more than any other administrative tasks. principals are irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 201 responsible for working condition that facilitates the success of students, realizing that teachers make the most difference in student achievement. furthermore, fiscal empowerment focuses on school budgetary planning ensuring that school achieves its goals establishes a control system and motivates employees to work hard. with the capacity to manage their respective schools, principals had greater extent of empowerment on instructional and administrative but less in fiscal matters. hence, they were found better instructional and administrative leaders than financial managers. instructional leadership defined principals‟ core functions like updating teachers‟ lesson plan, attendance, forms and student records. principals who showed high empowerment in terms of instructional had the greater tendency to become a successful instructional leader. similarly, educational qualification is imperative to implementing school security. principals with higher degree are most likely to manifest greater concerns and accountability about school safety and orderliness. in the same manner with earned credentials, the length of service as school principal most likely to affect how they influenced parents for school community involvement. lastly, principals who carried high level of administrative and fiscal empowerment had the tendency to providing schools direction to establish a set of common core values among the instructional staff. school heads being more committed to instructional empowerment most likely to enhance and probably increase their school‟s success to become a healthy, safe, orderly and disciplined school environment. thus, instructional empowerment is imperative to implementing school security. disclosure statement no potential conflict of interest or any other similar divergence associated with this research article by the authors. acknowledgments we would like to acknowledge the indonesian research journal in education for serving as a flatform to providing researchers the opportunity to internationally publish academic and scholarly works. references abrami, o., & d‟ appolonia, h. 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(2006). parents‟ educational expectations and children‟s academic achievements: a literature review. merrill-palmer quarterly, 29(1), 1-23. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 203 shuck, b., & mogan, h. a. (2012). employee engagement and leadership: exploring the convergence of two frameworks and implications for leadership development in hrd. human resource development review, 11(2), 156–181. symonds, k. w. (2003). after the test: how schools are using data to close the achievement gap. san francisco, ca: bay area school reform collaborative. welch, m. (2011). the evolution of the employee engagement concept: communication implications. corporate communications: an international journal, 16(4), 328–346. wiley, j. w. (2010).the impact of effective leadership on employee engagement. employment relations today, 37(2), 47–52. xu, j., & cooper t. h. (2011). how can leaders achieve high employee engagement? leadership & organization development journal, 32(4), 399–416. zimmerman, m. a. (1995). psychological empowerment: issues and illustrations. american journal of community psychology, 23, 581-599. biographical notes paula anjelica p. rivera is a graduate alumnae of central luzon state university, college of education, department of education and related studies. she is currently connected with the department of education in the philippines as elementary teacher at bibiclat elementary school, aliaga nueva ecija. florante p. ibarra is an accredited full-fledged professor at central luzon state university graduate school of education. he teaches courses such as advance methods of educational research, philosophy of education, and philosophy in educational management ethics. a multi-awarded music educator and music researcher, his interests focus on classroom instructions, school management system, teaching and learning musical traditions and cultural anthropology. he published various research articles in reputable international journals under social science citation indexed, emerging sources citation indexed and scopus. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 413 the construction of mathematical communication schemes based on learning styles mohammad archi maulyda 1 , muhammad erfan 2 , nourma pramestie wulandari 3 , vivi rachmatul hidayati 4 , and umar 5 abstract the purpose of this study was to describe the construction of students’ mathematical communication in solving problems based on students’ learning styles. this research method is qualitative-descriptive. the subjects in this research were three students, each of these students are theoretical, reflective, and pragmatic learning styles. the research instrument used was mathematics problems with a topic similarity. the data obtained were in the form of students’ work and short unstructured interviews. the data were analyzed based on indicators of problem-solving and mathematical communication. the results showed that students with theoretical learning styles could communicate the entire process of the problem-solving well. students with a reflective learning style could show a good problem-solving process. even so, mathematical communication is not very clear. students with a pragmatic learning style had a poor performance in solving problems. the mathematical communication is also not very good. keywords communication, nctm, mathematical ability, thinking style 1. faculty of teacher training and education, universitas mataram, mataram, indonesia, e-mail: archimaulyda@unram.ac.id 2. faculty of teacher training and education, universitas mataram, mataram, indonesia, e-mail: muhammaderfan@unram.ac.id 3. faculty of teacher training and education, universitas mataram, mataram, indonesia, e-mail: nourmapw@unram.ac.id 4. faculty of teacher training and education, universitas mataram, mataram, indonesia, e-mail: vivirachma@unram.ac.id 5. faculty of teacher training and education, universitas mataram, mataram, indonesia, e-mail: umarelmubaraq90@unram.ac.id mailto:archimaulyda@unram.ac.id mailto:muhammaderfan@unram.ac.id mailto:nourmapw@unram.ac.id mailto:vivirachma@unram.ac.id mailto:umarelmubaraq90@unram.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 414 introduction communication is an important part of daily life. based on the national council of teachers of mathematics, nctm (2000), communication skill is one of the four basic skills that a person must possess to face a global society. every individual is demanded to be able to communicate well and effectively so that the correct understanding and information are obtained among the individuals (muqtada et al., 2018). likewise in learning mathematics, each student has a way of communicating ideas in their own way. mathematical communication is one of the five standard processes in learning mathematics (nctm, 2000). whereas the program for international student assessment or pisa (oecd, 2013) makes mathematical communication one of the competencies of mathematical literacy, pisa states that the domain of mathematical literacy is the ability to analyze, reason, and communicate ideas effectively (oecd, 2013). this is also in line with the regulation of the minister of education and culture of the republic of indonesia no. 64 of 2013 which states that one of the competencies that students must have is to communicate mathematical ideas clearly and effectively. according to wilkinson, bailey, and maher (2018) college students’ communication skill is more complex and more abstract than the level below. college students have more tools and ways to communicate. also, the explanation of college students’ thinking is more detailed and logical. college students are not only required to show results and explain the strategies they use but also to analyze, compare, and distinguish the meaningfulness, efficiency, and flexibility of the strategies used (sür & delice, 2016). then secondary school students must be brave and not awkward in expressing their thoughts to others (wilson, 2019). so, there are three important things in mathematics communication for secondary school students both written and oral namely complexity, logic, and courage to express opinions. the quality of communication and students’ mathematical thinking are two things that are always related. this is supported by triana and zubainur (2019) which argue that the teacher is able to know, analyze, and evaluate mathematical thinking and strategies owned by students, when students are communicating with others. in addition, when students communicate both verbally and in writing, students make their thoughts and understandings clear to others (kosko & gao, 2017). a teacher must be able to know the thoughts of all students. this is because the teacher can use this information as a basis for determining further learning. students in a class have diverse characteristics. one way to see the characteristics of students is based on the tendency of learning styles they have. according to danişman and erginer (2017), learning style is defined as a tendency of cognitive characteristics, affective, and psychological behavior that are shown as indicators that appear relatively stable about the way students perceive, interact, and respond to their learning environment. different learning styles are interesting to observe because each learning style has its way of constructing understanding. also, students have their ways to communicate understanding. according to lehman (2011) learning style is a method of someone’s best in terms of thinking, processing information and learning. according to lehman (2011), there are at irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 415 least two important reasons that make communication in learning mathematics need to be improved among students. first, mathematics as language; mathematics is not just a tool to help think, for finding patterns, or solving problems, but mathematics is also an invaluable tool for communicating a variety of ideas, which means that it is a valuable tool to communicate ideas clearly, precisely and accurately. second, mathematics learning as a social activity. in mathematics learning, the interaction between students, as well as teacher-student communication, is an important part of “nurturing children’s mathematical potential”. however, until now, the students’ mathematical communication skills have not received attention in learning enough. literature review students’ mathematical communication mathematical communication is an event of oral or written dialogue that occurs in the classroom between teachers and students in conveying or explaining mathematical material, for example in the form of concepts, formulas, or mathematical problem-solving strategies. pourdavood, mccarthy, and mccafferty (2015) explained that mathematical communication is very important. this is because with good mathematical communication students are be able to understand the purpose of existing problems; develop strategies in solving problems; use mathematical language such as mathematical symbols in solving problems; evaluate the concepts used; do calculations correctly; convey the results of the solution well, and convey mathematical ideas they have so that they can be understood by others. according to disasmitowati and utami (2017), mathematics communication skills include (1) the use of mathematical language which is presented in spoken, written, or visual form, (2) the use of mathematical representations presented in written or visual form, and (3) interpreting mathematical ideas, using mathematical terms or notations in representing mathematical ideas, and describing mathematical relationships or models. additionally, susanto (2013) explains that the indicators of students’ mathematical communication skills in mathematics learning are (1) the ability to express mathematical ideas through oral and written, also be able to demonstrate and describe them visually and (2) he ability to understand, interpret, and evaluate mathematical ideas both orally, in writing, and in other visual forms. learning style students in a class have various characteristics. one way to see the characteristics of students is based on their learning style tendencies. according to danişman and erginer (2017), learning styles are defined as a tendency for cognitive, affective, and psychological behavioral characteristics that are shown as indicators or markers that appear relatively stable about the way students perceive, interact, and respond to their learning environment. different learning styles are interesting to observe because each learning style has its own way of constructing understanding. in addition, students also have their own way of communicating their understanding. according to lehman (2011), learning style is a person’s best method in terms of thinking, processing information, and learning. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 416 based on the explanation above, the purpose of this research is to describe the mathematical communication process that occurs based on the thinking style of each student. researchers hope that the results of this research can provide additional insight for academics and teachers in schools related to forms of mathematical communication carried out by students. in addition, the researcher also hopes that the results of the research can be used by the teacher to become a foundation in understanding the characteristics of mathematical communication given by students. methodology the research method that has been used was a general qualitative because the purpose of this research was to describe the mathematical communication constructs carried out by students when solving problems. this type of qualitative research was chosen, considering that the data collected by researchers were from students’ work (creswell, 2014). the data analysis was carried out not based on the results of right and wrong, but the process of mathematical communication that occurred, so the approach used by researchers was a descriptive approach (hake, 2007). thus, researchers can construct a mathematical communication process that occurs in students when solving problems. the research subjects were 35 students taken randomly. the whole subjects were divided into 3 categories based on their learning styles, namely, (1) theoretical learning style subjects, (2) reflective learning style subjects, and (3) pragmatic learning style subjects. the research instrument used was mathematical problems about similarity as follows: 1. work through the questions carefully and write down the problem-solving plan. 2. write each step of your answer if necessary, prove the truth of each step 3. mr. tono is the manager at rasa restaurant. he advertises the dining area with isosceles trapezoid-shaped boards. the board is mounted on a three-legged wooden frame like the picture on the side. the length of wood used for one foot is 150 cm. the distance between the feet that stepped on the ground surface is 80 cm. determine the length of the horizontal section of the board. figure 1. illustration of the question after the research subjects were given a test item, the results of the work in each category were analyzed. for each category, research subjects were selected for discussion and a mathematical communication scheme was made. to support the results of the study, researchers also conducted interviews with subjects. to simplify the process of analyzing research subjects, a st code was given for theoretical learning style subjects, sr for reflective learning style subjects, and sp for pragmatic learning style subjects. mathematical communication indicators used to analyze the results of the subject’s work were as follows (hekimoglu & sloan, 2015). irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 417 table 1. mathematical communication indicators problem-solving stages indicators sub-indicator understanding the problem organize and consolidate mathematical thinking through communication write things that are known to be a problem using words use mathematical language to present mathematical ideas appropriately use mathematical symbols when writing information about problems. make a picture or illustration according to information about the problem. devising plan organize and consolidate the mathematical thinking through communication write the problem-solving plan write the reason for problem-solving plan use mathematical language to present mathematical ideas appropriately use mathematics terms while make problem-solving plan carrying out the plan communicate mathematical thinking coherently and clear to friends or teacher write the problem-solving and reason for each step analyze and evaluate others’ mathematical ideas and strategies write the mathematical ideas for commenting others’ answer use mathematical language to present mathematical ideas appropriately use mathematical terms while writing the problem-solving and reason for each step use mathematical symbols while writing the problem-solving and reason for each step looking back communicate mathematical thinking coherently and clear to friends or teacher change the mathematical symbol to the problem situation to write a conclusion write conclusions and reasons for solving problems. this mathematical communication indicator is the result of the indicator development described by hekimoglu and sloan (2015). mathematical communication indicators in this research will be used as a basis to describe the mathematical communication process that occurs in students. the indicators in table 1 are also the integration between problem management and mathematical communication. the data analyzed is the result of the work of students who have worked on the problem understanding given. ethical consideration this study involved students in the primary school teacher education study program. the identity of the research subject is protected, including name, age, and the institution irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 418 where he belongs. research subjects were also asked to perform the research procedure as previously described. findings and discussion researchers carried out research in the elementary school teacher education study program. first, the researcher gave questions about the similarity to 35 students who were randomly drawn. based on the results of the correction, only 17 students could answer the questions correctly, while the other 18 could not solve the questions. in addition, the results of student work also provided data related to student learning styles which are divided into 3 categories of thinking styles according to honey-mumford (lehman, 2011). (1) theoretical learning style, with the following considerations: (a) students like to adopt and integrate all of his observations into his frame of mind. this causes students to see how many observations are linked to each other; (b) students add a new learning into the existing framework by questioning and assessing possible ways so that the new information may be in accordance with the framework that students previously understood; (c) students have systematic thinking. the students often feel anxious in facing a problem until students get to the root of the problem; (d) students do not like anything that is subjective or ambiguous; (e) students usually use a problem-solving approach, a logical approach, or a step-by-step approach. (2) reflective learning style with the following considerations: (a) students prefer to study behind and observe everything; (b) students like to gather as much information as possible before making a decision; (c) students always “see before he acts”; (d) students like to monitor the big picture, including previous experiences and the views of others. (3) pragmatic learning styles with the following considerations: (1) students like to find out and make something using new ideas; (2) students look for practical implications of a new idea or theory before making an assessment; (3) students will take a look at something that has proven successful. however, if this does not work, students will spend less time analyzing the failure. after the results of the entire subject are checked, the results of the subject’s work can be seen in the following figure 2. figure 2. subjects’ results irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 419 based on figure 2, there were 15 subjects with theoretical learning styles, where 8 subjects answered correctly, and 7 subjects answered incorrectly. for the subjects of reflective learning style as many as 4 subjects, where 2 subjects answered correctly and 2 subjects answered incorrectly. for pragmatic learning style subjects, there were 16, where 7 subjects answered correctly and 9 subjects answered incorrectly. the following discussion will choose 1 subject for each category randomly. so that there will be 3 research subjects that will be analyzed. subject st (theoretical learning style) understanding the problem, the subject st communicated the understanding related to the problem by making a picture that is equipped with information as shown in figure 3. st shaded the middle part of the triangle’s building and then st wrote that the picture “isosceles trapezoid board”. when the intent of the writing was confirmed, the picture made by st is an illustration of the front of the real wooden frame. p : what do you mean by the illustration you made? st : that’s a wooden stand, sir, so the signboard is shaped like a trapezium, then placed on wood shaped like isosceles triangle . there are triangles in front and some behind. figure 3.st’s problem-solving stages based on figure 3, it also appears that st wrote what is known by drawing three triangles of isosceles coinciding. st gave the known measure of the sides of a triangle. it can be seen that st mastered the concept of shape. this can be seen from the measure of the length of irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 420 the side written down accordingly. st was also able to construct trapezoidal structures formed by cutting lines in the problem. according to maulyda, rahmatih, gunawan, hidayati, and erfan (2020), making lines to form a new shape is one effective way to solve problems about shape. cristobal and lasaten (2018) also state that good visual representation ability is needed to understand pictorial problems, especially if the problem is accompanied by a contextual narrative. besides, st also gave a name (symbol) to facilitate the interpretation of the image made. from what st wrote, it was also seen that st understood what was asked. based on this, st was said to understand the problem given. devising plan, st wrote a problem-solving plan by dividing the triangle shape into 3 parts, they are 1 triangle and 2 trapezoid. then st made line aj to facilitate the preparation of plans. st wrote the problem-solving plan well, where st divided the horizontal lines de and fg into 2. conceptually, the problem-solving plan done by st was to find the length of the sides"�“and"�“. the mathematical model created by st shows that he was able to connect the concepts of similarity and the ability of his number sense. sukoriyanto, toto, subanji, and tjang (2016) state that the number sense is a person’s ability to be sensitive to mathematical numbers. after that, each of the dh and fi lengths shown in figure 3 that st wrote its plan to determine the dh and fi length using the congruence formula. according to maulyda, hidayanto, and rahardjo (2019), making lines or new information in a solution shows that the subject has a good understanding of the concept. figure 4. st’s stage of devising plan also based on figure 4, st did not write down the reasons for devising the plan. when the researchers confirmed this, st mentioned that the triangle was congruent because all the corresponding angles were equal. when the researchers asked for a reason by emphasizing irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 421 the illustration of the problem, st mentioned a reason that was not right, that is because in a triangle in which there are other triangles with their sides attached, then all measure of the angles are equal. the following quote from the interview transcript. p : well, based on the illustration about how you can be sure that the measure all angles are the same? st : yes, because sir, in the triangle there is a triangle like this (pointing to the triangle image t1 made), it must be the same angular size. the side is also stuck there. carrying out the plan, st carried out a plan that had been prepared as shown in figure 4. first, st looked for dh values, by using the concept of similarity. st compared the right triangle dha and bja. after that, st calculated the known side length using the comparison rule. with the same steps, st determined the value of fi so that st had succeeded in determining the value of dh = 16 cm and cm. figure 5. st’s carrying out the plan stage based on figure 5, it also appears that the st’s mathematical communication was good enough. st’s writing structure was easy to understand and the calculation was also correct. even so there were still shortcomings in st’s writing, which was not given the length unit. st only wrote “16” on the final result of the answer, even though the purpose of the number is 16 cm which represents the length of dh. according to gorgorió and planas (2015), this kind of mistake is often found in individuals who work on mathematics problems. this error is suspected to occur because the subject is in a hurry in solving the problem, or the lack of strength in the concept of the length shape. when researchers tried to dig deeper into st’s understanding, st stated that it should be given a unit for each step in writing the comparison. the following quotes from the interview. p : what do you mean with 16?. st : 16 is the answer, sir. the length of dh is 16. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 422 p : there is no unit? st : ah, yes. i’m in hurry solving the problem, sir. p : is it okay or there is no unit in your final answer? st : it is a must, sir. p : why? st : yeah, we should be clear, sir. 16 is the length of dh and we should write the unit too. figure 6. st’s final work in general, st had succeeded in carrying out the previous plan. st could find the length of dh and fi well. the calculations done by st were also correct. furthermore, st determined the values of a and b through a previously made mathematical model, namely and . the results of these calculations are the length of de and fg as the length of the board asked in the problem. looking back, st performed the stage of looking back because st wrote the concluding sentence of the completion of the answer. st subjects wrote their conclusions in sentence form. st wrote that the length of is 38 while is 48. when the researchers confirmed the reason, st wrote the following sentences, st’s answer : so, what is the length of horizontal section of the trapezoid board? t1 : this is, sir. the top side is 32 cm and the lower part is 48 cm (pointing out to the conclusion part) p : why? t1 : because and this shows that st changed the mathematical symbol into the problem situation when writing the conclusions and solved the given problem. subject sr (reflective learning style) understanding the problem, figure 7 shows that the sr communicated his understanding related to the problem given only by making a picture that is equipped with information. however, in the absence of writing any information that is known to cause the image created did not show in details what information is given to the problem. sr added symbol as length and symbol as length . however, in the answers given, sr did not communicate what is represented by the symbols and . also, sr wrote additional symbols that are not used in the problem-solving stage. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 423 p : what does this picture mean? sr : yes that’s my picture to do the problem sir, so it’s easier. p : what do you know from the problem? sr : yes this sir, i wrote down the lengths of the sides that are known.. p : what is asked in the problem? sr : the horizontal line a and b, sir. figure 7. sr’s understanding the problem stage based on figure 7, it is known that sr understood the problem being asked about the problem, namely “length of the board of the restaurant” even though it is not the same as what was written in the problem, which is “determine the length of the horizontal part of the board”. sr did not give a specific mark (shading) on the part of the drawing that acts as a questionable board in the problem. figure 7 also shows that sr adequately understood similar topic. sr could illustrate information in questions and added symbols and long information of each according to the location that is informed. in this case, communicating mathematical ideas can be done in various ways, namely through symbols, images, diagrams, and other media that can describe the problem situation (annizar, sisworo, & sudirman, 2018). also, good curiosity will make someone try to complete the information needed before solving the problem (oonk, verloop, & gravemeije, 2019). this was confirmed by the results of the interviews conducted. the results of interviews with sr showed that the subject understood what was known and what was asked by the questions. although sr did not write it clearly, but the picture made by sr is a media that sr used to write what is known and what is asked. in this case, sr tended to use visual communication (pictorial). devising plan, mathematical ideas can be realized by using pictures, graphs, tables, and diagrams (yuniara, 2016). based on this, sr made a problem-solving plan that begins by making 2 pairs of similar triangles. first is the triangles and the . the second is the triangles and . sr provided a description of the length of the sides of each triangle that matches the information that has been made at the stage of understanding the problem. this is done to simplify the planning stage. however, figure 8 shows that the sr did not write down the problem-solving plan clearly, so that more detailed confirmation was needed through interviews. the sr’s plans only provided information “for 2 triangles” irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 424 followed by making two pairs of triangles without giving further information regarding the planned problem-solving to be carried out. conceptually, the problem-solving plan done by sr is to find the lengths of the sides"�“and"�“by comparing the sides of a similar triangle. figure 8. sr’s stage of devising plan carrying out the plan, figure 8 shows the implementation of the plan prepared by sr. first, sr determined the value of a by using the concept of similarity. sr compared the isosceles triangles and . after that, sr calculated the known side length using the comparison principle. with the same step, sr determined the value of b. so that sr had managed to determine the value of and the value of . p : tell me how do you get this calculation? sr : i compare the triangle 1 and 2, so that i do the cross-multiplication, sir. p : why do you compare those triangles? sr : i use similarity formula. if the shape is similar then we just have to compare the sides. p : why don’t you write the reason? sr : i don’t this it’s necessary, sir. the most important this is the calculation. figure 9. sr’s stage of carrying out the plan irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 425 based on figure 9, sr is known to not write down the problem-solving in full and is not accompanied by a reason at each step of completion. however, sr could use mathematical language and the calculation process in each stage of completion is written correctly. answers to mathematical problems that are communicated in writing must be able to explain the truth of the mathematical statement at each step done (pantaleon et al., 2018). this is also supported by the results of interviews that stated that sr understood the concept of congruence that he uses to solve problems. sr also understood the reason for using the concept that the shapes of triangles 1 and 2 were made to have a similar shape, so the concept of similarity could be used to determine the unknown side. therefore, it can be concluded that sr could carry out plans. looking back, stages of looking back can be done by sr subjects. conclusions are written by the completion that has been done. the conclusion given by sr is in the form of a picture showing the location of the values and with the length unit, that is cm. sr obtained complete information about the shape of the board in the form of trapezoid egfd with and . sr changed the mathematical language into a complete sentence structure as a conclusion. the conclusion sentence has been able to answer the question on this problem correctly, that is the length of horizontal section of the board, they are and . ayuningtyas, mardiyana, and pramudya (2019) states that conclusions are formed from the integration between understanding of the question and solving the problem being carried out. if the two can be connected, then the conclusion will produce the correct answer. figure 10 below is the answer to the sr at the stage of looking back. figure 10. sr’s stage of looking back subject sp (pragmatic learning style) understanding the problem, the sp communicated the understanding related to the problem given only by making a picture that is equipped with information as shown in figure 11. sp did not write what is known by using words. sp could write down the information of the problem given in the picture and be accompanied by providing symbols. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 426 sp also did not write in detail what the symbol represented. let be the length of the and be the length of the . also, figure 10 also shows that and are not placed in the middle as a sign of and . this can happen if someone has difficulty in transforming a sentence in a problem into an appropriate representation or transforming a sentence in the problem into formal mathematical language (wang & wang, 2018). figure 11. sp’s stage of understanding the problem furthermore, figure 11 also shows that the numbers written by sp are incomplete with their proper length unit. based on these explanations and also the results of the interview it can be concluded that at this stage the sp was said to be unable to comprehend the problem given. detailed information in a task or problem with a mathematical context becomes important that applies as a reference in solving problems (kosko, 2016). complete information can help avoid mistakes when solving mathematics problems. almost in line with sr, sp did not write what is known and what is asked about the problem explicitly. however, sr made an image visualization to understand the given problem. based on figure 10 it also shows that the sp’s mathematical communication ability is still weak, because sp did not write the units at each known length. also, writing the symbols and as the name of the line to be sought, is not in the middle so that it might cause misinterpretation. devising plan, the stage of devising a plan carried out by the sp is to communicate the two points of the plan in writing. first, sp looks for and values. second, solve the problem by dividing the triangle in figure 11 into two similar triangles. however, the sp does not provide additional information regarding the plans drawn up so interviews were needed to confirm the purpose of the two points of the plan. problem-solving steps that are written systematically can help the subject in the process of solving mathematical problems (pantaleon et al., 2018). some people will find it difficult to communicate written mathematical ideas and it will be easier to express mathematical ideas verbally (triana & zubainur, 2019). figure 12 shows the devising plan stage of sp. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 427 figure 12. sp’s stage of devising plan p : what do you mean by dividing into 2 triangles? sp : if i look into this image, actually there are 2 triangles, the big and the smaller one. then, i remake the image separately. p : what kind of triangles are they? sp : isosceles triangles, sir. the interview results showed that the sp made a good plan but the way to communicate the results of thinking is not right. this can be seen from the writing of the phrase “divide into 2 triangles” without writing up how many triangles were made. this shows that sp is not good at communicating mathematical ideas. after being interviewed, it turns out that the sp understands what he wrote so that it can be concluded that at this stage, sp’s communication skills are not good. carrying out the plan, at this stage, sp carried out what was planned in the previous stage. figure 13 shows the sp looking for and values using a comparison between the sides of triangles. the triangle used in this step is derived from the half of triangle in figure 11, which is right triangle. in the stage of finding the values of and , sp drew two triangles as in figure 12 and then writes information by adjusting the triangle modifications made. for the first triangle , sp is not careful to write down the value of each of the intended line lengths and also without giving the exact unit length (i.e. suppose the value 90 is located exactly between the lengths of ). based on figure 11, the sp was incorrect in putting the point and also the point between the which should be the point so that the value 90 is the length of the . previous research also found that most students can count, but cannot explain precisely the meaning of the numbers written down (maulyda, hidayati, erfan, & umar, 2020). likewise in the second triangle ahd (ii), sp was not careful in writing the unit of length of each number that is written as information in the picture. besides, sp also did not precisely place point f and the point that lies between ad should be point c. sp did not pay close attention to the naming of points in figure 13. in general, this can occur due to sp being inaccurate in drawing each triangle ahd which is half of the triangle abd. this finding is supported by previous research which found that only a few subjects could express irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 428 mathematical ideas through images correctly (tiffany, surya, panjaitan, & syahputra 2017; yuniara, 2016). figure 13. sp’s stage of carrying out the plan furthermore, figure 13 also shows that sp is not careful in carrying out the calculation process to determine the values of and . to determine the value of x, sp did not start by providing a row that contains the initial stage of completion, i.e., and the final stage of completion is completed by obtaining the of x and y are 16 and 24 consecutively. sp did not start by writing down the appropriate initial stages, i.e., and final completion stage just ended by obtaining the value of . both of these results are incorrect, because both values are only half of the length of the and based on figure 11. this can occur because when drawing the triangle as a whole (figure 11), sp put incorrectly in the middle of and put not right in the middle of . so there is a misunderstanding because the stage of “understanding the problem” is not fully correct, then the “carrying out the plan” stage will be disturbed. according to king (2016), conceptual failure in completion is caused by misconceptions experienced by students and is mistaken for errors in making modeling. in some other cases, it was found that one could easily illustrate the answers, but there were errors in making mathematical models (deignan et al., 2019). in addition, the results of the study of sumaji et al. (2019) also shows that problems that arise in communicating the solution of mathematical problems can occur if students do not understand the characteristics of the structure that must be described looking back, sp did not do the “looking back” stage. this can be seen from the overall answers given by sp. the answer is that there is no process for changing the result of the calculation into the appropriate situation in the problem; not checking the solution again; and also not writing a conclusion at the end of the answer. the absence of a re-checking process can lead to an error in the final result of solving the problem (reuter et al., 2015). irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 429 based on the results of the interview, sp also stated that he did not re-check the results of his work. this is because the time is almost over and he is in a hurry to gather the answers. in the interview results, it was also revealed that sp was not aware of his mistake, so sp indeed did not understand the problem given. thus it can be concluded that the results of problem-solving done by sp on this problem were not correct and have not answered the questions from the given questions. conclusion and recommendations/implications in the theoretical learning style, students can understand the problem well. this is shown by its ability to write things that are known and write the name or symbol on the problem mathematically. students are also able to plan but still lack understanding of the essence of planning. students are also able to solve the problem given by the problem-solving plan. students write the conclusions of the answers according to the language of the problem. relative learning style students understand the information in the problem well. this is indicated by the use of visual communication that appears when identifying information on a problem. students do not write their completion plans well. problem-solving is done well by students’ reflective thinking. even so, the form of written communication shown is not very clear. students can write conclusions that have been adjusted to the context of the problem. in pragmatic learning style, students choose to use written communication in the form of images and symbols. the form of communication is poorly written but the plan for problem-solving is good. plans that are well organized are not well executed by students. pragmatic learning style students also do not do the stage of looking back. the written answers are no longer checked whether they are appropriate or not. disclosure statement no potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors. references annizar, a. m., sisworo, & sudirman. 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(2019). students ’ mathematical communication ability through the brain-based learning approach using autograph. journal of research and advances in mathematics education, 4(1), 1–10. wang, z., & wang, z. (2018). error analysis of 8th graders’ reasoning and proof of congruent triangles in china. in journal of mathematics education, 11(2), 85-120. wilkinson, l. c., bailey, a. l., & maher, c. a. (2018). students ’ mathematical reasoning , communication , and language representations : a video-narrative analysis. ecnu review of education, 1(3), 1–22. wilson, b. (2019). mathematical communication through written and oral expression. journal of mathematics education, 23(3), 122–134. yuniara, r. (2016). students’ mathematical communication skills in finding the concept of direct and inverse proportions through discovery learning. proceedings of the 1st eeic in conjunction with the 2nd rgrs-capeu between sultan idris education university and syiah kuala university, 375–379. biographical notes mohammad archi maulyda is a lecturer in the primary school teacher education study program, mataram university. before becoming a lecturer, he was a teacher at malang shalahuddin middle school and a book editor at the irdh research publishing institution. he currently focuses on research activities related to nctm-based mathematics irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 432 learning, mathematical thinking processes, and evaluation of learning. the author completes a master's degree in mathematics education at malang state university. nourma pramestie wulandari is a faculty member of universitas mataram. she is interested in the students’ number sense ability, the effect of cognitive style in the mathematics teaching and learning, and about ethnomathematics. before joining universitas mataram in 2019, she obtained her masters in mathematics education from universitas negeri malang in 2017 and then she served as a teacher at sma negeri 2 pangkalan bun. muhammad erfan is one of the associate lecturers at faculty of teacher training and education universitas mataram. his research interest since 2015 is mostly about learning style and higher-level cognitive thinking in the field of science education. his master degree in science education was obtained at yogyakarta state university in 2015 and served 3 years as an associate lecturer at universitas samawa sumbawa besar, west nusa tenggara. vivi rachmatul hidayati is a lecturer at the universitas mataram, precisely in the elementary school teacher education program. vivi teaches some courses such as elementary mathematics education, elementary mathematics learning, and analysis of research. aside from conducting teaching activities, vivi is active in conducting research and writing articles. the research topics written by vivi are about thinking processes, nctm, pisa problems, and evaluation of learning centered on elementary students and college students. before joining the university of mataram, vivi completed her master's degree at universitas negeri malang in 2017 which later served as a lecturer at iain ponorogo for one year. umar is a lecturer at the universitas mataram. his daily activity is teaching in elementary school mathematics education courses in the primary school teacher education study program faculty of teacher training and education. besides teaching, he also often conducts research and writes scientific articles. some research topics that have been studied such as ethnomatematics, mathematics learning models, and inclusive education. he earned a master's degree in education at the makassar state university campus in 2017. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 483 english teachers’ performance evaluation as a means for their professional developments imelda woa wene 1 and retno muljani 2 abstract the study aimed to reveal how the teacher performance evaluation methods implemented by a private catholic senior high school in malang, east java facilitated its english teachers towards their professional developments. this study employed a case study approach. the data from the participants three senior english language teachers, two students, the school principal, vice principal, the head of human resources development section and supervisor from foundation were collected through semi-structured interviews. all data were analyzed qualitatively. the results revealed that the school employed five evaluation methods, namely, evaluation by students, self-evaluation, and evaluation by peers, evaluation by superior and supervision. the methods employed by the school provided positive impacts on the english teachers‟ professional development, although the results of the evaluations did not serve as the main guideline for the school to include the teachers in development activities. the school carried out evaluation to ensure its teacher performance standard and the instruments to conduct the evaluation were always reviewed and adjusted to school culture and authentic conditions. the researchers suggest that the teachers should have their initiatives and build their agency to develop themselves professionally. keywords english teachers, professional development, teacher performance evaluation, teacher performance evaluation methods 1 faculty of teacher training and education, sanata dharma university, yogyakarta, indonesia; e-mail: imeldawene@gmail.com 2 faculty of teacher training and education, sanata dharma university, yogyakarta, indonesia; e-mail: retnomuljani@usd.ac.id mailto:imeldawene@gmail.com mailto:retnomuljani@usd.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 484 introduction teachers who are widely known as professional educators have big impacts on the success of the students. in indonesia, teachers are considered professional if they master the four basic competencies set by the government. joni as cited in jaedun (2009) states that the standards for measuring the performances of professional teachers are four teacher competencies or teacher professional standards that show the complete figure of professional teachers. this is regulated in law no. 14 of 2005 article 10 paragraph 1 concerning teachers and lecturers which states that “teacher competencies referred to in article 8 include pedagogical, personal, social, and professional competencies obtained through professional education” (indonesia. sekretariat negara, 2005). indonesian government already made a lot of efforts to develop the quality of education, one of the ways is to enhance teachers‟ competencies (jaedun, 2009) through teacher performance evaluation. it is designed for two purposes, namely, to measure teachers‟ competencies and to support their professional developments (danielson & mcgreal, 2000). the teacher performance evaluation should provide benefits as feedback to meet various needs in the classroom and can also provide opportunities for the development of schools and teachers themselves (jaedun, 2009). therefore, the teacher performace evaluation is urgent to discuss. in implementing teacher performance evaluation, schools in indonesia including private schools use the handbook for the implementation of teacher performance evaluation issued by the ministry of education and culture (kementerian pendidikan dan kebudayaan, 2012) as a reference. however, the private schools under the supervision of different foundations may use different methods to evaluate their teachers. based on the evaluation results, the teachers can find out their weaknesses and shortcomings, and whether teacher performance evaluation would have a significant impact on their professional developments. teacher professional development is about how the teachers learn and apply their knowledge to assist the student learning, and it can be done by participating in variousactivities, reflecting on their teaching at school and in observing and reflecting on their colleagues‟ teaching (postholm, 2012). a study conducted by teaching and learning international survey (talis) team (henceforth oecd, 2009), discovered that, on average, in participating countries (spain, australia, malaysia, mexico, estonia, norwey, etc), teachers in public schools have one day more professional development than their counterparts in private schools. knowing this situation, private schools need to realize that it is essential to facilitate their teachers in professional development activities and programs. thus, the teachers can also benefit from a performance evaluation conducted on them and the quality of schools can be improved if the teachers master teacher competencies in teaching. until now, research on teacher performance evaluation in private schools in indonesia is insufficient (e.g., abidin & sutrisno, 2014; hartanto & sumardjoko, 2018; zahroh, 2017). there are two research topics identified from those studies: management of teacher performance assessment (hartanto & sumardjoko, 2018) and teacher performance assessment in improving education quality (abidin & sutrisno, 2014; zahroh, 2017). none of the three studies is in accordance with the aim of this study, which is to figure out how the teacher performance evaluation methods facilitate english teachers of private catholic senior high schools towards their professional developments. thus, two research questions were formulated to guide this research. the first research question is “what are the teacher irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 485 performance evaluation methods implemented by a private catholic senior high school in malang?” the second research question is “how do the teacher performance evaluation methods facilitate the teachers‟ professional developments of the school?” it is expected that this research is beneficial for the english teachers and the school authorities and future researchers in general. literature review teacher performance evaluation refers to a formal process used by the school to review and assess the teacher‟s performance and effectiveness in class (bichi, 2017). in indonesia, teacher performance evaluation has two main functions based on the handbook for the implementation of teacher performance evaluation issued by the ministry of education and culture (kementerian pendidikan dan kebudayaan, 2012). the first function is to evaluate the performance of teachers in executing all the competencies needed in the learning process, mentoring, or carrying out additional tasks relevant to the functions of the schools/madrasahs. thus, the results of the performance evaluation become teachers‟ performance profiles that can provide an overview of the strengths and weaknesses of the teachers. the second function is to calculate the credit scores obtained by the teachers for their performance of learning, mentoring, or carrying out additional tasks relevant to the function of the school/madrasahs in the year the teachers‟ performance assessment is carried out. performance evaluation activities are carried out annually as part of the teachers‟ career development processes for promotions and functional positions. to conduct the evaluation of teacher performance, effective methods are needed. there are two experts who propose methods in evaluating teacher performance; they are looney (2011) and bichi (2017). looney proposes four methods for evaluating teacher‟s effectiveness, namely, a teacher assessment conducted by a supervisor, a teacher evaluation by peers, ranking by students, evaluations by school staff and an external person or a team. in his research, bichi proposes an integrated model for evaluating teachers in nigeria. the proposed integrated model consists of supervisor rating, peer rating, students rating and self-assessment. he believes that this integrated model can produce valid, impartial and reliable performance evaluation. the two proposed methods seem to share some similarities despite of the different terms used. regarding to the implementation of teacher performance evaluation, it is interesting to figure out how these evaluation methods can bring the teachers to the development of their professional developments. in order to develop teacher professionalism, effective professional development programs are needed. talis team (oecd, 2009) mentions the types of professional development, namely; 1) enhancing teaching through informal dialogue; 2) courses and workshops; 3) reading professional literature; 4) educational conferences and seminars; 5) professional development networks; 6) individual and collaborative research; 7) peer assistance and observation; 8) observation visits to other schools; 9) qualification programs. thus, schools need to consider which programs are suitable for their teachers. the development of teacher professionalism must be facilitated by the schools because it affects students‟ learning achievements and the institution. consequently, performance evaluation as a means of measuring teacher professionalism needs carrying out, and then following by efficient programs to develop teachers‟ professionalism. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 486 methodology research design, participants, and locale of the study this study used qualitative research with a case study approach. a case study approach allowed the researchers to describe the phenomenon and the real-life context in which it occurred (yin, 2017), which in this study was the teacher performance evaluation methods and how the methods facilitated english teachers‟ professional developments. this study was conducted in a private catholic senior high school in malang, east java, indonesia. the school was one of the top schools in malang with an "a" accreditation result. three english teachers were selected as research participants purposively since they could purposefully provide an understanding of central phenomenon in this study (creswell & poth, 2018), namely, teacher performance evaluations as part of teacher professional development. they had at least five year teaching experiences and they were selected based on the information obtained by the researchers when submitting the research permit to the school in october 2019. in addition, two students of the three teacher participants, the vice principal from the curriculum section, the school principal, the head of human resources development section and a supervisor from the foundation were also interviewed to collect rich data. the students selected were from eleventh and twelfth grades who already had experiences in evaluating teachers. the vice principal from the curriculum section, the school principal, the head of human resources development section and the supervisor were included in this study because they had the authority and provided policies in evaluating the performance of teachers in this school. all of the participants in this study were coded as follows: chart 1. coding for the participants the codes were given based on the first letter of the words. data collection and analysis the data gathering was conducted to all participants by using semi-structured interviews with open-ended questions based on the combination of the theories of teacher performance evaluation methods (bichi, 2017; looney, 2011), the guidelines from the p1-p3 s1-s2 vpcs hhrds sp sf participants 1, 2 and 3 students 1 and 2 vice principal of the curriculum section the head of human resources development section the school principal the supervisor from the foundation irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 487 ministry of education and culture, and the theory of teacher professional development by talis team (oecd, 2009). the semi-structured interviews enabled the researchers to build relationships with the participants while giving the researchers freedom to investigate, ask questions, and explore the participants „ interesting fields or concerns (smith & osborn, 2007). the interviews were carried out from january to february 2020. the questions asked were basically about the types of teacher performance evaluation methods and the professional development of english teachers. the interviews were conducted 3 times to the english teachers, the vice principal and the head of human resources development section with each interview lasted 50 to 60 minutes, whereas the students, the school principal and the supervisor were interviewed once with each interview lasted 30 to 60 minutes. the interviews were conducted in indonesian language to prevent misunderstandings and were recorded using mobile phone. the data analysis was conducted qualitatively through the steps suggested by creswell (2009). the stages of the data analysis consisted of organizing and preparing data (transcripts) for analysis, reading all through data, coding the data, interrelating themes/description, interpreting the meaning of the themes/descriptions, and validating the accuracy of the information (creswell, 2009). based on these steps, all data related to teacher performance evaluations and development were organized, read thoroughly, coded into related categories to generate themes such as evaluation focusing on teacher performance in class. afterwards, the themes were presented in matrixes supported with narrative descriptions, and interpreted. one of the supervisors from the school foundation was invited to validate the research findings in mid-february 2020. the supervisor happened to be a teacher in that school, so he was supposed to have experience in being evaluated and doing evaluations. the results of data validation with the supervisor indicated that the data obtained was valid. these validated data could be seen in findings. ethical considerations this research was conducted after the researchers obtained the permission from the school principal. to mantain the research ethics, the identities of both the school and participants were kept confidential. in addition, all data obtained from the participants was only used for the purposes of this research. findings the teacher performance evaluation methods implemented in the private catholic senior high schools the findings from the first research question revealed that the private school employed five methods of teacher performance evaluations with three different focuses: a) evaluation focusing on teacher performance in class by students, b) evaluation focusing on teacher performance consisting of self-evaluation, evaluation by peers and evaluation by superior; c) evaluation focusing on teacher improvement in teaching which was carried out by conducting supervision. from these five evaluation methods, there were four methods that used similar terms as those proposed by looney (2011) and bichi (2017); evaluation by students, self-evaluation, evaluation by peers and supervision. the data collected were presented in the following paragraphs and matrixes. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 488 evaluation focusing on teacher performance in class. this evaluation was known as evaluation by students. the finding was shared by p1, p2, p3, vpcs, hhrds and sp during the interviews with them that “there is an evaluation conducted by students at the end of each semester and this evaluation was organized by the curriculum section” as stated in the following excerpt. excerpt 1 “there are several performance evaluations in this school. first, the students evaluate teachers‟ presentation of material in class at the end of each semester.” according to the six interviewees, the evaluation was conducted to evaluate the teachers‟ presentation of materials in class. the three teacher participants and the vice principal of the curriculum section responded in more details about the aspects that were evaluated by students in this evaluation. excerpt 2 “so the students whose classes we teach will respond to the questionnaire. for example, they respond to questions about the teacher‟s ability to master teaching materials, the ability to convey the learning, the ability to give questions and answer questions, the ability to manage time in class, how we give and share the results of tests and the relationship between teachers and students.” (p1#interview) the students provided the data by answering the questions on the questionnaire which, according to p1# participant, focused on the questionnaire focused on the skills and attitudes of the teachers when teaching in the classroom. excerpt 3 “the evaluation by students is known as the evaluation of teachers‟ presentation of material. the students are asked to evaluate whether the teachers had met the criteria set by the school throughout the semester, for example, whether the teachers give an opening greeting and whether the teachers dress neatly.” (p2#interview) further, the students evaluated the teachers based on the criteria set by the school, two of which were the teacher's attitude and appearance in the classroom. excerpt 4 “that is an evaluation of the presentation of material. so the students evaluate the implementation of teachinglearning in class.” (p3#interview) it was revealed during the interview with p3# that the implementation of teaching-learning in class was the essence of this evaluation. the aspects evaluated not only focus on the skills of the teachers but also their behavior and appearance as stated in excerpt 3 and 4. excerpt 5 “the students are given the opportunity to evaluate how a teacher teaches them starting from the mastery of the material, the explanation of the material, the questions for assessments, the feedback on the test results, the teachers‟ appearance, and so on.” (vpcs#interview) from these data, it could be said that this evaluation did not only evaluate the success of the teaching of the teachers in the classroom but also the relationship of the teachers and irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 489 students as well as the teachers‟ performance. this evaluation could also be said to have an easy process to be carried out as stated by two students who briefly described the implementation of the evaluation as follows. excerpt 6 “at the end of the semester, we always do evaluation by filling an evalution form using computer. so we fill in the evaluation form with scores ranging from 1 to 5. besides, we can also evaluate the teachers by writing comments on the evaluation form which will be given by the school to the teachers so that the teachers can improve their performance.”(s1#interview) the use of computers made it easier for students to evaluate the teachers. further, this evaluation was not only limited to providing scores for the teacher but also providing comments. excerpt 7 "teacher evaluation is held at the end of each semester. a member of the curriculum section comes to the class informing us that after the school we go to the computer lab to evaluate the teacher. in lab, we are told to create a username and password for our accounts. after logging in, a table with the name of the subject will appear. when you click it, a page with a teacher's photo, the name of the teacher and specific questions about the teacher and the subject will appear. the examples of the evaluation questions are whether the teacher mastered the material and whether the delivery of the material was good. we are told to give scores from 1 to 5 which 5 is the best score whereas 1 is the worst. then, there is a comment column in the table. this may or may not be filled.” (s2#interview) the above statement indicated that this evaluation had clear and easy stages. students knew very well about the stages in carrying out this evaluation. evaluation focusing on teacher performance. the interview results revealed that the performance here referred to teachers‟ works at school. there were three other methods employed in this school, namely, self-evaluation, evaluation by peers and evaluation by superior. this was expressed by p1, p2, p3, vpcs, hhrds and sp that “teacher performance evaluations consist of self-evaluation, evaluation by peers and evaluation by superior”. all three evaluations were reported to be conducted at the end of each semester as stated by the vice principal of the curriculum section. excerpt 8 "for self-evaluation, evaluation by peers and evaluation by superior, they are conducted once every semester.”(vpcs#interview) these three evaluation methods were said functioned in showing the success of teachers in carrying out their works, especially in team as admitted by p3. excerpt 9 “for evaluation by peers, we evaluate the interactions of the teachers such as their performance when working in teams. so, we don't evaluate the teachings of other teachers, but we evaluate their communication abilities as peers, for example, we evaluate his/her health, appearance or problem-solving.” irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 490 the data revealed by p3 showed that these evaluations did not only assess teachers‟ performance but also their health condition. these three evaluations indicated that school not only focused on teachers‟ main tasks which were teaching and mentoring. in addition, the use of different evaluation methods could help the school to get valid evaluation results that would be useful in determining development activities and promotion for its teachers. evaluation focusing on teacher improvement in teaching. this evaluation method was known as supervision. supervision was one of the school policies that carried out routinely since 2019 school year as stated by p1, p2, p3, vpcs, hhrds, sp and sf. excerpt 10 “we had supervision which is done once in a school year.” the aim was said to improve the ability of teachers in terms of teaching. it was mentioned by p1 and sp, "there is a routine supervision program. this routine supervision program functions not to evaluate the teachers but to improve their performance. all teachers -junior and senior ones-get a supervision schedule. i think it's just been arranged. it will be routine again starting from this year. this supervision has been scheduled, for example, this month other subject teachers will be supervised.” in its implementation, supervision was carried out by two supervisors namely a senior english teacher and a supervisor from the foundation as admitted by p2, vpcs, hhrds, sp and sf that “supervision is carried out by the supervision team. this supervision is coordinated by the human resources development section. the team consists of a supervisor from the foundation and a senior english teacher”. in supervision, the supervisors were chosen for two reasons as revealed by p2 and sf. excerpt 11 “this supervision can be carried out by the headmaster with senior teacher or those who are asked by the headmaster to assist the senior teacher. i, as one of the supervisors always conducted the supervision with a supervisor from the foundation. the foundation was asked by the school to help. the reason i was appointed as a supervisor is to evaluate or observe the content of the materials for the pedagogical aspects.” (p2#interview) excerpt 12 "supervision is coordinated by the human resources section. because of the limited number of supervisors, the foundation is asked to help conduct the supervision.” (sf#interview) supervision organized by human resources development section was said to have three stages in its implementation. the stages consisted of pre-supervision, supervision, and post-supervision as reported by p1, p2, hhrds, sp and sf. excerpt 13 "there are three stages in supervision. pre-supervision when the supervisors and teacher who will be supervised discuss it first. they discuss which material would be taught during the supervision later. then the class observation is carried out. then there is post-supervision.” irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 491 the openness and transparency in supervision proved that the focus was indeed on improving teachers' teaching. aiming at improving teachers‟ abilities in teaching, supervision provided a solution for teachers who scored low. the solution was to provide mentoring to the teachers. mentoring was done by observing the teaching of a senior teacher in the classroom, and this was stated by the head of human resources development section as the unit who organized this supervision that "in supervision, if there are teachers whose teaching methods are very poor, they will be mentored. if their weakness is in teaching it means they had to observe the teaching of teachers who got good evaluation scores”. the implementation of supervision that involved open processes and the provision of mentoring for teachers who scored low indicated that this supervision promised a significant improvement in teaching for teachers. tabel 1. the following matrix was the summary of data about evaluation methods no evaluation methods focus of evaluation stated by respondents notes teacher performance in class teacher performance teacher improvement in teaching 1 evaluation by students  p1,p2,p3,vpcs, hhrds,sp,s1, s2 conducted at the end of each semester organized by curriculum section 2 self-evaluation  p1,p2,p3,vpcs, hhrds,sp 3 evaluation by peers  p1,p2,p3,vpcs, hhrds,sp 4 evaluation by superior  p1,p2,p3,vpcs, hhrds,sp 5 supervision  the above matrix showed the implementation of various evaluation methods conducted at this private school. based on three main focuses, the evaluation was carried out using five methods as shown in the matrix. the teacher professional development activities evaluation of teacher performance in its implementation should be followed up by development activities for each outcome of the evaluation conducted. the findings from the second research question showed that from all of the development activities mentioned only one activity that was provided by school routinely for english teachers namely, mgps (the same subject teacher meeting). it was revealed by p1, p2, p3, hhrds and sp during their interviews that "we have mgps, the same subject teacher meeting. this is scheduled by the school once a week”. in addition to mgps, there was also an activity called mgmp (teacher subject meeting) that was facilitated for english teachers as stated by p1, p2, p3 and hhrds. excerpt 14 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 492 "there are mgmp activities that are held once a month. only one teacher was sent by the school to participate in this activity. there were many things we got by following this activity such as the latest teaching information or material.” mgmp was known to be an activity organized by education office of malang city for its teachers. both mgps and mgmp were development activities that were routinely attended by teachers. besides, english teachers were told to participate in other development activities such as seminars and workshops. this was said by p1, p2, p3 and sf. excerpt 15 “then we are facilitated to take part in seminars or workshops and this is done alternately. we haven't had the chance to write a journal or paper yet because of the busy teaching schedule. just meeting up like this is difficult for us. so we only have time to meet on wednesday for 2 hours.” development activities that were facilitated by school should be tailored to the needs of each teacher. on the contrary, this was not found in this school as admitted by p3. excerpt 16 “unfortunately, the teachers who are chosen to take part in the activities are not the teachers who needed development in that field.” (p3#interview) the participation of english teachers in development activities depended on the invitation of the organizer of the activity and the decision of the school. school only sent one teacher as a representative. the teaching schedule was the reason for this decision. this was done with the consideration that the teacher who participated in the development activities would share the knowledge he/she obtained from the activities. on the other hand, the superiors at school stressed that it depended on the activeness of the teachers in finding information about the development activities. excerpt 17 "it depends on the situation. if the teacher is encouraged to increase his/her knowledge, we will give him/her a chance. if there is an offer that is useful for english teachers, we will give it a chance. but because the head of the human resources development section is still new, there must be a proposal from the teachers. there are many offers from outside the school but the ones from the school are still rare. so the teachers must be active.” (vpcs#interview) excerpt 18 "so the teachers themselves must be active. because i don't have many links on this. unless the teacher comes to inform me about the activity.” (hhrds#interview) excerpt 19 "we will facilitate the teachers if they want to take part in the activities. they must be proactive, both from the teacher themselves and the school. we will facilitate them if an offer comes in.” (sp#interview) human resources development section, who had the duty to develop human resources, had its own consideration in providing follow-up activities for the teachers. the difficulty in mapping the abilities of the teachers in school was the reason in deciding the development activities for the teachers. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 493 excerpt 20 "the development activities we provide depend on the needs of the teacher. our limitation is in mapping the needs. we do not understand the needs of individuals and needs in mgps. indeed there are some teachers who convey their needs but not all do that.” (hhrds#interview) the desires of the teachers that had not been achieved and the limitations of the school in providing development activities were not an inhibiting factor in the professional development of these three english teachers. the implementation of the evaluations contributed to the professional development of teachers. table 2. the following matrix was the summary of data about professional development activities no respondents professional development activities mgps mgmp seminar workshop mentoring 1 p1 v v v v 2 p2 v v v v 3 p3 v v v v 4 vpcs 5 hhrds v v v v 6 sp v 7 sf v notes a regular school program held every wednesday for 2 hours. a monthly program organized by the education office of malang city. only one teacher was sent by the school to participate in this activity. prepared for teachers who scored low during supervision the matrix revealed the types of development activities most frequently followed by three english teachers so far. of all the activities indicated, there were only two activities which were special programs from the school for its english teachers, namely, mgps and mentoring. discussion the findings revealed that the evaluations of english teachers‟ performance employed in this private school were based on three focuses, namely, performance in class, teacher performance and teacher improvement in teaching. from these three focuses, the evaluations were carried out by employing five methods: evaluation by students, self-evaluation, and evaluation by peers, evaluation by superior and supervision. even so, only three methods that confirmed the theory from bichi (2017), namely, students rating, self-assessment and supervisor rating, and two methods referred to looney's (2011) theory such as ranking by students and teacher evaluation by peers. the terms used were different, but the definition and the purposes were the same as those employed in this school. for irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 494 evaluation by superior, could be said to be quite suitable with the culture of education in indonesia. this could be seen from several evaluation methods that they proposed that found in this school. the functions of these evaluations were also in accordance with what was stated by the indonesian ministry of education and culture that was described in the literature review. the evaluation methods employed in this school combined the theories from two experts and the school‟s policy. this finding confirmed looney's (2011) study that the combination of the methods was important to do because there was no single measurement that could capture the full range of teacher performance in various contexts or conditions, or qualities that were important for effective teaching. it also supported previous studies that using different evaluation methods would provide different types of information about how teacher characteristics and teaching strategies influenced the learning and could help build a knowledge based on 'what works' (abu-alhija, 2007; baker, 2004; herman, 2005). this finding showed that the private school had the ability to conduct the evaluations independently. however, the finding was in contrast to that conducted by abidin & sutrisno (2014) in which some private schools did not evaluate teacher performance in accordance with government regulations, and these schools did not have the seriousness of ensuring the quality of their teachers. thus, it could be concluded that this private school had shown the right example in evaluating teachers. the results of the evaluation carried out ideally should be used to provide feedback to teachers and guide their professional developments (sawchuk, 2015). an ideal teacher evaluation should include an accurate assessment of the effectiveness of teaching, its strengths and areas of development, followed by feedback, coaching, support and opportunities for professional development (bichi, 2017; kementerian pendidikan dan kebudayaan, 2012; oecd, 2009). the teacher performance evaluations in this school were said to give significant impacts on teachers‟ professional development. this confirmed marzano's (2012) study that evaluation was established for teacher development, and it admitted and rewarded the growth of teacher. further, the results of the evaluations revealed the strengths and the weaknesses of teachers in mastering four basic competencies, namely, pedagogical competence, personal competence, social competence and professional competence, since they included those four competences as aspects that were evaluated. the aspects evaluated did not only emphasize pedagogical, social and professional competence but also personal competence. this proved that besides teachers‟ knowledge and skills, the private school also focused on their attitudes and behavior. this finding confirmed jaedun's (2009) theory that standard for measuring teacher performance in indonesia was the four teacher competencies. in terms of professional development, this school in fact had included english teachers in development activities (matrix 2). this finding was in line with the previous study that professional development was carried out by involving teachers in activities that focus on the four basic competencies, such as courses, workshops or formal qualification programs, also through collaboration among schools or teachers from different schools (e.g. benchmarking activities to other schools or teacher networking) or within the school where the teacher works (oecd, 2009). however, the participation of these teachers was not based on the results of evaluations conducted on them (excerpt 16). it contradicted with danielson & mcgreal's (2000) theory that meaningful teacher evaluation should be followed by development activities, since it was designed for the purpose of professional development and the improvement of teaching. the provision of teacher professional development irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 495 activities should be based on the results of evaluations conducted (kementerian pendidikan dan kebudayaan, 2012), because the needs of each teacher were different. nevertheless, this private school had tried its best to facilitate its english teachers to develop their knowledge and abilities although the opportunities to develop professionalism through other activities needed to be increased since designing a professional development system was a major task (danielson & mcgreal, 2000). in this way, teachers could benefit from their participation in every school policy, especially performance evaluation. the teachers also needed to take the initiative to develop themselves professionally (jaedun, 2009). amidst the workload and other requirements, english teachers must have their agency to direct themselves towards professional development. their agency would not only direct their professional growth but also contributed to the growth of their colleagues (obrien, 2016). professional development was not only conducted by participating in various activities, but also when the teachers reflected on their own teaching at school and in observing and reflecting on the teaching of others in collaboration with colleagues (postholm, 2012). this was not found in this study, but it did not rule out the possibility that the three teachers did what was stated by postholm's (2012) theory. this research discussed how the teacher performance evaluation methods implemented by the private catholic senior high school facilitated its english teachers towards their professional developments. this research was insufficient to describe in more detail the instruments used for the evaluations as well as how the results were calculated because they were the school‟s confidential documents. the researchers suggest that the teachers should have their initiatives and build their agency to develop themselves professionally without having to wait for the actions from the school authorities. conclusions and implications this research discussed how the teacher performance evaluation methods implemented by the private catholic senior high school facilitated its english teachers towards their professional developments. the research discovered that there were five evaluation methods implemented by the school, namely, evaluation by students, self-evaluation, evaluation by peers, evaluation by superior, and supervision. the methods provided positive impacts on the professional development of the english teachers, although the results of the evaluations did not serve as the main guideline for school to include the teachers in development activities. the professional development was conducted by participating in activities such as mgps, mgmp, seminars, workshops and mentoring. this research was insufficient to describe in more detail the instruments used for the evaluations as well as how the results were calculated because they were the school‟s confidential documents. the researchers suggest that the teachers should have their initiatives and build their agency to develop themselves professionally without having to wait for the actions from the school authorities. disclosure statement no conflict of interest was reported by the authors. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 496 acknowledgments we would like to express our deepest gratitude to all the participants who allowed us to interview them. references abidin, z., & sutrisno. (2014). analisis penilaian kinerja guru (pkg) dalam upayanya melakukan penjaminan mutu guru di dalam kelas (analysis of teacher performance evaluation in its efforts to ensure teacher quality in the classroom). research and development journal of education, 1(1), 16–25. abu-alhija, f. n. (2007). large-scale testing: benefits and pitfalls. studies in educational evaluation, 33, 50–68. baker, e. l. (2004). aligning curriculum, standards, and assessments: fulfilling the promise of school reform. cse report 645. center for research on evaluation standards and student testing cresst. bichi, a. a. (2017). evaluation of teacher performance in schools : implication for sustainable development goals. northwest journal of educational studies, 2(1), 103–113. creswell, j. w. (2009). qualitative procedures. research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches, 2, 173–201. creswell, j. w., & poth, c. n. (2018). qualitative inquiry and research design: choosing among five approaches (4th ed.). los angeles: sage publications. danielson, c., & mcgreal, t. l. (2000). teacher evaluation to enhance professional practice. ascd. hartanto, s., & sumardjoko, b. (2018). pengelolaan penilaian kinerja guru di smk muhammadiyah 4 surakarta (the management of teacher performance evaluation at vocational high school muhammadiyah 4, surakarta). universitas muhammadiyah surakarta. herman, j. (2005). making accountability work to improve student learning. cse report 649. national center for research on evaluation, standards, and student testing (cresst). indonesia. sekretariat negara. (2005). undang-undang republik indonesia nomor 14 tahun 2005 tentang guru dan dosen (law of republic of indonesia number 14 of 2005 concerning teachers and lecturers). jaedun, a. (2009). evaluasi kinerja profesional guru (evaluation of teacher's performance). retrieved from http://staffnew.uny.ac.id/upload/131569339/pengabdian/evaluasi-kinerja-guru.pdf. kementerian pendidikan dan kebudayaan. (2012). pembinaan dan pengembangan profesi guru. buku 2: pedoman pelaksanaan penilaian kinerja guru (coaching and development of teacher professionalism. 2nd book: guidelines for implementing teacher performance assessment). jakarta: kementerian pendidikan dan kebudayaan. looney, j. (2011). developing high-quality teachers : teacher evaluation for improvement. european journal of education, 46(4), 440–455. marzano, r. j. (2012). teacher evaluation. educational leadership, 70(3), 14–19. obrien, a. (2016). five ways to increase teacher agency in professional development. retrieved from https://www.edutopia.org/blog/five-ways-increase-teacher-agency-professional-dev elopment-anne-obrien irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 497 oecd. (2009). creating effective teaching and learning environments: first results from talis. oecd paris. postholm, m. b. (2012). teachers‟ professional development : a theoretical review. educational research, 54(4), 405–429. sarabia, a., & collantes, l. m. (2020). work-related stress and teaching performance of teachers in selected school in the philippines. irje|indonesian research journal in education|, 4(1), 6-27. https://online journal.unja.ac.id/irje/article/view/8084/6492 sawchuk, s. (2015). steep drops seen in teacher-prep enrollment numbers. the education digest, 80(7), 9. smith, j. a., & osborn, m. (2007). interpretative phenomenological analysis. qualitative psychology, 53–80. yin, r. k. (2017). case study research and applications: design and methods (sixth edit). los angeles: sage publications. zahroh, m. n. (2017). evaluasi kinerja guru dalam peningkatan mutu pendidikan di yayasan al kenaniyah jakarta timur (evaluation of teacher performance in improving the quality of education at al kenaniyah foundation, east jakarta). jurnal manajemen pendidikan, 8(2), 139–149. biographical notes imelda woa wene is a student at the language and arts education department, faculty of teacher training and education, sanata dharma university, yogyakarta, indonesia. retno muljani is a lecturer at the language and arts education department, faculty of teacher training and education, sanata dharma university, yogyakarta, indonesia; retnomuljani@usd.ac.id mailto:retnomuljani@usd.ac.id this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 324 strategic planning in developing the quality of educators and education personnel hanif al kadri 1 and widiawati 2 abstract educators and educational personnel as the key actors in education who have a direct effect on the education process must be able to provide the best performance so that the education process runs as expected. this brings about the importance of improving the quality of educators and educational personnel that is adjusted to the demands and progress of the times. sadly, this has not yet been fully carried out by educational policy-makers. improving the quality of educators and educational personnel is mostly done without a through comprehensive analysis. this study aimed to develop a strategic planning as an effort to improve the quality of educators and educational personnel based on an analysis of the internal and external conditions of the school. this research was a qualitative study conducted at a vocational high school in west java. participants were the school principal, vice-principals, and teachers. data were collected through interviews and documents. data were analysed by presenting data, reducing data and drawing conclusions. this study was conducted through fgds and a swot analysis for determining positions and determining strategic issues. the results showed that the school's position was in quadrant i (with an aggressive strategy) which showed a potential position to develop. this study recommends that several steps can be used to improve the quality of educators and educational personnel. keywords educators and educational personnel quality, strategic planning, swot analysis 1 lecturer at department of educational administration in universitas negeri padang, indonesia 2 lecturer at department of educational administration in universitas negeri padang, indonesia irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 325 introduction education is an investment to prepare and to improve individual and organizational productivity and to support international growth and development (nafukho, hairston & brooks, 2004). improving the quality of education is a demand that is highly prioritized especially with the presence of global challenges (widiawati, lestari & sutarsih, 2019). students get hard skills and soft skills through education (lavilles & robles, 2017; schleicher, 2015) that they need for future life. besides, opportunities and environmental challenges marked by the increased competition require educational institutions to successfully position themselves to build sustainable competitive advantages (schlebusch, & mokhatle, 2016). the implementation of organizational activities efficiently is one of the criteria that determines that education is implemented with a success (muhyadi, 2013). school quality improvement requires strategic planning. through strategic planning, schools can build high aspirations for them and focus intensely on implementing the plans. strategic planning is an important effort and process in facilitating sustainable school development (myende & bhengu, 2015; yaakob, musa, habibi & othman, 2019) and to enable linking organizational goals and institutional activities (wolf & floyd, 2013) which then leads to the design of a strategic plan (cheng, 2013). the strategic planning process offers an arrangement in which all issues affecting schools can be taken seriously. the low quality of education in indonesia may be caused by many factors. these factors are interrelated with one another. these factors include policies, curriculum, educators and educational personnel, facilities and infrastructure, financing, management, and assessment systems (ali, 2013). from these factors, one part of the education system that needs more attention is the quality of educators and educational personnel. educators and educational personnel are one of the national education standards which requires a special attention from the government and the society (nur, 2009). the development and challenges of the times that are increasing more and more rapidly become a demand for every educator and educational personnel to be able to adjust education to the development of the times. ideally, educators and educational personnel must be able to develop themselves both by studying independently and through training and workshops and increasing personal creativities to be able to make innovations in the world of education. however, the reality in the field shows that this hope is still far from being realized. this phenomenon shows that most educators and educational personnel are still not internally motivated to advance themselves and to continue learning. that is, the level of professionalism of educators and educational personnel is still low and not as expected. besides, the dedication of educators and educational personnel will always be a question. schools as an institution that has a role to improve the quality of both educators and educational personnel had not yet implemented the quality development of them based on the factual conditions of educators and educational personnel in schools. in other words, schools have not conducted a comprehensive analysis of the educators and educational irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 326 personnel based on internal and external factors. in this condition, it can be interpreted that schools have not done a strategic planning related to planning for the development and improvement of the quality of educators and educational personnel. based on this condition, one important thing that needs to be done by schools so that the quality of educators and educational personnel can be improved following the real conditions in the field is to prepare a strategic plan carefully. facing this condition, the strategic planning becomes important to be implemented to improve the quality of educators and educational personnel. as explained by tsiakkiros and pashiardis (2002) the strategic planning is one of the concepts that is used for the success of an organization. the goal is that the quality of educators and educational personnel can be improved following the conditions, needs, and challenges of the times. previous researchers have conducted several studies on the strategic planning. for example, a study was conducted by lingam, lingam, and raghuwaiya (2014) which examined the effectiveness of the strategic planning as seen from the teachers' perceptions about the implementation of the strategic planning in their school. in addition, some other studies on the strategic planning are also widely carried out at universities (akyel, korkusuzpolat & arslankay, 2012; chen, 2018; hu, liu, chen & qin, 2018; machado & taylor, 2010; ozdem, 2011; srinivasa, kumar & aith, 2015). from several studies on the strategic planning conducted by these researchers, there has been no research that focuses on the implementation of the strategic planning to improve the quality of educators and educational personnel in a vocational school. meanwhile, improving the quality of educators and educational personnel also requires the strategic planning so that it can be done in accordance with existing conditions and needs. therefore, this study tried to examine the problems in improving the quality of educators and educational personnel by using the strategic planning. information obtained from the results of this study can be used as a recommendation and a consideration for stakeholders to take certain steps in improving the quality of educators and educational personnel. based on this situation, the study aimed to develop the strategic planning as an effort to improve the quality of educators and educational personnel in a more planned and effective manner. to achieve this goal, two research questions guided this study: a) what is the condition of the school's internal environment in terms of its strengths and weaknesses related to educators and educational personnel?, b) what is the condition of the school's internal environment in terms of opportunities and challenges faced by the school related to educators and educational personnel ?; c) in what position are the conditions of educators and educational personnel as seen from the ifas and efas matrix?, d) what are the strategic issues that can be implemented by the school to improve the quality of educators and educational personnel? literature review the higher competition demands, the higher attention of quality. sharabi and davidow (2010) state that one of the factors to achieve success is quality. besides, quality is irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 327 important but difficult to observe (hanushek & rivkin, 2006). according to crosby (1979, p.87), quality is defined as "conformance to standards and specifications", and juran (1999, p. 235) defines quality as "fitness for use." the quality of educators and educational personnel is a matter that must be considered because it is one of the factors that determine the success of education. therefore, the quality of educators and educational personnel must be improved through a careful planning. the strategic planning is a vital activity to clarify the future direction of an organization. therefore, it is important to develop a coherent basis for decision making and to set priorities in improving the organizational performance (albon, iqbal, & pearson, 2016; shah, 2013). the strategic planning can be considered as a process of identifying a company's business for today and the future, and identifying the direction of the action to pursue, given its opportunities, threats, strengths, and weaknesses (dessler, 2004). in the strategic planning, long and short term goals are set. schools must identify these goals so they can survive and compete. as the opinion expressed by resvani and branch (2011) that organizations are so complex that without detailed short-term to long-term planning, they cannot survive. in developing the education system, wherever schools are located, the part of planning is very important. the strategic planning or any form of planning in education is important for developing schools and improving the quality of education in a sustainable manner (lingam et al., 2014). in the strategic planning, analyses of internal and external environment are carried out. the external environment has an inextricable linkage with various variables that are available outside the school unit boundary. on the other hand, the internal environment is related to the organization, function, behavior, and effectiveness. all of these specific factors are within the school boundary (ramadona, 2018). in this study, the intended strategic planning was prepared using a swot analysis. this swot analysis is a very powerful and very successful technique that can be applied to individuals, groups, teams, and organizations (david, 1997). swot analysis is an effective and simple framework for analyzing the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats of an organization (project) that can be used to help overcome the effectiveness of the project planning and implementation and understand sources of the competitive advantage (barney, 1995; sabbaghi & vaidyanathan, 2004). in addition, swot analysis can generally be used to help describe the strategic organizational situation and to identify the information needed and decisions which will be taken (balamuralikrishna & dugger, 1995). a scheme that illustrates the swot analysis can be seen in the following figure (leiber, stensaker, & harvey, 2018). irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 328 figure 1. swot analysis and schematic representation the environmental analysis carried out can provide information about the position of the organization. to develop it, it is necessary to use a quantitative approach in the swot analysis. as noted by chien-chang, ching-chu, and liang (2003) that the quantitative approach in the swot analysis provides a reference for developing strategies in accordance with strategic development models, such as the grand strategy matrix (gsm) model. in the gsm model, the position of an organization is placed in one of the four quadrants of the coordinate grid, according to its environmental position (lee & lin, 2008) as shown in figure 2. quadrant i is a very advantageous situation where an organization has internal strength and external optimal so that it can be utilized to benefit the organization. quadrant ii signifies that an organization possesses strength in facing great challenges. the recommended strategy is strategy diversification, meaning that the organization is in a stable condition but faces a number of severe challenges so it is estimated that the wheels of the organization will experience difficulties to keep turning if only relies on the previous strategy. therefore, organizations are advised to immediately multiply the variety of tactical strategies. quadrant iii indicates that the organization has weaknesses but it is very likely. therefore, the recommended strategy is to change the strategy. because the old strategy was feared difficult to be able to capture the opportunities that exist while improving the organizational performance. meanwhile, quadrant iv indicates that the organization has weaknesses and faces large challenges. the recommended strategy is defense strategy, meaning that the internal conditions of the organization are in a dilemma choice. therefore the organization is advised to use a survival strategy, controlling the internal performance so that it does not fall further. this strategy is maintained while continuing to improve. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 329 figure 2. quantified swot analysis and the strategic matrix to evaluate an organization and its competitors through swot analysis, a strategy can be formulated which helps an organization to improve its performance (chermack & kasshanna, 2007) as shown in tabel 1 below. tabel 1. two-by-two matrix: swot analysis strengths weakness opportunities achieve opportunities that greatly match the organization’s strengths overcome weaknesses to attain opportunities threats use strengths to reduce the organization’s vulnerability to threats present weaknesses to avoid making the organization more susceptible to threats based on the statement above, the application of swot analysis can be used to answer the research questions and achieve the research objectives. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 330 methodology research design, participants, and locale of the study this research aimed to develop a strategic planning based on an analysis of the internal and external environment of the school to improve the quality of educators and educational personnel with 4 questions, namely 1) what is the condition of the school's internal environment (strengths and weaknesses) in the aspects of educators and educational personnel?; 2) what is the condition of the school's internal environment (opportunities and threats) in the aspects of educators and educational personnel ?; 3) in what position are the conditions of educators and educational personnel as seen from the ifas and efas matrix? 4) what are the strategic issues that can be applied by the school to improve the quality of educators and educational personnel? to achieve the objectives of this study, the research approach used was a qualitative descriptive study with a case study method. the qualitative with a case study approach is an approach that describes the condition of the research subject at the time the research was conducted. braun and clarke (2013) describe that qualitative research involves an interpretative, naturalistic approach to the world. this means that qualitative research uses natural settings to infer a particular phenomenon. the use of this method starts from the main objective of the research, which is to describe and analyze data and information according to actual needs. this study was conducted at a vocational high school in bandung which is an alliance school. the main participants were one principal, one vice principal, and one teacher. the selection of the school principal as the respondent is because the school principal is one of the parties responsible for developing the quality of educators and educational personnel in a school. the vice principal also has a role in assisting the principal in developing the quality of the teachers, and he/ she must also be aware of the condition of each educator and educational personnel in that school. meanwhile, the teacher as the participant to be developed must also recognize his/ her own abilities. data collection and analysis for getting the information needed in this study, appropriately in order to develop the quality of educators and educational personnel in the school, the researchers used interviews to gather relevant information from selected participants. to complete the data, the researchers also conducted a document analysis relating to the condition of educators and educational personnel in the school. bassey (1999) suggests that a case study generally consists of three methods for gathering research data, namely asking questions, observing events, and reading documents. interviews were conducted with 3 participants; one principal, one vice principal and one teacher with different duration of time. the questions asked in the interviews were related to the real conditions of the teachers and educational personnel in the school. meanwhile, the documents needed in this study were the profiles of irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 331 the teachers and educational personnel and the school strategic planning specifically related to improving the quality of educators and educational personnel. the procedure of qualitative data analysis was carried out through three stages, namely (1) data reduction, (2) data presentation, and (3) drawing conclusions and data verification (miles & huberman, 1994). the procedures were detailed as follows. first, the researchers conducted data reduction. this step was done by selecting the data in accordance with the research questions that have been provided. second, the compilation of a set of information was derived from the results of data reduction, because the data collected from the field were not always neatly arranged. the last one was drawing conclusions about the data and information collected. after the conclusion of the data was obtained, the researchers arranged them in a form of swot analysis so that the collected data could describe each strength, weakness, and opportunity and challenges in the school. therefore, the data analysis using swot was also applied in this study to design strategies in improving the quality of educators and educational personnel. the swot analysis method is an environmental analysis method that integrates internal and external environmental (lee & lin, 2008). as explained by kotler (1988) and wheelen and hunger (1995) that swot analysis is a tool commonly used to analyze internal and external environments to achieve a systematic approach and support for decision situations. after that, the researchers compiled an ifas and efas matrix to determine the swot quadrant position to determine the potential position of educators and educational personnel. for the purposes of compiling this matrix, weighting and scoring were carried out. in this step, the determination of weighting and scoring was carried out through a focus group discussion with the experts and the research informants. next, the steps done in making the ifas and efas matrix were; 1) making a list of internal and external factors as the result of data collection, 2) doing the weighting with a comparison method so that the total weight was equal, 3) giving a rating or scoring of 1-4 between each factor where 1 means very weak, 2 means not so weak, 3 means enough and 4 means strong by referring to the conditions of the educator and educational personnel, 4) multiplying the weights by rating of each factor to determine the score, and 5) adding up all the scores to get a point score for the object being assessed. these weights and ratings are determined through discussions with research informants in group discussion forums. (the results of the ifas and efas matrix can be seen in the research findings). after filling the data into the ifas and efas matrix and assigning weights and ratings to each point, the next step was to calculate the total score obtained from the two matrices to determine the position of educators and educational personnel in the school. the ifas and efas matrix that had been prepared can provide information about the x and y axes. the ifas matrix provided information about the x axis position while the efas matrix recognized the y axis position (further discussion is in the research findings). each of the x and y axis positions provides more information about the position and the potential of educators and educational personnel. furthermore, based on the position that had been known, the strategic steps were determined to improve the quality of educators and educational personnel. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 332 to check the trustworthiness of the data, the researchers followed five standards (objectivity, dependability, credibility, transferability, and application) that are usually used in qualitative studies to assess quality and legitimacy (trust and trustworthiness) (lincoln & guba, 1985; miles et al., 2014). the trustworthiness of the data in this study was done by 1) by increasing the accuracy in the study by ensuring that the data were recorded and recorded properly, triangulating the data by checking the data obtained from several informants, for example by re-interviewing them using different techniques; 2) involving experts in the process of developing the strategic plan; and 3) conducting a focus group discussion to reconfirm the results of research and strategies obtained. ethical considerations in this study, the informants’ identity and the location of the study were completely disguised as a form of research ethics. the informants in this study provided some information after obtaining permission from the school to provide information related to the research data needed. the information obtained from this study is only used for the purposes of this research. findings environmental analysis is an activity carried out intended to find a picture of conditions both about internal and external environments that affect the development of the quality of educators and educational personnel. thus, this environmental analysis was carried out to examine various factors including strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats from or towards the development of the quality of educators and educational personnel. internal environmental analysis the school principal said that in relation to the internal environment of educators and education personnel, “as an alliance school, the main strength for our school is that all teachers in this school already have undergraduate educational qualifications. in addition, all teachers have also taken the teacher competency test with the results showing that the teacher has four teacher competencies with good categories. if in percentage, it has reached 100%. not only limited to teachers, our school also has a head of school administration staff that has a master's education background. with this, it is hoped that it can be strength for schools to carry out school administration better (w.h.in.1.) the principal also explained further, “school teachers are the main key to the quality of education in a school. having teachers who on average have certified educators is also strength for this school. the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 333 percentage of teachers at this school who have certified educators is as much as 56% (w.h.in.1)”. this is also explained by the teacher that “the teachers at this school on average already have educator certificates. this is one of the strengths for schools to be able to improve the quality of education in this school.” (w.t.in.1) furthermore, the interview with the vice principal is described as follows, “becoming an alliance school is not something easy; educators and education are the main factors. in this case, our school already has a principal with a master's educational background who is expected to be truly capable of managing the school well.”(w.vh.in.1) the results of interviews with principals, vice principals and teachers provide some information about the internal conditions of the environment of educators and educational personnel. from the information obtained, it can be concluded that there are a number of things that become the strength and weakness of educators and educational personnel. research findings on the strengths that existed in the aspects of educators and educational personnel indicated that the school had the power that could be used as a basis for improving the quality of educators and educational personnel. from the results of interviews and study on documents, four school strengths were obtained in terms of educators and educational personnel. first, 100% of the teachers in the school had qualified for s1 education and had fulfilled 4 teacher competencies in a “good" category. both civil servant teachers and honorary teachers had met the educational qualifications as contained in the teacher competency standards. the educational background of the teachers was suitable for the fields and subjects being taught. these teachers were also graduates from accredited tertiary institutions. associated with 4 teacher competencies namely pedagogic competence, personal competence, social competence, and professional competence, the teachers also had these 4 competencies and when categorized, they were classified as "good". this can be seen from the ability of teachers to carry out pedagogical learning, and the social abilities and personality of the teachers that were harmonious and communicative both with fellow teachers and with students. second, 56% of teachers already had educator certificates so that most teachers already had educator certificates. when presented with a percentage, the percentage of teachers who had educator certificates was 56%. this was the strength for the school as an embodiment of the level of professionalism of teachers. third, the school principal had a master's education qualification so that with this educational qualification the principal could manage the school effectively and efficiently. fourth, the head of the school administration staff had an s2 education qualification. the head of the school administration staff had met the standards of the school administration personnel and had even exceeded the standards set in the ministry of education and culture on the standards of school administration staff. this had become the strength for the school to manage its administration regularly with good governance. as a school, there are several weaknesses that the school has, as the results of the interviews with the principal are as follows, irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 334 “the main weakness faced by schools related to educators and education personnel is in the implementation of sustainable professional development. in this case, the number of teachers who are active in carrying out sustainable professional development, especially in scientific publications and innovative works, is only 8%. it is still categorized as very small.” (w.h.in.2) further interviews with the teacher obtained the following information, “the weakness for us teachers in implementing learning is in the application of the 2013 curriculum, it is still not optimally implemented. as teachers, we still find it difficult to implement the 2013 curriculum.”(w.t.in.2) this was also confirmed by the deputy principal, “the weakness that often appears at this time is the implementation of the 2013 curriculum. in this case, less than 50% of the teachers are able to implement the 2013 curriculum.”(w.vh.in.2) next, interviews with school principals related to weaknesses in the aspect of school administrative personnel are described as follows, “school administrative personnel are an important factor for smooth administration in schools. however, the weakness faced by our school is that the average education level of school administration personnel is high school equivalent. if a percentage, then 73.52% of the education level of school administration personnel is high school. our hope is that school administrators can get a bachelor's degree.” (w.h.in.2) interviews with school principals, vice principals and teachers and completed with document studies on the weaknesses of the school in terms of educators and educational personnel provided some information that there were three weaknesses found in the aspect of educators and educational personnel. first, the number of active teachers in carrying out sustainable professional development especially in scientific publications and innovative works was only 8%. one of the tasks of a teacher as a professional teacher is to develop his or her professionalism sustainably both in terms of 1); personal development which includes: a) following functional training; and b) carrying out teacher collective activities, 2) scientific publications which include: a) making scientific publications on the results of research; and b) making book publications and 3) innovative works which include: a) discovering teaching and learning technology; b) finding/ creating art; c) creating/modifying learning tools; and d) following the development of the preparation of standards, guidelines, questions, and others. there were still very few active teachers in continuing professional development, especially in scientific publications and innovative works. aside from being a tangible manifestation of the level of professionalism of teachers, the development of continuing professionalism was also needed by teachers to obtain credit points so that they could increase their rank. following the list of rank/ grade of teachers, the average teachers were still in the category of iva, so to move up to the category of ivb, the teachers must be active in making irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 335 scientific publications and innovative works. second, the teachers who could implement the 2013 curriculum were less than 50%. the ability of the teachers to implement the curriculum is one of the keys to the success of learning. the ability of the teachers in implementing the 2013 curriculum in the school researched was still quite sufficient. the low ability of teachers in implementing the curriculum is certainly one of the factors inhibiting learning success. the last, the average level of education of administrative personnel was high school equivalent with a percentage of 73.52%. school administrative staff as listed in the school administrative personnel standard must have a minimum high school education qualification. in this case, by default the academic qualifications of the school administration staff; they had fulfilled the academic qualifications. however, for this competitive era, this academic qualification standard must be improved. external environmental analysis the interviews with the principal regarding the opportunities, the school has to be able to improve the quality of educators and education personnel is, “an opportunity that we can make as a forum for improving the quality of educators is the existence of a policy from the government regarding the obligation for each teacher to be certified. the government as we know it has launched a teacher certification program to facilitate teachers to improve their quality through certification.” (w.h.ex.1) furthermore, the interview with the vice principal explained, "we can take the scholarship program from the government as an opportunity to improve the quality of educators and educational personnel so that they can carry out further education to a higher level to improve their quality,”(w.vh.ex.1) regarding sustainable development, the principal explained, “there are many opportunities that can be used to facilitate the development of his profession. among them are the many workshops, seminars and workshops from the government, the education quality assurance agency (lpmp), universities and professional organizations for scientific development. this activity can be used as a forum for educators and education personnel to improve their quality.” (w.vh.ex.1) then, the challenges or treat faced by schools such as interviews with the principal are, “times and technological advances are growing faster. the development of science and technology is increasingly sophisticated. this is a challenge for our school to always be able to adopt the developments and advancements of the times in order to remain competitive with other schools.” (w.h.ex.2) the interview with the deputy principal explained, irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 336 “the challenges we faced were quite a lot, including changes in government policies and regulations both at the district / city level and at the national level. government policies and regulations are always changing, as an educational unit under the auspices of the government; of course we must be able to follow the policies and regulations of the government.”(w.vh.ex.2) furthermore, the principal explained in the interview, “others challenges we faced were high competitiveness with other schools of the same type and high public expectations of educators and education staff as professionals who were always reliable in all respects.” (w.h.ex.2) based on the results of external environmental analysis of the standards of educators and educational personnel obtained through interviews and studies of documents in school, several things can be formulated as opportunities and threats for the school related to educators and educational personnel. interviews with school principals, deputy principals and teachers provide information that there are a number of points that become a school opportunity related to educators and educational personnel. based on the results of the interviews and completed with document studies, it can be concluded that opportunities which could be utilized by the school to improve the quality of educators and educational personnel were a) government policy on teacher certification; b) the availability of educational scholarships to continue to higher education; and c) the number of workshops and seminars from the government, educational quality assurance institution (lpmp), higher education, and from professional organizations for scientific development. meanwhile, the results of interviews and document studies also provide some information that threats which needed to be considered by the school were; a) the development of increasingly sophisticated science and technology; b) changes in government policies and regulations both at the district / city level and at the national level; c) high competitiveness with other schools; and d) the high public expectations on educators and educational personnel as the professional personnel who are always assumed reliable in all respects. ifas and efas matrix the internal factor analysis strategy (ifas) and external factor analysis strategy (efas) matrix are a matrix that contains internal and external environmental analysis factors by giving a weighting, rating, and score (the result of the multiplication between weighting and rating) in each factor analysis. based on the results of the analysis of the internal environment with an analysis of the strengths and weaknesses found in the school and fgd conducted with research informants related to the standards of educators and educational personnel, it can be formulated that the ifas matrix was as follows. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 337 table 2. internal factor analysis strategy (ifas) internal factor analysis strategy weight rank score strength 100% of teachers have qualification of bachelor degree education and have fulfilled 4 teacher competencies in the "good" category. 0,16 4 0,64 56% of teachers already have educator certificates. 0,13 3,5 0,455 the school principal has a master’s education qualification. 0,17 4 0,68 the head of school administration staff has an s2 education qualification. 0,14 4 0,56 total 0,6 15,5 2,335 weaknesses the number of active teachers in carrying out sustainable professional development especially in scientific publications and innovative works is only 8%. 0,13 3 0,39 teachers who are able to implement the 2013 curriculum are less than 50% 0,15 3 0,45 the average level of education of administrative staff is high school equivalent with a percentage of 73.52%. 0,12 2,5 0,3 total 0,4 8,5 1,14 total 1 24 3,475 furthermore, based on the results of the analysis of the external environment with the analysis of opportunities and threats and the results of the discussion in a group discussion forum with research informants related to the standards of educators and educational personnel, it can be formulated that the efas matrix is was as follows. table 3. external factor analysis strategy (efas) external factor analysis strategy weight rank score opportunities government policy on teacher certification 0,2 3,5 0,7 the availability of educational scholarships to continue to higher education 0,15 3,5 0,525 the number of workshops and seminars from the government, educational quality assurance institution (lpmp), higher education, and from professional organizations for scientific development. 0,21 3 0,63 total 0,56 10 1,855 threats the development of increasingly sophisticated science and technology 0,13 2 0,26 changes in government policies and regulations both at the district / city level and at the national level 0,14 3 0,42 high competitiveness with other schools 0,08 2 0,16 the high public expectations of educators and educational personnel as professional personnel who are always reliable in all respects. 0,09 2 0,18 total 0,44 4 1,02 total 1 14 2,875 source: results of research analysis and fgd of researchers, 2019 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 338 based on the results of calculations on the ifas and efas matrix above, in general, it can be concluded that: 1. total strength score owned is 2.335 2. total weakness score is 1.14 3. the total opportunities score that can be utilized is 1.855 4. the total score of threats that must be faced is 1.02 to be more concise, each ifas and efas matrix total score can be seen in the following table. table 4. recapitulation of ifas and efas matrix calculations factor analysis total score strength 2,335 weaknesses 1,14 threats 1,855 opportunities 1,02 based on the recapitulation table calculation of ifas and efas matrix obtained, it can be concluded that the school in terms of educators and educational personnel had greater strengths than weaknesses and had greater opportunities than threats. to be able to determine the strategic position of the school in terms of the standard aspects of educators and educational personnel in a diagram consisting of 4 quadrants, the x-axis and y-axis were determined first. the x-axis consisted of internal environmental factors which were a reduction in the weighted score of strengths and weaknesses. (x-axis = strength score weighting weakness score weighting), while the y-axis consisted of external environmental factors which were a reduction in score weighting from opportunities and threats (y-axis = opportunities score weighting threat score weighting). based on the above explanation, it can be seen that: 1. x-axis coordinate point 2. x-axis = strength score weighting weakness score weighting = 2.335 1.14 = 1.195 3. y-axis coordinate point 4. y-axis = opportunities weight score threat score weighting = 1.855 1.02 = 0.835 based on the results of the analysis above, it can be seen that the school was in quadrant i (aggressive strategy). this showed that the school was in a very good situation because there were forces that were utilized to seize profitable opportunities. with this position, seen from the standards of educators and educational personnel, the school was in a position to be irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 339 developed. for more details about the school's strategic position, it can be seen in the following chart. figure 3. strategic position of the school in the standard aspects of educators and educational personnel based on the figure above, the strategy was determined to develop the quality of educators and educational personnel using a swot analysis. the swot analysis is a method used in determining potential strategies that can be developed on the basis of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. the swot matrix is basically a list of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats, and a combination of strengths (s) and opportunities (o), strengths (s) and threats (t), weaknesses (w) and opportunities (o), weaknesses (o) w) and threats (t). in order to set goals more realistically and effectively, the swot matrix was also used. besides, the swot analysis was also implemented to formulate strategies effectively. thus, a core strategy would be obtained which in principle a strategy is to: a) utilize the strengths and opportunities that exist, b) overcome the existing threats, and c) fix existing weaknesses. based on the swot analysis that had been done, a series of strategies that can be implemented can be seen in the following table. opportunities (+1,855) threat (+1, 02) weaknesses (-1, 14) strength (+2,335) (+1, 195, +0,835) i. aggressive strategy ii. diversification iv. defense (strategy maintenance) iii. turn around (strategy changing) irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 340 table 5. strategic issues based on swot analysis swot strength(s) 100% of teachers had qualification of s1 education and had fulfilled 4 teacher competencies in the "good" category. 56% of teachers already had educator certificates. the school principal had a master’s education qualification. the head of school administration personnel had an s2 education qualification. weaknesses(w) the number of active teachers in carrying out sustainable professional development especially in scientific publications and innovative works is only 8%. teachers who are able to implement the 2013 curriculum are less than 50% the average level of education of administrative personnel is high school equivalent with a percentage of 73.52%. opportunities (o) government policy on teacher certification the availability of educational scholarships to continue to higher education the number of workshops and seminars from the government, educational quality assurance institution (lpmp), higher education, and from professional organizations for scientific development. strategy so make use of government policies to include teachers in the teacher certification program provide opportunities for educators to continue their education strategy wo involving teachers in workshops and seminars to develop their abilities in implementing the 2013 curriculum providing opportunities for educational personnel to continue their education facilitating teachers through workshops and seminars to be able to carry out continuing professional development threats (t) the development of increasingly sophisticated science and technology changes in government policies and regulations both at the district / city level and at the national level high competitiveness with other schools the high public expectations of educators and educational personnel as professional personnel who are always reliable in all respects. strategy st programming education and training for teachers and educational personnel to be able to follow developments in science and technology strengthening the competencies of the school principal, teachers and other educational personnel so as to get high credibility from the community and be able to compete with other schools strategy wt simplify educational career paths implementing a school-level outstanding teacher program actively in continuing professional development and skilled in implementing the 2013 curriculum based on the results of the identification of internal and external environmental factors contained in the swot analysis matrix above, a series of information was obtained that can be used to develop the quality of educators and educational personnel. given that irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 341 the school is one of the reference schools for alliance schools, the school must be able to show a positive image and a high level of credibility in front of the society and other schools, especially alliance schools. after reviewing various conditions both internal and external environment, the following strategic issues were determined: a) implementing a continuous professional program (continuous professional development); b) providing opportunities for continuing education for teachers and educational personnel; c) organizing school-level outstanding teacher programs; d) facilitating teachers for teacher certification; e) conducting seminars, workshops, and workshops for teachers and educational personnel; f) conducting in house training to strengthen the competence of teachers and educational personnel; and g) conducting a self-assessment program. discussion swot analysis is one of the useful tools to identify strengths, weaknesses, and opportunities and challenges (tsiakkiros & pashiardis, 2002). swot analysis is used to help initiate meaningful changes in a program and use data to improve the program (orr, 2013). the essence of the successful implementation of a strategic plan is leadership, commitment, ownership, and accountability, trust in the plan, communication, progress monitoring, praise and recognition, and patience. to avoid failure, information must be collected from all stakeholders, roles and responsibilities must be clearly defined, expectations must be communicated, interests must be maintained in the process and progress and processes must be continuously monitored. in this case, the principal as leadership has an important role because the true principle as explained by virgana (2018) must be competent in compiling a systematic school development plan as coordinating all school programs both vertically and horizontally. based on the findings above, it can be seen that there were a number of points that became strengths and weaknesses as well as several points that became opportunities and challenges faced by the school to improve the quality of educators and educational personnel. as of the results of the analysis, a matrix was made that could describe the position of educators and educational personnel in the school. the results indicated that the school was in an aggressive strategy to develop. this position indicated that the condition of educators and educational personnel in the school was in a strong position and had the opportunity to develop. based on the strategic issues developed in this study, there are several steps that can be taken by policy makers to improve the quality of educators and educational personnel. among them, the first is implementing a continuous professional program (continuous professional development). continuous professional development is the development of competencies that teachers do according to the need gradually and continuously so that they can improve their professionalism. second, providing opportunities for continuing education for teachers and educational personnel, and providing opportunities for continuing education to educators and educational personnel to develop teacher competencies and careers. the third is organizing school-level outstanding teacher programs. teacher programs or outstanding educational personnel can be organized by the school in an effort irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 342 to improve their quality and performance. with this program, educators and educational personnel will compete to show the best performance so that they become qualified educators and educational personnel. the fourth is facilitating teachers for teacher certifications. certification is one form that teachers have professionalism in their work as an educator. schools as the party responsible for the performance of teachers and educational personnel must become facilitators and support their human resources to have competency certificates. the fifth is conducting seminars and workshops for teachers and educational personnel. schools must facilitate and encourage the existing human resources to attend training, seminars and workshops to enhance their competence and abilities. the sixth is conducting in house training to strengthen the competence of teachers and educational personnel. implementation of in-house training can improve the competence of both educators and educational personnel because they get training directly at their place of work. the last is conducting a self-assessment program. schools must encourage teachers and educational personnel to conduct self-assessments of their own performance. in addition, schools have to conduct a self-assessment program to be able to assess the performance of teachers and educational personnel regularly and continuously so that improvements can continue. strategic planning is considered as an effective way to implement a strategy in the past. strategic planning is involved in the process of preparing a strategy, supporting implementation, and developing the strategy into a detailed strategic plan, which is part of the implementation of the strategy. strategic planning also coordinates the process of developing strategic plans at the lower level of the hierarchy. williams and johnson (2013) suggest that all stakeholders affected by the strategic planning must be involved in the discussion and the plan must be made available to all interested parties before implementation. strategic management and strategic planning in schools are not instantaneous, but can also be seen as an effort or process, and this management requires the strategic planning to become a comprehensive school daily performance (chukwumah & ezeugbor, 2015). besides, the strategic planning sets actions and directions that can lead to development and growth in schools (wanjala & rarieya, 2014). therefore, the results of the strategic planning that had been carried out to develop the quality of educators and educational personnel are expected to be the basis of planning for developing the quality of educators and educational personnel. conclusion and recommendations/implications educators and educational personnel are part of the education system which has an important role in the development of quality which must be done through the strategic planning. the analysis of the internal and external environment showed that the position of this vocational high school in the city of bandung was in quadrant 1 (aggressive) which showed a potential position to develop. strategic issues that can be applied by the school based on these findings are implementing ongoing professional programs, providing opportunities for continuing education, organizing high-achieving school-level teacher irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 343 programs, facilitating teachers for teacher certifications, conducting seminars, and workshops for teachers and educational personnel and in house implementation training to strengthen the competence of teachers and educational personnel, and conducting a self-assessment program. disclosure statement there is no potential conflict of interest reported 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(2019). strategic management and strategic planning in school: is it worth for teachers?. academy of strategic management journal, 18(3), 1-6. biographical notes dr. hanif al kadri was born in padang, on september 21, 1976. he has a bachelor degree in educational administration from universitas negeri padang, indonesia, in 2002, master’s degree in educational administration from universitas negeri padang, indonesia, in 2005, and doctoral degree in educational administration from universitas pendidikan indonesia, bandung, indonesia in 2015. he has been a lecturer at department of educational administration, universitas negeri padang since 2008. he also serves as secretary of the department. widiawati was born in bukittingi, on october 02, 1991. she obtained her bachelor degree in educational administration from universitas negeri padang, west sumatera, indonesia in 2015 and master’s degree in educational administration from universitas pendidikan indonesia, bandung, west java, indonesia in 2019. she was an awardee of 2011-2015 bidikmisi scholarship and an awardee of 2016-2019 educational fund management institution. she received an award as the best graduate of the bachelor's degree in 2015 and master's degree in 2019. she has been a research assistant and assistant lecturer at upi bandung's education administration since 2018 until 2020. now, she is a lecturer at department of educational administration in universitas negeri padang. https://doi.org/10.21831/jk.v2i2.9430 this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje | vol.3 | no. 2| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 210 indonesian research journal in education (irje) | vol. 3 | no. 2|year 2019 the mission of the irje (indonesian research journal in education) is to serve as a vital and international forum for a different group of scholars and researchers who are of interest in exchanging ideas in order to enrich the theory, policy, and practice of education in indonesia and around the world and who can grasp a noteworthy voice in discussions and decision-making around issues of education. irje is a free, twice-yearly, open access, peer-reviewed, international, and e-journal, published in indonesia, which accepts unpublished, high quality, and original research manuscripts in english, resulting primarily from quantitative, qualitative, and mixed research methodology related to or associated with education. all research articles appearing in irje have undergone a thoroughly peer-review. editorial team lead editor amirul mukminin, jambi university, indonesia managing editors akhmad habibi, jambi university, indonesia dairabi kamil, state islamic university of kerinci, indonesia muhaimin, jambi university, indonesia mukhlash abrar, jambi university, indonesia assistant editors masbirorotni, jambi university, indonesia siti rahma sari, jambi university, indonesia failasofah, jambi university, indonesia nunung fajaryani, jambi university, indonesia international editorial board jeffrey ayala milligan, the florida state university, usa thomas f. luschei, claremont graduate university, usa shen chen, university of newcastle, australia abdul jalil bin othman, university of malaya, malaysia tiago neves, university of porto, portugal saedah siraj, university of malaya, malaysia judit navracsics, university of pannonia, hungary irina golubeva, university of miskolc, hungary pedro sanchez escobedo, universidad autónoma de yucatán (uady), mexico muhammad kamarul kabilan, university of science, malaysia jennifer elsden-clifton, griffith university, australia https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=-jksvt8aaaaj&hl=en https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=ip8-bosaaaaj&hl=en https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=4lk2yumaaaaj&hl=en https://www.researchgate.net/profile/failasofah_failasofah https://www.researchgate.net/profile/nunung_fajaryani https://umexpert.um.edu.my/jalil https://umexpert.um.edu.my/saedah https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=k5skd70aaaaj&hl=en irje | vol.3 | no. 2| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 211 farrah dina binti yusof, university of malaya, malaysia dina belluigi, queen's university belfast, north ireland, uk. florante p. ibarra, central luzon state university, the philippines yunisrina qismullah yusuf, syiah kuala university, indonesia rafiza binti abdul razak, university of malaya, malaysia lourdes villardon, university of deusto, spain nor azmi mostafa, sultan idris education university, malaysia mohd rashid bin mohd saad, university of malaya, malaysia hadiyanto, jambi university, indonesia muazza, jambi university, indonesia anton widyanto, ar-raniry state islamic university, indonesia eddy haryanto, jambi university, indonesia mohd faiz mohd yaakob,universiti utara malaysia, malaysia layout editors robin pratama, jambi university robi hendra, jambi university focus and scope irje (the indonesian research journal in education) accepts unpublished, high quality, and original research manuscripts in english, resulting primarily from quantitative, qualitative, or mixed research methodology related to or associated with education. these issues include, but not limited to, practices, policies, and research in education from early childhood education to higher education which cover the areas of instruction, learning, teaching, curriculum development, educational policy, language education and policy, bilingual education, multicultural education, art education, teacher education, educational technology, educational developments, educational psychology, and international education in indonesia and other parts of the world. publication frequency irje is published 2 times per year (june and december) by jambi university, the graduate school, doctoral program in education. publisher irje (indonesian research journal in education) the graduate school, doctoral program in education jambi university, jl. raden mattaher no.16, jambi, indonesia 36113 issn 2580-5711-e-mail: irje@unja.ac.id https://umexpert.um.edu.my/rafiza https://umexpert.um.edu.my/msaadmr https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=ohvkfocaaaaj&hl=en mailto:irje@unja.ac.id irje | vol.3 | no. 2| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 212 content 209 editorial 215 principals’ perceptions on admission services in kwara state secondary schools, nigeria: a phenomenology approach yusuf suleiman, zahyah hanafi, muhajir thanslikan 236 investigating the contributing factors to teaching anxiety during teaching practicum: a case of indonesian pre-service efl teachers dinda permatasari, herri mulyono, ferawati 249 difficulties and correlation between phenomenon and reasoning tier of multiple-choice questions: a survey study hilman qudratuddarsi, renuka v sathasivam, hutkemri 265 developing an indonesian reading proficiency test for bipa learners andika eko prasetiyo 280 motivational framework of academic scholars and student leaders: comparative analysis on achievement and mastery goals rosario f. quicho 300 anagram based l2 activation zsófia lengyel 319 young agriculturists’ journey: the agricultural science and technology school tracer study regidor g. gaboy, teodora t. battad, soledad s. mina-roguel, rojelito f. sison 340 ambivalent attitudes to regional dialects in hungary: investigating students and teachers andrea parapatics 358 filipino students’ preferred motivational strategies in science: a cross-sectional survey danilo v. rogayan jr, jocelyn r. bautista 373 gender differences in verbal fluency and language dominance by arab students darin nshiwi, failasofah 387 english exposure from digital media and its influence on communicative competence: students’ perspectives and experiences eddy haryanto, urip sulistiyo, povi fransiska, imelda yose irje | vol.3 | no. 2| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 213 editorial in this volume (3 and issue 1), irje (indonesian research journal in education) provides readers with sixteen articles that explore various themes on education in indonesia and other countries. this volume commences with the article “principals’ perceptions on admission services in kwara state secondary schools, nigeria: a phenomenology approach” which is written by yusuf suleiman, zahyah hanafi, muhajir thanslikan. this study examines principals’ perceptions on admission services in kwara state secondary schools, nigeria. for the second article, dinda permatasari, herri mulyono, ferawati ferawati concentrates on “examining the contributing factors to this anxiety among pre-service teachers performed the teaching of english as a foreign language (efl) during their practicum in primary and secondary schools in indonesia. another thought-provoking article offered by hilman qudratuddarsi, renuka v sathasivam, hutkemri, is entitled “difficulties and correlation between phenomenon and reasoning tier of multiple-choice questions: a survey study.” the other attention-grabbing article, “developing an indonesian reading proficiency test for bipa learners” is authored by andika eko prasetiyo. one eye-catching article is from rosario f. quicho, “motivational framework of academic scholars and student leaders: comparative analysis on achievement and mastery goals.” the sixth article is “anagram based l2 activation” authored by zsófia lengyel. one interesting article, “young agriculturists’ journey: the agricultural science and technology school tracer study” is authored by regidor g. gaboy, teodora t. battad, soledad s. mina-roguel, rojelito f. sison. in this volume, irje publishes article on “ambivalent attitudes to regional dialects in hungary: investigating students and teachers” which is written by andrea parapatics. in this volume, danilo v. rogayan jr, jocelyn r. bautista contritube an article to irje, “filipino students’ preferred motivational strategies in 407 experts’ agreement of the personalized m-learning curriculum model based on fuzzy delphi method moganadass ramalingam, siti hajar halili, saedah siraj 421 processing of written sentences on the example of russian-english bilinguals liubov darzhinova 434 analyzing difficulties in problem solving of the polygon area for elementary students ahmad nizar rangkuti 442 efl students' needs of digital literacy to meet the demands of 21stcentury skills eryansyah eryansyah, erlina erlina, fiftinova fiftinova, ari nurweni 461 the efl students’ 21st century skill practices through e-learning activities hadiyanto irje | vol.3 | no. 2| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 214 science: a cross-sectional survey.” the tenth article is “gender differences in verbal fluency and language dominance by arab students” authored by darin nshiwi, failasofah. the other article, “english exposure from digital media and its influence on communicative competence: students’ perspectives and experiences,” is authored by eddy haryanto, urip sulistiyo, povi fransiska, imelda yose. additionally, moganadass ramalingam, siti hajar halili, saedah siraj contritube an article to irje, “experts’ agreement of the personalized m-learning curriculum model based on fuzzy delphi method.” one interesting article from liubov darzhinova in this volume is “processing of written sentences on the example of russian-english bilinguals.” ahmad nizar rangkuti also writes an article, “analyzing difficulties in problem solving of the polygon area for elementary students.” the other great article is authored by eryansyah, erlina erlina, fiftinova fiftinova, ari nurweni, “efl students' needs of digital literacy to meet the demands of 21stcentury skills.” the last interesting article is written by hadiyanto, “the efl students’ 21st century skill practices through e-learning activities.” this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 75 the involvement of the twelfth grade english textbook in jordan: an analytical study rami abu sa'aleek 1 abstract the english language textbook for the twelfth grade is relatively a new edition.thus, with the importance of the textbook in language learning, this study aimed at investigating the involvement degree for the 12th grade english language textbook in jordan through analyzing the presentation of educational contents and activities. to achieve this purpose, rummy’s (1968) method was used to collect the data. the sample of the study was 15% of the book pages to examine the involvement of the educational content. the sample also consisted of all the activities with total (136) activities. the findings of the study showed that the decrease of students' involvement in educational content in the english language textbook for 12th grade and were not in the satisfactory range adopted by rummy’s (1968) method, reaching the value to (0.18). the study also revealed that the involvement level of the activities was excellent with a coefficient (1.41). based on these results, some implications are presented such as revising the content to focus on higher thinking skills, not fact or conclusions only. keywords action pack, english textbook, jordan, involvement, rummy's method 1 a ph.d. student at yarmouk university in jordan; ramiabusaaleek87@yahoo.com irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 76 introduction a textbook has taken a special place in the educational process. it is a reference that students rely on it for gaining the knowledge. it is also a basic source for students if they need information, facts, and educational exercises. so that the textbook is important for introducing educational contents and directing students for what they study (abu zeina, 1994). a textbook is also a fundamental pillar in learning process. it is prepared by the educational researchers, and it can be seen as an important factor in determining the appropriate materials for students according to the academic stage in order to study. an english textbook has played an essential part in the educational process for introducing content that is useful and practical for students. one of these books is the action pack 12 that has been adopted by the jordanian ministry of education for the 12th -grade students. teaching process needs a textbook as a basic component in learning. thus, it should usually be well-written, well-organized, and welledited (pamungkas, 2010). also, a textbook in the teaching and learning process can be seen as an important guide for both teachers and students (hornby, 1995). the content of the textbook is one the most highlighted elements of the curriculum because it considers the practical way of the textbook in its all goals, activities, and assessment tools. a textbook is also used in developing learners' personality, and in increasing the mental, emotional and physical maturity of learners. so that, presenting the material sequentially is urgent in the learning/teaching process (al-qani & al-jamal, 2003; sa'ada & ibrahim, 2011). furthermore, a textbook is the major guide for teacher and learner (ibrahim, 2009), as it is one of the basic sources of learning in the third world countries on which all students depend on it for their learning (al-mutlas, 1997). consequently, the textbook must be carefully published as it includes a number of units and each unit is divided into several topics and one subject that includes a number of questions, activities, and exercises in addition to the scientific content supported by pictures, forms, diagrams, experiences, and experiences of the learner (chiappetta, fillman, & sethna, 1991). a school book has a great importance for these reasons. it offers an experience in the content that fewer teachers have, and it organizes the content for some subjects logically to ensure that the material is arranged for educational purposes. also, teachers and students are provided with some sorts of safety, by explaining to them where they will go, what they will know , what will come up in the curriculum and what will follow and where their educational journey will end. hence, a teacher will provide questions that must be asked to the students, and will provide them with material to be used in exams, will suggest activities that students engage in, and provides teachers with answers (eisner, 1994). because of the importance of the textbook and the significant role that it plays in the teaching and learning process. the interest in analyzing and evaluating it in many respects is no less important than the rest of the curriculum, in order to identify weaknesses and strengths in it (tanner & tanner, 1998). the ministry of education (moe) has given a special interest in the school textbook, and has regularly adapted it to be suitable for learning any grade. in jordan, teaching english language is for all grades from1 to 12 grades. english language is taught for students four and five times a week. each class lasts for 45 minutes. action pack series is the official textbook for teaching english language in public schools from grade 112. this textbook has students' book, activity book and teacher book with a cd. hence, taking care of what irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 77 students learn in their textbooks is important which will inspire teachers and researchers to evaluate the components of textbooks. the textbook is a primary source in the educational process that motivates the educational authors to take care of the book. so, it is important to take care of the textbook components. one of the most school stages is the secondary stage that builds students for advanced one. many specialists emphasize on the appropriateness of the textbook for students, which gives them a chance for sharing and exchanging the opinions. different trends are now calling to focus on the investigation during the preparation of the textbook. the jordanian ministry of education has given an interest in the english textbooks. these textbooks have taught to students from the first to twelfth grades, with four to five classes every week. although this vast and major interest happen, students' achievement are not acceptable. the researcher may be due to this low achievement in the way that the educational content is presented in the textbook. this content does not involve students in their learning and presenting the knowledge easily without sharing with students. in light of the above discussion, the current study sought to examine the english secondary textbook '' action pack 12'' for the twelfth grade. this textbook is a new edition that the jordanian ministry of education has developed since 2015 and 2016. this study sought to answer the following questions: what is the presentation of the educational content involvement degree in the english language textbook for the twelfth-grade students in jordan? what is the activities' involvement degree in the english language textbook for the twelfthgrade students in jordan? literature review analyzing a textbook must be according to the standards for evaluating the appropriateness of the book and its suitability for use, one of these standards is the use of the involvement. the involvement of the textbook is important for students in helping them deal with the developments and in finding solutions to the problems. therefore, a textbook should be written in a way that supports the building of strong personality for the students by using active learning and encouraging students to engage in it (al-hashemi & al-ghazawi, 2006). the involvement reveals the appropriateness of the book for students without dictating the scientific material and reveals the extent to which students can deduce ideas and use the scientific inquiry methods. hence, a book should present the materials in a way that makes students involved and active in the educational process (al-khataybeh, 2008). according to al-naji (2002), the involvement means '' the degree of attracting the textbook for students and involving them in the book material through presenting the educational material, including the activities and abstracts that stimulate students to explore and discover, and challenge their ideas to be more interactive''(p. 77). suleiman (2003) defined involvement as the book level in presenting data for students and presenting situations related to the learning environment and motivating the selflearning. rummy (1968) who is the first peron measuring the the textbook invlovment. the degree of the involvement textbook calculated through presenting the educational material, drawings, shapes, and abstracts and activities. this method can be used by randomly choosing some pages of the textbook and analyzing them to find out the degree of the involvement textbook (abu ena'aj, 2007). irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 78 according to rummy (1968), the textbook content should be written in a way that allows the student engaging in the learning process as an active student (fazlollahi & tavana, 2010). the active content that rummy (1968) claimed, including the following features: (1) introducing the content in a stimulating way which gives the student a positive role in the learning process, (2) asking questions which need the student to think and generate knowledge, (3) providing the enriching and reinforcing activities that stimulate students' thinking and increases in them the spirit of discovery, (4) the active content asks students to deal with the contradictory views to check these views and choose the fit for a solution (delavar, 2007). there are different studies that have been carried out to analyze and test the involvement level. in this regard, al-wa’elly (2017) analyzed the involvement of arabic language grammar textbook for the tenth grade in jordan. to collect the data, rummy’s (1968) technique was used with 16 topics and 74 activities of the textbook. the results of the study indicated that the involvement degree of the material displayed was not in the acceptable range adopted by rummy (1968) . also, the findings revealed that the involvement level of the activities is was (0.47), which means that these activities were within the acceptable limits. eslaminejad and saeid (2017) investigated the involvement of the content english language textbook for the adult in iran by annalyzing the textbook covered texts, activities, questions, and figures and diagrams. the results of their study revealed that the involvement of the texts, questions, and activities was good and encouraged students to involve in the learning process. moreover, fari (2016) examined the involvement of the science books for sixth, seventh, and eighth grade in palestine through using rummy’s (1968) formula used to calculate the involvement degree. the findings showed that the content and the activities of the textbook were in a low range based on rummy’s equation (1968) with (0.4) in students' involvement in the science books. the results also showed that the pictures and diagrams were in a high range based on rummy’s (1968) equation ranged between (1.75) and (0.68). also, haji (2016) examined the involvement degree of the social studies textbooks for the sixth intermediate basic students in kurdistan. after applying rummy’s (1968) method, the results showed that the students' involvement was not agreed with rummy’s (1968) method for the educational content and figures and diagrams. the finding of the study showed that the students' involvement through educational activities of the book has found in an acceptable level. another study done by khalaf (2015) who examined the appropriateness of the content science book for the fourth grade to the level of students in jordan. the content analysis was used to measure the involvement level of the content presentation. the results showed that the content of the science book was suitable for only twenty percent of the students. in addition, yahia (2014) conducted a study aiming at identifying the degree of involvement of science books for primary school students in jordan. the population study consisted of six books of science for the first, second, and third grades of primary school, which is taught from 2014-2015. the study used an instrument consisting of three models, to assess the inclusion of presentation content, graphics, shapes, and activities. the results indicated that there were inconsistency and consistency in the direction of involving science books for students, indicateing the absence of official and clear standards, and foundations for authors in the management of curricula. in taiwan, chen (2013) analyzed the content of three science and technology textbooks for the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth grades. 16616 sentences were analyzed and categorized into five domains. the findings showed that about irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 79 half of the total number of sentences belongs to the category of facts and description, and a quarter of the total sentences belong to the category of causal interpretations or predictive interpretations. the textbooks for grades 5 and 6 also contained causal explanatory ratios higher than the third and fourth grades. the books of all classes contained a small proportion of explanatory causal sentences, and the percentage of physics and chemistry books containing predictive explanatory sentences was higher than that of others, whereas the living books contained the highest proportion of facts compared to books. moreover, nawafleh (2012) explored the involvement level of the sixth, seventh, and eighth grade science textbooks in jordan. rummy’s (1968) method was used to calculate the students' involvement. the results of the study revealed that the content involvement of students was in an acceptable range. also, the study results indicated that the involvement activities was low which means that the textbook did not have enough activities that allow students to develop their thinking, whereas the pictures and diagrams of the involvement were good. alsirhani (2011) evaluated the texts' involvement level in the arabic language textbook for the fourth grade in saudi arabia. to define the degree of the involvement, rummy’s (1968) formula was used. the findings of the study revealed that the text involvement was (0.40) which means that the textbook is good, and it helps students to think, analyze, and investigate. abd el-magieed (2011) analyzed the readability and involvement degree in the agricultural expansion book in egypt. to measure the degree, rummy’s method (1968) was used. the results indicated that the book does not provide enough opportunities for students to think and analyze, reaching with (0.4) based on rummy’s (1968) method. based on the results of the previous studies, it can be concluded that the findings of some studies indicated that some books had acceptable level of the involvement such as alsirhani, (2011), chen (2013), and eslaminejad and saeid, (2017) while some studies (e.g., al-wa’elly, 2017; abd el-magieed, 2011; fari, 2016; khalaf, 2015; nawafleh, 2012; yahia, 2014) indicated an unacceptable level of the textbook involvement. methodology primarily, the descriptive quantitative design of the study was used to identify the involvement level of the english textbook for the 12th -grade in jordan. rummy’s (1968) method was used to calculate the involvement degree of the textbook concerning with the presentation of educational contents and activities. population and sample the population of this study was represented in the textbook of english language of 12th grade for the scholastic year (2017-2018). this book consists of ten educational units. the researcher depended on the following areas to analyze the textbook: the involvement degree of the educational content presentation and activities. the sample related to the involvement degree in the presentation of educational content was limited to 15% of the book pages. choosing the pages was random. the study sample used for estimating the involvement in educational activities including all the educational activities in the book with a total of 136 activities. irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 80 instrument the instrument of the current study was through using rummy’s formula (1968) for collecting data. this formula was used to calculate the involvement degree of the action pack 12 as a textbook for the 12th -grade students in jordan in dealing with the educational content presentation and activities as summarized in the following: the first model: the involvement coefficient in the presentation of the educational content for analyzing the presentation of educational contents, rummy’s (1968) formula was adopted, and the sentences of the lesson are were coded as the following: code (a) facts; (b) conclusions or generalizations; (c) definitions which mean that the statements presented by the book to determine the meanings and concepts contained in it; (d) questions asked and answered by the book directly; (e) questions asking students to analyze information; (f) declarative sentence; (g) instructions that ask the student to perform and analyze an activity; (h) questions that interest the student; (i) guided sentences; (j) rhetorical sentences. among the ten categories of analysis that are mentioned above, the categories (a, b, c, d) are inactive, which means that these categories do not encourage students to participate or use inquiry research skills. the categories (e, f, g, h) are active which means that these groups can involve students in their learning and motivate them to discover, whereas the categories (i, j) are natural which means that they cannot influence on the involvement degree, and therefore, they are not calculated in the evaluation process. the formula of students’ involvement coefficient used is the involvement coefficient = (e, f, g, h) ÷ (a, b, c, d(. the second model: the involvement coefficient for the educational activities to measure the involvement activities, the following formula was used: the the involvement coefficient = the number of activities ÷ number of pages. according to rummy’s (1968) method, different standards were adapted to measure the involvement coefficient, and these standards were mentioned in (azar's, 1982). they are: (1) the involvement coefficient is zero, which means that the absence of involvement, (2) the involvement coefficient is 1, which means that half the book sentences motivate students to think, and the other half does not involve them, (3) the involvement coefficient is more than 1, which means that increasing the content that requires investigation, (4) the involvement coefficient is less than 0.4, which means that the textbook is authoritarian and includes a little challenge for students' thinking, (5) the involvement coefficient is more than 1.5 which indicates that the textbook contains only questions, and it does not provide students with enough data for dealing effectively with questions, and (6) the involvement coefficient is located between (0.4 1.5) which means that the textbook can make students active in their learning. validity and reliability to establish the validity of the procedures, the porcedures of the study had been given to a jury of three experts in tefl and measurement and evaluation to ascertain its irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 81 appropriateness for the purposes of the research. to find out the reliability, the researcher calculated the reliability of the presentation of educational content by using the two methods. first is the reliability of the researcher himself. the researcher re-analyzed the analysis by choosing a random sample of 6 pages of the total sample. after the first analysis had been finished, the researcher did another analysis after three weeks. the results of the two analyses compared with each other. the agreement of percentage calculated between the analyses, reaching (80) which was educationally accepted, so that the credibility was achieved. second is the reliability of the researcher with another analyst. the researcher chose 6 pages that hadbeen chosen randomly from the sample of the study. these pages were given to the analyst after showing and training him how the presentation of educational content analyzed according to rummy’s (1968) method. the agreements and disagreements points limited after the analysis finished. the agreement of percentage was calculated between the two analyses, reaching (0.78) which as an acceptable, as it can be considered a strong value if it is between (0.610.80) according to the kappa coefficient. reliability of the activities had not been done because of rummy's (1968) method requiring the activities number divided by the number pages used to identify the involvement activities statistical analysis to evaluate the textbook involvement for the 12th -grade students (action pack 12) in jordan, rummy’s (1968) formula was utilized to calculate and analyze the frequencies and percentages for the analysis of the two areas,which were the educational content and activities. findings and discussion results related to the first question: determining the involvement degree of the english language book for the 12th -grade students, through the presentation of educational content this study aimed at investigating the involvement degree for the 12th grade english language textbook in jordan through analyzing the presentation of educational contents and activities. to find out the degree of the involvement english language book concerning with the presentation of educational content, i analyzed the materials (study sample) based on the categories of rummy’s (1968) formula. frequencies for each category were calculated. table 1 presents the results of the analysis. table 1. frequencies and percentage of the sentences through the presentation of educational content in the english language book 12th – grade category sentences frequencies percentage a facts 80 54 b conclusions and generalization 38 25.50 c definitions 3 2 d answered questions directly by the book 5 3.35 irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 82 e analytical questions 3 2 f declarative sentences 17 11.40 g instructions h questions that interest the student 3 2 i guide sentences j rhetorical sentences total 149 100% involvement coefficient of the book 0.18 as demonstrated in table1, the involvement coefficient of the presentation of the educational content was not located in an acceptable range identified by rummy’s (1968) formula which is (0.40 -1.5) reaching (0.18). the results of the analysis show that the book is autocratic and having little intellectual challenges for the students. the book also does not reinforce the students' in their learning, and it does not promote students' thinking, analysis, research, investigation, and evaluation. thus, it can be concluded from these results that the english language book for the 12thgrade focuses on the facts with the 80 frequencies, 38 for conclusions, and generalization, which means that the book is not attentive to the critical thinking skills and problemsolving. the study results might be due to that the authors' have little awareness of publishing the book based on the new trends that focus on students' learning. besides, the involvement concept was not understood clearly by the authors due to their teaching .the finding of the study is consistent with the findings of the studies done by al-wa’elly (2017), fari (2016), and haji (2016) who found that the involvement coefficient of presenting the educational content was low based on rummy’s formula (1968). however, the findings of this study are also inconsistent with the findings of the studies done by eslaminejad and saeid (2017) and nawaflah (2012) who found that the involvement coefficient of the activities was good based on rummy’s formula (1968). results related to the second question: determining the involvement degree of the english language book for the 12th -grade students, through the educational activities. i counted the educational activities in the book of the 12th -grade with a total of 136 activities. to find out the involvement coefficient of the educational activities, the following formula was adopted as follows: the involvement coefficient = (136) number of activities ÷ (96) number of pages = 1.41. table 2 shows the unit titles and the number of activities in the english book for the 12th grade. table 2. unit titles and number of activities for the english book of the 12th grade unit number unit title number of activities 1 information technology 14 2 a healthy life 11 3 medical advances 14 4 success stories 14 5 the arts 13 irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 83 6 education today 14 7 lifelong learning 14 8 language 12 9 the world of business 15 10 career choices 15 total 10 136 the results of the analysis showed that the involvement coefficient of the activities was 1.41, which means that the english language book for the 12th-grade students is excellent for making students active and involved in the learning process. this book also introduces linguistic activities that allow the students to take part and interact with supporting the self-learning. i was due to these results to the fact that the book might be concerned with the evaluation questions and exercises for achieving the aims of the book. these questions include the comprehension and the evaluation areas to increase students' linguistic competence. in addition, the book takes care of the activities to develop students' thinking and help them to learn the content. the result of this study is inconsistent with the finding of studies done by fari (2016) and nawaflah (2012). however, the result is consistent with the findings of studies done by al-wa’elly (2017), eslaminejad and saeid (2017), and haji (2016) who found that the book concerns with the educational activities. conclusion and recommendations several conclusions can be drawn from the findings. first, the involvement degree of the educational content display for the 12th -grade english textbook was (0.18). it means that the textbook is not found in an acceptable range based on rummy’s (1968) formula. this result indicates that the book does not involve the students in their learning. second, the involvement degree of the activities is good, reaching (1.41). this study shows that the book gives educational activities that give the chance for students to practice the language. there are some implications of these results. first, the educational content for the 12th -grade students of the english language book should be improved and revised to focus on higher thinking skills, not fact or conclusions only. second, the activities used in the english language book for the 12th grade are perfect and meet the aims of the book. based on the findings of the study, some recommendations are proposed: (1) the educational content of the english language book should be revised to make the students involved, (2) the authors of the english textbook should be more aware of the involvement concept and its categories, and (3) conducting similar studies focusing on the involvement for different school stages either basic or secondary stage in jordan. references abd el-magieed, m. a. m. (2011). readability level and involvement degree of agricultural extension textbook among the bachelor students of some educational programs in faculty of agriculture. journal of agricultural economic and social science, 2(5), 541-560. irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 84 abu ena'aj, t. (2007). the degree of involvement of the physics book of the student in the basic stage (unpublished master thesis), amman arab university for graduate studies, amman, jordan. abu zeina, f. (1994). mathematics curriculum and their teaching. kuwait: al falah library. al-hashemi, a., & al-ghazawi, f. (2006). studies in arabic language curricula and teaching methods. jordan: dar al-waraq for publishing and distribution. al-khatibah, a. (2008). science education for all. amman, jordan: dar almaserah for publication. al-mutlas, a. (1997). analysis of curricula. sana'a, yemen: al-manar for printing. al-naji, h. (2002). level of reading and the degree of involvement of the arabic language book for the sixth grade in the united arab emirates. seminar on curriculumfoundations and principles, college of education, king saud university, 19 (20), pp. 515-552. al-qani, a., & al-jammal, a. (2003). glossary of educational terms: knowledge in curriculum and teaching methods. world of books for publication, cairo, egypt. alsirhani, a. (2011). the readability level and degree of involvement of the texts of arabic language text book of the fourth grade in saudi arabia (unpublished master thesis), mut'ah university, mut'ah, jordan. al-wa’elly, s. (2017). involvement of arabic language grammar book for the tenth grade students in jordan (an analytical study). al-ustath journal, 2(223), 69-90. azar, f. e. (1982). analysis of science textbook used in iranian upper secondary school (unpublished doctoral dissertation), university of illinois at urbana. chen, j. (2013). an analysis of elementary school science and technology textbooks: an examination of causal explanation and predictive explanation. journal of textbook research, 6(1), 57-85. chiappetta, e. l., sethna, g. h., & fillman, d. a. (1991). a quantitative analysis of high school chemistry textbooks for scientific literacy themes and expository learning aids. journal of research in science teaching, 28, 939–951. delavar, a. (2007). theoretical and practical foundations of research in humanities and social sciences. tehran: roshd. eisner, e. w. (1994). the educational imagination. new york: macmillan publishing co. inc. eslaminejad, t., & saeid, n. (2017). analysis of english language textbooks of the iran language institute in order to specify the student's involvement index of the teaching learning process. modern applied science, 11(4), 91-102. fari, a. (2016).the extent of the general science books' contribution in the engagement of basic level students in learning from the point of view of teachers in jenin governorate (unpublished master thesis), an-najah national university, nablus, palestine. fazlollahi, s., & tavana m. (2010). methodology of content analysis techniques with emphasis on text readability assessment and determination of the coefficient of conflict. pazhuhesh, 2(1), 71-94. haji, s. (2016). the degree of students involvement in the social studies textbook for six intermediate basic school in krdistan region study and analysis. the eurasia proceedings of educational & social sciences, (5), 328-338. hornby, a.s. (1995). oxford advanced learner's dictionary of current english. oxford: oxford university press. irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 85 khalaf, m. (2015). analytical study of the content of the book of science for the fourth grade in jordan in the light of the development stage for students. al-manarah journal, 21(4), 197-230. nawafleh, w.(2012). involvement level for general science textbooks for intermediate basic school students in jordan, an-najah university journal for research, 26 (10), 2370-2398. pamungkas, d.a. (2010). the quality of the english textbook used by international standard junior high school (unpublished master thesis), the state university of malang, indonesia. pelteret, c., kilbey, l., & greet, j. (2015). action pack 12 twelfth grade: student’s book. london: york press. sa'ada, j., & ibrahim, a. (2011). the modern school curriculum. amman, jordan: dar al fikr. suleiman, i. (2003). level of reading texts of the arabic language book for the sixth grade in the province of nablus (unpublished master thesis), an-najah national university, nablus, palestine. tanner, d., & tanner, l.n. (1998). curriculum development theory. new york: macmillan book company. yahia, s. (2014). involvement of the science books for primary school students in jordan. journal of educational science, 22 (4). biographical note rami abu sa'aleek is currently a ph.d student at yarmouk university, jordan, faculty of education, department of curricula and instruction. his research focuses on tefl, teacher education, and call. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 74 measurement model of reasoning skills among science students based on socio scientific issues (ssi) mohd afifi bin bahurudin setambah 1 abstract the lack of reasoning skills has been recognized as one of the contributing factors to the declined achievement in the trends in mathematics and science studies (timss) and programme for international student assessment (pisa) assessments in malaysia. the use of socio-scientific issues (ssi) as a learning strategy offers the potential of improving the level of students' reasoning skills and consequently improves students’ achievement in science subjects. this study examined the development of a measurement model of reasoning skills among science students based on ssi using the analysis of moment structure (amos) approach before going to second level to full structured equation modelling (sem). a total of 450 respondents were selected using a stratified random sampling. results showed a modified measurement model of reasoning skills consisting of the view knowledge (vk) was as a main construct. the items that measure the level of pre-reflection of students fulfilled the elements of unidimensionality, validity, and reliability. although the level of student reasoning skills was still low but this development of measurement model could be identified and proposed teaching methods that could be adopted to improve students’ reasoning skills. keywords reasoning skills, socio-scientific issues, independent knowledge, instrument development, measurement model 1 institut pendidikan guru, kampus bahasa melayu, lembah pantai, malaysia; mohdafifi@ipgkbm.edu.my irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 75 introduction a country with good results and achievements in timss and pisa can be considered a country with the best educational system in the world (liou & hung, 2015; luschei, 2017). conversely, if timms and pisa results indicate a decrease, then a negative reflection is reflected on its education system. this is because the world knowledge-economy (k-economy) competition requires the mastery of science, mathematics, and technology (breiner, johnson, harkness, & koehler, 2012). the decline in the number of students taking science and mathematics is not only happening in asian countries, but also in other developed countries such as in united stated, canada, south korea, and china. pisa 2009 and timms 2012 results show that the number of american students taking science and mathematics subjects experienced a significant drop in k-economy competition, where this competition gave a great blow as there were four countries that led such as finland, canada, korea, and china. despite this problem, the same thing has happened in malaysia (tienken, 2013). ironically, the education system in malaysia is the same as the education system in another country a system that emphasizes the development of strong knowledge content through subjects like science, mathematics and language. however, there is a growing global awareness that 3m's control (reading, writing, and counting) alone is not enough for students who leave the world of schooling. on the other hand, the focus given to the students is not only for the sake of acquiring knowledge, but also towards the higher level of thinking skills (kbat) to produce the first-class students (primary education report of malaysia 2013-2025). based on timss and pisa results for science subjects tested in 2006, 2012, and 2015, malaysia is experiencing a decline compared to other developing countries. even in 2015, the results of timss and pisa experienced a slight increase, yet still did not reach the 500 points level in international achievement. therefore, the emphasis on the need for reasoning skills should be given attention to students in malaysia (ministry of education, 2013). referring to the timss and pisa questions tested, most questions require the mastery of the science concept associated with the student's daily life. social scientific issues are used to focus on understanding the concept of science through observation, reading, and discussion that require high level thinking skills through analysis and synthesis skills. in teaching and learning, these thinking skills and analyses are known as reasoning skills (bao et al., 2009). this skill enables students to make observations, inferences, and conclusions and can relate to the concepts taught through the existing curriculum (dunbar & klahr, 2012). in this regard, the ministry of education has transformed education from pre-school level by introducing reasoning skills. according to the national education policy 2012, since 2011, the reasoning skills have been applied to pre-school students in order to provide the first-year students with creative and critical thinking skills. therefore, the objective of this study was to develop a measurement model of reasoning skills that could explain the characteristics of students in malaysia based on scientific socio-issues. the implications of this study can provide guidance on educational practices to improve the science curriculum, especially biological subjects. hence, this study would answer the research question: which is the model of reasoning skills that can explain the true characteristics of students in malaysia based on socio-science issues? irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 76 literature review reasoning skills reasoning skill is a process that allows students to engage in problem solving skills and build a logical conclusion (daempfle, 2012). during this process, pattern and level of reasoning can be measured by referring to the answers given. the answers can determine the level of the student's reasoning either at low, medium, or high levels. accordingly, the choice of reasoning skills as an endogenous variable is able to identify the processes, stages, and patterns of our students making decisions. during the process of reasoning, cognitive constructivist theory was cited as the theory that was able to form students' cognitive constructivism (piaget, 1976). other models involving the reasoning process are also given a priority during the discussion as it helps the researcher to identify and differentiate the student's reasoning. among the models to be considered are reflective judgment (king, 1981; king, patricia, & kitchener, 1994) and relativist model (perry, 1979). siegler (2016) stated the stages of reasoning were divided into three levels, which are low (concrete), moderate (transitional), and high (formal). at a low level, the phase of concrete involves students to feel or observe the real situation for them to better understand the learning and concepts taught. while for the moderate level is the transitional process in which the student needs a command to do something after a student wants to feel or try first. at this stage, the students do not have intuition to conclude or implement hypotheses (hogan, dwyer, harney, noone, & conway, 2015). at the highest point of action, the phase involved is formal. at this point, students are able to build and generate knowledge and want to test for clarification when they are faced with an ambiguity on given problems. table 1 shows each available reasoning model and its comparison. table 1. comparison table of rs level(daempfle, 2012) rs level piaget perry king & kitchner low concrete dualism pre-reflective medium transitional multiplicity quasi-reflective high formal relativisms reflective socio-scientific issues (ssi) science literacy can be linked to the skills of understanding, embedding, and applying. this is because science literacy involves the skills of scientific knowledge (nuangchale, 2009). when focused on the subject of science, literacy becomes a necessary knowledge of understanding and clarification of the idea that is derived from the relevance of natural phenomena. thus, in explaining the relevance of environmental phenomena and science, socio scientific issues play an important role in generating ideas for solving problems. furthermore, the development of science and current issues are complementary (oecd, 2011). irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 77 at present, the development of science is in line with technological developments. for that reason, the general understanding of the principles of science is very important in their daily lives. communities need to be aware of issues affecting such as health issues and pollution issues as a result of human activities (sadler, 2009). hence, the problems associated with the phenomenon of science and with students’ life can have an impact if the students are able to argue and give their opinions. in line with the questions from timss and pisa, each student needs to know the scientific issues related to the subject matter, and can explain the scientific phenomenon that occurs and is capable of submitting scientific evidence. the study of siegel and ranney (2003) indicates that students agree that the concept of science taught can be linked to the phenomenon of the often-occurring scientific phenomena in their daily lives. indirectly, students can add the concept of science by doing activities that do not conflict with the issues discussed or observed the phenomenon occurring in their environment for certainty. according to guzzetti, synder, glass, and gama (1993), student‘s conception of scientific phenomena is based on observation and daily experience. after experiencing such a situation, this method can give students new ideas or concepts to think. this can prevent students from misunderstanding the concepts learned. this is because when a concept of science has been mixed in the students, it is difficult for them to change it even if a proper concept has been taught by the teacher (hmelo-silver et al., 2007). the concept is usually developed on what has been seen and experienced. a measurement model the first step, in order to produce and obtain a matching model of measurement is through the construction of research hypotheses. then, the value of uni-dimensionality, validity, and reliability is measured and analysed to determine the models fixed. according to gallagher and brown (2013), the measurement of model fixed to the data collection procedures that can develop the reliability of the full structured equation model (sem). if the development of measurement model does not have matching data, then the steps to produce a fully structured equation model (sem) are not worth for the study data (byrne, 2013; kline, 2011; piaw, 2014; zainudin, 2015). the construction stage of the measurement model is also known as a validation factor analysis or confirmatory factor analysis (cfa). cfa is used to measure the consistency of items or significant indicator variables in the selected latent variable (gallagher & brown, 2013). researcher also analysed the fitness indexes to ensure that the data constructed for the development of a structured equation model were matched. zainudin (2015) states that what needs to be identified and measured in the validation factor analysis at this stage is uni-dimensional, convergent, construct, and discriminant validity and consistency of internal, construct, and average variance extracted (ave). to measure uni-dimensionality, the correlation value on the factor loading of a low item will be removed. the load factor acceptance value is greater than 0.5 and above (> 0.5). item removal can only be done on an item only and then the researcher needs re-specification to achieve the uni-dimensionality of the item. in addition, to measure the validity of the instrument that is what should be measured in each construct; there are three types of legality that must be fulfilled. irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 78 the first validity is the convergent validity to ensuring that all items are statistically significant with reference to the average variance extracted or ave with a value greater than or equal to 0.5. the second validity is the construct validity which is looking at the value of validity when fitness indexes meet the goodness of fit index (gfi) value of equal or greater than 0.90 (≥ 0.90), then, the comparative fit index (cfi) with the value equal to or greater than 0.90 (≥ 0.90). next, the root mean square error approximation (rmsea) with the value equal to or smaller than 0.08 (≤ 0.08) and finally chi square test (chisq / df) with a value greater than 5.0. the third validity is the discriminant validity which refers to the state of legality independent of the items overlapping in the same contract or other contract. methodology the data collection technique in this study was a survey. 450 respondents were selected in this study by using a two-stage stratified random sampling (cragin & shankar, 2006). the first stage was to use a simple random sampling of a state based on five zones (north, central, east, and south), the researcher determined the state of each zone using a simple random one state, and the states finally selected were kedah, perak, terengganu, and johor. as for the second stage was a simple random in order to determine the number of students in each state (saunders, lewis, & thornhill, 2012). table 2 shows the method to determine the number of respondents in this study. table 2. method to determine the number of respondents in this study number of respondents number of students selected north zone (kedah) 5,057 97 central zone (perak) 7,168 138 east zone(terengganu) 2,462 47 south zone (johor) 8,761 168 total: (four zones) 23,448 450 the instrument set used in this study was in the form of a written test to measure the level and pattern of scientific reasoning of science students based on socio scientific issues (bell & lederman, 2002). according to bell and laderman (2002), this instrument has a high degree of validity since it has passed the validity process of six experts -four science teachers and two scientists. the scenario questioned in this instrument is based on socio-scientific issues that can be used for biology subjects. the reasoning skill instrument has three different scenarios that discuss the issues of ssi adapted from bell and laderman (2002). the scenario is common queried and can be answered by the students stating the reason for their decision, in addition to saving time. this instrument refers to the dimension of reasoning which consists of three scenarios, the scenario i (climate change) and ii (nutrition), there are five sub-questions and for scenario iii (smoking and cancer), there are 3 sub-questions. each question requires students set decided whether to agree or not and why? because the answer that gets a high score rubric is the answer that needs justification, mechanisms, and irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 79 examples. table 3 shows an example of scenario iii through the issue of smoking and cancer were administered to students. to analyse the questions to the students scientific reasoning skill, argumentation reasoning rubric complex analysis has been carried out (tal & hochberg, 2003; zohar & nemet, 2002). the section devoted to supporting each student's response to their arguments by stating the justification and by explaining the mechanisms that was showed in table 4. rubric given score will refer to the score level of rs. the same reasoning score level with a study conducted by perry (1999) and king and kitchner (1994) involving the rs scheme scoring in determining the level of reasoning is as shown in table 5 (lawson, 2004). table 3. an example of scientific reasoning questions for scenario iii scenario iii many researchers believe that smoking accounts for a large proportion of all cancers and as much as 30% of all cancer deaths. cigarette smoking has specifically been implicated as the cause of cancer of the lung, oral cavity, larynx, oesophagus, bladder, kidney, and pancreas. additionally, the risk of developing cancer is greater for people who smoke more and who start smoking at a younger age. furthermore, researchers believe that smoking may be the cause of 25–30% of all heart disease. exposure to passive tobacco smoke is very likely a significant cause of cancer in non-smokers. some scientists believe that the increased risk could be as high as 50%. it has been estimated that thousands of people die each year due to exposure to passive cigarette smoke. recently, nicotine in cigarette tobacco has been identified as a drug whose addictiveness exceeds that of opium and heroin. in addition to this, documents have come to light that indicate that some tobacco companies have used a variety of methods to increase the amount and potency of nicotine in cigarette tobacco. finally, it has been shown that many people begin smoking as teenagers, and once started, have a very difficult time quitting. in contrast to these claims, tobacco companies have consistently asserted that while tobacco may be associated with increased risk for various cancers and heart disease, it has never been proven to cause these diseases. furthermore, to smoke or not is a free choice that should be up to the consumer, not government agencies. sub questions 3a. given the reported dangers of cigarette smoke and its addictiveness, should legislation be passed that would make cigarette smoking illegal? why or why not? 3b. would you support legislation that makes it more difficult for minors to obtain cigarettes and/or penalizes tobacco companies who target minors in their advertising? why or why not? 3c. do the alleged dangers of passive cigarette smoke justify banning smoking in public places such as restaurants and bars? why or why not? irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 80 table 4. the schematic showing the score and answers to students' reasoning scenario score reasoning score i, ii, & iii 0 no answer or no justification in context of question 1 one justification of decision: mechanism unelaborated 2 two or more justifications of decision: mechanisms unelaborated 3 one justification of decision: mechanism explained with examples 4 two or more justifications of decision: one mechanism explained 5 two or more justifications of decision: multiple mechanisms explained table 5. the score scheme and the level of reasoning skill score level of rs 0-1 level 1 (low – pre reflective) 2-3 level 2 (medium – quasi reflective) 4-5 level 3 (high – reflective) results the research hypothesis tested for the measurement model of reasoning skills is: h1-the measurement model of reasoning skills has validity and has fixed with the study data. in this model there are three sub-constructs that measure rs as a result of the built efa: view knowledge (vk), context knowing (ck), and independent knowing (ik). figure 1 shows the measurement model of rs which is being constructed. this model was developed based on data from written test instruments. this measurement model of rs did not match with the study data. this model was not significant and the research hypothesis was rejected. there are six items that do not meet the criteria for subtracting, namely ck (ps1a, ps1b, and ps1c) and ik (ps3a, ps3b, & ps3c). figure 1. the first measurement model of reasoning skills ck ik v k irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 81 in table 6, sub-constructs that do not meet the requirements of uni-dimensionality, validity, and reliability through load factor assessment (ps1a, ps1b, ps1c, ps3a, ps3b, and ps3c). whereas, the value of c.r in the sub-construct of ck is 3.165 and ave = 3.221. while for ik, the value of c.r is 0.190 and ave = 0.119. table 6. the value of each substructure and item variables sub constructs items outer loading (>0.5) removed items c.r (≥0.6) ave (≥0.5) ave squar ed reasoning skills (rs) context knowing (ck) ps1a ps1b ps1c 3.08 0.059 -0.07 removed removed removed 3.165 3.221 1.779 view knowledge (vk) ps2a ps2b ps2c ps2d ps2e 0.898 0.917 0.758 0.856 0.096 0.593 0.858 0.770 independent knowing (ik) ps3a ps3b ps3c 0.549 0.377 -0.354 removed removed removed 0.190 0.119 0.435 to ensure the measurement model of rs, six non-fixed items were removed. after six items from the ck and ik sub-constructs were removed, the modified measurement model of rs developed on the second was significant and fixed to the study data. hence the hypothesis was accepted. table 7 and figure 2 show the acceptance measurement model of rs and the only remaining vk sub-contract with five items (ps2a, ps2b, ps2c, ps2d, & ps2e). figure 2. the measurement model fixed to the study data the measurement model of rs fixed the study data is shown in the analysis through table 7. the value of the five remaining items in the vk sub-constructs has been uni-dimensional vk irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 82 requirements of more than 0.5. while for the value of c.r is 0.593 mean that ≥ 0.6 and ave is 0.858 which is ≥ 0.5. table 7. findings of the modified measurement model of rs was fixed to the study data variable sub-construct items outer loading (>0.5) c.r (≥0.6) ave (≥0.5) ave squared rs view knowledge (vk) ps2a ps2b ps2c ps2d ps2e 0.898 0.917 0.758 0.856 0.096 0.593 0.858 0.770 discussion in this study, reasoning skill is a process of generating grounds through generating ideas to solve problems (voss, perkins, & segal, 2009). this rs represents the ability of students to engage in various empirical-inductive patterns of thinking to hypothetical-deductive thinking (gerber, cavallo, & marek, 2001). this instrument was taken from the socio scientific issue of bell and lederman (2002), which had three major scenarios related to and 11 questioned items. it is the environmental issues such as nutrition, effects of cigarettes and cancer, and genetic engineering. the measurement model of rs which was developed on the second was valid and fixed the study data. the findings of the measurement model of rs illustrate to the researcher that students in malaysia were not able to explain the process of claiming to more concrete by getting a simple reason and giving a less complete explanation. this model is parallel to the reflection model between piaget (1976), perry (1999), and king and kitchner (1994) involving the level and pattern of reasoning. for piaget (1976), the low level is known as concrete while perry (1999) is known as dualism and king and kitchner (1994) known as pre-reflection. this finding is different from bhat (2016), the knowledge and context of teaching in science should have a significant relationship with what the student learns. when measuring students' level of reasoning in this study, descriptive results shows 78% of students answer at a low level by giving a short answer without a detailed explanation (ikhwan, sadiah, & eshah, 2017). the findings of darus' (2012) study, based on the results of timss and pisa indicate that students in malaysia still have an inadequate attitude when answering questions, especially questions requiring longer reading or essay questions. in addition, students have become accustomed to short, structured, and multi-choice question formats on previous tests. conclusion in conclusion, the development of measurement model of reasoning based on socio scientific issues is able to conform and identify the levels and constructs that need to exist irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 83 during the process of clarifying for science students especially in biological subjects. the study of tal, kali, magid, and madhok (2011), a solution to solving socio-scientific issues can expose students to the ability to understand and make students more active in class than passive through traditional methods. compared to students in malaysia, they are still unable to formalize and reflect on any questions raised. this implication actually allows students learn to be centralized. students are free to give reasons for each question as long as they are able to argue in the classroom. there is no wrong answer from the student, can indirectly foster the process of reasoning. students' learning strategies need to be diversified to make students more independent and share in getting information to build their own reasoning. references bao, l., cai, t., koenig, k., fang, k., han, j., wang, j., & wu, n. 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(2016). continuity and change in the field of cognitive development and in the perspectives of one cognitive developmentalist. child development perspectives, 0(0), 1– 6. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12173 tal, r., & hochberg, n. (2003). assessing high order thinking of students participating in the “wise” project in israel. studies in educational evaluation, 29, 69–89. https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0191-491x(03)00016-6 tal, t., kali, y., magid, s., & madhok, j. j. (2011). socio-scientific issues in the classroom. socio-scientific issies in the classroom: teaching, learning and results, 39, 11–38. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-1159-4 tienken, c. (2013). no title. aasa journal of scholarship and practice, 9. voss, j. f., perkins, d. n., & segal, j. w. (2009). informal reasoning and education. new york: routledge. zainudin, a. (2015). research methodology data analysis. malaysia: uitm press. zohar, a., & nemet, f. (2002). fostering students knowledge and argumentation skills through dilemmas in human genetics. journal of research in science teaching, 39(1), 35– 62. https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.10008 biographical note dr. mohd afifi bin bahurudin setambah is a lecturer at jabatan penyelidikan & rekayasa penemuan, institut pendidikan guru kampus bahasa melayu, lembah pantai 59990. kuala lumpur. mohdafifi@ipgkbm.edu.my mailto:mohdafifi@ipgkbm.edu.my this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 97 measuring indonesian students’ lexical diversity and lexical sophistication failasofah* 1 , hazim taisir dayij alkhrisheh 2 abstract the aim of the present study was to look at a description of indonesian efl students‟ vocabulary knowledge. the focus was on their lexical diversity (how many different words students used) and lexical sophistication (how many advance words students used) in the english production, which is learnt by them as a foreign language. their vocabulary knowledge was assessed using the d_tools and p_lex software for the analysis. these statistical programs describe students‟ detail computation results in both number and graph. ten participants‟ word production through a story-telling test was recorded and analyzed to look at their d and lambda value. based on the results gathered, it can be concluded that as foreign language learners, lower level of proficiency participants could produce more lexically rich texts than higher level participants and vice versa. keywords vocabulary knowledge, lexical diversity, lexical sophistication, word production 1. *corresponding author: phd student at multilingualism doctoral school, the university of pannonia, hungary and faculty member at faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, jambi, indonesia; failasofah@unja.ac.id 2. phd student at multilingualism doctoral school, the university of pannonia, hungary; hkhresha@yahoo.com mailto:failasofah@unja.ac.id mailto:hkhresha@yahoo.com irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 98 introduction as vocabulary plays important role in second language learning that provides a base for learners to perform all skills in a language, both receptive and productive, study on evaluating vocabulary of second language (l2) learners has been considered necessary. moreover, due to its importance for communicative competence and the acquisition process, schmitt (in juanggo, 2018) believes that second language learners can express their ideas and understand information in the target language precisely with adequate vocabulary knowledge. azodi, karimi, and vaezi (2014) additionally explained that in comprehending and understanding the inferences of a normal text, learners who know less than 1000 word families would have difficulty. the similar problem will be experienced when they listen to a speech. they would be unable to have fluent comprehension since they cannot recall the words quickly. vocabulary knowledge is also widely accepted as the main prerequisite of bilingual children. laufer (1995) indicates that vocabulary mostly becomes a factor that differentiates l2 learners and native speakers that most of l2 learners use a quite limited range of vocabulary compared to native speakers both in oral or written language production. vocabulary knowledge also determines the level of language proficiency or language level among l2 learners themselves. the development of vocabulary is regarded as a marker of the language progress and an approximation towards native speaker‟s lexical system (laufer, 1995). this means when the range of vocabulary expands, the l2 proficiency will relatively improve. vocabulary tests mostly consist of a small sampling of words that vary in familiarity or a task that requires optional synonym or definition and most clinical receptive/productive tests instruct the examinee to respond to a picture prompt with a verbal label, or vice versa (deane et al., 2014). additionally, webb (2002) stresses the importance of different tasks to assess both productive and receptive vocabulary knowledge. therefore, it is crucial to fall back on reliable measures that allow researchers not only understand the effects of tasks more precisely, but also to compare their results and establish valid forms of assessment that could also be useful for practitioners. practically, teachers frequently use vocabulary tests to broadly measure students‟ vocabulary improvement that typically can be administered once or twice a year to estimate overall vocabulary growth, which sometimes is not enough time for improvement. they have a burden of responsibility in a limited span both to teach and to evaluate the feedback from students. it reveals that teacher need shortest span of time to discover development in students‟ receptive or productive vocabulary if progress has been made. statistical tools in measuring students‟ vocabulary knowledge and progress will help teachers to be easier in administering the test and analyzing the result. therefore, the current study focused on giving a description of examining vocabulary knowledge by utilizing d_tools and p_lex program which compute raw data of vocabulary production from participants and reveals their detailed statistical measurement of their lexical variation and lexical difficulty. literature review: assessing vocabulary the majority of researchers in the field of second language teaching agree that vocabulary knowledge involves degree of knowledge that should be constructed as a continuum consisting of a number of levels and dimensions of knowledge (shen, 2008). irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 99 nation (2001) distinguishes between three main areas of knowledge of a word, which are then each of them is subdivided into another three areas of knowledge. firstly, it is possible to know the word form (spoken, written and word parts). secondly, the ability to know the meaning of words (the connection between the form and the meaning, the concept and its referents, and the associations connected with a particular word). last, knowing the use of the words (how the word functions grammatically, its collocations and any possible constraints on use). each of these nine sub-areas can then be known either receptively or productively. for evaluation, breadth and depth knowledge are two major dimensions of interest in assessing the vocabulary knowledge of learners (anderson & freebody in azoli et al., 2014). the first one is assessing vocabulary size of learners, which is referred to as assessing breadth of knowledge. it deals with the number of words that a learner knows at least some superficial knowledge. the second one is assessing quality of vocabulary knowledge, which is referred to as assessing depth of knowledge. it focuses on learners‟ knowledge of various aspects of a given word or how well the learner knows the word. breadth vocabulary knowledge assessment concern with the number of words that learners know. for native speakers, as mentioned by shen (2008), it would be a measurement of the number of words that they know in some absolute sense. while, the aim of second language learners vocabulary measurement is commonly focuses on their knowledge of items in a specified list of relatively high frequently words. whereas, depth vocabulary knowledge assessment mostly concerns with useful higher frequency words. therefore, learners need to have more than just a superficial understanding of the meaning, the assessment should cover several components such as pronunciation, spelling, meaning, register, morphological, syntactic, and collocation properties. practically, research based on testing the breadth and depth of vocabulary by using the measures explained so far mainly focuses on the receptive aspect of l2 vocabulary. related to free production, lexical richness is specifically used as an umbrella term for other, more specific terms. measuring lexical richness is generally concerned with how many different words are used in a text (spoken or written). lexical richness can be introduced in many forms represented in lexical density, lexical originality, lexical variation and lexical sophistication (laufer & nation, 1995). lexical richness has already been investigated both in applied linguistics and in the context of word frequency distributions. in applied linguistics, a number of tests have been developed for measuring the lexical usage of children or second language learners (read, 2000). lexical richness measures are used to evaluate the lexical proficiency level of a child or learner, comparing their lexical richness with an external reference point. lexical richness measures have been a concern both in applied linguistics (see e.g. read, 2000) and in the context of word frequency distributions (baayen, 2001). in applied linguistics, lexical tests mostly focus on child language acquisition or on the extent of vocabulary acquisition of (typically l2) language users, while word frequency distributions statistically model the vocabulary in (a collection of) longer texts. the most widespread tests are based on the concept of vocabulary diversity, which is assessed using a type-token ratio or mostly known by linguists as ttr. this test refers to the ratio of different unique words to the total number of words (johansson, 2009). the definition clearly refers to different word types represented in the level of uniqueness. it is an essential part in assessing learners language proficiency particularly vocabulary knowledge. however, lexical richness is properly investigated in texts which have a similar or close range in length in order to address the issue of validity. furthermore, as vocabulary is one of irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 100 the vital parts of any given language whether a native language or otherwise, the learner‟s lexical reservoir determines the uniqueness of one‟s vocabulary which reflects the level of proficiency. what we are implying is that lexical richness proves to be a successful, but not an exclusive, predicator of proficiency. as such, lexical density can be used as an asset to investigate issues in sla within a dynamic systems theory (dst) framework, for instance, to investigate the development of lexical richness considering age, gender, type of instruction, learning or teaching strategies and other variables as factors influencing the development of lexical richness. before doing any form of investigation related to lexical richness, it is crucial to define what a word is, because the purpose, the method and the tools of investigation depend on what we mean by „word‟. it is also of crucial importance to make a clear distinction between the four types of lexical richness to establish the justification and the limitations of this paper. the term „word‟ in four distinguishable meanings: a word family, a lemma, a type and a token, ordered from the most general to the most specific (nation, 2001; read, 2000). a word family is a broad term that refers to different parts of speech in which regular and irregular derivatives are incorporated. in other words, a word family is a group of words that share a common base or root onto which many prefixes and suffixes can be attached (e.g. write, writes, rewrite, writer, writing, typewrite, underwrite, writeable, etc.). a lemma is the base form under which all inflections are associated. in other words, a lemma is a group of words that have a grammatical association (e.g. drink, drank, drunk, drinking). a type refers to the number of unique words in a text. in other words, a type is different from a token in the sense that the former only considers the number of words disregarding the repetitions in contrast to the latter. a token considers the number of all words in a text including repeated ones. regarding lexical richness, laufer and nation (1995) introduce four distinguishable types of lexical richness: 1) lexical originality (lo) focuses on the number of unique tokens in a given text; 2) lexical sophistication (ls) focuses on the number of advanced words in a given text; 3) lexical variation (lv) focuses on the ratio of the different words to the ratio of repeated words; and 4) lexical density (ld) which focuses the percentage of lexical words in a given text (i.e., nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs). lexical diversity (ld) and lexical sophistication (ls) are two among those measures used to assess vocabulary knowledge by evaluating l2 learners‟ production. ld (or lexical variation) and ls (or lexical difficulty) are the two aspects of lexical richness which can indicate how well an l2 learner actively uses the vocabulary. read (in johanson, 2014) mentions that lexical richness is a multifaceted construct which can be described in terms of lexical density (ratio between function and lexical words), ld (type/token ratio), ls (ratio between lexical tokens and advanced lexical tokens) or the proportion of lexical errors in the texts. all these measures are based on an analysis of learner texts, focusing on vocabulary use from varying perspectives, either in terms of number and types of lexical items (read in johansson, 2008). in the context of word frequency distributions, lexical richness has also been studied. interestingly, baayen (2001) has indicated that all mathematical ttr transformations proposed (including the index of guiraud, herdan & uber) are text length dependent. to be more specific, they are unable to capture the specific structure of the lexicon, which is characterized by a large number of rare events (lnre): while a small number of words are very frequent, the majority of words occur only a few times, even in large token samples. a number of studies have been conducted to examine the lexical richness considering many factors as predicators of lexical richness. gregori-signes and clavel-arroitia (2015), irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 101 conducted a study to investigate the lexical density and lexical diversity of written texts of two groups in their first academic year at the universitat de valència whose proficiency level is established as b1 compared to a third group whose aim is to obtain a c2 proficiency level. the researchers in this study wanted to examine the reliability of the measurement tools for predicting lexical richness. the findings of this study suggested that the lexical richness measurement tools were stable in predicting the lexical richness of two similar groups compared to another different group. in another study conducted to measure lexical diversity, lexical sophistication and lexical density in narratives written by three groups of czech efl learners, common measurements of lexical richness were used to examine the reliability of the measurements and the correlations between the three types of lexical richness (šišková, 2012). the measurements prove to be reliable in measuring the learners‟ lexical richness of the three types in the sense that these measurements detected the differences among the three learners‟ groups. the findings of the study also suggest that there are degrees of correlation between the three types of measurements of lexical richness. the strongest correlation was found between measurements of lexical diversity and lexical sophistication. a weak correlation was found between measurements of lexical diversity and lexical density. and finally, no correlation between measurements of lexical density and lexical sophistication. the implications of this study refer to the correlational degrees, which depend on the nature of application. in other words, the strength or weakness of the correlation depends on the way in which these measurements are conducted. a study of this sort is also recommended because it provides the researchers with certain implications, which might assist them in choosing the measurements that they see fit for the task of investigation considering many factors such as the gender, age and the proficiency level of participants. moreover, lexical richness has been measured by researchers by measuring the ratio of words types to word tokens (ttr) which the number of different words as a ratio of the total number of running words in a text. however, ttr has its weakness since it is sensitive to text length that the rate at which new word types appear in a text decreases as the text size increases. therefore, malvern and richards (in meara & miralpeix, 2017) proposed d_tools as a program that computes a statistic reflecting richness of a text. d is considered to be more informative than ttr as it allows measuring a range of token sizes for each speaker or writer rather than single value of ttr. miralpeix (2008) mentions that d_tools is designed to compute d values for short texts. d_tools computes a statistic that reflects the lexical richness of a text. specifically, d_tools computes the value of malvern and richards' vocd statistics. d_tools makes a report on your text which looks like the figure on the next page. d_tools works by taking a series of samples from the text and computing a type-token value for each of these samples. the program takes 100 samples of 35 words and computes a mean ttr for these samples. then it takes 100 samples of 36 words and computes a mean ttr for those samples. this process is repeated with 100 samples of 37 words, 38 words, 39 words, and so on up to 50 words. d_tools then uses malvern and richards' formula to find a value of d. it computes and averages ttrs at each point and matches the curve: ttr = (2/dn) [(1 + dn) ½ – 1].the best match between the two curves, which is calculated using a least-square algorithm, is the d value of our text. d_tools does not automatically lemmatize the text because. for example, do, does, and doing will be treated as different type unless we edit the input file and replace all instance of does and doing by do. however, the d_tools does not assess ls. ls has traditionally been operationalized as the diversity of the words used in a text (e.g., the number of unique words in a text divided by irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 102 the total number of a text) or by the average reference-corpus frequency of words in a text. productive lexical knowledge is frequently assessed by examining the ls of a speaking or writing sample, which is generally related to the diversity and/or the relative difficulty and often based on corpus frequency counts of the lexical items in a text (kyle & crossley, 2016). p_lex, therefore, uses as an assessment program that was designed as a way of assessing the vocabulary used by l2 learners when they produce texts and provides a single overall score that is easy to understand and transparent in the computation. p_lex, therefore, looks at the distribution of difficult words in a text, and returns a simple index that tells us how likely the occurrence of these words is. the program divides a text up into ten-word segments and counts the number of "difficult" or "unusual" words that appear in each segment. the score it generates is the mean number of difficult words in each segment. p_lex works with short texts in english and is mainly intended to process short texts generated by l2 learners. as such, it works best with texts that are not longer than 300 words. the program will handle texts that are longer than this, but the displays are designed for shorter texts. we will need to do some editing work on the texts that you want to process using p_lex. the main problem that you will have to deal with concerns errors. there are two possibilities here: to leave the errors intact or to correct them. since p_lex uses an inbuilt dictionary that will not recognise incorrectly spelled words, it is probably best to correct errors of this sort. p_lex works as follows. suppose we want to process text t. first, we divide t into a set of 10 word segments, ignoring punctuation. next, we categorise the words in each segment in terms of their objective frequency. the current version of p_lex is based on nation's (1984) word lists. it treats all words occurring in the first 1000 word list as 'easy'. proper nouns, numbers and geographical derivatives are also categorised as 'easy' words. all other words are categorised as 'hard'. next, we count the number of infrequent words in each segment, and calculate the number of segments containing zero infrequent words, the number of segments containing one infrequent word, the number of segments containing two infrequent words, and so on. this gives as a p_lex profile for text t. the programme, which is based on the assumption that difficult words are infrequent occurrences in a text, calculates the theoretical poisson curve which most closely matches the actual data produced from the text. the value obtained is called lambda, and indicates the degree of lexical sophistication the text presents. lambda describes that the text contains principally high – frequency words, while a higher value is an indication of more sophisticated vocabulary used by l2 learners. methodology this study was aimed to give a description of examining lexical diversity and lexical sophistication of english (as a foreign language) vocabulary production by utilizing d_tools and p_lex program. the software computes raw data of vocabulary production from participants and reveals their detailed statistical measurement of their lexical variation and lexical difficulty. in this research, the participants were ten indonesian students of a public university in jambi, indonesia. they have been learning english as their foreign language at school for more than eight years from the seventh grade. but in the present study, researchers focused more on the participants‟ language proficiency level according to common european framework of reference for languages (cefr). there are three dimensions of vocabulary assessment are 1) discrete embedded dimension, 2) selective comprehensive dimension and 3) context-dependent – context independent dimension. according to read (2000), discrete tests assess vocabulary as a irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 103 construct independent from other aspects of language ability, while an embedded measure of vocabulary “is the one that contributes to the assessment of a larger construct” (p.9). for example, vocabulary assessment is embedded in oral proficiency interviews, in the assessment of the performance of language tasks of the learner. in collecting the data, zhang (2014) also proposed that an interviews or story telling is a type of vocabulary assessment that can be used by researcher in order to measure lexical richness in oral proficiency from a more embedded, comprehensive and context-dependent dimension. therefore, in the present study, we use a children storybook written by mercer mayer. this storybook consists of twenty-nine pages of pictures describing the sequels of the story. participants were asked to spontaneously telling a story (frog story) that was showed by the researcher in a given time (fifteen seconds for each sequel). they should produce words based on the picture of each page/ sequel and they were recorded. then, the records of participants story telling were transcribed as the raw data to be analyzed. the present research uses software proposed by meara and bell (2001) for the analysis due to the availability of the software and the type of results that it provides. d_tools was used to measure participants‟ lexical diversity and p_lex was used to measure participants‟ lexical sophistication. the report of d_tools shows the mean ttr score for each of the 15 sample sets (data), and the values that malvern and richards' formula generates for the best value of d (model). the graph shows the data values (blue) and the model values (red). normally these two sets of values will be almost identical. the report also details the number of words counted, the best estimate of d and an error score. the error score indicates how closely the model data matches the actual data. the report of p_lex tells you the name of the text it has analysed, how many 10-word segments have been processed by the program, and what proportion of the ten-word segments contain n difficult words. it also reports a value (lambda) which summarises the data presented in the table. this is the value that normally used to summarise a p_lex analysis. findings lexical richness of a speaker, in quantitative sense, refers to the amount of vocabulary that the speaker freely uses in discourse. it reflects the speaker‟s ability and skills in maneuvering the basic units of speech. the richer lexicons used in the discourse, the higher degree of variations and sophistications perceived. each of the transcription of participants‟ story telling production was copied and insert into the software using d_tools and p_lex programs. the results are presented in the following table: table 1. d_tools results participant/ proficiency total words d (lexical diversity) error 1/ b1 369 23,1 0.001 2/ b1 272 22,8 0 3/ b1 350 35,2 0 4/ b1 370 36,3 0.001 irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 104 5/ b1 424 39,2 0 6/ c1 147 31,3 0 7/ c1 360 40,5 0.001 8/ c1 521 32,8 0.001 9/ c1 258 20,8 0.001 10/c1 346 30,3 0 figure 1. lexical diversity of participants it shows that participants produced words differently and effected the result of their ds. theoretically, low values of d indicate that the source text contain a lot of repetition and is not lexically rich and conversely. it reveals that participant 8 produced the highest number of words (521) but has less value of d (32.8) than participant 7 d value (40.5) who produced fewer number of words (360). that means that participant 7 has produced words lexically more rich. it also describes that both b1 level participants, even though one of them (1) could produce almost similar number of words with one of level c1 participant (7), have low value of d compare to c1 level participants. however, participant 9/c1, exceptionally, produced the least words and d value. the graph also reveals that participant with lower proficiency level (participant 7) could produce words more diverse than other high proficiency level participants could. obviously, the graph shows that all participants values of d are less than 50 which the highest value of d theoretically is 120 (the value range is 0 – 120). table 2. p_lex results participant/ proficiency total words segment lambda error 1/ b1 369 36 1,305 0.02851 2/ b1 271 27 0,814 0.05818 369 272 350 370 424 147 360 521 258 346 23,1 22,8 35,2 36,3 39,2 31,3 40,5 32,8 20,8 30,3 1/ b1 2/ b1 3/ b1 4/ b1 5/ b1 6/ c1 7/ c1 8/ c1 9/ c1 10/c1 lexical diversity words d irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 105 3/ b1 350 33 1,011 0.0311 4/ b1 369 32 1,201 0.0272 5/ b1 423 40 1,289 0,0256 3/ c1 149 14 1,285 0.0357 4/ c1 359 35 1,171 0.03490 5/ c1 520 51 1,156 0,04697 9/ c1 256 28 0,783 0,04214 10/c1 344 30 1,154 0,0325 figure 2. lexical sophisticated of participants the results of p_lex analyses show the lexical sophistication of each participant. lexical sophistication is defined as the percentage of sophisticated or advanced words in a text; although different definitions of sophisticated/advanced vocabulary. low-frequency words, for instance, are generally considered to be advanced and sophisticated (laufer & nation, 1995). p_lex is based on the idea that it might be possible to make a virtue out of the fact that 'difficult' words occur only infrequently in texts. p_lex looks at the distribution of difficult words in a text, and returns a simple index that tells us how likely the occurrence of these words is. the underlying assumption here is that people with big vocabularies are more likely to use in frequent words than people with smaller vocabularies are, and that we can use the index we derive from the texts as a pointer to vocabulary size. the graph above reveals that participant 1(b1 level) could produce the highest number sophisticated words among all participants although she/he produced less words 1/ b1 2/ b1 3/ b1 4/ b1 5/ b1 6/ c1 7/ c1 8/ c1 9/ c1 10/c1 total words 369 271 350 369 423 149 359 520 256 344 segment 36 27 33 32 40 14 35 51 28 30 lambda 1,305 0,814 1,011 1,201 1,289 1,285 1,171 1,156 0,783 1,154 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 lexical sophisticated irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 106 than participant 8 (c1 level). it follows by participant 5 (b1level) who produced higher number of words (423). from the graph, it also describe that participants proficiency level do not have positive correlation with their word sophistication (advance words knowledge). it could be seen that participants has produced few segments of words (few than 100). they produced low number of sophistication value (lambda) that is described clearly from the line graph. conclusion and pedagogical implication the findings of this study can be a useful reference in the field of language pedagogy. such findings can be used by language teachers and administrators in a pedagogical context to make decisions concerning utilizing adequate tools in investigating whether or not learners have enough lexical resources necessary to function effectively in the foreign or second language. this also may help teachers to reflect on their teaching and the suitability of their teaching materials. lexical richness should be a relevant factor to be taken into consideration in material design and learner assessment. this study shows that both of d_tools and p_lex obtain a reliable measurement of lexical diversity and lexical sophistication, which is stable across. it also demonstrates that researchers can clearly discriminate between learners of different proficiency levels. from the results presented above, it can be concluded that as foreign language learners, lower level of proficiency participant could produce more lexically rich text than higher level participant and vice versa. yet, this study should be improved for the future investigation although the assessment software used in this research present a reliable number of results to significantly correlate the level „of participants language proficiency with their lexical diversity and sophistication. references azodi, n., karimi, f., & vaezi, r. (2014). measuring the lexical richness of productive vocabulary in iranian efl university students' writing performance. theory and practice in language studies, 4(9), 1837-1849. baayen, h. (2001). word frequency distributions. kluwer academic publishers, dordrecht. deane, p., lawless, r., li, c., sabatini, j., bejar, i., & o‟reilly, t. (2014). creating vocabulary item types that measuring students’ depth of semantic knowledge. ets research report series. ets rr-14-02. gregori-signes, c., & clavel-arroitia, b. (2015). analysing lexical density and lexical diversity in university students‟ written discourse. procedia-social and behavioral sciences, 198, ‏.546-556 johansson, v. (2008). lexical diversity and lexical density in speech and writing: a developmental perspective. lund university, dept. of linguistics and phonetics working papers, 53, 61-79. retrieved from journals.hub.lu.se/index.php/lwpl/article/download/2273/1848 johansson, v. (2009). lexical diversity and lexical density in speech and writing: a developmental perspective. working papers in linguistics. juanggo, w. (2018). investigating lexical diversity and lexical sophistication of productive vocabulary in the written discourse of indonesian efl learners. retrieved from: http://ejournal.upi.edu/index.php/ijal/article/view/11462 irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 107 kyle & crossley. (2016) the relationship between lexical sophistication and independent and source – based writing. journal of second language writing, 34 (2016), 20-24. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3c5f/1708aab3bc7af0913d2ecc0715335b308a08.pdf laufer, b. (1995). beyond 2000: a measure of productive lexicon in a second language. in l. eubank, l. selinker, & m. sharwood smith (eds.), the current state of interlanguage (pp. 265–272). philadelphia: john benjamins. laufer, b., & nation, p. (1995). vocabulary size and use: lexical richness in l2 written production. applied linguistics, 16(3), 307-322. meara, p.m., & bell, h. (2001). p_lex: a simple and effective way of describing the lexical characteristic of short l2 text. prospect. a journal of australian tesol, 16(3), 5-19. meara, p.m., & miralpeix, i. (2007). d_tools, v. 2.0, swansea: lognostics. miralpeix, i. (2008). the influence of age on vocabulary acquisition in english as a foreign language. phd dissertation: universitat de barcelona. http://diposit.ub.edu/dspace/bitstream/2445/35015/14/13.imp_appendix_4.pd f nation, i.s.p. (2001). learning vocabulary in another language. cambridge: cambridge university press. read, j. (2000). assessing vocabulary. cambridge: cambridge university press. šišková, z. (2012). lexical richness in efl students‟ narratives. language studies working papers, 4, 26-36.‏ shen, z. (2008). the roles of depth & breadth of vocabulary knowledge in efl reading performance. asian social science, 4(12), 135-137. webb, s. a. (2002). investigating the effects of learning tasks on vocabulary knowledge. phd dissertation. victoria university of wellington. zhang, j. (2014). lexical richness and accommodation in oral english examinations with chinese examiners. http://eprints.uwe.ac.uk/24511/1/1121%20phd_thesis_zhangjian%20.pdf biographical note failasofah is phd student at multilingualism doctoral school, the university of pannonia, hungary and faculty member at faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, jambi, indonesia and can be reached at failasofah@unja.ac.id hazim taisir dayij alkhrisheh is a phd student at multilingualism doctoral school, the university of pannonia, hungary and can be reached at hkhresha@yahoo.com mailto:failasofah@unja.ac.id mailto:hkhresha@yahoo.com this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 91 the effect of mastery of writing theory and writing motivation on writing practices gaya tridinanti, 1 rusman roni, 2 farnia sari, 3 nurulanningsih 4 abstract the research aimed to determine the effect of students’ mastery of writing theory and writing motivation on the writing practices of narrative texts. this applied a survey with a correlational technique. the analytical method used was a multiple linear regression analysis. the sample was 75 students with a total sampling technique. the result indicated that (1) both mastery of writing theory and writing motivation of the students had a positive and significant effect on students’ writing practices of 64.936 at a significance level of 5%; (2) students’ mastery of writing theory had a positive and significant effect on writing practices of 5.579 at a significance level of 5%; and (3) students’ writing motivation had a positive and significant effect on writing practices of 2.167 at a significance level of 5%. implications of the research are also discussed including improving the students’ practice writing of narrative texts that can be done by increasing writing theory and writing motivation both partially and simultaneously. keywords mastery of writing theory, motivation, narrative text, practice 1 faculty of teacher training and education, tridinanti university, palembang, indonesia; gaya@univ-tridinanti.ac.id 2 faculty of teacher training and education, tridinanti university, palembang, indonesia; rusman_roni@univ-tridinanti.ac.id 3 faculty of teacher training and education, tridinanti university, palembang, indonesia; farnia_sari@univ-tridinanti.ac.id 4 faculty of teacher training and education, tridinanti university, palembang, indonesia. mailto:gaya@univ-tridinanti.ac.id mailto:gaya@univ-tridinanti.ac.id mailto:gaya@univ-tridinanti.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 92 introduction english is one of the important languages that must be possessed by students. in addition to being an international language that will support communication with other people, especially at this time there are many reference supporting lectures that use english. consequently, students need to improve their english skills. many students experience various difficulties in learning english due to factors of different levels of mastery of english (megawati, 2016). this is reasonable, at the university level, for example, they only use english in the teaching-learning process. accordingly, mastery of english in higher education is very low so that when they participate in seminars or workshops involving english resources, translation must be done. supposedly, for the academic environment in this internet and digital era, translation is no longer necessary. if the problem cannot be resolved, the government's hope that all universities, including private universities in indonesia go international, are merely wishful thinking (panggabean, 2016). in learning english, efl students still have problems, especially for writing skill. one of them is difficulty in narrative writing. according to jacobson and reid (2010), it is caused by students' writing skills that are currently low. few students have demonstrated their level of expertise but most of them show difficulties in writing (tracy, reid, & graham, 2009). therefore, for students, writing must be a challenging learning because many students have not mastered it (englert, manalo, & yong, 2003). in fact, writing is intended to express ideas, thoughts, and facts in language that is easily understood and clearly intended (darzhinova, 2019). students must learn good writing skills that are very important to support academic and professional demands. students' writing skills are very much needed not only to support academic achievement, but also to support their future work (durga & rao, 2018). according to laina and marlina (2018), there are several factors that efl students face difficulties in writing. first, students have lack of practice in writing in the learning process. most students feel very lazy and bored when the teacher asks them to do exercises in the form of writing because they think that writing is difficult, so they do not have much time to practice writing in class. writing requires very complex skills. efl students must pay attention to planning and organizing their writing, as well as spelling and punctuation. second, they have lack of knowledge about grammar and vocabulary. for that reason, giving motivation to write to students is very important. although this is not an easy thing (dornyei, 2010), motivating efl students in class, is often a complex and difficult task. this is reasonable because writing requires supports of psycho-sociological and linguistic abilities. therefore, english teachers need to provide students with motivation in learning to write. motivation is needed since it is the biggest force in encouraging students to learn languages, including writing. personal motivation determines the extent to which students will be involved voluntarily, and will remain persistent despite facing difficulties in learning a foreign language. without motivation that is powerful enough to learn the language, students will not be able to develop their language skills optimally (musthafa, 2016). irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 93 in line with the issues in writing in english a foreign language above, students at the research site faced similar problems in writing english. based on a preliminary study, researchers found four problems were faced by the students in writing narrative texts. first, students had difficulties in using language in learning. second, students made mistakes in the use of verbs to express past actions. third, students did not have much vocabulary; they were poor in expressing words in their writing. fourth, students had difficulties in organizing texts. they assumed that writing was not easy and took up a lot of time. these four issues affect the classroom situation on learning to write english. one of the writing skills that students must master is writing narrative texts. the narrative text is a story of human experience, so that students may easily arrange the composition. according to richard and schmidt (2002), the narration is a written or oral form composed of true or fictional stories. in the other words, narrative is a text which describes the events or actions sequentially. this research focused on the effect of students’ mastery of writing theory on writing practice of narrative texts. students better understand the writing theory, the better the students practice writing the narrative which is expected to motivate between one student to the other students to do the narrative writing assigned by their teachers or lecturers. there are many steps in writing a narrative text such as beginning, conflict, climax and endings classified as happy and sad ending. there were three research objectives for this research: (1) to determine a significant correlation between mastery of writing theory and writing practices in narrative texts; (2) to determine a significant correlation between writing motivation and writing practices in narrative texts; and (3) to find out the contribution of the mastery of writing theory and writing motivation on writing practices in narrative texts. there were three research questions: (1) is there any significant correlation between mastery of writing theory and writing practice in narrative text? (2) is there any significant correlation between writing motivation and writing practice in narrative texts? (3) how much do the mastery of writing theory and writing motivation contribute to writing practice in narrative texts? literature review writing practices of narrative texts writing is an activity expressing one's thoughts, ideas, and feelings expressed in written language (rosidi, 2009). gie (2002) reveals that each article or essay contains ideas from the author. therefore, the process of writing or writing begins with an idea that comes to mind by someone who is going to write. syarif, zulkamaini, and sumarno (2009) argues that writing is one form of communication that is done indirectly that characterized by the pouring of thoughts or feelings that utilize graphology, language structure, and vocabulary using written symbols so that they are acceptable and readable. writing is not only limited to the pouring of ideas and information in sentences that must be grammatically correct, but the ideas or information need to be packaged in a form of text that has been mutually agreed irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 94 upon by the language user community (pardiyono, 2007). writing is essentially an effort to express what is seen, experienced, felt and thought into written language (hakim, 2008). writing skills (practices) are the most complex skills, because writing skills is a process that requires experience, time, agreement, practice and requires a regular way of thinking to express it in written language (tarigan, 2008). therefore, writing skills need to get more and more attention as one aspect of language skills. factors that influence writing practice are namely called internal and external factors. according to slameto (2010), internal factors include health, interests, talents, and motivation while external factors, according to djaali (2011), include family, the surrounding environment, and school. abidin (2012) states that the factors that influence writing skills (practice) in the school environment, namely: (1) the low role of educators in fostering students to be skilled in writing; and (2) lack of educator touch in providing appropriate writing strategies. narration is a variety of discourses that tells the process of the occurrence of an event. the goal is to give readers a clear picture regarding phases, steps, sequences, or sequences of things happening. the form of this essay can be found for example in prose or drama, biography or autobiographies, event reports, and recipes or ways to make and do things (suparno & yunus, 2007). keraf (2008) mentions the characteristics of narration as follows: (1) accentuates the element of action; (2) arranged in chronological order; (3) trying to answer the question "what happened?"; (4) has a conflict; (5) in the form of a story about an author's event or experience; (6) the event conveyed actually happened, it could be in the form of imagination or a combination of imagination and reality; (7) has an aesthetic value; and (8) emphasizes a chronological order. thus, narrative text is a form of discourse in the form of stories about actions or human experiences. so, a narrative text is one of the types of writing which is retelling a story such as a fable and legend to entertain people. according to djiwandono (2008), writing a narrative text is a series of activities in expressing ideas and ideas as outlined in the form of logical and coherent stories, and the media in expressing ideas in the form of language. from some of the explanations above, it can be synthesized that the practice of writing narrative texts is the activity of pouring ideas or ideas aimed at conveying information that is packaged in a text about the events of human behavior or experience that has occurred which is easily understood by the general public and is the highest level of communication. the practice of writing requires to process ideas combined with a choice of diction, a good sentence construction, and writing techniques. through these writings, the readers will understand the intent to be conveyed by a writer. mastery of writing theory mastery can be interpreted as a person’s ability in something in making a good writing, mastery of writing theory is needed. according gie (2002), writing is closely related to thinking activities. the two complement each other, in this connection, writing and thinking are two activities carried out together and repeatedly. writing is a container which is also the result of thought. in mastery of writing theory, there are some aspects of writing. according to rosidi (2009), there are four indicators of writing theory, namely: (1) the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 95 suitability of the title with the contents of the writing; (2) the correct use of spelling and punctuation; (3) the unity, cohesiveness, and completeness in each paragraph; and it is clear and easy understood by readers. the writing produced can be assessed well, if it is in accordance with predetermined aspects and criteria. according to iskandarwassid and sunendar (2011), in relation to the assessment of essays, there are several criteria used, among others: (1) quality and scope of content; (2) organization and content presentation; (3) composition; (4) cohesion and coherence; (5) language style and form; (6) mechanics; grammar, spelling, punctuation; and (7) writing neatness and cleanliness. as a complex activity, according to slamet (2007) writing must meet various requirements relating to writing techniques, including: (1) the existence of a unity of ideas; (2) the use of clear and effective sentences; (3) well-arranged paragraphs; (4) the application of correct spelling rules; and (5) adequate vocabulary mastery. due to the complexity of the activities required for writing skills, it is not surprising that writing is not an easy task. that is, it is not easy for someone to produce a good writing. with the complexity of the skills needed, writing must be learned or gained through the process of learning and practicing seriously. learning to write requires a method. one method is to practice long and continuously. so, mastery of writing theory is an ability pouring ideas aimed at conveying information that is packaged in a text that is easily understood by the general public and is the highest level of communication. the ability to write requires the processing of ideas combined with diction selection, good sentence construction, and writing techniques. green, johnson, and adams (2006) state that instructions for writing narratives by utilizing the best evidence of synthesis, discussing approaches, beginning with the appropriate activity and ending with the right way in making a description. zulela (2012) revealed that the assessment in narrative writing can be seen from the following aspects: (1) content/ideas (40%): ideas expressed in essays; (2) organization (30%): the composition of the essay is carried out in a balanced manner in the introductory sections, the discussion section (contents), the final section of the essay, or the composition; (3) linguistics (20%): the use of sentence structure, arrangement of word/phrase groups; (4) writing system (10%): use of punctuation, writing letters, numbers, and use of uppercase capital letters. writing motivation according to nasution (2002), motivation is something power or energy that moves someone’s behavior. mcdonald (in hamalik, 2003) defines motivation as a movement of energy in a person that is marked by the emergence of reactions to achieve goals. lasa (2005) argues that motivation is an attempt to use the deepest desires to achieve goals, help initiative, act effectively, and survive in the face of failure. writing motivation does not only give power to the writing power but also gives clear direction. according to hamalik (2003), the function of motivation is: (1) to encourage behaviors or deeds. without motivation, there will be no action, for example writing; (2) as a director, which means directing actions to achieve the desired goals; (3) as a mobilizer, meaning that it moves a person's behavior. the size of motivation will determine sooner or later a job. so, the students should be given irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 96 the authority to control their activities. the teacher may involve them in writing activities; therefore, it can provide them with the sense of control over their academic outcomes. as the result, the students will be more motivated to learn to write. the extrinsic motivation usually deals with the environment of the learning process. teaching technique is one of the elements of extrinsic motivation. when the teacher is not able to apply the technique which provides them with the activities for enjoying, the students will be easier to be unmotivated. teacher’s assessment is another element of extrinsic motivation. the students are usually curious of how their writings are assessed. being able to know how the teachers give scores to their writing will increase their motivation to write better than they did in the previous lesson. methodology research design, participants, and locale of the study the method used in this study was a quantitative one with a correlational approach. the analytical method used is a multiple linear regression analysis. this method was used to make it easy to find the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variables. this research was conducted without any treatment. the research design is presented below. figure 1. research design note: x1 : mastery of writing theory. x2 : writing motivation. y : writing practice. r2y.12 : coefficient of the simultaneous correlation of both variables x1 and x2. with y ry1 : coefficient of correlation of variable x1 with y. ry2 : coefficient of correlation of variable x2 with y. the research was done at one private university english department, palembang, south sumatera. the sample was 75 students with a total sampling technique. ry2 r 2 y.12 ry1 x1 x2 y irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 97 data collection and analysis the researchers obtained the data by giving a test and questionnaire to the students. the test is given to know how far the students’ mastery of writing theory. questionnaire is given to know the students’ writing motivation and writing practice of the narrative texts. in this study, the researcher uses a quantitative analysis. data analysis techniques in quantitative research use statistics. in multiple regression analysis, linearity assumptions must be met. therefore, the data obtained from the results of the study are tested for normality and linearity before being used to test the hypothesis. ethical considerations this study employed persons as the key basis of the data. to deal with the ethics, while in indonesia it is not common to get a human subject approval from any institution, we protected the participants who were totally volunteer in this research by covering their identities. additionally, participation in this study was. findings normality analysis a good regression requirement if the research data follows the normal distribution. therefore, before testing the hypothesis, a normality test was performed. normality-test was conducted to analyze the distribution of data in a group of data or variables. table 1. normality-test result one-sample kolmogorov-smirnov test writing practice mastery of writing theory writing motivation n 75 75 75 normal parametersa.b mean 35.36 60.73 34.96 std. deviation 2.282 14.766 3.881 most extreme differences absolute .139 .100 .094 positive .139 .100 .087 negative -.086 -.088 -.094 kolmogorov-smirnov z 1.243 .893 .840 asymp. sig. (2-tailed) .091 .402 .481 a. test distribution is normal. b. calculated from data. table 1 presents that the value of significance level for all variables are more than .05. it has meaning that distribution of data in a group of variables was normal. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 98 regression of linearity analysis linearity test is performed to determine the techniques in regression analysis whether the independent variable (mastery of writing theory) and the dependent variable (writing practice) are formed linearly. table 2. regression of linearity analysis of mastery of writing theory on writing practice anova table sum of squares df mean square f sig. writing practice * mastery of writing theory between groups (combined) 2214.150 24 79.077 3.663 .000 linearity 1582.548 1 1582.548 73.303 .000 deviation from linearity 631.602 23 23.393 1.084 .393 within groups 1101.050 51 21.589 total 3315.200 74 table 2 presents that the deviation from linearity = 1.084 at sig. = .393 or less than .05. it has the meaning that students’ writing theory and writing practice have a linear correlation. regression of linearity analysis of writing motivation on writing practice linearity test is performed to determine the techniques in regression analysis whether the independent variable (writing motivation) and the dependent variable (writing practice) are formed linearly. table 3. regression of linearity analysis of writing motivation on writing practice anova table sum of squares df mean square f sig. writing practice *writing motivation between groups (combined) 2235.841 11 149.056 8.838 .000 linearity 2006.016 1 2006.016 118.946 .000 deviation from linearity 229.825 10 16.416 .973 .490 within groups 1079.359 64 16.865 total 3315.200 74 table 3 presents that deviation from linearity = .973 at sig. = .490 or less than .05. it has the meaning that students’ writing motivation and writing practice have a linear correlation. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 99 test of hypothesis there were three hypotheses proposed. to answer the hypotheses that had been made previously, multiple regression analyses were used. table 4. multiple regression analysis result of mastery of writing theory and writing motivation on writing practice coefficientsa model unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t sig. b std. error beta 1 (constant) 35.414 8.122 4.361 .000 mastery of writing theory .864 .155 .600 5.579 .000 writing motivation .185 .085 .233 2.167 .033 a. dependent variable: writing practice table 4 presents hypotheses analysis that can be written in the form of a regression equation as follows. to find out the result of test on each hypothesis, it can be explained as follows. y= 35.414 + .600x1 + .233 x2 f-test analysis f-test was conducted to analyze hypothesis iii: there had a positive and significant effect both students’ mastery of writing theory and writing motivation simultaneously on writing practices. the hypothesis acceptance criteria, namely ho, were rejected if the significance was less than the error level of 5% (.05). table 5. the result of coefficients of regression analysis of mastery of writing theory and writing motivation on writing practice anovaa model sum of squares df mean square f sig. 1 regression 2081.252 2 1040.626 64.936 .000b residual 1233.948 72 16.025 total 3315.200 74 a. dependent variable: writing practice b. predictors: (constant), mastery of writing theory, writing motivation table 5 presents that f-test = 64.936 is more than the f-table of 2.730 (α= .000). it means that both students’ mastery of writing theory and writing motivation had a positive and significant effect on writing practice (f= 64.936; p<.05). irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 100 coefficient of determination (r2) analysis the coefficient of determination (r square) means the contribution of the influence given by the independent variable (mastery of writing theory and writing motivation) to the dependent variable (writing practice). in other words, the value of the coefficient of determination is used to see the contribution of influence that is given by the independent variables simultaneously to the dependent variable. table 6. the result of coefficient of determination analysis model summary model r r square adjusted r square std. error of the estimate 1 .792a .628 .618 4.003 a. predictors: (constant), writing theory, writing motivation table 6 presents that r square = .628; adjusted r square = .618. the contribution of both mastery of writing theory and writing motivation on writing practice was 62.8%. t-test analysis t-test was conducted to analyze hypothesis i: there had a positive and significant effect of students’ mastery of writing theory on writing practice. and also hypothesis ii: there had a positive and significant effect of students’ writing motivation on writing practice. the hypothesis acceptance criteria, namely ho, were rejected if the significance was less than the error level of 5% (.05). table 7. the result of t-test coefficients model unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t sig. b std. error beta 1 (constant) 35.414 8.122 4.361 .000 mastery of writing theory .864 .155 .600 5.579 .000 writing motivation .185 .085 .233 2.167 .033 b. dependent variable: writing practice table 7 presents that students’ mastery of writing theory (t-test = 5.579; sig. = .000) and writing motivation (t-test = 2.167; sig. = .033). therefore, it looks as follows. 1. test of hypothesis i: students’ mastery of writing theory had a positive and significant effect on writing practice (t-test=5.579; sig.= .000). meanwhile, t-table = 1.994; α = .05. so, t-test is more than t-table, while sig. is less than α. so, ho was rejected, while h1 was irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 101 accepted. thus it can be stated that mastery of writing theory had a positive and significant effect on writing practice. 2. test of hypothesis ii: students’ writing motivation has a positive and significant effect writing practice (t-test =5.579; sig.= .000). meanwhile, t-table = 1.994; α = .05. so, t-test was more than t-table, while sig. was less than α. so, ho is rejected, while h1 was accepted. thus it can be stated that students’ writing motivation had a positive and significant effect on writing practice. discussion the effect of students’ mastery of writing theory on writing practice of narrative text. the result of study showed that students’ mastery of writing theory has a positive and significant effect on writing practice. as stated by abidin (2015) that the factors that influence writing skills (practice) in the school environment, namely: (1) the low role of educators in fostering students to be skilled in writing; and (2) lack of educator touch in providing appropriate writing strategies. as a result of study by rosidi (2009), there are four indicators of mastery of writing theory, namely: (1) the suitability of the title with the contents of the writing; (2) the correct use of spelling and punctuation; (3) unity, cohesiveness, and completeness in each paragraph; and (4) clear and easily understood by the reader. the effect of writing motivation on writing practice of narrative text. the result of the study showed that writing motivation has a positive and significant effect on writing practice. as a result of study by slameto (2013) that internal factors include: health, interests, talents, and motivation. based on these opinions, motivation affects writing practice. this is reasonable because without strong motivation to write, students will not do writing activities. theoretically, motivation to write is all inner strengths that strengthen each person to do the writing activity. so, writing motivation is an inner strength that determines one's success in writing practice. students need writing motivation, because with motivation they will be active to practice writing. the effect of both mastery of writing theory and motivation on writing practice of narrative text. the result of study showed that both writing theory and writing motivation have a positive and significant contribution on writing practice. as stated by iskandarwassid and sunendar (2011), that in relation to the assessment of essays, there are several criteria used, among others: (1) quality and scope of content; (2) organization and content presentation; (3) composition; (4) cohesion and coherence; (5) language style and form; (6) mechanics; grammar, spelling, punctuation; and (7) writing neatness and cleanliness. as a result of study by lasa (2005) who claims that motivation is an attempt to use the deepest desires to achieve goals, help initiative, act effectively, and survive in the face of failure. writing narrative text not only requires writing theory, but also needs writing motivation support. writing theory owned by students will not be able to realize writing practice as desired without the support of writing motivation. students who are lazy to write will find it difficult to develop their writing. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 102 conclusion and implications the results of the study conclude that (1) students’ mastery of writing theory has a positive and significant effect on writing practice of 5.579 at a significance level of 5%. this gives meaning that the better students’ writing motivation is, the better students’ writing practice will be. (2) students’ writing motivation has a positive and significant effect on writing practice of 2.167 at a significance level of 5%. this gives meaning that increasing students’ writing motivation will affect students’ writing practice. (3) both mastery of writing theory and writing motivation of the students have a positive and significant effect on students’ writing practice of 64.936 at a significance level of 5%. this gives meaning that the better mastery of writing theory and writing motivation are; the students’ writing practice will increase. therefore, to improve the students’ writing practice of narrative text, it can be done by increasing of mastering of writing theory and writing motivation both partially and simultaneously. based on the results of these studies the implications can be stated theoretically and practically as follows. theoretically, (1) strengthening the mastery of writing theory influences students' writing practice. to improve students' writing practice skills mastery of the theory, it is needed so that students do not have difficulty in pouring language skills. (2) students’ writing motivation has an influence on student writing practice. students with a high writing motivation have the ability to practice writing better than students with a moderate or low writing motivation. it is expected that the teacher can grow the writing motivation to students in various ways according to the ability of the teacher and interesting for students. practically, the results of this study can be used as input for teachers and pre-service teacher. improving themselves in connection with the learning of writing that has been done and students’ writing practices that have been achieved by paying attention to both writing theory and writing motivation of students to improve students' practical abilities. disclosure statement there is no conflict of interest in writing this article. acknowledgments we would like to thank irje and reviewers for accepting our article. this research was conducted at tridiannti university of palembang. we greatly to say thank you to the rector of tridinanti university of palembang and the dean of faculty of teacher training who have supported in conducting this reaseach. we also appriciated to my colleagues dr. mulyadi, ma from pgri university in palembang and dr. yusri, m.pd from polythecnic of sriwijaya who have provided insight and expertise that greatly assisted the research. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 103 references abidin, y. 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(2012). pembelajaran bahasa indonesia & apresiasi sastra di sekolah dasar. bandung: pt remaja rosdakarya. biographical notes dr. gaya tridinanti, graduated from sriwijaya university, palembang, indonesia in 1985, got master degree from niigata university, japan in 1994, and doctoral degree in 2017 from universitas negeri jakarta (unj), jakarta, indonesia. major is in english education. the research related in methodology of teaching, linguistics, and translation. she is lecturer at english education study program, teacher trainning and education faculty , tridinanti university of palembang, indonesia, jalan kapt. marzuki, no. 2446, palembang, indonesia. prof. dr. rusman roni is the lecturer of english at faculty of teacher’s training and education at tridinanti university of palembang. his major is english language teaching and applied linguistics. he is professor in english language teaching. his academic interest include: translation and language assessment. he works at tridinanti university of palembang, english education study program, teacher trainning and education faculty, tridinanti university of palembang, indonesia. farnia sari is a lecturer in english education study program at universitas tridinanti palembang in palembang, indonesia. she earned her master of english education from universitas sriwijaya. her academic interests include english for specific purposes, english language teaching (elt), cross-cultural understanding. english education study program, teacher trainning and education faculty, tridinanti university of palembang, indonesia. nurulanningsih is a lecturer in indonesian education study program at universitas tridinanti palembang in palembang, indonesia. she earned her master of indonesian education from universitas sriwijaya. she is currently pursuing a doctoral degree in education at universitas jambi, jambi, indonesia. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 78 metacognition awareness and its correlation with academic achievement of student teachers: the case of one private higher education institution elfa eriyani 1 abstract this study aimed to describe the metacognitive awareness of indonesian language and literature educational students in one private higher education institution, jambi, indonesia and to differentiate student metacognition by gender and length of study, and to correlate metacognition awareness on student achievement indexes. this was a quantitative study and the sample was taken by involving the third, fifth, and seventh semester student teachers. documents in the forms of student achievement index data and questionnaires were used as the instruments of this study and manual calculations and spss 16.0 for windows were used to analyze the collected data. the results showed that there was no significant difference between metacognitive awareness of male and female student teachers, and between metacognitive awareness of the second year, the third year, and the fourth year. also, there was a very weak positive relationship between metacognitive awareness and students’ achievement. implications and future research are also discussed. keywords educational students, gender, length of study, metacognition awareness, students’ achievement 1 lecturer at sekolah tinggi keguruan dan ilmu pendidikan ypm bangko, jambi, indonesia; elfaeriyani@stkipypmbangko.ac.id mailto:elfaeriyani@stkipypmbangko.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 79 introduction metacognition is a somewhat new knowledge introduced in indonesian education listed in the 2013 curriculum. the ability of thinking has actually been discussed since the days of plato and aristotle (akturk & sahin, 2011; othman, mustapha, tray, & ahmad, 2008). however, the concept of metacognition was introduced by flavell in 1976 by examining the ways and processes of learning (akturk & sahin, 2011; othman, mustapha, tray, & ahmad, 2008). anderson and krathwohl (2001) added knowledge of metacognition to the dimension of knowledge in bloom’s (1956) taxonomy that the knowledge dimension becomes four categories; factual knowledge, conceptual knowledge, procedural knowledge, and metacognitive knowledge. besides, knowledge of metacognition is included in the educational curriculum in indonesia. furthermore, metacognition ability is found as one of the core competencies that must be mastered by students of xi and xii classes. this competency ties various basic competencies into aspects of attitudes, skills, and knowledge that students must learn for a school, class, and subject level (kemendikbud, 2013). this means that all subjects in classes of xi and xii involve learning metacognition skills so that students can form metacognitive awareness. metacognition awareness should have been formed since secondary school that will settle and develop when they become a student. the formation and development of metacognitive awareness will be more expected in student teachers because they are prepared to become teachers who later will have tasks to develop students' cognitive abilities. in addition, metacognition can be a driving force as well as a supervisor in using cognition or knowledge that a person has when completing a particular task or while studying so that one's success, in any field, is more determined by his metacognition abilities. moreover, metacognition is a key element in learning (fisher, 1998) which will affect the success of learning (asriningsih, saepuzaman, & ferranie, 2016) and will later affect the success of one's life. this is possible because metacognition includes knowledge of cognition and regulation of cognition (schraw & dennison, 1994). furthermore, metacognition awareness directs someone to recognize what he knows and what he does not know is related to the task to be completed. this knowledge includes declarative knowledge, procedural knowledge, and conditional knowledge. based on those, arrangements are made for the implementation of tasks included planning, information management strategies, monitoring understanding, debugging strategies, and evaluation (schraw & dennison, 1994). therefore, it is no exaggeration if it is stated that metacognition will help an individual to learn or complete tasks more effectively. effective learning or completion of tasks refers to the learning process or the completion of a successful task, which is marked by achieving the right goals. achieving goals, not only can be achieved precisely but can also be achieved more quickly because the goals that have been formulated and realized before the learning process/ completion of the task is made. research done by baird (1998), hacker (1998), and white and gunstone (1989, cited in conner, 2007) showed that learning can be improved if students use a metacognitive irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 80 process, while the conner (2007) study showed that the use of metacognitive strategies for planning and monitoring work produced higher quality essays. however, this study has not documented the level of metacognition awareness of students and their relationship to their learning achievement. hence, this study was intended to reveal the level of metacognitive awareness of students of the indonesian language and literature education program in one private higher education institution. this study also looked at the differences in metacognition awareness based on gender and length of study and its relation to student academic success as determination of metacognition in the context of educational students is still rare. to achieve the research objectives, three research questions were formulated; 1) is there any significant difference between metacognition awareness of male students and female student teachers? 2) is there any significant relationship between the second, third, and fourth year student metacognition awareness? 3) is there any significant relationship between student metacognition awareness and student achievement index? literature review metacognition awareness metacognition awareness is called by several researchers with different terms, while it refers to the same object. flavell (1976 as cited in akturk & sahin, 2011; cubukcu, 2009) defines metacognition as one’s knowledge concerning one' s own cognitive processes and products or anything related to them. besides, akturk and sahin (2011) noted several terms used by researchers referring to objects called metacognition by flavell (1976) including: self-management, metamentation, meta-learning, metacognitive beliefs, executive skills, meta-components and judgment of learning. the term of metacognition awareness is also used by schraw and denisson (1994), schraw (1998), and vandergrift, goh, mareschal and tafaghodtari (2006). schraw and denisson (1994) state that metacognition refers to a person's ability to reflect, understand, and control learning. various studies on metacognition provide varying meanings, whereas not too much different. akturk and sahin (2011), after reviewing various literatures related to metacognition, formulated the most commonly used definition of metacognition, that is, information that one possesses about its cognition and ability to regulate the structure of that cognition. this definition distinguishes metacognition into two main components; knowledge of cognition and regulation of cognition (anderson & krathwohl, 2001; schraw & denisson, 1994; schraw, 1998). furthermore, schraw and dennison (1994) divide the knowledge component of cognition into three subcomponents; (1) declarative knowledge (knowledge of self and strategy), (2) procedural knowledge (i.e., knowledge on how to use strategies), and (3) conditional knowledge (i.e. knowledge on when and why to use strategies) in which divided into five subcomponents, including (4) planning, (5) information management strategies, (6) understanding monitoring, (7) debugging strategies, and (8) evaluation. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 81 metacognition awareness and learning achievement metacognition activities cannot stand alone in the learning process and in the completion of one's tasks. it is closely related to cognition. akturk and sahin (2011) describe that metacognition activities occur before cognitive activities (planning metacognition), during cognitive activities (monitoring metacognition) and after cognitive activities (evaluation metacognition). thus, metacognition is higher knowledge of cognition, which serves to recognize cognitions owned or not possessed and manage cognition in order to solve problems or learning processes. if cognition is to realize and understand something, then metacognition is to realize and know how someone learns and understands something. in short, metacognition can be said as a person's knowledge of his cognition process and product cognition and the ability to manage and manage it. although metacognition and cognition cannot be separated, they are functionally different. schraw (1998) and holton and clarke (2006) assert that metacognition is different from cognition. metacognition is needed to understand how a task will be performed, while cognition itself is needed to complete the task (schraw, 1998). it means that metacognition works first then followed by cognition. schraw (1998) furthermore emphasized that metacognition is a basic requirement for the effectiveness of cognition. the ability of cognition functions effectively if metacognition is in a high level. conversely, cognitive abilities will not function effectively if metacognition is in a low level. thus, it means that the ability of metacognition determines one's success more than its cognition. in learning, metacognition is related to the ability to plan learning, monitor progress or setback experience during the learning process and finally evaluate the results of the learning process. thus, it will help students to carry out more appropriate learning activities in order to achieve learning goals because awareness of metacognition includes knowledge of cognition and regulation of cognition (schraw & dennison, 1994). by the knowledge of cognition and cognitive settings, student learning activities can be more effective. in addition, effective learning refers to a successful learning process, which is characterized by the achievement of learning objectives appropriately. the objectives are formulated and realized before the learning processes are used as the basis in carrying out learning and in evaluating. effective learning certainly impacts on student academic achievement as schraw said (1998) that metacognition is important for successful learning because it allows individuals to better manage their cognitive skills, and to determine weaknesses that can be improved by building new cognitive skills. additionally, dunning, johnson, ehrlinger and kruger (as cited in al baddareen, ghaith, & akour, 2015) state that metacognition is a strong predictor of academic success for students. several studies have shown that metacognition can improve learning. in conner’s study (2007), he listed several studies (baird, 1998; hacker, 1998; and white & gunstone, 1989), which showed that learning can be improved if students use the metacognitive process that is if they realize, monitor, and control their own learning. in general, it is evident that good students are metacognitive skilled and on the other hand metacognitive poor people are imperfect in the way they irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 82 handle learning tasks in most subjects (conner, 2007 as cited in baird, 1986, 1992, 1998; shuell , 1988; wang & peverly, 1986). in brief, this study examined the relationship of metacognition awareness on the academic achievements of student teachers, who will later become teachers. academic achievement refers to knowledge, skills, and scientific attitudes mastered by students after going through a unit of education time in college. the smallest unit of education in college is called as semester. in one semester, students can learn several subjects so that academic achievement includes the results of learning all the subjects. student academic achievement in one semester is expressed in the form of an achievement index (ip), and in the form of the average value of all courses studied by students in one semester. methodology research design, participants, and locale of the study a quantitative method was used and the sample was taken by involving the third, fifth, and seventh semester students to describe the metacognitive awareness of indonesian language and literature educational students in one private higher education institution, and to differentiate student metacognition by gender and length of study, and to correlate metacognition awareness on student achievement indexes. variable metacognition and student achievement indexes were collected without giving treatment and data were collected at the time of the study. the research sample was taken using nonprobability sampling. samples were taken by involving semester iii, v, and vii student teachers; while the first semester students were not involved because they were learning at the time so their learning achievements cannot be recorded. the number of samples completing the data was 42 respondents, consisting of 25 women and 17 men with the ages ranging from 20 years to 26 years. data collection and analysis data collection was carried out by using documents in the forms of student achievement index data and questionnaires. the documents were used to collect student achievement index data administered in academic and student administration section at the research site. the questionnaire was used to collect student metacognition awareness data. there were 52 question items in the questionnaire modified from the mai (metacognitive awareness inventory) questionnaire developed by schraw and dennison (1994) with a reliability value of cronbach's alpha 1.0096 (greater than 0.6). the items in the questionnaire statement consisted of 19 items of metacognition knowledge (6 items of procedural knowledge, 8 declarative knowledge, and 5 conditional knowledge) and 33 items of regulatory metacognition (10 items of information management strategy, 7 items of monitoring, 6 items of evaluations, 5 items of planning, and 5 items of debugging strategies). the questionnaire was in the form of a likert scale, where each item was followed by 4 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 83 answer choices; strongly disagree (sd), disagree (d), agree (a), or strongly agree (sa). each answer choice was given a score in sequence 1, 2, 3, and 4. the choice of this answer did not use a midpoint to avoid a neutral answer. data analysis was performed using manual calculations and spss 16.0 for windows. to test the differences in metacognition awareness of male students and female students, the mann whitney large sample rank test formula was used because the sample was more than 20 respondents (siregar, 2015). meanwhile, the spearman rho correlation formula was used to examine the relationship between student metacognition awareness and student achievement indexes. ethical considerations this study used individuals as the main source of the information. to contend with the ethics, although in indonesia there is no administrative body established to protect the rights and welfare of human research subjects recruited to participate in this research, i covered the identities of people, places, and the research location by way of made-up names to keep the rights of human research participants. additionally, participation in this study was totally volunteer. findings student metacognition awareness based on the data analysis, it was found that the scores of metacognition awareness obtained by students ranged from 117 to 184, with the same average and median score of 157 or 76% and standard deviation of 14.53. after this score was converted into a scale of 0-100 to be categorized as green rating scale (suratno, 2011), it turns out that most students (33 people or 79%) were in ‘good’ category (score 68-84), (51-67), the remaining 5 people or 12% included in ‘very good’ category (85-100) and 4 respondents (10%) included the developing category. thus, it can be stated that student metacognition awareness was included in ‘good’ category. table 1. category of student metacognition awareness category range of score (%) frequency % very good 85-100 5 12 good 64-84 33 78 developing 51-63 4 10 furthermore, this also describes student metacognition awareness based on components presented in table 2. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 84 table 2. components of student metacognition awareness no components of metacognition total of items average score % 1 cognition knowledge 19 55.95 74 declarative knowledge 8 23.95 75 procedural knowledge 6 17.59 73 conditional knowledge 5 14.41 72 2 cognition regulation 33 100.14 76 planning 5 15.83 79 information management strategy 10 28.88 72 monitoring of understanding 7 21.12 75 debugging strategy 5 16.24 81 evaluation 6 18.07 75 according to table 2, it was known that the components of student cognition regulation measured through 33 items of statements turned out to have a greater average (100.14 or 75%) than students' cognition knowledge with an average of 55.95 or 73% measured through 19 statements. furthermore, based on the details of the two types of metacognition translated into eight aspects categorized as schraw and dennison (1994), the highest aspect was debugging strategy with an average score of 16.24 or 81%. next, the mean sequentially covered planning aspect of 15.83 (79%), monitoring aspect of 21.12 (75%), evaluation aspect of 18.07 (75%), declarative knowledge aspect of 23.95 (75), procedural knowledge aspect of 17.59 (73%), information management strategies aspect of 28.88 (72%), and knowledge aspect of 14.41 (72%). thus, it meant that the lowest score of metacognition awareness was from the knowledge aspect. differences in metacognition based on gender and length of study differences in metacognition between female and male students were analyzed by using nonparametric comparative analysis with a large mann whitney rating test formula (siregar, 2015) because the sample was more than 20 (twenty) respondents. from these calculations, z was calculated -.128. on the other hand, z table at the real level (significance) of 5% with the two-party test was 1 .05 / 2 = 1.025 = .957, and the value of .957 in the normal distribution table is 1.96. so, z count was in the acceptance region of null hypothesis, -1.96 <.128 <1.96, so it was noticed that there was no significant difference between metacognitive awareness of male and female students. calculations using spss 16.0 for windows were obtained by asymp. sig. (2-tailed) of .898, because of the value of asymp. sig. .898> .05 it can be concluded that the null hypothesis was accepted. there was no significant difference between metacognitive awareness of male and female students. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 85 table 3. spss test results using the mann whitney u formula metacognition awareness mann-whitney u wilcoxon w z asymp. sig. (2-tailed) 207.500 360.500 -.128 .898 as with sex differences, the differences in the length of the study did not show statistical differences. by using the kruskal-wallis ranking test (h test), the value of h count = .11083. this value turned out to be smaller than the x² table 5.991 in the chi square table. this meant that the null hypothesis was accepted that there was no significant difference (significant) metacognitive awareness between students in semester iii, v, and vii. based on the kruskal-wallis test, the value of the average metacognition awareness was obtained every semester as listed in table 4. sequential metacognitive awareness of semester iii, v, and vii students was 20.82, 21.20, and 22.15. briefly, there was a very small difference between 0.38 and 0.95. tabel 4. mean rank semester n mean rank metacognition awareness third semester fifth semester seventh semester total 17 5 20 42 20.82 21.20 22.15 the long difference in this study was not significant based on testing using spss 16.0 for windows which resulted in the value of p value as indicated by the value of asymp. sig. amounting to .946. this value was greater than the critical limit .05 which meant the null hypothesis was accepted; there was no significant difference between metacognitive awareness of students in the third semester, the fifth semester, and the seventh semester. the calculation results were listed in table 5. tabel 5. testing score of kruskal wallis metacognition awareness chi-square df asymp. sig. .111 2 .946 a. kruskal wallis test b. grouping variable: semester irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 86 correlation of metacognition awareness with learning achievement based on data analysis, student achievement index ranged from 2.99 to 4.00, with an average of 3.46 and standard deviation .27. categorization rating scale was used from green (2011) by converting data into a scale of 0-100. student academic achievement index can be categorized as ‘very good’ because 59.05% of students were in ‘very good’ category and the rest (40.5%) was in ‘good’ category. furthermore, the correlation between metacognition awareness and student achievement index was calculated by using spss and obtained the correlation coefficient number .193. the sig (2-tail) value was 0.220 greater than the criticism value of 0.05. to conclude, the correlation was not significant. although it was not significant, there was a very weak direct correlation between metacognitive awareness and student achievement index of student teachers. discussion the first result of this study stated that there was no significant difference between metacognitive awareness of male and female student teachers. this finding confirmed the research findings of mesároã, mesároãová, and mesároãová’s (2012) study that also found that there were no gender differences in the metacognition awareness of university students in slovakia. this study also used a modified mai questionnaire in slovak (schraw & denisson, 1994). the second result stated that there was no significant difference between metacognitive awareness of the third semester, fifth semester, and seventh semester students. this result was different from the theory put forward by flavell (1976) and his colleagues (fisher, 1998) reported that metacognition awareness develops with age, and older students are more successful or higher in metacognitive awareness because they have internalized a large amount of metacognitive information. however, fisher (1998) added that the failure to use metacognition awareness is not too age-related, but rather has to do with experience. when older students (in this case students of the fifth and seventh semester) did not show better metacognition awareness than their younger counterparts (third semester students), it can be noted that the students' experience in using metacognitive awareness was lacking. in this regard, educator intervention is needed to provide experience for students with using metacognition awareness. the frequency of experience given will develop the components of metacognition awareness; it can increase the success of students in completing their learning tasks and life tasks. fisher (1998) stated that what students need is not only explicit teaching but also metacognition assistance. the help of metacognition can be carried out in various ways, and one of the ways suggested by fisher (1998) is the experience of mediated self-reflection. this mediated learning is also called scaffolding learning. therefore, educators should carry out learning by involving scaffolding techniques so that students can gradually manage their own learning and thinking. scaffolding is irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 87 provided by lecturers or people who are more capable of guiding students or people who are learning past the zone of proximal development (hammond & gibbons, 2001). scaffolding helps students to work with increasing independence, students not only know what is done and thought, but also how to think, do, and apply it in a new context. moreover, there are three main characteristics of scaffolding actions named contingency, fading, and transfer of responsibility (van de pol, volman, & beishuizen, 2010). contingency is the provision of assistance or support in accordance with the needs of students, and must be a little higher than the ability of current students. for this reason, a diagnostic strategy is needed to find out the strengths and weaknesses of students so that they can provide the needed assistance. after knowing the existence of student metacognitive abilities, the lecturers are expected to teach contingency so that students succeed in understanding their metacognition. when students begin to understand, recognize themselves, plan, monitor, and evaluate, then gradually assistance and support reduced from time to time, this is called scaffolding. when support is reduced, lecturers can transfer responsibility to students so that students will take higher control over their learning activities (young, 2018). in short, scaffolding learning can be given by using one or a combination of the following scaffolding techniques: oral scaffolding, writing scaffolding, and action scaffolding (eriyani, 2016). oral scaffolding is given through verbal interactions with students, such as giving explanations, lectures, and discussions. writing scaffolding is given through written communication, such as lecturer notes on student worksheets, and handouts. action scaffolding action is given through certain actions in the form of direct involvement of the lecturer in the activities of solving or completing student assignments to transfer their work methods (in planning, monitoring, and evaluating) to students. conclusion and recommendations this study aimed to describe the metacognition awareness of indonesian language and literature education students in one private higher education institution, jambi indonesia, and to distinguish student metacognition based on gender and length of study, and correlate metacognition awareness with student achievement indexes. the results of the study reported, first, the metacognitive awareness of student teachers can be categorized as ‘good’ level with an average score of 76%. second, there was no significant difference between metacognitive awareness of male and female students, because z count was in the acceptance area of the null hypothesis, -1.96 <.128 <1.96. third, there was no significant difference between metacognition awareness of the third, fifth and seventh semester students. the last findings were quite surprising, it turned out that there was a very weak positive relationship between metacognition awareness and student learning achievement. finally, the third finding alarmed to be aware that the length of learning had not yet affected student metacognition awareness. therefore, an intervention effort is needed that allows older education students to have higher education as well as their metacognition awareness so that when they pass their study, their metacognition awareness has developed irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 88 maximally. this will enable them to become educators who can compete anywhere. for this reason, it is recommended that educators apply learning that accelerates the mastery of student metacognition awareness so that they can face and resolve learning problems and tasks they face. disclosure statement no potential conflict of interest was reported by the author. acknowledgments i would like to thank irje and reviewers for accepting my article. references al-baddareen, g., ghaith, s., & akour, m. 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(1). indonesia’s active, creative, effective and joyful learning: from a university teacher training program to high school classrooms. irje (indonesian research journal in education) , 2(1), 7-31. https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v2i1.4467 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 90 biographical notes dr. elfa eriyani is a lecturer at sekolah tinggi keguruan dan ilmu pendidikan ypm bangko, jambi, indonesia. she obtained her master’s in indonesian language education from universitas negeri padang, west sumatra, indonesia and she obtained a doctoral degree in education with a specialization in indonesian language education for her dissertation from the graduate school, universitas jambi, indonesia. elfaeriyani@stkipypmbangko.ac.id mailto:elfaeriyani@stkipypmbangko.ac.id this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 273 managing quantity or quality? students’ voices for english subject in the national standardized exam fridiyanto, 1 marzul hidayat,* 2 miftahul khairani, 3 and imelda yose,* 4 abstract the issue of quality is always a significant one and it will continue to be one of the predominant points of debate in education. through a qualitative method, this study aimed to explore the experiences and the meaning that students faced in the national standardized exam for english subject. the data were collected by demographic background questionnaire and in-depth interviews with fifteen participants. the demographic data were analyzed descriptively, while the interviews were analyzed by within-case and cross-case analyses. the results of the data analysis revealed that four interrelated issues including cheating and dishonesty as bad consequences in the national standardized exam, it is like a yearly educational festival and formality, sharpening the student‟s memories through extra classes and materials, and unfair grade and the spreading of illegal answer keys were important experiences and challenged our participants‟ academic and social careers as the next generation of the country. recommendations for future research and for taking some actions regarding the effects of the national standardized exam are offered. keywords cheating and dishonesty, english subject, standardized national exam, unfair grade 1 senior lecturer at universitas islam negeri sulthan thaha saifuddin, jambi, indonesia; email: fridiyanto@uinjambi.ac.id 2 *corresponding author1, senior lecturer at universitas jambi, indonesia; email: mhiday@unja.ac.id 3 lecturer at universitas islam negeri sulthan thaha saifuddin, jambi, indonesia. 4 *corresponding author2, universitas dinamika bangsa, jambi, indonesia; email: imeldayose.stikom@gmail.com mailto:fridiyanto@uinjambi.ac.id mailto:mhiday@unja.ac.id mailto:imeldayose.stikom@gmail.com irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 274 introduction indonesian government uses the national standardized exam to improve the quality of education. the national standardized exam policy in indonesia has been an extensive debate among the proponents and opponents of the exam. many think that the exam is one method of education standardization which is in the lack of considering unplanned consequences for every subject teacher and for students. the proponents and opponents of the standardized exam policy have become the focus of previous literature. for example, herman and golan (1991) claim that the supporters of standardized exam argue that the exam does an ideal work of providing the sign required to make norm-referenced explanations of students‟ knowledge and/or skill to increase the quality of national education. another argument comes from linn (2000) who says that a standardized exam is relatively low-cost, but does not measure students‟ ability flawlessly; it will always hold some forms of errors although its implementation and reporting of results usually can be done quickly and easily. one study from indonesia done by mukminin et al. (2013, p. 20) who found, “it seems that testing sponsors and policymakers at national, provincial, and district levels still consider testing as an important, positive, and cost effective device in educational improvement.” however, the study found that the exam resulted in some unintended consequences for teachers, schools, students and parents. the study, furthermore, found that teaching and learning processes were focused on the test while students focused on how they were able to answer the questions in the exam correctly. nevertheless, research on the students‟ experiences on the national standardized exam in the specific subject has not much been studied yet. the purpose of this study was to explore the meaning and experiences of students when they faced the national standardized exam for english subject. the essence of lived experiences is defined as, “mutually understood core meanings that define a unique set of experiences” (patton, 2002, p.106). to achieve the purpose of this study, the following question was used to guide the study: what are students‟ experiences on the national standardized exam related to english subject? methodology research design, participants, and locale of the study the study was designed as a qualitative one with a phenomenological approach. this approach is appropriate for understanding the essence of students‟ experiences when they were taking english subject in the national standardized exam. mukminin (2012) suggests that phenomenological approach as one of the five qualitative traditions is used to understand how one or more persons experiences a phenomenon. in this study, we attempted to understand how one or more students experienced on the national standardized exam related to english subject. in the first phase, we used demographic profile backgrounds to gather basic demographic data about our participants who were studying at irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 275 one english study program, in a public university in jambi, indonesia. the criteria of recruitments for the participants were that they were english study program students and they were fresh or new students or in the first year in their program. according to mukminin (2012), the essential matter in the phenomenological approach is to describe the meaning of the lived experiences from individuals who have experienced the phenomenon under the study by gathering evidence involving in-depth interviews with 5 to 25 individuals. fifteen new students of one english study program were involved and willing to participate in this study. the site of this study was one english study program, in a public university in jambi, indonesia. the reason why we chose the site was because we had access to it. due to the study site policy, we, then, asked permission from the study site. after we obtained permission from the authorities, we sent participants an informed consent form and a background survey. for protecting our participants, we followed what mukminin (2012) suggests that to protect the participants, the researcher must mask the name of people and research site through the use of pseudonyms for the participants and sites. data collection in order to understand how one or more students experienced on the national standardized exam related to english subject and to explore the experiences and the meaning that students faced in the national standardized exam for english subject, we collected data through demographic profiles and in-depth interviews with fifteen participants. all of the names were masked for their confidentiality. our first participant was triana who is a female student and she was in the second semester of the program. next, judika is a male student who was in the second semester. our third participant was helena who is a female student and who told us that she graduated with a satisfied grade in the english subject than any subjects in the middle school. we had deny who is a male student in the program. next, dea is our female student who got a good gpa. then, we had linda who is a female student. another participant was kurnia, a female student who graduated from an outstanding school in the jambi province. next, romiah who is a female student and received “the best achievement” in the debate competition when she was a senior high school student. sadam is also our male participant. he came to the university with a full scholarship from the jambi government. then, syahru, a male student, is our participant whose english is not very fluent and used indonesian during the interview. we were happy to have reka, a female student, as our participant and she got “the best dancer” in the pop mie competition. then, we had mili, a female student, as our participant. our next participant was tiwi, a female student in the program. another important participant was sherina, a female student who had a great gpa during her first semester in the program. our last participant was putri, a female student who graduated from a private senior high school before coming to the program. we used in-depth interviews with fifteen participants as described above. in this study, we used in-depth interviews as the only way to collect data. we had no opportunities irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 276 for observing or collecting data from documents. however, we were allowed to record the interviews by our participants. an interview with research participants is one of the powerful data collection methods in qualitative tradition (mukminin, 2019; mukminin, ali, & ashari, 2015). we conducted face-to-face interviews with fifteen participants in different places and time. each participant was interviewed more than 3 times and each interview for participants lasted between 45 and 65 minutes. we could not ask participants more time as we did not want to make our participants feel forced. at the beginning of the interview, each participant was requested to provide a brief introduction about herself or himself. we told our participants that all their information would be kept confidential. we constructed several general and specific questions regarding participants‟ experiences on the national standardized exam related to english subject. we posed questions such as what kinds of experiences did they encounter in their final year in senior high school related to learning the english subject and the national standardized exam? in addition, we asked to describe how they felt about the teaching process while taking the national exam; what they thought about the national standardized exam; did they agree that the national exam can be standard for the quality of the students in indonesia? data analysis and trustworthiness we started analyzing the individual interview data through transcribing the interview data. each researcher read all the results of transcriptions. we, then, conducted meetings to discuss the interview data in order to have the same perceptions on the data. after reading transcriptions, all of us started doing coding to identify themes and patterns of the interview data. during the coding processes, we had a lot of discussion regarding the themes and sub-themes as we had various kinds of data. however, we got back to our research goals, namely exploring the meaning and experiences students when they faced the national standardized exam for english subject. to find and describe the experiences, we analyzed and reanalyzed the individual interview data through distributing the individual and group interview data so that were able to record every noteworthy account which was relevant to our study. then, we looked at the individual patterns and themes in order to create collections of meanings by organizing all significant statements among our participants into fixed themes or meaning units. finally we deleted repetitive data among our participants. to deal with the trustworthiness of this study, we realized the following procedures. first, our study took on prolonged engagement and repeated interviews with our participants. we had individual interviews lasting between 45 and 65 minutes. second, we triangulated data through multiple interviews. then, we had member checks through asking participant feedback on the accuracy and credibility of the data and findings. finally for the dependability of the findings, we provided rich and thick description (mukminin, 2012; mukminin, 2019; mukminin & mcmahon, 2013). irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 277 ethical considerations we gave all our participants the informed consent forms and all their names and answers in the interviewees were treated with confidentiality. findings this study intended to explore the meaning and experiences of students when they faced the national standardized exam for english subject. the fifteen participants‟ experiences and accounts are presented in the following major themes. cheating and dishonesty as bad consequences in the national standardized exam the findings of our study indicated that participants in this study experienced bad consequences of the national standardized exam. for them, the meaning of the exam was beyond their expectation. instead of measuring their language competence in english, the exam made them experience something out of their mind. they were challenged by the fact that cheating and dishonesty were part of the exam. for example, students reflected, “during the national examination, i think the first time i think i would be hard to finish my exam for chemistry, physics, math, biology, but you know there is a cheat and it makes me easy to finish my work sheet…..if we want answer keys, teachers and school just let our activity go, there was no prohibition from them.”[judika] our interviewees also indicated that supervision was not done properly during the exam. it led students to cheat each other in the classroom. for example, one student reported, “security is less tight in the classroom. so we can cheat each other.” [sadam] in general, our participants voiced the indirect involvement of schools and teachers in cheating during the exam. one of the explanations why schools and teachers were involved was due to the success of all students. as deny and tiwi reported, “the school is part of students‟ success…many of them used some tricks such as cheating with friends.”[deny] “honestly i didn‟t really have problems when i faced the national examination….many tricks that we do, cheating is a choice.”[tiwi] the data above indicate that the national exam seems to bring bad consequences for students, teachers, and schools. students did not worry about the exam as they found “the answer keys” for the english subject even though they were not sure if “those keys” are right or wrong. they seemed to be confident to have “the keys.” the question is: are they really irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 278 able to communicate in english? by looking at the data above, the exam has not thought the unintended consequences for students‟ behavior. it is like a yearly educational festival and formality our findings revealed that the national standardized exam for english subject seemed not be able to measure students‟ ability in the language. our participants reported that they felt that what they experienced in the exam was not like what they expected. for our participants, the exam was like a yearly activity that indonesian students had to face. particularly, participants reported that the exam was like an annual event and festival. for example, “i think the exam is not an horror, because teachers allow us even in-direct ways to do “something”… it is like an annual event.” [judika] “it is the same like a semester exam. i do not have to worry and scare about it.”[romiah] “this exam is like a festival to make everybody happy.”[tiwi] “it is like a semester exam; yeah, i mean there is nothing really special. when i faced it, there is nothing to worry about it as i‟ll pass on it.”[helena] our participants‟ feeling about the exam indicated that it was like an exam that they had every semester. they believed that they would be successful in the exam. our participants reported that the meaning of the exam for them was like a symbol from the government to get a diploma or certificate so that they could continue their study to higher level one. it was not really related to look at their language competence. “the exam is just as a symbol to pass students from current level, so it is not so important, as you know time by time, year by year, they always cheat.”[ linda] “for students who follow the exam, they will pass, if not they wouldn‟t pass. i think it is just like a symbol, the purpose to make students pass and out from school wisely.”[syahru] what our participants experienced and reported in this study might open the educational policymakers regarding the function of the exam, particularly, the english subject. participants perceived that the exam was supposed to be designed to evaluate students‟ ability to communicate in english as an international language. however, in the exam, our participants felt that it was kind of a formality for graduation. they reported, “it is not really a test for our english ability, it is a bridge for us to graduate or if we wants to continue to university.” [triana] “in my mind, the exam is like a requirement from educational stakeholders to fulfill what the system wants.”[reka] “the government gives us the way to continue our study by passing the national exam.”[linda] irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 279 the national standardized exam for english subject had not helped our participants to evaluate their english ability. our participants felt that they would pass the exam whatever the situation was and whatever their ability was. for them, the exam was just one of the ways to show that they government had implemented their policy. looking at the data from the interviews, our participants experienced the unimportance of the exam. they felt that there should be something to be done to help them succeed in studying, particularly, the english subject. sharpening the student’s memories through extra classes and materials another thought-provoking matter emerged from the interview processes related to the english subject in the national exam was what participants said about their memory practices. the data from the interview indicated that before they took the exam, they were trained to be skillful at taking the test for english subject. participants shared their ideas related to the theme; they reported that teachers and school “sharpened” their thoughts and skill for the test through extra classes which were provided by the school and the teachers. for instance, “probably, by learning over and over it can help students to sharp their brain to remember those subjects.”[judika] the memory practices done by school and teachers were also voiced by other participant including kurnia who reported that after school, students were not going home; instead, they had extra classes related to the national exam. “it helps us to remember the subject that probably we forgot. with extra classes that we have in the afternoon, teachers send materials to us about what to study.”[kurnia] in order to help students succeed in the exam, schools and teachers tried to provide their students with more strategies for answering the questions for english subject in the exam. in the words of reka, “we are drilled to have strategies for answering the tests correctly.”[reka] within this theme, participants clearly stated that they were helped by the teachers giving them test materials for every subject such as the english subject. our participants experienced intense drilling to face the exam. they were prepared by their schools and teachers to be able to answer the questions in the exam. it is interesting that their schools and teachers seemed to be ordered to prepare them for succeeding in the test if not; their schools might be thought as a failed school. this theme is like contradictory with the themes of “cheating and dishonesty as bad consequences in the national standardized exam and it is like a yearly educational festival and formality.” on one side, during the exam, our participants experienced “cheating and dishonesty and formality.” on the other side, schools and teachers drilled their students with extra classes. these kinds of extra classes provoked irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 280 schools and teachers to focus on preparing students to learn subjects for the national exam in their final year. for instance, “we are trained to focus on the tested subjects in our final year.”[linda] participants also mentioned that their schools and teachers always drilled them so that they could get used to having a real situation of the exam. as romiah described, “we are drilled to face the subjects to be tested in the national exam.”[romiah] another participant who also felt that his school and teachers paid more attention to their final exam and even he explained his school made a mock test for all students in the final year. “we have what we call “a try-out exam.” it is like a real exam for english subject. then, the result will be announced and if we get a lower score, there will be more classes before the real exam.”[deny] within this theme, we also found that teachers and schools were motivated to spend more money on copying test materials. these kinds of tests were thought to be similar to „the real tests” for english subject. participants reported, “we have worksheets and guide books and teachers give material from previous years‟ tests to be discussed.”[linda] like linda, helena also admitted that her school and teachers helped her with extra classes and materials from previous tests. “the school provides us with the previous tests to learn in our extra classes.”[helena] the data in our findings revealed that the national standardized exam had driven all stakeholders in education to make all students successful. schools and teachers, particularly, were busy with preparing their students by giving their students “drills” before the real exam. unfair grade and the spreading of illegal answer keys in our study, participants largely agreed that the effect of the national examination was to encourage students to look for other ways to help them pass without feeling fear that they might get a lower grade or score. participants in this study admitted that they tried to find answer keys for the exam without the assistance from their school and the teachers as they realized that their ability in english was not that good. for example, “for some students who got answer keys, they could get a higher grade than who did not get answer keys.”[linda] irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 281 linda explained that she and her friends tried to find the answer keys for the english subject. they did it in order to have a higher score if not; they would get a lower score. another participant articulated that if they got a lower score, the impact was not only for the students, but also for the schools and teachers. they all mentioned that the result of the national exam was a kind of school prestige among the regions. as syahru explained, “the school prestige will appear in the national exam by student effort to get a good score…. the grade is not my expectation, cheating everywhere. but i can do that.”[syahru] one of the important issues that we found in our study was unfair grades. participants frequently described the importance of “fairness” in the exam. they complained that the students who got a higher score due to the answer keys were unfair. however, it was like a common issue. participants reported that schools and teachers should stop such as a kind of “illegal activities.” for example, this sentiment was articulated by mili who said, “they search answer keys everywhere together with their whole friends.”[mili] other participants also commented on the issue of “fairness. they thought that the answer keys were the worse way to succeed in the exam. in the words of a female participant, “what my friends mostly thought is to have answer keys for the english subject without thinking about their ability.” [triana] the findings of our study revealed that the impacts of the exam on students‟ cognitive, affective, and psychomotor areas seem to challenge our academic integrity. looking at the findings of this study, the impacts of the exam on students‟ behaviors are highly miserable. participants in this study felt uncomfortable before, while, and after the exam. the result of their exam might not measure their real ability in english. discussion it was challenging to conclude what experiences that students faced in the national standardized exam for english subject as their experiences seemed to be complicatedly intertwined. although the importance of the national standardized exam policy in every country is different, limited previous studies have focused specially on the experiences of students when they faced the national standardized exam for english subject (mukminin et al., 2013; mukminin et al., 2017). the purpose of this qualitative phenomenological study was to explore the meaning and experiences of students when they faced the national standardized exam for english subject. the essence of lived experiences is defined as, “mutually understood core meanings that define a unique set of experiences” (patton, 2002, p.106). previous studies (mukminin et al., 2013; mukminin et al., 2017) have documented that both students and teachers face unique experiences and concerns related to the national standardized exam for english subject. based on our data, we found that several concerns marked our participants‟ experiences, including cheating and dishonesty as bad consequences irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 282 in the national standardized exam, it is like a yearly educational festival and formality, sharpening the student‟s memories through extra classes and materials, and unfair grade and the spreading of illegal answer keys. our participants reported their experiences that they faced in the national standardized exam for english subject. all of the participants reported cheating and dishonesty as bad consequences in the national standardized exam and unfair grade and the spreading of illegal answer keys existed before, during, and after the exam. mukminin et al. (2013) and mukminin et al. (2017), in their studies, also found that cheating was one of the effects of the exam for both students and teachers. in our study, students seemed to have chances for doing cheating by looking for answer keys as their teachers and schools did not pay too much attention. stecher (2002) revealed that there were several positive and negative effects of standardized tests both for school, teachers, and students such as curriculum, morale, and motivation. however, this concern does not fit what herman and golan (1991) claim that the standardized exam is an ideal work of providing the indication necessary to make norm-referenced justifications of students‟ knowledge and/or skill to enhance the quality of national education. the students in our study revealed that the national standardized exam was like a yearly educational festival and formality. they confirmed that the exam was like a mandatory activity for implementing an education policy without considering students‟ backgrounds. they also told us that the exam did not really measure their ability in english subject which is in line with what linn (2000) says that a standardized exam is relatively low-cost, but does not measure students‟ ability flawlessly. additionally, amrein, and berliner (2002 claimed that high-stakes testing policies did not consistently improve the general learning and competencies of students. our participants testified that sharpening the student‟s memories through extra classes and materials was the concerns as the effects of the exam. they revealed that their schools and teachers just focused on the subjects for the exam by providing extra materials and classes. mukminin et al. (2013) and mukminin et al. (2017) found that teachers and schools are likely to teach subjects for the exam so that students, teachers, and schools would be considered a top school. in their study, mukminin et al. (2017) found that teachers and schools prepared their students for having strategies for succeeding in the exam. similarly, firestone, mayrowetz, and fairman (1998) illuminated that high-stakes testing had imposed teachers to parallel their curriculum to the subject tested. our participants reported that extra classes and materials were the things that they had in their final year in the school. the experience of our participants was related to what hoffman, assaf, and paris (2001) found that teachers spent more hours (between 8 and 10 hours) a week for their students‟ test preparation during the entire year. it is also important to note that, however, our findings should be considered in light of several limitations. in terms of our sample size, it was not a big one as it was a qualitative study, so, generalizability of our findings to other students outside our sample is cautioned. also, our findings might be limited because we analyzed the data by looking at the experiences of students, not teachers and schools or government officials. our findings are irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 283 limited to the extent that they are grounded on our interpretations from fifteen participants‟ data, though, we tried to reduce our biases in analyzing the data, and it is probable that our insights and perspectives affected the aspects of the study. conclusion and implications overall, the findings of this study revealed that four interrelated issues including cheating and dishonesty as bad consequences in the national standardized exam, it is like a yearly educational festival and formality, sharpening the student‟s memories through extra classes and materials, and unfair grade and the spreading of illegal answer keys were important experiences and challenged our participants‟ academic and social career as the next generation of the country. although our conclusions are limited by our small sample scope, this study contributes to an understanding of what experiences that students faced in the national standardized exam for english subject. to this end, it is essential that other researchers replicate our study. from this replication, additional experiences might emerge, resulting in a more comprehensive understanding of experiences that students faced in the national standardized exam for english subject. for policymakers, our findings may be inputs for reforming the exam to be a local-made test involving schools and teachers in assessing their student learning as they know exactly what happens to their students. disclosure statement no conflict of interest was reported by the authors. acknowledgments we are deeply indebted to the participants in this study who gave their time for the interviews and shared their feelings and experiences with us. references amrein, a. l., & berliner, d. c. (2002).the effects of high-stakes testing on students‟ motivation and learning. educational leadership, 60(5), 32-38. firestone, w. a., mayrowetz, d., & fairman, j. (1998). performance-based assessment and instructional change: the effects of testing in maineand maryland. educational evaluation and policy analysis, 20(2), 95-113. hoffman, j., assaf, l., & paris, s. (2001). high-stakes testing in reading: today in texas, tomorrow? the reading teacher, 54, 482-492. linn, r. l. (2000). assessment and accountability. educational researcher, 29 (2), 4 -16. mukminin, a. (2019). acculturative experiences among indonesian graduate students in dutch higher education. journal of international students, 9(2), 488-510. doi:10.32674/jis.v0i0.265 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 284 mukminin, a., lestari, p, a., afifah, y., rahmadani, f., & hendra, r. (2017). the national standardized test policy for english subject: students‟ perception. journal of education and learning, 11(2), 200-207. mukminin, a., ali, r. m., & ashari, m. j. f. (2015). voices from within: student teachers‟ experiences in english academic writing socialization at one indonesian teacher training program. qualitative report, 20(9), 1394-1407. mukminin, a., haryanto, e., makmur, fajaryani, n., thabran y., & suyadi. (2013). the achievement ideology and top-down national standardized exam policy in indonesia: voices from local english teachers. anadolu üniversitesi-turkish online journal of qualitative inquiry, 4(4), 19-38. mukminin, a., & mcmahon, b. j. (2013). international graduate students' cross-cultural academic engagement: stories of indonesian doctoral students on an american campus. qualitative report, 18(35). mukminin, a. (2012). acculturative experiences among indonesian graduate students in us higher education: academic shock, adjustment, crisis, and resolution. university of pittsburgh, usa-excellence in higher education, 3(1), 14-36. patton, m. q. (1990). qualitative evaluation and research methods. thousand oaks, ca: sage. stecher, b.m. (2002). chapter 4: consequences of large scale, high stakes testing on school and classroom practice. in l.s. hamilton, b.m. stecher, & s.p. klein (eds.), making sense of test-based accountability in education (pp. 79-100). santa monica, ca: rand. biographical notes dr. fridiyanto works as a senior lecturer at universitas islam negeri sulthan thaha saifuddin, jambi, indonesia; email: fridiyanto@uinjambi.ac.id marzul hidayat, phd. works as a senior lecturer at universitas jambi, indonesia; email: mhiday@unja.ac.id miftahul khairani, m.pdi. works as a lecturer at universitas islam negeri sulthan thaha saifuddin, jambi, indonesia. imelda yose, m.pd. works as a senior lecturer at universitas dinamika bangsa, jambi, indonesia; email: imeldayose.stikom@gmail.com mailto:fridiyanto@uinjambi.ac.id mailto:mhiday@unja.ac.id mailto:imeldayose.stikom@gmail.com this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 137 postgraduate efl students’ response to feedback: what feedback do students prefer? siti zulaiha, 1 akhmad haqiqi ma’mun, 2 and herri mulyono, 3 abstract the present study aimed at investigating postgraduate efl students‟ preferences for feedback and reasons behind their preferences. this study employed a qualitative research design with a case study approach. students at an english study program participated in an in-depth interview. data were analyzed using a qualitative content analysis. findings revealed that the majority of postgraduate efl students in this study preferred written, specific, detailed, regular, constructive, and timely feedback. students showed interest in the feedback they received and desired to discuss with their lecturers about the feedback. the findings emphasize the need for dialogic feedback where students and lecturers can share an understanding of what feedback is and improve the way the feedback process is done. suggestions, implications, and limitations are also discussed. . keywords feedback, feedback preferences, perceptions of feedback 1 a senior lecturer at the graduate school of university of muhammadiyah prof. dr. hamka (uhamka), jakarta, indonesia. 2 a senior lecturer at the graduate school of university of muhammadiyah prof. dr. hamka (uhamka), jakarta, indonesia. 3 a senior lecturer at the faculty of teacher training and pedagogy of university of muhammadiyah prof. dr. hamka (uhamka), jakarta, indonesia. corresponding author: hmulyono@uhamka.ac.id mailto:hmulyono@uhamka.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 138 introduction in the higher education context, there has been considerable amount of research regarding feedback and its significance to students‟ learning. feedback is a crucial element of effective teaching and learning (pokorny & pickford, 2010; price, handley, millar, & o‟donovan, 2010a). furthermore, research offers data that feedback contributes to students‟ achievement as well as to facilitate students‟ growth as autonomous learners (ferguson, 2011). thus, feedback is regarded as a key element of assessment strategies in higher education (evans, 2013). moreover, feedback has been acknowledged to evaluative and educative functions (pitt & norton, 2016). in terms of evaluation, feedback gives students information about their performance efforts on assessment tasks. in this sense, students consider feedback on their tasks is important in identifying their strengths and weaknesses, increasing motivation, and increasing their value in the future (forsythe & johnson, 2017). from an educational perspective, quality feedback has a major influence in improving students‟ work (al hajri & al-mahrooqi, 2013; gul, tharani, lakhani, rizvi, & ali, 2016) as well as in meeting students‟ expectations (pitt & norton, 2016). feedback produces a significant impact on the quality of student learning experiences. the positive impact of feedback is influenced by several factors, including student preferences for the type of feedback and its effectiveness and opportunities to communicate/dialogue with lecturers, as pitt and norton (2017) said that feedback is a process of communication and dialogue that occurs in specific social contexts. feedback related research in recent years has looked into different features of feedback practices in different settings. studies were conducted in an attempt to seek effective ways to support students to improve their learning through feedback in their specific context. several studies investigated students‟ perceptions of feedback they received, including what constitutes effective feedback and their preferences for feedback. common shared perceptions is that effective feedback should be personal (chang et al., 2012; dawson et al., 2019; ferguson, 2011) detailed (budge, 2011), legible (ferguson, 2011; price et al., 2010), timely (bayerlein, 2014; dawson et al., 2019; murphy & cornell, 2010; wilson et al., 2014). effective feedback should also involve dialogic feedback with the instructors (pitt & norton, 2016; yang & carless, 2013) and facilitate students to move forward (mulliner & tucker, 2015; pokorny & pickford, 2010). in terms of preferences, studies reported students‟ preferences for written (budge, 2011; sprague, 2017), a combination of written and face to face (dawson et al., 2019; murphy & cornell, 2010), and both positive and negative feedback (ntuli, september, & sithole, 2018; pitt & norton, 2016; plakht, shiyovich, nusbaum, & raizer, 2013). specific to the efl context, the majority of studies explored students‟ preferences for feedback in relation to specific language skills. for example, there were studies on oral corrective feedback (atma & widiati, 2015; motlagh, 2015; tasdemir & arslan, 2018), and specific studies about feedback on writing (kamberi, 2013; ruegg, 2015). irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 139 however, although studies have revealed the benefits of feedback and highlighted perceptions of what constitutes effective feedback and students‟ preference for feedback, there are also evident that students are dissatisfied with feedback they receive(price et al., 2010). this dissatisfaction may arise from the divergence between students‟ expectations and feedback practice (li & de luca, 2014). for example, students found that the feedback was unclear (price et al., 2010a), untimely feedback (scaife & wellington, 2010), and less specific (ferguson, 2011). consequently, students reported that feedback they received does not have much effect on improving their learning (bailey & garner, 2010). thus, there is a need to explore how students feel and think about the feedback they receive, including what types of feedback they prefer and find useful (pitt & norton, 2017). as mulliner and tucker (2015) affirms that students should be given the opportunity to say what they think about feedback and provide feedback to assist teachers in delivering effective feedback. what the literature suggests is that understanding feedback practices, especially from the perspective of students becomes very important because the benefits of feedback depend on how students perceive the feedback (price et al., 2010a). thus, research that focuses on student perspectives in the context of higher education remains significant and necessary (forsythe & johnson, 2017). furthermore inquiries into feedback practices in different contexts are encouraged as an assessment is context specific (willis, adie, & klenowski, 2013). accordingly, this paper attends a gap in our understanding around what postgraduate efl students‟ preferences for feedback and the reasons behind their preferences through qualitative content analysis from semi-structured interviews. as vattøy and smith (2019) affirmed that “more qualitative and mixed-method studies are needed to gain a more detailed understanding of the mechanisms of feedback processes, self-regulation, and self-efficacy in foreignlanguage teaching” (p. 267). in particular, this paper addresses the following research question: “what are postgraduate efl students‟ preferences for feedback?” literature review within the feedback literature, it is widely acknowledged that feedback is a key factor in classroom assessment because learning occurs through the use of feedback (gamlem & smith, 2013; murphy & cornell, 2010a). the role of feedback in supporting student learning has been well documented by researchers (e.g., blair & mcginty, 2013; mulliner & tucker, 2015; price, handley, millar, & o‟donovan, 2010). feedback plays a crucial role in helping students identify the gap between existing and targeted achievement (ferguson, 2011). furthermore, feedback also promotes student autonomy; in that effective feedbacks not only develops students‟ knowledge but also fosters students‟ capacity to take responsibility for improving learning (andrade & heritage, 2018). hence, students need to be able to make meaning and use the feedback they receive to make the most of the feedback. the impact of feedback on learning is influenced by several factors, including the time and mode of feedback delivery. studies revealed that how and when teachers give feedback affect students‟ use of feedback (pitt & norton, 2016; pokorny & pickford, 2010). irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 140 however, other studies argue that when and how students receive feedback are the significant contributing factors to students‟ understanding and application of feedback (hattie & gan, 2011). similarly, gamlem and smith (2013) contented that the recipient of the feedback is the student; and how they use feedback will ultimately determine its effects on learning. a considerable amount of studies on feedback has focused on exploring students as the recipient of feedback, perceive teachers‟ feedback practices. studies revealed that in general, students are critical about their feedback experiences (dawson et al., 2019; pokorny & pickford, 2010). for example, students expressed that timely feedback is something they desire but not always received (murphy & cornell, 2010a; wilson et al., 2014). students and preferred certain types of feedback that suit their needs (cavanaugh & song, 2014; francis, millington, & cederlöf, 2019; sprague, 2017). other studies investigate the differences between student and teacher perceptions and preferences for feedback. when students and lecturers‟ perceptions were compared, nonetheless, studies revealed that they do not essentially have a similar view of useful feedback practice (dawson et al., 2019; mulliner & tucker, 2015). these studies indicate that students are aware of the aspects that influence their learning and that teachers need to be considerate of students‟ views. hence, it is important to gain a better understanding of student perspectives of the feedback they receive. as dawson's et al. (2019) argues that students are active players in the feedback process; therefore understanding students‟ view of the purpose, the effectiveness of feedback and how they use feedback are essential for successful implementation of feedback. methodology research design, participants, and locale of the study this study employed a qualitative research design, which relied on the case study approach. this approach allowed us to investigates postgraduate efl students‟ preferences for feedback in depth (creswell & poth, 2018). final year (third and fourth semester) postgraduate students in an english program were invited to participate in the study. the invitation and the information about the purpose of the study were sent through students‟ messenger groups. ten students consented to participate. there were six students from semester three and four students from semester four (aged between 24 and 35 years). data collection and analysis, and establishment of trustworthiness semi-structured interviews were used to enable us to explore in-depth the topic under study as given ( 2008) argues that a semi-structured interview allows participants to elaborate their perceptions or experiences and facilitates researchers to seek more information. the interview questions primarily explored students‟ preferences for feedback and why they prefer to receive such feedbacks. each interview lasted 30 to 45 minutes. all interviews were audio-recorded and then transcribed verbatim. to ensure the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 141 trustworthiness of the study, researchers consulted with participants regarding the accuracy of the interview transcripts (given, 2008). the data from the interview were analyzed using a qualitative content analysis aligned with the recommendations of cho and lee (2014). following cho and lee' (2014) inductive approach to qualitative analysis, we started open coding by reading and rereading interview transcripts to establish tentative codes. similar codes were then grouped into categories. the categories were checked for consistency and revised when necessary. we then identified themes based on the categories. this process enabled us to articulate ideas with regard to what the interview data meant and to see the cohesion between participants‟ feedback preferences. ethical considerations all efforts were taken to address ethical concerns. participants were made aware of the ethical issues regarding their participation in the study. participants signed a consent form indicating their willingness to participate and permission to publish findings. participants were informed that their participation is voluntary and that they can withdraw their participation at any time. the interview session was audio-recorded with the participants‟ consent. all transcripts and research records are kept confidential including the anonymity of participants in the published article. findings the findings describe the perceptions of postgraduate efl students on feedback preferences and examine the reasons behind their preferences. quotes from participants have been used to exemplify common perceptions. nonetheless, infrequent perspectives are included and also recognized as such. the emerging themes from the findings are presented below. written and verbal feedback findings revealed that most students preferred written feedback for various reasons. students found lecturers tend to give more detailed comments in written feedback as expressed by a student, “i prefer a type of format in the form of written feedback as lecturers usually give a detailed explanation so that i know what to do next.” another student preferred written feedback as it was more personal and gave them the motivation to do better as one student said, “i prefer written comments as it is personal. it shows that lecturers appreciate your efforts. and this makes me feel more motivated to perform better”. moreover, the preference for written feedback seemed to be also influenced by students‟ learning styles. “i‟m a more visual type of person, so i prefer to receive written feedback.” written feedback was also found to be beneficial as it shows in detail what needs to be irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 142 corrected or improved. “i would prefer written feedback as it helps me to trace where my mistakes are in my paper, especially in a writing course.” however, one student preferred to receive verbal feedback as written feedback was sometimes unclear. “i must say i prefer verbal feedback than written feedback. written feedback sometimes is too vague. i find a face to face feedback most helpful because i can confirm my understanding of lecturers‟ feedback. for example, i can ask why i got 78 and what i need to improve.” the combination of written and verbal feedback, nonetheless, was preferred by two students. these students referred to receive written comments followed by verbal feedback to allow them to clarify directly lecturers‟ feedback intention and expectation. one student argued, “i personally prefer to have written comments followed by face to face oral feedback as i sometimes cannot understand what my lecturer wrote in written comments. i need to have oral feedback so that i can confirm my understanding of his feedback and ask questions related to my assignments.” similarly, another student asserted, “there are times when i do not know what lecturers‟ mean in the written comments. so, i also need verbal feedback so that i know what to improve.” although majority of students preferred written feedback, some students were concern of the legibility of handwritten feedback. participants found lecturers‟ handwriting was illegible, thus making it harder to read and understand the lecturers‟ feedback as commented by some students, “some lecturers have illegible handwriting. it was just difficult to read. i didn‟t know what to act on”. “it was an effort by itself to try to understand some lecturers‟ written comments. there were times when i had to contact a lecturer to help me read what was written.” general and specific feedback specific feedback was the preferred feedback over the general one. the most cited reason for the preference was that specific feedback enabled students to know what to act on. as one student affirmed, “i would prefer formats that are more personally aimed at my specific work since they will give me more detailed information that i needed to re-evaluate my task. it is easier for me to know which of my works that should be fixed and in what areas it needs to be corrected.” another student contended, “when the comments are general like “great”, “pay attention to grammar”, “needs improvement”, they give little benefits”. “i would prefer specific feedback with examples so that i can meet lecturers‟ expectation”. the benefits of specific feedback are also true when it comes to courses related to english language skills such as writing. one irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 143 student said, “i like it when i receive specific corrections on my grammar from my lecturers. especially in courses like writing courses”. however, for general courses, one student said, “feedback on grammar or choices of vocabulary in my paper would be too detailed and has little benefit for me.” grade and feedback comments another theme that emerged from the findings was about grade and feedback comments. most students expressed their preference to have a combination of both formats. “i myself learn more from comments than from grades. however, i would welcome both grade and comments as they motivate me in different ways”. one student explained how both feedback formats influence him, “i prefer both formats (grades and comments). while grades give me a sense of achievement, i also need an explanation of the mistakes i made in my assignments”. another student asserted, “good grades give me positive energy, but i want to know why i did well or not well. in this case, comments, especially written comments, will help me understand my strengths and weaknesses”. nonetheless, one student commented that she preferred comments over grades as grades do not reflect students‟ actual competence. “sometimes the feedback i received was only in a form of the grade. a grade does not tell you anything about what i‟m capable of or not capable of doing. i would prefer comments type of feedback”. feedback turnaround time another theme that emerged was the timeliness of feedback. students have a variety of opinions on this matter. in general, the expected turnaround time ranging from three days to a maximum of two weeks, depending on the form of assignments given. as some students said: "in my opinion, it depends on what assignment is given. if the assignment is in the form of project, i would not expect to receive feedback in two days." ”the faster the task is returned, the better. but it depends on the level of difficulty of the task. if the task is complex and requires accuracy, surely the time needed to assess and provide feedback will be more”. another student stated that feedback must have been given before students work on their next assignment so they could do their next assignment better. "i hope to receive feedback as soon as possible, at least before the next assignment is given". another thing revealed in this study is that students do not mind waiting for lecturer feedback in the hope of getting quality and useful feedback. "i have no problem with how fast i can get feedback. i understand that lecturers are busy, and the more students, the more time is needed for lecturers to read student assignments and provide quality feedback." positive and negative feedback furthermore, students commented about positive and negative feedback and how they influenced confidence and motivation. typical comments included: “i prefer to receive both types of feedback. positive feedback shows my strengths thus gives me confidence. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 144 negative feedback shows my weaknesses and motivates to do better in the next task”. “negative feedback has to be balanced with positive feedback. negative feedback tells me what to improve. positive feedback makes me feel motivated as i feel that lecturers do not only focus on what i did wrong in an assignment”. another student contended, “positive only feedback doesn‟t make me learn; negative only feedback, demotivated me. so students should receive both”. nonetheless, one student pointed out the importance of constructive feedback. “both positive and negative must be constructive, specific, and show how i can improve my works.” effective feedback during interviews, students also offered their view of effective feedback. several characteristics of effective feedback shared by students related to their feedback preferences mentioned in previous sections. common views included: “effective feedback should be based on clear criteria, and include specific suggestions”. “clear purpose, clear criteria, and easy to understand. that‟s what i call effective feedback”. mode of feedback delivery was also mentioned as an attribute of effective feedback. “feedback is effective when it is given regularly in a timely manner”. it was also argued that feedback should include multiple formats in order to be effective. “feedback should be given in various formats; written and verbal, grade and comments, positive and negative so that it will suit students‟ different needs”. nevertheless, one student contended that effective feedback should be done in a cycle. “a feedback would be effective if students are given the opportunity to revise then resubmit. students submitted an assignment and receive feedback. then students revise and resubmit and give final feedback.” discussion the present article aimed at investigating efl postgraduate students‟ preference for feedback and the reasons behind their preferences. students‟ feedback preferences identified in this study fall into several categories, i.e., written and verbal feedback, general and specific feedback, grades and feedback comments, positive and negative feedback, and feedback timeliness. students‟ perceptions of preferences documented in this study are expected and acknowledged in the literature. students‟ preference for written feedback supports previous studies in that it is more personal and encourages them to do better (budge, 2011; sprague, 2017). students in this study also sense that lecturers tend to grant more detailed comments in written feedback. these notions are consistent with a study by chang et al. (2012) that students appreciate lecturers taking time to read their assignments and give detailed feedback, and this motivated them to make revision of their assignments. it is interesting to note that findings revealed students‟ preferences for a certain type of feedback relates to students‟ learning style. as one student in this study who identified herself as a visual learner would prefer to receive written than verbal feedback. this finding confirms sprague's (2017) research that there is a direct relationship between learning styles and students‟ learning styles. sprague further argues that students perform best when receiving feedbacks that irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 145 correspond to their identified learning styles. however, this finding contradicts with that of tasdemir and arslan (2018) who stated that learning styles do not correspond with students‟ feedback preferences. thus, studies concerning the correlation between learning styles and feedback preferences seem inconclusive and need further investigation. however, students raised concerns about the legibility of handwritten feedback. this finding is in line with previous studies that found that students had difficulties reading handwritten feedbacks as they were illegible (ferguson, 2011; price, handley, millar, & o‟donovan, 2010). as a consequence, students were unable to use lecturers‟ input to improve their work. this finding indicates that written feedback is useful when it is clear and meaningful. despite students‟ preferences for written feedback, several students would welcome the combination of both written and face to face verbal feedback to check their understanding of feedback. this finding is similar to the results of a study by chang et al. (2012) that interactive face-to-face communication will help eliminate student concerns and provide clarity on the feedback given. likewise, pitt & norton (2016) argue that verbal feedback allows students to clarify and avoid mistakes in understanding and interpreting the feedback received. this finding hence suggests that students would embrace the opportunity to have dialogic communication with lecturers to discuss the feedback. in terms of feedback content, students were clear that they want detailed feedback. this finding supports previous studies such as those of budge (2011) and price et al.(2010). this finding may be especially true considering students‟ backgrounds as efl learners. detailed feedback such as correction on grammatical accuracy and vocabulary choices was found useful. students also appear to look for explicit comments including some examples about how to improve their work. this signifies that students care about their learning and want do better in the future (ferguson, 2011; pokorny & pickford, 2010). hence this finding explains students‟ preference to receive feedback comments than grade only feedback as detailed comments facilitate students to move forward. grade and justification of the grade, on the other hand, were viewed to have no impact on students‟ improvement (price et al., 2010). giving both grade and feedback comments can optimize the impact of feedback. however, the full range of students in this study see feedback not only in terms of content but also concerning its impacts on students‟ emotional being. students felt that positive feedback encourage them to perform better while negative feedback provokes them to give up, as findings in previous studies revealed that negative feedback could cause demotivation and frustration (li & de luca, 2014; ntuli et al., 2018). recognizing the value of both feedbacks, students in this study expressed that they want to receive a balance between positive and negative feedback. this finding corroborates with that of pitt and norton's (2017) who found in their research that feedback would be more valuable if it contained both comments that are positive and negative because positive comments would raise the possibility of students to accept negative comments well and not decreasing their motivation. however, students were clear that feedback whether positive or negative should be constructive and meaningful. this finding denotes that quality feedback influence students‟ feedback reception, as previous studies revealed that the quality and accuracy of irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 146 feedback would influence students acceptance of even negative feedback (ntuli et al., 2018; plakht et al., 2013). despite the spectrum of views on the timeframe for feedback, there was an agreement amongst students in this study that feedback timeliness is important in order for it to be useful. the importance of timely feedback has long been acknowledged. this finding echoes previous studies that if the feedback is returned to students rather late and if students have moved to the next task or task, feedback will be of no use for student learning (bayerlein, 2014; dawson et al., 2019; murphy & cornell, 2010). nevertheless, students are aware that timeliness does not equal quality. thus, students do not mind waiting for the lecturer‟s feedback in the hope of getting quality and useful feedback. this finding confirms ferguson's study (2011) that if students expect to receive quality feedback, they are willing to wait a little longer. one student even said that it does not matter how long she has to wait for a lecturer to give feedback as long as she received a feedback. this finding is in line with research conducted by chang et al. (2012) that students basically expect to receive feedback to help them to improve. students‟ feedback preferences have shaped students‟ view of what constitutes effective feedback. features such as clarity, regularity, tone, and timing were mentioned by students as indicators effective feedback. most importantly is that feedback becomes effective when it is used by students to improve their learning. as feedback is considered as ineffective if students do not do anything about the feedback they receive (price et al., 2010). hence, to support students to use the feedback, a dialog between student and lecturer becomes significant. the finding of this study suggests that an effective feedback process should be carried out in a cyclical way. this cyclical approach enables students to take action on the feedback by revising and resubmitting the tasks and then getting a final feedback. thus, the importance of students' engagement has been recognized in previous studies in that students desire to engage in the feedback process and that communication with their instructor is a critical component to effective feedback (chang et al., 2012; mulliner & tucker, 2015). conclusion and implications literature underlines the importance of feedback to students‟ learning, and the necessity to listen to students‟ perceptions of feedback has also been recognized. our findings echoed previous studies but this study aimed at contributing to the literature by presenting feedback preferences of postgraduate students in an efl context through a qualitative study. the findings of this study provides nuance to help us to further understand how students perceive feedback and what are their preference so that a better feedback processed can be undertaken in a specific context. the findings highlight that majority of postgraduate efl students in this study preferred written, specific, detailed, regular, constructive, and timely feedback for future improvement. students are not only interested in a grade but also a meaningful feedback to make them move forward. students showed interest in feedback they receive and desire to have discussion with lecturers about the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 147 feedback. this finding emphasizes the need for a dialogic feedback where students and lecturers can share understanding of what feedback is and improve the way feedback process is done. the implication of this study is that it may provide some guidance for lecturers to design or refocus their feedback practice by considering students‟ preferences and expectations. although one might question whether what students preferred is the most effective feedback. nonetheless, understanding students‟ preferences are part of the efforts to give students the best feedback experiences. furthermore, findings on students‟ feedback preferences, such as the findings of this study, may also serve as a consideration in designing a teachers‟ training in assessment. as zulaiha, mulyono, and ambarsari (2020) argue that teachers should have the necessary assessment knowledge and skills including skills in giving feedback to enable them to deliver quality assessment. however, it is also important to acknowledge the limitations of this study. this study was only focused on postgraduate efl students‟ feedback preferences. it is based on a small number of students from the same program within one institution. thus, students‟ perceptions and preferences for feedback are context-specific and depending on students‟ level of feedback experiences. nonetheless, the study provides insight into students‟ preferences and why they prefer particular feedback. disclosure statement there is no conflict of interest reported by the authors. acknowledgments we would like to thank all participants who participated in this study. also we would like to thank irje and reviewers for accepting our article. references al hajri, f., & al-mahrooqi, r. 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(2019). students‟ perceptions of teachers‟ feedback practice in teaching english as a foreign language. teaching and teacher education, 85, 260–268. willis, j., adie, l., & klenowski, v. (2013). conceptualising teachers‟ assessment literacies in an era of curriculum and assessment reform. australian educational researcher, 40(2), 241–256. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13384-013-0089-9 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 150 wilson, w., bennison, a., arnott, w., hughes, c., isles, r., & strong, j. (2014). perceptions of assessment among undergraduate and postgraduate students of four health science disciplines. internet journal of allied health sciences and practice, 12(2), 11. yang, m., & carless, d. (2013). the feedback triangle and the enhancement of dialogic feedback processes. teaching in higher education, 18(3), 285–297. zulaiha, s., mulyono, h., & ambarsari, l. (2020). an investigation into efl teachers‟ assessment literacy: indonesian teachers‟ perceptions and classroom practice. european journal of contemporary education, 9(1), 178–190. biographical notes siti zulaiha, phd. is a senior lecturer at the graduate school of university of muhammadiyah prof. dr. hamka (uhamka), jakarta, indonesia. she obtained her ph.d. from the university of queensland, australia. her research interest includes language assessment and teaching english as a foreign language. dr. akhmad haqiqi ma’mun is a lecturer at the graduate school of university of muhammadiyah prof. dr. hamka (uhamka), jakarta, indonesia. he obtained his ph.d from universitas padjajaran, bandung, indonesia. his research focus includes translation studies, literature and english language teaching. herri mulyono, phd. is a senior lecturer at the faculty of teacher training and pedagogy of university of muhammadiyah prof. dr. hamka (uhamka), jakarta, indonesia. he is also the head of publication support unit at the university. he obtained his ph.d in tesol from university of york, uk. his research interest includes english teaching as a foreign language and computer assisted language teaching and learning. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 77 the comparison between native speakers of indonesian and bipa learners in producing email requests andika eko prasetiyo 1 abstract this study examined a comparison between native speakers (ns) of indonesian and indonesian language as a foreign language (bahasa indonesia untuk penutur asing bipa) learners in making email requests. in particular, this study analysed the different aspects of pragmatics of variations in structure and politeness in emails. this study involved nine ns of indonesian who were studying master‟s level programs at the university of melbourne, and eighteen bipa learners who took the subject indonesian 4 in semester 2, 2018 at the university of melbourne. participants wrote an email request based on a given scenario, which was requesting leave in the context of a workplace in indonesia. the data were obtained by providing participants a description of the scenario, which prompted them to write an email request asking permission to take time off work. however, participants had freedom in terms of the style and structure of the email. in general, this study aimed to examine how their pragmatics varies, especially in terms of structure and politeness. keywords email request, indonesian language as a foreign language, l2-acquisition, pragmatics 1 a fulltime graduate student at the university of melbourne, melbourne, australia; andikaekop@gmail.com mailto:andikaekop@gmail.com irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 78 introduction email is the most commonly used medium of communication in the workplace. email is usually used to notify others of important work-related information either between superiors and employees or among colleagues. however, for non-native speakers (nns) in contexts of intercultural communication, producing emails is quite challenging. linguistic and cultural differences, such as the required levels and markers of politeness, are sometimes matters that need to be considered when working in multicultural workplaces. for example, in terms of structure, emails written in indonesian and english contexts differ significantly. furthermore, regarding politeness, people in indonesia and australia follow different rules in using forms of address both in speaking and in writing, including email. for example, in indonesia it is typical to use the forms of address "bapak/pak" for men and "ibu/bu" for women who have a higher age and/or social status or who are of equal status but situated in a formal context such as the workplace. however, in australia, it is very common for colleagues to simply call each other directly by the given name. romero, holmes, thy, and steinberg (2016) state that in the workplace in the australian context, social distance has a weaker effect because hierarchy is less prominent. thus, it is very important for those working in multicultural environments to develop knowledge of pragmatics in email writing. to date, many researchers have discussed topics related to pragmatics in email. these studies have varied in focus, such as the teaching of producing email requests (economidou-kogetsidis, 2015; nguyen, et al., 2015), the development of learners‟ pragmatics in email writing (alcón-soler, 2017; chen, 2015), analysis of email writing errors of nns (burgucu-tazegul, han, & engin, 2016; economidou-kogetsidis, 2011), analysis of politeness in email writing (alcón-soler, 2013; biesenbach-lucas, 2007; kim & lee, 2017; savić, 2018), analysis of structure and politeness in email (paramasivam & subramaniam, 2018), and the effects of study abroad experiences on email writing (alcón-soler, 2015). in general, most of the studies on pragmatics in email writing are the ones that focus on analysis of interlanguage pragmatics. however, few studies have analyzed a comparison between ns and nns in producing emails. several studies that developed comparisons between ns and nns in producing emails have had limited focuses, such as politeness level analysis (alcón-soler, 2013) or the influence of hierarchical systems on politeness levels (zhu, 2017), email structure analysis (deveci & hmida, 2017) and comparison between email writing in elicited and spontaneous situations (chen, yang, & qian, 2015; franch & lorenzo-dus, 2008). regarding the level of politeness, alcón-soler (2013) conducted a study of comparing 145 email requests written by british english speakers with 150 email requests written by international students. the analysis in this study focuses on the use of mitigation in writing email requests due to the existence of social distance. the results of this study indicate that ns are better at using their pragmalinguistic knowledge than international students. this is in line with the study by economidou-kogetsidis (2011) who found that pragmatic failures produced by nns were caused by inadequate politeness due to their lack of pragmalinguistic knowledge. however, as far as pragmatic failures relating to forms of address, a study by alcón-soler (2013) found irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 79 varied results amongst both british english speakers and international students. similar to the study by alcón-soler (2013), biesenbach-lucas (2005) conducted a study comparing email writing by american ns of english and international students. the results showed that the strategies used by the ns in writing emails seemed to show greater initiative compared to the international students. the comparative studies above examining ns and international students illustrate that in general, the socio-pragmatic abilities of ns tend to be better than international students. deveci and hmida (2017) conducted a study comparing ns of english and arabic learners of english in producing email requests addressed to a professor. the focus of their study was to find out what differences exist between ns and nns in terms of use of structure and pragmatic strategies in writing email requests. the results of this study indicated that except for the expression of gratitude, overall the emails written by nns did not meet satisfy criteria for good structure and were considered having failed in this regard. the results of the deveci and hmida (2017) study support another study by burgucu-tazegul, han, and engin (2016) who found that the structure of emails written by nns showed greater directness due to inappropriate greetings and closing statements. thus, it can be concluded that in general, email structures generated by ns tend to be more pragmatically appropriate compared to those written by nns. from the literature review above, it is evident that most studies which analyse comparisons of emails written by ns and nns usually focus on english as the target language. however, there are also comparative pragmatics studies written in other languages, such as russian (krulatz, 2012), spanish (bou-franch, 2011) and slovenian (orthaber, 2017). on the other hand, there is no existing research comparatively examining email writing in indonesian by ns and nns of indonesian in indonesian settings. however, that is not to say that there is no research on indonesian pragmatics at all. studies investigating indonesian pragmatics have been done by scholars, but are still limited (e.g., ariputra, rohmadi, & sumarwati, 2018; hassall, 1999, 2001, 2003, 2004, 2013, 2015; primantari & wijana, 2016; suharsono, 2015). research comparing speech acts involving requests by ns of indonesian and australian learners of indonesian has been conducted by hassal (2013). he found that australian learners of indonesian used the „want‟ statement more often in producing requests. in addition, learners from australia were also found to have reduced l1 transfer problems in line with their improvement in their target language proficiency. similar to the study by hassal (2013), primantari and wijana (2017) conducted an analysis comparing ns of indonesian and bipa learners from korea in producing speech acts in indonesian. they found that the lack of pragmatics in the speech acts produced by nns was due to the weakness of their language proficiency. in addition, cultural differences and frequent exposure to informal indonesian were also non-linguistic factors that influenced bipa learners‟ pragmatics in producing speech acts. therefore, given the limited available research on pragmatics in indonesian, i was drawn to research speech acts in indonesian pragmatics. however, the focus in this study was on request emails produced by ns of indonesian and bipa learners. an analysis of email requests was chosen because email has become a regular tool for communication in the modern age, especially in the education or workplace setting. in addition, this study also provided an overview about the aspects of irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 80 structure and culture that which can inform effective email writing in indonesian. finally, this research mirrored the research by hassal (2003) which focuses on comparing ns and bipa learners‟ requests in indonesian. however, in this study i used an email request addressed to someone of a higher status in the workplace hierarchy as the focus of this study. to fulfill the objective of this study, i developed two research questions as follows: 1. how does the usage of structure differ between ns and bipa learners in writing an email request in an indonesian context? 2. how does politeness differ between ns and bipa learners in writing an email request in an indonesian context? methodology participants a total of eighteen students of bipa learners in indonesian 4 subject, and nine ns who were master students at the university of melbourne involved in this study. regarding the proficiency of the bipa learners, the indonesian 4 class is considered as intermediate level. most of the students have studied indonesian at high school. moreover, to enter the indonesian 4 subject students must first take a placement test. furthermore, when filling out the questionnaire, most of the students in the indonesian 4 claimed that they have received instructions in writing emails in indonesian class. meanwhile, the ns of indonesian were master students studying various majors. in general, the ns all had some measure of work experience, so they were familiar with email writing in the context of indonesian workplaces. data collection the scenario used for eliciting the writing on an email in this study was adapted from a similar task in an assignment in the ipc subject at the university of melbourne. participants were asked to write an email requesting to take leave in an indonesian workplace setting. the following are the writing instructions given to the participants: write a request email for the following scenario: you are working in one of the companies in jakarta, indonesia. it’s thursday afternoon. you just found out that your cousin, who lives in paris, will be in jakarta on monday and tuesday. you grew up with your cousin and haven’t seen her in years, and you would really like to take monday and tuesday off to spend time with her. you need to ask your team leader, michael ewing, for time off. furthermore, each participant was given a demographic questionnaire to collect data about gender, native language, and experience of instruction in email writing, and the length of time studying indonesian. the collection of data relating to the bipa learners was conducted prior to commencing normal learning activities in the indonesian 4 class. they wrote an email irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 81 manually (handwriting on paper), and most of them completed the email in a duration of less than 20 minutes. meanwhile, the ns wrote an email using electronic media, through an email application or what’s app. i asked them to use electronic media due to limited time to meet them individually. procedures before i asked all participants to write an email, i explained the objective of the study both to ns and bipa learner participants. the purpose of the study was to examine the email request in indonesian created by ns and bipa learners. then, i also explained to the participants that they should address an email in the indonesian context based on their knowledge without looking at any sources. secondly, i provided the participants of bipa learners the demographic questionnaire and the form contained writing instruction in their last meeting of indonesia 4 class. meanwhile, for ns participants, i gave the instructions to nine indonesian master students through what’s app. during the email writing process, i assisted the participants and responded to the following question regarding email writing or other questions. lastly, then all data were collected and transcribed into a structural framework so that i can easily analyze the data, especially the data analysis regarding the email structure. data analysis the research design used in this study analyzing email requests can be categorized as a case study (paramasivam & subramaniam, 2018). the analysis in this study used a qualitative and discourse analysis. firstly, to analyze the email structure, i used „moves‟ in email requests by ho (2011) as a guide to analyzing the email structure (for a more detailed description of the 15 moves identified in email requests see ho, 2011). however, for this study i had adjusted the categories into nine moves. these adjustments have been made due to the simpler request scenario. another reason is because the participants of bipa learners in this study were categorized as the learners in the intermediate level, and so some of the more complex moves were not relevant. in addition, i added the move category of „greeting and well-wishing‟ into the catalogue. the nine moves i adopted from ho (2011) are as follows. table 1. the moves in writing email request moves example addressing dear dr. ewing greeting and/or well-wishing i hope you are doing well. acknowledging i have had a very pleasant time in my first few months working at the company. background information i am writing this email regarding a family matter that has come up. requesting i want to ask permission to take leave on monday and tuesday. elaborating i just received information that my cousin from paris will be visiting jakarta on monday and tuesday. i haven't seen him for a couple of years so there will be a family meeting on those two days. irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 82 expressing ideas/ solution i will try to complete some work this weekend. gratitude for requested help thank you closing best regards, signing off andika in addition, for the second analysis, related to politeness, i used a model of a (in) directness strategy by hassal (2011) as a guide in this study. he divided the level of (in) directness into three levels, which are direct, conventionally indirect, and non-conventionally indirect. however, in this study i condensed these into two levels, namely direct (e.g., „i want to ask the day off‟) and conventionally indirect (e.g. „can i ask for day off?‟). in addition, forms of address used in indonesian were analyzed in this study. findings the structure of the email a total of eighteen emails by bipa learners and nine emails by ns were analysed in terms of structure and politeness. firstly, with regard to structure, i used analysis of moves in email requests by ho (2011) that i have adjusted. the results showed that most ns and bipa learners included the standard elements of email structure, such as addressing, background information, requesting, and gratitude for requested help, closing, and signing off. however, a small number of participants did not include elements of gratitude expression, closing, and signing off. furthermore, surprisingly the data showed that bipa learners were more likely to write greeting and/or well-wishing and elaboration in their emails. meanwhile, another interesting finding about the data was that ns were more likely to include a move of proposing an idea/solution. the details of the results of the comparative data analysis between ns and bipa learners in writing email requests can be seen in table 2 below. table 2. comparison between ns and bipa learners in terms of structure of email moves ns (n=9) n (%) bipa learners (n=18) n (%) addressing 9 (100%) 18 (100%) greeting and/or wishing 1 (11.11%) 8 (44.44%) acknowledging 1 (11.11%) 0 background information 9 (100%) 18 (100%) requesting 9 (100%) 18 (100%) elaborating 2 (22.22%) 16 (88.88%) expressing ideas/ solution 6 (66.66%) 7 (38.88%) gratitude for requested help 9 (100%) 15 (83.33%) closing 7 (77.77%) 17 (94.44%) signing off 8 (88.88%) 17 (94.44%) irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 83 furthermore, after a closer look into the data, there were some differences in the ordering of structural elements between emails written by ns and bipa learners. ns were more likely to write a request segment first, followed by background information. whereas bipa learners tended to write background information first which was then followed by the request. thus, in general in this comparative study, i conclude that there are two types of email structure used by ns and bipa learners. table 3 below is a comparison of ns and bipa learners in terms of the email structure. table 3. the comparison between ns and bipa learners in terms of email structure structure ns (n=9) n (%) bipa learners(n=18) n (%) structure 1 addressing, background information, requesting, gratitude for request help, closing, signing off. 0 13 (72.22%) structure 2 addressing, requesting, background information, gratitude for request help, closing, signing off. 9 (100%) 5 (27.77%) from the data above, it can be seen that 13 (72.22%) of bipa learners used structure 1, that is providing background information first before making the request. while the remainder, 5 (27.77%) of nns used the second structure, that is conveying a request first, then followed by background information. on the other hand, all ns used structure 2. here is one example of emails written using structure 1 by bipa learners and structure 2 by ns. (1) structure 1 by bipa learners addressing : selamat siang michael ewing good afternoon michael ewing background information : siang jni, saya mendengar sepupu saya akan mendatang ke jakarta pada hari senin dan selasa. sepupu saya tinggal di ibu kota perancis, sehingga saya tidak melihat dia selama beberapa tahun. saya tumbuh bersama sepupu saya this afternoon, i have heard my cousin will come to jakarta on monday and tuesday. my cousin lives in the capital city of france, so i haven't seen him for several years. i grew up with my cousin requesting : sehingga saya akan sangat menghargai kalau anda mengizin saya untuk cuti kerja pada hari senin dan selasa pada minggu depan. jadi saya bisa bertemu dengan dia. so, i would really appreciate if you allow me to take time off from work on mondays and tuesdays next week. so, i can meet him. gratitude for request help : terima kasih untuk pertimbanganmu. thank you for your consideration. closing : salam, regards, signing off. : sarah o’brien sarah o’brien irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 84 (2) structure 2 by ns addressing : selamat siang pak ewing, good afternoon mr. ewing requesting : bersama dengan email ini, saya hendak mengajukan permohonan cuti untuk hari senin, 8 oktober 2018 sampai selasa, 9 oktober 2018 along with this email, i would like to ask for leave for monday, october 8, 2018 until tuesday, october 9, 2018 background information : karena ada urusan keluarga mendadak. because there is a sudden family matter. [expressing idea/ solution] : apabila ada pekerjaan yang harus saya selesaikan untuk hari senin dan selasa, saya akan ambil jam lembur untuk menyelesaikannya di hari sabtu dan minggu. if there are jobs that i have to complete on monday and tuesday, i will take overtime to finish on saturday and sunday. gratitude for request help : terima kasih atas perhatiannya. thank you for your attention. closing : salam, regards, signing off. : iqbal adam iqbal adam the politeness of the email regarding the levels of politeness, i analyzed the request move segment using the (in) directness level model by hassal (2011). the results of the analysis of the level of (in) directness comparing ns and bipa learners can be seen in table 4 below. table 4. in(directness) in request moves in(directness) ns (n=9) n (%) bipa learners (n=18) n (%) direct 8 (88.88%) 8 (44.44%) conventionally indirect 1 (11.11%) 10 (55.55%) analysis of the data showed that bipa learners used the conventionally indirect pattern more often in making requests. a total of 10 (55.55%) of bipa learners used a conventionally indirect strategy in their request. meanwhile, the data shows that only 1 of the ns (11.11%) used an indirect strategy in producing email requests. thus, it can be concluded that ns tend to be more direct in making email requests. however, this does not necessarily mean that the ns were not polite, as this directness was phrased using more refined word choices, like „saya bermaksud meminta izin” (i am intending to ask permission). here are several examples of (in) directness emails by ns and bipa learners. irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 85 (1) direct pattern by native speakers. the ns of indonesian produce a large proportion of direct requests. this is due to the email pattern that indonesian people usually use when they write an email request. examples of direct requests made by ns are as follows: a) sehubungan dengan surat ini, saya ingin menyampaikan permohonan izin cuti selama dua hari minggu depan. (regarding to this letter, i would like to request two days off next week.) b) saya ingin mengajukan cuti untuk hari senin dan selasa depan. (i would like to ask the day off for monday and tuesday.) c) dengan email ini saya bermaksud mengajukan cuti kerja selama dua hari untuk hari senin dan selasa. (in this email, i would like to request two days off on monday and tuesday.) in the example above, most ns started the request with the dengan email ini „in this email‟ and followed by the direct request. the requests made by ns are categorised as direct requests, however, in indonesian those direct requests are still considered polite since participants use polite word choice. in this case, word choice plays a vital role in determining the politeness of a request. (2) conventionally indirect pattern by bipa learners. bipa learners tend to produce conventionally indirect requests. this contains indirect formulas that are conventionalised in the language as a means of requesting (hassal, 2003). in this request type, most bipa learners use a relevant modal verb to request permission. examples are these: a) apakah [saya bisa minta izin] pada hari senin dan selasa di minggu depan? (can i ask to take day off on monday and tuesday next week?) b) boleh saya tidak menghadiri pekerjaan pada baik hari senin dan selasa? (may i not attend the work both on monday and tuesday?) c) saya ingin tahu apakah saya bisa mengambil cuti dari pekerjaan supaya saya bisa pergi sekeliling jakarta dengan sepupu saya? (i want to know whether i can take day off from work so that i can travel around jakarta with my cousin?) the example from bipa learners above, they prefer to use modal verbs to perform the request. modal verbs that they tended to use are either bisa „can‟ or boleh „may‟. the use of modal verbs in students‟ requests is assumed that they perform transfer of english formula „can i.‟ to indonesian. forms of address one of the strongest markers for showing politeness in the indonesian context is the use of forms of address. in an indonesian email, usually the openers „yang terhormat‟ (honorable) and „bapak‟ (mister/sir) are used in addressing a male superior. in addition, the respectful second person pronoun „anda‟ is used to show respect for people of a higher status rather than „kamu‟ which is used with those of equal or lower status. in table 5 below are the results of the analysis of the move of addressing comparing ns and bipa learners. irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 86 table 5. comparison of addressing moves of ns and bipa learners ns (n=9) n (%) learners (n=18) n (%) bapak/pak + yang terhormat 4 (44.44%) 13 (72.22%) bapak/pak 4 (44.44%) 3 (16.66%) without bapak/pak 1 (11.11%) 2 (11.11%) from the data above it can be seen that most of bipa learners already have good knowledge about appropriate forms of address in writing an email in an indonesian context. only 2 (11.11%) of bipa learners students used the addressee‟s name directly in the addressing segment. in addition, it is very surprising that there was 1 (11.11%) ns who also only used the addressee‟s name in addressing. therefore, it can be concluded that both ns and bipa learners understand the culturally appropriate level of politeness in terms of addressing. discussion this study aimed to analyze the differences between ns and bipa learners of an intermediate level in writing email requests. in particular, the analysis is focused on the differences in use of structure and politeness between ns and bipa learners in producing email requests. the results of the analysis led to the finding that both ns and bipa learners included the standard elements of structure for email requests, such as addressing, background information, requesting, and gratitude for requested help, closing, and signing off. this finding confirms zhu's (2017) study which found that both ns and nns had similar capabilities in the use of moves in email requests. in addition, in terms of form of address, both groups of participants tended to use polite forms of address in indonesian. this finding refutes the study done by economidou-kogetsidis (2011) which found that nns failed in terms of politeness and pragmatics. thus, it can be concluded that bipa learners of indonesian already had good pragmalinguistic knowledge like ns, although there were still some grammatical errors in bipa learners‟ emails. on the other hand, there are significant differences in several aspects. firstly, ns tended to provide a solution in the form of an offer to complete the task before leave or even express willingness to be contacted during leave. this is in line with the findings of biesenbach-lucas (2015) which found that ns use more initiative when making requests. meanwhile, in this study, bipa learners were more likely to include a greeting and/or well-wishing segment as well as providing elaboration. i assume that the inclusion of greeting and/or well-wishing is a result of transfer from english email-writing. it is unclear to what extent the inclusion of elaboration was due to this being a routine speech act as part of request-making, or simply due to translation from the scenario text. furthermore, in terms of structure, bipa learners were more likely to write background information first, followed by a request. conversely, ns were more likely to make the request move first, and then follow with background information. in the context of an email request in indonesian, normally the request is made first, then followed by the irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 87 background information. furthermore, in accordance with (in) directness, bipa learners were more likely to use a conventional indirect strategy, whereas ns were more likely to use a direct strategy. this finding confirms the theory that in unequal communication, western culture tends more towards the use of indirect requests (biesenbach-lucas, 2006). this strategy is considered as providing a choice for the recipient as to whether they will grant the request or not (spencer-oatey & franklin, 2009). however, the indirectness produced by ns does not mean that their level of politeness was lower; rather the concept of politeness in writing emails in indonesian is different from english contexts. in the context of indonesian, the forms of address and word choices are the most important elements that determine the level of politeness. conclusion this study showed that bipa learners of the intermediate level were able to write emails using moves that were as good as the ns of indonesian. however, bipa learners were still strongly influenced by email-writing strategies used in their first language, such as the use of greeting and/or well-wishing. however, there are still some errors related to grammar aspects in the emails produced by the bipa learners. grammar errors are a result of their intermediate proficiency in indonesian. finally, this study provides an overview of the differences between ns and bipa learners in writing email requests in indonesian. in addition, the results of this study can be used as learning materials that are useful for teaching pragmatics to bipa learners, especially in the context of writing emails in the workplace. some important aspects of email-writing that can be taught to bipa learners in writing emails are, 1) the structure, which is a request first before the background information, 2) directness, it is better to use direct sentences but phrased with polite word choices, 3) form of address, it is better to use „yang terhormat’ and ‘bapak/ibu’ 4) greeting and/or well-wishing; in indonesian emails the greeting and/or well-wishing are unnecessary. references alcón-soler, e. 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(2017). tindak tutur meminta oleh pembelajar bipa dari korea: kajian pragmatik bahasa antara (interlanguage pragmatics). jurnal penelitian humaniora, 18(1), 27-40. romero, j., holmes, c., thy luu, & steinberg, h. (2016). ethical customer service, cultural differences, & the big 5 in australia, china, kuwait, saudi arabia & the united states. allied academies international conference: proceedings of the academy for economics & economic education (aeee), 19(2), 23–27. savić, m. (2018). lecturer perceptions of im/politeness and in/appropriateness in student e-mail requests: a norwegian perspective. journal of pragmatics, 124, 52-72. spencer-oatey, h., & franklin, p. (2009). introduction. in intercultural interaction (pp. 1-10). palgrave macmillan, london. irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 90 suharsono, s. (2015). pemerolehan klausa relatif pada pemelajar bahasa indonesia bagi penutur asing (bipa): kajian bahasa-antara. litera, 14(1), 57-74. zhu, w. (2017). a cross-cultural pragmatic study of rapport-management strategies in chinese and english academic upward request emails. language and intercultural communication, 17(2), 210-228. biographical notes andika eko prasetiyo is a fulltime student at melbourne university, master of applied linguistics program. he holds a bachelor of education, concentration indonesian language and literature education at universitas negeri semarang, indonesia. his research interest includes indonesian education, language testing, and educational technology. email: andikaekop@gmail.com mailto:andikaekop@gmail.com this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 91 the power of questioning: teacher’s questioning strategies in the efl classrooms annisa astrid 1 , rizqy dwi amrina 2 , deta desvitasari 3 , uci fitriani 4 , and aisyah shahab 5 abstract the aims of the study were to investigate english teachers’ questioning strategies at one madrasah in palembang, south sumatera. the qualitative research method with a case study approach was employed to look at the ways of the english teachers’ questioning strategies in the processes of teaching and learning and the reasons that made them use certain questioning strategies. the participants in this study were english teachers. we used observation and interviews as our data collection techniques. the observation was used to look at the teacher’s questioning types used in the daily practices of teaching in the efl classroom while the interview was used to understand the reasons that made them use those types of questioning strategies. our findings showed three types of teacher’s questioning strategies used by teachers in their teaching and learning processes including convergent, divergent, and procedural questions. teachers mostly used convergent questions (yes/no and short answers). we also found five reasons why teachers preferred to those types of questioning strategies including recalling students’ understanding, attracting students’ attention, increasing students’ thinking in higher order level, and engaging students in learning activities. implications and recommendations are also discussed. keywords application of questioning strategy, convergent questions, divergent question, procedural questions 1. *corresponding author: english education study program, faculty of tarbiyah and teaching sciences, state islamic university of raden fatah, south sumatra, indonesia; annisaastrid_uin@radenfatah.ac.id 2. english education study program, faculty of tarbiyah and teaching sciences, state islamic university of raden fatah, south sumatra, indonesia. 3. english education study program, faculty of tarbiyah and teaching sciences, state islamic university of raden fatah, south sumatra, indonesia. 4. english education study program, faculty of tarbiyah and teaching sciences, state islamic university of raden fatah, south sumatra, indonesia. 5. state polytechnic of sriwijaya palembang, south sumatera mailto:annisaastrid_uin@radenfatah.ac.id irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 92 introduction in the globalization era, english is the most crucial language in the world which is used by many countries. there are some reasons why english is crucial as an international language. according to cook (2003), english is used for communication as an international language in every country. it is known as a daily international communication tool with other people from different countries. moreover, crystal (2004) argues that people use english for their international contacts in some countries. in indonesia, english as a foreign language is taught to students at schools. according to ramelan (1994), english has been taught at school in indonesia as the first foreign language. it is taught in kindergarten, elementary school, junior high school, senior high school even in the university level. saputra and marzulina (2015) confirm that english has become a compulsory subject and it must be learned as a foreign language from junior high school to senior high school in indonesia. it is important because students learn english as a compulsory subject in school, especially for students of senior high school. as a compulsory subject, improving english skill of students needs the role of teacher; teacher has vital roles in teaching and learning processes. according to brown (2001) and harmer (2007), teacher can be as a controller, director, and facilitator (as cited in haliani, 2013, p. 1). as a controller, teacher will determine what students do, when they should speak, and what language form they should use. as a director of classroom, teacher is responsible for increasing students’ motivation in order to make learning processes run smoothly. also, as a facilitator, teacher will assist students in making the learning processes easier and more comfortable. therefore, the teacher has an important role in classroom activities. moreover, as a director, teacher should apply questioning strategies for increasing students’ ability in classroom. questioning strategy is important because asking or giving question is one of the crucial strategies that teacher can use in teaching processes. there are some reasons why questioning strategy is important. shaunessy (2005) states that questioning strategies are essential to the growth of critical thinking skills, creative thinking ability, and higher level thinking skills. questioning strategies are the ways which are used by teacher to know the ability of the students and how far the students understand the material which has been taught. in brief, questioning strategy is one of the important strategies that can improve students’ ability. additionally, teacher can also use questioning strategy to measure students’ thinking ability. according to blosser (2000), if students want to become better problem solvers, they need to develop higher-order thinking skills. teacher should ask questions to increase students’ thinking and opinions. based on the research conducted by blosser (2000), the result shows that about 60 percent require only recall or facts, 20 percent require students to think, and 20 percent are procedural. it means that teachers often gives short answers, such as yes/no or short statements. meanwhile if students want to be active, teacher should avoid the questions that required yes/no answer. this is in line with blosser (2000) who argues that the teacher should avoid the types of the questions that require yes/no answer. teachers should increase the questioning strategies that improve the students’ thinking ability. in order to improve the students’ thinking ability, teacher has to know the types of question that increase students’ thinking skill. there are some types of questioning strategy based on some experts. irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 93 according to blosser (2000), there are several types of questions: managerial, rhetorical, closed and opened questions. however, teacher does not focus only on those kinds of questions; because there are some other types of questions that can be used to gain students’ thinking. it is supported by richards and lockharts (1994) who propose that there are three types of questioning strategies such as procedural, convergent, and divergent questioning strategies. in short, teacher should know the appropriate types of question that can improve the level of students’ ability. the results of several previous studies have indicated that the importance of the questioning strategies. for example, sujiarti, rahman, and mahmud (2016) found that teachers applied more than one type of questions. open/closed and display questions were applied frequently in all sessions of teaching. also, the result of ndun’s study (2015) showed that in the question type, display question (92%) was highly uttered by the teachers rather than referential questions (8, 1). additionally, the result of matra’s (2014) research showed that teachers used recall questions for 52%, comprehension for 42% and application occupied the remaining that was 6%. in brief, the researchers found several types that were usually used by each participant. thus, teacher’s questioning strategies are very important. teachers should give some questions to their students either the questions are addressed to an individual student or they are for the whole class in their classroom. teachers use various questions and questioning types as their strategies in questioning not only to promote classroom interaction, but also to encourage students to communicate in a real-life setting, and to build students’ critical thinking. therefore, we were interested in conducting a study on investigating english teachers’ question strategies at one madrasah in palembang, south sumatera for addressing the following research questions: (1) what are questioning strategies used by english teachers at one madrasah in palembang, south sumatera? (2) what are the reasons driving the teachers to use the types of questioning strategies? literature review question and questioning strategy a question is any sentence in the interrogative form that can arouse learners’ interest to the content elements to be learned and create knowledge for them. cotton (2001) defines that a question is any sentence that has an interrogative form or function (as cited in matra, 2014, p. 85). in brief, questioning is defined as the instructional cues or stimuli that convey to students the content elements to be learned and directions for what they are to do. question is very useful for teaching and learning processes. according to blosser (2000), teachers use questions to help students review to check on comprehension, to stimulate critical thinking, to encourage creativity, to emphasize a point, to control classroom activities, and for other reasons and purposes. questioning strategy is one of the most important dimensions of teaching and learning processes. guest (1985) argues that questioning strategy is one of the important tools to extending student’ learning which can help teachers to develop their own strategies to enhance students’ work and thinking. it means that we cannot ignore that questioning strategies are very important for teachers and irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 94 students. questioning strategies can help students learn and improve their achievement. daniels (1997), gallagher (1985), letzter (1982), parker (1989), pollack (1988), and schwartz (1996) indicate that questioning strategies are essential to the growth of critical thinking skills, creative thinking skills, and higher level thinking skills. questioning strategies are vital to acquire knowledge. people usually ask questions to one another to know something about the unknown things. they are instruments to examine new ideas, facts, information, knowledge, and experiences. according to brown and wragg (1993), we normally ask questions when we really want to know something and, if we already know the answer, then we don’t need to ask (as cited in ndun, 2015, p. 10). questions in the language classroom enable the teacher to evaluate his or her students and motivate students to attend lessons attentively. ma (2008) explains that a question plays a great part in communication (as cited in ndun, 2015, p. 10). it is used as a learning tool to promote interaction in classroom. teachers in the efl classrooms employ different types of questions to make teaching effective and enhance learners’ proficiency in the target language. as it has been explained by richards and lockharts (1994), there are three types of questions. first, procedural questions which the following questions usually occur in classrooms while teachers are checking the assignments have been completed, that instructions for a task is clear, and that student are ready for a new task. second, convergent questions need the responses “yes” or “no” or short statements. third, divergent questions encourage students’ responses which are not short answers and which require students to engage in higher level thinking. the application of questioning strategy questioning at the beginning. addressing questioning before teaching and studying material is effective for students who have/are high ability, and/or known to be interested in the subject matter. eble (1988) argues that some teachers apply questioning in the classroom early to help students who have questions about previous lectures, readings and exam preparations (as cited sujiarti et al., 2016, p. 111). in the beginning of a class, giving question as opening questions in a conversation can make easy for the students to answer, and does not force them to reveal too much about themselves. the questions before teaching can be in written forms as a quiz or oral question. questioning in the middle of the class. questioning in the middle of the class is very effective in producing achievement, it gains more than instruction carried out without questioning students. according to eble (1988), students perform better on lesson items that are previously asked as recitation questions than on items they have not been exposed to before. an oral question is suitably used during teaching and learning processes because it is more effective in fostering learning than are written questions. questions which are focused student attention on silent elements in the lesson result in better lesson comprehensions than no questions. asking questions during teaching and learning processes is positively related to learning facts. based on the functions, the question in this session can be as confirmation checks and classification requests (as cited in sujariati et al., 2016, p. 112). irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 95 questioning at the end of the class. questioning students at the end of the class teaching is mostly used by teachers because it is essential to know students’ understanding, to assess students’ learning, to test students input and evaluate both teachers’ teaching quality and the teaching learning process whether they have been running well or not. in this section, it is essential for teachers to apply recall question, a referential question to check students’ understanding. eble (1988) argues that open/closed questions, or other types of questions can also be used by teachers in completing the target learning (as cited in sujariati et al., 2016, p. 112). methodology research design, research site, sampling, and participants we conducted this study by using a qualitative method with case study approach. according to creswell (2012), the historic origin for qualitative research design comes from anthropology, sociology, the humanities, and evaluation case study is one of the qualitative research approaches that is used in which the researcher develops an in-depth analysis of a case, often a program, event, activity, process, or one or more individuals (creswell, 2012). the most important reason of using qualitative design is that this design is an appropriate way to explore every day behavior; the behavior of teacher and students in classroom, particularly teacher’s questioning strategies in efl classroom. in this study, we investigated teacher’s questioning strategies in efl classroom of one madrasah in palembang, south sumatera, indonesia in academic years 2018/2019. there were two teachers at the madrasah who were willing to participate in this study. in this study, the participants were two english teachers. at the beginning, we planned to have 6 teachers; however, only 2 teachers were willing to participate in our study. one of the reasons of their reticence was that they were worried if we observed their classroom. data collection the data of the present study were collected through two following data collection techniques; doing observations in the classroom, and conducting interviews (creswell, 2012). according to ary (2010), observation is a basic method for obtaining data in qualitative research method (abrar, mukminin, habibi, asyrafi, makmur, & marzulina, 2018). in this research, we conducted the observation in order to explore how the teachers used each type of questioning strategies to their students and how those students responded to the questions asked by their teachers in each step of learning stages; pre-activity, whilst activity and post activity. the observation was conducted by using field notes taking. besides, we also conducted the interviews. we used face to face interview with participants. in this study, we interviewed the teachers whom we observed in order to clarify the reasons of those teachers in using each type of the questioning strategy and the functions of each question that they asked to their students. irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 96 data analysis and trustworthiness in analyzing data, we applied thematic analysis. we followed the steps proposed by creswell (2012). first, we collected the detailed data from observation (e.g., field notes) and interview (e.g., interview transcriptions). we put the data into computer files and filed folder after transcribing the raw data into text. the second, we started to code all of data. in this process, we read all transcriptions and start to code the data that related to research questions. after collecting the data from interview and observation, we coded the types of questioning strategies and the reasons of implementing each type based on what was proposed by richard and lockarts (1994). the last, we made interpretation in qualitative research of the findings and results. in this study, we used triangulation to enhance the accuracy of the study. creswell (2012) explains that triangulate different data source of information by examining evidence from the source and using it to build a coherent justification for theme. moreover, triangulation is defined as comparing different kind of data (e.g. qualitative and quantitative) and different method (e.g. observation and interview) to see whether they corroborate one another (burn, 1999). therefore, in this study we used triangulation methods to compare the data from one source with another. findings the findings presented the two following things: (1) the types of questioning strategies used by two teachers during the learning process in efl classes and (2) the reasons why those teachers applied each questioning strategy. firstly, from thematic analysis that we conducted based on creswell (2012), we found three themes which reflected three types of questioning strategies applied by the teachers. secondly, we found four themes which reflected three reasons why the teachers employed each type of questioning strategies. the teacher’s questioning strategy types used in the daily practices of teaching in the efl classroom after collecting the data in order to find out the types teacher’s questioning strategies used by the teachers to their students, we found that there were three types of question. the themes and the codes gained from thematic analysis were listed in table 1. table 1. themes and codes for the teacher’s questioning strategies themes codes convergent questioning strategy the teachers asked questions which required yes/no answers in the beginning of the lessons and after presenting the material. the teachers asked questions which required short answer in the beginning of the lessons and after explaining the materials. irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 97 divergent questioning strategy the teachers asked questions that require responses in the form of open answers. procedural questioning strategy the teachers asked questions that related to students’ classroom activity in the beginning of the lesson and during explaining the material based on the themes and the codes listed in table 1, it could be inferred that there were three types of questioning strategies given by the teachers in the process of teaching and learning activities. it is in line to the types of questioning strategies proposed by richard and lockarts (1994) including convergent, divergent, and procedural questioning strategies. convergent questioning strategies. after analyzing the data gained from the observation, we found that the convergent questioning strategies used by the teachers to their students were in the form of asking the questions that required short answers and yes/no answers. most of students gave their responses when the teachers asked those questions during the learning activities. during the observation, we found that the two teachers asked the questions that required yes/no answers in the beginning of the lessons and after presenting the materials. at the beginning of the lesson, the two teachers started the interaction by asking questions that required yes/no answers. tabel 2. convergent questioning strategy-yes/no answer: the beginning of the lesson teacher’s questions students’ responses is there any students who absent today? no do you understand about narrative text? yes do you still remember reading text?” yes have you finished the homework? yes do you remember about analytical exposition? yes rina, do you have interesting stories at the weekend? no besides, after the teachers explained the materials before the students did the task, the teachers also asked the questions which also required yes/no answers. the students answered the teachers’ questions directly. tabel 3. convergent questioning strategy-yes/no answer: after presenting the lessons teacher’s questions students’ responses azka, do you understand about the material that i have explained? yes miss is the narrative text part of the reading text? yes do you understand about analytical exposition? yes is there any question about the text before you analyze the text? no have you understood about the expression of intention? yes it could be concluded that the teachers often asked questions in the form of questions which required yes/no answers. they asked the questions which required yes/no answer in the beginning of the lessons and after presenting the material. irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 98 the teachers asked questions which required short answers in the beginning of the lessons and after explaining the materials. during the observation, we found that the teachers asked the questions that required short answer in the beginning of the lesson and after explaining the materials. at the beginning of the lessons, the teachers started the interaction by asking questions that required short answers. tabel 4. convergent questioning strategy-short answers: in the beginning of the lesson teacher’s questions students’ responses who is absent today? ina, miss students, last week we study about? invitation kenas, please give me an example about invitation? for example, would you come to my birthday party tonight? after the teachers explained the materials, they asked questions which required short answers. tabel 5. convergent questioning strategy-short answers: after presenting the lessons teacher’s questions students’ responses what does the text tell about? the story of roro jonggrang what kind of the text found in the story of roro jonggrang narrative text what kind of expression found in the conversation?” invitation azka, please mention the types of analytical exposition thesis, argument, and reiteration the teachers mostly asked the questions needing short answers for certain students. for example, teacher : “reza, when you congratulate someone?” student’s response : “when my friend's birthday” however, there was a moment the teacher asked the questions to all students in the beginning of lesson and after the teacher explaining the materials. for example, teacher : “students, last week we study about?” students’ response : “invitation” the results gained from the observations showed that teachers asked the questions that required short answers in the beginning of the lessons and after the teachers explained the materials. divergent questioning strategies. after analyzing the data gained from the observations, we found that the divergent questioning strategies used by the teachers to their students were in the form of asking questions which required open answers. however, most of students were silent when the teachers asked those kinds of higher order questions. the teachers asked questions that require responses in the form of open students’ answers. irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 99 during the observation, we found that the teachers asked the questions that required open answer after the teachers explained the materials. the functions of open questions were used to increase students’ critical thinking. after the teachers explained the materials, they asked the questions that required open answers. tabel 6. divergent questioning strategies teacher’s questions students’ responses please explain about analytical exposition, give your opinion? (silent) in your opinion, how do you analyze the text by using analytical exposition? (silent) “students, what is the meaning of narrative text? what is your opinion? (silent) there was the moment when the teachers asked the questions needing higher order thinking answers for certain students and for all students after the teachers explained the materials. we found that the teachers did not asked questions in every meeting. they asked open questions after explaining the materials. most of students did not give responses, they were usually silent. procedural questioning strategies. after analyzing the data gained from the observation, we found that the procedural questions given by the teachers to their students were in the form of students’ classroom activities. most of the students gave their responses when the teachers asked those questions during the learning activities. during the observation, we found that the teachers asked the questions that related to students’ classroom activity in the beginning of learning activity and in the middle of explaining the material. for example, teacher : “students, do you bring a dictionary?” students’ response : “yes miss” teacher : “is there homework?” students’ response : “yes miss” additionally, in the middle of explaining the material, the teachers asked the questions to the students to do something in the classroom. teacher : “rena and gino, can you read the conversation?” students’ response : “yes miss” teacher : “andi, can you read the story?” student’s response : “yes miss” there was the moment where the teachers asked the questions related to the students’ activities for certain students after the teacher explained the material and on the other moment the teacher asked the question to all students in the beginning of lesson and in the middle of explaining the materials. irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 100 teacher : “students, do you bring a dictionary?” students’ response : “yes miss” the teacher asked the procedural questions related to students’ activity for certain students. teacher : “rena and gino, can you read the conversation?” students’ response : “yes miss” it can be inferred that the teachers asked procedural questions to their students in order to give instructions to the students to do something in the class. the reasons that make teachers ask the three types of questions to the students after collecting the data, in order to find out the reasons that made teachers use the three types of questioning strategies to the students, we found four themes and four codes. the themes and the codes gained from thematic analysis were listed in table 7. table 7. themes and codes for the reasons that make teachers use certain questioning strategy to the students themes codes recalling students’ understanding the teachers used convergent questioning strategy by asking the questions required yes/ no and short answers to recall students’ understanding attracting students’ attention the teachers used convergent questioning strategy by asking the questions required yes/ no and short answers to attract students’ attention. developing students’ thinking ability in higher order level the teachers used divergent questioning strategy by asking the questions required open answers to develop the students thinking ability in higher order level. engaging students in the content of the lesson and to promote classroom interaction the teachers used the procedural questioning strategy to engage students in the content of the lesson the themes and codes gained from the qualitative data as listed in table 7 were described in order to find out the reasons that made teachers use three types of questioning strategies. it was found that there were four reasons why the teachers employed certain questioning strategies. first, the questions were used to recall students’ understanding. second, the questions were used to attract students’ attention. third, the questions were used to develop the students’ thinking ability and fourth the questions were used to engage the students in the content of the lesson. irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 101 recalling students’ understanding. based on the observation, we found that the teachers used convergent questioning strategies by asking the questions required yes/ no and short answers in order to recall students’ understanding. we found that sometimes the teachers did not clarify to the students after their students gave responded to kind of the questions requiring yes/ no and short answers. however, sometimes the teachers gave follow up questions to clarify whether the students really understood on what they had answered to the questions which only needed yes/no answers. there were some questions that the answer was not clear, for example the teacher asked the question to their students “do you still remember about narrative text?” students’ response “yes”. the answer from the students actually could not guarantee that they really understood about the narrative text if the teacher did not ask further questions to make sure whether the answer from the students matched with the teachers’ expectation. when we clarified this matter to their teacher, one of the teachers assumed, “i’m sure they have understood, because most of the students answered my question. therefore, i did not ask further questions. the interview data with the other teacher confirm why they did not ask the follow-up question. “i think the question was enough to know the students’ understanding, i just want to make sure the material was clear. i think the students’ answer represented to my expectation”. we also found why the teacher did not give open questions to recall the students’ understanding. when we clarified this, the teacher reported, “because, when i asked open question, the students did not answer my question”. attracting students’ attention. we found that the teachers used convergent questioning strategies by asking the questions required yes/ no and short answer sto attract students’ attention. based on the interview, it was found that both of the teachers preferred to using the questions which needed short answers and yes/no answers in order to attract their students’ attention. they had similar reasons. they felt that the questions were needed to find out whether their students really focused on the lessons or not and made them stop to do their own activities in the class. the questions with short answers and yes/no answers also made the students easy to understand. one of the teachers expressed, “because the questions with yes/no and short answers are needed to find out whether students focus on the lesson or not and make them stop to do their own activities, the question also simple and made them understand”. we also found why the teachers did not ask question in the form of open answers. one of the teachers reported, “as i said before, when i asked the question in the form of open answer, most of them could not answer the question.” developing students’ higher order thinking. based on the observation, the teachers used divergent questioning strategies by asking the questions required open answers to develop the students thinking ability in higher order level. the teachers asked the questions after they explained the materials. also, our interview data indicated that in order to develop the students’ thinking ability, both of the teachers used the question in the form of open answers because the question was the only form of question that needed to develop the students’ thinking ability. however, the students never gave any responses to the teachers’ question that required open answers. during the interview, one of the teachers reported, “the question in the form of open answer was the only one form of question that really good to develop students’ thinking ability”. however, when the teachers asked the question in the form of open answers, the students never gave any responses as explained by one of the teachers, “when i asked the question in the form of open answer, most of the students did not give any responses.” irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 102 engaging students in the content of the lesson. based on the observation, we found that the teachers used the procedural questioning strategies to engage students in the content of the lesson. the questions could be in the form of questions which required yes/ no and short answers. based on the interview to the two the teachers they clarified similar opinion. one of the teachers said, “i frequently needed to sure whether the assignments i gave to them had been completed or not, or whether the instruction for that assignment was clear, and whether my students are ready for a new task by asking them questions.” discussions based on the results of data analysis, we found that the teachers of english at one madrasah in palembang, south sumatera indonesia contributed three types of questioning strategies as proposed by richard and lockarts (1994), they were convergent questioning strategies (by asking questions requiring yes/no and short answer), divergent questioning strategies (by asking questions needing open answers), and procedural questioning strategies (by asking questions related to the classroom activity). in the processes of teaching and learning activities, the teachers mostly asked the questions in the form questions that required short and yes/no answers. this result of study is congruent with the results of other studies (e. g., matra, 2014; ndun 2015; sujiarti, rahman, & mahmud 2016) indicating that the questions in the forms of short and yes/no answers are used the most. sometimes, when teachers asked the questions in the form of yes/no answers, teachers did not ask the follow up questions to clarify whether the students have understood the lessons or not. this is in line with blosser (2000) who stated that closed questions not only need the response with one or two word answers, but also ask further question in order to clarify students’ understanding. moreover, another type of questioning strategy used in teaching and learning processes was divergent questioning strategies by asking questions requiring open responses. based on the data from observations and interviews, the teachers found that it was difficult to ask open questions because the students never gave any responses to such questions. they just kept silent. the teachers felt that the students were not ready to answer open questions. the result of this study was congruent with the results of other studies (e. g., matra, 2014; ndun 2015; sujiarti, rahman, & mahmud 2016) indicating that the teachers had difficulties in asking open questions because the students frequently did not give any responses to such questions. the last type of questioning strategies used by the teachers was procedural questioning strategies. based on the data gained from the observations and interviews, we found that the procedural questions given by the teachers to their students were related to students’ classroom activities. most of students gave their responses when the teachers asked those questions during the learning activities. of the three types of questions, we found that the teachers mostly used convergent questioning strategies by asking the questions which required yes/no and short answers. however, the teachers should avoid the questions which required yes/no answers. with this regard, blossers (2000) informs that teachers should avoid the forms of questions that required yes/no answer because the teachers need to ask open question to increase the students’ thinking. besides, the findings of the study are also consistent with the findings of other studies (e. g., matra, 2014; ndun 2015; sujiarti, rahman, & mahmud 2016) irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 103 which indicated that the teachers often asked the questions that needed short answer and yes/no answers to the students. moreover, there were some reasons why teachers used those three types of questioning strategies. the first reason was to recall students’ understanding. we found that the teachers often used the convergent questioning strategy by asking the questions which required yes/no and short answers was to recall students’ understanding. this is because the teachers thought that the questions which required yes/no answers and short answers were enough to make sure their students’ understanding about the materials. according to richard and lockards (1994), the questions that need yes/no or short answers do not usually require students to engage in higher-level thinking but often focus on the recalling of students’ understanding. the second reason why the teachers used convergent questioning strategy by asking questions that required short answers and yes/no answers were to attract their students’ attention. from the observations and interviews, we found that the teachers frequently asked the questions that need short answers or yes/no answers were to attract the students’ attention. this is because the question which required short answers was needed to find out whether the students paid attention to the lessons or not, and to stop their own activities that could disturb the learning processes. richard and lockards (1994) also indicated that the questions required yes/no and short answers were used to make students pay attention to the lesson. the findings of the study were also consistent with the findings of other studies (e.g., matra, 2014; ndun 2015) which indicate that the questions which required short answers and yes/no answer were used to encourage students’ participation and attention. furthermore, the reason why the teachers employed divergent questioning strategies by asking questions which required open answers was to develop the students’ thinking in higher order level. it is in line with richard and lockards (1994) who assert that open questions are used to encourage students’ responses and requires students to engage in higher-level thinking. besides, in order to make the students become active participants in the class, they need to develop higher-order thinking skills (blosser, 2000). however, the fact show that when the teachers ask the question in the forms of open answers, the students frequently could not answer those questions.. this result of study is congruent with the results of other studies (e. g., matra, 2014; ndun 2015; sujiarti, rahman, & mahmud 2016) who reported that the students could not give any response when the teacher asked open question. finally, the reason why the teachers used procedural questioning strategies was to engage the students in the content of the lesson. procedural questions have to do with classroom procedures and routines and classroom management as opposed to the content of learning. this is in line with richard and lockharts (1994) who state that the procedural questions usually occur in classrooms while teachers are checking that assignments have been completed, that instructions for a task is clear, and that student are ready for a new task. it could be inferred that the questions which require short and yes/no answers are used the most. however, when the teachers ask yes/no questions, they do not ask further questions to clarify whether the students have understood the materials or not. finally, the teachers rarely ask open questions to the students because the students could not give any responses to those open questions. irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 104 conclusion and recommendations based on the findings of this study, some important information on the english teachers’ types of questioning strategies used in the teaching process and the reasons why the teachers employed those questioning strategies was found. the teachers employed three kinds of questioning strategies; convergent questioning strategies, divergent questioning strategies, and procedural questioning strategies. additionally, there were four reasons why the teachers employed each kind of questioning strategy; recalling students’ understanding, attracting students’ attention, developing students’ thinking ability in higher order level, and engaging students in the content of the lesson. this study is expected for the teachers to apply various questioning strategies especially divergent questioning strategies through asking questions requiring open answers in all sessions of teaching and learning processes to create an active and effective teaching and learning process. it is also expected that the teachers do not focus on students’ answer, but on how the questions could motivate the students in learning english. thus, the questions should be prepared by the teachers before they ask those questions in the teaching and learning processes. it is also recommended for teachers to study more about how to ask questions properly in order to develop their students’ critical thinking skills. references abrar, m., mukminin, a., habibi, a., asyrafi, f., makmur, m., & marzulina, l. (2018). “if our english isn’t a language, what is it?” indonesian efl student teachers’ challenges speaking english. the qualitative report, 23(1), 129-145. retrieved from http://nsuworks.nova.edu/tqr/vol23/iss1/9 ary, d. (2010). introduction to research in education (8 th ed). canada: nelson education. brown, h. d. (2001). teaching by principles: an interactive approach to language pedagogy. new jersey, nj: prentice hall. brown, g., & wragg, e. c. (1993). questioning. london: routledge. blosser, p. e. (2000). how to ask the right question. usa, arlington: national science teachers assosiation nsta. cook, g. (2003). applied linguistics (2 nd ed). oxford, ny: oxford university press. cotton, k. (2010). questioning strategies: the schooling practices that matter most. in the northwest regional educational laboratory (nwrel). creswell, j. w. (2012). educational research: planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (4 th ed.). boylston street, boston: pearson education boston. crystal, d. (2004). the language revolution. cambridge: polity press ltd. http://nsuworks.nova.edu/tqr/vol23/iss1/9 irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 105 eble. (1988). the multidisciplinary world of questioning. in w.w. wilen (ed.), questions, questioning techniques, and effective teaching. washington, dc: national education association, 4966. gallagher, j. j. (1985). teaching the gifted child. boston: allyn and bacon. guest. (1985). the case study method: critical thinking enhanced by effective teacher questioning skills. the 18th annual international conference of the world assosiaation for case method research & application. retrived from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ed455221.pdf. haliani, h. (2013). teacher’s questioning strategies and students’ responses in young learners’ classroom interaction. retrived from http://repository.upi.edu/3066. harmer, j. (2001). the practice of english language teaching (3 th ed) . new york, ny: pearson education. retrived from https://epdf.tips/download/the-practice-of-english-language-teaching-3rd-edition.ht ml. letzter, f. (1982). meeting the special needs of the gifted and creative student in the world history classroom. social education, 46, 195-199. ma, x. (2008). the skills of teacher’s questioning in english classes. international educational studies, 1(4), 92-100. matra, s.d. (2014). teacher questioning in classroom interaction. a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature, 14(1), 1-128. retrived from http://journal.unika.ac.id/index.php/celt/article/view/58 ndun, l. n. (2015). teacher question in the junior high school classroom (master’s thesis). sanata dharma unifersity of yogyakarta, indonesia. retrived from https://repository.usd.ac.id/388/2/126332042_full.pdf parker, j. (1989). instructional strategies for teaching the gifted. boston: allyn and bacon. pollack, h. (1988). questioning strategies to encourage critical thinking. (eric document reproduction service no. ed297210) ramelan. (1994). english phonetics. semarang: unnes press. richards, j. c., & lockhart, c. (1994). reflecting teaching in second language classrooms. cambridge, england: cambridge university press. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ed455221.pdf http://repository.upi.edu/3066 https://epdf.tips/download/the-practice-of-english-language-teaching-3rd-edition.html https://epdf.tips/download/the-practice-of-english-language-teaching-3rd-edition.html http://journal.unika.ac.id/index.php/celt/article/view/58 https://repository.usd.ac.id/388/2/126332042_full.pdf irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 106 saputra, h., & marzulina, l. (2015). teaching writing by using process genre approach to the eight grade students of smp negeri 22 palembang. jurnal pendidikan dan pengajaran, 2(1),1-12. retrived from http://jurnal.radenfatah.ac.id/index.php/edukasi/article/view/592 schwartz, b., & millar, g. (1996). you are what you ask: the power of teaching students questioning skills for enabling thinking. paper presented at the annual sage conference , calgary alberta, canada. (eric document reproduction service no. ed408 744) shaunessy, e. (2005). questioning strategies for teaching the gifted. as: prufrock press inc. sujiarti, rahman, k., & mahmud, m. (2016). english teacher’s questioning strategies in efl classroom at sman 1 bontomarannu. elt worldwide, 3(1), 107-121. retrived from http://ojs.unm.ac.id/elt/article/view/1884. biographical notes dr. annisa astrid works as a lecturer at english education study program in the faculty of tarbiyah and education, state islamic university of raden fatah, palembang, indonesia. her research interests are on the area of education, language teaching, material development, and tefl. email: annisaastrid_uin@radenfatah.ac.id rizqy dwi amrina works as a lecturer at english education study program in the faculty of tarbiyah and education, state islamic university of raden fatah, palembang, indonesia. email: rizqydwiamrina@yahoo.com deta desvitasari works as a lecturer at english education study program in the faculty of tarbiyah and education, state islamic university of raden fatah, palembang, indonesia. email: d.desvitasari@gmail.com uci fitriani is a student at english education study program in the faculty of tarbiyah and education, state islamic university of raden fatah, palembang, indonesia. aisyah shahab works as a lecturer at state polytechnic of sriwijaya palembang, south sumatera, indonesia. http://jurnal.radenfatah.ac.id/index.php/edukasi/article/view/592 http://ojs.unm.ac.id/elt/article/view/1884 mailto:annisaastrid_uin@radenfatah.ac.id mailto:rizqydwiamrina@yahoo.com mailto:d.desvitasari@gmail.com this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 515 studying ecosystem in senior high school: the utilization of cirgi learning model to enhance mastery of biological concepts lia junita harahap 1 , ratna komala 2 , and rizhal hendi ristanto 3 abstract ecosystem concepts are not a science that is far from daily life. therefore, teachers need an innovation that can support students’ mastery of the ecosystem concept. this study aims to analyze the influence of the cirgi (cooperative integrated reading, composition, and guided inquiry) learning model on the learners’ ecosystem concept mastery. this research uses a quasi-experiment method with a pre-post control group design with a sample of 104 students. data collection is carried out using an instrument of ecosystem concept mastery in the form of multiple choices so that questions could cover all the materials. the data analysis technique used is an independent sample t-test. the conclusion of this study is that there is a significant influence of cirgi’s learning model on the learners’ mastery of ecosystem concept. the application of cirgi learning model on ecosystem material can revive reading activities along with environmental awareness. keywords circ, cirgi, ecosystem, guided inquiry, mastery concepts 1. biology education study program, faculty of mathematics and natural sciences, jakarta state university, jakarta, indonesia; email: liajunita52@gmail.com 2. biology education study program, faculty of mathematics and natural sciences, jakarta state university, jakarta, indonesia; email: ratna_komala08@yahoo.co.id 3. biology education study program, faculty of mathematics and natural sciences, jakarta state university, jakarta, indonesia; email: rizhalhendi@unj.ac.id mailto:liajunita52@gmail.com mailto:ratna_komala08@yahoo.co.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 516 introduction communicating ecosystem concepts is one of the scientific works of scientists, both in the form of articles and books that must be understood, mastered, and applied by students in daily life. the rise of ecosystem damage at present can affect various aspects of life. damage that occurs in the environment could be due to natural factors and human intervention (asaju & arome, 2015; komala, suryanda, & lismana, 2018; torkar & krašovec, 2019). human activities can disturb biological communities and destroy natural ecosystems with unique functions for human survival (li, zhang, cao, & ma, 2015; xu, sun, & tang, 2016). repairing ecosystem damage requires an understanding of the complex interactions of all living things and their environment. humans as destroyers or the main cause of extinction require education. development of a caring attitude towards ecosystem damage in education is an important step for environmental care and understands that actions are good for nature and oneself (morenoa, acerob, & rodriguez, 2011). minimizing cases of ecosystem damage can be done through education in schools by learning biology that discusses living things and their environment. education is very important in developing environmental literacy (hutcheson, hoagland, & jin 2018; setiawan, suharno, & triyanto, 2019) and is able to direct students towards positive behavior towards the environment. ecosystem is a useful concept as it can help students to use and reuse environmental resources to keep the system far from its equilibrium state (shaw & allen, 2016). ecosystem, which is one of the materials taught in biology, contains material about ecosystem components, namely biotic components (humans, animals, plants, microorganisms), abiotic components (temperature, water, air, soil, light), interactions in ecosystems (predation, mutualism, competition, commensalism, parasitism), ecosystem types (land, freshwater, seawater), energy flow (food chain, food webs, food pyramid), and biogeochemical cycles (oxygen cycle, carbon cycle, hydrogen cycle, hydrogen cycle, water cycle) (campbell, 2008). overcoming the problems of ecosystem damage requires students to master the ecosystem concepts to identify the causes and be able to overcome the problems so that students’ wise attitude in utilizing and conserving natural resources will grow. concept mastery is the capability to capture notions like being able to express a material presented in an easy-to-understand form, provide interpretation and apply it, and it can be achieved after students learning (bloom, 2003; nggadas & ariswan, 2019; gumilar, wardani, & lisdiana, 2020). mastery of the ecosystem concepts needs to be taught and developed in students as a basis for action. the mastery of the ecosystem concepts is the cognitive ability of students’ understanding of ecosystem material through a phenomenon, event, object, observation process, and teacher explanation to achieve learning objectives (tursinawati, 2016; anwar et al., 2019; effendy, hartono, & yulianti, 2018; harahap, ristanto, & komala, 2020a). it is needed so that students can connect the concepts learned and making it easier for them to master the material (rustaman, 2005; ristanto, zubaidah, amin, & rohman, 2017; putri, rusyati, & rochintaniawati, 2018). students who are able to master the concept will have various benefits, among others: 1) reduce the burden of memory due to human ability to categorize a variety of limited stimulus; 2) the building irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 517 blocks of thinking; 3) the basis of a higher mental process; and 4) capable of solving problems (hamalik, 2005; setambah, 2018). based on preliminary tests that had been done in class x al hasra high school, students’ mastery of the ecosystem concept was still low. it was due to the ecosystem concept that is abstract, complex, and is interconnected with other biological concepts. many studies on the mastery of ecosystem concepts have been carried out and the results indicate that students’ achievement is still low or below the minimum criteria (susilawati, rahayuningsih, & ridlo, 2016; kurniasih & listiawati, 2018). interviews with biology teachers in class x al-hasra high school obtained information that some students had been active in learning activities in class, but some students had difficulties. some of the difficulties related to ecosystem materials are abstract and complex concepts, and interconnected with other biological concepts. in addition, students did not have the confidence to ask teachers about material that they did not understand; therefore, more materials were not mastered by the students. the students’ low achievement is also related to the use of a conventional learning model. the class usually used the circ (cooperative integrated reading and composition) learning model that focuses more on reading activities. a large amount of biology material prompted the teachers to use conventional learning processes more often (ernawati, toharudin, & ibrahim, 2017). the teacher delivered the material quickly to meet the demands of the material that must be completed before the semester exam. as a consequence, students’ mastery of the ecosystem concepts did not develop. students’ low interest in reading scientific books causes students to be passive in learning. the students’ concentration, learning interest, and learning motivation is also still low. based on these conditions, a learning model is required that emphasizes the process of reading and writing, and the existence of teacher guidance by applying the cooperative integrated reading, composition, and guided inquiry (cirgi). cirgi is an integration of circ and guided inquiry learning models. both learning models have their own strengths and weaknesses. circ is a cooperative learning model that accentuates reading, writing activities, and language arts at a higher level (slavin, 2005; ristanto, zubaidah, amin, & rohman, 2018a). reading is an interactive activity to reproduce the word mentally and to understand the content of a reading text (rahmat, 2017; jian, su, & hsiao, 2019). robertson (2007) states that by merely reading is not the best way to learn science. on the other hand, each student’s reading experience is different (morgan, fuchs, compton, cordray, & fuchs, 2008; schotter, tran, & rayner, 2014) and each student has a topic with a different interest in education (jian et al., 2019). students who often read scientific books will be faster in mastering biology or ecosystem concepts than students who often read books like novels. almost all the words in scientific texts are important and only a few of them are not. teacher guidance is necessary in an inquiry process (muhaimin et al., 2019; mukminin, kamil, muazza, & haryanto, 2017; susbiyanto, kurniawan, perdana, & riantoni, 2019). in the inquiry process (almuntasheri, gillies, & wright, 2016), students will learn relevant contents, specific reasoning skills, and practices collaboratively (gillies & rafter, 2020). guided inquiry is an effective instructional approach in science education (lazonder & harmsen, 2016). students will create and evaluate their experimentation activities (schalk, edelsbrunnerb, deiglmayr, schumacherb, & irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 518 sternb, 2019). guided inquiry can train students to find concepts with direction from the teacher through the design of procedures and to explore concepts learned (smithenry, 2010; rahayu et al., 2018; siregar, festiyed, marsidin, & ellizar, 2019). it begins with the teacher gives questions (problems) and students answer through a research process. developing research procedures and getting research results is students’ responsibility. teacher duties in the guided inquiry model are guiding students in developing procedures to compile new knowledge (adi, suwono, & suarsini, 2017; nurani, sarwanto, & rintayati, 2018; rahayu et al., 2018). questions (problems) will stimulate students to think critically, actively, and make learning centered on students (student center). this is in line with ristanto et al.’ (2018b) research that there is an effect of cirgi on the mastery of biological concepts in junior high school students and harahap, ristanto, and komala (2020b) that there is an influence of cirgi on critical thinking skill in ecosystem material. kurniawati, wartono, and diantoro (2014) divulged that the guided inquiry learning model integrated with the cooperative learning model could significantly influence the students’ concept mastery. bilgin (2009) added that students who are taught by the integration of guided inquiry and cooperative learning approaches have a better understanding of concept mastery and show more positive attitudes. cirgi has a character that brings more effective and creative lectures as students in groups can build and exchange knowledge to learn materials in solving a problem. it is conducted by reading books and with guidance from the teacher. therefore, it trains students to master the ecosystem concepts and each learner gains a shared understanding. based on the above problems, the cirgi learning model is needed to enhance the mastery of ecosystem concepts. methodology research design, site, and participants this study used quantitative research that was designed using the quasi-experiment research method and it was carried out in september 2019. the design program used was pretest-posttest control group design. all students of class x al-hasra high school in depok, indonesia, of the academic year of 2018/2019 became the study population. samples were selected using purposive sampling technique that resulted in 104 students from 4 classes taken as the research samples (table 1). table 1. number of sample, each class treatment class class number of students experiment x natural science 1 52 x social science 1 control x natural science 2 52 x social science 2 total 104 since there were 2 classes of natural science and 2 classes of social science the natural science class would be paired with social science class to create a balanced class. the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 519 experimental class was taught using the cirgi, and the control class was taught using conventional learning. data collection and analysis the type of test used in this research was a multiple-choice test consisting of 60 questions. a multiple-choice test could cover all ecosystem materials. the instrument testing was carried out by construct and content validity tests by the validators/experts, namely 2 doctor of biology lecturers. the validity tests resulted in an average value of 85.00 indicating that the instrument was very feasible for use. furthermore, the empirical validation test of instrument items used the biserial point formula. the result indicated that rcount was greater than rtable with a minimum range of 0.325; hence, there were 37 valid questions out of the 60 tested items. kuder richardson-20 was used to measure the reliability of concept mastery indicators by referring to anderson and krathwohl (2001) as presented in table 2. table 2. mastery of biological concepts indicators indicator description number of questions remembering (c1) acceptance of relevant knowledge from long-term memory that consists of recalling, finding, and choosing. 7 understanding (c2) determine the meaning of instructional messages in the form of oral, written, and graphic consisting of interpreting, classifying, exemplifying, summarizing, comparing, comparing, and inferring. 9 applying (c3) implement or utilize procedures in certain situations, consisting of executing, implementing, and developing. 6 analyzing (c4) breakdown the material into its component parts and detect how the parts are interconnected with each other. analyzing consists of organizing, differentiating, and attributing. 7 evaluating (c5) make consideration based on criteria. evaluating consists of checking, proving, and decide. 4 creating (c6) put the elements together in a new form and create an original product. it consists of generating, planning, and producing. 4 students of experimental and control classes were given a pretest consisted of 37 questions to measure their initial abilities. the experimental class was taught with cirgi at the first, second, and third meetings with the application steps referred to (ristanto et al., 2018b) in fig. 1. at the same time, the control class was taught with conventional learning. in the experimental class (fig.1), students would be heterogeneously grouped into several groups. students in each group would read and discuss ecosystem material from various sources. teacher and students were discussing ecosystem materials collected by students and ecosystem articles provided by the teacher to be able to formulate problems and hypotheses then write them down on the provided student worksheets. the teacher must guide students in developing the discussion results. instead of providing the answer, teachers directed the students to reach the discussion results. the teacher also had to guide students regarding the problems raised by each group so that each group had a different presentation topic. each irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 520 group developed and presented the results of its group discussion. the discussion results for each group would be analyzed and evaluated by the teacher and all students to obtain appropriate conclusions. figure 1. cirgi syntax furthermore, the posttest of the mastery of ecosystem concept was tested in the experimental and control classes. data were analyzed using several tests, namely: (1) descriptive test, which calculates the average pretest and posttest of each indicator of the value of students’ mastery of the ecosystem concept; (2) prerequisite tests for data analysis, namely the normality test (kolmogorov-smirnov) and homogeneity test (levine test) using spss 25 software; and (3) hypothesis testing using independent sample t-test with the help of spss 25 for windows. findings based on the results, the following are descriptive statistics consisting of the average value, the maximum value, the minimum value of the experimental and control classes in table 3. table 3. descriptive statistics on mastery of ecosystem concept indicator average cirgi conventional pretest posttest pretest posttest sum 310.12 506.49 304.39 472.48 mean 51.69 84.41 50.73 78.75 min 34.13 76.44 32.21 58.17 max 70.60 94.78 70.60 94.51 st. deviation 9.46 4.50 9.27 5.21 variance 89.60 20.26 85.97 27.20 based on the analysis, students who were taught using cirgi were higher in the mastery of ecosystem concept than students who were taught with conventional learning with an average of 84.4 (table 4). form heterogeneous groups read, discuss, and discover main concepts formulate the problem formulate the hypothesis conduct group investigation activities develop, present, or present the results of the discussion analyze, evaluate the investigation process, and make conclusions irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 521 table 4. average mastery of ecosystem concepts for each indicator by implementing cirgi learning model and conventional model no indicator average of mastery concepts cirgi conventional pretest posttest pretest posttest 1 remembering (c1) 70.60 94.78 70.60 94.51 2 understanding (c2) 55.77 88.24 54.91 85.26 3 applying (c3) 53.53 83.01 52.56 76.92 4 analyzing (c4) 51.37 83.24 50.82 82.14 5 evaluating (c5) 44.71 80.77 43.27 75.48 6 creating (c6) 34.13 76.44 32.21 58.17 based on the calculation of students’ pretest and posttest scores on ecosystem concept mastery in the experimental class by applying the cirgi learning model, there was an increase in the score by a difference of 32.73 (figure 2) where the average pretest score was 51.69 and the posttest score was 84.41 (table 3). table 2 and figure 2 indicate that the indicators of the ecosystem concept mastery had increased. the indicator with the highest score was remembering with an increase in average score from 70.60 to 94.78 or a difference of 24.18. figure 2.differences of increase in pretest and posttest scores for each indicator of ecosystem concept mastery this was due to the remembering indicator that is the easiest indicator or is at the lowest cognitive level (c1) with a simple type of questions. meanwhile, the lowest score was on creating indicators that indicated an increase from 34.13 to 76.44 with a difference of 42.31. this was because students are not familiar with the highest cognitive level (c6) questions. however, the value of 76.44 had exceeded the minimum criteria score. 23.90 30.34 24.36 31.32 32.21 25.96 24.18 32.47 29.49 31.87 36.06 42.31 0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00 35.00 40.00 45.00 remembering understanding applying analyzing evaluating creating control experiment irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 522 the analysis prerequisite tests conducted were normality and homogeneity tests at α=0.05. table 5. normality of pretest and posttest of the mastery of ecosystem concepts no class n mastery of concepts conclusions pretest posttest 1 experiment 52 0.961 0.100 normal 2 control 52 0.862 0.433 normal table 6. homogeneity of mastery of ecosystem concepts levene statistic df1 df2 sig. 1.355 1 102 .247 calculation of analysis prerequisite tests of the ecosystem concept mastery implied that the data were normal and did not have any deviation against data normality because p-values of the pretest and posttest were more significant than α = 0.05 (table 5). in addition, the data also homogeneous because α = 0.247>0.05 (table 6) indicating that there was no variant difference between data groups. a statistic was used to illustrate the difference of students’ ecosystem concept mastery on cirgi and conventional model with an independent sample t-test with significance value was smaller than 0.05 as presented in table 7. table 7. independent sample t-test of mastery of ecosystem concepts t-test for equality of means t df sig. (2-taile d) mean difference std. error difference 95% confidence interval of the difference lower upper equal variances assumed 4.731 102 .000 4.52058 .95544 2.62547 6.41568 equal variances not assumed 4.731 99.864 .000 4.52058 .95544 2.62498 6.41617 based on table 7, the calculation of the learning model variable indicated a p-value of 0.000<0.05 or rejected the h0. it could be inferred that the cirgi learning model was better in improving the students’ ecosystem concept mastery than the conventional one. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 523 discussion the increase in the value of all indicators (pass the minimum criteria) was inseparable from the successful implementation of the cirgi syntax that indicated an improvement from the first to the third meetings (table 4). it is relevant to ristanto et al. (2018b) that cirgi can increase the mastery of biology concepts in junior high school. this suggests that it is also important for senior high school students to improve their reading activities. moreover, senior high school students also still require guidance and direction in achieving mastery of biological concepts just in the case of junior high school students. the first stage of the cirgi syntax is forming heterogeneous discussion groups. in the heterogeneous groups, students whose learning ability is low will co-exist or work together with students who have more abilities. in this regard, students who have more abilities will act as peer tutors for students or group members who have less ability in learning (arends, 2008; dewanti, 2020; schullery & schullery, 2006). therefore, it is expected that the heterogeneous groups will facilitate the learning process. in the stage of reading, discussing, and discovering the concept of the article, the application of the cirgi learning model emphasizes reading activities as well as guidance from the teacher in achieving results. students are required to read articles provided by the teacher as well as articles brought by students. one factor that causes students to get bored of reading scientific books is the font type used. moreover, pictures in the biology books are still abstract; thus, students are lazy to read them. therefore, the existence of articles compiled by the teacher with more interesting font types, such as the comic san ms type face, triggers students interest and excitement to read the ecosystem materials through articles. teachers who prioritize reading activities to encourage students’ cognitive abilities in learning will produce students who have high reading comprehension ability (hernida, 2009; prasetiyo, 2019). reading activities are closely related to memory. some students find it very difficult to remember material. hence, it is necessary to write or to conclude material that has been read in written form. this is in accordance with higbee (1991) that material that exists or available in memory but difficult to recall is due to the material that cannot be obtained immediately when needed; however, it does not mean that the material does not exist; it is just that the students are unable to find it (recall it). therefore, it depends on how the information is read, recorded, and stored in memory. furthermore, mueller & oppenheimer (2014) stated that storing ideas in a long time requires a writing strategy or activity, namely by concluding the material that has been read into writing. it is similar to hernowo (2009) arguing that reading and writing activities will organize the mind, construct ideas, sharpen understanding, and be able to sharpen memory. the next activity in implementing cirgi is discussion. learners in the group will discuss to answer the questions given by teacher that contained in the students’ worksheet. discussion activities in groups will motivate students to learn because each student is given an opportunity to express their opinions thus it enriches the students’ knowledge. from these ideas, the most appropriate answer will be selected or considered by all group members, so that the best answer is obtained. this is supported by hubble & lipton (2005) that students will be motivated to think hard and clarify ideas when talking with group friends. it corresponds to gaddis and schoffstall (2007) on guided inquiry learning that irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 524 students will be provided with steps to be examined, but the results have not been determined so that students will be curious. curiosity and inquisitiveness will motivate students to work together in finding answers with group members and with the teacher’s assistance. the implicit interactions between students can enhance motivation, get into the habit of reading and writing, and build other skills linked to conceptualization (gillies, 2014). if students discuss with other group friends, it will be easier to find and understand intricate concepts (yudasmini, marhaeni, & jampel, 2015). students can express opinions, offer hypotheses, and provide information to complete tasks (marcos, fernández, gonzález, & phillips-silver, 2020). in addition, silvana (2017) and sánchez-escobedo and lavadores (2018) opine that the opportunity for students to explore more knowledge and work together in groups can bring success to each group member. other findings from this study are that students have equal and broad opportunities in gaining mastery of the ecosystem concepts due to discussions between group members and guidance from teachers. intensive interactions that are in line with cirgi syntax bring students towards success in mastering the concept of ecosystems because they find it through discussion activities. the next activities are formulating problems and hypotheses and conducting investigations with work instructions provided on the student worksheets from the first to the third meetings. student worksheet is one of the important things that increase the concept mastery, especially in creating (c6) indicator. it facilitates teacher to regulate the questions in terms of how many c1 level or c2-c6 levels in the questions. biology books still contain numerous instruments in the level of c1-c4 that hamper students to solve problems in c5 and c6. therefore, teachers can improve students’ knowledge level by providing some highest-level instruments in student worksheets. each group member is required to be active in solving problems and finding answers from both the articles provided by the teacher and the students’ articles or books. group members must investigate their own answers to get the best results or answers to be presented. the next activity is the presentation of students’ group work. in this activity, groups take turns presenting or communicating their group discussion results. groups that have presented or have not read the discussion results must listen and respond by asking questions or providing inputs to the presenting group. next, the teacher, along with all students, concludes the learning material on the ecosystem. this presentation activity will encourage students to be more confident because each student must convey or communicate the results of the group discussion. education not only expects students to learn contents, but also communication to interact with each other efficiently (verdejo & guinda, 2015). communication is very important in student development (johnson & johnson, 2004; erikson & erikson, 2018; nwabueze & mileski, 2018) and it takes many opportunities to train and develop these skills. reading and writing are important for communication, understanding, mastery, and learning (teng, 2020). in the control class that applied conventional learning, students’ mastery concepts was lower (table 2) than the experimental class with the application of cirgi. student scores had increased, but the creating aspects were still very low. the low achievement of the value on the indicator of creating was due to the learning model applied that had not been able to support or optimize the highest cognitive level (c6) in the ecosystem material. the discussion process was also undirected, so each group solved the problem and developed a rough solution. the absence of the students’ worksheet created or provided by the teacher irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 525 made students less enthusiastic in solving problems. group members were more focused on the book being read, so that the students’ answers were the same as the one stated in the book. it has an impact on the presentation of the group discussion result where some group members were unable to convey the results of the discussion verbally. the students delivered it by reading the discussion results that had been written and discussed earlier. in the control class, the teacher’s role as a facilitator was also less optimal. as a consequence, group members developed materials merely based on books and articles. this resulted in a misconception of some group members in completing the discussion task. the significant results of the cirgi learning model application (table 7) signify that the cirgi is very suitable for teaching ecosystem material at senior high school level. students taught with cirgi learning are able to remember, understand, and create ecosystem materials in the aspects of ecosystem components, interactions in ecosystems, ecosystem types, energy flow, and biogeochemical cycles. ecosystem materials that contain scientific concepts and languages can be overcome by using the cirgi learning model that emphasizes reading, writing, and is accompanied by guidance from the teacher. if students often read scientific or biology books, it will be easier for them to master the material or biological concepts extensively. conclusions the mastery of ecosystem concepts in high school students can be improved with the utilization of cirgi learning model as it has a significant influence on the concept mastery. the application of cirgi can also develop students’ interest in reading science books. the cirgi model implementation, however, is time-consuming. therefore, it must be carried out in accordance with the syntax and the time allocation of each syntax that has been set, so students gain maximum mastery of the ecosystem concepts. disclosure statement no potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors. references adi, w. c., suwono, h., & suarsini, e. 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(2015). pengaruh model pembelajaran circ (cooperative integrated reading and composition) terhadap minat baca dan kemampuan memahami bacaan. e-journal program pascasarjana universitas pendidikan ganesha. 5(1), 1-9. biographical notes lia junita harahap is a student at biology education study program in the faculty of mathematics and natural sciences, jakarta state university, jakarta, indonesia. ratna komala is a lecturer at biology study program in the faculty of mathematics and natural sciences, jakarta state university, jakarta, indonesia rizhal hendi ristanto is a lecturer at biology education study program in the faculty of mathematics and natural sciences, jakarta state university, jakarta, indonesia. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 291 the utilization of ict as pedagogical and professional competencies to support the professionalism of chemistry teachers wahyuni rizka dharma 1 , jimmi copriady 2 , and roza linda 3 abstract this purpose of this study was to determine the influence of ict utilization as pedagogical and professional competencies to support the professionalism of chemistry teachers. this study used a quantitative method through a survey approach with 157 chemistry teachers. the survey was conducted to obtain the data through questionnaires. the results indicated that the ict utilization in the learning as pedagogical and profesional competencies significantly influenced toward the professionalism of chemistry teachers with the sig. 0,000<α = 0.05. simultaneously, the use of ict in the learning as a pedagogical competence and the ict utilization in communicating and developing themselves as professional competencies had a significant effect on supporting the professionalism of high school chemistry teachers that was indicated by the analysis result of the f 0,000 test probability value. it was smaller than α = 0.05. the use of ict needs to be improved by designing various efforts in the learning process i.e., conducting an education and ict training to achieve the teacher skills in utilizing the ict to support the teacher professionalism. the chemistry teachers should utilize the ict in learning and follow an ict training. the local government has to fix the facility and infrastructure as well as the evaluation and regulation of the ict utilization in school to suppert the teacher professionalism. keywords information and communication technology (ict), pedagogical competence, professional competence, professionalism of chemistry teachers 1 graduate student, chemistry education, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas riau, indonesia; e-mail: w.rizka93@gmail.com 2 professor in chemistry education, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas riau, indonesia 3 associate professor in chemistry education, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas riau, indonesia mailto:w.rizka93@gmail.com irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 292 introduction nowadyas, teachers are currently required to have skills in using technology due to the challenges of the future that the teachers are related to the ict. eggen and kauchak (2012) assert that the 21 st century/digital century standards for the teachers and students in schools are associated with the technology utilization in learning. teachers are demanded to prepare their students in the digital era i.e., using their knowledge of learning materials, learning, and technology to facilitate students in the learning experiences, creativities, and innovation for private and virtual situations. teachers in the 21 st century must be literated with the technology since teacher professionalism is not only required to have pedagogical, personal, and social competencies but also professional competences. one of the professional competencies is technology by utilizing ict that can emerge the teachers and students’ creativity through the use of various media and the learning sources (savitri, 2018). the problem of teacher professionalism opposes teachers’ competence. the blurred portrait of education in indonesia is teacher competency. this refers to the results of the teacher competency test (ukg) in 2015. it is based on the national average of 53.02 below the minimum competency standard (skm) target that is 55 (supriyono, 2018). providing the solution is needed; hence, the problem can be overcome immediately. whereas, the problem especially in riau is seen from the teacher competency exams scores in 2015. the teachers’ pedagogical competence is indicated by the intervals values of 47.73 to 53.04. in brief, the pedagogical competency score is still categorized as low compared to the national standard of ukg that is 55 (kemdikbud, 2019). to improve the learning quality, curriculum 2013 responds and accommodates the ict developments. the accommodation is through ict implementation in all subjects, so the teachers can better optimize the ict resources in the inside and outside of classroom. a teacher's high ability in ict is not a guarantee that teachers can integrate the ict well. the ministry of education and culture (2014) explains that the function of ict integration is to develop the learning sources and media, learning preparation, processes, assessment, and reporting of the learning outcomes. this means that the learning quality improvement can be integrated with the ict utilization (hidayat et al., 2016). similarly to the chemistry teachers, chemistry discusses about the abstract concepts. a visionary, competent, and highly dedicated teacher is needed. the chemistry teachers are demanded to be sensitive and responsive toward the changes occurred i.e., the development of sophisticated science and technology. therefore, the chemistry teachers must always learn about various things that continuously follow the current developments, try to improve their quality and can use the method and learning media. those are in line with the materials presented. thus, students can follow the learning process well. in brief, professional teachers are needed. the teachers who have competencies have been set in the education and teaching tasks. though there are several studies that prove the benefits of ict utilization to improve the learning quality (e.g., budiana, 2015; mutmainnah, 2017; nurvitasari, 2018; zuhriyah, 2016), in fact, the use of technology is still not implemented by irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 293 all of the teachers. the ict integration of education experiences many obstacles (mahdum, 2019). the mastery factor of ict becomes one of the problems that arises along with the use of ict in education. teacher is the main stakeholder of learning processes in school. integrating the ict for learning is believed that it can assist teachers’ tasks to run well though it is implemented inside and outside the classroom. therefore, the mastery of ict by the teachers is a must in order to improve teacher professionalism (budiana et al., 2015). this research discussed the competencies, namely pedagogical and professional competencies since those have a relationship with the ict in learning and communicating and also developing themselves for the learning implementation in the classroom and schools, especially in urban and rural areas (al-munawwarah, 2014; kristianto, 2017; pramana, 2018). although, there are several studies examining the use of ict, no research has linked to those two aspects. therefore, five research questions were formulated; 1) is there any significant difference on the demographic characteristics of the respondents? 2) is there any significant effect of the ict usage as pedagogical and professional competencies on supporting the professionalism of high school chemistry teachers? 3) is there any significant effect simultaneously the use of ict as pedagogical and professional competencies on supporting the professionalism of high school chemistry teachers? 4) how is the influence effect of the ict usage as pedagogical and professional competencies on supporting the professionalism of high school chemistry teachers? 5) how is the influence equation of regression to establish the influence of ict utilization as pedagogical and professional competencies on support the professionalism of high school chemistry teachers? literature review utilizing ict in the learning process is an adapatation form on the knowledge development that is currently developing to improve teachers’ pedagogical and professional competencies. in fact, there are many schools which get difficulties to provide facilities and infrastructures, and to carry out up to date learning processes through the ict utilization to support such competencies. many obstacles are experienced by teachers when implementing the learning process based on the information technology. it is in line with copriady (2014) who proposes that teachers really encounter not only the challenges but also the problems of ict utilization in teaching and learning processes. one of the problems is the negative attitude on the ict utilization and the lack of knowledge and skills to implement the ict utilization. the problem of low teacher pedagogical competence can be seen from the low of ict usage in the learning process (umar, 2013). the indication is that there are teachers who have low ability to operate the learning devices i.e., laptops, computers, and in-focus. when the teacher’s operational ability of learning devices is low, it does not enable the teacher to integrate the ict in the teaching and learning processes. therefore, the learning is not interesting. the atmosphere can even make students bored quickly while learning processes take place. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 294 based on the previous explanation related to the teachers’ problem in the 21 st century i.e. skills, the globalization progress eases the teachers to communicate and develop themselves by utilizing the ict. additionally, the ict utilization is very important to support the relationships with colleagues and develop the professions based on their fields. based on various research results, there are approximately 70% to 90% of teachers who utilize the ict in learning processes and activities. they are considered illiterate in technology (lestariningsih, 2019; nasution, 2018; robbani, 2019; wernely, 2018). if those are true, it would be ironic if the teacher has never used the least sophisticated information technology (darmawan, 2013). thus, this will certainly has an impact when the teachers communicate with the fellow teachers, parents, and students and it is also difficult to develop themselves based on their field of study, if they are still illiterate in technology, it is difficult to improve their professional competencies. in accordance with the demands of the industrial revolution 4.0, the ict integration must be implemented in the ducation world. professionalism as a support in carrying out the tasks is greatly influenced by the development and policy. nowadays, adaptation to the revolution of technology and information is one of the challenges for indonesia teacher to enhance the professionalism (tanang et al., 2014). professionalism has become one of the supports in carrying out their duties, currently it is highly influenced by the developments and policies used. the information technology development will change the pattern of teacher-student relations, learning models, and the overall education system. ict must be integrated in education to achieve the goals; then, it is not regarded as a barrier. nowadays, the learning sources do not only come from the teachers, because there are many learning sources and information used as the facilitation to learn. the schools are no longer to be the only center of learning since the learning is not limited to space and time (tanang, 2014). the teacher professionalism that will be discussed is the teachers’ professionalism relating to the ict utilization in the learning process at school. the indicators used are to support the computers and internet in the learning processes. methodology research design, participants, and locale of the study this study used a quantitative method through a survey approach. the data were in the form of chemistry teachers’ perceptions on the ict utilization as pedagogical and professional competencies. the sample was taken from the population using through a cluster random sampling technique; moreover, there were 157 chemistry teachers categorized based on school unit, gender, last education, majors, teaching experiences, employment and certification status in state and private high schools at pekanbaru city, siak, pelalawan, and indragiri hulu regencies. they voluntarily participated in this study by filling out an online questionnaire. the participants’ anonymity was guaranteed and they welcomed to leave their contact number if they wished to participate in a follow-up study. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 295 data collection and analysis data collection in this study used a non-test technique in the form of questionnaires. the answer of each item of the instrument had a gradation from “very positive to very negative” by using a likert scale from one to five, of which scales were a scale of one for very rare answers and a scale of five for very frequent answers. the data collected were analyzed to determine the validity and reliability of 30 high school chemistry teachers in kampar regency that produced the item-total correlation coefficient of pedagogical competence, professional competence, and teacher professionalism, in which it was greater than rtable = 0.361, it meant that all items were valid. meanwhile, the coefficient of alpha cronbach on pedagogical competence, professional competence, and teacher professionalism were greater than the value of alpha cronbach 0.5, it meant that the reliability of the each items for the variable studied was good (reliable). the technique used to analyze the data was a descriptive statistical analysis technique, such as the technique applied by arikunto (2006), the data collected were clarified into quantitative data in the form of figures. the categorization was grouped into 5 categories; very high, high, medium, low, and very low. whereas for categorizing, it used the 5 norm boundary references (sudijono, 2008). the independent variables in this research were pedagogical competence (x1) and professional competence (x2), while the dependent variable was the teacher professionalism (y). multiple linear regression analysis using spss 18.0 for windows was chosen to analyze the research data. the analysis was to find out the significant difference in the influence of ict utilization as pedagogical and professional competencies to support the professionalism of chemistry teachers. ethical considerations this research used individuals as the main source of the information. to contend with the ethics, although in indonesia there was no administrative body established to protect the rights and welfare of human research subjects recruited to participate in this research, the researcher covered the identities of people, places, and the research location by way of made-up names to keep the rights of human research participants. additionally, the participation in this study was totally volunteer. findings the utilization of ict as a pedagogical competence in the terms of demographics the followings are the percentage calculation data of ict utilization as a pedagogical competence that were reviewed from the teachers’ demographic side: irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 296 table 1. percentage calculation of the utilization of ict as a pedagogical competence demography percentage (%) category rarely seldom sometimes often very often school units state private 2.5 0.6 8.3 0.6 25.5 5,1 31.8 12.7 10.8 1.9 total 3.2 8.9 30.6 44.6 12.7 gender male female 1.3 1.9 1.3 7.6 3.8 26.8 12.7 31.8 3.8 8.9 total 3.2 8.9 30.6 44.6 12.7 last education d 3 s 1 s 2 0.0 3.2 0.0 0.0 8.3 0,6 0.0 29.9 0.6 0.6 35.7 8.3 0.0 9.6 3.2 total 3.2 8.9 30.6 44.6 12.7 majors education non-education 3.2 0.0 7.6 1.3 24.2 6.4 36.9 7.6 9.6 3.2 total 3.2 8.9 30.6 44.6 12.7 teaching experience 1-5 years 6-10 years 11-15 years >15 years 0.0 0.0 1.3 1.9 0.0 0.6 4.5 3.8 4.5 5.1 8.3 12.7 7.0 13.4 10.8 13.4 2.5 2.5 4.5 3.2 total 3.2 8.9 30.6 44.6 12.7 job status civil servants non-civil servants 2.5 0.6 6.4 2.5 18.5 12.1 24.8 19.7 6.4 6.4 total 3.2 8.9 30.6 44.6 12.7 certification status certification non-certification 3.2 0.0 7.0 1.9 20.4 10.2 27.4 17.2 8.9 3.8 total 3.2 8.9 30.6 44.6 12.7 the conclusions could be drawn based on the school unit, the public school assessment was higher, while based on gender the assessment of women was higher, then based on the last education of bachelor degree was higher, for the assessment of major was higher while based on teaching experience was 6-10 years and >15 years that was similar and higher, based on employment status the pns assessment was higher, and finally based on the certification status was higher. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 297 the utilization of ict as a professional competence in the terms of demographics the followings are the percentage calculation data of ict utilization as a professionalism competence that were reviewed from the teachers’ demographic side: table 2. percentage calculation of the utilization of ict as a professional competency demography percentage (%) category rarely seldom sometimes often very often school units state private 1.9 0.0 5.7 0.6 15.9 3.8 39.5 12.1 15.9 4.5 total 1.9 6.4 19.7 51.6 20.4 gender male female 1.3 0.6 0.6 5.7 4.5 15.3 12.7 38.9 3.8 16.6 total 1.9 6.4 19.7 51.6 20.4 last education d 3 s 1 s 2 0.0 1.9 0.0 0.0 6.4 0.0 0.0 19.1 0.6 0.0 43.3 8.3 0.6 15.9 3.8 total 1.9 6.4 19.7 51.6 20.4 majors education non-education 1.9 0.0 5.1 1.3 14.6 5.1 45.2 6.4 14.6 5.7 total 1.9 6.4 19.7 51.6 20.4 teaching experience 1-5 years 6-10 years 11-15 years >15 years 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.9 0.0 0.0 3.2 3.2 1.9 3.2 8.3 6.4 10.2 13.4 10.8 17.2 1.9 5.1 7.0 6.4 total 1.9 6.4 19.7 51.6 20.4 job status civil servants non-civil servants 1.9 0.0 5.7 0.6 10.8 8.9 29.3 22.3 10.8 9.6 total 1.9 6.4 19.7 51.6 20.4 certification status certification non-certification 1.9 0.0 6.4 0.0 12.7 7.0 32.5 19.1 13.4 7.0 total 1.9 6.4 19.7 51.6 20.4 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 298 the assessment from the school unit was higher, based on the gender assessment of women was higher, then based on the latest education of si was higher, for the assessment majors was higher, while based on teaching experience assessment was >15 years higher, whereas based on the employment status of pns was higher, and finally based on the certification status was higher. the result of t test (individual parametric significance test) the ict utilization effect as pedagogical and professional competencies to support the professionalism could be known using the t-test as follow: table 3. partially independent variable test results (t-test results) model unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t sig. b std. error beta (constant) 0.540 1.716 0.315 0.754 pedagogical competence 0.139 0.032 0.309 4.324 0.000 professional competence 0.439 0.054 0.586 8.192 0.000 based on the table 3, to use the ict as a pedagogical competence, the sig was 0,000. sig value 0,000 was smaller than α = 0.05, then the decision of h0 was rejected. thus, it could help some of the positive and significant influence between the use of ict as pedagogical competence to support the professionalism of high school chemistry teachers in riau province. sig value 0,000 was smaller than α = 0.05, then the decision of h0 was rejected. thus, it could be summed up partially about the positive and significant effect between the use of ict as a professional competence to support the professionalism of high school chemistry teachers in riau province. the result of f test (simultaneous significance test) the effect of the use of ict as pedagogical and professional competencies to support the professionalism was instantaneously tried by using the f test. the following was the results of the f test. table 4. simultaneous test results (test-f results) model sum of squares mean square f sig. 1 regression 6508.626 3254.313 211.605 .000b residual 2368.393 15.379 total 8877.019 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 299 based on the table 4, the sig. was 0,000. sig value 0,000 was less than 0.05; then, the h0 was rejected. hence, it could be concluded that there was a significant influence between the use of ict as pedagogical and professional competences to support the professionalism of high school chemistry teachers in riau province. the result of correlation coefficient and determination coefficient the effect of the use of ict as pedagogical and professional competence to support the teacher professionalism could be known from the coefficient of determination, which was indicated by adjusted r square. the results of the correlation coefficient and determination analysis could be presented in table 5. table 5. results of correlation coefficient calculation (r) and determination coefficient (adj r2) model r r square adjusted r square std. error of the estimate 1 0.856a 0.733 0.730 3.922 departing from the table 5, the calculation results of the coefficient of determination were 0.730. it indicated that 73% of teacher professionalism variables were influenced by pedagogical and professional competencies variables, while 27% were affected by other factors that not included in this study. the result of multiple linear regression analysis based on the results of multiple linear regression analysis, it could be seen from the equation of regression to establish the influence of ict utilization as pedagogical and professional competencies to support the professionalism by using beta coefficient analysis. the results of the calculation of constants and beta coefficients for regression analysis were elucidated in table 6. table 6. beta coefficient calculation results model unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t sig. b std. error beta 1 (constant) 0.540 1.716 0.315 0.754 pedagogical competence 0.139 0.032 0.309 4.324 0.000 professional competence 0.439 0.054 0.586 8,192 0.000 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 300 based on the multiple linear regression calculation found in the table 6, the regression equation results were obtained: y = 0.540 + 0.139x1 + 0.439x2. according to the regression line equation model, the results could be interpreted that a constant of 0.540 indicated if the variable use of ict in learning as pedagogical competence (x1) and the use of ict in communicating and developing themselves as professional competence (x2) had a constant or zero value; consequently, the teacher professionalism variable (y) had a positive value of 0.540. furthermore, the use of ict variables in learning as pedagogical competence (x1) had a positive coefficient of 0.139, the variable utilization of ict in communicating and developing themselves as professional competence (x2) had a positive coefficient of 0.439. positive regression coefficient values indicated that the use of ict in learning as a pedagogical competence (x1) and the use of ict in communicating and developing themselves as professional competence (x2) on the teacher professionalism (y) had a positive effect. it illustrated that it increased the use of ict in learning as a pedagogical competence (x1) and the use of ict in communicating and developing themselves as professional competencies (x2) by one unit; moreover, it would be able to increase the teacher professionalism (y) by the value of the beta coefficient of each independent variable multiplied with a large increase that occurred. discussion the findings of of this study were based on the differences in the status of schools, in which it also had an impact on the availability of ict devices in schools. the results of zia, naz, and qureshi (2017) and asaolu & fashanu (2012) research found that the ict devices in private schools are more complete and more supportive for the student’s activities to access new information rather than in the state schools. even though the technology facilities in schools are complete, moore (2012) argues that not all of the teachers use the technology in the learning process. the result of gender aspect obtained was different from the research of ayu (2013) that there was no difference in the tendency of gender biased data for the interest of the profession of internet adoption patterns by the teachers. thus, although information technology (internet) has been introduced early on both women and men, men will continue their interest in the ict utilization than women; thereby, it creates gender gaps both in the terms of experience and knowledge about th ict (vivi, 2014) . the result of study was in line with dalrohman (2016) that the teachers who teach in public school are higher with an average of 19.5% in developing the professional competence of teachers compared with the teachers who teach in private school, in which the average is 15.5%. this is because of the public schools are given more attention by the government since all sources of funds obtained by the public schools come from the government, especially in carrying out professional teacher competency development activities, all funds come from the government and in terms of the teachers themselves, the schools with the public/state status are mostly pns-registered teachers (civil servants) and certified. for the aspect of staffing status, the results were different from the research of yulia (2018) that there is no difference in the pedagogical competence of teachers in public irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 301 high schools and vocational schools in sleman based on the staffing status. furthermore, the results of study about the teacher sertification program were also in line with rahmat (2014), that generally, the analysis results of the data regarding to the four competencies possessed by the teachers indicated that between the teachers who had passed certification directly, plpg training, and those who had not yet taken certification of teacher professionalism show significant quality differences in the pedagogical competencies, where the teachers who had passed direct certification and plpg training had better pedagogical competence than the teachers who had not been certified. a study conducted by heny (2017) also found that the teacher certification programs in improving the teacher professionalism in terms of the pedagogical and professional aspects of teacher competencies were generally in good criteria proved by the teachers from the aspects of mastering the theory in learning and learning principles that educated, utilized the ict for learning activities, communicated effectively and politely with the students, as well as organized, and utilized the results of learning assessments. thus, it can enhance the teacher professionalism. while in the professional aspect, this is based on the aspects of mastering the material, structure, and scientific concepts of subjects taught, mastering competency standards and basic competencies of subjects of development which are taught, conducting reflective action to develop the professionalism in a sustainable manner, and to communicate and develop the teacher profesionalism; furthermore, it can be conducted by integrating the ict utilization. the result of certification status aspect was in line to kustini (2011) which stated that the teacher certification also required the ability and expertise of ict utilization in learning, it means that the teachers must integrate the technology usage to improve the learning quality. perhaps, one of the reasons due to the teachers who have been certified, they do not have enough expertise to increase the intensity of ict utilization both in learning and in developing themselves. the results effect of this study was in accordance with the research of tiananda (2015), in which the teaching experience had a positive effect on the teachers’ pedagogical competence based on the results of multiple linear regression analysis (t test), it was known that tvalue > ttable, that is 2.629>2.004 and the significance value < 0.005 is 0.011 with an effective contribution of 15.73%. additionally, restiyani (2014) said that the teachers were required to master the ict usage as a source of learning i.e. the internet utilization. in addition, the teachers are also required to create creative and innovative learning by integrating the ict in the learning processes. this brings a good impact on the students’ learning outcomes and they can understand the material provided by the teacher using various learning sources and interesting learning media. besides, according to tekege (2017) who argues that nowadays, the world of education begins to integrate the technology in various aspects including of learning. educational policy is directed to utilize the ict so that it is able to prepare human resources capable to face up the global challenges. thus, integrating the use of ict in learning is needed to improve the education quality in indonesia. the results dealt with the effect of ict usage in communicating and developing themselves as professional competencies to support the teacher professionalism, in which it was supported with dalrohman’s (2016) study, who found that the average for indicators of utilizing ict in communicating and developing themselves classified as very low sequentially irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 302 that was 18.9% and 17.5%. it indicated that the development of teacher professional competence through the school institutions in utilizing ict for communication and self-development still needs special attention such as being involved in mgmp activities, workshops or training. it was in accordance with the research of budiana et al. (2015) that the problem arose along with the use of ict in the world of education is the mastery of ict by the teachers. as we know, the teachers became the main stakeholder in the learning. another opinion stated by copriady (2015) that the ict utilization was determined by the extent to which users knew the ict function and the ability to use it. the use of technology can affect the form of teaching and learning activities. the use of ict as a tool can assist the task of teachers, so the teaching and learning process run well. therefore, the mastery of ict is a must for the teachers to improve their professionalism. this study only discussed three factors that influenced the use of ict to support the teacher professionalism, namely pedagogical and professional competencies. there are still many other factors in the use of ict that affect the teacher professionalism. those are the use of ict, the teacher attitude of ict, the ease of ict, ict knowledge, ict skills, applications of ict in education, and etc. these limitations are suggested for further researchers to conduct research using these other factors so that the use of ict to support the teacher professionalism can be optimally studied and optimally beneficial. because of the limitations of this study, it is possible for other researchers to uncover and discuss additional factors that are not explained and discussed in this study. disclosure statement no conflict of interest was reported by the authors. acknowledgments we are deeply indebted to 157 chemistry teachers as our respondents in our study who gave their time for being respondents. references al-munawwarah, s. f. 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(2014). profiles of the use of information and communication technology (ict) as a medium and learning resource by biology teachers. journal of edusains, 6(1), 50 – 66. sudijono, a. (2012). introduction to education evaluation. pt raja grafindo persada: jakarta. tanang, h. (2014). teacher professionalism and professional development practices in south sulawesi, indonesia. journal of curriculum and teaching, 3(2), 25-42. tiananda, f. (2015). teacher pedagogical competence in terms of mastery of information communication technology and teaching experience at smk muhammadiyah 2 sragen in the academic year of 2014/2015 (unpublished master thesis). universitas muhammadiyah surakarta. umar, s. (2013). teacher professionalism. makassar: alauddin university press. wernely. (2018). efforts to increase the ability of teachers in the use of information and communication technology (ict) in tk aisyiyah, dumai city. journal of pajar (teaching and learning) primary school teacher education study program, 2(3), 415-418. zuhriyah, s. (2016). the use of media to improve quality of learning. proceedings of the national teacher scientific meeting (ting) viii. universitas terbuka, indonesia. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 305 biographical notes wahyuni rizka dharma is a graduate student, chemistry education, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas riau, indonesia; e-mail: w.rizka93@gmail.com jimmi copriady works as a professor in chemistry education, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas riau, indonesia. roza linda works as an associate professor in chemistry education, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas riau, indonesia. mailto:w.rizka93@gmail.com this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 569 the effect of contextual teaching and learning on reading comprehension toni indrayadi 1 , hengki yandri 2 , and dairabi kamil* 3 abstract this study investigated the effect of contextual teaching and learning approach on students’ reading comprehension achievement. the quasi experimental design was employed in this study involving experimental and control groups. the experimental class received the contextual teaching and learning approach while the control class received the conventional approach. a multiple choice test was used as the research instrument to look at students’ reading comprehension. data were analyzed through using the parametric levene statistic and non parametric tests. the result revealed that the experimental and control classes had significantly different reading comprehension achievement. it was proved by the mean score of reading comprehension achievement and mean score of gain of the experimental class was higher than the control class. this study also provided information for the researchers and lecturers about how to implement contextual teaching and learning in teaching reading. keywords: contextual teaching and learning, reading comprehension 1. lecturer, institut agama islam kerinci, jambi, indonesia; toniindrayadi2@gmail.com 2. lecturer, institut agama islam kerinci, jambi, indonesia; hengki@konselor.org 3. corresponding author: associate professor, institut agama islam kerinci, jambi, indonesia; drbkml@gmail.com mailto:drbkml@gmail.com irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 570 introduction english reading ability is regarded as the important skill for the academic success and career of efl students, therefore it needs to be developed among the students (fransisco & madrazo, 2019). reading trains students to comprehend written materials effeciently and quickly to get information and meaning with full understanding and enjoyment (al udaini, 2011; sembiring, rukmini, mujiyanto, & yuliasri, 2018). moreover, al-jarrah and ismail (2018) stated that the efl students are expected to have a good skill of english reading text in terms of vocabulary and syntactic knowledge to get information and meaning from english reading text. in other words, skill in reading english texts is demanded by good reading habits (iftanti, 2015). it is done by developing the students metacognitive awareness of mental process. although reading skill has an important role for the academic’s success, english reading comprehension ability still is a problem for indonesian students. most of them seem to be able to read the texts without comprehending content. the students’ failure in reading comprehension occurs as a result of inappropriate teaching approaches used by lecturers in teaching reading skill in the process of teaching and learning in the classroom. one of the approaches that can be used to improve students’ reading comprehension is by using contextual teaching and learning. the contextual teaching and learning can stimulate students to be actively involved in reading english texts. therefore, the lecturers must be able to combine academic rigor with practical educational experiences. it is by engaging between teaching material needs and real life context or natural surrounding (al udaini, 2011; bera, 2016; dorkchandra, 2010). in this way, students become the center of teaching, and the lecturers only as a facilitator who facilates teaching and learning process in the classroom. li (2016) suggests that the lecturers have to have ability to play a role as a faciltator to encourage students to be active learners in the process of teaching and learning in the classroom. in terms of being a facilitator, the lecturers have to be able to design various instructions based on the learners’ prior knowledge, current interest, and level of involvement (stenger & garfinkel, 2003). beside the ability of designing various instructions, the lecturers are also responsible for making students actively involved in the process of teaching and learning (crawford, 2001). it is by developing the students’ skills in comprehending reading texts (lingan & malana, 2019). in relation to the importance of teaching approach in the process of teaching and learning reading in the classroom, it is very crucial to undertake studies in a higher education context. therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of contextual teaching and learning approach on students’ reading comprehension achievement and gain. the study was guided by two major questions: (1) are there statistically significant differences of reading comprehension mean achievement of the post-test between the two groups receiving conventional approach and the group receiving contextual teaching and learning approach? (2) are there statistically significant differences of reading irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 571 comprehension mean gain of the post-test between the groups receiving conventional approach and the group receiving contextual teaching and learning approach? literature review reading comprehension reading comprehension is the process of meaning construction through interaction and involvement with texts (snow, 2002). in this sense, students must have knowledge and experience related to the texts (al udaini, 2011; dorkchandra, 2010; knoll, 2000). in other words, students need to have ability to recall the gist of the texts, ask specific questions, and interprete the messages (pearson & hamm, 2005). better comprehension of the texts is very important for the students in constructing the meaning, because the goal of the reader is to reproduce meaning from what they read (lipka, 2010). therefore, students must have ability to analyze information from what the students read (hassan, 2005). a text can be difficult or easy to be comprehended by the students depending on the students’ knowledge, ability, and engagement activity with the texts (snow, 2002). snow (2002) later adds that when too many factors are not matched to a reader’s knowledge and experience, the text may be too difficult for optimal comprehension to occur. therefore, evaluating and selecting a text appropriatness is highly crucial in reading comprehension (alemi & bagheri, 2013). there are three indicators of reading comprehension measurements (dagostino, carifio, bauer, & zao, 2014), namely literal, inferential, and critical creative. they argued that the three indictors comprise of some sub-indicators. 1) literal consists of identifying of words/phrases/sentences, identifying main ideas, identifying important points, making comparison, identifying cause and effect, identifying sequence of ideas/events. 2) inferential; interpreting main ideas, interpreting important points, interpreting comparison, interpreting cause and effect. 3) critical creative; evaluating, making a conclusion, internalizing, identifying the moral of the story/lesson. al-jamal, al-hawamleh and al-jamal (2013) used six indicators in measuring the students’ reading comprehension in jordan for their research; predicting, making connections, rereading, summarizing, finding main ideas, and figuring out the meaning of words. related to the indicators of evaluating reading comprehension used by the scholars above, this study adapted the literal reading sub-indicators used by dagostino, carifio, bauer, and zao (2014), then matched with reading evaluation for beginner of the indonesian university students; identifying the author’s purpose, topic, main idea, details, references, and vocabulary in context. dakin (2013) briefly states that comprehending a text requires students to acquire concrete skills include vocabulary, main idea, fact or opinion, sequencing, following directions and reading for details. the skill and indicators of reading comprehension is as the basic strategy for gaining the meaning or information from a text. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 572 contextual teaching and learning contextual teaching and learning is a set of way to solve problems with varies contexts for students to work together in practice communities, relying on experiences and diverse interest for students to respond to and reflect on new information, environments, and situations (goodroe, 2010; nasrun, 2014). it also encourages to engage students in an active teaching and learning process which can be implemented individually or in group (satriani, emilia, & gunawan, 2012). according to pinwanna (2015), contextual teaching and learning approach is an approach to motivate learners to connect between teaching material contents to real life situations. pinwanna (2015) also argues that motivating students to connect between teaching material contents to real life situations is by bringing the knowledge to be acquired close to the student’s reality. connecting subject matter contents to real life situations is meaningful for students. the learning process takes place naturally in the forms of work activities and experience, and not just a transfer of teacher’s knowledge to students but it is more concerned with the processes than the results (brown, 1998; munawaroh & setyani, 2015). it aims to supply knowledge to the students, flexibly transferable from one problem to another, from one context to another (nasrun, 2014). contextual teaching and learning provides students with a skill to solve problems when the learning activity is to let them work in groups (nasrun, 2014). learning groups lead the students to share their ideas and make them actively participate in learning processes (sears, 2003). however, the students must have skills and ability in solving the problems in sharing the idea in group work (hasruddin & rezeqi, 2015). this mean that skills and ability are the basic for students in learning through contextual teaching and learning approach. based on previous statement, there are five strategies proposed by crawford in contextual teaching and learning approach (2001) as follows: relating, experiencing, applying, cooperating, and transferring. these strategies are implemented in problem solving activities, work cooperatively in group or pair work activities, and use the knowledge to get in a new context (khaefiatunnisa, 2015). relating strategy is the most important strategy in contextual teaching and learning approach. it is used by the lecturers to link the new concept to something familiar to students. in using this strategy, teachers must connect new perceptions with something familiar for students (davtyan, 2014). moreover, crawford (2001) emphasizes that careful planning is needed because often students do not automatically connect new information to the familiar, because although students may bring memories or prior knowledge that is relevant to a new learning situation, they can fail to recognize its relevance. second, experiencing strategy is learning in the context of exploration experience (davtyan, 2014). this strategy enables to help students to practice action in the learning process that connect to their real-life work outside the classroom which they get in their daily life. however, this strategy will not effectively work if the students do not have appropriate experiences or prior knowledge related to the materials that they learn in the learning process in the classroom. third, applying the strategy is a process of putting the concepts and information in an irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 573 appropriate situation. students apply a concept when they can apply their real world experiences to their problem-solving activities (davtyan, 2014; crawford, 2001). implementing real world experience guides students to problem solving. in this strategy, teachers can also motivate a need for understanding the concepts by assigning realistic and relevant exercises (satriani, emilia, & gunawan, 2012). fourth, cooperating with other students is iniated by the reason of working individually makes students hard to solve the problems in problem solving exercises. cooperative learning strategy is the strategy that uses a small group learning in which the students work cooperatively to achieve a common goal in the process of teaching learning (holubec, 2001; sanchez-escobedo & lavadores, 2018). the students will feel self-conscious and ready to explain their understanding of the concept to other students in solving the problems (crawford, 2001). in other words, cooperative learning support the leaners’ autonomy to work cooperatively with the group members (hawkins, 2017). finally, transferring is related to learning in the context of existing knowledge (davtyan, 2014). it is a teaching strategy that uses knowledge in a new context that has not been covered in class (mestre, 2002; satriani, emilia, & gunawan, 2012). however, to make the transfer process effectively occurr in the learning process, active learning must be considered because it requires students’ involvement in the learning process by making conscious efforts to learn (miles, 2016). activities of learning transfer what miles mean is the process in transferring learning in the process of teaching and learning in the class. ttransferring learning strategy guide students to memorize the teaching materials based on facts and to practice the procedures by working skill exercises (crawford, 2001). it accelerates the students to use knowledge that has been learned and related it to the learning materials. contextual teaching and learning and reading comprehension studies on contextual teaching and learning and reading comprehension for indonesian students have been conducted by some researchers. for instances, sunarti and puspita (2019) conducted a study to investigate the effectiveness of contextual teaching and learning and grammar-translation method in teaching reading. furthermore, khaefiatunnisa (2015) found that contextual teaching and learning can develop students’ reading skill in procedural texts. while azan, sahlan, and alberth (2017) found that contextual teaching and learning did not significantly influence students reading comprehension achievement. applying contextual teaching and learning in teaching reading begins with asking students to discuss the topic in a small group discussion, then lecturers guide students to activate their prior knowledge related to the topic to make prediction about the content of the texts. small group discussion enables students to share the content of the text each other in the process of teaching and learning in the classroom. however, the lecturers as the content experts are persons who deliver reading materials to students in the process of teaching and learning in the classroom. lecturers are required to train students to construct knowledge through reflection on contexts in order to create new knowledge and new action irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 574 (forneris & peden-mcalpine, 2006). contstructing knowledge through action based on the context will help students to understand impilicit meaning on materials being learnt in the process of teaching and learning. a learning is considered a response acquisition and viewed as a mechanistic process in which successful responses are automatically strengthened and unsuccessful responses are automatically weakened according to environmental feedback (neo & neo, 2001). methodology research design, participants, and locale of the study the research method used in this study was quasi-experimental. the rationale for choosing quasi-experimental research as the method of this study was because it did not need to include the entire feature of true experimental research. veldman (2016) argued that quasi-experimental did not carry out naturally form of true experimental research. it is simpler than true experimental research that selects the samples randomly. the participants of this study were the second semester students of english department of state islamic institute of kerinci who had taken the course of literal reading subject in the first semester. only two classes were chosen as the samples of this study as the nature of the sampling technique in quasi-experimental research. it means that samples are clusterly selected by the researchers according to cluster random sampling technique in quasi-experimental research. literal reading’ scores were used in selecting the samples of the research by comparing all students’ scores from each class. comparing the students’ literal reading scores of each class aimed to get homogeneity between groups involved in this study. in other words, the criteria of both groups were matched in academic performance (nagisetty, 2015). the normality test and homogeneity of levene statistical test were used in selecting the sample of the research. the results of t and t’ test in literal reading showed that there were significant difference scores of each class. the result of t test a vs b was ≥ .05) with the mean score of 76.28 vs 74.14, a vs c was .00 < .05 with the mean score of 81.24 vs 76.28. while the result of t-test b vs c was .00 < .05 with the mean score of 74.14 vs 76.28. based on the results of t and t’-test above, class a and b were chosen as the sample of this study, it was due to the consideration that the significant scores of these two classes were equal to .05 as standard of significance score for this study. it indicated that both of the classes were nearly similar in literal reading scores as stated by johnson and christensen (2014) that experiment and control group must be matched at the beginning. data collection and data analyses reading comprehension pre-test and post test were used to get the data of both control and experiment classes. post-test to evaluate reading comprehension’s development. the pre-test was administered to measure the samples’ reading prior knowledge of irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 575 comprehension before receiving conventional and contextual teaching and learning approach treatments, meanwhile post-test was administered after both of the classes receiving conventional and contextual teaching and learning approach treatments to evaluate reading comprehension development. the validity and reliability tests were done through using corrected items total correlation for reading comprehension test items before the test was administered to the participants. this statistical analysis was applied after 38 items’ reading comprehension test was tried out to different classes. there were three items eliminated based on the spss analysis, because these three items were not valid based on the corrected item analysis level of correlation of .30. these three items were not met the criteria of valid items, because their level of correlation was < .30. thus, 35 items were appropriate for measuring students’ reading comprehension in the pre and post-tests. the reading comprehension test items are listed in the following table: table 2. reading comprehension test items variable indicators number of test items reading comprehension identifying author purpose 2,5,11,17,18 identifying topic 1,6,10,22 identifying main idea 13,26,29,31,32 identifying details 4,7,15,19,20,24,27,28,33,34 identifying reference 3,8,12,16,23,30 identifying vocabulary in context 9,14,21,26,35 total items 35 the completed tests were processed by using the statistical package for social science (spss version 23) to establish the cause-and-effect relationships between independent and dependent variables. parametric levene statistic and and non parametric mann whitney u test were used to examine the research hypothesis. moreover, the reading comprehension achievement of control and experimental groups was measured by using the criteria of referenced interpretation and norm referenced interpretation as presented in the following table: table 3. criteria of reading comprehension achievement achievement criteria interval of achievement good ≥ 74 sufficient 46 73 not good < 46 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 576 meanwhile, gains of reading comprehension from pre-test to post-tests were analyzed based on the normalized gain formula. meltzer (2002) stated that the normalized gain is introduced. by hake (1999). = pretest of score maximum score pretest of score -postest of score the criteria of the normalized gain of reading comprehension are presented in table 4. this classification of gain as the basic classifying gain score of reading comprehension as shown in the following table: table 4. classifications of mean gain scores score classification high moderate low ethical considerations in this study, all the names of participants were masked and only the name of the research site was allowed to be mentioned in this study. all participants participated in this study voluntarily. findings reading comprehension mean achievement between the group receiving conventional approach and the group receiving ctl approach the mann whitney u was used in analyzing the equality difference of reading comprehension for both control and experimental groups in the pre-test score. this analysis was used because we found that data were not normally distributed. therefore, mann whitney u statistical analysis was used as one of the alternatives when the data were not normally distributed. the table of mann whitney u of reading comprehension is presented in the following table: table 5. result of reading comprehension pre-test data variables groups n mean z sig. (2-tailed) reading comprehension control 20 54.00 -1,04 .30 experiment 21 53.76 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 577 table 5 shows that both of the groups’ achievement mean scores were nearly equal before receiving different treatments, namely 54.00 and 53.76 respectively. the samples of both control and experiment groups had nearly an equal ability of reading comprehension in the pretest before receiving different treatments during course. the t’-test value was shown after the mann whitney u test. it was to examine the equality difference of the control and experimental groups after receiving different treatments. the ttest value of reading comprehension achievement mean score post-test data is presented in table below. table 6. result of reading comprehension achievement post-test data groups mean t’ sig. (2-tailed) h0 control 63.65 -4.96 .00 rejected experiment 77.05 based on the table 6, the significance score of reading comprehension for both control and experiment groups was lower than .05. this indicated that the contextual teaching and learning approach significantly affected the reading comprehension. additionally, the reading comprehension achievement mean score of the experiment group was higher than that of the control group. the achievement mean score of reading comprehension for the control group was 63.65 and for the experiment group was 77.05 which means h-null of reading comprehension was rejected. the reading comprehension achievement mean score of pre-test and post-test are presented below: figure 1. mean of reading comprehension achievement 54 53 63.65 94 0 20 40 60 80 100 control experiment pre-test post-test irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 578 reading comprehension mean gain between the group receiving conventional approach and the group receiving contextual teaching and learning approach gain mean score of reading comprehension for the control and experiment groups needs to be found to answer the research question and research hypothesis. mann whitney u test was used in this study based on the normality tests of shapiro-wilk statistical analysis result of the control and experiment group data. the mann whitney u test was conducted to analyze the equality gain mean score of both control and experiment group after analyzing gain mean score distribution of both groups through shapiro-wilk test as mentioned previously. it was used due to the consideration that both of the groups were significantly different in terms of distribution. the results of mann whitney u of the control and experiment reading comprehension gain are presented in the following table: table 7. mann whitney u test of reading comprehension gain data group mean z sig. (2-tailed) h0 control .21 -4.96 .00 rejected experiment .53 from the table 7 can be seen that the value z is -4,96 and sig. (2-tailed) is .00. the significance score of reading comprehension gain for both control and experiment groups was .00 < .05. reading comprehension gain mean score was statistically different between the control and experiment group data. the gain mean score of the control group was .21, while that of the experiment group was .53. it indicated that the gain mean score of the experiment group was greater than that of the control group. the result pre-test and post-test mean gain of reading comprehension is figured out in the following figure: figure 2. mean of reading comprehension gain 0.21 0.53 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 control experiment irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 579 discussion comprehending in reading refers to guessing the meaning from reading text contents. when students are able to guess the meaning, it means they have constructed the meaning from the words to understand a whole reading passage (al-udaini, 2011). al-udaini (2011) then added that better understanding occurred when the students were able to merge their thinking with the text, ask questions, draw inferences, think about what’s important, and summarize and synthesize. this means that comprehension is the first step in solving the students’ reading problems, therefore early reading comprehension must be considered by the lecturers in teaching reading class (basol, ozel, & ozel, 2011). a better reading comprehension is influenced by the appropriateness of teaching approach used in teaching in the classroom. the teaching approach used must be able to change from the teacher-centered to students-centered (hayikaleng, nair, & krishnasamy, 2016). the contextual teaching and learning approach is considerably effective to create students-centered in reading class. this teaching approach attempts to encourage students to connect reading text contents with their experience outside the classroom. connecting reading text contents with experience outside the classroom can help students to comprehend reading text contents easily, because before reading the text, the students have had a concept in their mind related to reading text contents. however, reading text familiarity of the students must be considered. in other words, the reading text used in teaching reading must be appropriate with the students’ knowledge. based on the criteria referenced interpretation and norm referenced interpretation for reading comprehension achievement mean scores of the control and experiment groups, there was a significant difference of reading comprehension achievement mean scores for both of the groups. the reading comprehension achievement mean score of the control group was sufficient, while that of the experiment group was good. the reading comprehension’s achievement mean score of the experiment group was higher than that of the control group. the gain mean score of the control and experiment groups was also significantly different for reading comprehension from the pre-test to the post-test. the control group gain mean score was low and experiment group gain was moderate. hence, the experiment group’s gain mean was also higher than control group’s gain. from the reading comprehension achievement and gain mean score of the control and experiment group data, it can be summarized that the contextual teaching and learning is an effective approach in enhancing the students’ reading comprehension achievement scores and gains in the process of teaching and learning in the classroom. conclusion the finding showed that the conventional and contextual teaching and learning approaches impacted on students’ reading comprehension achievement and gain. however, the impact of achievement and gain were significantly greater in experiment class by using irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 580 the contextual teaching and learning approach than the control group. the levene test statistical analysis showed that the achievement mean score of reading comprehension for the control group was 63.65 and for the experiment group was 77.05. while, reading comprehension gain mean score of the control group was .21, and the experiment group was .53. our finding also showed that the null hypothesis (h0) was rejected and the alternative hypothesis (h1) was accepted. it can be conluded that the contextual teaching and learning approach significantly influenced the students’ reading comprehension. references al-jamal, d., al-hawamleh, m., & al-jamal, g. 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(2005). the assessment of reading comprehension: a review of practice-past, present, and future. article, 13-69. pinwanna, m. (2015, march 21-22). using the contextual teaching and learning method in mathematics to enhance learning efficiency on basic statistics for high school students mathematics education program. paper presented at the international conference on language education humanities and innovation, international college, suan sunandha rajabhat university, bangkok, thailand. https://icsai.org. satriani, i., emilia, e., & gunawan, m. h. (2012). contextual teaching and learning approach to teaching writing. indonesian journal of applied linguistics, 2(1), 10-22. sanchez-escobedo, p., & lavadores, a. k. c. (2018). student-centred teaching strategies by gender, grade level, and teacher’s self-concept in mexico. international research journal in education (irje), 2(1), 61-73. https://open.library.ubc.ca/circle/collections/ubctheses/24/items/1.0054559 http://www.nsf.gov/ http://ecommons.luc.edu/luc_diss/2290 https://icsai.org/ irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 583 sears, s. j. (2003). introduction to contextual teaching and learning. bloomington, indiana: phi delta kappa educational foundation bloomington.http://teacherlink.ed.usu.edu/yetcres/catalogs/reavis/504.pdf sembiring, l. t. a. b., rukmini, d., mujiyanto, j., & yuliasri, i. (2018). the impact of comprehension instruction on students’ reading comprehension with different ability grouping and self-efficacy. tesol international journal, 13(4), 156-171. snow, c. e. (2002). reading for understanding toward an r & d program in reading comprehension. office of education research. science & technology policy institute. https://videnomlaesning.dk/media/2526/reading-for-understanding.pdf stenger, c., & garfinkel, b. (2003). how the constructivist approach to learning can be used to attain academic standards. glen forest elementary school. fairfax county (va) public schools. sunarti, s., & puspita, r. h. (2019). the use of contextual teaching and learning to teach reading comprehension viewed from students’ locus of control. teacher education and curriculum studies, 4(4), 58-64. veldman, k. t. (2016). a quasi-experimental study measuring the effect dimensional analysis on undergraduate nurses’ level of self-efficacy in medication calculations (master thesis), the university of university of lethbridge, alberta, canada. https://opus.uleth.ca/handle/10133/4571 biographical notes dr. toni indrayadi is an english lecturer at the institut agama islam kerinci, indonesia. his research interests include teaching efl reading, teaching english grammar, and semantics. he has published some papers in the aforementioned research area, e-mail: toniindrayadi2@gmail.com hengki yandri is a lecturer at institut agama islam kerinci, indonesia, e-mail: hengki@konselor.org dairabi kamil, phd. is an associate professor at the institut agama islam kerinci, indonesia, e-mail: drbkml@gmail.com https://videnomlaesning.dk/media/2526/reading-for-understanding.pdf mailto:toniindrayadi2@gmail.com mailto:hengki@konselor.org this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 360 the development lectora inspire based learning media for high school students in learning history budi purnomo* abstract this research aimed to develop lectora inspire app for history learning in high schools. purposely, the stages of the development in using the addie model which include the steps of analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation. interview and questionnaires were administered in order to collect data. the interview data were analyzed qualitatively while the questionnaires were analyzed quantitatively. there were 35 respondents from one of the high schools in jambi who were grouped into three groups, namely 3 students for a small individual group, 10 students for a small group, and 22 students for a large group. the results of this development research revealed that lectora inspire app based on history learning was valid based on the assessment of material experts and media experts. moreover, based on the results of small group trials, limited group trials, and large group trials,it showed that lectora inspire app were effective as history learning media. recommendations are also discussed for future research and practices. keywords development, history learning, learning media, lectora inspire *associate professor, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, indonesia; budipurnomo@unja.ac.id mailto:budipurnomo@unja.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 361 introduction the goal of education is to prepare students with guidance, teaching, or training for their future roles as a conscious effort. one of the efforts in improving the quality of education is to implement a particular curriculum that refers to the goals of national education, as stated in law no. 20 of 2003 reads, "national education aims to develop the potential of students so that they become human beings who believe and fear god almighty, have a noble character, are healthy, knowledgeable, competent, creative, independent, and become democratic, and responsible citizens.” moreover, there are two essential elements in learning process, namely teaching methods and learning media. one of the main functions of instructional media is teaching aid that contributes to the climate, conditions, and learning environments organized and developed by the teachers. the use of instructional media in the teaching and learning processes is able to generate new aspirations and interests; to motivate and stimulate learning activities; and even to bring psychological influences for the students. the use of instructional media through learning orientation stage will significantly assist the effectiveness of learning process and the delivery of messages and learning contents at that time (arsyad, 2015). furthermore, the effectiveness of the learning process is very much determined by the teaching methods and learning media used since the media consist of teaching aids designed by the teacher. also, learning media are integral parts of learning. the use of learning media is a creative and systematic effort to create experiences that are helpful for the students, so that, in the end, the quality of graduates are determined. the optimal use of learning media needs to be based on the meaning and added value that students can provide through a learning experience. in several instances, the media are capable to reduce the limitations and shortcomings of educators in communicating learning materials. by implementing the learning media, teachers do not need to provide excessive explanations verbally (asyhar, 2010). however, the internet of things-based learning is rarely done. for instance, the previous research explains that the main obstacles that teachers must face are related to the access of equipment (sariyatun et al., 2018). meanwhile, suryani et al. (2018) believe that it is time for the history learning to be changed, aside from explaining the chronology of the events but also integrating it with the technology. to overcome these issues, as previously mentioned, two essential elements that need to be taken into granted are teaching methods and learning media in teaching and learning process. somehow, the visual limitations in the material and the discussion of the content in the book are incomplete. therefore, the assumption that the material is not unusual seems to be uninteresting. thus, the complexity of the material to be conveyed to the students can be simplified when it is assisted by the media. since the media are capable to represent what the teacher is unable to say through certain words or sentences. also, the abstractness of materials can be concreted in the presence of the media (arsyad, 2015). moreover, the use of instructional media can help teachers to overcome the limitations in the delivery of material. therefore, the research through the development of instructional media is needed in the education context in order to develop effective media used in schools. there are many learning media in schools; one of them is to use the lectora inspire-based learning media. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 362 in line with the discussion of learning media, ulfatuzzahara (2020) stated that learning by utilizing lectora inspire-based learning media has a positive influence on learning enthusiasm. the achievement of the effectiveness of lectora inspire-based social learning media was shown by an increase in student learning outcomes before using lectora inspire-based learning media after using lectora inspire-based learning media. the focus of this research was on developing lectora inspire app for history learning in high schools. moreover, i intended to explore the stages of the development in using the addie model consisting of analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation during history learning. literature review learning media the word “media” as the plural form of medium comes from latin which means intermediary or introduction. media can be defined as a form and channel that can be used in the process of presenting information (aect, 1977). learning media are all materials included the information, tools, and texts that are systematically arranged and displayed as complete pictures of the competencies that need to be mastered by the students and used in the learning process with the aim of planning and implementation of learning (prastowo, 2014). moreover, muldofar (2012) said that teaching materials are all forms of materials used to assist teachers or instructors in carrying out teaching and learning activities. as explained by suryani and agung (2012), media are anything that can be used to transmit messages and can stimulate thoughts, arouse enthusiasm, attention, and the will of students so that it can encourage the learning process in students. hence, media are anything that can be used to transmit messages from sender to recipient to stimulate thoughts, feelings and interests, and attention. history learning according to purwanta (2007), history is defined as a unique subject consisting of events that occurred in the past and are now missing. academically, history lessons are responsible for educating students to understand and explain various historical phenomena being studied (purwanta, 2007). besides, history lessons are also tasked with instilling and developing historical awareness in students (purwanta, 2010). additionally, one of the lessons that is competent to create behavior changes is history learning. history is a science that includes natural knowledge, research, records, and in other words includes past human activities in unique society. history is closely related to the identity and purpose of life to be achieved, moreover many lessons from the history of the human past are taken for the present (pranoto, 2010). the development of technology in the era of the industrial revolution 4.0 is challenging for learning history in schools and universities. the principles of modernization in learning need to be possessed by teachers in creating meaningful learning for students (mulyasa, 2007). irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 363 in a simple term, learning history is defined as a system of teaching and learning history. widja (1991) states history learning is a combination of learning and teaching activities in which learning about past events is closely related to the present. furthermore, by learning history around us, we can grow historical awareness that creates a sense of love for the homeland and strengthens indonesia's identity as a great nation and a nation that will never forget its history (syahputra et al., 2020). it can be concluded that history subjects function as a means to develop an understanding of national identity which refers to good citizenship and fosters insight into relations between nations in the world such as social development and global community development. lectora inspire lectora inspire is conceptualized as an authorized tool software for e-learning content development developed by trivantis corporation. specifically, lectora is straightforward to be used in developing interactive learning multimedia (ilm) content. lectora is compatible with various learning management systems. in 2000, lectora was the first aicc certified authoring system on the market. this achievement demonstrates lectora is credible that it deserves acceptance in the e-learning industry. since 2000, trivantis released a version of lectora at the beginning of each year, which contains at least 50 new features (mas'ud, 2012). hence, lectora inspire is an application program that can be used to make presentations and learning media. the power of lectora inspire is "easy to use" very user friendly in making learning media and can make test or evaluation materials (shalikhah, 2016). lectora inspire provides templates used to include learning materials. there are also various images, animations, animated characters that can be directly used. lectora inspire application has proven to be effective and feasible to be used and applied to subjects, especially history. this is confirmed by the development of previous research using lectora inspire. the research done by syawaluddin et al. (2019) developed lectora inspire application-based learning media for social studies subjects. based on the validity of the experts, referring to the small, limited, and broad tests, the learning media are feasible to be used in the learning process for class v students of sdn 197 sapolohe, bontobahari district, bulukumba regency. a research done by shalikhah (2016) used this application as an interactive medium for teachers. through the lectora inspire application, a teacher will easily develop his/her own interactive learning media to be adapted in the environment, situation, and condition of the students. furthermore, there are also those who provide training related to lectora inspire development. in addition, the results of this training product in the form of the lectora learning media application can be used by teachers in supporting activities classroom learning. methodology research design, site, and participants this research used the rnd (research and development) method. the data were collected by doing interviews and distributing a questionnaire to the 35 eleventh grader irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 364 students on history subjects from one of the high schools in jambi. they were grouped into three groups consisting of individual, small, and large groups. development is the process of translating design specifications into physical forms (seels & richey, 1994). development research is an essential industrial development model used to design new products and procedures that are systematic, evaluative, and filtered and its specific criteria are found that are effective, qualified, or with similar standards (borg & gall, 1983). this study used the addie model instructional design. dick and carrey used this model in 1978; this model is also a reference for education and training program developers (muruganatham, 2015). this addie model stands for analysis, design, develop, implementation, and evaluation. in other words, addie model is a combination of all of them (molenda, 2015). suranto (2015) stated that the addie development design model is a model in which each phase is interconnected and dynamic. the results of the formative evaluation of each phase guide the next and the result of each period is the beginning of the next phase. figure 1. stages of development based on addie model (source: branch 2009) data collection and analysis in this development research, the types of data taken were qualitative data and quantitative data. qualitative data were obtained from a media expert validation questionnaire equipped with a suggestion and comment column. in contrast, quantitative data were obtained from the assessment scores given by experts and student responses to lectora inspire-based media development. this research was conducted at one of the high schools in jambi, jambi province. this research was conducted upon eleventh-grader school students on history subjects. students who are included in the test are those with different abilities. their skills are above average, average, and under the average. 35 students participated in this research. there were 3 students for a small individual group, 10 students irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 365 for a small group, and 22 students for a large group. to determine the classification of student responses, the percentage of eligibility is used with the formula: information: k= percentage eligibility, f= total number of respondents' answers, n= highest score in the questionnaire, i = number of questions in the questionnaire, r= number of respondents. with the interpretation of the score as follows: table 1. criteria for percentage of student response questionnaires (riduwan, 2013) no score qualification 1 1 0% 20% very deficient 2 2 21% 40% deficient 3 3 41% 60% enough 4 4 61% 80% good 5 5 81% 100% very good findings the results of the development of learning media based on lectora inspire present individual, small, and large trial groups. the trial results created a product in form of learning media which can attract students' attention. there were 35 students consisting of 3 students for the individual group, 10 students for a small group and 22 students for the large group. the individual trials were carried out of three students in class xi sma. students included in the trial were those who have different abilities, including the students who have abilities above average, average, and below average. small group trial data were obtained by providing a closed questionnaire containing 15 questions to the three students. in a closed questionnaire with alternative answers on a scale of numbers 1 to 5, the data from individual trials are as follows: table 2. rating scale for questionnaire no scale score(%) qualification 1 5 81-100 very easy / very understandable / very interesting / very precise 2 4 61-80 easy / understand / interesting / precise 3 3 41-60 easy enough / quite understanding / quite interesting / quite precise 4 2 21-40 not easy / don't understand / not interesting / not right 5 1 0-20 very not easy / very uncertain / very unattractive / very inaccurate the test was carried out in class xi and the test results are presented in the following table: irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 366 table 3. individual group trial no rated aspects respondent total score a b c 1 the presentation of the media development content presented made me interested in taking history lessons. 5 5 5 15 2 the combination of writing, animation, and background displayed in media development is good 4 5 4 13 3 the language used in media development is clear and easy for me to understand 5 5 4 14 4 the operating instructions in media development are easy for me to understand 5 4 5 14 5 the images and animations shown make it easier for me to understand the concepts of the japanese occupation in indonesia. 5 5 5 15 6 media development using appropriate font types and sizes 4 5 4 14 7 the composition (format) of writing on each page of lectora inspire-based media development is balanced 5 4 4 12 8 lectora inspire-based media development directs me to plan the steps in learning activities 5 4 4 12 9 lectora inspire-based media development directs me to organize or monitor every steps that i apply when studying 5 4 5 14 10 lectora inspire-based media development directs me to assess the appropriateness of the methods or formulas that i use when studying 5 5 5 15 11 lectora inspire-based media development helped me to produce lots of answers and have the right value in completing practice questions 4 5 4 12 12 lectora inspire-based media development helped me generate various kinds of ideas with different approaches to solve practice questions 5 5 4 14 13 lectora inspire-based media development helps me to give answers that are different from the others and are correct in solving practice questions 5 5 5 15 14 lectora inspire-based media development helps me develop, add and enrich an idea to clarify my answer 5 4 4 12 15 overall, i am interested in the development of learning media based on lectora inspire japanese occupation in indonesia 5 4 4 12 score (%) average 203 percentage 90,22% criteria very good remarks: respondent 1: students with abilities above average, respondent 2: students with average ability, and respondent 3: students with abilities below average based on the results of individual trials, the table shows that three students obtained good results. the aspects that were tested received a good response from the three students. based on the indicators, they obtained an average score of 90.22% or with outstanding criteria. even though it obtained an average score of 90.22% or it was adjusted to the aspect table of the rating scale of “it is very easy / very understandable / very interesting / very precise”, there are still some elements that need to be improved based on the comments and irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 367 opinions from the trial results. furthermore, after the pre-test and post-test were held, the results of the scores of the three students were obtained. table 4. data on the results of individual pre-test and post-test no name pre-test score mark post-test score info 1 ayp 72 b 80 a 2 af 60 c 75 b+ 3 br 58 d 68 c+ total 190 223 average 63,33 74,33 based on table 4, it shows the value of the results of individual trials and the level of understanding of the average students which obtained an average value of 63.33 and increased to 74.33. small group trials after conducting individual group trials, the next stage was small group trials. the total numbers were 10 students classified as those with above average, average, and below average abilities. the following is the result of the small group trial data. table 5. individual group trial result no assessment aspects respondents total a b c d e f g h i j 1 the multimedia display of the pageflip 3d learning presented made me interested in following the lesson. 5 5 5 5 4 5 5 4 5 5 48 2 the combination of writing, animation, and background that is displayed in multimedia is good. 4 5 4 4 5 5 5 4 5 5 46 3 multimedia learning makes it easy for me to understand the concepts of the japanese occupation in indonesia. 4 5 5 4 4 5 5 4 5 4 46 4 the multimedia display design made me interested in studying the japanese occupation of indonesia 5 4 5 4 5 4 5 5 5 5 47 5 the images and animations shown make it easier for me to understand the concepts of the japanese occupation in indonesia 5 5 5 4 5 4 5 5 4 4 46 6 the language used in multimedia is clear and easy for me to understand. 4 5 4 5 5 4 5 5 5 5 47 7 the operating instructions in multimedia learning are easy for me to understand. 4 4 5 4 5 4 4 5 5 5 45 8 the menus and buttons in multimedia can be used easily. 4 4 5 4 5 5 4 5 4 5 45 9 multimedia uses font type and size 5 4 5 4 5 5 5 4 5 5 47 10 corresponding. 5 5 5 5 4 5 5 4 5 5 48 11 this multimedia learning makes history learning not boring. 4 5 4 4 5 4 5 4 5 5 45 12 the arrangement (format) of writing on each multimedia page of 3d pageflip learning is balanced. 4 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 5 46 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 368 table 5. continuation 13 multimedia provides animation and video that are clear and easy to understand. 5 5 5 5 4 5 5 4 5 5 48 14 this learning multimedia makes me excited and enthusiastic about taking lessons from the japanese occupation in indonesia 4 4 5 4 5 4 5 5 4 4 44 15 this learning multimedia made me enthusiastic and challenged to work on practice questions about the japanese occupation in indonesia 4 4 5 4 5 5 5 5 5 4 46 total 698 percentage 93,06% category very good based on the results of the small group trial table 5 shown, it can be seen that 10 students showed good results. furthermore, after the pre-test and post-test were held, the results of the 10 students' scores were obtained, namely: table 6. data on the results of individual pre-test and post-test no name pre-test score mark post-test score mark 1 asg 100 a 100 a 2 av 48 e 60 c 3 bk 56 d 70 b 4 dh 32 e 80 a 5 esp 70 b 100 a 6 fia 49 e 70 b 7 hm 60 c 100 a 8 iap 60 c 70 b 9 jah 40 e 70 b 10 lca 40 e 70 b total 555 790 average 63,33 83,25 field trial / large group after conducting small group trials, the next stage is the field trials. the number of students who involved in this field trial was 22 people. the following data are the data from field trials on development. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 369 table 7. field trial results no name question item number total 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 1 lca 4 5 3 5 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 5 70 2 mr 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 5 5 5 4 5 4 71 3 nd 4 5 4 5 5 5 5 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 72 4 prl 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 5 5 5 4 5 4 71 5 rf 4 5 3 4 4 5 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 73 6 spl 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 5 5 4 5 5 5 4 4 70 7 tr 4 5 5 4 4 5 5 4 5 5 4 5 4 5 5 69 8 tas 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 5 5 5 4 5 4 71 9 va 5 4 5 5 4 5 5 4 4 5 4 5 5 5 5 70 10 asp 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 5 5 5 4 5 4 71 11 apk 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 5 5 5 4 5 4 71 12 afa 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 5 5 5 4 5 4 71 13 sae 5 5 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 5 5 5 72 14 rtw 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 5 4 5 5 4 4 4 4 68 15 ds 5 5 5 4 4 5 5 4 3 5 5 4 5 5 5 69 16 bn 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 5 5 5 4 5 4 71 17 mn 5 5 5 4 5 5 5 4 5 5 5 4 5 5 5 72 18 jk 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 5 5 5 4 5 4 71 19 jhy 5 5 4 4 5 4 5 4 5 4 5 4 5 5 5 69 20 yui 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 5 5 4 5 5 5 70 21 kli 4 4 5 4 5 4 5 4 5 4 5 4 5 5 5 68 22 sdd 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 5 5 5 73 total 1,580 percentage 95,75% category very good irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 370 based on the results of large group trials in table 7, it can be seen that 22 students obtained good results. the aspects that were tested received an excellent response from 22 students based on the indicators obtained an average score of 95.75% or with excellent criteria. furthermore, after the pre-test and post-test were held, the results obtained from the 22 students were: table 8. data on the results of individual pre-test and post-test no name pre-test score mark post-test score info 1 lca 100 a 100 a 2 mr 48 e 60 c 3 nd 56 d 70 b 4 prl 32 e 80 a 5 rf 70 b 100 a 6 spl 49 e 70 b 7 tr 60 c 100 a 8 tas 60 c 70 b 9 va 40 e 70 b 10 asp 40 e 70 b 11 apk 100 a 100 a 12 afa 48 e 60 c 13 sae 56 d 70 b 14 rtw 32 e 80 a 15 ds 70 b 100 a 16 bn 49 e 70 b 17 mn 60 c 100 a 18 jk 60 c 70 b 19 jhy 40 e 70 b 20 yui 40 e 70 b 21 kli 70 b 100 a 22 sdd 49 e 70 b total 729 1750 average 81,23 98,99 based on table 8, it shows the value of the results of small group trials, and it obtained data that the average level of understanding of students increased, ranging from an average of 81.23 which increased to 98.99. discussion this research aimed to develop lectora inspire app for history learning in high schools. at the analysis stage, needs analysis, student characteristic analysis, material analysis, objective analysis, and educational technology analysis were carried out. the design stage was carried out by making a flowchart and storyboard. the development stage was carried out by product development and assessed by a team of experts (media and material) and teacher assessments. the implementation stage was carried out in large and small group trials. the evaluation stage was carried out at each stage of the addie process. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 371 the use of addie’s model was described by muruganatham (2015), who developed an e-content package that was proven to create independent learning. the e-content package is analyzed involving five phases of the addie model. mastrianto et al. (2020) developed a digital e-book of the struggles of the lampung people which was proven to increase social solidarity, the e-book developed also used the five stages of the addie model and the development of afwan et al. (2020) who also developed a digital e-book about the struggle of the people of lampung in kalianda to improve students' historical empathy, as evidenced by the effectiveness of the digital flipbook learning media showing the t-test results of student learning outcomes and the t-test of historical empathy questionnaires with a significance value of 0.000 <0.05 where if the sig value is less than 0.05, it means that the data were significant. these results indicated that there was a significant effect of using historical learning media for the digital flipbook material of the 5 hours battle of kalianda on historical empathy. returning to the previous discussion, the data analysis of individual group trials' results got a good response from students with an average score of 90.22% or with perfect criteria. the results of the pre-test and post-test in the individual group trial showed that the average results of students had increased, where they initially obtained an average score from 63.33 to 74.33. the next stage was the small group trial; the small group trial showed good results from 10 students with an average of 93.06 or very good. the results of the pre-test and post-test showed that the results increased significantly, ranging from the initial results of 63.33 to 83.25. there were 22 students who participated in the large group or field trials. the results of large group trials or in the field showed outstanding response results by obtaining an average score of 95.75 or excellent criteria. based on the description above, it can be concluded that the use of lectora inspire for history learning was effective enough. as syaifuddin (2019) explaind that the results of the effectiveness of learning media using lectora inspire were known to use the test formula by identifying the relationship between the control class and the experimental class. additionally, munfaida (2019) believes that the development of lectora inspire is an excellent score category overall in historical materials. a lectora inspire-based development varied and is customized as possible as has been developed by pertiwi (2018), that leads this lectora-based learning media named "lentera history" and validated by media and material validators by obtaining good results. the results of the pre-test and post-test also increased from 61% to 81%. lectora inspire also has a broader impact that can improve learning in an institution, one of which is research done by shalikhah et al. (2017), which developed lectora inspire to improve learning in mim jagalan and mim jumoyo, salam district, magelang district. it can be concluded that the increases from the research results above become a reference that this lectora inspire-based learning media may be useful for use in learning activities, especially on historical subjects. moreover, wahyuni et al. (2020) developed an interactive module using lectora inspire 18 in the history of islamic culture at man 2 tanah datar. moreover, munfaida and hermanto (2019) developed an interactive multimediaon historical narrative text based on lectora inspire students in primary school. furthermore, lectora inspire is proved effective to be developed as a learning media. in previous research, wibawa et al. (2017) showed that the percentage of the average student irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|dec|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 372 response against lectora media inspire was 85.9%. the percentage of student learning results expressed the satisfaction with the presentation of graduation of 84.375%. it can be inferred that lectora inspire obtains good results and the media can be said to be effective as a learning tool to supporting study students. syaifudin (2019) explained that the results of the effectiveness of learning media using lectora inspire were known to use the t-test formula by looking for the relationship between the control and experimental class. of the ten respondents, it is found decent results and it can increase learning motivation. in conclusion, all of the previous studies above prove that thed media are valid and feasible for history learning both in terms of expert validation and from limited trials. conclusion this development research results indicated that the lectora inspire-based learning media for history learning in high school students is proven valid based on the assessment of media and material experts. based on the results of small group trials, limited group trials, and large group trials, it showed that the use of lectora inspire for history learning was effective enough for history learning in high school. moreover, learning is very dependent on the methods and media used. at present, the use of technology is an inseparable part of learning history. the use of learning media is a creative effort to provide something different to students. a large number of learning media makes educators choose what media to use in learning freely. somehow, it should be noted that in its application, educators must also develop themselves to adapt to technological developments. it is suggested that this research can actually be developed further. the limitations of the research presented here are the limitations of the research subjects which are still relatively small and can still be improved. we hope that this development can inspire and be useful for teachers in presenting interesting history lessons. disclosure statement the author declares no conflict of interest in the design of the research, in the collection, analysis, or interpretation of data, in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results. acknowledgement we would like to acknowledge the indonesian research journal in education (irje) for providing the researcher opportunity to internationally publish academic and scholarly works. references aect. 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(2020).developing lectora inspire-based learning media on social science subjects. harmoni sosial: jurnal pendidikan ips, 7(1), 45-53. wahyuni, n., adripen, a., & herawati, s. (2020). pengembangan modul interaktif dengan menggunakan lectora inspire 18 pada mata pelajaran sejarah kebudayaan islam di man 2 tanah datar. at-tarbiyah: jurnal pendidikan islam, 1(1), 25-34. wibawa, s. c. (2017). the design and implementation of an educational multimedia interactive operation system using lectora inspire. elinvo (electronics, informatics, and vocational education), 2(1), 74-79. widja, i. g. (1991) sejarah lokal suatu perspektif dalam pengajaran sejarah. bandung: angkasa. biographical note budi purnomo is an associate professor, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, indonesia; budipurnomo@unja.ac.id mailto:budipurnomo@unja.ac.id this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 63 learning direct and inverse proportion using pen and money for slow-leaners kartika dyah wardani 1 and rully charitas indra prahmana 2 abstract students who have slow mathematical cognitive abilities or slow learners usually have difficulties understanding an abstract mathematical concept. one alternative learning that can improve the mathematical understanding of slow learners is the indonesian realistic mathematics education (irme) approach. therefore, this research aimed to determine the learning process and the role of irme to improve the cognitive mathematics ability of slow learners about the concept of direct and inverse proportion. this research used a single subject research method with the study subjects of the 7th-grade slow learners at one private junior high school. the research data were collected in audio and video recordings, photographs, and student worksheets. data were analyzed by using in and between conditions with the a-b research design. the results showed that the irme approach improves the mathematical understanding of slow learners in direct and inverse proportion concepts. lastly, this research can contribute as alternative solutions to answer the gap in effective learning for slow learner students. keywords direct and inverse proportion, irme, pen and money context, single-subject research, slow learner students 1. faculty of teacher training and education, universitas ahmad dahlan, yogyakarta, indonesia; kartikadyahwardani@gmail.com 2. faculty of teacher training and education, universitas ahmad dahlan, yogyakarta, indonesia; rully.indra@mpmat.uad.ac.id mailto:kartikadyahwardani@gmail.com mailto:rully.indra@mpmat.uad.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 64 introduction one of the lessons, which is usually difficult for students to understand, is mathematics with abstract materials (rofiah & rofiana, 2017; vasudevan, 2017). this occurred because students think in specific terms, have a limited attention span, and have a negative attitude toward school, especially in a formal or traditional learning system (martin & martin, 1965; muppudathi, 2014; vasudevan, 2017; warnemuende, 2008). at schools in indonesia, teachers usually teach with one learning style, conventionally, and do not understand that each student is unique and has different characteristics, so learning must be a characteristic of every student being taught (dina, mawarsari, & suprapto, 2015; hadi & kasum, 2015). thus, to improve the cognitive ability of slow learner students, especially in mathematics lessons, teachers need to understand these students and provide learning with the characteristics and uniqueness of those who are easier to understand concrete and more interested in unconventional learning. previous research on slow learners was conducted by rofiah and rofiana (2017), with the findings showed that quiet learner students need additional time and assignments in learning mathematics. furthermore, hasibuan et al.’s (2020) research regarding identifying the learning process for slow learners in one of jakarta schools found that the learning process is currently equated with students. in general, it is adjusted to the characteristics of the students. on the other hand, wanabuliandari and puwaningrum (2018) found that using local wisdom-based modules could improve students’ understanding of slow learners in understanding mathematics material. of the three studies, no research has answered the learning difficulties of slow learner students in understanding abstract mathematics material. therefore, we need a learning design that can answer this gap that previous researchers have not found, and this research tries to answer this gap. based on the characteristics that are easy to consider concrete things and interest with unconventionally learning, so to improve the mathematics ability cognitive of slow learner students’ needs a learning approach that can connect abstract mathematics with realistic and concrete things that are around students (brennan, 2018; chauhan, 2011; fany, 2018; walker, 1951). one approach that can be used is indonesian realistic mathematics education (pmri) or in english (irme), which uses a concrete context derived from the culture and daily lives of students (jannah & prahmana, 2019; karaca & özkaya, 2017; risdiyanti, prahmana, & shahrill, 2019). irme was adapted from realistics mathematics education (rme) developed by freudhental in the netherlands (gravemeijer, 2008. prahmana et al., 2012); irme has been adapted to the life and culture of the indonesia people (zulkardi, 2002; zulkardi et al., 2020). therefore, this irme approach is suitable for improving the cognitive mathematics abilities of slow learner students in indonesia. at one of the private 7th-grade junior high school-based students, one student had difficulty understanding mathematics in class, and the average midterm scores were low. at school, the learning model used is conventional learning. it makes students feel less interested in participating in learning and understanding the material presented by teachers. students tend to be passive when the teacher presents the material in front of the class. one mathematics concept that is difficult for children to understand is direct and inverse irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 65 proportion. students’ misconceptions in understanding direct and inverse proportion usually because they have difficulties which uses direct proportion and which uses inverse proportion. this is also often caused by teachers not giving concrete examples that are close to students’ daily lives, so that makes students difficult to imagine the concept and difficult to understand. in line with these problems, irme can be an approach that can be used to improve slow learner students’ cognitive abilities in understanding direct and inverse proportions. one context that can be used to understand students’ slow to the concept of direct and inverse proportion is pen and money. this context was chosen because it is close and easy to find around students, pen and money are also concrete objects, so it’s in accordance with the characteristics of slow learner students who tend to easily understand something concrete. the research of wanabuliandari and puwaningrum (2018) proves that the use of the local wisdom context of the gusjigang kudus can improve the mathematics abilities of slow learner students. furthermore, the research of musyani and nurhastuti (2019) shows that a realistic approach can improve children who have learning difficulties, including slow learner students. therefore, this study aims to design learning based on the irme approach using the context of pen and money to find out. the research question of this study is how the role and learning process and the role of irme in improving slow learner students’ mathematical cognitive abilities regarding the concept of direct and inverse proportion. so far, previous studies have only identified the mathematics learning process of slow learner students, the use of local wisdom-based modules for slow learner students, and discussion of the irme approach in general in overcoming mathematics learning difficulties. no one has specifically developed a learning design using everyday contexts to improve the cognitive understanding of slow learner students and make it easier for students to learn abstract material. so far, most teachers also teach mathematics conventionally, and like students in general, they are only given additional study hours and assignments. thus, this study seeks to answer this gap. it is hoped that this research can contribute to new scientific references for mathematics education regarding effective learning designs for slow learner students and indonesian knowledge treasures. literature review slow learner students slow learner students have low or below normal cognitive abilities but do not include mental retardation (khabibah, 2017; larrivee & horne, 1991). these students are not considered children with special needs. it is just that they have problems with interest in the education system in schools and tend to easily understand things that are concrete and close to students’ daily lives (borah, 2013; muppudathi, 2014; ramlakshmi, 2013). slow learner students have characteristics, such as first, slow learner are recurrently immature in their relations with others and do poorly in school; second, they cannot do multifaceted or complex problems and work very slowly; third, they lose track of time and cannot convey what they have learned from one task to another well; fourth, they do not easily master skills that are academic in nature, such as the time tables or spelling rules; fifth, perhaps the most irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 66 exasperating trait is their inability to have long-term goals, they live in the present, and so have considerable problems with time management perhaps due to a short attention span and poor concentration skills (borah, 2013). indonesian realistic mathematics education (irme) indonesian realistic mathematics education (irme) is a mathematics approach in indonesia that adopts realistics mathematics education (rme) initiated by hans freudenthal, a mathematics expert from the netherlands (hadi, 2017). irme is a meaningful learning process carried out in a context and can be imagined by students (wijaya, 2012). realistic mathematics education in indonesia does not always have to use real-world problems. the most important thing is that abstract mathematics can be made real in students' minds (hadi, 2002). in line with this, students are allowed to develop knowledge of abstract mathematical concepts into things that can be imagined (zulkardi, 2002). thus, irme is a meaningful learning approach that can improve conceptual understanding by using a context and real things that students can imagine. irme has five characteristics. first, use of contexts for phenomenologist exploration. context or realistic problems are used to learn mathematics: context and teaching materials related to the school environment and students. context does not have to be a real-world problem but can be in games, props, or other situations as long as it is meaningful and can be imagined in students' minds. using context, students are actively involved in exploring problems; second, use of models for mathematical concept construction (use of models for progressive mathematics). a model is a vertical tool in mathematics that cannot be separated from the mathematical process. in general, there are two models in realistic mathematics education, namely the mode of and mode for; third, use of student creations and contributions. students should think actively and have the freedom to develop problem-solving strategies to understand mathematical concepts and students’ creativity in learning mathematics; fourth, student activity and interactivity on the learning process. the student learning process will be more fun if students communicate their ideas to each other. the use of interactions in mathematics learning is beneficial in developing students' cognitive and affective abilities simultaneously. the teacher is active in designing teaching materials and classroom activities; fifth, intertwining mathematics concepts, aspects, and units. mathematics learning cannot be separated from the linkages of other learning materials, so that the concept of mathematics must be considered in the learning process (gravameijer, 1999; sembiring, 2010; zulkardi, 2002). methodology research design, site, and participants this study uses the single subject research (ssr) method, which is an experimental research method to see and evaluate a certain intervention on the behavior of a single subject with research that is carried out repeatedly in a certain time (harrera & kratochwill, 2005; kazdin & tuma, 1982; neuman & mccormick, 1995; prahmana, 2021; sunanto et al., 2005). this ssr method aims to clearly explain the effect of an intervention that is given repeatedly irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 67 in a certain time (neuman & mccormick, 1995). this method has the characteristic of using a single subject; this allows researchers to see the effect of an intervention or treatment given to a single subject which is difficult to see in group subjects (prahmana, 2021). this ssr method was chosen because it is effective for single-subject research and is in line with the research objectives, namely to see the effect of an intervention in learning using a pen and money context regarding the direct and inverse proportion material with the pmri approach. this research uses the a-b design, the first condition was called baseline (a), and the second condition was called intervention (b). in the baseline (a) condition, the subjects were assessed at several sessions until they appeared stable without intervention after baseline (a) condition then stabilized with intervention (b) condition applied within a certain period of the time until the data was stable (fraenkel, wallen, & hyun, 2009; james, 2016). this design research has no repeated measurement where the baseline phase (a) and the intervention phase (b) occurs. each is done only once for the same subject. this design cannot be concluded that changes in target behavior are caused solely by independent variables (intervention). this research was conducted during seven sessions with a single subject of class 7th-grade slow learner students. in the baseline phase, there are have three sessions (1 session per day for 45 minutes) to see the initial ability of the subject before being treated on direct and inverse proportion learning material. then, the intervention phase was conducted for four sessions (1 session per day for 90 minutes). this phase is given treatment by applying the irme approach to direct and inverse learning material then proceeded to test the subject’s ability test after being given treatment. the behavior measured in this study is only a level of mathematical understanding or only one behavior. this study uses the pen and money context by implementing an irme approach to determine the role of context in introducing the concept of direct and inverse proportion for a slow learner student. the researcher designed the learning process that was conducted during seven sessions, with the baseline phase is three sessions, and after that intervention phase is four sessions, starting from using the context of pens and money to the implementation of the concept of direct and inverse proportion to solve some daily problems. furthermore, researchers used the ssr method to describe the development of slow learner students in direct and inverse proportion learning. the subject of this research is one of the 7th-grade slow learner students at muhammadiyah 2 depok junior high school, yogyakarta, indonesia. students have a difficult understanding of the direct and inverse proportion concept. based on the results of observation in this class of students tend to be passive and difficult to accept the explanation given by the teacher, midterm scores are relatively low, and the iq test results depend on a score of 90 or at the low categories. data collection and analysis this research was conducted in seven meetings in the even semester of the academic year 2019/2020 at muhammadiyah 2 depok junior high school, indonesia. the first three meetings are the baseline phase in which the researcher gives several problems related to the concept of direct and inverse proportion that students must resolve. in each meeting, the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 68 researcher explains how the question must be solved without helping how to solve it. the results of this phase are used as a basis for researchers in designing learning activities that are implemented in the next four phases, which is the intervention phase. in the intervention phase, researchers implement learning activities that have been designed using the irme approach and using the context of pen and money. at the end of the learning process at each meeting, the researcher provides an evaluation problem that must be solved by students. the results of this evaluation are used as a basis for the process of developing students’ understanding of the concept of direct and inverse proportion. in this study, the dependent variable is an understanding of direct and inverse proportion and student learning outcomes, while the independent variable is the irme approach using the context of pen and money. research data were collected with audio, photo and video documentation, and written documentation each phase that its baseline phase and intervention phase to see how the effect of an intervention that implemented to slow learner student (fraenkel, wallen, & hyun, 2009; neuman & mccormick, 1995). the instrument used was based on data collection techniques, namely videos and photos of the learning process of a slow learner student to analyze how the effective intervention, and also student exam sheets to validate the slow learner student’s understanding of direct and inverse proportion. the video is used to describe the learning activities at the intervention stage and when students work on the questions given by the researcher. photos are used to document the ongoing learning process, and the results of students’ written tests are the basic material for conducting analysis and also as evidence in conducting research. students’ written test sheets contain answers to completing questions given by researchers, with each item validated by the lecturer as a validator. the validation process begins by creating a question form that contains indicators of direct and inverse proportion understanding to slow learner student by researchers. each question is created and developed based on the textbooks used at school and indicators designed by researchers. furthermore, the questions that have been made are validated by the lecturer qualitatively related to the content and contents of the questions. this instrument is used to see the effects that have occurred after the study was conducted. the data in this research were analyzed using analysis in conditions and between condition (creswell, 2007; tankersley, harjusola-webb, & landrum, 2008) with 6 phase of analysis that is first, the length of condition, which stated the number of sessions or meetings conducted during the study in the baseline or intervention phase; second, the tendency of direction to see the description of the behavior of the subjects; third, the stability tendency is used to see the stability of each phase, in this research the stability tendency is used by 10% if the data is clustered at the top and 15% if the data is clustered at middle or bottom; fourth, trace data or trace tendencies, in each measurement condition used to see whether the data can be said to decrease (-), up (+) or flat (=); fifth, the level of stability and range see the range of data groups in baseline conditions and intervention conditions; sixth, the level change that indicates the number of data changes in a condition. analysis between conditions is the same as analysis in conditions; both discuss the same thing (horner et al., 2005; freankel, wallen, & hyun, 2009). analysis between conditions has five principles, first, the number of variables changes that are the number of variables approved in the research; second, the direct tendency and the influence can take irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 69 data on in condition analysis, changes in both conditions can have a good effect marked by a positive sign and can have a bad effect marked by a negative sign; third, the change in the stability tendency from baseline to intervention is to see changes in post-intervention conditions based on in condition analysis; forth, level changes are used to see the changes that occur based on the point difference, the data is the data of the last session baseline conditions and the first session data on the intervention conditions then the difference between the two is calculated, a positive sign (+) indicates improvement and a negative sign (-) indicates worsening; and fifth, the percentage of overlap done by look again at the upper and lower limits of the baseline phase and calculate the number of data points in the intervention phase, which is in the range of baseline phase, if the percentage of overlap is getting smaller than the effect of the intervention on target behavior is also getting smaller (freankel, wallen, & hyun, 2009; sunanto et al., 2005). findings researchers conducted a test at the baseline phase (conditions before intervention). the baseline phase (conditions after intervention) on slow learner students determines how the intervention’s effects are given to slow learner students. this is to see whether there is an increase in direct and inverse proportion after learning using the pen and money context and using the irme approach. the results showed that the pretest score was greater than the posttest score, meaning that the students better understood the concept of direct and inverse proportion after being given intervention in the form of learning using the pen and money context and using the irme approach from before the intervention was given or it meant that there was an increase in students’ cognitive understanding of the concept of direct and the inverse proportion after being given learning using the pen and money context and the irme approach. the results of the comparison of the tests in the baseline phase and the intervention phase can be seen in table 1. table 1. subject evaluation results phase date score baseline 13 january 2020 17 january 2020 20 january 2020 20 22 20 intervention 27 january 2020 31 january 2020 3 february 2020 7 february 2020 70 68 72 74 table 1 shows the score obtained by the subject in completing a matter of evaluating the comparative material worth and reversing value. it appears that in the initial conditions irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 70 before the treatment or baseline phase, the scores obtained are very low. the scores obtained in the first session until the third session are 20, 22, and 20, while in the intervention phase or after being treated, the subject’s score has increased. scores obtained by subjects in the fourth session to the seventh session are 70, 68, 72, and 74. the results obtained by the subjects can be seen in the graph in figure 1. figure 1. the data analysis of visual baseline and intervention baseline phase giving the baseline phase was done for three days. in the baseline phase, the researcher evaluated direct and inverse proportion learning material without any treatment. in the first session, the researcher instructed the subject to complete the evaluation questions, but the subject seemed doubtful about the problems. then the researcher directed the evaluation questions, and the subject starts working. the value obtained by the subject is very low because the subject does not understand the material of test as shown in figure 2. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 71 figure 2. results of results work in the baseline phase 1 indonesian version english version then in session 2, the researcher instructed the subject to work on an evaluation problem test. but the subject did not understand the concept of inverse proportion. the subject was only able to rewrite what was known and asked in the evaluation problem, shown in figure 3. figure 3. results of results work in the baseline phase 2 indonesian version english version 1. a rabbit breeder provides 12 kg of supplement foods for 25 rabbits for 4 days. if only 9 kg of supplement foods are available, then the supplement food will run out in … answer: 12 kg = 4 days 9 kg = ….. 9 + 4 = 13 days 3. a pack of chocolates will be divided among 24 children; each child gets 8 chocolates. if the chocolate is distributed among 16 children, then the amount of chocolate that each child gets is … answer: 24 = 8 chocolates 16 children = …. 16 + 8 = 24 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 72 in session three, the researcher re-instructed the students to work on the evaluation questions direct and inverse proportion concept. in the combined evaluation problem between direct and inverse proportion, students cannot distinguish the direct proportion and the inverse proportion—shown in figure 4. figure 4. results of results work in the baseline phase 3 indonesian version english version intervention phase giving the intervention phase was done for four days. the intervention given was in the form of irme approach in learning with direct and inverse proportion. the context used for the direct proportion learning is to buy a pen, and the context used for the inverse proportion learning is to distribute pens, as shown in figure 5. correspondingly, the use of 1. a work can be completed by 8 people in 20 days. if, it is assumed that the speed of each worker is the same, then 5 workers can complete the work in ... answer: 8 people = 20 days 5 people = …. 5 + 20 = 25 days 3. to make 12 pans of jelly, we need 8 packets of jelly flour. mrs. mirna wants to make 15 pans of jelly. a lot of jelly flour that is needed is … sachets. answer: 12 pans of jelly = 8 sachets 15 pans of jelly = …. 12 x 8 = 96 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 73 context influences the student responses when the context used has been experienced by students themselves that can give correct answers based on what is happening in their daily lives (utari et al., 2015). figure 5. use of the irme approach using the context of money and pen using a pen and money as a mathematical model aims to help students move from concrete to abstract mathematical comprehension. then the researcher asks the student’s responsibility to give another example of the direct proportion understanding. after understanding the concept of the direct proportion, the researcher gives a little explanation to work on the direct proportion problem, as shown in figure 6. figure 6. discussion about direct proportion irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 74 next, the researcher instructs the students to work on the direct proportion evaluation test sheets prepared. in the first session, students can understand the concept of direct proportion well, but students still have difficulty with the concept of division. it can be seen in figure 7. figure 7. student work results in the intervention phase 1 indonesian version english version in the second session, researchers used the concept of dividing a pen to stimulate students to understand the concept of direct proportion. the researcher instructed students to distribute 6 pens to two people with the same amount as figure 8. figure 8. student work results in the intervention phase 1 3. to make 60 pairs of clothes, a tailor takes 18 days. if the tailor works for 24 days, how many pairs of clothes can he makes … answer: = 60 clothes = 18 days = p = 24 days = (60/p) x (18/24) = 60 x 24 = 1.440 1.440 : 18 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 75 then the researcher gives an evaluation test sheet to test how students understand the inverse proportion concept. with the results obtained, students can understand the concept of the inverse proportion, shown in figure 9. figure 9. student work results in the intervention phase 2 indonesian version english version furthermore, giving the last intervention phase, the fourth phase, the researcher instructs students to work on direct and inverse proportion evaluation again. the researcher asks students to give more attention for the order of the questions so that there is no error when answering questions so that the results obtained by students are good enough as shown in figure 10. figure 10. student work results in the intervention phase 3 indonesian version english version 1. a dirty room takes 15 minutes if cleaned by 6 people. if the room is only cleaned by 3 people, how much time will it takes … answer: = 15 minutes = 6 people p = 3 people = 15 x 6 : 3 = 90 : 3 = 30 2. in the pet shop, there are 120 cats that are ready to sell. these cats can eat all food for 250 days. if the cat in the pet shop sells 20 cats, then how many days will the cat food run out ... answer: = 120 cats = 250 days 20 cats = p 120 x 250 = 30.000 30.000 : 20 = 1.500 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 76 the results obtained in the intervention phase showed an understanding of the concept of direct and inverse proportion after being treated in the form of the irme approach. previous research could improve understanding of mathematical concepts direct proportion using a realistic mathematical approach (hamidah, putri, & somakim, 2017). furthermore, the data obtained were analyzed within and between conditions, as follows: in condition analysis length of conditions, figure 1 shows a graph of student learning outcomes using a-b design. code a states the baseline phase, and code b states the intervention phase. the length of the session for the baseline phase is three sessions, and the length of the intervention phase is four sessions. direction tendency, figure 11 shows the tendency of direction obtained by the intersection of vertical lines dividing equal parts in each phase with the graph (split middle). the direction tendency is based on the median data point of the ordinate value with each session meeting as the ordinate or dividing into two parts of all sessions in each condition with a vertical line (first line) (sunanto et al., 2005). this section is also divided into two parts by one vertical line (second and third lines). the second and third vertical lines intersect the line graph from the intersection drawn lines connecting them both to obtain the direction of the line. figure 11. estimated direction tendency toward subject irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 77 stability tendency, the stability criteria use a 15-stability tendency in the baseline phase of the intervention phase because the data are clustered at the bottom. figure 12 shows that the baseline phase data points are three data points in the upper limit (red) and low limit (purple). the calculation result in the baseline phase is 100%. the data is declared stable. there are four data points in the intervention phase in the upper limit (red) and lower (purple). the result of the calculation in the intervention phase is 100%, then the data are declared stable. figure 12. estimated stability tendency toward subject trace tendency, both phases show a horizontal tendency due to changes that improve but are less visible. level stability, the calculation of the level of stability and can be seen in the calculation of the stability tendency. the baseline data phase is stable with a range of 20-22, and the intervention phase of the data is stable with a range of 69-74. level change, a difference of 0 is obtained at the baseline phase, which means no change occurred, and an irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 78 intervention phase of difference 4 is obtained, indicating that the change has improved. all components that have been calculated are summarized in table 2. table 2. visual analysis results in conditions no condition a b 1. length of conditions 3 4 2. direction tendency 3. stability tendency stabil (100%) stabil (100%) 4. trace tendency 5. stability level stabil 20-22 stabil 68-74 6. change level 20-22 (0) 74-70 (+4) between condition analysis in this study, an inter-condition analysis was done by comparing the intervention phase (b) and the baseline phase (a), which is 2:1, which means that the code for the baseline phase is code 1 and the intervention phase is code 2 (sunanto et al., 2005). number of variables, the variable that is changed is the slow student’s understanding of the direct and inverse proportion. in table 3, the number 1 is written, which means that only one variable has been changed. change in direction tendency, changes in the direction of the tendency in the analysis between conditions can be determined by taking data from the analysis of conditions. writing changes in the direction of the same direction as the analysis in conditions, both of which have a good effect (+). change in stability tendency, changes in stability trends in the analysis between conditions can be determined by looking at the data on the stability of the analysis stability under conditions. in this study, the changes that occur from the baseline phase to the intervention phase are stable to stable. level change, the final session point data for the baseline phase is 20, and the first session point data for the intervention phase is 70. then the two data are calculated differently to get 50 for a comparison of condition b: a. the (+) sign means an increase from the previous data. percentage of overlap, determination of overlap data in the baseline phase comparison and intervention is by (1) looking back at the upper and lower limits of the baseline and intervention phases, 22.32 and 19.02, (2) calculate many data points in the intervention phase (b) in the baseline phase (a) range, which is 0., (3) the overlap percentage is 0%; the smaller the percentage of overlap means the better the effect of the intervention on target behavior. all components of data analysis between conditions can be summarized as in table 3. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 79 table 3. summary of visual analysis results between conditions no comparison of condition b: a (2:1) 1. the number of variables changed. 1 2. change in direction tendency and the influence (=) (=) 3. change in stability tendency stable to stable 4. level change (20-70) (+) 50 5. percentage of overlap 0% from the two data analysts, namely deep analysis and analysis between conditions, it can be concluded that the research data obtained is valid and stable data, there is no overlapping or overlapping data, and no data is influenced by other factors or variables outside the research variables. thus, these data can be used as a basis for concluding the effects of the intervention given in the form of implementing direct and inverse proportion learning with the irme approach. when viewed from the posttest value, which is greater than the pretest score, and from the review of photos, videos during the learning process and from the results of student evaluations, it can be concluded that the effect of the intervention has a positive effect or there is an increase in cognitive understanding of slow learner students in understanding the material—direct and inverse proportion. discussion the result has a beneficial effect or improved insight of understanding the principle of direct and inverse proportion after students were given involvement in learning using a pen and money sense with the irme approach. thus, the irme approach can improve student learning in understanding the direct and inverse proportion. following previous researchers, the use of indonesian realistic mathematics education (irme) has helped students understand the concept of direct and inverse proportion (izzabella, 2017; muttaqin & putri, 2017; nofriati, hartono, & somakin, 2020). in a realistic mathematics education approach, the appropriateness of selecting a context is when the context can serve as a starting point for the reinvention of mathematical concepts by students and when the context can bridge students’ informal knowledge with students’ formal knowledge (gravemeijer & doorman, 1999; dorman, 2001; gravemeijer, 1999). contexts should be chosen that students easily recognize, using simple and clear language to provide maximum support for developing mathematical concepts (hadi, 2002; van den heuvel-panhuizen, 1998). in this study, the context of pen and money familiar to students and close to everyday life can act as a starting point for students to rediscover the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 80 concept of direct and inverse proportion and bridge students’ informal knowledge with students’ informal formal knowledge. it can be seen from student worksheets and student evaluation results when students can complete the direct and inverse proportion questions, which are already formal. pen and money are only one of the many contexts that can be used to understand slow learner students about the concept of direct and inverse proportion. each slow learner student has general characteristics and has different special characters (borah, 2013; williamson & field, 2014). so, the teacher or the next researcher needs to carry out a wider exploration of other effective contexts to be used in understanding slow learner students regarding the concept of direct and inverse proportion. in the answers to the results of the student evaluations, it can also be seen that students can abstract the direct and inverse proportion concept and solve problems in everyday life. this study proved that learning with the irme approach positively affected the mathematical literacy skills of representation and problem-solving in everyday life around students. to encourage these abilities, yuanita, zulnaidi, and zakaria (2018) state that in addition to adjusting the learning method with the irme approach, teachers also need to provide meaningful experiences solving problems they face in everyday life dealing with contextual problems. this will certainly be very easy for students because understanding the concept has been bridged by a real context and exists in students’ daily lives. from several positive effects, it can be seen that after the intervention is given to slow learner students, it can be concluded that irme in the context of pen and money is effectively implemented for slow learner students to improve their cognitive abilities regarding direct and inverse proportion material. this research has a position and contribution to provide solutions or references that can answer gaps in previous research. it is hoped that the results of this study can contribute to references about new science regarding effective learning for students who are slow to learn mathematics and can also contribute to the world of science and education in indonesia. conclusions the intervention in providing learning about direct and inverse proportion with the context of pen and money and the irme approach positively affects slow learner students or an increase in students’ cognitive understanding. the ability to slow learner students’ mathematical understanding before being treated is shown on an average score of 20.67 based on a scale of 100. furthermore, it is treated in the form of an indonesian realistic mathematics education approach with the context of money and pens that show an average score of 71. therefore, these research results can contribute as alternative solutions to answer the gap in effective learning for slow learner students. disclosure statement this research is an original work and does not contain questions that defame or violate the rights or violate the rights or privacy of others, or contain material or instructions that could cause harm or injury. the authors state there are no conflicts of interest regarding this research, authorship and publication of this article. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 81 acknowledgments we would like to thank universitas ahmad dahlan for providing facilities and opportunities to develop this research to completion, especially to dr. andriyani, m.si., and fariz setyawan, m.pd., as the validator for our research instruments and also uswatun khasanah, s.si., m.sc., as the head of mathematics education department who support this research to completion. then, we thank smp muhammadiyah 2 depok and their teacher for allowing us to carry out the research. references borah, r. r. 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(2018). the effectiveness of realistic mathematics education approach: the role of mathematical representation as mediator between mathematical belief and problem solving. plos one, 13(9), e0204847. zulkardi, putri, r. i. i., & wijaya, a. (2020). two decades of realistic mathematics education in indonesia. in international reflections on the netherlands didactics of mathematics (pp. 325-340). cham: springer. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 84 zulkardi. (2002). developing a learning environment on realistic mathematics education for indonesian student teachers. enschede: university of twente. biographical notes kartika dyah wardani, s.pd., is a fresh graduate with cum laude predicate from the mathematics education departement, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas ahmad dahlan, yogyakarta, indonesia dr. rully charitas indra prahmana is associate professor in mathematics education, faculty teacher training and education, universitas ahmad dahlan, yogyakarta, indonesia this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 28 analyzing the effect of need for achievement and locus of control on student entrepreneurial intentions ekawarna, 1 yusdi anra, 2 qurotta ayun, 3 seri romios, 4 and tarnak 5 abstract this study aimed to analyze the student entrepreneurial intentions model based on their psychological characteristics. more specifically, this study sought to explain whether the need for achievement (n-ach) and locus of control (loc) of students had an effect on entrepreneurial intentions (ei). an inferential research design with a cross-sectional study was adopted to collect the data. students from faculty of teacher training and education, one public university in jambi, were involved as the sample of the study. 63.14% of male students were selected by using a simple random sampling strategy, dominated by 81.78% of respondents aged less than 20 years. data were collected through questionnaires and were analyzed by using the statistical correlation software and linear regression models to ensure the relationship between psychological characteristics and ei. the results indicated that there was a positive effect on psychological characteristics and ei on student entrepreneurial intentions. n-ach and loc positively affected ei, both partially and jointly. due to the limited instrument used in this study, only a self-reported questionnaire, which carried an opportunity for the response bias, and involved male students from a faculty in one public university in jambi. therefore, this model needs a further development through the incorporation of behavioral characteristics by involving larger samples allowing us understand on whether behavioral theories and traits are conflicting or complementary. keywords entrepreneurial intentions, locus of control, need for achievement 1 professor in educational management, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, indonesia; eka.warna@unja.ac.id 2 associate professor in educational management, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, indonesia; yusdi.anra@unja.ac.id 3 studentfaculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, indonesia 4 student-faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, indonesia 5 graduate student-the graduate school, universitas jambi, indonesia mailto:eka.warna@unja.ac.id mailto:yusdi.anra@unja.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 29 introduction one of the challenges in developing a country is to deal with the problem of unemployment. data from the central statistics agency (bps) of the republic of indonesia show that the level of unemployment in indonesia is still very high. the number of unemployed people in indonesia in august 2017 reached 5.50% of the total population, 264,000,000 people. an alternative way to solve the problem of unemployment is by empowering the community and educated groups through entrepreneurship programs, which are expected to be able to contribute in the absorption of labor to reduce unemployment and state burdens (adnyana, agung, & purnami, 2016). today, entrepreneurship is seen as a key factor in economic and sustainable development. this contributes to growing the country's competitiveness in its national and international markets, overcoming unemployment as a solution to today's growing problems, and encouraging entrepreneurs in bringing innovative ideas to market and achieving their personal growth (acs & szerb, 2010). higher education institutions are expected to be able to prepare for a better future by developing intellectual competencies and skills so that the younger generation can carry out self-actualization. this shows that in addition to educational support, concepts and business development support are equally important in encouraging students to have entrepreneurial intentions (saeed, yousafzai, soriano, & muffatto, 2015). the aim of offering entrepreneurship education at universities is not only to encourage students to start their own businesses but also to make them more creative and innovative (schmitz et al., 2017). higher education also plays a role in producing human resources who have entrepreneurial spirit and attitude in overcoming the problem of unemployment by creating jobs (genesca` et al., 2003). entrepreneurial intentions arise because of its contribution to economic growth, rejuvenation of productive structures, re-launching of certain regions, dynamics of innovative processes and job creation (schiavone, 2011). education at the university seeks to shape attitudes, skills, knowledge and competencies to students in order to develop their professional careers. education, research, and community service are tridharma used as the main mission in the administration of higher education in indonesia. meanwhile, the progress of society and the effect of globalization have added a further mission to the university domain named as economic development (stauvermann & kumar, 2017). aligning all of these missions is a crucial issue to build an entrepreneurial university (ribeiro et al., 2010), where entrepreneurship can be seen as the center of economic and community progress (sanz et al., 2017). other experts have also recognized that entrepreneurship in the educational environment has a significant impact on entrepreneurial intentions (kabok et al., 2017; martínez-climent et al., 2018). thus, universities should now include entrepreneurship education in their curriculum, because it can have direct and indirect effects on skills development, which in turn has a positive effect on entrepreneurial intentions (clara gieure et al., 2019). irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 30 one public university in jambi, in particular the faculty of teacher training and education has included an entrepreneurial course in its curriculum. as one of the main subjects that must be taken by students, entrepreneurship course not only provides a theoretical foundation on the concept of entrepreneurship but also forms the mindset of students to become entrepreneurs. this means that the university has prepared students to start a new business through the integration of experience, skills, and knowledge that are essential for developing and expanding a new business venture. the existence of entrepreneurship course can also increase the desire of students to choose entrepreneurship as a career choice to become private employees, civil servants, or state-owned enterprises (bumn) employees, which can significantly direct students towards entrepreneurial intentions. from an academic perspective, many studies have examined entrepreneurship and the factors that drive or attract entrepreneurs to start a business. however, as stated by turker and selçuk (2009), the majority of studies focused on established entrepreneurs, and little is known about young adults and the factors that drive them to start businesses (henderson & robertson, 2000). referring to the theory of planned behavior (tpb), it suggests that entrepreneurship is about not only intentional but also pre-planned (kirby & ibrahim, 2011). this study analyzed the effect of need for achievement and locus of control both individually and jointly on student entrepreneurial intentions. this study enriched research based on the tpb model by considering the entrepreneurial skills or abilities of students, which is obtained at the university. thus, the model presented here contributes to the literature by including the role of entrepreneurship education as well as the skills and abilities acquired by students. this study showed that education might have an indirect effect on the development of entrepreneurial skills. but in turn it will foster entrepreneurial intentions. in this context, the purpose of this research was to analyze the entrepreneurial intentions of students and the factors of psychological characteristics, which influence their intention to become entrepreneurs. this study wanted to test the following hypotheses: (1) h1: n-ach influences ei, (2) h2: loc influences ei, and (3) h3: loc and n-ach influence ei. literature review entrepreneurial intentions (ei) in recent years, entrepreneurship has been a major thing for job creation and economic growth. government and educational institutions' interest show an increase in promoting entrepreneurship. many universities consider that investing in entrepreneurship education is very important for social and economic development in society (garrido-lopez et al., 2018). such education can help to develop students' knowledge, skills, and intentions to start a business (ilonen et al., 2018). theory of planned behavior (ajzen, 1991) suggests irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 31 that intention is a strong predictor of behavior (ajzen et al., 2009). if applied to entrepreneurship, intention is affected by general attitudes or entrepreneurial perceptions, normative evaluation of being an entrepreneur, and the feasibility of conducting entrepreneurial behavior (krueger, 2017). however according to shapero's (1982), entrepreneurial event model (eem) proposes that entrepreneurial intentions are dependent on the perception of entrepreneurial desires and eligibility and the tendency of individuals to act. entrepreneurial intentions can be interpreted as the initial step of the process of establishing a business that is generally long-term in nature. it is a motivating factor that influences individuals to pursue entrepreneurial results. intention is a determination to carry out certain activities or produce certain conditions in the future. entrepreneurial intentions are the desires that exist in a person to show entrepreneurial behavior (farida & mahmud, 2015). intention is the best predictor of a person's entrepreneurial behavior. intention is very important for students to become entrepreneurs (vemmy, 2012). this means that entrepreneurial intentions is defined as the desire that exists in a person to display entrepreneurial behavior that can be seen from the desire of individuals to be able to take risks, take advantage of opportunities, become a creative and independent person and be able to process existing resources. intention is a critical first step to starting and running your own business (krueger, 2017). characteristics, factors, and processes that lead to intention have an impact on the initial formation and subsequent direction of new ventures (bird, 2015). various factors have been identified as influencing entrepreneurial intentions including personality dimensions, need for achievement, need for autonomy, innovation, stress tolerance, risk taking, resilience and locus of control (ahmed et al., 2010; brandstätter, 2011). self-efficacy is also consistently related to entrepreneurial intentions (mauer et al., 2017). previous research also found that entrepreneurship education positively and significantly affects perceived desirability, entrepreneurial self-efficacy and entrepreneurial intentions. perceived desirability and entrepreneurial self-efficacy positively and significantly affects entrepreneurial intentions (suratno, ekawarna, & kusmana, 2019). need for achievement (n-ach) based on mcclelland's (1961) motivation theory, need for achievement is defined as the desire to do something better or more efficiently than what has been done before. mcclelland (1961) said that in some businesses, the need to excel is so strong and it is more motivated than to achieve profit. to maximize satisfaction, individuals with a high need for achievement tend to set goals for themselves that is a challenge but can be achieved. although these individuals do not avoid risks completely, they assess risks very carefully. individuals who are motivated by need for achievement do not want to fail and will avoid tasks that involve too much risk. individuals with low need for achievement generally avoid challenges, responsibilities, and risks (wiratmo, 2018). need for achievement can also be interpreted as a desire to complete a task with a target more effectively. individuals who have a high need for achievement tend to set quite irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 32 difficult goals and make more risk in the decisions making (griffin & moorhead, 2013). setyawan (2015) argues that the level of need for achievement will make someone able to overcome all obstacles, to produce high quality work, and to compete to be the best. in fact, students admit that it is still difficult to find ideas for entrepreneurship, and do not dare to be entrepreneurs because they do not have the capital and are afraid of the risk of failure, because they have formed a mindset of failure with the risk of entrepreneurship and they feel less confident that they can succeed. davidsson and wiklund (1999) state that need for achievement is not an important cause of entrepreneurial behavior. according to them, the concept of need for achievement is unclear in its definition, and has problems in measurement. however, several other researchers have found a relationship between need for achievement and entrepreneurial behavior (davidsson, 1989), and consider this need for achievement an important factor (beverland & lockshin, 2001). likewise, the research results of dinis et al. (2013) showed that there was an influence between (some) psychological characteristics on entrepreneurial intentions. the propensity to risk negatively affects entrepreneurial intentions; meanwhile self-confidence and the need for achievement positively affect entrepreneurial intentions. locus of control (loc) locus of control refers to the extent to which people expect that reinforcement and other things depend on their behavior or personal characteristics (allen, 2003). someone who considers good and bad events to be the result of what they do is called as an internal locus of control. whereas, individuals who consider events in life based on external forces that control such as the result of luck, chance, fate, or the strength of others are called as an external locus of control. someone with an internal locus of control has responsibility for the actions and accepts responsibility for the results. whereas, someone with an external locus of control tends to blame others or say what happened is the result of other events originating from outside themselves. correspondingly, rapi and juaini (2015) suggest that as an event experienced by someone as a reward or reinforcement, it can be stated that each individual has a different locus of control and also causes different reactions in each individual. locus of control is one of the factors that determine individual behaviors and it is defined as a description of one's beliefs about the source of behavior. as a personality dimension, it explains that individuals who behave are influenced by expectations about themselves. when someone perceives that locus of control is within him or her, he or she will produce greater achievements in their lives because they feel their potential can be utilized so that they become more creative and productive. this shows that the locus of control is a person's beliefs about the existence of his control, and how much control he has on the successes and failures he experiences and the situations or events that exist in his life. according to primandaru (2017), one of the factors related to the success of entrepreneurship is the locus of control. locus of control is a person's belief about the existence of self control, and how much control he/she has over the successes and failures irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 33 he/she has experienced and the situations or events that exist in his/her life. confidence here is a belief in need for achievement. locus of control is an individual's beliefs about the relationship between behavior and the consequences it has (ninik, 2015). locus of control represents the extent to which individuals believe that their achievement depends on their own behavior. appropriate individuals consider that the achievement of goals or objectives depends more on their own abilities and actions, not the luck or efforts of others (kuip & verheul, 2003). longitudinal studies by brockhaus (1980) show the existence of a positive correlation between orientation to the locus of control and entrepreneurial success. in other studies, brockhaus and horwitz (1986) reinforce how locus of control can distinguish successful entrepreneurs from unsuccessful entrepreneurs. robinson et al. (1991) states that internal control leads to positive entrepreneurial attitudes and most students who obtain entrepreneurial learning can develop a higher level of control and self-efficiency. methodology research design, respondents, and locale of the study this study aimed to analyze the effect of need for achievement (n-ach), locus of control (loc), on entrepreneurial intentions (ei) in one public university in jambi, indonesia. thus, this study adopted inferential research designs. this was a cross-sectional study as the data in this study were collected at one point of time. respondents of this study were students of the teacher training and education faculty in one public university in jambi from six study programs included economic education, english education, educational administration, elementary school teacher education, pancasila and citizenship education, and biology education that have implemented an entrepreneurial curriculum. respondents were students who had taken entrepreneurship courses, had attended entrepreneurship learning and practice courses, and had graduated from taking entrepreneurship courses. of the 575 eligible students, a sample of 236 students (54.31% male students and 45.69% female students) was selected. they were willing to collaborate to voluntarily participate by filling out an online questionnaire. participants were guaranteed anonymity and were welcome to leave their contact number if they were wished to participate in a follow-up study. data collection and analysis the instrument for measuring all research variables in this study adopted the entrepreneurial intention questionnaire (eiq) version 2.05, from liñán and rodríguez (2015). the number of the themes and scales were adapted to the needs of on-line data collection and characteristics of students in indonesia. after adaptation, the items were translated into indonesian. entrepreneurial intentions. all items were measured by using a 5-point likert scale with response options ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). an example of an irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 34 item was ei-1; i want to open my own business field after graduating from college, ei-10; i like to find information about the business world, especially from people who experienced. the cronbach's alpha for the scale was 0. 877. need for achievement. all items were measured by using a 5-point likert scale with response options ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). sample items included n-ach-1; i like challenging but high-risk work, n-ach-10; i need feedback for every job i do. the cronbach's alpha for the scale was 0.838. locus of control. all items were measured by using a 5-point likert scale with response options ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). sample items included loc-1; i have confidence in the ability to realize my dreams in entrepreneurship, loc-10; i need family support to motivate me in entrepreneurship. the cronbach's alpha for the scale was 0.843. using statistical software, data were analyzed to determine whether there is a relationship between variables. following the accepted standards adopted by several researchers (harris & gibson, 2008; koh, 1995; keat et al., 2011), we measured the correlation between variables and linear regression models between independent variables and variables dependent. findings sample characteristics characteristics of the sample were presented in table 1. the sample was dominated by men (63.14%). as many as 81.78 percent of respondents were less than 20 years old, and 68.64 percent of them did not have a family business background. most respondents (78.39%) had attended special entrepreneurship training. tabel 1. summary of descriptive statistic sample characteristics variables obs number percentage cumulative merge male 149 236 63.14 63.14 female 87 36.86 100 age <20 193 236 81.78 81.78 >21 43 18.22 100 family background entrepreneur 74 236 31.36. 31.36 nonentrepreneur 162 68.64 100 entrepreneur training ever 185 236 78.39 78.39 never 51 21.61 100 validity and reliability validity was obtained by looking at the correlation between constructs or factors. items must correlate more strongly with their own constructs than with others, indicating irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 35 that they are regarded by respondents as their own theoretical constructs (messick, 1988). the results in table 2 show the correlation matrix between the predictor constructors. all constructs, ei, n-ach, and loc, correlated strongly with their own constructs. all variables had a positive and significant correlation. leech et al. (2005) suggest that reliability is an indicator of the extent to which item differences, measurements, or judgments are mutually consistent, as an ongoing process in which one item provides evidence to support conformity, meaningfulness; and the specific use of conclusions made from scores about individuals from the sample and given context. the approach used to test two important assumptions is cronbach's alpha because it is believed to be the most common measurement of reliability scale (andy, 2005). under these conditions, alpha values ranged from 0.877 to 0.838 (table 2). therefore, surveys can be considered reliable. table 2. summary of test validity and reliability results irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 36 hypothesis testing the correlation matrix presented in table 3 shows that there was a positive relationship between the predictor variables and the dependent variable. the correlation coefficient between n-ach and ei was 0.792, loc and ei was 0.741 indicating everything was positive and significant. table 3 correlation coefficients only show the relationship between variables, but did not give an indication of the direction of causality. therefore, to determine the direction of quality, the hypothesis was tested by applying linear regression. with the help of the spss release 22.0 application, the results were presented in table 4. table 3. summary matrix correlations entrepreneurial intentions need for achievement pearson correlation sig. (20tailed) n .792** .000 236 locus of control pearson correlation sig. (20tailed) n .741** .000 236 entrepreneurial intentions pearson correlation sig. (20tailed) n 1 .000 236 table 4. summary hypothesis test model unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t sig. b std. error beta 1 (constant) need for achievement 9.845 .880 3.479 .044 .792 2.830 19.850 .005 .000 2 (constant) locus of control 12.321 .840 3.939 .050 .741 3.128 16.897 .002 .000 3 (constant) need for achievement locus of control 6.233 .654 3.602 .084 .589 1.730 7.789 .085 .000 .270 .086 .238 3.149 .002 based on table 4, it shows that the direction of causality between variables was positive and significant, indicating that all proposed hypotheses were accepted. this meant that there was a positive and significant influence between n-ach on ie, as well as loc on ie. based on the results of the analysis of the study obtained a coefficient so that it can form the equation y = 6.233 + 0.589x1 + 0.238x2 + e. from the multiple linear regression equation, a constant of 6.233 was obtained, meaning that if the ei variable was affected by the two independent variables (n-ach and loc) then the magnitude of ei is 6.233. the magnitude irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 37 of the regression coefficient for the n-ach variable of 0.589 was positive, meaning that when n-ach has increased or added by one unit, it would cause an increase in ei of 0.589 with the assumption that the loc was fixed or the same. then the loc regression coefficient of 0.238 was positive, meaning that at this time the loc has increased or added by one-unit would cause an increase in ei of 0.238 with the assumption that n-ach was fixed or the same. discussion this study explained the effect of psychological characteristics on ei; the results indicated that there was a significant positive effect between n-ach on ei, loc on ei which meant that the higher n-ach funds or loc, then the resulting ei would also be higher. the results of this study were in line with research by nizma and siregar (2018) who found loc, n-ach, and risk taking as variables that had a significant effect on ei. loc had a direct positive effect on ei (afifah, 2015). n-ach enables one to overcome all obstacles, produce high quality work, and can compete to be the best. in this case, the meaning will increase ei. besides, personality characteristics such as n-ach are one of the personality characteristics of someone who will encourage someone to have an ei (setyawan, 2015). basically, loc is a belief that an individual has about the cause or factor of an event in life whether it is a success or a failure in achieving a hope or a desire. these factors can come from within themselves such as behavior or effort that has been done and other factors can be due to luck, or opportunity factors. these two results make it clear that to increase the level of entrepreneurial intentions, efforts must focus on two different directions: first, making entrepreneurship become an attractive career for students, for example, by presenting entrepreneurs as role models, emphasizing the benefits of entrepreneurship, developing a culture that supports entrepreneurship and, secondly, develop entrepreneurial abilities and confidence. regarding this latter aspect, given that psychological characteristics are closely related to self-esteem, it is important to note that special efforts are needed to strengthen this aspect in entrepreneurial learning, because as mentioned by scott et al. (1996), as students get older, their self-esteem decreases. this result was also in line with the conclusions by bakotic and kruzic (2010). according to these researchers, the entrepreneurship education program contributes to increasing perceptions about important aspects of entrepreneurship, as well as creating a realistic vision of entrepreneurial problems. thus, the researcher advocates the need for permanent education for students, which should focus on developing additional competencies and skills needed later in the market context. regarding the relationship between psychological characteristics and entrepreneurial intentions, our results indicated that a relationship did exist. in addition, many studies support a positive correlation between orientation to loc and entrepreneurship (begley & boyd, 1987; beverland & lockshin, 2001; brockhaus, 1980; brockhaus & horwitz, 1986; de vries, 1977; robinson et al., 1991). irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 38 likewise, the evidence from the literature review suggests how entrepreneurs are significantly more innovative than non-entrepreneurs (robinson et al., 1991). the purpose of this study explained the understanding of whether students had entrepreneurial characteristics and whether these characteristics were related to entrepreneurial intentions. the results indicated that students had entrepreneurial characteristics at a fairly high level, such as innovation, locus of control, need of achievement and tolerance for ambiguity, but this had nothing to do with the intention to start a business. previous studies have shown that these characteristics are important features of entrepreneurs and should be incorporated into entrepreneurship education (jusoh et al., 2011; neck & greene, 2011). bearing this in mind, the challenge for educators at this stage is to preserve or to enhance these psychological characteristics, while simultaneously making students more confident, more aware about, and more interested in entrepreneurial careers. in other words, it is necessary to develop motivation to become an entrepreneur (including specific motivational characteristics such as locus of control and self-efficacy beliefs) as a key aspect in developing an entrepreneurial curriculum, because, as mentioned by somuncuoglu and yildirim (1999), motivation is the driving force for student learning goals. conclusion, limitations, and further research the results indicated that there was a positive effect on psychological characteristics and ei on student entrepreneurial intentions. n-ach and loc positively affected ei, both partially and jointly. in interpreting the results of the study, we can point out some limitations regarding methodological aspects. first, this study used a self-report questionnaire, which brings opportunities for response bias. second, the sample only included students from one faculty. in addition, the sample size was relatively small. these two factors suggested several precautions in the generalization of our results. furthermore, it should also be noted that the measurement scale used needs to be re-tested for future studies. discriminatory validity was not clear on all indicators, with some of them showing high cross-loadings in other constructions. there were also some limitations associated with entrepreneurial intentions. because, some authors in the line of behavioral research carried out by gartner (1989) stated that behavioral characteristics were more important than psychological characteristics, because entrepreneurship is more related to actions that result from behaviors, and behavior is more easily changed than personality. however, other researchers assume that there is actually a relationship not only between both behavior and entrepreneurship but also between psychological and behavioral characteristics. this relationship is not considered in this work. based on the previous explanation, directions for future research may need to be proposed. considering methodological aspects, this study should be replicated by including more faculties and more students as respondents to ensure generalization of the results. future research should also consider the limitations of the other methodologies mentioned to improve the reliability and validity of the results. regarding the content aspect, the model should be developed through the incorporation of other types of variables, specifically those irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 39 related to behavioral characteristics. this will enrich the study of the relationship between psychological characteristics, behavioral characteristics and entrepreneurial intentions. references acs, z. j., & szerb, l. 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(2018). pengantar kewiraswastaan. yogyakarta: penerbit andi. biographical notes prof. dr. ekawarna, m.psi. is professor in educational management, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, indonesia; eka.warna@unja.ac.id dr. yusdi anra is associate professor in educational management, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, indonesia; yusdi.anra@unja.ac.id qurotta ayun is a student at the faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, indonesia seri romios is a student at the faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, indonesia tarnak is a graduate student at the graduate school, universitas jambi, indonesia mailto:eka.warna@unja.ac.id mailto:yusdi.anra@unja.ac.id this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 386 educational leader’s adversity quotient, management style and job performance: implications to school leadership louisa anne tansiongco 1 and florante p. ibarra 2 abstract the study examined the adversity quotient, school management style and job performance of public elementary school heads in cabanatuan city, philippines. total population sampling was utilized among 38 public elementary school heads in the district. anchored on adversity quotient theory (stoltz, 2000) and situational leadership theory (hersey & blanchard, 2001), both processes measured how educational leader reacts and resolves within tough school related problems encountered. these lenses offered structure in looking at the four dimensions of adversity quotient in relation to leadership style. survey questionnaire on adversity response profile (arp), leadership style, and office/individual performance commitment response (opcr) were utilized. with two-semester period of data consolidation, pearson r product moment correlation assisted in the analysis of data. results disclosed that, in adversity quotient and job performance, school heads having high degree of adversity quotientcontrol most likely to perform better in instructional leadership and quality standard for basic education program. recommendations on the opportunity of assimilating adversity quotient and school management style in their current school head qualifications be considered to further improve organizational performance in the educational management system. keywords adversity quotient, educational leadership, job performance; school management style, school supervisory system, school culture 1 department of education and related studies, college of education, central luzon state university, philippines; e-mail: latansiongco@clsu.edu.ph 2 department of education and related studies, college of education, central luzon state university, philippines, e-mail: fpibarra@clsu.edu.ph mailto:latansiongco@clsu.edu.ph mailto:fpibarra@clsu.edu.ph irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 387 introduction adversity quotient significantly contributes to defining school heads’ performance and their leadership style to educational system in particular. adversity quotient (aq) measure’s one’s capacity to succeed from school challenges. it elucidates one’s skills to positively address adverse circumstances within the scope of school supervisory management. researchers have dedicated their skills to chronicle intelligence quotient (iq) and emotional quotient (eq), which are believed as elements of success to excellent performance. stoltz (2000) has presented a new and interesting conceptadversity quotient (aq) which tells how one withstands adversity and his ability to overcome it. for employees and managers, aq seems to be the missing factor to success. life seemed challenging, wherein people encounter various privations which could be tough to bridge. however, one could have an instinct capacity to alter negative situations to positivity. stoltz (2000) defined adversity quotient as a process of one’s triumph to successfully solve specific school concern. likewise, it is an established science, theory and approach for becoming more resilient in managing school related apprehensions. today, schools face various issues that school heads need to cope up with. the most common of which includes school-teacher-student related problems. as carnivel (2010) noted learning to deal with adversity is a significant element of effective management. recurring internal and external problems in operation are often dealt by basic education institution and the process of solving such concern is highly reliant upon the school head’s personal qualities expressed in style of management. as the leader of the institution, the school head has more responsibility and accountability in the organization. the foundation of organizational capacity lies in the ability of the faculty members, the administrator who serves as the leader to handle the smallest unit in an organization. managing school is analogous to driving a car. it is often up-hill alongside what at times may seem overwhelming odds. supervisory function is difficult requiring complete commitment. educational leadership roles according to brandon et al. (2016) play pivotal role in leading institutions to its path to erudition. in this world today where administrators undertake multifaceted task, thus, it is expected for them to meet different people of the school. their performance can be affected by many factors that surround them. it becomes more important then, to use an assessment to determine the level of performance of a school head. their performance can be affected by many factors that surround them. the department of education in the philippines offered provisions on the implementation of the results-based performance management system as stated in deped order no. 2, s. 2015, stipulating the strategies, methods, tools and rewards for assessing the accomplishment vis-à-vis the commitment. office performance commitment and review form (opcrf) as measuring tool to monitor school targets and accomplishments. providing the objectives made by each school head, it provides verifiable basis for rating and ranking the performance. with previous studies on adversity quotient (stoltz, 2000; canivel 2010; cabual 2011), the school management styles and the growing emergence of the different tools in the assessment of job performance regarding its importance in the workplace especially for irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 388 school heads, the researchers realized that it is critical to study these variables. given this scenario, this study hoped to address the current issues relative to adversity quotient of school heads and how this might influence their capacity to perform as educational leaders. stoltz (2000) claimed that aq measure will strengthen the effectiveness of leaders. with this perspective, the researchers recognized this premise which is based on the evidence that once an individual or organization sees how one responds to adversity, improves these responses and thereby enhances the overall performance. literature review numerous studies chronicled how adversity quotient could be associated with the style of educational leaders and school management performance (baroa, 2015; canivel, 2010; huijuan, 2009). in its simplest term, adversity is a challenge every school head encounters while adversity quotient (aq) is a process of assessing one’s capacity to face such challenge. it encompasses four dimensions such as control, origin and ownership, reach, and endurance. studies have shown education leaders scored low in aq (cornista & macasaet, 2013; cura & gozum, 2011). this indicated that educational administrators need to enhance their skills to face school related adversities. school heads’ adversity response played a crucial role in school community relationship (rajbhandari, 2017), teacher relationships (ferrer, 2009; maiquezet et al., 2015) as well as student academic performance (williams, 2003). what significantly molded school management leaders could be attributed to treating risks as opportunities (napire, 2013). institutional leadership had been chronicled in various contexts like activity that influence people (kouzes & posner, 1995; terry, 1987), as pattern of interactions and leadership style characteristics (brandon et al., 2016; cura & gozum, 2011). however, different perspectives argued that there would be no precise definition of school namangement to describing such complex phenomenon (akman, 2016). conversely, various point of views argued that its definition would be a huge thing. all meanings follow that management process is a leader role. yet, literature on management style focused on the three theories of leadership: traits, behavior and situation (amanchukwuet al., 2015; ekundayo, 2010; özgenel & karsantik, 2020). situational approach considers environmental elements which contribute to efficient school management style (obasan & yomi, 2011; rajbhandari, 2017) which could be the output of motivated educational leaders (mccolumn, 2010). thus, adversity quotient offers positive influence on work related performance specifically on educational administrative matters (billger, 2007; cooley & shen, 2003). principal effectiveness would be an output which focuses and works on enhancing learning situation, teaching and continuous school progress (suryadi & santoso, 2017). some of the most significant indicators of school heads include the capacities that are imperative to student’s achievement (hulaikah et al., 2020). the administrators’ sensibility and accountability system would enrich teaching and learning performances and other school outcomes which would be associated with school head’s performance. situated on the adversity quotient theory (stoltz, 2000), situational leadership theory or situational leadership model (hersey & blanchard, 2001) and deped order no. 2, series of 2015. the principals’ adversity quotient evaluates one’s capacity to solve school problems. this aq irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 389 starts with individual’s actions within the realm of the theory. one’s aq would define which school management style could be applied based leadership actions. in the context of high adversity quotient, school heads may use suitable mangement style to address new practices for public elementary schools in cabanatuan city. eventually the characteristic an ideal leader will be apparent once succeeded against these adversities. figure 1 shows the conceptual framework of the study. in the conceptual framework, the independent variables included the socio-demographic profile of the school head respondents which comprised age, gender, civil status, designation, monthly salary, and highest educational attainment, length of service as school head and classification of school handled. adversity quotient has four dimensions control, ownership, reach and endurance; and leadership style which categorized as telling style, selling style, participating style and delegating style. job performance of school heads served as dependent variable with six key result areas namely instructional leadership and supervision, curriculum development, quality standard for basic education program, judicious allocation of resources and transparency, learning environment and nutritional status and other programs and projects. as shown on the figure, it had established the interrelationships and correlations of the variables. figure 1. conceptual framework of the study showing the relationship of the independent and dependent variables socio-demographic profile o age o sex o civil status o designation o monthly salary o highest educational attainment o length of service as school head o classification of school handled adversity quotient of school heads o control o ownership o reach o endurance leadership style of school heads o telling o selling o participating o delegating job performance of school heads o instructional leadership and supervision o curriculum development o quality standard for basic education program o judicious allocation of resources and transparency o learning environment and nutritional status o other program and projects. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 390 methodology research design, sites, and participants descriptive research design was used to guide the analysis of this research in finding the correlation of adversity quotient and school management style of elementary school heads in deped cabanatuan city. bernard (2006) defined descriptive research design as a methodical approach which consists of observable behavioral patterns without influencing it in any way to obtain a general overview of the subject. in this study, it was used to determine socio-demographic characteristics and their significant links to adversity quotient and style of management. the study was conducted in public elementary schools in cabanatuan city, nueva ecija, philippines during the 2 nd semester of academic year 2019-2020 at cabanatuan city which administratively subdivided into 89 barangays. there were 38 elementary public schools in the division of cabanatuan city wherein each has been managed by a school head. there were a total of 38 school heads who participated in the study. total population sampling was used. total population sampling as defined by etikanet (2016) is a type of purposive sampling where the whole population of interest is studied. total population sampling likewise is a method where the whole populaces that meet such conditions are included in the research being conducted. total population sampling is more commonly used where the number of cases being investigated is relatively small. this sampling technique was utilized to gain complete representation of school heads whose adversity quotient as educational leader had being under investigation. instrumentation four-part survey instrument was used to obtain data: respondents’ personal profile; the adversity quotient profile; school management style questionnaire and school heads’ office performance commitment review form (opcrf). part i dealt with socio-demographic profile of the school heads. in a checklist format, school heads marked the range of characteristic that best describe them. part ii covered the adversity response profile (arp). it was used to measure the adversity quotient of school heads. a self-rating questionnaire designed to measure individual’s style of responding to adverse situation. describing 30 scenarios, each statement represented a hypothetical event, which could be answered on a 5-point bipolar scale. there were four dimensions covered by aq specifically control, origin-ownership, reach, and endurance. although these dimensions may be intercorrelated, they measured significantly different aspects of aq. the 30 events listed in the questionnaire were answered from range of 1 as the lowest to 5 as the highest and the description of choices. for control dimension, the scale is from no control as the lowest to complete control as highest. for ownership dimension, the scale is from not all responsible/other people or factor as the lowest to completely responsible/me as the highest. for reach dimension, the scale is from relates to all aspect of my life as the lowest to just relates to this situation as highest. for reach dimension, the scale is from never exist irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 391 again as the lowest to always exist as highest. part iii provided leadership style assessment consisting of fifty statements about school management behaviors. developed by canivel (2010), contents were revised and validated by research experts in the field. a scale of 1 to 4 was included to let respondents choose where they fit: the score of 4 was interpreted as almost true, 3 was interpreted as occasionally true, 2 was interpreted as seldom true, and 1 was interpreted as never true respectively. part iv covered the opcrf result of the school heads to measure their performance. three experts in the field were consulted as regards to validity and the reliability was assessed through cronbach alpha. data collection and analysis a letter was sent to schools’ division superintendent of cabanatuan city for the permission to utilize the elementary school heads as respondents. after approval, the letter of request was sent to school heads granting the researcher to gather data. further, permission was likewise sought to obtain the result of opcrf of each school head. orientation and explanation to school heads about the purpose of the study as well as instructions for each item in the instrument was made wherein it was personally distributed, administered and retrieved. data analysis including mean, standard deviation, frequency and percentage was used. specifically, the following interpretations were utilized to classify adversity quotient scores. low aq score falls from 1023 whereas average score falls from 24-37 and scores that fall from 38-50 are high aq. the overall low aq score falls from 95-134, moderate from 135-165, and high from 166-200 respectively. pearsonsrproduct-moment correlation coefficient was utilized to find out the correlation between independent and dependent variables. results school heads’ socio-demographic profile table 1 shows the socio-demographic profile of respondents. fewer than half or 17 (44.7%) of school heads were 40-49 years old followed by 13 (34.2%) who were 50 years old and above. seven school heads (18.4%) were 30-39 years old while one (2.6%) yet the youngest of all was under 29 years old and below. in terms of sex, most of the school heads (32 or 84.20%) were female while six (15.8%) were male. it had been very apparent that female school heads dominated management positions at deped division of cabanatuan city. on civil status, almost all of the school heads were married (37) with 97.4 percent while single comprised only 1 or 2.6 percent. majority of the school heads had designations of principal i-iv (23) with 60.5 percent while head teacher i-iii comprised of 15 or 39.5 percent. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 392 table 1. socio-demographic characteristics of the school head respondents socio-demographic profile frequency (n=38) percentage age 29 years old and below 1 2.6 30-39 years old 7 18.4 40-49 years old 17 44.7 50 years above old 13 34.2 mean 45.10 sd 1.79 sex male 6 15.8 female 32 84.2 civil status single 1 2.6 married 37 97.4 designation principal i-iv 23 60.5 head teacher i-iii 15 39.5 monthly salary 19,999 and below 0 0 20,000 24,999 0 0 2500029, 999 4 10.6 30,000 – 34,999 6 15.8 40,000 – 44,999 7 18.4 45,000 – 49,999 5 13.2 50,000 and above 16 42.1 highest educational attainment bachelor’s degree 3 7.9 masteral unit 5 13.2 ma or ms equivalent 14 36.8 doctoral unit 13 34.2 ph. d or equivalent 3 7.9 length of service as school head 4 years and below 14 36.8 59years 4 10.5 1014years 7 18.4 15 years above 13 34.2 classification of school handled large 8 21.1 medium 13 34.2 small 17 44.7 in monthly salary, fewer than half of school heads (16 or 42.1%) had a monthly income of php50,000 and above followed by seven school heads (18.4%) with php40, 000 44, 999 monthly salary income. six (15.8%) had a monthly salary of php30, 000-34,999 while irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 393 five (13.2%) had a monthly salary of 45, 000-49,999. four (10.6%) had monthly salary of php25, 000-29,999 and php35, 00039, 999. almost one-third of school head respondents (14 or 36.8%) obtained their master’s degree. only three (7.9%) had earned doctoral degree and the rest (13 or 34.2%) gained doctoral units. in length of service as school head, almost half belonged to the brackets of 1-4 years of service (14 or 36.8 %) while 13 (34.2%) belonged to 15 years and above. seven (18.4%) had 10-14 years of service whereas four (10.5%) belonged to 5-9 years of service. on the classification of school dandled, almost half of them handled small school (17 or 44.7%). thirteen (34.2%) managed medium schools and only eight (21.1%) run large schools respectively. table 2. relationship between socio-demographic profile and school heads’ performance socio-demogra phic characteristics school heads job performance instructional leadership supervision curriculum development quality standard for basic ed. program judicious allocation of resources and transparency learning environment and nutritional status other program and projects age -.278 .015 -.057 .121 -.067 -.067 gender -.036 -.090 -.035 -.081 -.045 -.045 civil status .051 .031 -.096 .204 -.142 -.142 designation .194 .040 .146 .036 .010 .010 monthly salary -.065 -.106 -.242 .005 -.027 -.027 highest educ. .662** .221 -.152 -.004 -.065 .465* length of service -.216 -.217 -.164 .022 -.093 -.093 classification of school .025 -.057 .384* -.052 .047 .047 *. correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed) **. correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed) this result was in lined with the research findings of billger (2007), though teachers with doctorate degree holder could rarely be found in elementary schools, they were encouraged to take advanced professional development so that they would have more chances or opportunities for administrative positions rather than compelling themselves as plain classroom teachers. further, the school classification established a moderate positive correlation with quality standards for basic education program(r=.384, p<0.05). this implies that the larger the school size, the school head performs better specifically in increasing by one percent the numeracy rate from previous enrolment, decreasing by two percent the school dropout rate from previous school year and increasing the literacy rate from the previous year. therefore, the null hypothesis stating that there is no relationship between school heads’ socio-demographic profile and performance was hereby rejected. there had been an established relationship between demographic profile and performance. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 394 interrelationship of adversity quotient and school management style to determine whether the school heads’ adversity quotient is interrelated to their school management style, correlation using pearson r was computed. results showed in table 3 that selling established a highly positive relationship with control (r=.845, p<0.01). table 3. interrelationship between adversity quotient and school management style adversity quotient school management style control ownership reach endurance telling .325* .186 .316* -.242 selling .846** .150 .096 -.074 participating .801** .576* .180 .074 delegating .493* .760** .185 .687* *. correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed) **. correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed) correspondingly, further analysis of the data revealed that participating established a highly positive relationship with control (r=.801, p<0.01) and moderate relationship with ownership (r=.576, p<0.05). this implies that school heads that has participating leadership style has a high adversity quotient in control and ownership dimension. on the other hand, delegating established a highly positive relationship with adversity ownership (r=.760, p<0.01) and moderate relationships with control (r=.493, p<0.05) and endurance (r=.687, p<0.05) respectively. this implies that school heads having delegating style tends to have a high adversity quotient. conversely, telling style established a moderate positive relationship with control (r=.325, p<0.05) and reach (r=.316, p<0.05). relationship of adversity quotient and job performance of school heads to determine whether the school heads’ adversity quotient is related to their performance, correlation using pearson r was computed. results showed in table 4, control established a highly positive relationship with quality standard (r=.724, p<0.01) and moderate relationship with instructional leadership (r=.398, p<0.05). correspondingly ownership established a highly positive relationship with other programs and projects (r=.868, p<0.01). this result tends to propose that school heads that was high in adversity quotient-ownership has a performed better in other programs and project. on the other hand, further analysis of the data revealed reach established moderate relationship with judicious allocations of resources (r=.359, p<0.05) and with other programs and projects (r=.609, p<0.05). findings suggest that school heads having high in adversity quotient-reach performed better in judicious allocation of resources and transparency and other programs and projects. further, endurance established moderate relationship with curriculum irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 395 development (r=.664, p<0.05) and judicious allocations of resources (r=.322, p<0.05) respectively. table 4. relationship between adversity quotient and job performance of school heads parameters performance key result area adversity quotient instructional leadership supervision curriculum development quality standard for basic ed. program judicious allocation of resources and transparency learning environment and nutritional status other program and projects control .398* -.216 .724** -.175 -.091 .162 ownership .216 .044 .085 .228 -.096 .868** reach .275 .071 .021 .359* .181 .609* endurance -.183 .664* -.105 -.322* -.201 .012 *. correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed) **. correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed) school management style and job performance table 5 presents the connection between school heads’ management style their job performance. telling established moderate significant relationships with instructional leadership supervision (r=.395, p<0.05) and quality standard for basic education program (r=.329, p<0.05). correspondingly selling established moderate significant relationships with other program and projects (r=.371, p<0.05). on the other hand, participating established highly significant relationships with learning environment (r=.895, p<0.01) and moderate relationship with instructional leadership (r=.542, p<0.05). while delegating established highly significant relationships with quality standard (r=.766, p<0.01) and learning environment (r=.747, p<0.01), moderate relationship had been found with curriculum development (r=.297, p<0.05) and other programs and projects (r=.351, p<0.05) respectively. table 5. relationship of school head’s management style and performance performance key result area school management style instructional leadership supervision curriculum development quality standard for basic ed. program judicious allocation of resources and transparency learning environment and nutritional status other program and projects telling .395* -.076 -.329* -.073 -.051 -.159 selling .181 -.085 -.202 .006 -.196 . 371* participating . 542* -.164 .010 .245 .895** .260 delegating -.202 .297* . 766** .158 -.747** .351* irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 396 discussion socio-demographic characteristics plays significant role in assessing school head’s management style relative to adversity quotient. according to robinson et al. (2017), the sex of school leaders makes a difference in career paths, personal life and characteristics of workplace. there is additional evidence that men and women are appointed or elected to lead different kinds of educational jurisdictions. obviously, married school heads constantly dominated elementary schools. özgenel andkarsantik (2020) noted that comparing married and unmarried principals, some significant differences and interesting similarities in the type and amount of support provided to married and unmarried principals have been chronicled thus far. sari and sa’adah (2019) posited that work placements and organizational commitment specifically recognizing various appointments played vital role on employee performance. further, monthly income had been scattered in various groupings of salary range. on the issue of raising the principal wage to improve school outcomes, lavy (2008) noted that priority to adjusting monthly higher wages should be given to school principals than their subordinates as they perform delicate administrative tasks. the findings on highest educational attainment most likely suggest that it was asymmetrical in various groupings. since only three were doctoral degree holders, billger (2007) noted that, though teachers with doctorate degree holder could rarely be found in elementary schools, teachers were encouraged to take advanced professional development so that they would have more chances or opportunities for administrative positions rather than compelling themselves as plain classroom teachers. in the length of service, billger (2007) stressed out that years in service as school head constantly mold both novice and seasoned principals as they transformed their managerial skills with great sense of responsibility. considering the type of school being managed by the school head, rajbhandari (2016) noted that small schools manifest violence-free environment as success is attributed to small schools’ human scale, more willing students, more committed teachers, coherent mission and relative autonomy compared to those supervising huge quantity of manpower. adversity quotients and job performance were found have substantial inter connections. school heads owning high in selling style most likely to have high adversity quotient in control dimension. confirmed with canivel (2011), selling style manifests the opposite of telling which is believed to be characterized by coaching. communications would be imperative where “together working things out”. selling style assists school heads in achieving their goals. school heads characterizing openness are more likely to perceive that he has strong degree on control over adverse event and view success as his doing and adversity as originating primarily from some external source. the result rejected ferrer (2009) stating of no significant relationship between participative style and over-all adversity quotient level. moreover, principals possessing low task and connection focus most likely to perceived that he has strong degree on control over adverse event, he view success as his doing and adversity as originating primarily from some and external source and he may view success as enduring if not permanent. delegating style can be described also as lasses faire leadership. the result rejected the findings of enriquez and estacio (2009) about the link between adversity quotients and transformational-transactional was also not significantly related. however, school heads with dominant telling style tends to possess irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 397 high adversity quotient in these factors. this confirmed canivel (2011) that telling style equated with solid management. this school management style provides clear direction in attaining school goals and objectives (hersey & blanchard, 2001). baroa (2015) stated that adversity quotient and school management style significantly related to one another. further, the present findings contrast napire (2013) claiming that no established links between adversity quotient and school management style. in school management performance, school heads that are high in adversity quotientcontrol tends to perform better in instructional leadership and quality standard for basic education program. school heads that have strong degree of control over adverse event performed well in instructional leadership and supervision and quality standard for basic education program. more so, school heads who reflect an ability to avoid unnecessary self-blame while putting one’s own responsibility most likely to perform well in other projects and programs. this context suggests that school heads hold themselves accountable for the outcome of their performance in other program and projects regardless of the reason it’s going poorly. school heads that keep adversity in its place and make life’s difficulties, frustrations and challenges more manageable performed well in judicious allocation of resources and transparency and other programs and projects. the result rejected the findings of akman (2016) stating that ownership negatively influenced school heads performance in terms of mathematics, english, science and overall national achievement test. furthermore, school heads that were high in adversity quotient-endurance tend to perform better in curriculum development. educational leaders having a perception that adversity and its causes will eventually pass and view success as enduring, performed better in curriculum development. amparo (2015) stated that there was significant positive correlation between endurance and commitment to school. the results of this study rejected the findings of cabual (2011) stating that performance levels of deans were not significantly related to their adversity quotient. however, the result concurred with the findings of canivel (2011) stating that principals’ performance resulted having a positive relationship with adversity quotient and cornista and macasaet (2013) stating that there is fairly strong correlation of adversity quotient and performance. school heads possessing selling management style most likely to perform better in other program and projects. selling is in contrast to telling. this implies that school heads that are coaching, has problem-solving styles or win-win leadership style is more likely perform well in other programs and projects. most of the programs and projects were done not only with the school head but also with the support of the teachers, if the school heads spent their time helping teachers to gain knowledge and skills, the goals and objectives in other program and projects were achieved with excellence. similarly, school heads having participating style tend to perform better in learning environment and nutritional status and instructional leadership and supervision. lastly, school heads manifesting delegating style most likely to perform better in quality standards for basic education program and learning environment. school heads offering little or no guidance to group members and leave decision-making up to group member tend to perform better in most of administrative functions stipulated in opcrf. concurred with mcgrath and macmillan (2000), effective leadership style contributes towards better performance. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 398 conclusions school heads’ adversity quotient were found to be moderate and all of them have average aq in all variables being measured. school head tends to have typical capability in addressing challenges. these have reflected in their school management style. participating style significantly dominated the educational management system among school heads. respondents took full advantage of their school management performance considering that participating style is believed to be the best method in leading subordinates. school heads who have mostly practiced participating leadership style most likely to characterize as being supportive, always motivated , ready to listen, consistently giving commendations and praise, and constantly making their teachers feel good and inspired in their working conditions. with outstanding evaluation of school heads’ performance in six key-areas, an individual possesses an extraordinary level of capability to achieve ideal educational management system in terms of quality and time, technical skills and knowledge, ingenuity, creativity and initiative. these have manifested in one’s qualification to lead an institution. as an empirical evidence, it indicated that school heads with doctoral degree tends to perform better than those with lesser qualifications specifically in the areas of instructional leadership, school projects, and related academic and community programs. adversity quotient and school management style played vital role in school administration. school heads possessing high level of telling style tends to have a high adversity quotient in control and reach dimensions. while school heads who own high degree of selling style most likely to have a high adversity quotient in control dimension, the school heads who characterize participating style tends to have a high adversity quotient in control and ownership dimension. more so, school heads who have delegating style most likely to have a high adversity quotient in control, ownership and endurance dimension. thus, adversity quotient and school management style offer substantial connectedness. there seem to have an underlying principle that might overshadow the process of decision-making which could further enhance the formulation and implementation of school policies. disclosure statement no potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors. acknowledgments 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(2003).the relationship between principal response to adversity and student achievement. unpublished master’s thesis. cardinal stritch university, wisconsin. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 401 biographical notes louisa anne tansiongco is a graduate alumnae of central luzon state university, college of education, department of education and related studies (graduate program). she is currently connected with the department of education in the philippines as elementary teacher at cabanatuan city central school, neuva ecija, email: latansiongco@clsu.edu.ph florante p. ibarra is an accredited full-fledged professor at central luzon state university graduate school of education in the philippines. he teaches courses such as advance methods of educational research, philosophy of education, and philosophy in educational management ethics. a multi-awarded music educator and music researcher, his interests focus on classroom instructions, school management system, teaching and learning musical traditions and cultural anthropology. he published various research articles in reputable international journals under social science citation indexed, emerging sources citation indexed and scopus, e-mail: fpibarra@clsu.edu.ph mailto:latansiongco@clsu.edu.ph mailto:fpibarra@clsu.edu.ph this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 293 employing blended literature circles to foster activating academic emotions of struggling readers david imamyartha 1 , eka wahjuningsih 2 , areta puspa 3 , mitasari 4 , siti masrifatul fitriyah 5 , rizki febri andika hudori 6 , rika andayani 7 , zakiyah tasnim 8 , aan erlyana fardhani 9 , siti sundari 10 , and bambang arya wijaputra 11 abstract grounded within academic emotion and transactional reading theory, the present study investigates the understudied struggling readers’ academic emotions after taking part in three blended literature circles in an english class at tertiary education. thirteen physics education students partook in the research. data were garnered by open-ended questionnaires and semi-structured interviews, the results of which were analyzed by directed content analysis bound to academic emotion theory. the research findings explicate that blended literature circles pave the path to propelling reading-to-learn endeavors. despite sub-optimal reading proficiency, the students’ academic emotions depict the efforts towards achievement goals, primarily laden with a mastery approach, and social goals through dialogic reading in blended literature circles. keywords academic emotion blended literature circle, content-and-language integrated learning 1 a full-time lecturer at the department of english education of jember university, indonesia 2 a senior full-time lecturer at the department of english education of jember university 3 a full-time lecturer at the department of english education of jember university 4 a graduate from the department of english education of jember university 5 a full-time lecturer at the department of english education of jember university 6 a full-time lecturer at the department of english education of state university of jakarta 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 a senior lecturer at the department of english education of jember university irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 294 introduction requiring copious literacy skills, reading denotes an enigma to struggling readers for they even still grapple with below sentence-level comprehension because they are incapable of decoding texts (swanson, 1986), text comprehension (paris & oka, 1989), operationalizing complex metacognitive strategies (worthy & invernizzi, 1995), and applying comprehension strategies (bakken et al., 1997). struggling readers with low self-efficacy oftentimes think they are unable to improve their reading. venegas (2018) posits that these learners require more balanced learning to develop their literacy skills. students in 21 st -century education are in fact empowered to excel their learning toward deep learning when they are liberated to share ideas and take part in the thinking process (gee, 2001). to this end, applying a combination of collaborative activities denotes the key to improving literacy (flint, 2010), equity in learning (gee, 2001), positive attitude toward english learning (shih & reynolds, 2015), and learning engagement in inter-and intra-mental processes (maine, 2013). grappling with the complexity of reading instruction for struggling readers, teachers need to attend to students’ academic emotionality as this determines their learning outcome (pekrun et al., 2011; vygotsky & cole, 1978). considering the multifaceted impacts of emotion on language instruction (macintyre & gregersen, 2012; (pishghadam et al., 2016), the present study aims to foster struggling readers’ activating academic emotions through blended literature circles. by extension, it aims to narrow the empirical gap concerning struggling readers as current literature is predominantly occupied with developing their self-efficacies (cho et al., 2015), motivation (dreher, 2003; hall, 2005), and engagement (hall, 2005). the following research inquiries inform the present study: a) what are the profiles of students’ academic emotions when engaged in blended literature circles? b) how do the students’ academic emotions influence their shared reading as a meaning-making process? literature review the psychological bases of blended literature circles learners co-construct knowledge when engaged to collaborate within a specific learning context (vygotsky & cole, 1978). they point out that learner’s competencies develop in mental processes when activating those processes in tandem with their peers (bodrova & leong n.d.). it is this socio-constructivist nature that is related to zone of proximal development (zpd). zpd portrays the distance between the learner’s actual development and the potential development as triggered by independent problem-solving in collaboration with more competent partners or with the support of the teacher (vygotsky & cole, 1978). along with vygotsky’s theory, louise m. rosenblatt’s transactional reading theory also guides the present study. he contends that reading represents a two-way undertaking, which involves irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 295 text and readers along with their prior language and world knowledge to construct meaning (rosenblatt, 1982) the present study believes that literature circles meet what the aforementioned theorists consider essential within the sociocognitive facet of english learning, that is meanings created through social interactions lay the cornerstone for meaningful enduring learning (gee, 2001; vygotsky & cole, 1978). literature circles have been acknowledged to result in the development of reading comprehension and critical thinking (thein et al., 2011), critical awareness and interdependence (mccall, 2010; widodo, 2016), leadership (certo, 2011), and engagement (mcelvain, 2010; eeds & wells, 1989). the theoretical bases of blended literature circles reminiscent of pizzi's (2014) work, the notion of blended is motivated by the premise that to develop the best academia teachers need to adapt to students’ changing needs. the present study proposes one model of literature circles, blended literature circles (henceforth blc). the traditional literature circles are defined in numerous ways, yet still allude to such common properties as students’ freedom to choose any forms of literature, mini-group discussion, student-centeredness, and role assignment (widodo, 2016; cameron et al., 2012). in this study, blc is defined as shared reading involving distinctive roles and emphasizes the involvement of technology (internet, tablet, laptop, and smartphone) upon completing each role and extension project. blended learning leads to a stronger learning community to achieve knowledge construction (e.g., rose & ray, 2011; rovai & jordan, 2004). the ubiquity of technology has brought the concept of hypermedia into blended learning, which is deploying multimedia to access mounds of information (mohamad et al., 2015). armed with hypermedia, blc can be an apt avenue for teachers to enhance their practices to prepare students for a technological society. this section unravels conceptual congruence between blended learning and literature circles which pave the enactment of blc. these include 1) self-directed learning, 2) learning community, 3) dialogic space, 4) multimodality, 5) attending to students’ diversities, 6) scaffolding, and 7) multidimensional learning processes. pondering this congruence, blc is in harmony with the notion of literature circles in that such learning structure involves 3cs involving content, communication, and construction (kerres & witt, 2003). the empirical bases of blended learning in literature circles a recent study by day and kroon (2010) which investigates online literature circles in middle-grade class has revealed that online literature discussion poses rippled impacts to the classroom discussion since students are exposed to numerous textual and, more importantly, multimodal resources which encourage students to read more. their study on undergraduate students found two important findings from online literature circles: (1) the students are engaged and excited and (2) they embarked on technology trials and triumphs. whittingham (2013) adopted the idea of literature circles for his online class involving 18 college students. the online literature circles have created a better dialogic space which motivates his students to collaborate more with their peers. the personal and shared reading irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 296 becomes way more meaningful as they read for communicative purposes with structured foci. the students also reported more ownership over their learning and a more supportive community of learning. bromley et al. (2014) conduct an experiment focusing on undergraduate students involved in digital literature circles. although their study does not include virtual discussion, the power of technology in face-to-face discussion has afforded the students with richer multimodal resources. the combination of online inquiries with face-to-face learning aids in transforming traditional literature circles in ways which enrich digital research, reading comprehension, and literacy analysis. the online research enables the students to gain myriads of information, enriching their schemata and exposing them to the wealth of lexical as well as multimodal resources. academic emotions and instructional practices emotions stemming from achievement processes, such as learning, or achievement outcome, such as test grades, are viewed as achievement emotions (pekrun et al., 2011). the fundamental premise to the emotionality-grounded analysis of the study is that academic emotions play an essential role to empower students’ learning, performance, identity development, motivation, and health (macintyre & gregersen, 2012; pekrun, 1992). emotions also bear a significant impact on learning a foreign language (macintyre and gregersen, 2012), and (pishghadam et al., 2016). however, emotionality in foreign language learning has not gained much attention (pishghadam et al., 2016). the control-value theory (cvt) (see pekrun, 2006) for an overview) emphasizes the ways by which a student’s appraisal of certain context influences his achievement emotions. pekrun et al. (2007) highlight three-way taxonomy of academic emotion, pertaining to valence, activation, and focus. in regard to focus, two academic emotions are of crucial concern: activity emotions pertinent to current achievement-oriented activities and outcome emotions associated with the activity outcomes. furthermore, activity emotions and outcome emotions are categorized according to the valences (positive vs. negative or unpleasant vs. pleasant) and also the levels of activation (activating vs. deactivating). (meyer, 2014) suggests that instructional activities drive students’ emotions. it has also been suggested that learning support and classroom management are influential to students’ emotions. kunter et al. (2013) have affirmed that classroom management, cognitive challenge, and resultant process, and learning support substantially determine learning enjoyment. other works (e.g., goetz et al., 2013; schweinle et al., 2008) demonstrate that classroom management and teachers’ learning support, such as constructive response, respectful interactions, and proper pacing, affect students’ enjoyment. referring to cvt, blc is presumed to play role in the environment dimension, particularly with respect to the task, social support, and achievement environments. this initial notion presumes the direct link between blc and students’ academic emotion through control-value appraisals, which escalates students’ literacy performance, resulting from increased cognitive resources, motivation, and strategies. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 297 figure 1. control-value theory in achievement emotion (pekrun, 2006) pekrun (2006) highlights four academic emotions associated with learning. these include achievement emotions, topic emotion, epistemic emotion, and social emotions. a. achievement emotions are concerned with achievement activities as well as the success and failures from these activities. b. topic emotions are germane to the lesson topic. positive and negative topic emotions can trigger or obstruct interest in learning. c. epistemic emotions are concerned with the cognitive problems upon dealing with new tasks. these include surprise, curiosity, confusion, and frustration from the task. d. social emotions correspond to teachers-students and students-students interaction in collaborative learning. these can include sympathy, compassion, envy, contempt, admiration, or social anxiety. the present study highlights several reasons for introducing blc in reading instruction. first, the concept of blc has remained under-explored. several studies have delved into the low-tech mode of literature circles, eventually leaving technology-empowered counterparts under researched (see bromley et al., 2014; day & kroon, 2010; gill & islam, 2011) the second reason is to scrutinize how students are emotionally engaged in blc. in other words, this study aims at investigating whether blc is supportive to reading instruction, as indicated by academic emotions, among sub-optimally proficient readers. lastly, previous studies on literature circles do not employ any specific theoretical framework underpinning their analysis (bromley et al., 2014; certo, 2011; day & kroon, 2010; whittingham, 2013). the present study is grounded in the priory assumption of incremental growth of struggling readers’ activating academic emotions resulting from blended literature circles. methodology research design, site, and participants the present study involved thirteen female and two male students with ages ranging from 19-20 years old. they were students of physics education who were enrolled in a irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 298 course titled english for physics education at an indonesian state university. these participants were recruited on the basis of their poor reading performance. this was indicated by 60% correct answers on average in a reading assignment where they had to complete eight multiple-choice questions to a text containing 266 words with a flesch reading ease score of 69.7. the text and questions were adopted from a toefl course book published by an international publisher. the authors were lecturers at the university where the research participants were enrolled. in order to counter-balance bias, each author was assigned a different role: either teacher or interviewer. data collection and analysis the class was conducted for 100 minutes each meeting for 16 meetings in a one-and-half month. three blended literature circles served as the focus of the study, wherein the participants worked in a group sharing different roles. across different readings, they were encouraged to shift the roles to allow different experiences in the shared readings. the topics in the literature circles pertained to using technology in teaching physic, teaching physics to children, and using games in teaching physics. the students held the autonomy to choose one out of three texts provided in each topic. these texts had reading ease levels which ranged from 36.00 to 64.00. this reading ease range was pondered appropriate to ensure a sense of accomplishment among the research subjects, students of the non-english education department. drawing on previous works on literature circles (cameron et al., 2012; day & kroon, 2010; whittingham, 2013), the roles shared among the students were as follow: a. discussion leader leads group discussion and formulates probing questions b. paragraph master is required to search and document key passages found throughout the reading selection c. connector locates the connections between the texts and the students’ life. d. summarizer composes a summary covering both the text and the result of the discussion. e. illustrator creates a digital mind map or poster representing the gist from the texts. after completing their task, each group created a digital storytelling project to showcase the results of the group discussion. blc emphasizes the use of online tools and resources and also in extension projects subsequent to the literature circles. this attends to the back-end version of blended instruction where online resources are engaged in order to review and reinforce what has been learned in class discussion (rose & ray, 2011). the back-end model allows for the gradual transfer of control from the teacher to the students. the extension projects, taking the form of digital posters and storytelling, facilitated the presentation of each role’s work. to collect the data, this study involved open-ended questionnaire and semi-structured interview anchored to the notion of academic emotions, allowing the researchers to establish priory criteria upon data analysis, yet remain open to unexpected meanings. the present study also deployed (braun & clarke, 2006) thematic analysis. this entails an analytical strategy for identifying, analyzing, and accounting for themes extracted from collected data (braun & clarke, 2006), aimed at portraying the presumed increment of irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 299 activating academic emotions of struggling readers after being engaged in blc. the participants’ names were made pseudonym. pekrun's (2006) framework was applied as priory themes in guiding data analysis. there were four categories of questions, encompassing achievement emotion, social emotion, epistemic emotion, and topic emotion, each of which was atomized into two specific questions. both instruments, along with their use, were operationalized in the indonesian language. the students completed an open-ended questionnaire concerned with academic emotion at the end of the course. to clarify the findings from the questionnaire, we interviewed three participants, the results of which were also analyzed using the same analysis technique. these students were chosen based on the richness of their responses to the open-ended questionnaire. findings and discussion this study scrutinized the efl readers’ academic emotions after being engaged in three blcs. it disclosed several vignettes of academic emotion. the findings were elaborated in a retrospective manner, followed by a relatable discussion. students’ vignettes on achievement emotions the students reported positively activating academic emotions in achievement context. these emotions led to engaging literature circles, expanded vocabulary knowledge, deeper understanding, enhanced grades, and spoken english proficiency. the instrumental orientation for passing course requirements was evident, yet this goal eventually turned into an integrative orientation of mastering english driven by discipline-related content. eve reported the value of having a technology-assisted project subsequent to the literature discussion. “my motivation was to learn working on shared reading and creating poster project using technology. this helped me to learn vocabulary. i hoped through being involved in such teamwork that i could speak english fluently and solve problems i faced in learning english.” [eve questionnaire, 2 nd february 2018] the discussion offered learning opportunities for the learners so they were able to excel not only in what was being assigned but also in what was important to them, which was being proficient in spoken english. the dialogic space fostered the students to expand their vocabulary by exposing themselves to specific academic discourse. zee also voiced the same idea about the motivation for learning vocabulary. “blc supported me to research more information related to the assigned topic for gaining a deeper understanding and also vocabulary knowledge specific to my subject. this helped me to be familiar with specific vocabulary related to my major (physics).” [ zee interview, 7 th march 2018] irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 300 blc contributed to the value approach as the students envisaged shared trial and triumph associated with blc. certo (2011) contends that shared reading, which triggers active engagement, gives impetus to social and leadership development and develops a reading community wherein students can work collaboratively for deeper understanding (rose & ray, 2011; rovai & jordan, 2004). nea pointed out how blc encouraged her to become a better team member as she worked together. she mentioned that social goals allowed her to gain a better understanding in an engaging learning environment. “my motivation was to be a better member of my group discussion, so we were able to solve problems. blc motivated us to collaborate with the other group members, which led to better and deeper understanding as well as a more challenging learning experience.” [nea questionnaire, 2 nd february 2018] regardless of instrumental orientation manifest in the pursue of high marks, integrative orientation, as depicted by the mastery approach, was also at work. sally voiced the goal for an increased grade, but she was also concerned with the increment of her english proficiency. blc gave the impetus to the learners’ mastery approach due to the exposure to authentic texts relevant to their major. “my motivation was to improve my grade and to enhance my english proficiency. blc helped me to achieve these goals as it afforded topics familiar to me, therefore keeping me encouraged to recall my knowledge pertinent to the information presented in the text and retell the ideas i had learned using my language through the extension project. “ [sally questionnaire, 2 nd february 2018] referring to sally, the transactional reading facilitated the learners to escalate their speaking fluency, reading comprehension, and vocabulary mastery, as she embarked on creating video. blc sparks robust enthusiasm for mastery goals, performance goals, and social goals. these impacts concomitantly result in positively activating emotions. students’ vignettes on topic emotions the students’ familiarity with the topics provided was vital to accruing motivation and interest in learning english. the disciplinary content enthused the students not only to learn english but also to deepen their discipline-related understanding. this was exemplified by the following response. “the topics were very interesting as they were related to my daily life, which then encouraged me to learn more after i read the texts concerned with the use of technology and multimedia in science learning.” [queen questionnaire, 2 nd february 2018] physics-related content in blc created enduring positive attitudes towards language learning and the learning of content knowledge (roiha & sommier, 2018). another vignette from irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 301 eve manifested a positive attitude toward physics learning and english learning, which resulted from familiar and self-rewarding topics in the discussion. “the topics given were very familiar to me and interesting as they were related to the integration of technology into education, which motivated me to use the existing technology.” [eve questionnaire, 2 nd february 2018] “i really liked the topic since i was familiar with it. also, i found the task of finding additional texts more achievable because i had the freedom to choose the texts. “ [zack interview, 7 th march 2018] the students above voiced the link between ownership over their learning and self-efficacy as well as self-regulated learning. students’ interest and engagement were escalated when literacy activities and students’ own lives were connected. the intrinsic values bridge the cognitive quality of task structures with positively activating emotions of enjoyment and hope to reach the utmost of their learning. students’ vignettes on epistemic emotion at the onset of literature circles, the teacher-led talk was prominent before full control was entrusted to the students and they worked in tandem to gain an understanding of the texts and solve problems due to language breakdown, as voiced by the following students. “learning through blc was very supportive as we were motivated to share and discuss the readings in our team. this helped me to make meanings based on the texts as i obtained support from my friends.” [queen questionnaire, 2 nd february 2018] “the task helped me to focus on important parts of the text to gain meaning, rather than trying to find out every single meaning from each word. also, the use of technology was really engaging as i could use my smartphone and laptop to complete a mind map summarizing the whole discussion, thus helping me to better understand the texts. creating the mind map was also challenging as i had to make sure that i designed the right visual properties.” [dee interview, 7 th march, 2018] the group discussion created a community of engaged struggling readers, encouraged them to be committed to their learning progress, and enhanced the learning experience upon dealing with multimodal discourse. as dee mentioned, the negotiation on multimodal discourse triggered students’ critical thinking. the observation revealed that the students deployed idea reinforcement in bahasa indonesia to negotiate and clarify meaning. therefore, translation was pivotal in meaning negotiation within academic discourse. littlewood and yu (2011) point out that using native language in discussion motivates students and helps to clarify word meaning. these struggling readers gradually obtained their self-efficacy, as expressed by the following comments. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 302 “the use of the internet helps me to tackle the problems of unfamiliar words and difficult pronunciation and it motivates me to find the answer to inquiries related to the text using online resources.” [via questionnaire, 2nd february 2018] “the learning activities in blc were relevant to the current development where technology has been much advanced. as i could use the internet, i had the access to retrieve abundant of information from many resources, which helped me to solve problems understanding the overall and detailed information in the texts.” [sally questionnaire, 2nd february 2018] all of the students commented that they had never done even the traditional literature circles, as implied by the unfamiliarity with the task. one of the students in the interview, zack, made the following comment; “when i was in senior high school, english class was related to doing tasks on grammar and reading, but in this class, i could learn more because there were role-based discussion and extension projects. also, peer-feedback and comment helped me to improve my reading comprehension and speaking accuracy”. [zack interview, 7 th march 2018] in congruence, another student, zee, also voiced the same outlook on the role-based assignment with respect to its mediating impact on a deeper understanding of the text. “although at first, it was confusing, due to differentiated assignment, the task encouraged everyone to probe further into the content of the text and helped us to gain more understanding. this was because everyone was assigned to investigate different aspects of the task, such as summary, investigation, and probing questions. this role-based assignment encouraged us to collaborate further by rechecking each other’s work.” zee [interview, 7 th march 2018] zee further pointed out that role-based assignments scaffold students’ learning ownership and self-efficacy regardless of the difficulty at the outset of blc. it provided dialogic space for the students to learn specific vocabulary and thus discipline-related knowledge, therefore resulting in the development of high literacy. “i think it was really challenging and exciting. not only did blc give the impetus for collaborative inquiry, but it also supported the students to probe deeper into the text together and then shares the meaning we understood with our friends. the task encouraged us to think critically as we had to search for additional texts to accomplish mini-group research, while at the same time ensuring that these additional sources were relevant to the assigned text.” zee interview, 7 th march 2018] irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 303 this finding acknowledged the appropriateness of blc to the teaching of high literacy in that it scaffolds the ability to use language, content, and cognitive processes in ways relevant to particular disciplines (applebee et al., 2003). this discursive endeavor triggers discipline-related cognitive discourse functioning as students hold the liberty to negotiate and navigate a wide range of texts, giving rise to both conceptual and disciplinary discourse development, which are interrelated as theorized in the pluriliteracies model (meyer, 2014; meyer et al., 2015) contend that in a learning process laden with discipline-specific discourse learners’ progress in the subject-literacy pathway comprising of doing, organizing, explaining, and arguing. also, blc encouraged the students to behave scientifically as they research relevant texts by pondering the rhetorical properties of scientific texts. in the realm of organizing science, the shared reading and collaborative inquiry fostered them to describe, compare, and present scientific phenomenon related to the teaching of physics. the negative emotion occurred because of several technical constraints. students were confused as they were required to create the mind map, poster, and video project after the literature circles since they were unfamiliar with the task. since they had to work both inside and outside the class extensively, manage their time for extra discussion was a bit of a challenge. the following comments portrayed these issues. “to me, working in blc was so much exciting. nevertheless, i was confused with my tasks especially when the internet was slow and my battery was low. moreover, creating the video was very time-consuming. the other challenge was that i found it hard composing the summary because i was required to cover the other details from my friends’ works, but fortunately, i was able to collaborate with friends to discuss the solution.” nea questionnaire, 2 nd february 2018] “because the group work needed quite an extensive discussion, i found it rather difficult to manage the right schedule for my group discussion. [ivy questionnaire, 2 nd february 2018] students’ vignettes on social emotion the vignettes acknowledged that the students gained learning autonomy when engaged in collaborative tasks. the following opinions evinced that mastery goal was the driving factor behind their active engagement. the sense of social goal, particularly social concern, enthused the students to accomplish the task. “i tried to complete my tasks as assigned by my roles and everyone in the team helped one another when problems arose. i liked the interaction in the class which seemed borderless between students and lecturers.” [eve questionnaire, 2 nd february 2018] “i have always been encouraged to complete my role-based assignment, despite the difficulties i experienced, but luckily i could work with my team when problems arose. the interaction in the class was very encouraging as students were motivated to irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 304 work in tandem and there seemed to be no gap between the students and lecturer.” [zee questionnaire, 2 nd february 2018] these findings confirm previous works (bao & lam, 2008; imai, 2010), revealing that even negative emotions within group work can support language learning. blc serves as the catalyst to developing students’ motivation and through negotiation students reflect on strategy use. this was indicative of two previous comments made by students, nea and sally, as described in the following responses. “to my eyes, learning through blc was really supportive as we could share and discuss the lesson with our team. this helped me to figure out meanings in the texts by asking for help from my partners.” nea questionnaire, 2 nd february 2018] “i found it hard to create the mind map, so i resorted to my group discussion to figure it out.” sally questionnaire, 2 nd february 2018] the role assignment and task structure foment positively activating emotion, rather than the opposite, that is relaxation. this was expressed by two aforementioned students. sally mentioned, “the interaction was positive and fun, which thus helped us to accomplish the tasks”. similarly, eve made the following comment “i liked the interaction in the class which seemed borderless between students and lecturers”. regardless of the extensive work, most of the participants had full support by involving technology, so collective self-efficacy was evident. this points out that group engagement not only increases students’ control but also sparks positive values of the tasks. sally and zack made the following comments concerning the dialogic space in blc. “i was always committed to my roles in the group discussion because i was motivated to achieve the best result. the inclusion of online discussion helped the team to share and discuss the roles along with any difficulties during the discussion. the interaction was positive and exciting, which therefore supported us to accomplish the literature discussion and extension project.” [sally questionnaire, 2 nd february 2018] “we collaborated to accomplish the extension project according to the role assigned to each of us, so it was good because everyone had different responsibilities to contribute to the group work.” [zack interview, 7 th march 2018] the social space develops stronger learning ownership and more active engagement. accruing autonomy to choose and shift roles in literature circles is crucial, and changing roles among peers is required so that learners can experience different learning. positively triggering emotions, blc has therefore been proven to generate enjoyment, pride, and hope which are positively linked to effort, motivation, elaboration of learning resources, and learners’ self-regulated learning. hereunder are the emotional themes resulting from the analysis. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 305 table 1. profiles of students’ academic emotions the cognitive quality of tasks which involve assigned roles, goals, and blended learning aids in envisaging values of learning and control over task accomplishment. blc has created shared positive emotions and social goals, mediated by observational learning and emotional contagion (pekrun & stephens, 2010). the cooperative goal structures and meaning-making objective afforded in blc has led to achievement goals and social goals as well as enhanced subjective control (johnson & johnson, 1974). the struggling readers voiced both personalized and joint reading when engaged in discipline-related shared reading. blc encouraged each reader in both intra-mental and inter-mental processes. the former is manifest in the dialogic process between texts and readers, giving rise to self-regulated reading and knowledge construction based on students’ prior knowledge. within the arena of inter-mental processes, blc sustained enduring shared reading coupled with online research and digital project, despite initial technical difficulties. technology integration propelled collective analysis on the texts and collaborative inquiry grounded within an types of emotions valences and activation themes achievement emotion positively activating (hope and joy) 1. blc helps students to excel their vocabulary knowledge. 2. blc develops their language competencies and discipline-related knowledge through discursive collaboration. 3. blc fosters students’ collaboration on problem-solving and meaning-making processes. topic emotion positively activating (hope and joy) 1. the reading topics are interesting because they are linked to students’ discipline, motivating them to probe into their discipline knowledge deeper. 2. the topics expose students to numerous learning resources and bridge what they have learned and what they will encounter in their future teaching career. epistemic emotion positively activating (hope and joy) 1. blc stimulates the students to work in tandem for shared understanding and completing the digital projects. 2. blc empowers a deeper understanding of subject-specific knowledge 3. the integration of technology, by digital research, aids in dealing with difficult vocabularies and affords myriads of resources for better understanding 4. blc helps students to hone their critical thinking on negotiating multimodal discourse negatively activating (frustration) 1. the tasks are rather difficult because students are unfamiliar with blc task structures. 2. managing the schedule for extra discussion resulting from extensive group work is exhaustive. social emotion positively activating (hope and joy) 1. blc creates positive collaboration among students and student-teacher interaction. 2. the emergence of the reading community encourages the students to shoulder full ownership over their meaning-making process. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 306 authentic topic. this collaborative inquiry leads to more extensive discussion and deeper learning enabled through the use of multimodal texts. conclusion and recommendations the study has garnered three pedagogical implications from the findings. first, blc can be integrated into content learning that emphasizes building discipline knowledge and language repertoires. blc can engage students in the meaning-making endeavor and dialogic reading which propel their language repertoire, social development, reading ability, subject-specific discourse functioning, and technological literacy. third, teachers can deploy hypermedia to encourage students in discussing different facets of texts, such as discourse-semantic meanings, lexico-grammatical repertoires, and text genres. blc helps english learners and teachers to transform negatively activating emotion to strengthening learning responsibility and motivation for transactional reading. students need to be armed with critical digital literacy to navigate authentic information when exposed to abundant multimodal resources. we acknowledge that further study is required to gain a more complete picture of blc on reading proficiency and multidimensional learning, which is evident through the students-initiated readings and projects. for instance, a quantitative study can be conducted to investigate the increment of multidimensional students’ learning processes throughout a one-semester reading class. also, a qualitative study can be conducted to explore insights into relevant regulation strategies to help struggling readers excel. disclosure statement the authors declare no conflict of interest in the design of the study; in the collection, analysis, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results. references applebee, 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(1995). linking reading with meaning: a case study of a hyperlexic reader. journal of reading behavior, 27(4), 585–603. https://doi.org/10.1080/10862969509547900 biographical notes david imamyartha is a full-time lecturer at the department of english education of jember university. he is currently teaching english skills and some content-related subjects at the very department and english for specific purposes at several faculties. his research interest includes teaching methodology, technology-enhanced language learning, and teacher professional development. https://doi.org/10.1080/14708477.2018.1465069 https://doi.org/10.1080/00131725.2011.576804 https://doi.org/10.1080/00405848209543018 https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v5i2.192 https://doi.org/10.3200/jexe.77.2.125-146 https://doi.org/10.1177/0033688215589886 https://doi.org/10.1598/jaal.55.1.2 https://doi.org/10.1080/10573569.2018.1483788 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11528-013-0678-5 https://doi.org/10.1007/s40299-015-0269-7 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 310 eka wahjuningsih is working in jember university. areta puspa is a full-time lecturer at the department of english education of jember university. she is currently teaching esp classes at several faculties and some content-related subjects at the very department. she has been grappling with several research foci including technology-enhanced language learning, extensive reading, and teaching methodology. mitasari is a graduate from the department of english education of jember university. she has begun her teaching career at junior high school, with substantial interest in the instruction of reading and speaking. siti masrifatul fitriyah is a senior full-time lecturer at the department of english education of jember university. she has been teaching numerous subjects concerned with educational policy and language proficiency, such as language policy and planning, microteaching, drama and creative and writing, and english for professional purposes. she has been grappling with several research foci including teacher professional development, teaching methodology, and educational policy. rizki febri andika hudori is a full-time lecturer at the department of english education of jember university. he is currently teaching esp classes at several faculties and some content-related subjects. rika andayani is a full-time lecturer at the department of english education of state university of jakarta. zakiyah tasnim is a senior lecturer at the department of english education of jember university. aan erlyana fardhani is a senior lecturer at the department of english education of jember university. siti sundari is a senior lecturer at the department of english education of jember university. bambang arya wijaputra is a senior lecturer at the department of english education of jember university. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 246 learning resource development: an online-based learning resource for indonesian teachers sofyan, 1 dameria sinaga, 2 and rubiati 3 abstract the purpose of this study was to develop an online-based learning resource for indonesian language teachers. the development step started with the identification of learning objectives, learning process, analysis of learning resources and environments, formulation of specific objectives, design of assessment instruments and learning strategies, selection and development of teaching materials, design and evaluation of formative development projects, and making of good terms. the findings showed that the formative evaluations by experts showed the agreements of 89.23% from educational technology experts, 97.50% from material experts, and 90.00% from multimedia experts. the agreements informed that the online-based learning could be recommended for indonesian language teachers. furthermore, the average results of individual trials were 89.21%, small group trials (97.13%), and field trials (89.04%). the online-based learning resource established in this research and development study was feasible and useable. implications of the findings are also discussed. keywords development of learning resources, design-based learning, indonesian language teachers, online-based learning 1 faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, jambi, indonesia; sofyanzaibaski68@gmail.com 2 indonesian christian university, indonesia. 3 sekolah menengah pertama negeri 10, kota jambi, jambi, indonesia; rubiatirubiati@yahoo.co.id mailto:sofyanzaibaski68@gmail.com mailto:rubiatirubiati@yahoo.co.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 247 introduction the development of information and communication technology (ict) in the 21st century, especially online-based, has had a major impact on education (prasojo et al., 2019). the contribution of ict-based learning, especially online-based, is currently far beyond what has been imagined by educational experts and practitioners. the role of online-based learning has been able to change the ways of education. for teachers, the role of technology like online-based multimedia in increasing competence to design-based learning is needed. designing learning is the main scenario and pattern of learning which is carried out systematically and procedurally between components in the learning system. through online-based learning, teachers achieve many beneficial things and new understanding. online-based learning has been able to create a new culture of learning and teaching skills required for 21st century education (chai, tan, deng, & koh, 2017; göksün & kurt, 2017; muhaimin et al., 2019; prasojo et al., 2017; prasojo et al., 2018; prasojo et al., 2020) in producing and developing the number of knowledgeable and skilled graduates. this requirement is found in the indonesian teacher's pedagogical competency standards that teachers must integrate multimedia in learning. technology-based learning provides high confidence for teachers (muhaimin et al., 2019; mukminin et al., 2019; syaiful et al., 2019) to access various learning components. online-based learning projects encourage people to collaborate in collegial communities who share common vision and goals in various ways. in these groups, teachers can solve problems, revise work, and build knowledge (ivers & barron, 2002). within this situation, teachers have the opportunity to learn independently and apply their skills in real practice. teachers can learn and assess their work. the impact and importance of various knowledge from learning resources can be obtained, such as the problem of designing learning; challenge of communicating with different study participants (hadiyanto et al., 2013). it is also important on how to provide and accept responses as a constructive criticism and evaluation. the positive impact of applying online-based learning helps users have the competence and skills on using technology and preparing it for their future career demands. therefore, this research was conducted in the context of indonesian education. increasing pedagogical and professional competences of teachers in designing learning is an umbrella for learning success. the focus of this research was on the process of developing learning resources for designing online-based learning for indonesian junior high school language teachers. the purpose of this research was to provide specific learning resources for designing learning by utilizing online multimedia. the results of this study were hoped to contribute greatly as a model for teachers, principals, supervisors, and other education and training practitioners in designing learning. for further research, the results of this study presented qualitative data that could be used as a reference for further experiments or development. to achieve the purpose of the study, one major research question was: how is the online-based learning resource for indonesian language teachers developed? irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 248 literature review effective learning effective learning planning produces effective learning (jones & davis, 2011). therefore, it is important to do design-based learning. design-based learning is a pattern, sequence, and procedure that guide learning processes. it is an activity in determining the conditions of learning and the needs of individual learning as well as determining the objectives, creating models, approaches, and learning strategies as intervention steps in the transformation of learning. effective learning could be realized if there is an effective design. design-based learning is a systematic method for analyzing, designing, developing, evaluating, and managing teaching process for efficient knowledge and learning experience (dick & carey, 2009; ross & kemp, 2004; hadiyanto et al., 2013; posner & rudnitsky, 2001; smith & ragan, 2005; chen, 2011). learning theory should be implemented into the design in relation to the improvement of the quality of performances aiming to improve students’ performance and the efficiency and effectiveness of learning (gagne & briggs, 1978; rothwell & kazanas, 2004). thus, designing learning is an activity that includes a series of actions from various existing components, interrelated, including analyzing learning individuals, learning environment and objectives, selecting and developing assessment strategies and tools, selecting and developing learning materials, and evaluating learning outcomes. design-based learning effort should be conducted by teachers. teachers in design-based learning design-based learning should have impacts on learning process to make learning to be more effective. effective learning can be observed from high learning motivation and communicative interactions between teachers, students, and the environment as a source of learning as well as the completeness of the learning process (keller, 2010; gagne, wager, golas, & keller, 2005). to measure indonesian teachers’ pedagogical competences, teacher competency test (tct) is adopted. tct is an evaluation program implemented by the indonesian ministry of education and culture (mone, 2015). the 2015 tct results show the low pedagogical and professional competence of indonesian teachers. the tct value obtained was still under the minimum criteria required by mone, which was 55 out of 100. the low quality of teachers' competences is inseparable from the lack of focus on strategies and models for pedagogical and professional development. in addition, the teacher development strategy does not seem to be based on an assessment of the needs. in addition, the training model does not require teachers to improve their designing learning in an attempt for innovative and creative way to the level of the implementation. as a result, the efforts that have been made, whether facilitated by the central government or the regional ministry, are not maximized. training models and materials do not adjust to the conditions needed by teachers (mone, 2015). the training material still presents many aspects of irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 249 learning policies and theories, not the practice of designing learning. the discussed trends and issues do not adjust to the latest paradigms of the current development of education and learning. limited availability of learning resources for teachers is another factor to be solved. learning resources for designing learning should also be improved (habibi, yusop, & razak, 2020). in line with the progress of technology integration in the world of education, the use of online-based learning in an effort to increase teachers’ competences in designing learning has many advantages. submission of learning materials through online is more efficient (allen & seaman, 2013) and it benefits financially. teacher does not need to go to a certain place in a certain time to access learning. in addition, online-based learning resource is a distributed collaborative hypermedia information system (vaughan, 2006) which houses various information that can be accessed through the internet. these benefits can increase interactivity and productivity (arkun & akkoyunlu, 2008; cathorall, xin, blankson, kempland, & schaefer, 2018; frey & sutton, 2010). therefore, it can generate interest, support attraction, build independence, and improve online communication skills. the development of online-based learning resources for teachers is based on a behavioristic view (nurdin, 2005). it can determine the development of knowledge acquisition. meanwhile, constructivist (regeluth, 1999) viewed that learning occurs when students actively create their own knowledge. learning cannot be separated from the learning environment (pritchard & woollard, 2010) and constructivism lays on the importance of the social environment. in other words, the experiences that exist in individuals who learn from their social life can be integrated into learning. a constructivist orientation in learning with online-based learning resources is important to understand and do, considering that teachers as users of learning resources must be able to build new knowledge, based on the experiences they have. the rich environment that teachers have, such as collegial community, school environment, academic environment, and other social environments would greatly assist teachers in building new knowledge, including about design learning. the reason for combining online multimedia with learning resource materials is to improve teachers’ design learning (jones & davis, 2011). there is a need to plan learning better which in turn would motivate people to learn. the development of online multimedia-based learning resources is also based on the assumption (gustafson & branch, 2002). designing and developing learning patterns are needed as a concept and communication framework for analyzing, designing, developing, and evaluating. methodology research design, participants, and locale of the study this research applied research and development (r&d) method. r&d is very likely to be applied in the field of education, because it has a close relationship between systematic evaluation of programs or projects and their future development. it is a facilitation of the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 250 study of new models, tools, and procedures so that we can reliably anticipate their effectiveness and efficiency (richey & nelson, 2000). the steps done in the current study followed a systematic and procedural approach proposed by dick and carey (2009). the selection of this model was based on the characteristics and orientation of the model and the products. the first characteristic of the development, that the product in the form of learning resource is systematically arranged and developed. learning resources are part of the components that exist in learning that must be designed in a systematic way. systemic development techniques that are relevant to the elements must be present in the learning resources as the results of the development. the second characteristic is that the product development is packed with online-based multimedia. multimedia development is procedure oriented. the relevant model in multimedia development in this study is the model applied by alessi and trollip (2001). product development resulting from the combination of the two models can be measured. this learning resource is ultimately more quality and effective to be used by the teachers in design-based learning. the stages of r&d of the current study are shown in figure 1. figure 1. stages of the r & d data collection and analysis data collection in this research was carried out through preliminary research, design, development, and evaluation procedures (including: expert validation and field trials). data were collected using questionnaire, observations, interviews, group discussion, and irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 251 documents. the procedures for conducting r&d were as follows. for the main data collection, this study involved eighty-eight indonesian language teachers. it also involved three supervisors, five principals, and two educational policy makers. figure 2. procedural model the procedure used in this study was triangulation techniques (denscombe, 2007; guion, 2002). the information obtained from the same event but from different participants for verification. triangulation techniques include data, investigation, theory, and method. the triangulation method allows data analysis to be more reliable even though it is through different methodologies. the triangulation method allows the emergence of various opinions in the same context. the reason for choosing this research design was because r&d studies can describe data collected from the initial study stage, development process, and in-depth evaluation process. data obtained through a questionnaire were cross-checked with data from interviews, observations, documentation, and the results of trials. the r&d product validation process involved three experts in educational technology selected according to their expertise. three experts who validated were those who had expertise in the fields of multimedia, learning, and educational technology. the three experts came from different universities. the experts were given an instrument in the form of a questionnaire to collect data consisting of two parts. the first part uses a 5-point likert scale (5 = very good, 4 = good, 3 = moderate, 2 = less, and 1 = very less). the second part aims at accepting comments from the experts. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 252 ethical considerations in this study, all identities of participants and locations were masked. additionally, all identities regarding data sources were masked. all participants were also informed that all their data would be kept confidentially by researchers. findings the results of the observations on preliminary research on teacher design-based learning showed that the quality of design-based learning did not meet the required standards. only 35% of the lesson plans had measurable learning objectives. lesson plan that had an evaluation design that met the standards according to learning objectives was only 25%, had a strategy and learning steps that required the activities of students only 20%, lesson plans were equipped with learning materials relevant to the learning objectives were only 35%, and only 50% of them had learning media. meanwhile, there was no electronic learning resources informed related to design-based learning. the observational data on the lesson plan were relevant to the results of interviews with supervisors, school principals, and policy makers. the following are the some quotations of the results of the interviews with two supervisors, one principal and one policy maker, "most teachers have not done curriculum analysis and mapping basic competences that will be taught according to the students’ learning needs. there are still many teachers who have not designed the learning. the existing design is still in the form of a duplicated one and does not reflect the results of the need analysis. suggestions given by teachers must maximize collegial meetings for the purposes of collaborative design-based learning, group learning both independent learning and school-facilitated learning. “(interviewee 1-supervisor a) "from the experience of supervising learning in the schools i supervised, most teachers have not maximally carried out the learning steps as designed in the lesson plan. as a result, the process of evaluating learning that should have been carried out was not done appropriately. learning only emphasizes aspects of knowledge acquisition, not the process of forming critical thinking skills, forming good attitudes and kinesthetic language skills. “(interviewee 2-supervisor b) "the limited learning resources both printed and electronic make teachers become uncreative in renewing and adjusting to the new paradigm of innovative design-based learning. it is recommended that teachers be able to utilize group discussions in the teacher's work community in order to conduct collaborative workshops.” (interviewee 1-principal b) irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 253 "that the local government has not been able to optimally provide budgets for teacher training workshops in designing learning, the regional government through the education office also does not have enough financial supports to facilitate sufficient infrastructures that can facilitate the needs of teachers. local governments still depend on funding sources from the central government through the school operational funds. what is still being done is asking the teachers to improve their competences independently by utilizing various learning resources available. “(interviewee 1-stakeholder a) after researchers did the interviews in the preliminary need analysis research, the initial questionnaire was obtained based on the data. the questionnaire was required for designing online-based learning resources because of several factors; they had been able to use a computer with various applications available, they could use the facilities to access the internet network at school and at home, and the school had provided support for the availability of computer and network devices. according to teachers, the online learning resources they had accessed were still lacking regarding the contextual theory and practice; therefore, they needed to design online-based learning. therefore, teachers wanted more flexible and up-to-date online learning resources specifically designed to online-based learning. this is based on the limited conventional learning resources (printed books) as a reference for designing learning. even if available, the books presented an old paradigm and some parts were no longer relevant to the development of modern learning models and approaches. on the basis of needs analysis in the initial studies that had been carried out, it is important to develop an online-based learning resource for teachers. the products developed in this project were in the form of online multimedia-based learning resources. online multimedia was developed using a web learning management system (lms) system. the use of lms makes operational management to be easier than that of other media (aman, prasojo, sofwan, mukminin, habibi, & yaqin, 2020). the process of designing, operating, and editing that was easy and fast allows developers to develop learning resources properly. the results of the development were then evaluated and validated by a team of experts. the team of experts involved to validate the product includes: (1) educational technology experts; (2) expert design-based learning materials; and (3) learning multimedia experts. the results of the validation of educational technology experts are illustrated in figure 3. the results of the validation of the education technology expert on aspects of learning were considered to be very good. it was concluded that the indicators and principles of educational technology in the product development, online-based learning resources, were declared to have met the feasibility and could be continued in the trial process. following are the results of expert validation of learning materials about design-based learning, as the following graph. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 254 figure 3. validation of educational technology experts the assessment of each indicator meets the eligibility criteria. based on the results of the validation, the expert recommended that learning resources for designing online-based learning be appropriate and continued for the trial process (figure 4). figure 4. validation of learning multimedia expert multimedia learning experts assessed that the developed online-based learning resource had met the source of learning criteria. each indicator met the eligibility criteria. so, it is believed that developed products could be used as a medium and a source of learning. on this basis the expert recommendation, the online-based learning resource was feasible and could be used in the trial process. the results of the validation of the three experts as illustrated in the graphs that have been presented, obtained the average eligibility as illustrated in figure 5. 91.00% 92.00% 93.00% 94.00% 95.00% 96.00% 97.00% 98.00% 99.00% 100.00% 101.00% material content feasibility language use material presentation graphic presentation website interaction level website organization language and term graphic and illustration irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 255 figure 5. validation of expert teams to the online-based learning resource figure 5 illustrates, that the percentage of quality assessment results of the expert team was in very feasible. the expert team assessed that the source had been developed following the correct procedures and heeded the principles of the system and the method of model development. the expert team recommended that the product development could be continued to be tested and used by teachers both individually and in groups according to the existing characteristics. the use of development products by teachers in the trial process was carried out to see the qualitative effectiveness of the use of learning resources that had been developed. table 1 illustrates the quality of teacher responses from the trial process. table 1. trial results of the online-based learning resource 84.00% 86.00% 88.00% 90.00% 92.00% 94.00% 96.00% 98.00% 100.00% educational technology experts material experts learning media experts trial indicator response quality individual material clarity 90,26% navigation facility 87,62% material eligibility 89,09% average 89,21% small group the performance of the display 96,27% effectiveness of time 91,90% material eligibility 94,10% illustration suitability 96,25% appropriate evaluation 90,00% average 97,13% big group navigation facility 88,57% relevance of graphic 89,63% material adequacy 89,57% material updates 87,11% average 89,04% irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 256 table 1, illustrates that the quality of acceptance of trial subjects is very good. the response of the test subject to the indicators asked during the trial process was positive. the online-based learning resource generally met the expectations of teachers. it was quite effective in facilitating the development of design-based learning. the latest material characteristics, easy-accessible menu, interesting display, relevant illustrations, and suitable components could be utilized by the teachers in improving the competency of designing learning. discussion theoretically and practically, writing goals in design-based learning is important. learning objectives are indicators that mark the achievement of a process that has been done. learning objectives are also a guide for teachers in developing assessment instruments, writing teaching materials, developing learning strategies, as well as selecting appropriate learning media. learning objectives (dick & carey, 2015) are important to highlight as a basic requirement for developing test items, whether students really have a possessed subordinate skill (entry behavior), and goals also help ensure the suitability of learning provided for certain students. in addition, the goal is useful for designers (teachers) who need improvement over previous learning that has not yet reached the learning target. learning objectives (sanjaya, 2009) are components that influence all forms of interaction between teachers and students. as a binder, learning objectives are guidelines that are a source of design for other components included in learning so that the other components are bound together in the process of achieving goals. as it is known, learning is a system in which every component is a complete and complementary factor. the design of learning undertaken by the teacher includes an assessment plan, learning strategies, learning materials, methods, and media ultimately contributes to the achievement of objectives (erlina et al., 2018). preliminary data that had been carried out provides the fact, that in terms of designing learning, it already had initial competences, such as: (1) teachers’ understanding of teaching and learning theory; (2) experience in designing learning; (3) basic ability in operating computers; (4) basic ability in integrating multimedia for learning; and (5) ability in learning independently and in groups. the competences and skills that had been mastered by the teachers had not been fully developed in designing learning. this fact was supported by the results of observations, interviews with the principals, as well as the supervision results on the completeness of teaching when the initial study was conducted. in fact, basic competences of these teachers are very potential in empowering teacher development efforts in designing learning. the need for teachers to access online learning resources that can be used as guidelines in designing learning is greatly available. the teachers have not maximally used conventional learning resources in the form of books and printed modules to guide them in designing learning. on the other hand, learning resources for designing online-based learning are not yet available. the importance of developing online-based learning resources is also irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 257 based on the unavailability of learning resources that can specifically be used as a guide for teachers to design-based learning. the teachers want online learning resources that are specific and practically can be used independently or in groups. after completing all stages of development, expert evaluation, and users’ trials, the online-based learning resource had been declared in a feasible way. the expert validation process was carried out through several stages and studies. valid conclusions from experts were a strong basis for developers to test products for users, in this case indonesian language teachers. the online-based learning resource that was validated by the experts had been declared eligible for teaching use in indonesian education. according to the experts, the online-based learning was developed based on a material focus and presentation of designing learning. in addition, the online-based learning resource developed have met the criteria and principles of learning technology aimed at facilitating and improving user performance. characteristics of the learning resource for effective learning were considered “good”. according to the expert, that the provision of concrete examples of each material is able to foster enthusiasm and confidence for users to independently establish an online-based learning resource should follow the needs of students in their class. independent learning (mujiman, 2007) is an active learning activity that is driven by a motive to master a competence and build on the knowledge. giving reinforcement in online-based learning design can be done in accessible environment. this is important so that the users know how far they have mastered a study material. strengthening and reversing learning outcomes are the form of motivation service (santrock, 2007). motivated behavior is a behavior with full of energy, endurance, discipline, learning creation resulting in effective learning outcomes. effectiveness is sometimes considered as a motivation (keller, 2010). resources for designing online-based learning require student-centered learning which leads to independent learning. independence learning requires effective use of learning resources. effective learning can ultimately create individuals to obtain skills, knowledge, learning enjoyment, and attitudes. learning is an attempt to manage the environment intentionally (miarso, 2007); creating positive and effective learning conditions by utilizing learning resources help users develop their competences to gain critical thinking, attitudes, skills, and other positive attitudes from what is learned. the results of the field trials were also relevant to other studies. during trials, the users had high motivation in learning. increased motivation in designing learning with the help of online learning resources has a positive impact on improving pedagogical competences and teacher professionalism. in addition, the use of online-based learning resources can be adjusted by users with existing capabilities and existing learning environments. users’ responses as a test subject are relevant to the cognitive approach to active division. cognitive approach emphasizes active learning because it assumes people to learn not only by observing but by doing the approach. it also shows the importance of various activities in learning that utilize online multimedia. the interactions that occur not only to maintain attention, but also to help to create, to store new knowledge and skills, and to facilitate understanding. the principle of active learning using online-based learning irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 258 resources in a constructivist view is an important point for teachers as learning planners. learning is the process of people actively building knowledge. traditional teaching methods, such as memorizing, demonstrating, and imitating, are considered incompatible with the notion that learning is a process of constructing new knowledge and understanding. the application of designing online-based learning resource can improve the effectiveness of learning and facilitate the learning process for teachers. the teachers have a positive attitude towards online-based learning models for problem solving in order to improve their competences. the facts found in the trial process of designing online-based learning resource users were relevant to the research findings of varol (2014) and herguner (2016) who revealed that trained students consider it important to have competences in information technology. in this context, the online-based learning resource in sync with efforts to develop teacher competences regarding the integration information technology enables them to evaluate their technological competences in an independent way. in accordance with the guidelines for formative evaluation of development projects, the results of field trials show that the use of online-based learning resource is feasible and effective. the quality of the results of the instructional design conducted by the teacher would have an impact on the quality and success of learning. as an agent of learning, it is important for teachers to carry out design-based learning activities. teachers must be able to adapt and make changes. the teacher (fullan, 2000), is part of the learning unit; each unit must be able to develop abilities, move and make changes, and develop new skills and attitudes. in short, each unit must develop learning abilities. in the process of design and learning activities, teachers do not only rely on individual abilities. as a process with a broad impact, the design activities undertaken by the teachers must involve other units. like students, colleagues, leaders, or experts who can be asked for their opinions. this is important because the design-based learning is the first and foremost element that must be present in learning. a design-based learning becomes an umbrella for the implementation of the components in the learning process. conclusion and implications research regarding indonesian teachers' competency in designing good and effective learning was still limited. with the ability to master computers and network systems, teachers want specific online-based learning resources to become a guide in designing learning. development of online-based learning resources is carried out with the correct procedures following the methods, principles, and development models that are guided, starting from needs analysis, planning, design, evaluation, and testing. the use of online-based learning resource effectively increases competences and performances of teachers in designing learning. the effectiveness, efficiency, and attractiveness of the resources are evidenced by the quality of teacher design-based learning that have met required indicators. the online-based learning resource is a product that provides a broad impact, especially for teachers. on that basis, it is important to be considered by the stakeholders who run the policy so that the product can be widely used for teachers at all levels of irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 259 education. the online-based learning resource can be used by teachers in design-based learning activities in teacher working groups. this was seen not only during trials, but also in routine activities at school. another implication, the internet networks in schools should be used more optimally by teachers in an effort to improve competences. in an effort to support wider product dissemination and implementation, the local government needs to facilitate and make policies, to improve facilities and funding for the development of the support system in the form of increasing the capacity of existing accessibility in schools and training institutions. thus, it will be easier to access modules online quickly. some limitations are found in this project. online-based learning resources have experienced rapid changes in their development from time to time. the latest technology and upgrading products are needed continuously to align with these developments. required planning and design as well as accurate calculations for research and development starting from preparation, producing, validation, working with multimedia experts and trial process. the results of this study are limited to the subject of indonesian junior high school language teachers. in addition, the internet network is a problem that is occasionally encountered by teachers during the implementation of online learning. in certain conditions, teachers have difficulty getting internet access. in online learning that utilizes the internet network, a problem that often occurs is the condition in which there is a network that is disconnected during learning process. access to the internet must be one of the considerations in determining online-based learning. thus, learning developers need to pay attention to the percentage of conventional (face-to-face) and online learning that emphasizes more independent learning. therefore, the initial analysis steps for all components involved in learning are important. furthermore, the data found in the study is qualitative data from the facts found during the development process to formative evaluation. it is important for researchers and subsequent developers to conduct more in-depth research with various methods. disclosure statement no conflict of interest was reported by the 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(2006). multimedia: making it work (ed.). yogyakarta: andi. biographical notes dr. sofyan works at the faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, jambi, indonesia; sofyanzaibaski68@gmail.com dameria sinaga works at indonesian christian university, indonesia. rubiati works as a teacher at sekolah menengah pertama negeri 10, kota jambi, jambi, indonesia; rubiatirubiati@yahoo.co.id mailto:sofyanzaibaski68@gmail.com mailto:rubiatirubiati@yahoo.co.id this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 263 the development of the basic obstetric ultrasound learning media for undergraduate medical students herlambang, 1 amelia dwi fitri,* 2 nyimas natasha ayu shafira, 3 elfiani, 4 anggelia puspasari, 5 and susan tarawifa 6 abstract current medical education curriculum refers to the indonesian medical doctor’s standard of competence 2012. competencies are detailed in seven general areas of competence to be achieved by medical students. this study focused on the development of learning media in the form of guide book and video related to the basic obstetric ultrasound examination and its influence in improving student’s knowledge of basic obstetric examination skills. a quantitative method used to see the effectiveness of the learning media that we developed. twenty-one under graduate medical students who undertook clinical rotation in the department of obstetrics and gynecology participated in this study through completing the pre-post student’s questionnaires to assess the students' knowledge before and after the delivery of learning media. the collected data were analyzed with a computer program; means and standard deviation were calculated as descriptive parameters. parametric tests were used to test the hypotheses. the pre-post results were compared using the wilcoxon statistical test. the results showed a significant difference in the score of pretest and posttest. there was an increase in the average score of pretest and posttest for students after obtaining the teaching media and clinical supervision. the value of each individual was also increased. the analysis with the wilcoxon statistical test showed significant differences which mean that there were improvements on student’s knowledge of basic obstetric examination skills after the delivery of guide book and video. the use of teaching media in the form of basic obstetric ultrasound module and video contributed to positive results to improve the student’s knowledge. keywords learning media, medical education curriculum, medical students 1 the department of obstetric and gynecology, faculty of medicine and health sciences, universitas jambi, indonesia; herlambang07@yahoo.co.id 2 *corresponding author, the department of medical education, faculty of medicine and health sciences, universitas jambi, indonesia; amelia_dwi@unja.ac.id 3 the department of medical education, faculty of medicine and health sciences, universitas jambi. 4 faculty of medicine and health sciences, universitas jambi, indonesia. 5 the department of biochemistry, faculty of medicine and health sciences, universitas jambi, indonesia. 6 faculty of medicine and health sciences, universitas jambi, indonesia. mailto:herlambang07@yahoo.co.id mailto:amelia_dwi@unja.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 264 introduction ultrasound is one of the modern tools to guide a doctor to facilitate patient’s diagnostic procedure. obstetrics and gynecology is a branch of medical sciences that use ultrasound in daily practices. the use of ultrasound is widely for basic examination of pregnant women, and also for the diagnosis of cases in the field of obstetrics and gynecology. there is a general consensus that basic obstetric ultrasound is an important skill to teach in medical schools. the integration of ultrasound is highly variable in the worldwide. in the u. s. medical school curricula, there is a national standard to guide the integration of ultrasound education (bahner, goldman, way, royall, & liu, 2014). in indonesia, the current medical education curriculum refers to the indonesian medical doctor’s standard of competence 2012. competencies are detailed in seven general areas of competence to be achieved by medical students. clinical skills mastery is an important element determining the quality of professionalism of medical higher education graduates. the indonesian medical doctor’s standard of competence places the mastery of basic obstetric ultrasound examination in the 4 th level of competence; it means that graduates should able to independently perform this skill in primary health care (indonesia, 2012). however, the integration of ultrasound education programs into the undergraduate medical education model remains a challenge, efforts to integrate ultrasound technologies into undergraduate medical education are limited, and a national consensus has not been reached regarding their role in the medical education system. in addition, teaching media that can be used as a reference containing every detailed step of basic obstetric ultrasound examination are still very limited. to overcome this problem, it is necessary to develop instructional media that can be used as a medium to integrate basic obstetric ultrasound examination education into learning curricula. in this study, we developed two instructional media in the form of guide book and a video of basic obstetric ultrasound examination. then, the effectiveness of the instructional media developed was assessed by assessing student’s knowledge before and after receiving the learning media. this was a preliminary study; the result of this study would be used as part of learning media in integrating process of ultrasound education into learning curricula. to achieve the goal of the study, one general research question guided this study: what is medical students’ knowledge before and after receiving the learning media? literature review there are three categories of learning methods, namely (1) expository, (2) exploratory, and (3) simulation. the expository method is unidirectional delivery or representation of information to the learners. exploratory method prompts the learners to explore and discover by way of interaction. it allows and encourages a two-way exchange of information such as discussion, question and answer and brainstorm. simulation is a teaching and learning method that allows practice of learned skills in a safe situation that irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 265 closely resembles real life, this method allows the careful and gradual transfer of learned skills into actual practices. role play and standardized patients are examples of simulation in medical education(amin & eng, 2003). the association of american medical colleges ‘s institute for improving medical education (aamc-ime) highlights the importance of multimedia learning and suggests that medical educators should utilize multimedia learning principles when designing learning media for medical students. a critical point is that faculty development programs should encourage lecturers to understand how people learn best from words and pictures, based on the theoretical underpinnings of multimedia learning theory and accordingly to understand how to design effective multimedia instructional messages (issa et al., 2011). most clinical faculty staff involving in medical education lack formal or structured training in the science of teaching prior to beginning their duties as educators. faculty development programs should provide learning media that enhance the learning process for students. the emphasis on understanding the cognitive process of learning, rather than simply following certain design rules, is the key. this process is especially relevant in medical education as a significant proportion of medical learning occurs through a variety of multimedia formats, such as didactic lectures, small-group sessions, traditional module and web-based modules, among other applications (digiacinto, 2007; issa et al., 2011; levinson, 2010). video use in health professions education has risen exponentially in the past decade. for example, stanford university school of medicine has collaborated with the khan academy to develop and teach the core curriculum using short video clips in a flipped classroom model. youtube videos have been widely used in health professions education. medical schools that have been through curricular reform are increasingly adopting the clinical competency outcome framework. well-designed videos offer medical students the flexibility to review material at their own pace to address their individual learning needs under this framework. many students already skip lectures and solely access educational materials online in digital format. ideally, educational theories and best practices should guide the use of videos. research on the effective use of technology in education shows that instructors need to be not only subject matter experts, but also have an empirical understanding of the technology to be used to deliver the content, as well as the teaching and learning pedagogy underpinning the use of a particular instructional format (billings-gagliardi & mazor, 2007; cooke, irby, sullivan, & ludmerer, 2006; prober & khan, 2013; roblyer & doering, 2012). ultrasound technology is generally considered to be reliable and widely used by physician today. ultrasound training for undergraduate medical students has been increasingly incorporated into curriculum. ultrasound is imaging modality based on the use of high frequency sound. transformation of sound energy is to electric and further processes to form image. ultrasound wave originates from transducer, propagates through different tissue density and then returns to the transducer as reflected echo. reflected echo converted back into electrical impulses by transducer and processes as images with different echo. ultrasound in obstetric is a main modality that has been widely used because its safety and noninvasive. ultrasound screening in the first trimester of pregnancy performs to define irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 266 intra-exstrauterine pregnancy, measure gestational age (measure diameter of gestational sac, yolk sac, and crown-rump length), measure cardiac activity and detect any early fetal abnormality. ultrasound screening in the second and third trimester of pregnancy aims to define single or multiple pregnancy, measure amnion fluid volume, define placental structure and location, biometry measurement for gestational age and fetal growth assessment, and screening for fetal anomaly (baltarowich et al., 2014; limchareon, asawaworarit, klinwichit, & dinchuthai, 2016; pinto, wankelmuth, & d’addario, 2004). there has been growing interest in undergraduate ultrasound education among educators and students in recent years. the number of citations reported in a pubmed search for ultrasound has increased more than 2, 5 times since 2006 from 351 to over 900 in 2014. historically, students have had little ultrasound education and almost no hands-on scanning experiences while they are in medical schools. however, this is changing and more medical schools are introducing ultrasound into their curricula. an argument can be made that ultrasound should be seriously considered for inclusion as a core competency for all medical students (dinh et al., 2016; hoppmann et al., 2015). ultrasound curriculum is also presented as thoughts on future directions of undergraduate ultrasound education. ultrasound has proven to be a valuable active learning tool that can serve as a platform for integrating medical student curriculum across disciplines and clinical settings. it is also well-suited for a competency-based model of medical education. students can learn ultrasound well and have embraced it as an important component of their education and future practice of medicine. an international consensus conference on ultrasound education is recommended to help define the essential elements of ultrasound education globally to ensure ultrasound is taught and ultimately practiced to its full potential. ultrasound has the potential to fundamentally change how we teach and practice medicine to the benefit of learners and patients across the globe (dinh et al., 2016; hoppmann et al., 2015). over the past 10 years, medical schools around the globe have begun to implement ultrasound into their curricula, and ultrasound has proved to enhance student education in physical examination, in basic sciences, as well as on clinical rotations. medical schools that provide point-of-care ultrasound training have shown that students find it useful in various aspects of medical education and expressed interest in obtaining further education in ultrasound, integration of ultrasound into the medical school curriculum is feasible and beneficial to medical students (birrane, misran, creaney, shorten, & nix, 2018; dinh et al., 2016). methodology we developed two learning media in this research, which was in the form of guidebook and video about the basic principles of obstetric ultrasound examination. guidebook was prepared in accordance with the standards of examination of pregnant women made by the association of obstetrists and gynecologists in indonesia as well as international standard. this manual contains step-by-step instructions on how to perform basic obstetric ultrasound examination in the first, second and third trimester pregnant irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 267 women. it also contains the essentials things that need to be identified as a preliminary screening of a normal pregnancy. video was developed on the same principle as in the guidebook, using twelve tips and implementation strategies for using videos in health professions education. video performed by obstetricians and gynecologists with fetomaternal consultant background, who were also active in undergraduate medical education, familiar with the topic and had lectured on it for several years, involving three mothers with normal pregnancies and single fetuses, each representing the first, second and third trimester of pregnancy. cinematic aspects of the video were done by the experts. we also developed a questionnaire about student knowledge in basic obstetric ultrasound, consisting of 20 multiple choice questions. the validity of the questionnaire was reviewed in two stages. first, the questionnaire was evaluated by a panel of health profession education experts including faculty members. after being declared as valid by the panel of experts, the questionnaire was assessed for validity using the spearman rank correlation coefficient rho, which resulted in the probability value p > 0.05. the reliability of the questionnaire was tested using cronbach’s alpha which resulted in the reliability coefficients in the range 0.892– 0.898 indicating the high reliability of the questionnaire and its items. the questionnaire was written in the indonesian language. to assess the efficiency of the learning media that we developed, we conducted an experimental study, involving 21 medical students in year five who experienced a clinical rotation in the department of obstetric and gynecology, raden mattaher general hospital. we used one group pre and posttest design to assess the difference of student knowledge about basic obstetric ultrasound before and after we gave two learning media that we developed and one group posttest design to assess students’ skills achievement. we handed pretest questionnaire consisting of 20 questions related basic obstetric ultrasound principles, students were expected to learn by using both media independently and tried to find as many opportunities as possible to observe clinical teachers in wards and ambulatory care conducted ultrasound examination. at the end of their rotation, the students completed the post questionnaire using the same questions they encountered during pretest. a descriptive analysis was performed, and data were presented as mean and standard deviation, minimum and maximum, and number and percentage. the mann wilcoxon test was used for comparison of continuous or ordinal variables, statistical significance was determined at p < .05. ethical considerations in this study, all personalities of students were concealed. additionally, all personalities regarding data bases were masked. all students were also knowledgeable that all their information would be kept privately by investigators. findings this study focused on the development of learning media in the form of guide book irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 268 and video related to the basic obstetric ultrasound examination and its influence in improving student’s knowledge of basic obstetric examination skills. the results showed a significant difference in the score of pretest and posttest. there was an increase in the average score of pretest and posttest students after obtaining the teaching media and clinical supervision. in the pretest, we found the mean value of 24.14; minimum value of 15; and a maximum value of 55. in the posttest, we found the mean value of 75.45, a minimum value of 55, and a maximum value of 90, as showed in the table below. the value of each individual was also increased. table 1. result of the pre-post questionnaire descriptive statistic value pretest mean 24.14 95% confidence interval for mean lower bound upper bound 21.22 32.10 median 35.00 variance 121.150 std. deviation 11.200 minimum 15 maximum 55 range 40 posttest mean 75.45 95% confidence interval for mean lower bound upper bound 71.82 84.00 median 75.00 variance 151.222 std. deviation 12.560 minimum 55 maximum 90 range 40 the result of the test of normality for the pre and post test data showed abnormal data distribution, based on that result that we used wilcoxon test as selected statistical analysis test, as showed in the table below. table 2. test of normality test of normality kolmogorov-smirnov shapiro-wilk statistic df sig statistic df sig pretest .192 21 .035 .904 21 .046 posttest .272 21 .000 .843 21 .005 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 269 the result of wilcoxon statistical analysis test showed significant differences (asymp sig 2-tailed 0.000) between the value of pretest and posttest, which means there were improving on student’s knowledge of basic obstetric examination skills before and after the giving of handbook and video. the answers to open questions were processed; all the students stated that the guidebook could provide them with sufficiently clear information about basic obstetric ultrasound examination, helping them learn the steps to be taken to identify important matters in pregnant women. in the case of a given video, the students stated that the video given was very interesting and informative. in terms of content, the video was presented with a clear sequence of steps, ranging from instrument preparation, patient preparation, placing the transducer to the patient's stomach and directing the target to be searched. the cinematic aspects such as sound and picture quality is also very good, covering multiple angles of image for each stage of examination helps students to understand how to use ultrasound for basic obstetric examination. but some students claim that to be able to have the expected 4 th level of competence in this skill, according to the indonesian medical doctor’s standard of competence 2012, it will be very helpful if they had an opportunity for being guided directly by the clinical teacher frequently, for certain schedule and experience to the real patients. discussion there is a well-recognized paucity of medical education research on the effects of utilizing cognitive load theory and multimedia design principles on the learning of medical professionals. this study builds on the work that cognitive psychologists such as have already carried out in the science of instructional design. we found that learning media in the form of guidebook and video development in this study was good enough to encourage learning process and improve student cognitive issues. twelve tips in arranging multimedia have been applied through instructional video made by demonstrating standard procedures in sequence. there is an orientation to video content, learning achievement to be achieved, spacing or time lag between each segment of the video was made clear so that at the time of watching the video students can learn each segment well. video was also made by paying attention to the efficiency and effectiveness of the time of the download, the duration of the video was 25 minutes. this time is considered enough to make the students watch and remain interested in seeing the video content from beginning to end. videos were made professionally from both the concept and content aspects of learning and in terms of video cinematic quality (herlambang et al., 2018; issa et al., 2011; mayer, 2010). videos also stimulate curiosity and engage students’ attention by situating them in realistic clinical scenarios, and promoting authentic learning. students could play video frequently fast-forward to or replayed sections of the video as needed. they could choose pause section for a moment if they wanted to focus on the certain aspects and this learning process could also be done during their spare time along their activities in clinical rotation. it irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 270 could overcome the limitations of human resources (clinical teacher) and time related to the difficulty of facilitating repetitive ultrasound clinical supervision activities. but this unscheduled session is also the limitation of this study. our study was carried out during an actual core curriculum session with uncontrolled setting and student distractions. learning by doing requires an appropriate and controlled learning environment. the selection of an appropriate learning situation is the decisive factor for a sustainable learning experience (dahmen et al., 2016; herlambang et al., 2020; herlambang et al., 2019; mayer, 2010). the findings are generally consistent with those obtained by mayer (2010) with undergraduate students as participants, and showed that multimedia design principles can be successfully applied in medical education. however, the results of this study did not show that multimedia design principles improved students’ ability to apply the newly acquired knowledge and psychomotor competence to clinical skills. guidebook and video still cannot replace other roles which are required in training students' clinical skills. the role of clinical supervision in scheduled guidance sessions with the real patient is really needed, as well as the opportunity for the students to hands on directly to patients, the need for constructive feedback repeatedly so that students are able to self-reflected, learn continuously and improve performance gradually until finally able to mastery the clinical skills. what needs to be considered is the need for adequate resources and time to facilitate this activity. clinical teachers should spend considerable time along their medical service and research activities, because practicing skills on students cannot be done only once, must be frequently, repetitive and continuously with constructive feedback (mayer, 2003, 2010). conclusion and implications the findings showed a significant difference in the score of pretest and posttest. there was an increase in the average score of pretest and posttest for students after obtaining the teaching media and clinical supervision. the value of each individual was also increased. the analysis with the wilcoxon statistical test showed significant differences which mean that there were improvements on student’s knowledge of basic obstetric examination skills after the delivery of guide book and video. the use of teaching media in the form of basic obstetric ultrasound module and video contributed to positive results to improve the student’s knowledge. therefore, the role of faculty is essential to encourage the resources involved to integrate these skills guidance activities in the preclinical phase and clinical phase curriculum, develop strategies that can make the clinical supervisions are willing to spend their time and energy on the sidelines of their role in health services and research, the ultimate goal is none other so that students can achieve competence according to the expected standard demands. teaching basic obstetric ultrasound skills for undergraduate medical students should be incorporated in to curriculums. disclosure statement no conflict of interest was reported by the authors. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 271 acknowledgments we would like to thank all participants who participated in this study. also we would like to thank irje and reviewers for accepting our article. the authors thank to dr. asro hayani harahap and dr. hernina oktaviani for their great help and support in this study. references amin, z., & eng, k. 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(2004). donald school textbook of ultrasound in obstetrics and gynecology. asim kurjak, frank a chervenak, first ed, jaypee brothers, new delhi, india, 365. prober, c. g., & khan, s. (2013). medical education reimagined: a call to action. academic medicine, 88(10), 1407-1410. roblyer, m. d., & doering, a. h. (2012). integrating educational technology into teaching. biographical notes dr. herlambang works at the department of obstetric and gynecology, faculty of medicine and health sciences, universitas jambi, indonesia; email: herlambang07@yahoo.co.id dr. amelia dwi fitri works at the department of medical education, faculty of medicine and health sciences, universitas jambi, indonesia; email: amelia_dwi@unja.ac.id dr. nyimas natasha ayu shafira works at the department of medical education, faculty of medicine and health sciences, universitas jambi, indonesia. dr. elfiani works at faculty of medicine and health sciences, universitas jambi, indonesia dr. anggelia puspasari works at the department of biochemistry, faculty of medicine and health sciences, universitas jambi, indonesia. dr. susan tarawifa works at the faculty of medicine and health sciences, universitas jambi, indonesia. mailto:herlambang07@yahoo.co.id mailto:amelia_dwi@unja.ac.id this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 442 efl students' needs of digital literacy to meet the demands of 21stcentury skills eryansyah 1 , erlina 2 , fiftinova 3 , ari nurweni 4 abstract this study was a survey study which was aimed at looking at efl students’ current knowledge and skills of ict. the research questions of this study were(1) what levels of digital literacy are the efl students?, (2) what are the factors affecting efl students in using ict in language learning?, and (3) what are the students' needs to improve their digital literacy skills to meet the demands of the 21 st century skills? two groups of efl students from two state-owned universities in the southern part of sumatra were involved in this study. a set of questionnaires adapted from ravitz (2014) was used. the findings showed that efl students’ current level of digital literacy was categorized low. factors affecting them from using ict in language learning properly were limited use of ict applications as a tool for language learning and limited access to computers and internet applications on campus. what the efl students needed to improve their digital literacy skills was the availability of computers with internet applications to be used anytime on campus, ict training for both teachers and students, and continuous integration of ict in language learning. keywords digital technology, ict, digital native, digitally literate 1. language and arts education department, faculty of teacher training and education, sriwijaya university, palembang, indonesia; eryansyah@unsri.ac.id. 2. language and arts education department, faculty of teacher training and education, sriwijaya university, palembang, indonesia; erlina@fkip.unsri.ac.id. 3. language and arts education department, faculty of teacher training and education, sriwijaya university, palembang, indonesia; fiftinova@fkip.unsri.ac.id. 4. language and arts education department, faculty of teacher training and education, lampung university, bandar lampung, indonesia; a.nurweni@yahoo.com. mailto:eryansyah@unsri.ac.id mailto:erlina@fkip.unsri.ac.id mailto:fiftinova@fkip.unsri.ac.id mailto:a.nurweni@yahoo.com irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 443 introduction teaching efl students today is different from the one we did several decades ago, especially in terms of technology used in language teaching. several decades ago, we still used a tape player, video player, and blackboard or whiteboard as media used in the classroom. today those media have been replaced by digital technologies such as mp3 replacing tape cassette, mp4 replacing videotapes, and smart board replacing blackboard and whiteboard. all those teaching media can be controlled from a single computer. the communication between teacher and students outside class hours have changed too. we used to communicate through landlines and mobile phones. today our communication is made through digital-based technologies such as smartphones or tablets with various applications (instagram, email, short text messages, whatsapp, video calls from whatsapp, gmail, facebook, and skype) (kuldip-singh & samah, 2018; miakotko, 2017). the massive use of those applications indicates that most people today including the efl teachers and students today are active users of digital technologies. digital technologies have been used in teaching and learning activities in most developed countries for more than 25 years (passey et al., 2016). they named digital technologies as ict, information and communication technology. in contrast, the use of ict in the classroom in many developing countries like indonesia is still a new phenomenon. ict has not been integrated into the classroom yet especially in efl classes. a study conducted by kurniawati, maolida, and anjaniputra (2018) concluded that efl teachers today were still in the stage of adapting digital media to their efl classes. they still had limitations in using digital media. although the use of ict has been introduced in education since 2001 based on the decree of the ministry of state apparatus utilization no. 133/m.pan/5/2001, efl teachers are still reluctant to integrate it in their efl teaching (durriyah & zuhdi, 2018). one of the causes, as explained by lubis (2018), is that “time allocation and technical problems become the major constraints to conduct a proper integration” (p. 18). price-dennis, wiebe, and fowler-amato (2014 as cited in durriyah & zuhdi, 2018, p. 54) add that “a gap between availability and use of digital technologies in classroom” also affect teachers’ reluctance to integrate digital technologies or ict in the classroom. realizing that efl teaching today has changed and the change has involved digital technology or ict, efl teachers and/or efl students who are the prospective efl teachers must have anticipated the changes. although they are digital natives 1 , there is no guarantee that they are digitally literate. data from kominfo (2014) shows that there were 82 million internet users in indonesia in 2014 which was the 8 th largest users in the world. that number must have increased significantly this year. despite the big number, according to 1digital natives are those who are born in the digital era and are the native speakers of “the digital language of computers, video games and the internet” (prensky, 2001, p. 1). irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 444 tampubolon (2017), most indonesians, in reality, do not have a strong understanding of how the digital world works. a large number of them are still digitally illiterate. they use digital technology mainly only as a medium for communication or information sharing. the above condition is relevant to what was stated by spires and bartlett (2012) that although the students today are digital natives, they lack complete knowledge of digital literacy. they are not very aware of how the actual use of technology has influenced their learning. as a result, they sometimes ignore ethics in using social media. in the indonesian context, supratman and wahyudin (2017) found that the lack of digital literacy education has caused many indonesian students do not know how to use social media wisely and responsibly. based on the explanations above, it is obvious that being digitally literate is important for everyone in this digital era including those who are in higher education. for university students, as claimed by fieldhouse and nicholas (2008), being digitally literate allows them to have the skills to think critically on how to determine the information received is credible and possessing the information, and the skills to contextualize, analyze, and synthesize any information found online. in short, digital literacy is becoming a skill necessary for everyone in this 21 st century. knowing students’ lack of digital literacy skills and realizing the importance of being digitally literate in the 21 st century, the authors considered it was important to teach digital literacy skills to students including those, the prospective efl teachers who were in the last year of their study at university. before teaching digital literacy to them, it was deemed necessary to find out their current level of digital literacy and their needs of digital literacy to meet the demands of the 21 st century skills. for that reason, this study was conducted to investigate efl students’ current level of digital literacy and their needs for digital literacy to meet the demands of 21 st century skills. this study was a survey study involving english education study program students from two state-owned universities in two big cities in the southern part of sumatra. the focus of this study was to investigate efl students’ current level of digital literacy and their needs of digital literacy to meet the demands of 21 st century skills. the purpose of the study was aimed at looking at efl students’ current level of digital literacy, finding out factors affecting efl students in using ict in language learning, and identifying efl students’ needs to improve their digital literacy skills to meet the demands of the 21 st century skills. to achieve the purpose of the study, these research questions guided the study: (1) what levels of digital literacy are the efl students?, (2) what are the factors affecting efl students in using ict in language learning?, and (3) what are the students' needs to improve their digital literacy skills to meet the demands of the 21 st century skills? literature review digital technology digital technology refers to “the ever-evolving suite of digital software, hardware and architecture used in learning and teaching in the school, the home and beyond both home irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 445 and school environments” (lee & finger, 2010, p. 15).this term is used interchangeably with educational technology, computer-based technologies, learning technology, and ict. among those terms, ict (information and communication technology) is the most commonly used term (lee & finger, 2010). therefore, the term ict will be mostly used in the rest of this article. ict has changed the ways people do their daily activities. it affects them at least in three main sectors, that is, education, communication, and entertainment and leisure. in terms of education, the advancement of technology today has changed the ways teaching and learning activities performed in the class. ciroma (2014) found out that, worldwide research has shown that ict can lead to improved student learning and better teaching methods. a report made by the national institute of multimedia education in japan proved that an increase in student exposure to educational ict has a significant impact on student’s achievement, especially in terms of knowledge, comprehension, practical skill and presentation skill in subject areas such as mathematics, science, and social study. (p. 99) the above explanation indicates that the integration of ict in the classroom gives benefits to both teachers and students. through ict, teachers can use a lot of images to improve retention of students’ memory, explain difficult instruction and ensure students’ understanding of the material discussed, and create more exciting class instruction, attract students’ attention and improve their concentration (lachica, 2015; mogekwu, 2015). ict has also changed the role of a teacher in the classroom. the teacher is no longer the only source of knowledge. he or she facilitates the creation of knowledge and skills. this condition changes students’ behaviors from passive to active students. being facilitated by the teacher, students can collaborate with others to discover new knowledge and skills. in brief, the integration of ict in the classroom transforms the teaching and learning process in the class from teacher-centered to be student-centered (lachica, 2015). the impact of ict on entertainment is that ict has enabled people to have more entertainment offered. people spend less time outside during their leisure time as they can find any entertainment they need through their gadgets (such as smartphones, tablets, or laptops) to watch online movies on youtube or paid movies, listen to mp3 songs, or play online games. they can even watch tv or movies for the whole family at home using home internet and cable tv. impact of ict on efl teaching and learning ict is believed to have great impacts on efl teaching and learning. research findings on ict around the world show that the use of ict in efl teaching “can lead to increased student learning and improved teaching methods” (papadima-sophocleous, giannikas, & kakoulli-constantinou, 2014, p. 296).in a similar vein, azmi (2017) and irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 446 hussain (2018)assert that the use of ict in the language classroom affects the increase of students’ autonomous learning, motivation, and performance in efl learning. for efl teachers, houcine (2011) summarizes six impacts of the use of ict on efl teaching. (1) the possibility to adapt easily the teaching materials according to circumstances, learner’s needs and response; (2) ict allows to react upon and enables the use of recent/daily news, it offers access to authentic materials on the web; (3) quick feedback is made possible; (4) possibility to combine/use alternately (basic) skills (text and images, audio and video clip...); (5) lectures become more interesting and less ordinary which boosts learners’ engagement; (6) ict enables to focus on one specific aspect of the lesson (pronunciation, vocabulary...). (houcine, 2011, pp. 1-2) the above explanation shows that the use of ict in language teaching has given positive impacts for both teachers and students. the integration of ict in language teaching makes efl teaching more effective in enhancing language learning as stated by cetto (2010), “in my experience, technology has broadened the spectrum of interaction while empowering the students’ learning process by providing better opportunities for language usage” (p. 121). importance of being digitally literate as most of the undergraduate students today are digital natives, they have been exposed to the use of digital technology (smartphones, tablets, laptops, desktops, music and movie players, etc.). it is believed that many of them are digitally literate. this condition is an opportunity for efl teachers. they can integrate ict into their efl classrooms. they can use smartphones, for example, to develop students’ language skills (listening, speaking, reading, and writing) by adapting any authentic materials available on the internet that are appropriate to be used for their students. they can share the materials using smartphone applications such as whatsapp, facebook, instagram, etc. to run an ict-based efl teaching well, both efl teachers and students must be digitally literate. the meaning of the term literate used here is different from its literal meaning found in a dictionary, that is, having the capability of reading and writing. the advancement of technology and the internet today has integrated the word literacy with digital literacy. jones and flannigan (2006)define, digital literacy is the ability to understand and use information in multiple formats from a wide range of sources when it is presented via computers... (not) only must you acquire the skill of finding things, you must also acquire the ability to use those things in your life. acquiring digital literacy for internet use involves mastering a set of core competencies. (p. 6) irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 447 in brief, being digitally literate here can be interpreted as having the ability to navigate digital media for information and communication and to utilize them effectively, creatively, and responsibly. there are three components that efl teachers and students need to have to be indicated that they are digitally literate. those components are information literacy (il), information and communication technology (ict) skills, and media literacy (ml)(chu, reynolds, tavares, notari, & lee, 2017). chu et al. (2017) further explain, il is the ability to effectively and ethically select, evaluate and use information to gain, apply and share their knowledge…, ict skills … refer to the ability to use digital technology, communication tools, and/or networks to access, manage, integrate, evaluate and create bodies of information, [and] ml … is associated with the ability to access, analyze, evaluate and communicate messages in a variety of forms. (p. 22) being digitally literate is deemed very important today. since digital media are available almost everywhere today and most of students today are already digital natives, the efl teachers who are digitally literate can utilize ict to create new ways of teaching and learning within or outside the classroom. but, efl students’ current level of digital literacy skills and any factors affecting the implementation of ict in the class should be identified before the ict program is properly integrated into efl teaching. in this way, students’ need for digital literacy is to meet the demand of the 21 st century skills can be properly programmed. methodology research design this was a survey study involving two groups of students from two state-owned universities in the southern part of sumatra. there were three reasons why this study involved two state-owned universities in the southern part of sumatra. firstly, both universities were nationally accredited. they were national-class universities representing two provinces in the southern part of sumatra, indonesia. secondly, both universities had a big number of students coming from several cities in the south of sumatra. therefore, they represented the population of students in the southern part of sumatra. finally, as the two universities were located in big cities, the students were assumed to have been familiar with digital technologies and the universities were assumed to have provided facilities supporting the use of digital technologies. to the rest of this article, the two state-owned universities were called state-owned university a and state-owned university b. this study was a quantitative study as it employed a quantitative data instrument in the form of questionnaires to seek efl students’ self-report regarding their current knowledge and skills of ict and the factors that inhibited them from developing their ict knowledge and skills properly. irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 448 sampling procedure this study employed convenience sampling as its sampling method. fraenkel and wallen (2005) explain that convenience sampling refers to “a group of individuals who (conveniently) are available for study” (p. 75). the samples of this study were the 7 th semester students of english education study programs from two state-owned universities explained earlier. they were targeted in this study since they were the end product of an undergraduate program, in this case, the english education study program. in addition, they were conveniently available for this study as they had fewer subjects taken in this semester compared to the 5 th or 3 rd semester students. in other words, they had more available time to be involved in this study. therefore, they were considered ideal to be suited as the sample in this study. there were 62 efl students from the english education study program of state-owned university a and 57 students from the english education study program of state-owned university b participating in this study. the genders of those participants can be found in the following table. table 1. participant genders state-owned university a state-owned university b male percentage female percentage male percentage female percentage 8 12.9% 54 87.09% 6 10.52% 51 89.47% data from table 1 above show that the majority of research participants in both state-owned universities were female. this phenomenon as occurred in the last two decades that more female students pursuing their studies in the faculty of teacher training and education. data from kemendikbudin 2016 and 2017 reveal that an increasing percentage of female teachers teaching in junior and senior high schools (kemendikbud, 2016, 2017). this tendency seems to continue as the prospective teachers as shown in table 1 above are dominated by female students. data collection and analysis the instruments used to collect data in this study were in the form of questionnaires. the questionnaires were adapted from ravitz (2014) and were used to collect data related to efl students’ current knowledge and skills of ict and factors that inhibited them from developing their ict knowledge and skills properly. as stated earlier, the questionnaire was in the form of students’ self-responses related to their views of current knowledge and skills of ict and factors inhibiting them from developing their ict knowledge and skills properly. irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 449 the questionnaire had five sections. the first four sections came with rated items. the first section regarding the use of technology as a tool for language learning asked the participants to rate their responses from almost never to almost daily. the second section, asking participants’ frequency in using computer and internet applications, asked them to rate their response from never to very frequently. the third section, asking their skills in using computer and internet applications, asked them to rate their responses from do not know to very good. the fourth section, asking their attitude toward the use of ict in language learning, asked them to rate their responses from strongly disagree to strongly agree. meanwhile, the last section provided participants with a list of factors affecting the use of ict for language learning. they were asked to choose any factors affecting them in using digital technology. the collected data from the questionnaires were analyzed descriptively based on the frequencies and percentages of participants’ responses using microsoft excel. only the highest rating from each section of the questionnaire was analyzed. the findings from each section of the questionnaire were presented in the form of tables. each table presented the findings from both groups of participants as can be seen from table 2 to table 6. ethical consideration as this study involved two groups of students as research participants from two state-owned universities in the southern part of sumatra, ethical issues such as access to research participants, informed consent, confidentiality, and anonymity were considered. to get access to research participants, the authors as researchers in this study asked formal permission from the deans of the faculty of teacher training and education of the two universities to undertake the research. when the authors as researchers met the research participants for collecting data, the research participants were informed about the research aims and procedures, benefits of their involvement in the study, and consent form informing them about their involvement in the study, protection for their confidentiality, and entitlement of withdrawing their participation. findings the questionnaires on students’ digital literacy knowledge and skills and factors that inhibited them from developing their ict knowledge and skills properly were administered to the participants during their class hours where they were requested to complete the questionnaire voluntarily. they had no obligation to complete it if they had no interest in it. as explained under the research ethics above, the participants were advised to complete the consent form and they were assured that their participation in the study was anonymous. data from the questionnaires were analyzed anonymously and were based on research participants’ responses only. they were described based on the frequency and percentage of answers given by the students. irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 450 data findings from the questionnaires from both groups of research participants were presented in pairs where only the highest scale from each questionnaire was compared and contrasted as seen in the following tables. table 2. use of ict as a tool for language learning in the classroom statements state-owned university a state-owned university b frequency % frequency % a use of ict to share information 31 50% 35 61.4% b use of ict for self-instruction 30 48.4% 33 57.9% c use of appropriate ict tools or resources for completing a task 15 24.2% 10 17.5% d use of online or installed application to improve language skills 19 30.7% 21 36.8% e use of ict to support teamwork or collaboration 35 56.5% 32 56.1% f use of ict to interact directly with experts or members of local/global communities 23 37.1% 30 52.6% g use of technology to keep track of your work on extended tasks or assignments 21 33.8% 15 26.3% h use of ict to analyze information 21 33.9% 13 22.8% i own data protection using the current technology 26 41.9% 35 61.4% j evaluation of online resource credibility and relevance 9 14.5% 3 5.3% k use of academic website, blog, or application to solve a given problem or perform a specific task 19 30.7% 16 28.1% data from table 2 above show that the students from state-owned university a used ict mainly for supporting teamwork and collaboration (35 students or 56.5%), sharing information (31 students or 50%), and self-instruction (30 students or 48.4%). meanwhile, the students from state-owned university b mainly used ict for sharing information (35 students or 61.4%), for owning data protection (31 students or 61.4%), for self-instruction (33 students or 57.9%), for supporting teamwork or collaboration (32 students or 56.1%), and for direct interaction with experts or members of local/global communities (30 students irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 451 or 52.6%). in brief, students from state-owned university b used ict as tools for language learning in the classroom more than those in state-own university a. table 3. self-rating of the frequency of using computer and internet applications items state-owned university a state-owned university b frequency % frequency % a word processor 17 27.4% 29 50.9% b email 22 35.5% 25 43.9% c world wide web 29 46.8% 33 57.9% d graphics software 5 8.1% 5 8.8% e database 6 9.7% 3 5.3% f spreadsheet (for data organization) 4 6.5% 8 14.0% g concordancer (for text analysis) 4 6.5% 1 1.8% h language learning software (cd-rom, dvd) 7 11.3% 5 8.8% i language learning website 12 19.4% 12 21.1% j language learning mobile app 17 27.4% 15 26.3% k blog 15 24.2% 15 26.3% l wiki 14 22.6% 24 42.1% m text chatting 25 40.3% 32 26.1% n voice chatting 16 25.8% 25 43.9% o video conferencing 10 16.1% 16 28.1% p computer game 11 17.7% 12 21.1% q electronic dictionary 38 61.3% 36 63.2% in terms of self-rating in using computer and internet applications, data in table 3 show that electronic dictionary was the computer application that was commonly used by the majority of students from state-owned university a (38 students or 61.3%). other computer or internet applications commonly used by the students were world wide web (29 students or 46.8%), and text chatting (25 students or 40.3%). in the meantime, the students from state-owned university b also used an electronic dictionary as the most commonly used computer application (36 students or 63.3%). another computer application they commonly used was word processor (29 students or 50.9%). they also used internet applications such as world wide web (33 students or 57.9%), voice chatting (25 students or 43.9%), and wiki (24 students or 42.1%). irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 452 table 4. self-rating of skills in using computer and internet applications statements state-owned university a state-owned university b frequency % frequency % a word processing applications (e.g., ms word) 30 48.4% 25 43.9% b spreadsheet applications (e.g., ms excel) 16 25.8% 10 17.5% c database applications (e.g., ms access) 5 8.1% 2 3.5% d presentation applications (e.g., ms powerpoint) 28 45.2% 25 43.9% e communication applications (e.g., skype) 9 14.5% 11 19.3% f learning management systems (e.g., moodle) 1 1.6% 1 1.8% g virtual worlds (e.g., second life) 4 6.5% 4 7.0% h social networking services (e.g., facebook) 23 37.1% 26 45.6% i blogs (e.g., blogger) 14 22.6% 13 22.8% j wikis (e.g., pbworks) 7 11.3% 14 24.6% k podcasts (e.g., apple podcasts) 12 19.4% 6 10.5% l file sharing sites (e.g., dropbox) 15 24.2% 13 22.8% m photo sharing sites (e.g., picasa) 14 22.6% 22 38.6% n video sharing sites (e.g., youtube) 28 45.2% 24 42.1% o web design applications (e.g., dreamweaver) 8 12.9% 8 14.0% p web search engines (e.g., google) 35 56.5% 35 61.4% q dictionary apps (e.g., dictionary.com) 38 61.3% 38 66.7% data in table 4 show students’ self-rating regarding their skills in using computer and internet applications. it can be seen from the data that 38 students or 61.3% students from state-owned university a confirmed that they were skilled in using dictionary applications, 35 students or 56.55 of the students felt skillful in using web search engines, 30 students or 48.4% were proficient in using word processor, 28 students or 45.2% were able to use presentation applications, and another 28 students or 45.2% could share videos online using youtube. students from state-owned university b, on the other hand, claimed that they were skillful in using dictionary applications (38 students or 61.3%), 35 students or 61.4% were competent in using web search engines, 26 students or 45.6% were experienced irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 453 in using social network services, 25 students or 43.9% were proficient in using word processing applications, another 25 students or 43.9% were capable of using presentation application, and 24 students or 42.1% were experienced in sharing videos online. table 5. self-rating of attitude toward the use of ict statements state-owned university a state-owned university b frequency % frequenc y % a i enjoy using digital devices. 32 51.6% 33 57.9% b i feel comfortable using digital devices. 30 48.4% 34 59.6% c i am aware of various types of digital devices. 20 32.3% 21 36.8% d i understand what digital literacy is. 21 33.9% 15 26.3% e i am willing to learn more about digital technologies. 20 32.3% 31 54.4% f i feel threatened when other people discuss about ict. 5 8.1% 8 14% g i feel that i am behind my fellow students in using digital technologies. 6 9.7% 13 22.8% h i think that improving my own digital literacy is important. 21 33.9% 26 45.6% i i believe that the use of digital technologies can improve my learning. 21 33.9% 28 49.1% j i think that training in technology-enhanced language learning should be included in language education programs. 24 38.7% 27 47.4% regarding students’ attitude toward the use of ict in the class, data from table 5 show that 32 students (51.6%) from state-owned university a confirmed that they enjoyed using the ict devices, 30 students or 48.4% felt comfortable using digital devices, 24 students or 38.7% considered the importance of technology-enhanced language learning training to be included in language education programs. meanwhile, 34 students (59.6%) from state-owned university b confirmed that they felt comfortable in using digital devices, 33 students or 57.9% enjoyed using digital devices in the classroom, 31 students or 54.4% had willingness to learn more about digital technologies, 28 students or 49.1% believed the use of digital tools and resources would enhance their learning, and 27 students or 47.4% understood that training on technology-enhanced language learning should be a part of a language education program. irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 454 table 6. factors affecting the use of ict for language learning statements state-owned university a state-owned university b frequency % frequency % a students’ lack of time 34 54.8% 25 43.9% b teachers’ lack of knowledge 45 72.6% 30 52.6% c teachers’ lack of skills 38 61.3% 21 36.8% d teachers’ lack of interest 36 58.1% 26 4.6% e students’ lack of training 33 53.2% 33 57.9% f lack of supporting resources 31 50% 33 57.9% g students’ lack of budget 46 74.2% 37 64.9% h students’ lack of knowledge 35 56.5% 29 50.9% i students’ lack of skills 34 54.8% 25 43.9% j students’ lack of interest` 33 53.2% 18 31.6% k lack of learning materials 33 53.2% 23 43.9% l lack of facilities 45 54.8% 43 75.4% table 6 lists all possible factors that could affect the development of students’ digital literacy skills. students from state-owned university a considered all the factors listed in the table affecting them from using ict in the classroom properly. when they were ranked in terms of frequencies from the highest to the lowest, it can be seen that 46 students (74.2%) consider lack of budget as one of the factors inhibiting them from using ict for language learning properly, 45 students (72.6%) considered teachers’ lack knowledge, 38 students (61.3%) considered teachers’ lack of skills, 36 students (58.1%) considered teachers’ lack of interest, 35 students (56.5%) considered students’ lack of knowledge, 34 students (54.8%) considered students’ lack of time, 34 students (54.8%) considered students’ lack of skills, 33 students (53.2%) considered students’ lack of training, interest, and learning materials, 31 students (50%) considered lack of supporting devices. different from students of state-owned university a, those from state-owned university b considered 6 factors as the main factors affecting them from using ict for language learning properly. they are lack of facilities (43 students or 75.4%), students’ lack of budget (37 students or 64.9%), students’ lack of training (33 students or 57.9%), lack of supporting devices (33 students or 57.9%), teachers’ lack of knowledge (30 students or 52.6%), and students’ lack of knowledge (29 students or 50.9%). discussion the study was aimed at looking at efl students’ current level of digital literacy, finding out factors affecting efl students in using ict in language learning, and identifying irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 455 efl students’ needs to improve their digital literacy skills to meet the demands of the 21 st century skills. the findings derived from data analysis of questionnaires given to both groups of participants involved in this study indicated that in terms of ict use as a tool for language learning in the class, the findings indicated that ict had been used as a tool for language learning in the classroom. both groups shared similar ideas that ict had been used to support teamwork or collaboration, to share information, and to be used for self-instruction. however, data from table 2 reveal that more ict tools were very limitedly used by participants from both groups. this means that although ict had been used as a tool in language learning, it had not been used optimally. regarding the frequency of using computer and internet applications, data findings from table 3 show that participants from state-owned university b had used computers and internet applications (word processor, world wide web, wiki, voice chatting, electronic dictionaries) more frequently than those from state-owned university ac(world wide web, voice chatting and electronic dictionary). these findings are relevant to the previous findings where participants from state-owned university b used more ict applications than those in state-owned university a (see table 2). however, the limited number (with percentages under 30%) of students using other computer and internet applications indicates that access to use computer and internet applications seemed to be limited. from students’ self-rating on their skills in using computers and internet applications as shown in table 4, only two internet applications (web search engines and dictionary applications) that were claimed by more than 60% of participants from both groups. that only two skills among the thirteen skills of using computer and internet applications claimed by both groups of participants indicate that the majority of the participants had low skills in using computer and internet applications. in other words, their digital literacy skills could be categorized low. this finding seemed to be related to the first two findings described above, less use of ict applications as a tool in language learning and limited access to computer and internet applications. these two factors seemed to have contributed to students’ low knowledge and skills in using computer programs and internet applications. notwithstanding the participants in both groups had limited access and low knowledge and skills in using computers and internet applications, data in table 5 show that they had a positive attitude toward the importance of digital literacy in language learning. both groups confirmed that they enjoyed using digital devices and felt comfortable using the devices. they also shared the same idea about the importance of ict training in language education programs. the table also reveals very limited number of students confirming they felt threatened when others talked about digital technologies (6 of 62 students from state-owned university a and 8 of 57 students from state-owned university b) and felt behind their fellows in using digital technology (8 of 62 students from state-owned university a and 13 of 57 students from state-owned university b) further confirm that majority of them had positive attitude toward the use of ict in language learning. concerning factors affecting the proper use of ict in language learning, participants’ responses could be classified into three different factors, i.e. institution, teachers, and irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 456 students. in terms of institutional factors, both groups shared the same opinion that lack of facilities, lack of supporting devices, and lack of training given by the institution as the most dominant factor affecting their full literacy of ict. from the teacher factor, both groups shared a similar problem, that is, teachers’ lack of knowledge of ict as the affecting factor. related to teacher factor, participants from state-owned university a seemed to be more aware. they identified two other factors from the teacher's side, i.e. lack of skill and interest in ict. finally, in terms of student factors, participants in both groups were on the same boat. they considered a lack of budget and skills in ict to be their problems. the other two problems related to students were added by participants from state-owned university a. they are lack of knowledge of ict and less time to study ict. all the findings discussed above seem to be relevant to whatspires and bartlett (2012), supratman and wahyudin (2017), and tampubolon (2017)have stated earlier that even though the efl students today are digital natives, they still lack digital knowledge and skills. in other words, they are not digitally literate. although some activities have been done to improve students’ digital literacy (as seen in table 2), they are still unsatisfactory (kurnia & astuti, 2017). therefore, more efforts must be done to improve efl students’ digital literacy. the authors agree with azmi (2017); houcine (2011); hussain (2018); papadima-sophocleous et al. (2014)that the use of ict in language learning not only increases efl students’ digital literacy, but it also improves their performance in language learning. to use ict as a tool for language learning optimally, efl students’ current digital literacy skills must be known and any problems or factors affecting the development of their digital literacy skills must be identified. this study found that efl students’ low digital literacy skills were caused by limited use of ict applications as a tool for language learning and limitation to access computers and internet applications. the first factor seemed to be caused by efl teachers who seemed to be reluctant to integrate ict in their efl teaching and learning activities. as reported by kurniawati et al. (2018), the efl teacher themselves were still in the stage of adapting ict in their efl teaching. they still had limitations in using digital devices. the second factor can be caused by the students themselves such as lack of budget, less training on ict, and limited time to access computer and internet applications. the less availability of free computer and internet applications on campus with their supporting devices and less training to learn digital devices and resources contributed to efl students’ low digital literacy skills as well. if all the problems above could be resolved, efl students’ low digital literacy skills could be improved and the students could “take advantage of the [digital] tools and resources for language learning in authentic contexts” (son, park, & park, 2017). conclusion, limitations, and implications the study reported in this article was focused on evaluating efl students’ current digital knowledge and skills, their attitude toward the use of ict in language learning and irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 457 their needs to meet the demand of the 21 st century skills. data findings from the questionnaire showed that ict was already used as a tool for language learning and students had a positive attitude toward the use of ict in language learning. although in general, they had basic knowledge and skills in using computers and internet applications, they were not fully literate in using ict. several factors affected them from fully literate in ict such as lack of ict facilities and supporting devices, teachers’ lack of knowledge and skills of ict, students’ lack of budget and skills of ict. in brief, what students need to improve their digital literacy in ict was the availability of public computers with internet access that can be accessed by students anytime, the need for ict training for both teachers and students, and the continuous integration of ict in language learning. several limitations had been identified related to the results of this study including its non-generalizability, limited number of samples, time constraints, and less varied research instruments. however, research findings still provided valuable information. on this basis, the authors recommend further study investigating efl students’ digital literacy which involves more samples from several universities in indonesia, various research instruments, and a longer time to conduct the study. in this way, a more generalized conclusion can be made regarding the current condition of efl students’ digital literacy and a more appropriate plan can be designed to improve efl students’ digital literacy to meet the demands of the 21 st century skills. the findings of this study, although on a small scale, provide valuable information regarding the current condition of efl students’ digital literacy. they strengthened the previous claim that being digital natives does not guarantee someone is digitally literate(spires & bartlett, 2012; tampubolon, 2017). the research findings also contribute to the literature on the current condition of efl students’ digital literacy in tertiary education in indonesia. the authors believe that the findings of this study will help to develop people’s awareness of the importance of being digitally literate in the era of digital technology. references azmi, n. (2017). the benefits of using ict in the efl classroom: from perceived utility to potential challenges. journal of educational and social research, 7(1), 111-118. cetto, m. (2010). technology and second language teaching. brujula, 8, 119-121. chu, s. k. w., reynolds, r. b., tavares, n. j., notari, m., & lee, c. w. y. (2017). twenty-first century skills and global education roadmaps. in s. k. w. chu, r. b. reynolds, n. j. tavares, m. notari, & c. w. y. lee (eds.), 21st century skills development through inquiry-based learning: from theory to practice (pp. 17-32). singapore: springer singapore. ciroma, z. i. (2014). ict and education: issues and challenges. mediterranean journal of social sciences, 5(26), 98-100. irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 458 durriyah, t. l., & zuhdi, m. 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(2018). impact of smartphone: a review on positive and negative effects on students. asian social science, 14, 83-89. doi:10.5539/ass.v14n11p83 kurnia, n., & astuti, s. i. (2017). researchers find indonesia needs more digital literacy education. the conversation. retrieved from http://theconversation.com/researchers-find-indonesia-needs-more-digital-literacy-e ducation-84570 kurniawati, n., maolida, e. h., & anjaniputra, a. g. (2018). the praxis of digital literacy in the efl classroom: digital-immigrant vs digital-native teacher. indonesian journal of applied linguistics, 8(1), 28-37. doi:10.17509/ijal.v8i1.11459 lachica, l. p. f. (2015). classroom communication and ict integration: public high school teachers’ notions. international journal on integrating technology in education, 4(2), 1-11. https://conference.pixel-online.net/conferences/ict4ll2011/common/download/paper_pdf/ibl69-437-fp-houcine-ict4ll2011.pdf https://conference.pixel-online.net/conferences/ict4ll2011/common/download/paper_pdf/ibl69-437-fp-houcine-ict4ll2011.pdf https://kominfo.go.id/index.php/content/detail/3980/kemkominfo%3a%c3%bepengguna%c3%beinternet%c3%bedi%c3%beindonesia%c3%becapai%c3%be82%c3%bejuta/0/berita_satker https://kominfo.go.id/index.php/content/detail/3980/kemkominfo%3a%c3%bepengguna%c3%beinternet%c3%bedi%c3%beindonesia%c3%becapai%c3%be82%c3%bejuta/0/berita_satker https://kominfo.go.id/index.php/content/detail/3980/kemkominfo%3a%c3%bepengguna%c3%beinternet%c3%bedi%c3%beindonesia%c3%becapai%c3%be82%c3%bejuta/0/berita_satker http://theconversation.com/researchers-find-indonesia-needs-more-digital-literacy-education-84570 http://theconversation.com/researchers-find-indonesia-needs-more-digital-literacy-education-84570 irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 459 lee, m., & finger, g. (2010). the challenge: developing a networked mode of schooling. in m. lee & g. finger (eds.), developing a networked school community (pp. 3-14). victoria, australia: acer press. miakotko, l. (2017). the impact of smartphones and mobile devices on human health and life. retrieved from http://www.nyu.edu/classes/keefer/waoe/miakotkol.pdf mogekwu, m. (2015). the imperative of dealing with some fundamental infrastructural challenges as a prerequisite to the integration of ict to educational curricula in africa. in c. u. nwokeafor (ed.), information communication technology (ict) integration to educational curricula (pp. 1-14). lanham, md: university press of america. papadima-sophocleous, s., giannikas, c. n., & kakoulli-constantinou, e. (2014). ict in efl: the global effect of new technologies in the language classroom. paper presented at the proceedings of the 2014 eurocall conference call design: principles and practice, groningen, the netherlands. passey, d., laferrière, t., yazbak-abu ahmad, m., bhowmik, m., gross, d., price, j., . . . shonfeld, m. (2016). educational digital technologies in developing countries challenge third party providers. journal of educational technology society, 19(3), 121-133. prensky, m. (2001). digital natives, digital immigrants part 1. on the horizon, 9(5), 1-6. ravitz, j. (2014). a survey for measuring 21st century teaching and learning: west virginia 21st century teaching and learning survey. richmond, ca: west virginia department of education. son, j.-b., park, s.-s., & park, m. (2017). digital literacy of language learners in two different contexts. jalt call journal, 13(2), 77-96. spires, h. a., & bartlett, m. e. (2012). digital literacies and learning: designing a path forward. friday institute white paper series, 5. supratman, l. p., & wahyudin, a. (2017). digital media literacy to higher students in indonesia. international journal of english literature and social sciences, 2(5), 51-58. tampubolon, h. d. (2017). digital literacy for all. the jakarta post. retrieved from https://www.thejakartapost.com/life/2017/01/31/digital-literacy-for-all.html biographical notes eryansyah is an assistant professor at language and arts education department, faculty of teacher training and education, sriwijaya university in palembang, indonesia. he obtained his ph.d. in applied linguistics at waikato university, new zealand. his research interests include the impacts of digital technology on language learning. email: eryansyah@unsri.ac.id. erlina is an assistant professor at language and arts education department, faculty of teacher training and education, sriwijaya university, palembang, indonesia. she obtained her master degree in education and english language teaching at flinders university, australia. she is now serving as the secretary of language and arts education department. email: erlina@fkip.unsri.ac.id. http://www.nyu.edu/classes/keefer/waoe/miakotkol.pdf https://www.thejakartapost.com/life/2017/01/31/digital-literacy-for-all.html irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 460 fiftinova is an assistant professor at language and arts education department, faculty of teacher training and education, sriwijaya university in palembang, indonesia. she obtained her master degree at indonesian education university, bandung, indonesia. email: fiftinova@fkip.unsri.ac.id. ari nurweni is an associate professor at language and arts education department, faculty of teacher training and education, lampung university, bandar lampung, indonesia. she obtained her doctoral degree in linguistics at gajah mada university, yogyakarta, indonesia. she is currently the head of english education study program, language and arts education department, lampung university. email: a.nurweni@yahoo.com. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 226 the representation of indonesian national identity in english textbook ella masita* abstract this article interrogates the conceptualization of indonesian national identity from the point of view of the indonesian government. the data were taken from a mandatory english textbook for grade xi. through the lens of representation theory, this research explores the key issues within the textbook. in analyzing the data, a multimodal discourse analysis is utilized, specifically through the verbal analysis and visual analysis of the texts within the textbook. the results of analysis reveal that there are four themes namely: spirituality and morality, personal attribute, nationalism, and knowledge and scientific attitude. however, the research results indicate the inclusion of selected values and norms of personal attributes, the unbalanced portion of the themes within the textbook and minimal representation of the knowledge development, specifically in regards to the development of english skills. apart from that, it is realized that textbook is only one part of elements in english teaching process. therefore, further studies with a broader scope of investigation are required to achieve more comprehensive information about how indonesian national identity in conceptualized in english teaching. keywords english textbook, multimodal discourse analysis, national identity * associate professor, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, indonesia; ellamasita@unja.ac.id mailto:ellamasita@unja.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 227 introduction the 1945 basic constitution of the republic of indonesia (government of the republic of indonesia, 1945) mandates that government shall manage and organize a national education system that enhances faith and piety and good morals in the context of the intellectual life of the nation. this mandate has a significant implication for the national education system in indonesia. faith to god, along with good morals and intellectual ability, should be the ultimate focus of education in indonesia. in line with the constitution, the law no 20 of 2003 on the national education system (government of the republic of indonesia, 2003) states that education in indonesia aims at developing national identity of indonesian students by encouraging students to become people of religion, creativity, productivity, and at the same time, to also have affection and innovation for the needs of the community, the nation, and humankind. both two aforementioned constitutions become the fundamental basis of the development of indonesian education curriculum. the policy statements imply that national education system should be organized by the indonesian government, in the context of educating the nation, aiming to develop students' potential to become valuable human capital assets for the nation. however, a number of prior studies show that to achieve that such aim in the context of indonesian educational system is quite challenging; with the heterogeneity of the population as well as the rapid and dynamical development of globalization the national education system is a far more complex and contested process (alwasilah, 2001; yulaelawati, 2007; hamied, 2014; gunantar, 2017). one of the urgent problems that become the concern of indonesian government is the declivity of indonesian national identity among indonesia youths. the government claims that this crisis leads to the declivity of youths in building a good relationship with others and the escalated numbers of juvenile negative attitudes such as brawls and criminal issues. wide range areas as well as the complexities in understanding such crisis require different focuses of studies and various points of view; one of them is through english textbook. this is due to the fact that despite the rapid development of digital technology, textbooks are still the main resources of most indonesian teachers in delivering their teaching materials at schools while academic studies about the contribution of english textbook in the development of students‟ national identity is still underdeveloped (ena, 2016). therefore, the research within this article tries to fill in the gap. more specifically, it is intended to seek the answer the research problem in regards to how the indonesian national identity is conceptualized at the textbook for teaching english at senior high school. literature review textbooks dominate what students learn and think. relating to the statement, apple and christiansmith (1991) describe that the words and pictures within textbooks do not only as the expression of ideas, but are parts of the educational experience that shapes ideas for many students. lee and collins (2009) address significant contributions of english textbook as an integral part in english teaching by justifying that textbooks do not only transmit facts, figures, and linguistic skills in english. textbooks are also a means to transmit irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 228 ideas, ideologies, and cultural values. apple and christian-smith (1991) explain: “this is a distinct problem since texts are not simply „delivery system‟ of „fact. they are at once the results of political, economic, and cultural activities, battles and compromises. they are conceived, designed, and authored by real people with real interests” (p. 2). similarly, the research conducted by horsley and wikman (2010) argue that despite the evidence that english textbook is very fruitful to guide english learning activities and achieve their educational objectives, there is a concern about another role of the textbook as the resource of ideas, orientation, values, and identity beyond english linguistics and language skills. in asian context, siraj (1990) has conducted a study in regards to the portrayals of identities in english textbooks in malaysian schools by examining how identity is constructed. more recently, liew‟s research (2007) has also investigated how both verbal and visual texts within english textbook represent identities of malaysian people. despite the seventeen years range of those studies, the findings of both studies are quite similar. the textbooks do not either present a balance portrayal of gender or ethnicity identities in malaysia. in indonesia, research paper about how english textbooks view identities in a multicultural setting is conducted by ena et al., (2016). similar to the previous research in malaysia, the analysis of gender bias also advocates that there are gender bias and gender stereotypes. additionally, the results analysis of their study shows the unbalanced proportion of how indonesian identity is presented in the textbooks. she claims that the melanesian ethnic groups, the ethnic of majority of indonesian people, are significantly underrepresented in the english textbooks, compared to austronesian ethnic groups and caucasian race. the notion of national identity itself has a complex and abstract nature and comprises a complex of similar conceptions and perceptual schemata, of similar dispositions and attitudes, and of similar behavioral conventions (hall, held, & mcgrew, 2005; anderson, 2006). as further explained by anderson (2006), national identity refers to the narrative of a nation which is socially constructed and imagined by the people who perceive themselves as part of the community. a nation in this view is then defined as: “an imagined political community and imagined as both inherently limited and sovereign” (anderson, 2006, p. 6). this does not mean the nation is imaginary. instead, a nation is imagined because it is usually too large for direct interaction between most members. it is not possible for a member of a nation to talk, know or even hear about most of other members. in addition, despite distinguishing a nation from others not by its authenticity, it should be recognized through the ways it is imagined. anderson argues: “communities are to be distinguished, not by their falsity/genuineness, but by the style in which they are imagined” (anderson, 2006 p. 6). it implies that being a member of a nation is not merely about becoming the legal citizens of a nation. instead, they are also bound by the idea of how the nation is imagined. in line with anderson, hall (2005) argues that that the concept of nation is more than just as a political entity. a nation should not be conceptualized based on its nature. in contrast, the concept should be based on the representation of the nation. moreover, hall envisions national identity as a mental construction among a group of people that promotes the notion of being part of a nation through the sharing of a common imagery and the creating of a sense of solidarity. accordingly, hall (2005) suggests that national identity is a discourse of the imaginative form of solidarity among the members. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 229 in the case of indonesia, however, the aforementioned description of national identity appears to be a challenging concept. as a country with the population of nearly reaching 300 million, indonesia comprises thousands of islands with more than 300 ethnic groups and 700 different native languages (central bureau of statistics, 2018). consequently, indonesia is not only multi-ethnic but also multi-ideology. this might lead to the different conceptualization of what it meant by indonesian national identity (stockton, 2017). this situation is explained by idris (2014) based on his investigation on how the term national identity is conceptualized in indonesian language. the research results shows there is vagueness about what indonesian national identity really means due to the lack of clarity of how the notion identity is explained. idris mentions a number of terms are used to refer to the concept of identity such as jati diri (identity), identitas (identity), kepribadian (personal attribute), watak (character), karakter (character), and jiwa bangsa (soul of the nation). however, there is a lack of satisfactory explanation such as further definition, clarification, or description of what each term refers to. for that reason, this article seeks to fill in this gap, specifically in regards to how national identity is conceptualized in the textbook used to teach english in indonesian schools. methodology the research within this article is a qualitative analysis of written document comprising verbal and visual data analysis for the textbook to teach english at senior high school, specifically at grade xi. this grade is preferred since based on a preliminary analysis, the learning materials in grade xi are more comprehensive than the other two grades in senior high school. while some of the learning materials of the english textbook for grade x comprise the reviews of learning materials from junior high school, the english textbook in grade xii appears to prepare students for the school final exams and contains more written exercises for students to do. the english textbook for grade xi itself consists of two volumes with eleven chapters. the first volume comprises chapter one to chapter five with 112 pages (indonesian ministry of education and culture, 2014a) while the second volume consists of chapter six to chapter eleven with 128 pages (indonesian ministry of education and culture, 2014b). a multimodal discourse analysis focusing on gee‟s model of discourse analysis (gee, 2014b) and kress and van leeuwen‟s visual analysis (2006) is utilized to carry out the analysis of the research data. the analysis of the data then integrates data from multi modes comprising verbal analysis and visual analysis of textbook. at the first stage, five general steps of analysis as suggested by gee (2014b) have been conducted to analyze the verbal data: (1) working with raw data, (2) analyzing selected building task, (3) applying selected inquiry tools, (4) designing preliminary discourse models, and (5) reviewing the discourse model. then, kress and van leeuwen‟s (2006) model of analysis is adapted to analyse the visual texts within the textbook. it is started by selecting images within the textbooks that appear to be able to illuminate important issue or question in regards to national identity, both indonesian national identities and identities from countries or regions other than indonesia. then, the interrelations between two types of participants of visual images are investigated. the first is the represented participant, referring to people, places, and things irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 230 depicted in images, while the other is the interactive participant referring to viewers of images. as the third stage of analysis, any possible interrelation between verbal and visual texts is examined such as whether or not they repeat, clarify, support or conflict each other. to support the arguments achieved from the results of data analysis, four key components of lincoln and guba‟s model of trustworthiness (1985) is implemented namely credibility (the stability of data over time and under different conditions), transferability (the potential for extrapolation), dependability (the stability of data over time and under different conditions), and confirmability (the potential for congruence between two or more independent people about the data‟s accuracy, relevance, or meaning). then, based on the aforementioned analytical results, a thematic analysis is conducted by adapting to identify themes through the recognition of important or interesting patterns in the data. in doing this, a six-phase framework of clarke and braun‟s model of analysis (2013) is outlined as (1) becoming familiar with the data, (2) generating initial codes, (3) searching for themes, (4) reviewing themes, (5) defining themes, and (6) writing up (clarke & braun, 2013). findings quantitatively, the english textbook for grade xi consists of two volumes with eleven chapters. the first volume comprises chapter one to chapter five with 112 pages (indonesian ministry of education and culture, 2014a) while the second volume consists of chapter six to chapter eleven with 128 pages (indonesian ministry of education and culture, 2014b). each of the chapters has a title written on the first page of the chapter. the title of the chapter becomes the theme of the learning materials within the chapter, especially the reading section. each chapter in this textbook comprises eleven sections. the learning activities of the first three sections of pre-reading activities, reading activities, and post-reading activities are designed with the main basis of the reading text within the chapter. the remaining sections, however, are not based on the reading text. despite that, the remaining sections are still somehow interrelated with the reading text. firstly, it is connected to the sub-section of personal connection. for instance, the topic of the reading text of chapter three is about president sukarno‟s hopes and dreams for a better world while the question within the personal connection of the chapter is: “what are your hopes and aspirations?” (p. 60). additionally, the remaining learning materials are interrelated with the reading text by the genre of the text. this is illustrated in chapter seven. in this chapter, the genre of the reading text is an information report. accordingly, this genre type becomes the focus of the learning materials within the chapter. finally, there are one or more elements of the reading content that interrelate to the sub-section. this can be related to the main topics or another element of the reading text. for instance, from the scene of monsieur loisel being handed a formal invitation to a dance ball occasion from the minister and madame ramponneau (p. 72), the students are guided to learn about how to make oral and written invitations, both formal and informal, in the remaining parts of the learning activities. apart from the aforementioned sections, however, the remaining learning activities in the textbook have a focus on the language skills which this research does not intended to evaluate nor assess in irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 231 regards to their the qualities. consequently, not so much information in relation to indonesian national identity is identified from such learning activities. moreover, the results of data analysis unravel four themes emerged from the verbal and visual texts within the english textbook in the textbook as the representation of indonesian national identity, they are: (1) moral and disposition, (2) personal attribute, (3) nationalism, and (4) knowledge and scientific attitude. among the eleven chapters, two chapters (18%), chapter 1 and chapter 5 are categorized under the theme of moral and disposition. additionally, four chapters (36%) namely chapter 2, chapter 4, chapter 8 and chapter 10 highlight personal and attribute as the theme of the learning materials within those chapters in line with that, the theme of chapter 3 and chapter 9 (18%) is nationalism while the remaining three chapters (27%), chapter 6, chapter 7, and chapter 11 have knowledge and scientific attitude. in a similar vein, it is noteworthy to mention that most of themes within each chapter do not stand by itself. apart from the main theme, a trace of any other theme might also be identified even they are not highlighted as the main theme. for instance, the development of spiritual attitude is mainly represented through the theme of morals and disposition which becomes the theme of chapter 1 and chapter 5. in addition to the two chapters, the trace of spiritual attitude is also identified in the learning tasks of almost all book chapters. discussion as discussed earlier, the eleven chapters of this textbook contain four different themes. among the same themes, there are a variety of perspectives of how the themes are developed. based on the prior analytical results, then, this following section discusses how the textbook‟s authors develop the themes and perspectives in every chapter. theme 1: moral and disposition as shown in table 1, there are two chapters that construct moral values and disposition as their theme. both of them are in the first volume of the english textbook for semester one. they are: chapter one entitled “can greed ever be satisfied” (volume 1, pp. 1-25) and chapter five entitled “benefit of doubt” (volume 1, pp. 90-110). although those two chapters share the same theme, the perspective of each of them is different. the first chapter‟s perspective is regarding the danger of greediness while the fifth chapter has the perspective of unflinching faith in god. in chapter one, the attribute of spirituality is not explicitly stated in the reading text. no textual or visual statement in the reading text refers to the spirituality theme or relates to god. however, the attribute of being greedy as the moral of this text is identified from the reading text. for example from the statement between the fisherman (f) and his wife (w) regarding the wife‟s desire for more wealth (volume 1, p. 4): f : “we should be happy with what the fish has given us and not to be greedy.” w : “nonsense. the fish will do it very willingly, i know. go along and try.” irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 232 this conversation shows that the fisherman had warned his wife about her excessive covetousness. however, the wife was not happy and still insisted the fisherman try to fulfil her eager desire for wealth. the negative impact of the wife‟s greediness is inferred in the last paragraph as well: “what does she want now?” said the fish. the fisherman replied, “i am truly ashamed of my wife's greed but i can't do anything. she wants to be lord of the sun and the moon. “go home,” said the fish, “to your small hut.” and it is said that they live there to this very day (volume 1, p. 5). in this conversation, the fisherman stated that he realized that his wife was being greedy by insisting that he request the fish to provide her with an impossible goal: that of being “the lord of the sun and the moon.” the response of the fish did not directly address what the fisherman said about his wife‟s excessively desire for wealth and power. however, the reply “go home, to your small hut” implies that the fish took back what had been given to the fisherman and his wife as the negative impact of the wife‟s avidity. this paragraph becomes the punch line of the story. it infers the intended moral of the reading text; that is, being greedy ruins the comfortable lives of the fisherman and his wife. moreover, the attribute of the negative impact of being greedy in the visual text is identified through the comparative analysis between the first and second images of the reading text. in the first one, there is a big and beautiful castle on the left upper side of the image. on the other hand, the second image portrays a small and ugly hut instead. in line with the textual text, the image of the castle refers to the fisherman‟s big castle given by the fish. in contrast, the small hut is the house of the fisherman and his wife after the fish has taken back everything it had given to them. the moral in the reading text is furthermore inter-related to the questions in the reading discussion. the questions show that seven out of nine questions discuss the eager desire of the wife for wealth and power (volume 1, p. 6). only question 2 and question 3 have a different focus. they discuss the transformation of the prince into the fish. the next post-reading activity, “personal journal writing‟ also relates to the theme of the reading text. in this writing activity, the students are asked to write down eight clauses to complete the sub-ordinate clause of “i am grateful to god for…” (volume 1, p. 7). besides presenting the moral of the text, this learning activity also promotes students‟ spirituality through the insertion of the theme of gratefulness to god. unlike the discussion questions that mostly focus on the moral value of greediness, the sub-section of personal journal writing explore the attributes of spirituality in its learning activities. moreover, the attributes of spirituality are identified in chapter five of the textbook, both in the reading text and discussion questions (volume 1, pp. 90-110). the theme of spirituality is identified even from the first page of that chapter. the spirituality is portrayed through the image of a letter with white wings. the wings as pictured in this image appear to be very similar to the ones usually seen in the painting of angels in old churches. additionally, the background of the wings as clouds and blue sky also amplify the christian spirit of the image. the same image but in a smaller size is identified on the reading text page. it is located on the upper right part of the textual text. the inclusion of the image is interesting considering that it represents christian religion while the majority of indonesian students in many areas are moslem. however, no attribute of a specific religion is identified in the textual text. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 233 the investigation of the textual text reveals that spirituality is the main topic of the reading text. in the reading text, personal letters are written by racho, the farmer, and are addressed to god (volume 1, pp. 92-95). in the letter, he requests god to help him by sending him money due to the hailstorm that destroyed his farm. the attribute of spirituality is identified through the repeated mentions of the term “god” in the textual text. besides, other attributes are identified in racho‟s statement to his son: “my sons, nobody dies of hunger. always remember we have god. i am sure he will help us” (p. 93), in the part of the reading text regarding to what motivates racho to write a letter addressed to god as “god knows everything but i think i should write to him and ask directly what i want” (p. 93), and in the closing statement of his letter: “so dear god, please help me. i know you will not disappoint me” (p. 93). in addition, the theme of spirituality in the text is also inter-related with the discussion questions of the post-reading activity section. there are four out of eight questions that focus on faith to god. in line with the aforementioned learning materials, the inclusion of these questions confirms that spirituality becomes the main themes of the learning activities. as addressed earlier, the aforementioned two chapters of the english textbook have spirituality and moral values as the major theme of the reading sections. however, it is represented in different ways between those two chapters. the reading text in the first chapter does not directly mention any attributes of god or any specific religion. despite that, it contains a moral of the story regarding the negative impact of being greedy. moreover, the learning materials in the inter-related learning activities within chapter one explicitly motivate students to develop their awareness of this moral value through the questions in its sub-section. additionally, the attribute of moral value is further developed in the writing sub-section by relating the topic of moral values to the personal attribute of gratefulness to god. on the other hand, the attributes of spiritual values are explicitly stated in both verbal and visual texts in the reading passage of chapter five. no specific religion or religious affiliation is mentioned in the verbal texts of the reading passage. however, the identity of christian religion is implicitly identified through the image of both the title page and reading text page. furthermore, spirituality is also the main theme of the discussion questions and writing section in this fifth chapter that constitute the post-activities of the reading section. the analytical results of moral and disposition theme through the concept of religious texts within the english textbook indicates the importance of religion as an expected indonesian national identity to develop through the learning process in english class. apart from development of students‟ religious values, another emerging theme identified within the textbook is the development of students‟ personal attributes. different from the previous theme that highlighting good deeds based on religion-based commands and prohibitions, the latter theme is more about person-to-person interrelationship. further thematic analysis of how personal attribute is conceptualized within the textbook is provided at the following sub-section. theme 2: personal attributes personal attributes refer to character traits of a person that differentiate that person from others (althop & berkowitz, 2006). quantitatively, four of the eleven chapters in the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 234 textbooks have the theme of personal attributes (indonesian ministry of education and culture, 2014a; 2014b). there are four perspectives of this theme, they are: (1) the importance of social awareness and empathy, (2) the danger of ungratefulness and vanity, (3) love, sacrifice, and hope, and (4) courage and optimism. social awareness and empathy is the theme of chapter two, specifically the reading text section entitled “bullying: a cancer that must be eradicated” (volume 1, pp. 27-310). as stated in the introduction of the chapter, the objective of this chapter is to improve students‟ awareness of social issues through the discussion of bullying. through the reading text, the authors present their opinion of the danger of bullying. there are a number of attributes of social awareness and empathy in this text. for instance, this is seen through the diction, and in the words chosen by the authors to describe the negative effects of children‟s bullying, such as “tragic end”, “depressed”, violent beating”, “traumatic experience”, and “cruelly bullied” (p. 28). moreover, the ways in which the reading text is developed shows the authors‟ stand against bullying. the text also asserts the importance of positive campaigns toward the development of public awareness on the issue through statements such as “children should not be living in constant fear” and “everyone should be working together, against it, to stop it.” the author even addresses bullying as a “social evil” (p. 29) in this paragraph. as the concluding remark, the authors encourage the reader to develop social awareness against bullying through the statement: “so next time if you see someone getting bullied, would you try to stop it or let it happen? remember, bullying is everyone‟s problem; therefore everyone has to be the part of the solution” (p. 30). furthermore, the theme of the reading text interrelates with both the pre-reading and post-reading activities. the sub-section “personal question” in the pre-reading activity asks: “have you ever bullied or have you ever witnessed someone being bullied? how did you feel? can you express your feelings/opinion on the issue of bullying?” (p. 27). similarly, the sub-section of personal journal writing in this chapter guides students to write down their feelings if they are bullied through the statement: “place yourself in shoes of a person who gets bullied everyday at school. how would you feel? write down your feelings and what would you do about it” (p. 31). it appears that the questions in the sub-section of discussion questions are intended to develop students‟ awareness toward bullying such as: “did this opinion article raise/change your awareness about bullying? please explain” and “what can young people like you do to prevent or stop bullying?” (p. 30). the textual text of “vanity and pride” in chapter four (volume 1, pp. 70-74) is about a couple that had to get through difficult times after losing a necklace they had borrowed from their friend. the moral of this reading text is the importance of being grateful for what we have. another important message is to be honest. this reading text has an inter-related connection to the aforementioned reading text of “enchanted fish” in the first chapter. the inter-relation is not only regarding the characters in the story but also the moral of the story. similar to the reading text in “enchanted fish”, the main characters in “vanity and pride” comprise a couple of husband and wife. in both reading texts, the wives are addressed by the authors as ungrateful wives who are not happy with what they have had in their lives. in “vanity and pride”, however, there is another moral of the story included in the text, that is, the danger of vanity. the ungratefulness of the wife is described through attributes of the text. for example, the character of madame loisel is described in the narrator of the script text as “madame loisel was a pretty girl born into a poor family…. she suffered endlessly, feeling herself born for every delicacy and luxury. she suffered from the poorness of her house, from its bare walls, worn chairs, and irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 235 ugly curtains” (p. 70). in addition, another attribute of the ungratefulness is also presented in how she talks to her husband as, “i'll be humiliated in that old gown. it's so tattered and completely out of style. i can't go to the ball wearing that rag” (p. 71). moreover, the attribute of vanity is characterized from her other reaction when her husband says that she is already beautiful with the new gown: “you just don't understand! it's so annoying! i don't have a single piece of jewelry to wear with my gown” (p. 72). in a latter part of the script, the consequence of madam loisel‟s vanity to their life is described as “the replacement cost them everything. madame loisel came to know the ghastly life of abject poverty. their previous life seemed downright 
luxurious compared to what they had now” (p. (p. 75)73). the theme of gratefulness is related to the discussion questions. there are four out of ten questions designed to encourage students to discuss the theme. they are: “what do you think of madam louisel? do you know anyone who has the same personality as madam louisel? how are they alike? please describe” (question one), “in the beginning of the play, madame louisel was very sad and unsatisfied. why was she sad and unsatisfied? what did she want? support your answer with examples from the play” (question two), “why do you think madame louisel borrowed the necklace from her friend?” (question three), and “do you think she had a good time at the ball? support your answer with examples from the play” (question four). in addition, the sub-section of personal journal writing addresses another moral of the story regarding the attribute of honesty. the statement is “do you think being honest is very important in life?” (p. 76). as mentioned earlier, the questions in the post-activities address the theme of the reading text as the main topics of the questions. the third chapter regarding the theme of personal attributes is entitled “the last leaf” (volume 2, pp. 45-62). in this chapter, the title of the chapter becomes the title of the reading text of this chapter. in the short story, johnsy was described as an artist lived in new york city who was dying of pneumonia. she believed that she would die very soon and no medical care would save her from death (pp. 47-49). the attribute of love and sacrifice as a theme of this text is illustrated from the character of sue, johnsy‟s flatmate, who takes care of her during her illness. sue‟s character is implicitly described in the text. for example, after the doctor said that johnsy was very ill and appeared to have no desire to live, sue “went into the workroom and cried…” (p. 47). further evidence of sues‟ affection for johnsy is explained in the reading text through statements about how sue helped to prepare johnsy‟s meal and help with the medicine. another moral of the story is presented through the character of mr. behrman, a neighbour who sacrificed himself to help johnsy develop her positive attitude against the disease. in the beginning of the story, it appears that mr. berhman did not believe in supporting johnsy‟s irrational thought that she would die at the same time the last leaf fallen. this point of view was described in the text: “old berhman, with his red eyes plainly streaming, shouted his contempt and derision for such idiotic imaginings” (p. 48). however, the latter part of the story showed mr. berhman‟s sacrifice for johnsy, as he secretly painted the image of an ivy leaf to replace the real last leaf that fallen during a thunderstorm at night. moreover, the discussion questions of the reading text indicate the support for the themes of the reading text. they are designed to describe those three characters; for instance, “if you were in sue‟s shoes, how would you have reacted to johnsy‟s irrational thoughts?” and “why do you think mr. berhman made such a sacrifice?” (p. 50). however, the learning activity in the sub-section of personal journal writing does not relate to the theme of the reading text. the last reading text for this theme is identified in chapter ten (volume 2, pp. 79-105). in this chapter, the reading texts consist of three song texts and three poem texts. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 236 they are on different pages with their own post-reading activities. all are english songs and poems, all in english language, with the song/poem‟s authors mentioned. i classify the perspective of this chapter as courage and optimism. this is because the songs and poems share the same moral story, that is, not to give up or feel sad about troubles. through the song “we shall overcome” by peter sager (p. 84), and the poem entitled “invictus” by william ernest henley (p. 89), the authors set the moral of the chapter, that is, to have courage and persistence toward any problems in life. additionally, the contents of the texts also have the message of being optimistic in life. regarding the visual elements, there are three images identified in this chapter. the first is an image of a wood with two roads divergent on the title page of the chapter. it appears that is image is a visual interpretation of one of the poems in the chapter entitled “the road not taken” by robert frost (p. 88). the next is a full-page image of a night view with a partial figure of a tree on the left, a falling star in the middle of the page, and the big moon on the left upper part of the page. this image appears not to represent the theme of the reading texts that propound encouragement and optimism. instead, the image provides the impression of a peaceful and silent night. last but not least, the third image is at the smallest size compared to the other two. this image portrays the silhouettes of three people walking together hand-in-hand. there is a statement of “we shall overcome” on and under the image. the same statement of what is written on the image and the previously mentioned song title of “we shall overcome” indicates that the third image is the representation of the song. unlike other chapters that have only one reading text, however, chapter ten has a number of texts in the forms of song and poem lyrics. although not all lyrics have post-learning activities, consequently, there are a different number of post-reading materials. however, they share similar characteristics of questions; for example asking students‟ opinion regarding contents of the song/poem: “what do you think the title „stand by me‟ means?” (p. 83), whether students agree or disagree with the song or poem: “do you agree with what the poet is saying?” (p. 89), and even whether or not students like them: “do you like the poem „invictus‟?” (p. 89). as articulated from the analytical results, the theme of personal attributes is the mostly used theme in the english textbook. with four out of eleven chapters, this is becomes the theme of majority of learning texts with various perspectives among those chapters. for instance, chapter two highlight the importance of social awareness and empathy while chapter four justifies the negative effects of being ungrateful. despite the varieties of perspectives, the results of data analysis reveals the personal attributes within then textbook signify certain personal attributes such as being disciplined, hard-working, polite, faithful, honest, and polite, as well as to obey and show high respects to parents and show unquestioning loyalty to respectful parties such as parents and elderly people. no traces of personal attributes that highlighting otherwise such as the importance of democratic values, good respect for human right, or appreciation toward multiculturalism awareness. to conclude, the thematic analysis of personal attributes of the verbal and visual texts within the textbook comprise selective values and beliefs. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 237 theme 3: nationalism among the chapters, there are two chapters that focus on nationalism as their themes. both of them discuss indonesian heroes. chapter three presents the transcript of a speech by sukarno (volume 1, pp. 50-51), the first president of indonesia, in his speech at the first asia-africa conference as its reading comprehension text. in addition, the reading text of chapter nine comprises the biography of ki hadjar dewantara (volume 2, pp. 65-66), a pioneer of national education in indonesia who has been officially declared by the indonesian government by the presidential decree of 305 year 1959 as the father of indonesian education. the same decree also acknowledges ki hajar dewantara‟s birthday as the indonesian national education day (detail biodata pejabat menteri, 2017). although both chapters are about indonesian heroes, how each of those two indonesian heroes is articulated in the textbooks is not the same. among those two chapters, the articulation of sukarno appears to be more dominant than ki hadjar dewantara. this is identified in the elements of: the position of each chapter in the textbooks, learning activities that relate to the heroes, and size and position of the images of those two heroes within the textbooks. regarding the position of each chapter, sukarno is the main topic of chapter three. this is the third chapter of the textbook teaching english for senior high school in grade xi in semester 1 (volume 1, pp. 49-67). on the other hand, the text regarding ki hadjar dewantara is located at the reading text of chapter nine. this is the fourth chapter in the second textbook that is used to teach english for grade xi‟s students in semester two (volume 2, pp. 63-79). additionally, the analysis of the learning activities that relate to the heroes shows that sukarno‟s speech regarding his hopes and dreams for a better and stable peace in the world is not limited on reading section only. on the other hand, the theme of hopes and dreams, specifically in relation to the hopes of a better world, along with hopes for the nation of indonesia and future personal achievements becomes the theme of the remaining learning sections within the chapter. for example, in the learning activity focusing on the development of students‟ speaking skills under the “active conversation” section (pp. 60-63), the students are asked to interview their classmates and make a report on that. the topics for the interview are regarding their own hopes for their personal life and for the world through the directional questions of “what are their hopes and dreams for themselves?” and “what are their hopes and dreams for the world?” (p. 60). additionally, the same topic appears in the “let‟s contribute” section (p. 65) in which students are requested to make posters about their hopes for themselves, their countries, and their significant ones. the same topic is also presented in the practice section (pp. 57-58). in this section, the students are required to firstly identify whether or not each sentence among ten pre-determined sentences is grammatically right or not. then, any grammatical errors in the sentences need to be fixed. among those sentences, there are statements such as “i hope we can change the world for better” (p. 57) and “hope i will do able something beneficial for my country” (p. 58). unlike chapter three, however, the theme of chapter nine regarding the biography of ki hadjar dewantara becomes the topic of the reading comprehension of the chapter only. there are a number of learning activities that still relate with the reading text. they are irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 238 positioned as pre-reading activities (p. 64) and post-reading activities (p. 67). however, the remaining learning materials within chapter nine are focused on the development of biography texts in general. they are not related to the content of ki hajar dewantara‟s biography in the reading text. in addition to the learning activities regarding the general information of how to develop biography texts, the students are guided to write short biographies about two indonesian national heroines. they are: cut nyak dhien (p. 72) and raden ajeng kartini (p. 73). besides being identified in the topics of the two indonesian heroines above, the attribute of nationalism is also identified through the description of the achievements of the two heroines stated in their pre-determined available data. both of their accomplishments are stated in this sub-section as: indonesian “national hero” (pp. 72-73). similar to the sub-section of active conversation in chapter three, the attributes of nationalism are identified in the form of statements in the sub-section of active conversation of chapter nine. they are: “do you have any dreams for your country and future?” (p. 75) and “ if you had to do one thing for your country, what would it be?” (p. 75). the third element that differentiates both chapters is regarding the images in the chapters. as within most of the chapters, the main images in the reading text and on the first page of that chapter are the same. the only difference is the size. unlike the image in the first page of the chapter that usually has a significantly bigger size, the image in the reading text is smaller. but the images on both pages remain identical. in contrast, chapter 9 has different images on its first page compared to the page on which the reading text appears. in contrast to the image of sukarno that has been presented both on the first page of the chapter and in the reading text, the image of ki hadjar dewantara is only provided on the reading text page (volume 2, p. 63). the first page of chapter nine comprises an image of a group of people in front of a building. on the lower right of the page, it is stated “taman siswa 1 st , august 1939”. based on the information, it can be concluded that the picture was taken on august 1 st , 1939 in the front yard of taman siswa. later in the reading text, it is described that taman siswa is an educational institute founded by ki hadjar dewantara in 1922 as a school for native indonesians during colonial times (volume 2, p. 66). the aforementioned results of verbal and visual texts of chapter three and chapter nine advocate that both chapters have the same main theme of nationalism. the theme then is represented by sukarno, the first president of indonesia, and ki hadjar dewantara as the father of indonesian national education system. it is noteworthy to mention that the analysis of the position of the chapter, learning activities within the chapters, and the images of both indonesian heroes indicate that sukarno has higher level of salience than ki hadjar dewantara. despite the different proportions of sukarno and ki hadjar dewantara, the ways of how those two indonesian heroes are portrayed in the textbook along with the inclusion of learning materials that encourage the positive attitudes toward the achievement of indonesian famous people advocate the significance values of nationalism as an expected indonesian identity for students to build. apart from the themes of moral and disposition and personal attributes that have been addressed at the prior sub-sections, there is another theme identified within the textbook namely knowledge and scientific attitude. then, the remaining part of this article is intended to overview the latter thematic analysis as provided below. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 239 theme 4: knowledge and scientific attitude there are three chapters in the textbook that have knowledge and scientific attitude as their themes. they are: chapter 6, entitled “the story of writing!” volume 2, pp. 1-25), chapter 7, entitled “natural disaster” (volume 2, pp. 26-44), and chapter 11 entitled “man-made disaster” (volume 2, pp. 106-124). all of those chapters are in the volume two textbook for teaching english for grade xi students at semester 2. the theme is “knowledge” as the texts provide facts and information on an issue in relation to the theme of the chapter. in addition to the facts and information, a number of statements within the texts appear be designed to promote students‟ scientific attitude. that is to develop students‟ positive attitude toward the issues of the texts based on the scientific evidences presented in the texts. in addition, it also refers to the learning activities that support students to use a scientific approach to answer the questions; such as through the activities of collecting and analysing required data. additionally, the attributes in relation to facts and information in the texts are identified from the historical background of human writing systems in the world as well as description of technical writing (pp. 3-4). additionally, the facts and information are presented in the form of the information and a table of earthquake magnitude levels (p.29). the authors also highlight the negative impact of global warming by quoting the report results from greenpeace in 2007 (pp. 108-109). as addressed earlier, in addition to the knowledge, the reading texts within the three chapters are also intended to raise students‟ awareness of the problems faced not only by indonesian people but also by people all around the world. moreover, the reading texts encourage the application of a scientific approach in learning the english textbook. for example, these sections of the textbook aim to raise students‟ awareness of the problems that have been presented in the texts about the devastating impact of earthquakes in chapter seven (volume 2, pp. 28-30) and the negative effects of global warming on the earth in chapter eleven (volume 2, pp. 108-109). in chapter six, however, the attribute regarding scientific attitude does not appear in the reading text. the text focuses on the historical background of writing systems as well as the definition and characteristics of technical writing (pp. 3-5). the scientific attitude in chapter six is identified in the post-reading activities. in the sub-section of discussion questions, through the question of “do you think writing changed our society?” (p. 6) students are encouraged to present their analysis regarding how writing has changed society. this information is not provided in the reading text. in addition, the students are guided to investigate the relationship between technical writing and human invention through the question: “need is the mother of invention”. do you think this saying is applicable to the development of technical writing?” (p. 6). in the sub-section of personal journal writing, the scientific attitude is formed in the way that students are guided to build their own hypothesis of what might have happened to the world without the development of human writing systems. the direction of the writing activity is: “do you think advent of writing has had a major influence in making our world as it is now? if writing had not been invented what would our world be like? reflect on it for a few minutes. write your reflections here” (p. 7). the statement refers to the learning activity which asks students to reflect on the influence of human writing systems on irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 240 the world. this is more a high-order philosophical question than one designed to measure english skills such as listening, speaking, reading, and writing. on the other hand, the theme of scientific attitude appears both in the reading texts and post-reading activities in both chapter six and chapter eleven. in the reading text of earthquake in chapter six, there are a number of attributes of the development of students‟ scientific attitude. firstly, there is the title of the text: “earthquakes: the most deadly natural hazards” (p. 28). the phrase “most deadly natural hazard” as the description of “earthquakes” might raise students‟ awareness of how disastrous an earthquake can be. this is supported by the information and facts about the impacts of earthquakes for human beings. in addition, the text also explains the danger of earthquakes in indonesia to support the development of students‟ awareness about the impact of earthquakes for indonesian people. this is especially presented through the phrase: “indonesia as the ring of fire” (p. 30). according to the text, this geographical background makes indonesia “more prone to earthquakes” (p. 30). furthermore, the text provides argument to develop students‟ positive attitudes to the importance of further research. after the presentation of information and facts in the text, the last paragraph addresses the possibility of better management of earthquakes in order to minimize the impact of earthquakes through the statement: “in future, perhaps scientists will be able to predict earthquakes exactly but for now science has yet to provide answers” (p. 30). scientific attitude in the text has an inter-textual relationship with the learning post-reading questions. for example from the questions: “which of the following disasters do you think is the most horrifying: earthquake, tsunamis, thunderstorms, or flood?” and “do you know anything about the „ring of fire‟? can you find information and discuss with your classmates?” (p. 31). the questions require students to investigate and collect some scientific information and data to be able to answer the questions. therefore, it relates to the development of students‟ scientific attitude. chapter eleven, entitled “man made disaster” (pp. 106-124), has the attributes of knowledge and scientific attitude in both reading text (pp. 108-109) and post-reading activities (pp. 110-111). there are statements within the texts to develop students‟ attitude toward the negative effect of the issues presented. in this text, it is the danger of global warming. many facts and data are provided in the text to support the theme of the reading text. in addition, the discussion questions also aid the development of students‟ scientific attitude by providing learning activities that require students to use a scientific approach to answer the questions; for example by collecting data, analysing the data, and presenting the result of the analysis. regarding the analysis of the visual texts in these three chapters, none of them presents human figures within the images. this is in line with kress and van leeuwen‟s model of analysis (2006) that human figures are usually used to develop social inter-connection between image and viewer of the image. analytical scientific texts are usually focused on factual information rather than inter-personal relationships. therefore, a number of scientific texts do not have human figures in the images related to the texts. in chapter six there are three images. the biggest one is located on the title page (p. 1). it consists of figures of two rolls of papers, two books, and an inkbottle. the papers are on the left, the bottle and the pen are in the middle-front position, and the books are on the right. in line with kress and van leeuwen‟s theory of visual analysis, the image appears to be a description of a writing process. it starts from the starting point of the process that is irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 241 represented by the pieces of papers on the left side of the image; then through the writing process itself through the representation of the pen and ink. then, the final result of the process is pictured by the figure of the books on the right. the other two images within the reading texts of chapter six are the images of early stages of human writing systems namely hieroglyphics and cuneiform script (p. 5). the function of these two images is as visual information to support the text. they also provide information about what the early stages of a writing system looks like. this is related to the theme of the reading text as discussed before, that is, knowledge and scientific attitude. unlike the symbolic image on the title page in chapter six, the image of the title page in chapter seven is in a form of a picture (p. 26). additionally, there is another image on the page of the reading text (p. 27). both of the images are similar; they portray the results of earthquakes on people. the images show houses that have been destroyed by the earthquake and tsunami. the image on the reading text of chapter eleven, on the other hand, is a symbolic image of the impact of global warming. it is pictured by a figure of a tree (p. 106). the left side of the tree is green with many leaves and grass all around. in contrast, the right side shows leafless branches and dry soil. in addition, there are other images on the first page of the reading text in this chapter. the first one comprises of two images with the information of “glacier ax010 nepal” on the image (p. 108). the top image shows a glacier with full snow cover on almost all parts of the glacier. the year “1978” is written below the image. on the contrary, the bottom image shows the same glacier but with significantly lesser snow (p. 108). the snow only covers a small part of the glacier. the year “2004” appears on this lower image. this image appears to present the result of global warming on the glacier. moreover, it is articulated earlier that the development of knowledge at the textbook is implemented under the theme of knowledge and scientific attitudes. the reading texts are presented with the focus of presenting facts and information. in addition, the comprehension questions of the reading texts accommodate a number of questions that might enable students to develop their critical thinking abilities. however, the analysis of the question items discloses that most of the questions are out of the contexts of the reading texts. the questions that supposed to develop students‟ scientific attitudes are more related to high-order philosophical questions that are not related to the reading texts preceding the questions nor english language skills. apart from that, there are limited learning activities in the textbooks that are related to the learning of english language skills. even there are some, the learning activities are in the low level of thinking only, mostly in the level of recalling. therefore, the questions do not support the teaching of english language as a means of communication. even though the findings underpins the gap between the low level of english language skills and the fact that the textbook is for grade xi, the discussion regarding it is beyond the scope of this dissertation as this article is intended to investigate how indonesian national identity is represented in english textbook. therefore, no further conclusion can be drawn about those issues. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 1|june|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 242 conclusions to sum up, the analytical results confirms four main themes of how indonesian national identity is conceptualized in english textbook namely (1) morals and disposition, (2) personal attributes, (3) nationalism and (4) knowledge and scientific attitudes. among them, the trace of moral and disposition theme is identified in the learning tasks in almost all book chapters. in addition, there are two chapters that specifically make spirituality as the main themes of the chapters. regarding the personal attributes theme, a number of chapters within the textbook underscore the promotion of good deeds such as honesty, discipline, responsibility, tolerance, and politeness. additionally, the representation of the attributes toward nations and country‟s pride are presented in the form of learning materials about indonesian heroes. in line with that, the attitudes toward the society and the world are in the form of awareness toward global issues such as social awareness, colonialism-free world, natural disasters, and global warming. apart from the identified themes, the results of analysis also reveal some interesting points such as the unbalanced proportion of how each theme is represented in the textbook, the infusion of selected values and norms in the development of students‟ personal attributes, the gap between the reading comprehension questions and the reading texts or english language skills, the minimal representation of the knowledge development, specifically in regards to the development of english skills. despite the aforementioned research results, however, english textbook is merely an element among various factors in english teaching. further studies with a broader scope of investigation that might involve other parties such as, but not limited to, curriculum documents, interviews with curriculum development personnel, interviews with the teachers of english, and classroom observation are strongly suggested. thorough such studies, more comprehensive information of how indonesian national identity is conceptualized in english language teaching might be achieved. disclosure statement the authors declare no conflict of interest in the design of the study; in the collection, analysis, or interpretation of data; in the writing 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(2007). kurikulum dan pembelajaran filosofi teori dan aplikasi. bandung, indonesia: pakar karya biographical note ella masita is an associate professor at faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, jambi, indonesia. her research interests are in english teaching curriculum and pedagogy, tesol, and english for young learners. email: ellamasita@unja.ac.id mailto:ellamasita@unja.ac.id this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 37 indonesian students’ acquisition of english address terms: a case study in a university in the united kingdom komilie situmorang 1 abstract this study explored on how the transfer of indonesian address terms (ats) influenced the production of english ats and in what ways indonesian students accommodated the acquisition of the english ats during the study abroad. this study focused on the five participants who were recruited through the purposive sampling. designed to capture the participants’ experiences, this study employed a qualitative case study approach. the written discourse completion test and semi-structured interviews were employed to look at the pragmatic transfer and the acquisition of the address terms. the findings indicated that students’ home cultures of showing politeness by addressing people through contextual variables were challenged under the local cultures which view the equality and casual direct addressing as politeness. participants were also found to show salient efforts to accommodate the english ats in multifaceted ways. these efforts shed light to the teaching of english ats in classroom. implications to teaching english ats in classroom in indonesia are also discussed. keywords address terms, cases study, english address terms, politeness, pragmatic failure, 1 an msc tesol graduate from the school of education, university of bristol, the united kingdom; ks16907@my.bristol.ac.uk introduction mailto:ks16907@my.bristol.ac.uk irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 38 this study stems from my experiences in which my first language (l1) norms which address people asymmetrically based on social status conflict with the foreign language norms which address people equally. it aimed at discovering how indonesian students produced and acquired the english address terms during their study abroad experience. in fact, the need to show politeness has been the central of why learners transfer their l1 address terms into their second language (l2) communication. their l1 norms interfere with their perception about politeness, thus causing pragmatic failure. as a result, instead of being polite, students are assumed to create a distance. this interference is known as sociopragmatic failure (barron, 2003; kasper 1992; thomas, 1983). it is well known that different countries have different ways of addressing. address terms elevate l1 norms and are closely related to the ways how politeness is defined (kirkpatrick, 2002). for example, studies show that in china addressing people is meant to respect people and to indicate the level of formality (li, 2004; you, 2014). in australia, there has been a change in address term ‘mate’ usage which used to be addressed for man only (lerner, 2003; rendle-short, 2009). ‘mate’ is now considered proper for man and woman which marks how the studies about address terms have garnered attention in the field of applied linguistics. there is also a growing number of studies in the pragmatic development on learners who spent short courses, a semester even a year during the study abroad within the last decade (barron 2003; 2006; hassal, 2013; schauer, 2009; shively, 2011). several studies have been conducted to focus on how indonesia ats are acquired by the speakers of english (e.g., dufon, 2000; hassall, 2013). however, in indonesia, studies of ats were conducted to investigate the acquisition and the transfer among the local languages or between one particular local language to bahasa (djenar, 2007; susanto, 2016) and compare the english and indonesian ats through their usages in literature and different professions (iragiliati, 2006). very few studies were found to investigate the pragmatic development of indonesian students in address terms of production and acquisition in a study abroad context. therefore, aiming to enrich the literature of the indonesian students ats’ acquisition, this current study focused on how strictly raised students with hierarchical ats produced and acquired the english ats in a study abroad context. hoping to contribute to the teaching of english address terms in indonesia and to prepare the incoming indonesian learners to the uk, this study sought to find out: (1) how does the transfer of indonesia’s address terms influence the production of indonesian students’ english address terms during their study abroad? (2) in what ways do indonesian students acquire of the english address terms during their study abroad? literature review pragmatic competence students improve their pragmatic competence during their study abroad (hassal, 2006). hoffaman-hicks (2000), however, contends this idea by claiming that only modest pragmatics developments are gained during the study abroad. in the latest study, new findings indicate that students can acquire the pragmatic competence even during the short term stay in a foreign country but l1 transfers highly impede the pragmatic development (hassal, 2013; taguchi, 2017). irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 39 pragmatic competence involves forms and uses of the l2 norms (bardovi-harlig, 2010). when trying to make conversation in a culturally different place, learners usually struggle to make known of her choices without having to violate the l1 norms (dufon, 2003). they are expected to use the l2 linguistic forms and skills when performing sociocultural functions (taguchi, 2017). they also try to imitate the locals using unexpected ‘l2 expression’ which usually results in misinterpretation (hassal, 2004). incompetence to adopt the l2 expression results in pragmatic failure. in most cases, failure always leads to confusion. apparently, pragmatic failures are most likely to occur during the intercultural communication. therefore, pragmatic failure will be used to analyze the address terms production in this study. when l1 values interfere with the l2 production, pragmatic transfer is supposedly to occur (kasper, 1992; zegarac & pennington, 2008). “pragmatic transfer is the influence resulting from similarities and differences between the target language and any other languages that have been previously acquired (odlin, 1989, p. 27)”. in a recent study, pragmatic transfer is defined as "the influence of learners' pragmatic knowledge of language and culture other than the target language on their comprehension, production, and acquisition of l2 pragmatic information" (rizk 2003, p. 404). thus, since learners of l2 speak other languages, they will highly likely produce the pragmatic transfer. pragmatic transfer can take the form of either positive or negative transfer. positive transfer occurs when the l1 meaning transferred is the same as its l2 meaning which has also been considered as the evidence that there is a universality of pragmatic among languages. leech (1983) asserts that positive transferability has a lot to do with linguistic forms. in this case, whenever one appears to use the right transfer during intercultural communication, he will be considered a competent user (cutting, 2015). nevertheless, wrong diction indicates incompetence and leads to miscommunication. “miscommunication leads to misunderstanding when people from a different culture interact” (cutting, 2015, p. 73). as a result, one can directly be identified as an outsider when he does not perform the right speech function (yule, 1996). in fact, thomas (1983) has suggested that pragmalinguistic competence can be taught conventionally at language class just like grammar. this sheds light into the english language teaching that the universality between the l1 and l2 can be taught to language learners at classroom. meanwhile, the negative one is known as a generalization and meaning transfer from l1 to l2 usage (cutting, 2015; zegarac & pennington, 2008). known as sociopragmatic failure, this failure refers to the transfer of prior l1 contextual variables, including social distance, power relationship, and the imposition (dufon, 2000) to l2. applied linguists (e.g., leech, 1983; kasper, 1992; thomas, 1983) highlight that negative transfer roots in the overgeneralization of l2 linguistic forms. learners in studying abroad may be influenced by their l1 contextual variables, thus, they are unable to make sense of the target language’s norms. further, negative transfer could take place in the form translating the ‘formulaic expressions/address terms to perform different speech acts from l1 to express equivalent speech function in l2 (rizk, 2003). this includes the politeness expressions which inevitably are different from l1’s to l2’s. as a positive transfer is only considered a matter of proficiency; negative transfer is considered as being impolite or overpolite as well as a reduced personality (thomas, 1983). interestingly, some studies have indicated that some students opt to allow l1 transfers although they are aware of the difference and the failure caused (dufon, irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 40 2000; kinginger, 2008). this is because the learner wants to “suit his own sense of identity within the l2 culture setting” (hassal, 2013, p. 3). in practice, a learner becomes fluent in his l1 pragmatic norms because he continuously receives feedback from the other language users which is scarce in foreign language learning and interaction. in fact, schools mainly teach students the linguistic competence instead of sociopragmatic competence. students at the same time have never been provided feedback about their l2 pragmatics norms. this results in a false understanding that languages have universal pragmatic norms (el samaty, 2005). there is a truth hidden that different languages have different pragmatics norms. the linguistic competence such as grammar can always be corrected but pragmatic competence can make a conversation be halt because it offenses the interlocutor. this urges the importance of teaching l2 pragmatic norms at schools. politeness and address terms (ats) the concept of politeness plays an important role in a study abroad experience because it promotes the intercultural speaker (byram, 2012) in which politeness is socially prescribed (brown & levinson, 1987). cutting (2002) defines “politeness refers to the choices that are made in language use, the linguistic expressions that give people space, and show a friendly attitude to them” (p. 45). further, politeness is inextricably linked with the concept of ‘face’ discusses. politeness has a lot to do with the image that everyone wants to claim that is ‘positive face’ and ‘negative face’ (brown & levinson, 1987). wardhaugh (2000) describes ‘positive face’ looks for solidarity and approval of others and ‘negative face’ is more to freedom from imposition. nevertheless, different cultures and contexts bear different politeness. students in a study abroad are supposed to be actively involving in a place in which two distinct langua-cultures are promoted. this involvement includes the play of the politeness expressions which are found in affixes, ats, words, and sentences (richards & schmidt, 1980). in indonesia, politeness is shown by what ats are used on different contextual variables (barron, 2003; dufon & churchill, 2006; hassal, 2013; rühlemann, 2007). contextual variables can be defined as a power (the level of directness one can convey something), distance (the level of closeness in relation to how one produces speech), and imposition (the level of imposition when a request is made). similar to japanese and chinese ats (li, 2004), indonesian ats are used asymmetrically to show respect, index the formality of the situation, and indicate the relationship of the interlocutors. social factors usually manoeuvre the choice of terms; social status, gender, age, family relationship, transactional relationship, occupational structure race or degree of intimacy when addressing others (wardhaugh, 2000). failure to accomplish these variables will be considered as impolite. in fact, there is a salient difference between indonesian and english address terms. ‘you’ which is widely used in english ats to address people from all age backgrounds is not applicable in indonesian ats. although english address terms recognize the indexical politeness functions in titles such as mr, mrs, and father for pastoral (barron, 2006), english address terms have been maintaining the equality. further, in contrast to the case of ‘you’ in english and tu and vous in french (brown & gilman, 1960; magnan, 2002). indonesian ats are more contextualized. ‘you’ is only used when direct addressing people who are equally ranked with the interlocutor, or even younger. ‘you’ in indonesia is also translated as ‘anda’. irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 41 ‘anda’ is used formally in an event or meeting. for example, when one is giving a seminar, then he addresses his audiences as ‘anda’. when used between two people, it shows that either they do not have a close relationship, or one of them is trying to draw distance. the hierarchical relation influences the way people show their respect, addressing ‘you’ to the elders is very much avoided. instead, indonesians use vocative or social ats which emphasise indirectness. at some cases, addressing vocative terms ‘adik (sister/brother)’ to those younger than the interlocutor is considered politer than just addressing ‘you’. adik indicates less imposition and high level of intimacy. addressing with names or with vocative term ‘adik’ to younger people is considered to be more polite to show friendliness and closeness. indonesian kinship ats are marked by ‘father, mother, sister, brother, uncle, and aunty’ which are usually used in family relationship. however, these can also be used when a speaker wants to show intimacy to his interlocutor. one can always address a stranger with ‘ibu’ (mother) or ‘bapak’ (father) if he wants to be polite. meanwhile, indonesian social address terms are marked by those used when meeting new people and/or strangers, daily transaction, formal situation including ‘mr, sir, ma’am. madam, miss, and master’. social ats usually involves the power play in them (billmyer, 2000). varied indonesian ats are inextricably linked with the context and the relationship between the interlocutors (dufon, 2000). inappropriate ats in inappropriate contexts will be interpreted as sarcastic and rude (taavitsainen & jucker, 2002). in contrast to indonesian ats, taavitsainen and jucker (2002) explain that english ats are much reduced today. english ats promote the equality principle than any other ats. apparently, english ats are less sensitive to power and imposition but intimacy (hijirida & sohn, 1986). besides, the number of english ats is reduced to fewer numbers (fischer, 2002). although they still have ats to address politely such as titles with last name and kinship terms, they address ‘you’ naturally to everyone. table 1. the difference in following direct addressing indonesian ats english ats lea: lea rindu ayah (lea miss father) lea: i miss you. ayah: ayah juga rindu lea (father also miss lea) father: i miss you too. from the above excerpt, lea addresses ‘father’ to show her respect to their hierarchical relationship. meanwhile, her father addresses her with name to show intimacy. name can, in indonesia, be used not only to identify people but also to address them (hudson, 2001). while in english ats, speakers casually address ‘you’ regardless of their hierarchical position. this difference explains the ambivalence faced by the study abroad students aiming to be polite thus emphasizing asymmetrical relationship. an indonesian student saying, ‘good morning, mister!’ to his british professor, can create misinterpretation to being rude or joking. the conflict is caused by the different politeness norms between the two cultures. given this insight, ats competence is paramount within an intercultural communication (dufon, 2010). irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 42 methodology aiming to investigate in what ways indonesian students accommodated their english ats acquisition and how indonesian ats’ transfer influenced the production of the english ats during their study abroad, this study employed a case study approach. it is best employed because it exposes participants’ untold and unseen stories. yin (1984) defines a case study as an “empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context: when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident; and in which multiple sources are evidence of use” (p. 23). to sum up, it explores the real situation experienced by the participants and gives insights of what the students are experiencing and struggling (hatch, 2002). also, it examines the real-life data and helps to explain the complexities which cannot be unpacked through any other approach (yin, 2014). participants participants were chosen using purposive and homogenous sampling criteria for its relevance to the scope of the research (bernard, 2002). as this study aimed at uncovering the indonesian students who shared similar traits and characteristic (walliman, 2011), i considered this sampling as the best one to be employed. there were five participants in this study. they were ma, rz, ng, ss, and zero. all the participants were master students in a university in the uk. the participants’ ages ranged from 23 – 26 years old. two of them are males (rz & ss) and the others are female (ma, ng, and zero). there was no gender preference employed in this study, the gender variety was simply because more females were willing to participate. some participants lived in a university’s accommodation while some lived in a private accommodation. all participants were considered to have advanced to proficient english users based on their ielts score. no one reported to have lived abroad before. the participants would have stayed by 7 months by the time this research was carried out. the information stored by the participants was treated as confidential and kept to the greatest extent possible. all participants were identified by initials to ensure their confidentiality. the researcher also committed to distributing the informed consent form before any information transfer to ensure the participants know the purpose of the study and that this study would do no harm to the participants. the participation was basically voluntary. participants were advised that the result of the study might be published in the form of research article. data elicitation and analysis discourse completion test (dct), from barron’s (2006) study, ‘learning to say ‘you’ in german: the acquisition of sociolinguistic competence in a study abroad context’ which was designed based on brown and levinson’s (1987) contextual factors; social distance, power and imposition, was adapted with modifications. the dct was written in bahasa indonesia to provoke a more natural cognitive process to the participants. despite their l2 language proficiency, previous studies show that all mastered languages are active when bilinguals and/or multilinguals are using other language (marian, 2003; kroll, bobb & wodniecka, 2006). therefore, using bahasa indonesia in the dct highly likely provides the irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 43 more natural situations faced when making interaction with the local people during their study abroad. the responses from data dct were elicited through google documents. there were six situations within the dct. english ats occurrence within the data were coded and categorized. then, pragmatic failure and l1 transfer when addressing were thematically analyzed. the semi-structured interview questions served as the exploration and confirmation to the dct. the semi-structured interview suited best because it scrutinizes the understanding behind a specific phenomenon. kasper (2008) suggests that semi-structured interviews can serve as a tool to triangulate the interpretations made by the researcher who conducts research using a multimodal approach and what is more, data collected can be used as the main source. hence, semi-structured interview was employed to investigate the production and the acquisition of english ats. during the interview, the participants could always refer back to their dct’s answers. i also developed more questions based on their responses to allow a room for participants to tell the reasons behind their specific address term choice. the interview took 30 minutes to complete and was recorded with an audio to for data validation and transcription purposes. to analyze the semi-structured interview data, the qualitative content analysis was employed (hsieh and shannon, 2005). using the qualitative content analysis, mayring (2007) adds that codes and categories emerge from the data analysis theme. in this study, after the data had been coded, categories were generated. then the analysis was made to draw explanation and to make sense of the phenomenon. direct quotations from the data were attached to the explanation to increase its trustworthiness. to ensure the trustworthiness (lincoln & guba, 1985) of my study, i put verbatim examples from the interviews. additionally, i also did member checking (mukminin, ali, & fadloan, 2015; mukminin, masbirorotni, noprival, sutarno, arif, & maimunah, 2015; mukminin & mcmahon, 2013). findings this study explored on how the transfer of indonesian address terms (ats) influenced the production of english ats and in what ways indonesian students accommodated the acquisition of the english ats during the study abroad. the analysis of the interview data indicated that five major issues were related to how the transfer of indonesian address terms (ats) influenced the production of english ats and in what ways indonesian students accommodated the acquisition of the english ats during the study abroad, including: the transfer in the production of english address terms, accommodating the english address terms acquisition, language socialization, investment, and corrective feedback. the transfer in the production of english address terms after analyzing the data elicited through the dct, the study found that there were some transfers as pragmatic failure done by the participants. all of them are listed as follows: uncle, affected by social status, power, and rank, which are highly valued in indonesia, all the participants in the study transferred the indonesian ats into english in the given situation. as conditioned in dct, they were asked to offer their uncle a drink but were irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 44 refused. in indonesia, uncle has a higher status and bigger power, thus needs to be addressed with ‘uncle’ to show respect. calling names or avoiding addressing uncle by addressing ‘you’ is an act of disrespect. five out of five participants wrote ‘uncle’ on ‘beverage situation’. (1) rz, in beverage situation you : hi, uncle, how are you? do you want to join me? u : hi, i'm good! but i have another thing to do right now, so i can't join you, maybe next time? sir, two out of five participants addressed ‘sir’ in the accident and lift situation. zero, affected by the transfer of politeness and contextual variables in indonesian ats, put the speaker of the seminar to have more power than her. either because she viewed him as someone who is older or ranks socially higher than her, she addressed ‘sir’ as ‘bapak’. consequesntly, she addressed herself as just ‘you’ because it is unproblematic for the older to call the younger one with a name according to the indonesian ats. (2) zero, in lift situation speaker : are you heading home now? me : ah, yes sir. i am going to my house near city centre. speaker : what a coincidence. i am going that way too. do you want me to give you a ride? me : i am very pleased for you offer, sir. i was about to say that i am meeting my friend soon before heading home. speaker : oh, really? me : yes, i would be happy too, but maybe not now. speaker : well, no problem. see you later me : see you miss, two out five participants used ‘miss’ to address their imaginary interlocutor in ‘accident situation’. ‘miss’ is basically used to politely address a girl who is considered unmarried or a woman with professional title in a special occasion; like a waitress at restaurant, a teacher at school (dunkling, 2008). nevertheless, the usage of ‘miss’ addressed by ng in this context was surely affected by the transfer of indonesian ats. (3) ng in accident situation you : hi! little girl, let me help you with handling this stuff girl : thank you, miss. you are so kind lovely, ng, at the beverage situation, wrote that the uncle addressed her as ‘lovely’. in this case, it is an improper choice of the word because lovely is used to show appearance. (4) ng at the beverage situation irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 45 uncle : hi, lovely, i am good. i just finished meeting with my client on building next to this café son, given the context that rz had to address a priest, rz apparently was affected by the indonesian ats in which he put the priest as someone who socially ranked higher than him. rz addressed the priest based on the contextual variation rules in the accident situation. using ‘son’ he grappled the fact that the priest was older and both of them were complete strangers (schneider, 2003). (5) rz at the accident situation c : i'm very sorry, son, let me take you to the hospital accommodating the english address terms acquisition having analyzed and presented the findings that the participants experienced the transfer of indonesian ats into the production of the english ats, the study continued to investigate in what ways the participants accommodated their english ats. the findings of this study highlighted that the indonesian students accommodated the english ats in several ways. politeness ambivalence and l1 transfer, since the concept of politeness between indonesia and english is different, all the participants had expressed their reluctance to adapting the english ats. worrying that calling names would make him look impolite, rz expressed that he had to ask a friend who had studied in the uk previously about how to address the professor. having told that he just needed to address the professor with his name, he still sent the email in doubt. he also described a situation where he would most probably be confused of what to say. (6) rz, explaining his ambivalence to address a stranger rz : well, i am still confused if i happen to meet someone on the street, like (.) she drops her belonging, then what should i say, how i should address her? similarly, ss thought that calling ‘you’ and ‘name’ to older people seemed disrespectful. so did ng who, at the other hand felt shocked when she first got into the uk. she accounted how the english ats she learnt back at indonesia were different to the reality in the uk. while ma said she also found it to be rude to call names to people, she later described how she met someone old and was confused how to greet her, (7) ma, explaining her confusion how to address someone older ma : because, ah i don’t know how i should address that ‘hi’ with, i don’t know her name. i : [hmm, you don’t] [hhhmm iya benar] ma : when i first met her, she smiled. ah: it feels disrespectful to only say irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 46 ‘hi. she has aged, been old, and been elderly. so, i was like, ‘hi madam’. driven by the need to show politeness, there is a big possibility that the l1 transfers will likely engender the pragmatic failure. moreover, since the contextual factors have been nurtured within themselves, transfers may occur automatically. zero, like the other participants, took her professor’s age into consideration, which made her uncomfortable to address her with her name. she said that the professor had aged, that in in indonesia she would ‘salim’ her (an act of kissing elderly’s hand to show respect). noticing and imitation, listening, paying attention, and being aware of the ats used, the participants managed to accommodate them. all participants admitted to noticing the difference between indonesian and english ats. from listening attentively to being aware of the significant difference, they gained understanding, thus imitating the english ats. ss said that he watched his british friends closely when conversing. (8) ss, explaining how he notices and imitated the english ats ss : i prefer to listen to them, and imitate. ks : hmm ss : so, when they are talking to each other, i prefer to observe. ks : hmm ss : […] from observing, i noticed, “oh this is the way the say this expression” or anything. ng similarly expressed that she accommodated the ats acquisition by noticing how her british friend casually addressed the professor, thus she grasped the understanding that she should do it that way. in addition, zero who had a chance for visiting the primary school also noticed the differences between the use of formal ats at school and the casual ats outside the school. being called ‘miss’ at the class, she admitted to be shocked. then she came into understanding that at school, people addressed formally, thus, she imitated them. (9) zero, noticing social ats are used in the formal transaction zero : just like that, but, but when coming into the class, in fact, they address differently. so, they call ‘miss’ and ‘mister’ between teachers. i : hmm zero : uh ho, the thing is, i was called ‘miss’. one of the teachers addressed me as ‘miss’. “how are you, miss” i was so confused. i was like, ‘so they use ‘miss’ at this kind of place’. i : hmm zero: because outside, they just call names. i : [they just call names] zero: ah, i was shocked (ah kaget sih). noticing the different usage of the ats in the different contexts, zero then imitated how they addressed the teachers in the school. irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 47 language socialization beside noticing and imitating, some participants accounted that they accommodated the english ats through interacting with the local people. having lived in the private accommodations, ss and zero claimed to gain advantage since they had more access to genuine interactions. while ss said that he was accustomed to call his housemates without using indonesian ats, zero built friendship with her housemate and exchanged english endearment ats like ‘darling’ ’sister’ and ‘babe’ to show closeness between them. (10) zero, explaining how she socializes with her flatmates zero : for i have been close with one of my housemates, and so far, she started our friendship by addressing me as ‘darling’. i prefer to call her darling or sometimes sister. i : hmm zero : i sometimes call her ‘babe’ as well. investment at some degree, some participants were invested to learn the language to be accepted in the community. ss said that he learnt to properly address because he realised that he needed to make his interlocutor feel comfortable talking with him. ss added that by making them comfortable he would feel comfortable as well. the same concerns were also expressed by rz, ma and zero. they thought that being able to use the proper ats would make you gain a social acceptance. thus, all of them committed to adapt the ats because they believe behaving based on the context is the priority. however, ng expressed that the need to be accepted is not the only reason why she wanted to use the proper address terms. she said that through gaining the proper address terms, she could gain more access to genuine english conversation. thus, she could improve her english which would add more value when she goes back to indonesia. (11) ng, explaining her investment in acquiring the proper ats ng : [uh huh,] i mean i think like. yeah, it bears arrogance in there. i mean i have stayed in the uk for a year. it’s like a basic thing that when i go back to indonesia, i want my english to sound more sophisticated. i : okay ng : what a waste to studying in the uk if my english is just around abcs! i : hmm ng : and, i am expecting a better job. corrective feedback irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 48 the readiness of the native speaker to correct the learners’ mistakes proves to scaffold the pragmatic development of the learners. actively giving feedback to the ats production, rather than simply letting it go because it is just a matter of proficiency or assuming it to be an act of impoliteness has showed its effectiveness in the experience of indonesian graduates. being corrected by their professor, of how she wanted to be addressed, ng and zero admitted to have learnt properly. (12) ng, explaining how her professor provides her with corrective feedback ng : yes. so, at the first time, if i am not mistaken, i addressed my professor, saying, ‘thank you, thank you ma’am […] so she was like, ‘just call me, laurinda’. discussion the indonesian ats transfer in the production of english ats when performing the l2 ats, learners may experience the transfer from his l1. as has been discussed in the previous parts of the study, the transfer from l1 can be either positive or negative. the learners, addressing with l1’s ats may not be compatible to the l2’s. consequently, as one context bears different politeness, performing generalization and l1 transfers are considered as lack of proficiency, and even impoliteness. having raised in respect to the contextual variables, the participants showed that they were yet affected by the power, distance, and imposition (dufon, 2000) when addressing. pragmatic failure as the result of negative transfer and generalization was encountered by all participants. as pragmatic failure can cause someone to be judged as being impolite (thomas, 1983), arguably some participants had been seen impolite by the local people through their english ats usages. this can be seen on ng’s account. she explained how the shopkeeper showed no reaction when she said, ‘‘thank you, sir”. ng thought that the man was just being arrogant for not replying her back. however, we can grasp that it might be ng who was seen by the man to be impolite for addressing him ‘sir’ for it might make him feel old or assume that ng created distance. through all the transfers made, the findings indicate that all the participants had experienced at least one unpleasant or uncomfortable experience because of the l1 transfer. participants’ intention to be polite had ended in vain because no one had told them that the politeness markers in addressing people are apparently different between indonesia and the uk. some participants might, at a certain point, learn from noticing and imitating the local people of how to address people properly. but, the transfer of l1 still impedes their proper usage of english ats. to account an explanation, all participants said that they were aware of using english ats, but most of the time, they forgot using them. ng explained, “kalau aku 100% sadar, tapi kadang-kadang (if i am a 100% aware, which is only sometimes)”. the similar finding was also found by hassal (2013, p. 11) where the participants admitted that they produced the improper address terms unwittingly, ‘‘i would use kamu with my classmates, but i just forget to.’’ these findings also aligned with previous studies like barron (2006), hassal (2012), and dufon (2006). irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 49 furthermore, the participants were seen to have learned the new english ats in the past few months. english ats, such as ‘lovely’ appeared in the data. nevertheless, the participants had not addressed them at the right place. wanting to show a close relationship with the imaginary uncle given in the dct, ng wrote that the uncle addressed her as ‘lovely’. despite the fact that it is used by a male speaker to a younger woman, ‘lovely’ does not suit this context. it is apparently used to “comment on the appearance of the person, rather than the feelings of the speaker” (dunkling, 2008, p. 160). nevertheless, the data showed that one of the participants had successfully adapted the english address terms without encountering failure. english at ‘son’ also was found to have been employed by the participants. although, pragmatic transfer still interferes in the production of at ‘son’, rz seemed to make a salient effort to adapt the english ats. this first research question gave insight of the struggle of the indonesian students during the study abroad in addressing people. aiming to promote politeness, they transferred the indonesian ats to english ats but ending up as impolite. this suggests that the teaching of english in indonesia should include more pragmatic and culture about the language taught. how to address people appropriately in english should be prioritized because it is the basic of building the communication. indeed, the english speakers are not comfortable to be addressed using the contextual variable but casual by calling names and direct ats ‘you’. giving english ats in english classroom may help coping learners’ pragmatic failure when conversing with others and avoid misunderstanding, at worst seen as sarcastic. ways in accommodating the english address terms acquisition although all the participants expressed their ambivalence in adapting the english ats and encountered various awkwardness when they first used them, they gradually accommodated the ats through various ways. participants were found to acquire the english ats by noticing how the locals used the english ats. the participants made time to listen to the conversation between the locals and grasped that a certain at was used on a certain occasion. although they still sometimes unwittingly produced the improper ats, participants made an conscious effort of using the right ats to fit in and build a rapport with the locals (hassal, 2013). providing corrective feedback has been proven to scaffold the participants’ english ats acquisition. when zero’s and ng’s professor asked them to address her with her name rather than ‘professor’ or ‘ma’am’, both grappled understanding of how to use the proper english ats. the similar situation can also be seen in the case of arina, one of the participants in belz and kinginger’s (2003) study. she was not making any changes in addressing her professor when corrected by the researchers. however, once corrected by her professor, she was able to address him properly. this shed light that students best acquire the proper l2 ats when the native speakers readily provide them a correction to the improper ats’ production. native speakers needed to give corrective feedback to the learner to scaffold the production and the acquisition of their ats. learners’ production and acquisition might be stagnant and desensitized if the native speakers instead of correcting let and accept the improper ats production (belz & kinginger, 2003). learners’ investment also plays a big role in the students’ pragmatic development. investment, which is the “the connection between a learner’s desire and commitment to learn a language” (norton and toohey, 2011, p. 415), unpacks the leaners’ intention of gaining the irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 50 proper english ats. in this study, participants were found being invested in their ats acquisition because they wanted to gain social acceptance and gain added value when they went back to indonesia. ss admitted learning how to use proper address terms because he knew if he wanted to make his interlocutor comfortable speaking with him, he needed to be like one of them. he, therefore, invested in his intercultural interaction and was able to socialize, thus, get accepted into the community. ng, on the other hand, wanted to gain expertise. she wanted acknowledgement when she went back home to show how fluent she was in english as a result of studying abroad. this finding highlighted that learners’ investments in the language learning influenced their responses to the language learning during study abroad experience. in fact, study abroad is widely believed as the best medium for l2 pragmatic development and ats acquisition (hassall, 2012; kinginger, 2008). to a certain degree, this belief is well justified. this is mirrored in how zero and ss who lived with local housemates got access to the english ats. they got access to genuine interactions, thus, supported their english ats acquisition. nevertheless, the kind of genuine interaction through language socialization is also problematic. in fact, the proper ats acquisition and production do not depend on how many interactions but the quality (isabella-garcia, 2006). living in natural situations may not be impactful to language learning as well as the ats acquisition. it is mostly because language is gained through the courses, not through studied exclusively. therefore, having bound to the courses, they rarely establish a natural contact to the native speakers (barron, 2006) either because they are too busy with their course works or because they simply do not try to. ng, rz and ma revealed that they did not talk to many people other than those at the academic background, such as professors, administrative staff, and classmates. ng saaid that she spoke indonesian on a daily basis with other indonesian friends, ‘so my only chance to speak english is when i go to the city centre’. this finding leads into an understanding that study abroad is not an assurance for language learning and pragmatic acquisition. there is a need to know that only if the learners challenge their comfort zone to interact and socialize with the l2 speakers that they can improve their language learning and pragmatic competence. otherwise, study abroad will not be impactful to students’ language learning as has always been thought by many people. conclusion this study explored on how the transfer of indonesian address terms (ats) influenced the production of english ats and in what ways indonesian students accommodated the acquisition of the english ats during the study abroad. study abroad provides indonesian students with a whole new different world in which they immerse in the culture and address people to communicate. the findings revealed that the participants were still experiencing the transfer from their l1 in which they were still affected by indonesian ats when addressing people in their study abroad experiences. their cultures of showing politeness by addressing people through contextual variables were challenged under the local culture which views equality and casual direct addressing as politeness. in fact, the participants were found to accommodate the english ats in multifaceted ways; noticing and imitating, investments, language socialization, and corrective feedback. furthermore, the participants showed salient efforts to accommodate the english ats for they wanted to build rapport with the local people and wanted to add their value when they went back to their country. irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 51 this effort increases awareness among the participants thus motivated them to challenge their comfort zone and socialize with the locals despite some transfers that may occur during the conversation. this study has provided further understanding on how students encountered pragmatic failure when using the english ats in a daily context to address the local people. the participants addressed ‘sir’ and ‘miss’ which ended up seen as being impolite. some were confused how to start communication with people because of their contradictory belief about how to address people. therefore, this study suggests the importance of teaching english ats at schools. what happens in english language teaching in indonesia is that english ats are designed to fit the indonesian ats, thus literal translation based on the contextual factor is the kind of english ats taught to the students. students are widely taught to call ‘sir’ as ‘bapak’ to everyone older. as a result, when talking to the native speakers, students are assumed impolite when they are trying to be polite. authentic materials about english ats should be taught to students from the early age, however, teacher needs to emphasize the different culture bears different politeness. thus, students will be well-aware when to use the english ats and indonesian ats. that way, the ambivalence and the pragmatic failures can be reduced when they converse with the native speaker or get into the english-speaking countries like uk. implication the finidings of this study showed that the participants accommodated the english ats in various ways. although at first, the participants were all ambivalent about the concept of being polite in addressing, they managed to learn through time and through the interactions they encountered. these findings shed light into the teaching of the english ats in classroom. the framework of teaching english ats could be then designed through noticing the differences between both ats and imitating the usages. teacher can also increase the awareness of the students to realize why the acquisition of appropriate ats is paramount to a successful conversation. teacher can provide the direct feedback to the students when practicing, so their learning is scaffolded. finally, socialize through the language is what teacher needs to encourage the students the most. students need to be exercised to be actively seeking the chance to use the english ats through language socialization. finally, the finding of this study suggests that study abroad is not a guarantee for a genuine 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(2014). analysis on the generalization of the address term “teacher” in chinese from the perspective of sociolinguistics. theory and practice in language studies, 4(3). yule, g. (1996). pragmatics. oxford: oxford university press zegarac, v., & pennington. (2008). pragmatic transfer. in spencer-oatey, h. culturally speaking. 1st ed. london: continuum. biographical note komilie situmorang is an msc tesol graduate from the school of education, university of bristol, united kingdom. she has currently completed her degree and been teaching english at informal education institution. her research interests include language learning and identity, english as a medium of instruction, world englishes, language in education policy and pragmatic and intercultural communication this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 2 indonesian research journal in education (irje) | vol. 2 | no. 2|year 2018 the mission of the indonesian research journal in education (irje) is to serve as a vital and international forum for a different group of scholars and researchers who are of interest in exchanging ideas in order to enrich the theory, policy, and practice of education in indonesia and around the world and who can grasp a noteworthy voice in discussions and decision-making around issues of education. irje is a free, twice-yearly, open access, peer-reviewed, international, and e-journal, published in indonesia, which accepts unpublished, high quality, and original research manuscripts in english, resulting primarily from quantitative, qualitative, and mixed research methodology related to or associated with education. all research articles appearing in irje have undergone a thoroughly peer-review. editorial team lead editor amirul mukminin, jambi university, indonesia managing editors akhmad habibi, jambi university, indonesia dairabi kamil, state islamic university of kerinci, indonesia muhaimin, jambi university, indonesia mukhlash abrar, jambi university, indonesia assistant editors ferdiaz saudagar, jambi university, indonesia masbirorotni, jambi university, indonesia siti rahma sari, jambi university, indonesia failasofah, jambi university, indonesia nunung fajaryani, jambi university, indonesia international editorial board jeffrey ayala milligan, the florida state university, usa thomas f. luschei, claremont graduate university, usa shen chen, university of newcastle, australia abdul jalil bin othman, university of malaya, malaysia tiago neves, university of porto, portugal saedah siraj, university of malaya, malaysia judit navracsics, university of pannonia, hungary irina golubeva, university of miskolc, hungary pedro sanchez escobedo, universidad autónoma de yucatán (uady), mexico https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=-jksvt8aaaaj&hl=en https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=ip8-bosaaaaj&hl=en https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=4lk2yumaaaaj&hl=en https://www.researchgate.net/profile/failasofah_failasofah https://www.researchgate.net/profile/nunung_fajaryani https://umexpert.um.edu.my/jalil https://umexpert.um.edu.my/saedah irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 3 muhammad kamarul kabilan, university of science, malaysia jennifer elsden-clifton, griffith university, australia farrah dina binti yusof, university of malaya, malaysia dina belluigi, queen's university belfast, north ireland, uk. florante p. ibarra, central luzon state university, the philippines abang ismail bin abang julhi, teacher education institute of malaysia yunisrina qismullah yusuf, syiah kuala university, indonesia rafiza binti abdul razak, university of malaya, malaysia lourdes villardon, university of deusto, spain nor azmi mostafa, sultan idris education university, malaysia mohd rashid bin mohd saad, university of malaya, malaysia hadiyanto, jambi university, indonesia muazza, jambi university, indonesia anton widyanto, ar-raniry state islamic university, indonesia eddy haryanto, jambi university, indonesia mohd faiz mohd yaakob,universiti utara malaysia, malaysia layout editors robin pratama, jambi university robi hendra, jambi university focus and scope the indonesian research journal in education (irje) accepts unpublished, high quality, and original research manuscripts in english, resulting primarily from quantitative, qualitative, or mixed research methodology related to or associated with education. these issues include, but not limited to, practices, policies, and research in education from early childhood education to higher education which cover the areas of instruction, learning, teaching, curriculum development, educational policy, language education and policy, bilingual education, multicultural education, art education, teacher education, educational technology, educational developments, educational psychology, and international education in indonesia and other parts of the world. publication frequency irje is published 2 times per year (june and december) by jambi university, the graduate school, doctoral program in education. publisher indonesian research journal in education the graduate school, doctoral program in education jambi university, jl. raden mattaher no.16, jambi, indonesia 36113 issn 2580-5711-e-mail: irje@unja.ac.id https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=k5skd70aaaaj&hl=en https://umexpert.um.edu.my/rafiza https://umexpert.um.edu.my/msaadmr https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=ohvkfocaaaaj&hl=en mailto:irje@unja.ac.id irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 4 content indonesian research journal in education (irje) is indexed by doaj, index copernicus, and google scholar 5 editorial 6 the development of reflective thinking in the first six years of teaching kálmán sántha 19 decentralization and effective educational leadership: expectation versus reality cecep somantri 37 indonesian students’ acquisition of english address terms: a case study in a university in the united kingdom komilie situmorang 55 perceptions and actions of educational policy makers regarding parental engagement in education wahyuddin 75 the involvement of the twelfth grade english textbook in jordan: an analytical study rami abu sa'aleek 86 fighting against corruption through character education: the voices of indonesian primary school teachers muhammad sofwan, panut setiono, ahmed elsayed mohamed elsayed, ferdiaz saudagar 97 measuring indonesian students’ lexical diversity and lexical sophistication failasofah, hazim taisir dayij alkhrisheh irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 5 editorial in this volume (2 and issue 2), the indonesian research journal in education (irje) provides readers with seven articles that explore various themes on education in indonesia and other countries. this volume commences with the article “the development of reflective thinking in the first six years of teaching” by kálmán sántha, an associate professor at university of pannonia, faculty of modern philology and social sciences, institute of education his study was to investigate the development of reflective thinking in the first six years of a beginner teacher’s career. the results show that continuous reflection contributes to the differentiation of pedagogical knowledge. for the second article, cecep somantri concentrates on “decentralization and effective educational leadership: expectation versus reality.” his study was conducted to explore what research says about the challenges of decentralization to the existing leadership cultures in schools so that their effectiveness is further improved. another interesting article offered by komilie situmorang, is entitled “indonesian students’ acquisition of english address terms: a case study in a university in the united kingdom.” her study explored on how the transfer of indonesian address terms (ats) influenced the production of english ats and in what ways indonesian students accommodated the acquisition of the english ats during the study abroad. the other interesting article “perceptions and actions of educational policy makers regarding parental engagement in education” is authored by wahyuddin. his study aimed to examine perceptions and actions of educational policy makers regarding parental engagement in children’s education within a district in west sulawesi province, indonesia. one attention-grabbing article is from jordan. “the involvement of the twelfth grade english textbook in jordan: an analytical study” is authored by rami abu sa'aleek. her study aimed at investigating the involvement degree for the 12th grade english language textbooks in jordan through analyzing the presentation of educational content and the activities. the findings of the study showed that the decrease of students' involvement in educational content in the english language textbook for 12th grade. the sixth article, “fighting against corruption through character education: the voices of indonesian primary school teachers” is authored by muhammad sofwan, panut setiono, ahmed elsayed mohamed elsayed, ferdiaz saudagar. they focused on elaborating the importance of character education to fight against corruption for primary school students. their findings show that character education is important for tackling corruption behaviors from early ages, shaping students’ mind towards the danger of corruption, producing excellent students with a good moral and behavior, and influencing teachers’ perception towards corruption. the last article for this issue, “measuring indonesian students’ lexical diversity and lexical sophistication” is written by failasofah, hazim taisir dayij alkhrisheh. their study was to look at a description of indonesian efl students’ vocabulary knowledge their lexical diversity (how many different words students used) and lexical sophistication (how many advance words students used) in the english production. they concluded that as foreign language learners, lower level of proficiency participants could produce more lexically rich texts than higher level participants and vice versa. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 6 work-related stress and teaching performance of teachers in selected school in the philippines aurora sarabia, 1 and leila m. collantes 2 abstract this study determined the predictor of teaching performance among the components of work-related stress to 210 selected elementary and secondary public teachers in angeles city. it described the participants‘ socio-demographic characteristics, level of work-related stress, and teaching performance, and likewise compared the work-related stress of the participants. the research design used was a descriptive-correlational design with various statistical tools such as descriptive statistics, independent t-test, and multiple linear regressions. the study revealed that selected elementary and secondary teachers of angeles city had a moderate work-related stress with the subcomponent demand as highly contributory to the stress. gender and position were positive predictors of teaching performance where female and teachers with higher teaching position tended to have a higher teaching performance. on the other hand, seminars attended relative to stress and demand which is a sub-component of work-related stress are the negative significant predictors of teaching performance. this implies that teachers who attended seminars related to stress management had higher teaching performance compared to those who did not. this result also established that the higher level of demand, which is a sub-component of stress, can result in lower teaching performance. keywords elementary and secondary public school teachers, teaching performance, work-related stress 1 a mathematics teacher in maryland, usa, a graduate of doctor of philosophy in development education under the distance, open, transnational university of the central luzon state university, philippines; agsarabia@dotclsu.edu.ph 2 a professor vi, faculty of the secondary education department, college of education, central luzon state university, philippines; leilacollantes@clsu.edu.ph mailto:agsarabia@dotclsu.edu.ph mailto:leilacollantes@clsu.edu.ph irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 7 introduction work related stress in the study is defined as the negative feeling that affects the well-being and coping of the participants. work-related stress is one of the most reported factors experienced by teachers that significantly affect the ability to perform their job (cox, solomon, & parris, 2018). it is a holistic part of teachers‘ well-being, which is linked with teacher‘s physical health, stability of school, teacher‘s effectiveness, and students‘ achievement. the importance of teachers‘ well-being is aligned with the operation and effective function of an educational system. thus, addressing work-related stress should be concurrent with the promotion of mental health in order to improve the overall effectiveness of school. in 2017, various incidents on work-related stress were reported to have been affecting filipino workers. cnn ph poll entitled filipino top causes of stress in 2017 reported that 23 percent of the filipinos were experiencing work-related stress such as management, deadlines, workload, and sometimes co-worker (ansis, 2017). in a survey by watson (2015), it was revealed that the top 5 causes of stress of employees revolves on low pay, inadequate staffing, company culture, lack of work/life balance, and lack of supervisor support. dealing with these types of stress as cited in philippine inquirer article entitled ―work-related stress affects one‘s life, dealing with it essential (p.5)‖ can contribute to low quality output and a risk for filipino workers to be prone to hypertension and heart disease (ermitanio, 2015). chronic stress or work-related stress can affect the effectiveness of the teachers, and it is reported to be connected to a high turnover rate, absenteeism, disengagement to work, and demotivation. stress can be caused by different factors involving an individual such as work load, students, paper work, and sudden changes in the system, co-workers, and personal problems. stress can create a detrimental effect and a burden to everyone, but stress is inevitable and cannot be ignored. with this, elepaño (2017) noted that stress is vital to individual‘s life and individuals just need to find the right balance in order to develop stress as a positive stress that develops and promotes performance. moreover, teachers are reported to be one of the groups who experience a high dose of daily stress (ansley, meyers, mcphee, & varjas, 2018). work related stress has been studied as such literatures and articles of demjaha karadzinska, bislimovska, and mijakoski, (2015), asthana and owen (2018), ansley, meyers, mcphee, and varjas (2018) and alson and tiqui (n.d.). where demjaha karadzinska, bislimovska, and mijakoski (2015) reported that teachers were experiencing a moderate to very high work-related stress level and was different from india where its teacher only experienced a low to moderate stress level. in addition, control, change, and support as one of the highest rated contributors to stress of teachers while demand, role and co-worker relationship as the lowest contributor to stress. moreover, asthana and owen (2018) wrote an article that states that over 3,750 teachers in england were on a long-term sick leave due to stress and pressure from work that causes anxiety and psychological disorders. in august irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 8 2018, manila bulletin article entitled ―teachers groups flag alarm on colleagues‘ death‖ reported cases of suicides among teachers, allegedly caused by stressful task and job environment in public school. hence, ansley et al. (2018) noted that teaching is considered one of the jobs that faces high daily stress, which can be tied up with the other occupational demand such as being nurse or physician. furthermore, alson and tiqui (n.d.) have emphasized that hazardous working conditions, lacking materials, and resources to do their task effectively caused teachers to experience stress brought. moreover, the feeling of excessive monitoring and demands for outputs by the administration added to teacher‘s stress. personal stress is also evident with the teacher which is expressed in emotional outburst. occupational stress or work-related stress can be inferred as inevitable. this can lead to human struggle or emotional burden manifested in physical and psychological well-being of an individual. meanwhile, teaching performance is mostly the ability to do or the enactment of the description, duties and responsibilities expected of the position or role. the internal and external forces such as environment, social interaction, and personal motivation can contribute to the quality of teaching performance. hence, in the philippines, the full implementation of the government enhanced basic education act of 2013 or republic act 10533 entitled the 12 years of basic education in the philippines causes a major change to the work description of teachers (romero & bantigue, 2016). with the changes that initiate the improvement of educational system, it is observed that teachers are expected to perform well by simultaneously doing the trend of heavy paper works, behavior management of the evolving population of students, attending numerous seminars, reporting and training which eventually caused psychological issues such as stress, work dissatisfaction, disengagement and worst-case scenarios of suicide, depression, and anxiety. moreover, previous literature such as alson and tiqui (n.d.), ansley, meyers, mcphee, and varjas (2018), asthana and owen (2018), demjaha karadzinska, bislimovska, and mijakoski (2015), and wangui, ombui, and iravo, (2016) shows that there is a limited study on exploring workrelated stress as a predictor of teacher performance; thus with the given scenario and the observed connection of work-related stress and teaching performance, the present research aimed to explore and determine the relationship between work related stress and teaching performance of selected elementary and secondary public-school teachers in angeles city. furthermore, the researchers aimed to explore if which among the sub-components of socio-demographic characteristics and work-related stress could be predictors to teaching performance of the selected teachers in angeles city. the general objective of this study was to find out on which among the socio-demographic characteristics and sub-component of the work-related stress is a predictor of teaching performance of selected elementary and secondary public-school teachers in angeles city, philippines. specifically, the study aimed to: a) describe the socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents in terms of age, gender, civil status, ethnicity, educational attainment, teaching position, grade level assignment, work tenure, number of years in service, and seminar attended related to stress management; b) determine the work-related stress factors of the respondents in terms of demand, control, relationship, irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 9 role, change, and support; c) determine the teaching performance of the respondents in terms of teaching learning process, pupils‘/student‘s outcomes, community involvement, and professional growth and development; d) find out the difference between work-related stress factors in terms of the grade level assignments of respondents; and e) find out which of the different socio-demographic characteristics, and work-related stress factors subcomponents predict the teaching performance of the respondents. methodology research design, respondents, and locale of the study the research design used was a descriptive-correlational design with various statistical tools such as descriptive statistics, independent t-test, and multiple linear regressions. a total of 502 public-school teachers from selected elementary and secondary schools in angeles city, pampanga, philippines participated in the study. in determining the sample size of the teacher respondents from the population, slovins‘s formula (1960) was utilized. slovin‘s formula is used to calculate the sample size (n) given the population (n) and a margin of error. it is computed as n –n/ (1 +ne2), where n = number of samples, n = total population and e = error tolerance. in this calculation 95% level of confidence and 5% margin of error is utilized. to get the sample respondents from the six schools namely, don mariano nepomuceno elementary school, pampang elementary school, cuayan elementary school, angeles city national high school, angeles city national trade school, and sto domingo integrated school, selected elementary and secondary schools the researchers made used of stratified random sampling. stratified random sampling means dividing the population into groups that differ in an important criterion (trochim, 2002). it can be observed that there was almost an equal number of samples drawn from each school. the exact samples that were drawn from the population from each school had a total of 223. it was unfortunate to note in the results and discussion part of this study that there were only 210 respondents who served as respondents. the 13 questionnaires which were floated to the 13 respondents included in the sample were not retrieved by the enumerator due to unavoidable circumstances that occurred during the collection of data. research instruments the primary data needed in the study were gathered through the use of the survey questionnaires instrument. all questionnaires were self-administered and consisted of three parts. the first part was structurally made by the researchers covering the socio-demographic characteristics. the second part delved on the work-related stress factors of the teacher respondents while the last part was retrieved through a secondary data that pertains to the teaching performance of the teacher respondents. part 1 socio-demographic characteristics. this questionnaire provides for an overview of the teacher respondents‘ characteristics which includes age, gender, civil status, irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 10 ethnicity, educational attainment, teaching position, grade assignment, work tenure, number of years in teaching, seminar attended relative to stress. the teacher respondents were requested to supply the information needed by putting a check or writing down the information needed. part 2 – work-related stress: for this part, the ucu model stress questionnaire which was developed by the university of college union (2008) to measure the stress level of the staff specifically teaching staff/lecturer was adopted and enhanced to suit the need of the study. the questionnaire measures stress by identifying different sources and factors affecting the participants. the sources of stress pertain to demand, control, peer support, managerial support, relationship, role change, and support. the questionnaire is a self-administered 35item exam which will run to 10-15 minutes and can be answered by a likert scale using 1 = not applicable, 2 = occasionally stressful, 3 = stressful, and 4 = very stressful. moreover, the instrument has established reliability with an average cronbach alpha of 0.853. also, validity takes place with the various usage of the instrument by literatures with regards measuring stress. part 3 – teacher‘s performance. this part delved in measuring the public teachers individual performance. the individual performance commitment and review form (ipcrf) was utilized to address the needed data. the instrument is composed of five domains also known as key result areas (kra). these areas are teaching learning process which revolves planning and use of instructional materials; student outcomes to evaluate and monitor students development and learning outcomes; community involvement which includes extending service through the coordination and interaction with parents and a community; professional growth and development which involves trainings and seminar that enhance the skills and knowledge of teachers and class management which pertains to the overall result of the ability of the teacher to manage the class. every start of the school year, the teachers together with master teachers determine their objectives according to the need of the class and kra. then, a planned intervention will be implemented to achieve the set objectives. the teachers evaluated their performance according to the objectives set at the beginning using a rating scale of 5= outstanding, 4 = very satisfactory, 3= satisfactory, 2 unsatisfactory and 1 = poor. ratings were based on the specific performance indicator anchored on the values of quality, efficiency and timeliness of the performance that they did to meet the objectives. the indicators were based on the set objective and specific measure on identifying the proper rating per category. after the evaluation, teachers submitted their ipcrf to master teachers together with the attached evidences that support their evaluation ratings. for the dependent variable, the recent individual teaching performance evaluation of the respondents as rated by their immediate supervisor, head teacher or administrator were used as the measure of the teacher‘s performance of the respondents. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 11 data gathering procedure the researchers commissioned an enumerator to do the collection of data on their behalf. the enumerator brought/carried the letter of request of the researchers to the division superintendent of angeles city, pampanga, philippines requesting permission to conduct the research to the identified or selected public elementary and secondary schools in the division of angeles city, pampanga. after securing the permit, the enumerator coordinated with the principal or head of the identified or selected public elementary and secondary schools to once again seek the assistance in identifying the teacher respondents who served as respondents of the study. when the teacher respondents were identified, the enumerator of the researchers coordinated with the teachers that would best participate with the study. the researchers randomly chose the respondents from each of the six chosen schools. respondents were also categorized by their position in order to get a well-represented sample. the researchers‘ enumerator then informed and got the consent of the teacher respondents explaining the details of the study which includes the possible benefit, harm, confidentiality and right to withdraw from it. after getting the respondents consent of their participation, the researchers‘ enumerator administered the instrument starting with the socio-demographic characteristics, work stress factors, teaching satisfaction scale and teaching performance through their ipcrf. the researcher‘s enumerator read and explained the instruction to the participants. the teacher respondents were given 45 minutes to finish answering the questionnaire. after which, the researcher‘s enumerator collected the answered questionnaire and reviewed the qualified and complete accomplished questionnaire. insufficient information or a doubtful answer such as showing observable patterns of answer was removed for those particular items only. the researchers, through the help of the enumerator and statistician, then tabulated the data collected from the participants using microsoft excel and eventually process the data collected using spss (statistical package for social sciences). data analysis the research design used for the study was a descriptive-correlational design. descriptive design, according to bhat (2019), is a research design that aims to describe the participant or a phenomenon of the study. moreover, it aims to answer the question ―what‖ which focuses on the demographic of the study. it is used to define respondent characteristic, data trends, and comparison of groups, validate existing condition and to replicate research. the said design unveils the overview of the characteristics of the respondents since the aim of this study is to describe the socio-demographic characteristics of the teacher respondents, as well as its work-related stress, and teaching performance. a correlational research design is a research method that aims to assess the relationship existing between two variables without suggesting a causal relationship. also, the design has its ability irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 12 to determine the interrelationship existing among the variables. yet, this method does not infer the causal relationship (sage, 2016). to address the first four objectives which were determining the characteristic of the participants with regard to socio demographic characteristics, work related stress, and teaching performance, descriptive statistics was used. moreover, the different specific statistical tools such as frequency, percentage, mean, and standard deviation were utilized in order to measure the quantitative variables to give an overview descriptive of the respondents in analyzing the data for socio-demographic characteristic, work-related stress factors, and teaching performance. furthermore, in addressing the other objective which tackled on establishing the difference on work-related stress factors in terms of the grade level assignment of the elementary and secondary teachers the tool specifically utilized was the independent sample t-test. independent t-test was used to determine the difference of the mean of two groups which both groups are independent from each other (kim, 2015). with this, using the independent t-test yield on answering the objective of finding the difference of the elementary and secondary teacher respondents in terms of the variable. finally, for the last objective, the researchers made use of multiple linear regression to determine the causal relationship existing among the variables. it also allowed the researchers to find out which of the mentioned independent variables, socio-demographic characteristic, and work-related stress sub-componets are predictors of the teaching performance of the respondents so it would answer one of its set problem and to confirm assumption with the relationship among the variables. hence, multiple linear regression is where dependent variable is predicted by two or more independent variables (tranmer & elliot, 2008). the statistical tools are efficient in answering the objectives of the study on knowing the overview status of public-school teachers‘ in terms of work-related stress, and teaching performance. moreover, through the regression analysis a causal relationship may be established as the independent variables were tested as significant predictors of the dependent variable. findings and discussion socio demographic characteristics of the respondents age. based on the result, the ages of the elementary and secondary teacher respondents‘ ranged between 21 years and 50 years old. their mean age was 40.51, which indicated that most of them are already middle adults. the result further explained that majority (114/54.29%) of the respondents were within the bracket of 41 to 50 years old. this was followed by 80 respondents (38.10%) whose age fell on the bracket of 31 years old to 40 years old, and only few belong to the age bracket of 21 to 30 years old which comprised more than 7.62 percent of the respondents. this means that majority of the respondents were in their early 40‘s and less than half belongs to late 30‘s. in short, they were in their middle adulthood which is a period in which people are at their peak of productivity in work. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 13 sex. in terms of sex, it showed that most of the respondents were females. the total females in the study were 185 which comprised of 88.10 percent and only 11.90 percent composed of the males. the result implied that more females still engaged and explored the teaching profession. it can be observed that many people perceived that teaching profession is a profession primarily for women or has been reserved to women. teaching, especially in primary education belongs to range of career choices among women. these jobs include teaching, clerical work, childcare, and nursing. moreso esplanada of phillippine daily inquirer (2009) reported in his article entitled ―male teachers in the philippines‖ that education secretary jesli a. lapus said, ―male teachers were a vanishing breed, accounting for only a very small portion of the entire teacher population in the country at present‖. civil status. regarding the civil status, almost all of the elementary and secondary teacher respondents were predominantly married. married teachers composed of 194 (92.38%) and only few of the respondents (16 or 7.62%) were categorized as single. considering the age bracket (middle adults) where the respondents belonged, it could be expected that majority of them were married already since the marrying age of women ranges from age 25 to 35 years old. ethnicity. in terms of their ethnicity, the results revealed that a large number (66.67%) of the elementary and secondary respondents were kapampangan. the prevalence of kapampangan participants is something that is anticipated given that the locale of the study is angeles city, pampanga. other participants were tagalog (24.29%), pangasinense (4.76%), and ilocano (4.29%). the dominance of kapampangan in the study may also be an indicator of the implementation of the magna carta for public school teachers about the mode of assignment which says, ―priority is given to qualified residents of the barangay, municipality, city or province where the school is located.‖ the deped supports the home based principle of giving teaching position and assignment to those who applies in the department. in short, the teachers applying for a teaching position should/must be assigned to their own hometown for accessibility purposes and for mental and psychological stability since they are with their family while teaching in the school near to their home. table 1. socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents socio-demographic characteristics frequency (n= 210) percentage age 21 – 30 16 7.62 31 – 40 80 38.10 41 – 50 114 54.29 mean 40.51  41 sd 6.19 sex male 25 11.90 female 185 88.10 civil status single 16 7.62 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 14 table 1. socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents (continued...) married 194 92.38 ethnicity tagalog 51 24.29 ilocano 9 4.29 kapampangan 140 66.67 pangasinense 10 4.76 educational attainment bachelor degree ms/ma units ms/ma degree 35 105 50 16.67 50.00 23.81 phd/edd units 18 8.57 phd/edd degree 2 0.95 teaching position teacher i 115 54.76 teacher ii 25 11.90 teacher iii 35 16.67 master teacher i 11 5.24 master teacher ii 14 6.67 master teacher iii 10 4.76 grade assignment elementary level 26 12.38 primary 27 12.86 intermediate secondary level junior high school 121 57.62 senior high school 36 17.14 work tenure temporary/substitute 40 19.05 permanent 170 80.95 number of years in teaching positions 5 and below 86 40.95 6-10 44 20.95 11-15 40 19.05 16-20 18 8.57 21 and above 22 10.48 seminar/training attended related to stress mngt. with seminar/training 86 40.95 without seminar/training 124 59.05 highest educational attainment. as regards to participants‘ highest educational attainment, results showed that majority of the elementary and secondary teacher respondents had obtained units in ma/ ms. the result showed that 50 percent of the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 15 respondents had units in master‘s degree while the other half were shared by respondents who had finished master‘s degree (23.81%), graduate of bachelor‘s degree (16.67%), while the rest (8.57%) of teacher respondents had units in doctorate degree and the remaining (0.95% or one teacher respondent) had already earned doctorate degree. hence, many of the participants took graduate degrees to enhance their skills and credential. the deped supports teachers‘ the advanced studies to upgrade their competencies and eventually to help them be promoted in their respective rank. teaching position. results showed that majority(115 or 54.76%) of the elementary and secondary teacher respondents occupied the teacher i position. it is followed by 16.67 percent or 35 of the respondents with a teacher iii position and 11. 90 percent or 25 respondents categorized as teacher ii. significantly, only 16.67 percent of the participants were considered as master teacher with a breakdown of 6.67 percent for master teacher ii, 5.24 percent for master teacher i and only 4.76 percent for master teacher iii. it can be noted that almost all of the teacher respondents had the minimum requirement for entry level for the teaching position of teacher i. it can be noticed that only a few percent of the teacher respondents were promoted from their original position of teacher i to master teacher iii. the result suggested that the participants had difficulties on earning a higher position that might be due to the non-availability of the trainings, seminars, workshop, and opportunity to pursue higher education. grade level assignment. the respondents chosen for the study came from elementary department handling basic and intermediate elementary and from secondary department handling junior and senior high school. whereas, 25.24 percent were elementary teachers (12.38% primary and 12.86% intermediate) and 74.76 percent were secondary teachers (57.62% junior high school and 17.14 % senior high school). work tenure. for work tenure of the teacher respondents, most of the respondents (80.95%) were permanently employed and only few (19.05%) were considered as substitute or temporarily employed. occupying a permanent position in the elementary and secondary schools run by deped was an expected scenario since the minimum qualification is baccalaureate only and must be a passer of board exam for professional teachers (blept). it is also a fact that deped is continuously in need of teachers every year due to the nationwide increase in population of the students enrolling in the different schools and the continuous replacement of teachers who are ageing/getting older and retiring every year. number of years in service. the number of years of teaching for the elementary and secondary teacher respondents ranged from 5 years below to 21 years above. as shown in the result, 40.95 percent of the teacher respondents were spending at most 5 years of service, while the other 20.95 percent already reached their 6 to 10 years of service, 19.05 percent were in their 11 to 15 years of service, 10.48 percent were at least in their 21 year of service and the remaining 8.57 percent were serving for 16 to 20 years in the department. this clearly showed that less than half of the elementary and secondary teacher respondents from the different elementary and secondary schools were still young when it came to their teaching experience. this is interesting to note that despite their age (middle adult age), they irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 16 had a short number of years in teaching which could be concluded that teaching might be their second profession or they had just started their teaching profession recently. seminars attended related to stress management. the result also reported that less than half (40.95%) of the respondents attended seminars and training related to stress management while the other 59.05 percent did not receive any seminar or training. this implies that a big number of teacher respondents from elementary and secondary schools have not been given opportunity to attend seminar. it is a fact that attending seminar requires support from the administration that may be the reason why only few were given the chance to acquire more knowledge and skills through seminars. workrelated stress factors of the respondents work-related stress is composed of six factors. the sources of work-related stress factors, which were based on ucu stress tool kit pertains to demand, control, co-workers relationship, role, change, and support. results showed that the work related stress factors of the respondents for both elementary and secondary teachers of selected school in angeles city had a computed over-all mean rating of 2.84 described as ―stressful‖ and a standard deviation of 0.71, which denotes uniformity in their response. this suggests that the selected elementary and secondary public school teachers agreed that they were experiencing stressful events with respect to the areas of their job specifically the demand, control, co-workers relationship, role, change, and support. demand. in terms of the demand of their work, the respondents obtained a pooled mean of 3.54 described as ―very stressful‖ and a standard deviation of 0.54, which denotes that they all agreed that the nature of their job/work demanded a lot. this implies that the requirements and expected outputs from their duties, obligations, responsibilities, and working condition as demanded by their work or school can cause a very stressful experience to the teacher respondents. this was supported by the different items, which received a high rate by the selected elementary and secondary public school teachers. ―administration in general‖ (x =3.90) garnered the highest mean. the other items rated high and described as ―highly stressful‖ were the following: ―lack of regular breaks‖ (x =3.78), ―immediate evaluation of a superior‖ (x =3.71), ―conducting extension works‖ (x =3.70), ―teaching new courses‖, ―dealing with new education‖ , (x =3.65). while the lowest mean of 3.25 were both for the items, ―larger classes/more students‖, and ―lone working‖. the above mentioned statements were perceived as contributing factors to the high stress-level of the teacher respondents. this suggests that the teacher respondents were very stressed with the way administration manages their respective schools. one of the policies implemented by the management was the implementation of biometrics. teachers were required to log in four times a day, two in the morning, one during lunch and one upon leaving the school. some of the teachers were complaining on the time spent for biometrics because it somehow took their very short break time especially during lunch because they are required to walk to the office of the principal to register themselves to biometrics machine irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 17 instead of resting in their respective offices. furthermore, the faculty also shared the same response regarding lack of regular breaks in their school. since the beginning of k to 12 teachers had been so busy attending to the needs of their students that break time becomes so limited. another cause of their stress was the surprise monitoring of the immediate supervisor. although they had been teaching for several years, the feeling of nervousness was still present. they also felt belittled once supervisor observed them in their respective classes especially if the feedback given to them was poor. plus the fact that prior to observation they needed to prepare a well written lesson plan, colorful and attractive instructional materials, and updated class records. in addition, the feeling of ―demonstration day‖ which they had experienced during their practice teaching adds stress. mandatory participation and compliance to extensions works of the school like feeding program, tree planting, cleaning of the barangay, parade during special occasions, and attendance to different programs during foundation day even beyond office hour or during night where the school is located were some of the sources of their stress. another clear source of their stress was the adjustment they made for the implementation of the k to 12 curriculum which implies new lesson, new method and new instructional materials. this finding agrees with the study of wangui et al. (2016) that most of the changes and restrictions in education policies frustrate teachers‘ efforts to perform and tend to ignore their views and challenges at the grassroots. the findings of this study agreed that the biggest challenge to teacher‘s class control was dealing with the increased students indiscipline cases due to restrictive government legislation on child rights protection. the results also corroborate geving‘s (2007) findings that student misbehavior was an increasing factor of work stress for teachers due to inadequate discipline policy. control. control as a work-related stress factor was also considered as a stressful component of a teacher‘s job with a computed mean of 3.19 described as ―stressful‖ and a standard deviation of 0.74, which indicates that the respondents‘ ability to handle the changes and behavior demanded by their work is one of the causes of their stress. it appears that several tasks related to their works are increasing day by day, difficulty of beating the deadlines required by the nature of their job, works in the bucket list are found difficult to plan because of its changing nature, trying to meet both ends to satisfy the need of performing or carrying out the task successfully and different changes brought by the system in their job contributes a stressful event to teachers. the items that were rated the highest by the selected elementary and secondary public school teachers were the following: ―worked linked to deadlines and targets‖ (x =3.75), ―dealing with competing demands – unable to plan working day‖ (x =3.45), ―lack of funds/resources/support to do the job‖ (x =3.24), meanwhile the item that got the lowest mean was ―insufficient time for scholarship/research (x =2.75). from the foregoing results, it can be opined that the selected elementary and secondary public teachers were stressed in meeting their deadlines. they were stressed and feeling low when they could not submit on time what was expected from them. teachers made clear that teaching per se was not their problem but working under time pressure to beat the deadline of submitting so irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 18 many paper works made them feel stressed. some of the paper works were the test result analysis, test item analysis, narrative reports for all the school activities, child mapping, and filling out the various types of school forms 1-10. those pile of paper works which are required to be accomplished on time intensify their stress level. they also felt that they lacked financial support to their everyday undertakings although deped has provided chalk allowance they have still other needs such as: visual materials, laptop, lcd projector, and decorations of the classroom. the said instructional materials were shouldered by the teachers so it becomes a potential source of their stress. as alison and tiqui (n.d.) emphasized hazardous working conditions, lack of materials and resources to do their task effectively, feeling of excessive monitoring and demands for outputs by the administration causes teachers to experience stress. co-workers relationship. as regards to the co-worker‘s relationship, the computed pooled mean was 2.25, described as ―occasionally stressful‖. it received a standard deviation of 0.67. the results indicated that the selected elementary and secondary public-school teachers were not that stressful in terms of dealing with their co-workers. having established a good camaraderie with the different people whom they encounter in their work and maintaining close, friendly relationship and being respectful to everyone in the workplace might be the reason why they were not that stress. filipinos are well known for this value ―marunong makisama‖/ knows how to go along with other people. the items that got the highest mean rating were the following: ―lacks of line management support‖ (x =3.00), ―bullying behavior from principal/head teachers/fellow faculty/students‖(x =2.65) followed by the items, ―dealing with conflictual situations‖ (x =2.46), and ―harassment by principal/head teachers/fellow faculty/student‖ (x =2.34). meanwhile, the item that received the lowest mean was ―feeling isolated in curriculum area‖ (x=1.56). it can be deduced from this result that although they were not that stressful there were few selected elementary and secondary teachers who felt scarcity of support from the management. others claimed that they received maltreatment or bad attitude from their superiors. some were currently in conflict with other people or had been in the said situation before. in one organization like school individual differences is prominent, pleasing everybody for several reasons requires social intelligence considering that people in the school are diverse which implies, different attitudes, values, beliefs and perceptions which sometimes lead to clash of ideas among the teachers. in addition, it is believed that professional jealousy happens in the school which might be the reason of their stress with their fellow faculty. furthermore, the results clearly showed that some respondents experienced harassment in their work-place which becomes one of their sources of stress in the work environment. this is supported by the study of addison and yankyera (2015) that the relationship to co-workers or colleagues was one of the main sources of stress that is due to uneven distribution of the task, clashes of differences and personality, poor system of communication, lack of chance to mingle with the different group, and lack of community spirit. role. for the role, results showed that the computed pooled mean is 2.49 described as ―occasionally stressful‖ with a standard deviation of 0.88. this means that the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 19 selected elementary and secondary public-school teachers were not that stressed as regards their roles or functions in the workplace. this can be attributed to the fact that teachers were knowledgeable, and very responsible individuals. their long and arduous years of carrying out their roles in the school was a manifestation of their dedication and commitment to their profession. it is also a fact that teachers are generally hardworking and industrious professionals. aside from the reason that they consider their profession as a bread and butter, a source of their joy, fulfillment, and achievement. it can be noted that the highest rate for this source was the item, ―lack of promotion prospects‖ (x =2.78). this was followed by the items, ―conflicting demands in job role‖ (x =2.67), ―efforts not valued‖ (x =2.58) and lastly, ―lack of participation in decision making‖ (x =2.56), while the lowest mean was the item ―lack of career development‖ (x=2.0). this implies that the selected elementary and secondary teachers were stressed for not receiving their promotion which they think is due to them. this can be attributed to the fact that teaching is viewed as an exhausting profession so the only way to compensate the efforts the teachers exerted is through receiving promotion. but if promotion is sluggish they might feel that their worth and contributions are not properly recognized and valued. teaching requires a lot of energy because of the several responsibilities that a teacher should attend too. aside from teaching, they are also engaged in extra and co-curricular activities like serving as earthquake and fire drill coordinator/implementer, financer, entertainer, social worker, events manager, solicitors for fund raising activities, assistant of nurses in deworming and vaccination, adviser of several organizations or sometimes assuming or performing the tasks of an administrator/principal. they also needed to comply with lots of paper works, so the demand of their works conflicts with their other works. they also had a feeling that their voices were not heard in terms of decision making in the school because they were directed to obey and implement whatever their principals/heads would tell them to do probably because they did not belong to the line position in the structural organization. this was supported by the findings of archibong, bassey, and effiom (2010) that the greatest caused of stress is due to lack of career development and fund for career development. moreover, brown (2005) mentioned that lack of task management when handling paper work, teaching duties and other extracurricular activity can be a potential stressor to teachers. change. another work related stressor is change. based on the result, change received a computed pooled mean of 3.09 described as ―stressfull‖ with a standard deviation of 0.51. this means that the selected elementary and secondary public teachers were stressed with the different changes happening in their workplace. rated highest among the different items was ―uncertainty due to the merger‖ (x =3.75), followed by ―changes without consultation‖ (x =3.58) ―impact of restructuring on workload/job responsibilities‖ (x =3.50) and lastly ‗pressures from funding organizations‖ (x =3.21), while the item that had the lowest mean is ―large increase in numbers of teachers/students‖ (x=2.24). irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 20 as the saying goes, ―the only thing that is permanent in this world is change.‘‘ change connotes moving forward and it implies development. in the school, the organizational structure, curriculum, management, assignment, people as well as the physical facilities change from time to time. in the advent of technology, principles or rules changes haphazardly also. of all the changes happening in the school, the teachers who are leading actor and actresses are expected to adopt but this sometimes becomes one of the sources of their stress because of uncertainty brought about by the changes. it can be seen that there are situations that teachers sometimes were not prepared for the changes made by the school. the administration or principals responsible in leading the teachers might sometimes fail to guide them so adjustment on the part of the teachers may be difficult. although teachers were well known for their versatile characteristic surprising them on the various responsibilities without proper consultation or information might be difficult to embrace. added to the fact that sometimes there were teachers who did not like to go out from their comfort zone because they were already used to their works or assignment. they declined to welcome new tasks. so blocking of new tasks becomes a source of their stress too. the said findings conform to the study of demjaha, minov, stoleski, zafirova (2015) that the uninformed or unscheduled change can cause a major stress to teachers. ngidi and sibaya (2002), however reported that teachers did not object or declined change; it is the manner on how it is implemented that causes them stress. the result was aligned with this literature where uncertainty and changes without consultation caused the greatest stress according to change. support. lastly, for the support the computed mean was 2.47 described as ―occasionally stressful‖ with a standard deviation of 0.89. this suggests that the elementary and secondary teachers were experiencing occasional stress in this area of their work. the items rated high by the respondents were ―lack of management support‖ (x =2.97) followed by item, ―over competitive/confrontational institutional culture‖ (x =2.73), and lastly ―lack of information of what is going on‖ (x =2.57). what can be surmised from the foregoing finding is that support coming from the administration might not directly cause stress among the teachers. the result was supported by the study of griffith, steptoe, and cropley (1999) that high stress level was due to lack of social support at work and the use of coping through disengagement and suppression of coping competition. moreover, teachers with high social and management support, high locus of control and high job involvement were less stress compared to those experiencing lack of support in their job (chand & monga, 2007). the results implied that role, support, and co-worker relationship of teachers in angeles city were sufficient and only contributes low stress to the participants. teaching performance of the respondents this segment describes the teaching performance of the respondents through the individual performance rating of the respondents in terms of: teaching and learning process, pupils/students outcomes, community involvement, and professional growth and development. results showed that the over-all mean rating of teaching performance of the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 21 respondents was 4.28 and described as ―very satisfactory‖. this means that the respondents had exceeded the minimum requirements/indicators for the said rating but was not able to achieve the highest requirements for outstanding rating. it is interesting to note that the highest rating was garnered by pupil/students outcomes component with a numerical value of 4.52 described as ―outstanding‖ and the lowest mean from among the four components was for the professional growth and development with a numerical rating of 3.51 described as ―satisfactory‖. this implied that the respondents had a very satisfactory rating in their performance as teacher as evidenced by the overall mean rate they obtained from their ipcr. teaching and learning process. the component ―teaching and learning process‖ has a mean of 4.32 and described as ―very satisfactory‖. in this parameter of teaching performance, the results showed that teachers both in elementary and secondary had met the four characteristics of lesson plan/ daily lesson log (lp/dll) such as; completing the five parts of daily lesson plan, achieving the objective smart, dll is based on the desired competencies, has an adequate and appropriate instructional materials and has developed higher order thinking skills. the result further explained that the teaching methods and strategies used by the respondents elicited different forms of interaction with students such as: cooperative learning strategies, participative learning-project, and an integration of multimedia. moreover, the method of teachers‘ setting and implementing class rules had produced well-behaviors of students. furthermore, results implied that the respondents prepared a well-written lesson plan containing knowledge, skills, attitudes, and reflects the mission, vision, goals, and objectives of the department of education. also, respondents made instructional materials that are efficient and effective in initiating curiosity of the learners and increasing the interest to learn. lastly, the respondents utilized teaching strategies that would make the students actively participate in the discussion to the extent that even with the lack of resources students would still be motivated to learn. pupil/students outcome. from the four parameters of teaching performance, pupil/student outcomes have the highest mean of 4.52 which is described as ―outstanding‖. the results revealed that teacher respondents had accomplished the indicators of teaching performance in terms of pupil/student outcome. it means that the teachers had a class record/e-class record, portfolio of learners, a table of specifications (tos) of test questions (tq), assessment tools and analysis reports, updated school forms, and conducted remediation/ enrichment programs. the findings further revealed that teacher respondents were skilled in recording and filling up pertinent school forms, accomplishing reports, computing grades, constructing questions, analyzing test results and coming up with assessment that are authentic and even involved in conducting remediation activities to help students improve their cognitive aspect. it is good to note that teachers never get tired extending help to those who are in need of their academics after finishing their classes. they saw to it that students understand the lesson they have taught them. community involvement. community involvement has a mean of 4.42 and described as ―very satisfactory‖. this means that the teacher respondents were able to show required evidences in performing their task on the aspect of community involvement irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 22 namely; sending notice/letter to parents/guardians regarding the performance of their pupils/students, having an agenda during pta meeting, provides minutes of the meeting, keeping record of attendance duly signed by attendees, documentation/pictorial are done, presence of the letter to parents/guardians and principals for permission for home visitation, anecdotal records, home visitation form, record of attendance, feedback/progress report. this further implied that teacher‘s responsibilities extended beyond the lives of their students, their students‘ families and their community. they even risked their lives in visiting their students who did not attend their classes. they served as stimulator and motivator and encourage the students to perform well in their classes with the help of the parents. they were able to establish good camaraderie with the people in the community and served as model of good deeds to the community. professional growth and development. professional growth and development had the lowest mean of 3.51 rated as ―satisfactory‖. the results disclosed that teacher respondents although they had conducted action research, were not able to comply the evidences required for them to submit and participated in most co-curricular with little or incomplete documented result. this implied that teacher respondents might not really have time to conduct action research or may not really have capability to conduct action research. an excellent teacher should continue promote growth professionally and cultivate knowledge with the process and techniques employed to teaching. the effective teacher should be provided resources and given proper training in order to be updated with the changes and captivate techniques that will improve the teaching process and student outcomes (center of learning environment, 2017). difference of work-related stress factors in terms of grade level assignment the result showed that work-related stress factors of elementary teachers (x = 3.185, sd = 1.32) was statistically different from secondary teachers (x = 2.502, sd = 1.98), t(208) = 0.213, p < 0.05 indicating that there was a difference in the work stress level of elementary and secondary teachers in their grade level assignment. this implied that elementary level teachers tended to experience more stress compared to secondary level teachers. the null hypothesis stating that,‖ there was no significant difference between the grade level assignments of respondents in terms of work-related stress factors‖ was rejected. elementary teachers might have more stressors that affect their well-being as they act as a ―generalist‖ where they taught all subjects to their respective class. hence, teachers needed to prepare four or five lesson plans a day to cover all the subjects that they were handling. in addition, it might be observed that elementary teachers had more hectic schedules than the secondary level teachers had. they also needed to provide a close supervision to students compare to secondary teacher. moreover, elementary teachers were handling younger students who were less responsible and still immature at their age. the result supported the findings of previous studies such as the study of gorrell, bregman, mcallister, and lipscomb (1985), where it was revealed that elementary teachers had a higher level of stress compared to the secondary teachers. moreover, jepson and irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 23 forest (2006) found that elementary teachers had a higher stress level compared to secondary teacher. a study conducted in tacloban by pangayan (2016) reported that elementary teachers in tacloban had a generally high stress level. lastly, the study of alhija (2015) reported that secondary level teachers experienced less stress in terms of colleagues than middle school and elementary teachers. also, elementary teachers experienced a higher stress level brought by work load compared to middle and secondary level teachers. variables that predict teaching performance of the respondents table 2 presents the multiple regression analysis that determined the predictors of respondents‘ teaching performance. preliminary assumption testing was conducted to check on normality, linearity, multicollinearity, and homoscedasticity with no serious violation noted. analysis was performed at 0.05 significance level. the result showed that the model was significant, r 2 = 0.565, adj. r 2 = 0.679, f(18, 191) = 123.87, p < 0.05. gender. specifically, gender was a positive predictor of teaching performance,  = 2.671, std. error = 0.349, t = 1.535, p < 0.05, which indicated that female teachers tended to perform better than male teachers. this might also imply that female teachers tended to excel in carrying out their teaching tasks than the male teachers. this is understandable maybe because female teachers tended to be more dedicated and committed to their teaching job table 2. multiple regression predicting the respondents’ teaching performance predictors b std.error t p constant 27.201 4.965 8.569 0.000 age 0.411 0.121 -0.422 -0.511 gender 2.671 0.349 1.535* 0.046 civil status -0.111 0.521 0.081 0.924 ethnicity 5.410 0.119 -0.498 0.233 educational attainment 0.640 0.207 3.211 0.376 teaching position 1.421 0.534 0.522* 0.047 grade assignment -7.308 0.601 0.277 0.244 seminar/training attended 0.346 0.444 -2.226* 0.048 demand 0.341 0.987 -0.345* 0.026 control 2.115 0.877 4.520 0.076 relationship 0.310 0.535 0.654 0.342 role -0.442 0.698 2.777 -0.377 change 5.502 0.112 9.234 0.076 support 3.785 0.498 3.670 0.579 r2 = 0.565, adj. r2 = 0.679, f(18, 191) = 123.87, p < 0.05 sex: 1 male, 2 – female, seminar/training attended: 1 – with, 2 – without irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 24 teaching position. likewise, the teaching position was also a positive predictor,  = 1.421, std. error = 0.534, t = 0.522, p < 0.05, denoting that respondents with higher teaching position were likely tend to perform better than those with lower teaching position. those teachers with higher teaching position were usually master teachers. as a master teacher, one is expected to exemplify a degree of excellence in teaching before one can able to reach the said position that could be one of the reasons why the said variable was a predictor of teaching performance seminar/training attended related to stress management. on the other hand, seminar/training attended related to stress management was a negative predictor of teaching performance,  = 0.346, std. error = 0.444, t = -2.226, p < 0.05, which means that teachers who attended seminar/training related to stress management seem to perform better than those who did not attend. this may mean that stress management seminars/training somehow provide knowledge and insights to teachers which might possibly equip, guide and help them manage their various tasks/assignments. proper management of tasks/assignment of teachers may probably result to their high teaching performance. demand. similarly, demand is a negative predictor of teaching performance,  = 0.341, std. error = 0.987, t = -0.345, p < 0.05, specifying that respondents who perceived higher on demand as stress-related factor tended to make lower performance in teaching and those who perceived lower on demand as stress-related factor tended to make higher performance in teaching. this suggests that those who enjoyed the demand and the nature of teaching performed better than those who did not. taken together all the predictors of teaching performance, the r 2 is 0.565. this finding indicated that 56.50% of the variability of the dependent variable which is teaching performance was explained by the predictors of the study. the other 43.50% was explained by the other factors not included in the present study. meanwhile, age, civil status, ethnicity, educational attainment, grade assignment, control, relationship, role, change, and support did not predict the teaching performance of the respondents. conclusion and recommendation most of the participants were within the age range of 41 years old to 50 years old, where most of them were females. moreover, majority of the participants were married and were part of the kapampangan ethnicity. most of the respondents were pursuing their ms/ma degree. with this, majority of the respondents occupied teacher i academic rank. the respondents were distributed in teaching primary and intermediate level for elementary department and junior and senior high school for secondary level. in addition, most of the participants were permanently employed and were working for almost five years. however, many of the participants had a few or no seminars/training attended related to stress management. the participants‘ level of stress was described as moderately stressful where demand was considered to contribute high stress while control and change as moderate irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 25 stressful and role, support and relationship to co-worker were considered as a low contributor to work-related stress. there was a significant difference on the work -related stress including demand, control, change, role, and relationship to coworker. elementary teachers experienced a higher level of work-related stress compared to secondary teachers. sex and teaching position were positive predictors of teaching performance which implied that females tended to perform better than males; and teachers with higher position had a higher teaching performance. on the other hand, seminar/ training attended related to stress and demand were both negative predictors of teaching performance in which teachers with seminars attended had higher teaching performance compared to those teachers who did not have the seminar or training, and a higher demand of work to teachers could result in lower teaching performance. to create and implement seminars to teachers on stress management and coping on the different demands brought by improvement and evolution of the educational system, measures must be done by the policy makers on how they are going to alleviate the stressors faced by the elementary and secondary teachers. by doing so, teaching may attract more talented, intelligent and dedicated individuals to engage in the teaching profession. programs and activities to decrease work-related stress especially to elementary teachers may be considered. activities involving the benefit and purpose of their role as teachers, and team building, expanding resource could also reinforce teacher‘s wellbeing and satisfaction. difference among teachers‘ work related stress should be addressed and study to get substantial data and information on how to reduce stress among elementary teacher while maintaining the low level of stress of secondary teachers. factors such as gender, position, seminar attended and demand, which are considered as predictors of teaching performance, should be explored in a deeper sense and used as an instrument to improve the teacher performance to promote the quality and effectiveness of their profession. further research undertaking involving greater sampling, scope and variables can be considered. likewise, further inquiry as regards the reasons for the factors affecting work-related stress, and teaching performance can be done to continuously explore other factors that can be considered as predictors of teacher performance. references addison, a. k., & yankyera, g. (2015). an investigation into how female teachers manage stress and teacher burnout: a case study of west akim municipality of ghana. journal of education and practice, 6(10), 1-15. alson, j., & tiqui a. (n.d). stressors of public school teachers. https://www.academia.edu/31523763/stressors_of_public_school_teachers ansley, b. m., meyers, j., mcpee, k., & varjas, k. (2018). the hidden threat of teacher stress. https://www.salon.com/2018/03/11/the-hidden-threat-of-teacher-stress_partner/ https://www.academia.edu/31523763/stressors_of_public_school_teachers https://www.salon.com/2018/03/11/the-hidden-threat-of-teacher-stress_partner/ irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 26 ansis, j. c. (2017). filipinos cite job, studies as top cause of stress — cnn ph poll. cnn philippines. http://cnnphilippines.com/lifestyle/2015/09/23/filipinos-top-causes-of-stress-jobtraffic-money.html asthana, a., & owen, m. b. (2018). epidemic ofsstress‘ blamed for 3,750 teachers on long-term sick leave. the guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/education/2018/jan/11/epidemic-of-stress-blamed-f or-3750-teachers-on-longterm-sick-leave brown, s. w. (2005). emily and rebecca: a tale of two teachers. teaching and teacher education: an international journal of research and studies, 21(6), 637-648. chand, p., & monga, o. p. (2007). correlates of job stress and burnout. journal of community guidance & research, 24(3), 243-252. cox, a., solomon, b., & parris, d. 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(2006). individual contributory factors in teacher stress: the role of achievement striving and occupational commitment. british journal of educational psychology, 76(1), 183-197. doi:10.1348/000709905x37299 kim, t. k. (2015). t test as a parametric statistic. korean journal of anesthesiology, 68(6), 540– 546. doi:10.4097/kjae.2015.68.6.540 ngidi, d. p., & sibaya, p. t. (2002). black teachers‘ personality dimensions and work-related stress factors. south african journal of psychology, 32(3), 7-15. rappler. (2016), for pinoys, this is the leading cause of stress at work – survey. rappler. https://www.rappler.com/life-and-style/career/131527-willis-towers-watson-surveyemployee-stress-causes romero, g., & bantigue n, (2016). job satisfaction level of k to 12 teachers utilizing multiple statistical tools. third asia pacific conference on advanced research, 237-247. https://apiar.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/12_apcar_july_brr719_ed u-237-247.pdf tranmer, m., & elliot, m. (2008). multiple linear regression. cathie marsh institute for social research. http://hummedia.manchester.ac.uk/institutes/cmist/archive-publications/workingpapers/2008/2008-19-multiple-linear-regression.pdf university and college union (ucu). (2008). ucu model stress questionnaire. university and college union london region. https://uculondonregion.files.wordpress.com/2013/06/stresstool_branch-2.pdf wangui, m. f., ombui, k., & iravo, m. (2016). effects of work-related stress on teachers performance in public secondary schools in kikuyu sub county, kenya. international journal of science and research, 11(5), 2319-7064. biographical notes dr. aurora g. sarabia is a mathematics teacher in maryland, usa and a graduate of doctor of philosophy in development education under the distance, open, transnational university of the central luzon state university, philippines. agsarabia@dotclsu.edu.ph dr. leila m. collantes is a professor vi, faculty of the secondary education department, college of education, central luzon state university, philippines. she handles several courses related to education both in the undergraduate and graduate programs. she has been in the academe for more than 22 years. in those years she served as chair and member of different examining committees, adviser and member advisory committee of graduate students taking up their thesis and dissertation in the graduate program. leilacollantes@clsu.edu.ph https://www.rappler.com/life-and-style/career/131527-willis-towers-watson-survey-employee-stress-causes https://www.rappler.com/life-and-style/career/131527-willis-towers-watson-survey-employee-stress-causes https://apiar.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/12_apcar_july_brr719_edu-237-247.pdf https://apiar.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/12_apcar_july_brr719_edu-237-247.pdf http://hummedia.manchester.ac.uk/institutes/cmist/archive-publications/working-papers/2008/2008-19-multiple-linear-regression.pdf http://hummedia.manchester.ac.uk/institutes/cmist/archive-publications/working-papers/2008/2008-19-multiple-linear-regression.pdf https://uculondonregion.files.wordpress.com/2013/06/stresstool_branch-2.pdf mailto:agsarabia@dotclsu.edu.ph mailto:leilacollantes@clsu.edu.ph this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 6 alignment of classroom instruction with indonesian national standards rumtini suwarno 1 , e. vance randall 2 , and julie m. hite 3 abstract this study examines the degree of alignment between classroom instruction and national curriculum standards. this alignment may vary as a function of teacher characteristics. using self-reports from teachers about their experiences teaching the national curriculum standards, the study explores the extent to which classroom instruction aligns with indonesian national standards in the following nationally-assessed subjects: indonesian, english, science, and mathematics. a mixed multilevel regression analyses was used to examine the relationships between alignments and teacher characteristics. the study involved 501 junior secondary school teachers from three western provinces in indonesia (lampung, jakarta, and east java). the findings showed that the majority of teachers taught 100% of the topics outlined in the national curriculum standards. however, a small number of teachers had taught less than 100% of the required topics. in fact, some of them had only taught less than 70%. as the indonesian educational system used standards-based national exams, skipping topics in classroom instruction may significantly affect student achievement because test items are developed based on the curriculum standards. in terms of the relationships of alignments with teacher characteristics such as gender, working status, college major, level of education, years of teaching experience and professional development, the findings suggested that these relationships varied. theoretically, this research provides two contributions: (1) lacking research in the area of curriculum standards and classroom instruction as mediator of student competencies, the findings of this study make an important contribution to the current research of the standards-based education system; (2) predicting alignments as a function of teacher characteristics in this study contributes to the theoretical discussion of teacher characteristics and their possible effects on classroom instruction. keywords classroom practice, curriculum, instructional alignment, teacher characteristics, indonesian national standards 1 the endowment fund management unit of the indonesian ministry of finance, indonesia; rumtini@yahoo.com 2 *corresponding author: department of educational leadership and foundations, david o. mckay school of education, brigham young university provo, utah, usa; vance_randall@byu.edu 3 department of educational leadership and foundations, david o. mckay school of education, brigham young university provo, utah, usa; julie_hite@byu.edu mailto:rumtini@yahoo.com mailto:vance_randall@byu.edu mailto:julie_hite@byu.edu irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 7 introduction unesco (2006) calls for improvement in the quality of all aspects of education. quality of education means that everyone should be able to achieve recognized and measurable learning outcomes, particularly with regard to literacy, numeracy, and other skills essential for life. many governments are aware of these issues and respond by setting policies and programs to improve education through setting standards to achieve quality education for all (world bank, 2008). for example, the united states embarked on a standards-based reform which addressed three important aspects: standards, tests, and accountability (clarke et al., 2003; lindquist, 2017; national commission on excellence in education, 1983). states were required to implement challenging content standards in reading and mathematics. to measure achievement of the standards, tests were required annually for all students in grades 3 through 8. in indonesia, the students’ mastery of national content standards is determined by the results of national exams which used to certify completion of education, especially at the junior and senior secondary school levels. regardless of the country or the specific details of any standards-based reform, major challenges are faced most national education systems. two of the most common challenges involve content and assessment. are the curriculum or content standards sufficiently rigorous? are the national tests aligned with the curriculum standards? a third important challenge that it not often addressed is fidelity of implementation (coburn, hill & spillane, 2016). for example, to what degree are curriculum standards aligned with classroom instruction? often, a major assumption is that once the curriculum standards are set, they are taught in the classroom. if required curriculum content is not adequately covered in the classroom, then students cannot learn the required material, will perform less satisfactory on the national exams and will be less prepared for success later on in life. the problem this research examined was the degree of alignment between classroom instruction and national curriculum standards in indonesia and whether this alignment varied as a function of teacher characteristics. the effects of teacher characteristics are often examined as a possible explanation for a variety of effects in the classroom (goldhaber, 2016; hanushek & rivkin, 2006; klassen et al., 2018; opdenakker & van damme, 2006). systemic alignment has been essential to increasing both quality of and access to education in standards-based reform. alignment between classroom instruction and the curriculum standards has been the interface that ensures achievement of educational goals. alignment research can offer a deeper view of the educational process (blank, 2002; martone & sireci, 2009; porter & smithson, 2001) however; few studies have examined this issue. although the concept of standards-based reform is widely accepted in indonesia, the term alignment is hardly mentioned in terms of its necessity in implementation of the curriculum standards. the degree of alignment of standards, classroom instruction, and assessment in the education system of indonesia has not been adequately studied. the lack of clarity on this issue may significantly affect many aspects of education, including efforts to improve its quality and access. in addition, current progressive implementation of the national standards and the national testing or assessment program to determine completion irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 8 for each school level in indonesia has not been followed up with sufficient intervention in classroom instruction. insufficient attention to classroom instruction may result from limited information received by teachers about the standards, instructional practices based on the standards, and the assessment program gauging their effectiveness, as well as the overall alignment of these components. the practice of classroom instruction is critical to standards-based reform. research shows that the instructional process in reading increased achievement not only in reading but in content areas such as science, mathematics, and writing (guthrie et al., 2000). findings of a study on classroom quality conducted by brown et al. (2010) supported an intervention in the classroom-level social process which is fundamental to positive youth development. eliminating the instructional process from the mainstream of the reform will definitely create disparities involving teachers’ knowledge about the standards and their classroom instructional practice. as a result, teachers may align their class instruction by referring more to the tests than to the standards of the curriculum. if this occurs, the education will narrowly focus only on the assessment and violate a critical concept of the standards-based reform. more important, assessors need to realize that a superficial improvement in test scores may occur when teachers align their classroom instruction to the test rather than to the curriculum standards. if this happens, misalignment between the content standards and classroom instruction not only violates the concept of the standards-based system but may also result in a greater misallocation of resources for schools and misrepresent the actual quality level of education. such misallocations and misrepresentations can interfere with students from different backgrounds receiving opportunities to get into better quality schools. very little research has been done on the degree of alignment between content standards and classroom instruction in indonesia. koto (2013) studied the implementation of science curriculum in primary schools bengkulu province. documentary analysis of course syllabi and lesson plans was conducted. questionnaires were completed by the teachers about the implementation of the new science curriculum. over 90% of the teachers either agreed or strongly agreed with the implementation of the science standards in the classroom. in addition, six teachers were observed teaching in the classroom. the study concluded that the six teachers were still in the adoption mode of the national science standards in terms of course syllabi. without additional research on implementation of curriculum standards in the classroom, educators are challenged in assessing whether student achievement scores on the national exam reflect either student learning or the degree to which the content standards were taught in the classroom. in addition, without this knowledge policy makers have difficulty determining whether the national educational reform initiative is making any difference in student achievement. research is urgently needed to investigate how well teachers align their classroom instruction with content standards. thus the purpose of this study is to determine the extent to which indonesian instructional practices align with the nation’s standards. this study addresses two critical research questions: (1) to what extent does classroom instruction align with topic coverage specified by national curriculum standards? and (2) how are teacher characteristics such as gender, working status, college irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 9 major, level of education, years of teaching experience, and professional development associated with the degree to which classroom instruction reflects topic coverage aligned with the national curriculum standards? literature review conceptual framework for standards-based reform standards-based reform is comprised of four basic components: curriculum or content standards, assessments, accountability, and alignment. the purpose of curriculum standards is to provide explicit guidelines for curriculum at various grade levels and implicit guidelines for what is to be tested (clarke et al., 2003; tran, reys, teuscher, dingman, & kasmer, 2016). the standards can provide a narrow or broad scope for educators to structure curricular content at the local or school level (griffith, 2006). the aim is to provide guidelines that teachers can use to create a challenging high quality curriculum for all children, regardless of where they attend school (azano, missett, tackett, & callahan, 2018; clark et al., 2003). the second component of standards-based reform is assessments, which should be aligned with the curriculum standards. the purpose of assessments is to provide an external, objective measure of how well students have learned the content and skills specified in the standards (bhola, impara, & buckdendahl, 2003; clarke et al., 2003; newton & kasten, 2013). many countries administer annually a national assessment or exam to gather this information about the extent of student learning. this information can indirectly shed light about specific education policies such as instructional practices, teacher quality, interventions, instructional practice, and adequate resources. in addition, international tests or exam such as pisa and timss collect comparative data on student achievement across many countries (tobini, lietz, nugroho, vivekanadan, & nyamkhuu, 2015). the third component of standards-based reform is accountability; holding members of the education system accountable for how well students have learned the contents and skills laid out in the standards, as assessed by tests. central considerations in accountability are quality and equity (gershberg, gonzalez, & meade, 2012; mbiti, 2016). has the education provided to students of high quality? is the quality of education and associated resources distributed in an equitable manner to all students? is the education system characterized by high or low levels of student learning? alignment is the fourth critical component in standards-based reform. alignment helps tie the other three components into a coordinated, coherent whole. if the national curriculum standards are not aligned with the national exam, the exam results are meaningless because they are measuring something else other than the extent to which students learned the curricular material. the validity and reliability of the national exam is called into question. if, however, we assume that there is alignment between the curriculum standards and the national exam, there is still another potential threat to the validity of the exam results and their usefulness in improving the quality of education. a common assumption is that teachers are teaching the curriculum standards in such a way that promotes student learning of the curriculum. as mentioned earlier, if the curriculum irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 10 standards are not being sufficiently taught in the classroom, then students will not be able to learn them well and they will not be adequately prepared to do well on the national exam. the need for alignment is highlighted in the standards-based reform an initiative is pointed out in international research. the trend international mathematics and science study (timms), an international ethnographic case study, has highlighted two possible explanations for the general patterns in school teaching: (a) universal elements that shape teaching practice in most schools are the school physical environment, the classroom social dynamic, and the curriculum content, and (b) countries have shaped teaching as evolving classroom methods aligned with their national cultural beliefs, expectations, and values (givvin et al., 2005). these beliefs may include the nature of the subjects taught, the ways students should learn, the expectations for student performance levels, and the value of school processes and outcomes. in this context, alignment is critical, not only to achieve match, continuity, and synchronization among the main components of the instructional system, including classroom practice (fonthal, 2004), but also to ensure that knowledge and skills assessed on tests are the same knowledge and skills specified in the content standards (grossman et al., 2008; lauer et al., 2005; martone & sireci, 2009; rothman, 2003). accordingly, many studies examining alignment have been conducted by scholars such as porter (2002), porter et al. (2007), webb (1997, 1999), and wixson et al. (2002) who have produced criteria and procedures to measure alignment. in those studies, both webb (1997) and wixson et al. (2002) focused their research mostly on alignment of the standards and the assessment or exam, while porter (2002) addressed alignment of the standards with both classroom practice and assessment. porter (2002) found that where teachers make decisions about what to teach and how to teach is a critical aspect for alignment and plays a key role in student performance with respect to the standards. systemic reformers seek to provide the state with a coherent system to guide instruction (cohen, 1993). newmann et al. (2001) suggested that studies on the broader educational system tend to discuss coherence as an alignment of a school’s instructional program with external policies and standards. similarly, schmidt, and prawat (2006) argued that in order to bring coherence to education, one must examine the relationship between content coverage at the classroom level and curricular governance at the system level. alignment is the central focus of standards-based reform targeted to help students learn and perform on the assessments more effectively (looney, 2011). alignment is believed to offer more equitable educational opportunities for all children. alignment helps not only to ensure that students have a fair opportunity at being prepared in class for what is on the tests and performing well on the tests, but also to confirm the validity of the results (rothman, 2003). based on this assumption, alignment is a critical issue not only in standards content and assessment but also in instructional practices in which the teachers’ role is paramount. standards-based reform in indonesian education in the history of education in indonesia, a centralized system has often been predominant over a decentralized model. from the earliest centuries (1598–1942), when the country was a dutch colony, the control over local governments (including education) by irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 11 the dutch central government was very strong. education was restricted to the local elites. after colonialism ended, the period of the first presidency (1945–1966) found the country in economic and political turmoil. thus efforts to decentralize some government systems were far from successful due to the country’s instability. as a result the educational sector was not high on the priority list. education was again evolving in indonesia in the era of the second presidency (1966–1998), although it was still centralized due to social instability and the need for nationalism justified indonesia in remaining centralized (bjork, 2003; schwarz, 1999). during this era, education helped promote national unity by disseminating top-down government decisions. a minor move towards decentralization introduced in 1994, known as the local content curriculum (lcc), allocated 20% of total instructional hours to locally designed subject matter. according to bjork (2003), this move toward local control was unsuccessful because school cultures previously directed obedience rather than initiative, in accordance with the top-down system of the government, were too deeply engrained in the education process. major government decentralization initiatives were introduced in mid-1998, the third presidential era (1998–1999), as a result of the economic crisis that caused the collapse of the second presidency (1966–1998). the succeeding governments (1999–2001, 2001–2004, and 2004–2009) established the national standards and assessments as efforts to increase educational quality and accessibility. the national education system law 20/2003 was enacted in response to the change of education governance on a national level from a centralized model to a decentralized model under two major instruments of decentralization: law 22/1999 on regional government and law 25/1999 on fiscal relations. under this new education system law, the government adopted two components of standards-based reform that are foundational initiatives of the central government: national curriculum standards and national assessment; these regulations mandate what students should know and be able to do. conversely, the third component of standards-based reform, accountability, is barely discussed in this older education system law. in 2013, the national curriculum was modified to assist students to meet ‖knowledge competencies and developing positive attitudes towards the national character‖ (blackley, rahmawati, fitriani, sheffield, & koul, 2018, p. 25). in contrast to the previous curriculum, the kurikulum tingkat satuan pendidikan (ktsp), the ―goal of k-13 was to develop productive, creative, and affective indonesians through the integrated nurturing of their attitudes, skills and knowledge‖ (blackley, rahmawati, fitriani, sheffield, & koul, 2018, p. 25). along with the change in the curriculum, the teachers were expected to modify their pedagogy from that of ―emphasizing rote learning and promoting deference to the teacher’s authority‖ to a more ―student-centred approach, and active learning‖ (blackley, rahmawati, fitriani, sheffield, & koul, 2018, p. 25). many countries have shaped their teaching by allowing classroom methods to evolve as they align with national cultural beliefs, expectations, and values (givvin et al., 2005). ―the implementation of this new curriculum, however, was halted after one year due to a presidential election which resulted in changes in the ministry of education. schools and teachers were instructed to return to the previous ktsp school-based curriculum‖ (suyanto, 2017, p. 2). sukasni and efendy (2017) note irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 12 several challenges in indonesian education such as cost, the nature of the national exam, implementation of curriculum and quality teachers as part of a reform agenda for education. they conclude that the ―settlement of the problems should be comprehensive and integrated,‖ or in other words, a coherent whole where all of the key components in the indonesian education system are aligned with each other (sukasni & efendy, 2017, p. 188). methodology using quantitative methods, this study examined the alignment of topics covered in classrooms in indonesian junior secondary schools with those mandated by the national curriculum kbk standards. the measure of alignment between classroom instruction and the national curriculum standards is the breadth of instruction for the variable of topic coverage. topic coverage is specified as the average number of topics mandated by national standards that were taught in the classrooms as reported by the participating teachers. the first research question explored the accuracy with which teachers were aligning their instruction with the specific national curriculum standards, and the second research question examined the association between various teacher characteristics and the alignment they practiced. sampling multistage sampling technique was utilized for the study (shimizu, 2014). three provinces located in the western part of indonesia provided the sample of teachers for the study. provinces, districts, and junior secondary schools were randomly sampled using the excel software program. lampung province was randomly selected from the ten provinces on sumatra island, and east java province was randomly selected among the five on java island. the exception to random selection, jakarta, the capital of the country, was included as it is the most populated city in indonesia and differs in many ways from other provinces. from each province, two districts were randomly selected: one urban district, commonly called a city district or kota, and one suburban/rural district, commonly called kabupaten for a total of 6 districts in the sample. one of the differences between urban (kota) and rural districts is that kota is a district without a rural area, while kabupaten is a district with some rural areas. again jakarta was an exception; two aspects were noted: (a) the province had no kabupaten districts, and (b) policy for all school levels was managed at the provincial level rather than the district level (as it was in other provinces). teachers were taken from two kota districts, excluding private schools since according to the province officials, the private schools were on holiday when data were collected. enough schools were randomly selected to provide approximately 75 teachers for each district or 150 teachers per province. however, 200 teachers were included from east java due to its large number of schools. from each school, all teachers who taught the subjects of indonesian, english, science, and math were selected as respondents of the study. based on this sampling strategy, the study included 27 schools (lampung, four kota district irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 13 schools and four kabupaten district schools; jakarta, four kota; and east java, six kota and nine kabupaten), with a total of 501 junior secondary school teachers. data collection surveys are one of the most commonly used methods to understand the way societies work and to test theories of behavior (czaja & blair, 2005groves et al., 2004). the advantages of using a survey include efficiency, internal and external validity, and feasibility for covering large geographical areas (mathers, fox, & hunn, 2007). the geographical context of this study and the number of respondents lent itself to a survey instrument. the study collected data through a teacher survey questionnaire consisting of two parts. the first part collected teacher characteristics such as gender, working status, college major, level of education, years of teaching experience, and professional development. the collection of teacher characteristics is quite common in studies involving classroom teachers (cakir & bichelmeyer, 2016; lee, yeung, tracey, & baker, 2015; monk & king, 1994; wayne & youngs, 2003). the reasoning behind collecting data on teacher characteristics is grounded in the fact that these characteristics are often associated with or influence what goes on the classroom. the rationale for collecting demographic data of teacher characteristics in this study was to examine the extent to which teachers were implementing the national curriculum standards was associated with any particular teacher characteristics. findings of such associations would most likely warrant additional investigation. the second part of the survey listed the standards for each of the four nationally assessed subjects (indonesian, english, science, and mathematics), followed by questions to measure the breadth of alignment of classroom practice to each standard. the survey asked teachers to indicate whether they had taught the identified topics in their classrooms during the 2008/2009 school year, using 0 for the standard-mandated topics the teacher did not teach to 1 for each standard-mandated topic the teacher did teach. teachers were given a week to complete the survey, with the choice to return the questionnaire when the researcher came back to the school to collect data or to mail the questionnaire to the address provided by the investigator using a provided envelope with an express stamp for schools in lampung province and a regular stamp for schools in jakarta and east java province. this study used teacher self-report because ―’teacher perceptions’ are one window into teacher-student relationship that can inform work related to improving relationships and interactions‖ (saft et al., 2001, p. 126) (cristina-corina & valerica, 2012; greene, 2015). to increase the accuracy of reporting the perceptions of their own instructional practices rather than giving socially desirable answers, prior studies had utilized various validity measures (kaplan, gheen, & midgley, 2002; wolters & daugherty, 2007). when explaining the purpose of the study to teachers, the investigator addressed consensual issues and convinced them that their responses would be kept confidential; only the investigator would have access to the data. since no names were written on the surveys, respondents were assured their identities would not be recognized by anyone but the investigator. in an effort to improve the quality of the survey instrument, a pilot project was conducted in jakarta with irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 14 24 invited teachers consisting of two teachers for each subject and grade. for this pilot, the english version of the questions for the survey had been translated into indonesian. teachers were then given both the indonesian and the english versions and asked to review the survey instrument for possible changes in clarity and content. by the end of four weeks, 95% of the questionnaires had been completed and received by investigators. at the end of the data collection period, 98% had been returned. items on the instrument required approximately 30–35 minutes to complete. no compensation was offered for participating in this survey. a major factor in the 98% return rate could be the establishment of a research and innovation network at the district level. personnel in the district network who had been trained in research methods and data collection assisted in collecting the survey data. data analysis data analyses utilized descriptive statistics, along with correlational and regression analyses. after data were collected from the completed surveys, the responses were recorded in microsoft excel. data analyses were organized around the two research questions. the first question, exploring alignment of classroom instruction with the national curriculum standards, was analyzed by determining the percentage of the mandated national standards topics the teachers had taught during the 2008-2009 school year. analysis of data addressing the second question, the relationship of this alignment to teacher characteristics, estimated the parameters which seemed to maximize the likelihood, thus making the response appear as likely as possible (rabe-hesketh & skrondal, 2008). given that the study consisted of teachers were clustered and nested within schools (multilevel by grade level and subject taught in one school), the use of mixed multilevel modeling adjusted for possible school effects on the teachers’ responses. such multiple level structures are typical of education data (little et al., 2000; marsh et al., 2008; marsh et al., 2009). mixed multilevel regression examined the relationship between the alignment of classroom instruction (as measured by topic coverage) and teacher characteristics (gender, working status, college major, years of teaching experience, education level, and professional development). in the model, alignment of classroom instruction was the dependent variable and teacher characteristics were the independent variables. the following equation models the association of teacher characteristics as predictors of the alignment of teacher instruction with national standards. topic coverageoj = γ00+ γ01 (gender)j + γ02 (working status)j + γ03 (college major)j + γ04 (years of teaching)j + γ05 (education level)j +γ06 (professional development1)j + γ07 (professional development2) + uoj + eij. the symbols and components in this formula represent the following:  topic coverage is defined as alignment for teacher i expressed as function of the independent variables gender, working status, college major, years of teaching, education level, and professional developments.  γ00 is the y-intercepts, interpreted as the expected alignment for a male government teacher who is teaching the subject of his school major with zero education, experience, and professional development. irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 15  the γ01γ07 are slope terms interpreted as the change in average of the alignments for each unit increase in the following characteristics: gender, working status, college major, years of teaching, education level, and professional developments variables.  uoj is the unique school effects.  ε ij = the error term interpreted as all other factors that affect average degree of alignment that are not accounted for in the model. results the main objective of this paper is to report the findings addressing the two research questions. research question 1 established the primary alignment: ―to what extent does classroom instruction align with topic coverage specified by national curriculum standards?‖ research question 2 looked at aspects that might affect likelihood and extent of alignment: ―how are teacher characteristics such as gender, working status, college major, level of education, years of teaching experience, and professional development associated with the degree to which classroom instruction reflects topic coverage aligned with the national curriculum standards?‖ of the 501 participating teachers (98% response rate), east java contributed the highest number (40.1%), followed by jakarta (31%) and lampung (28.74%). these three provinces included a large number of schools in 2008–2009: east java had the largest number of schools (6,088) followed by lampung (1,706 schools), and jakarta (1,236 schools). comparing the grades represented, seventh-grade teachers were the largest group to participate in the survey, followed by ninth grade and then eighth grade teachers. of the subjects taught, the sample indicated a fairly even distribution of teachers at each grade level in all four subject areas. across all grades, math teachers represented the largest group (n = 136; 27.1%), followed by english teachers (n = 126; 25.9%), indonesian teachers (n = 124; 24.7%), and science teachers (n = 115; 23%). topic coverage by teachers table 1 presents the teachers’ average topic coverage for each province by subject and grade level. overall, the teachers’ average topic coverage was 97.17% (n=501, sd=5.15). all scores were high with only two scores below 90%---east java science in 7 th grade and jakarta english in 8 th grade. in comparing provinces, east java showed the lowest curriculum coverage average. in terms of grade levels, eighth grade teachers had the highest percent of topics covered with seventh grade teachers covered the lowest percentage of the topics. as can be seen from table 2, while the majority of teachers taught 100% of the topics in each subject areas, as required by the national curriculum standard, 20.55% of the teachers—across grades and subjects—did teach fewer than required topics. overall, the seventh grade had the lowest percentage of topic coverage, including the only grade with any teachers who taught 70% or below of the required topics across the subjects. this finding also aligns with the lower means for seventh grade in table 1. across the curriculum irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 16 subjects, science and math showed the highest number of teachers who did not teach 100% of these mandated topics, 30.43% for science and 22.79% for math. table 1. average topic coverage by province, subject, and grade (n=501) province subject* grade 7 grade 8 grade 9 average mean mean sd n mean sd n mean sd n lampung i 99.6 1.6 14 98.0 4.3 9 98.9 2.4 11 98.9 e 99.0 4.4 18 100.0 0.0 9 96.7 11.0 11 98.6 s 98.1 5.3 12 97.4 5.8 11 99.1 1.9 11 98.2 m 98.7 2.8 14 96.5 11.2 10 99.2 1.9 14 98.3 total 98.8 3.5 58 98.0 5.3 39 98.5 4.3 47 98.5 jakarta i 95.2 9.7 14 99.3 2.4 11 100.0 0.0 11 97.9 e 89.5 16.2 19 100.0 0.0 10 100.0 0.0 11 95.0 s 99.1 1.9 15 100.0 0.0 11 100.0 0.0 10 99.6 m 98.5 3.5 18 97.3 7.1 11 99.6 1.4 15 98.6 total 95.6 7.8 66 99.2 2.4 43 99.9 0.3 47 97.9 east java i 100.0 0.0 21 99.5 1.9 17 100.0 0.0 16 99.8 e 91.7 18.0 21 96.9 7.1 13 94.8 12.1 14 94.0 s 86.6 17.4 16 96.6 3.9 14 91.4 9.7 15 91.3 m 91.7 14.9 23 99.7 1.4 17 96.6 4.4 14 95.5 total 92.5 12.6 81 98.2 3.6 61 95.7 6.6 59 95.7 grand total 95.64 7.96 205 98.4 3.8 143 98.04 3.73 15 3 97.17 *subjects: i = indonesian, e = english, s = science, m = mathematics n= number of teachers table 2. number of teachers in topic coverage ranges for each subject and grade grade range of topic coverage number of teachers % of teachers indonesian english science math total 7 up to 70% 1 5 2 2 10 4.88 71%–89 % 1 6 7 4 18 8.78 90%–99% 4 6 4 12 26 12.68 100% 43 41 30 37 151 73.66 number of teachers 49 58 43 55 205 100.00 % teachers not at 100% 12.24 29.31 30.23 32.72 26.3 % total teachers by subject 23.90 28.29 20.98 26.83 100.00 100.00 8 up to 70% 0 0 0 0 0 0.00 71%–89% 1 2 2 2 7 4.90 90%–99% 4 1 7 2 14 9.79 100% 32 29 27 34 122 85.31 number of teachers 37 32 36 38 143 100.00 % teachers not at 100% 13.51 9.38 25 10.5 irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 17 14.7 % total teachers by subject 25.87 22.38 25.17 26.57 100.00 100.00 9 up to 70% 0 0 0 0 0 0.00 71%–89% 0 3 4 3 10 6.54 90%–99% 2 1 9 6 18 11.76 100% 36 32 23 34 125 81.70 number of teachers 38 36 36 43 153 100.00 % teachers not at 100% 5.26 11.11 36.11 20.9 18.3 % total teachers by subject 24.84 23.53 23.53 28.10 100.00 100.00 overal l up to 70% 1 5 2 2 10 1.99 71%–89% 2 11 13 9 35 6.99 90%–99% 10 8 20 20 58 11.58 100% 111 102 80 105 398 79.44 number of teachers 124 126 115 136 501 100.00 % teachers not at 100% 10.48 19.05 30.43 22.8 20.5 % total teachers by subject 24.75 25.14 22.95 27.15 100.00 100.00 teacher demographics the numbers of male and female teachers are similar in the junior secondary school level in indonesia. this gender similarity at the junior secondary level seems to be a middle ground between primary school and senior secondary school levels, in which there is more of a disparity. by gender, primary schools had more female teachers and senior secondary had more male teachers (indonesian center for school statistics, 2010). findings indicated that 26% of the respondents did not indicate their college major. for those teachers who did indicate their college majors, 12% of these teachers were teaching subjects that did not align their college majors. this percentage may actually be even higher if those who did not indicate their college major (26.3%) also share this discrepancy. one of the government requirements for certifying teachers for junior secondary school is that the teacher must have at least a three-year degree. on average, the teacher education levels were high, with 85.03% of the teachers having a bachelor’s degree—higher than the government requirement. however, for 2% of the some teachers, their highest level of education was only senior high school, with jakarta having the highest percentage of these teachers at 3.87%. findings regarding teacher experience indicated that participants had either relatively little experience (one to five years) (42.1%) or much experience (11 or more years) (40.3%) teaching their current subject. thus, most teachers were either new teachers with relatively less experience or older teachers with more experience. the number of teachers with years of teaching experience in the middle range (six to ten years teaching the current subject) was fewer across all grade levels of education and, in many cases, across the subject and province. findings indicated that 55.89% of the teachers had adequate professional development, a crucial aspect in a teacher’s career, regarding the national curriculum standards. however, 36.53% had less than adequate or no professional development in this area. because the irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 18 country has applied the standards-based curriculum system for the last five years, having over a third of the teachers in the study without adequate professional development with the national standards is not only discouraging for policy implementation but also for the potentially negative effects on student achievement. even more discouraging is that teachers indicated the inadequate professional development to provide knowledge and skills concerning how to align classroom instruction with the standards (81.2%), which far outweighed adequate professional development (10.2%). the deficit of professional development about the standards and skills/techniques for aligning the standards with classroom practice may continue to lead to failure in implementing the new standards-based policy and be detrimental to student learning. lack of knowledge and capacity are common problems affecting fidelity in implementing education policy. these important findings about teacher characteristics warrant additional research that would include a national sample of indonesian secondary school teachers. relationships of teacher characteristics and alignment in the analysis of the association between teacher characteristics and topic coverage alignment (see table 3), the mean of percentage topic coverage did not differ significantly between male and female teachers. table 3. predicting the extent of topic coverage from teacher characteristics predictors percentage of topics taught r 2 = .038 β t indonesian 1.0745 .993 english -1.5893 -1.354 science -1.3888 -1.248 gender .5359 .683 work status .8225 .839 major .2711 .314 years of teaching experience .5175 2.301* education level 1.0129 .926 professional development 1 .9111 1.029 professional development 2 .5693 .585 note. *p < .05 math is reference subject as single categorical variables; gender (0 = female, 1 = male—reference); work status (0 = nongovernment, 1 = government —reference,); major (0 = has no major, 1 = has subject-specific major —reference). β = coefficient, t = t-value among the predictors, only years of teaching experience in teaching topics was a significant predictor (f1,460 = 5.29, p < 05; r 2 = .039) of extent of topic coverage. subjects of indonesian, english, science, and math were single categorical variables (with math as the irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 19 reference variable). a single categorical variable consists of only one category. table 3 indicates no significant differences existed in the extent of topic coverage between the different subjects. the total model accounted for only 3.9% of the variance of extent of topic coverage explained by teacher characteristics. this finding suggests that teachers with more years of teaching the subject had more extensive coverage of the national curriculum standards. for both educational level and professional development, the positive relationships were not significant. thus, only years of teaching experience significantly predicted alignment in terms of extent of topic coverage. in summary, the findings addressed two issues: (a) the alignment between the national curriculum standards and classroom instruction and (b) the relationship between teacher characteristics and the degree to which the curriculum topics were taught in each subject. the overall average topic coverage was very high (97.17%), although some teachers for each subject did teach less than what was required by the national curriculum standards (2.83%). across the grades, only in seventh grade did some teachers teach 70% or less across all subjects. among the subjects, science and math demonstrated the highest curriculum gaps with a higher number of teachers teaching less than 100% of the required topics. in the relationship between teacher characteristics and topic coverage, the only significant predictor of extent of topic coverage was years of teaching experience. discussion this study addressed research questions regarding (a) the extent to which classroom instruction in junior secondary schools in indonesia aligned with the national curriculum standards and (b) the relationship between teacher characteristics and this extent of alignment. this section discusses the findings that respond to these two questions and provides policy recommendations. some of the discussion about the findings is an initial attempt to make preliminary sense of the findings which must necessarily be couched in terms of exploratory explanations. these tentative explanations should be the investigated in future research. alignment of classroom instruction with national curriculum standards examination of the alignment of classroom instruction with national curriculum standards extends the research literature in this field, as most studies focus only on standards and assessment. few research studies have addressed how actual classroom instruction relates to standards or assessment (gamoran et al., 1997; porter, 2002; schmidt & prawat, 2006). a primary finding of this study is the very high level of alignment of overall topic coverage (97.17%) with national curriculum standards across teachers, subjects, and grade levels. the national government and educators are thus provided with essential evidence that teachers in indonesian junior secondary schools are teaching the subjects required by the national curriculum, with very minor exceptions, adding credibility to the indonesian education accountability system. although topic coverage was very high overall, findings also indicated that 20.56% of the teachers had taught less than the required 100% of the topics. this finding is important irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 20 for national policy makers as it reveals gaps in the current standards-based system. as the educational system in indonesia implements standards-based reform, the content of curriculum standards should become the main reference point for both classroom instruction and national tests. because the national tests are designed according to the curriculum standards, covering the required curriculum topics is critical; skipping topics in class may put students at a disadvantage by leaving them unprepared for areas tested. several factors may explain the finding of lower topic coverage. first, with the education act no. 20/2003 the government enacted various regulations, most of which support the standards-based system. for example, one of the regulations (regulation 19/2007) was the standard of school management, which gave schools flexibility to design curriculum to accommodate school characteristics and capacities. second, teachers in small schools and rural areas may not teach all of the topics because they receive less supervision and monitoring. school size and the urban or rural nature of the school would be important predictors to examine in a future study. third, ninth-grade teachers may not teach all of the topics because they have to take additional time to prepare their students specifically for the national test. traditionally, most ninth grade teachers have devoted much of their time in the last semester to reviewing the content anticipated on the tests. disaggregating the results for low topic coverage showed several patterns in the data. first, the lowest levels of topic coverage occurred in seventh grade. no research literature suggested reasons that seventh-grade teachers would have covered the lowest percentage of required topics. one possible explanation could be that the adjustments necessary in transitioning from primary school, where they have one teacher for all subjects in small classes, to secondary school, which has subject-specific teachers and larger classes, affect the pace of students' learning. second, some teachers may think that since the exams do not come until the end of ninth grade, the skipped topics will probably be covered by that time. both of these assumptions would need to be examined in future research. third, a higher number of teachers taught less than 100% of the required topics in science and math. one explanation for less alignment in science may be a shortage of science teachers. the total number of 7 th grade science teachers for the three provinces was 43, compared to 49 teachers of indonesian, 55 teachers of math and 58 teachers of english. with fewer science teachers available, many of them teach in multiple schools, which require travel time between schools. if science teachers arrive late, they may have less time to teach the required topics. for math, the number of teachers does not appear to be an issue, but, perhaps, seventh grade math teachers are not as well qualified to teach math as the science teachers are to teach science. fourth, examining differences among provinces, we found the lowest topic coverage occurred in east java across all four subjects. one reason for this low alignment may be its higher population in 2010 (37,476,757) in comparison to that of jakarta (9,607,787) and lampung (7,608,405, badan pusat statistik, 2010). future research should examine whether east java’s higher population affects school and classroom size, which may in turn affect the ability of the teachers to cover all of the required curriculum topics. in summary, a vast majority of teachers reported that they covered 100% of the topics required by the national curriculum standards. however, the small number of teachers irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 21 who taught less than 100% should not be overlooked due to potential effects on students, particularly where coverage is lower in seventh grade, science, and east java. this finding needs to be taken seriously by educational administrators at every level. as education continues to increase in emphasis on standards, skipping topics in the classroom can affect students' official achievement as measured by national exams based on the curriculum standards. also topics skipped in lower grades may present problems for students in higher grades if they lack basic knowledge on which later curriculum content is based. alignment and teacher characteristics findings indicated that of the ten teacher characteristics selected as potential predictors of topic coverage, only teaching experience was positively and significantly related to the extent of alignment between classroom instruction and the national curriculum standards. the findings were consistent with previous research conducted to predict self-efficacy from teaching experiences (fetler, 1999, 2001; wolters & daugherty, 2007). in investigating the relationship between teachers’ self-efficacy and teaching experience using a self-report instrument via the internet, wolter and daugherty (2007) found that some aspects of teachers’ self-efficacy regarding individuals’ judgments or belief regarding their ability to accomplish critical instructional tasks were greater for those with more teaching experience. increased years of teaching may affect greater topic coverage, as more experienced teachers would likely have had opportunities for more training, professional development, and experience. other teacher characteristics were not found to be related to extent of topic coverage; however, the lack of correlation with gender, working status, education level, major, and professional development may have meaningful implications for other indonesian educational policies and future research topics such as teacher effectiveness, student learning and achievement. practical implications and policy recommendations as the scope of this study included only three provinces in western indonesia and, due to timing, no private schools in jakarta, limitations of both area and school type prevent generalization beyond the context of this study. in addition, this study did not involve certification as a teacher characteristic. also the degree to which alignment of classroom instruction affected student achievement was beyond the scope of this study. yet, this research contributes theoretically to understanding school quality in terms of curriculum alignment and the influence that teacher characteristics may have on this alignment. based on the findings, the following policy recommendations can be drawn to provide government alternatives for designing better policies for school improvement. first, although the findings indicate that the percentages of teaching less than 100% of curriculum topics is low, the evidence of lower coverage should be taken seriously by educational offices at any level and should motivate additional investigations. this high level of topic alignment may be related to government efforts, which include providing teachers irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 22 with professional development preparing them for this alignment, requiring teacher certification with a minimum education level for teachers, and increasing teachers' salaries. future research should examine the specific effects of these efforts as well as comparing this high level of alignment to other national education systems. this study needs to be replicated in all of the remaining provinces of indonesia to determine the extent to which all national curriculum topics are taught in schools throughout the country. second, as the educational system applied the standards-based curriculum, skipping topics from the class instruction can affect students' recorded achievement because test items are based on the curriculum standards. future research should focus on multilevel methods to examine specific reasons why teachers skip curriculum topics across grades and schools. once these reasons are identified, corrective measures can be taken to address this problem. third, the findings of this study suggest that national policies should focus on helping newer teachers to develop successful strategies for more extensive topic coverage. fourth, further research needs to examine the relationship between topic coverage and student achievement. conclusion this study addressed both the alignment between the national curriculum standards and classroom instruction and the extent to which teacher characteristics predicted the degree of this alignment. regarding alignment, a low yet important number of teachers taught less than 100% of the topics required in the standards. this research was different from studies on teacher characteristics that seek to predict either student achievement or self-efficacy, as it examined the predictive value of teacher characteristics in explaining the degree of alignment between national curriculum standards and classroom instruction. in conclusion, this research contributes theoretically in two ways. first, most research in this area focuses on the alignment of standards and assessment, and very few studies have been done in the area of alignment between standards and classroom instruction. thus the findings of this study make an important contribution to the current research of standards and instruction. the mediating aspect of classroom instruction can inform both student achievement and assessment outcomes. it is well known that alignment is critical in the success of standards-based systems. second, most current research on teacher characteristics examines the association between teacher characteristics (as predictor variables) and either student achievement or self-efficacy (as dependent variables). predicting curriculum alignment as a function of teacher characteristics in this study contributes to the theoretical discussion about influence of teacher characteristics on classroom instruction. further research is needed to investigate whether a higher degree of alignment is associated with higher student achievement. disclosure statement this work did not receive any support from a funding agency, and the authors have no financial interest or intent to benefit from this study or its direct application. irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 23 references azano, a. p., missett, t. c., tackett, 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(2007). goal structures and teachers’ sense of efficacy and academic level. journal of educational psychology, 99(1), 181-193. irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 28 biographical notes rumtini suwarno is an indonesian researcher currently working in the endowment fund management unit of the indonesian ministry of finance who has the responsibility for human resource development in the country. she received her phd from brigham young university in educational leadership. her research interests include measuring the impact of government subsidies for teacher training, human resource development and networking in the field of higher education, research, and training. email: rumtini@yahoo.com e. vance randall is a professor of education policy at brigham young university. he teaches courses in education policy and politics and education finance. he received his phd from cornell university in educational administration. his research interests focus on education policy and political philosophy in education. he is the author of more than 40 articles and book chapters as well as the author or co-author of three books: private schools and public power: a case for pluralism (new york: teachers college press, 1994), accuracy or advocacy?: the politics of research in education (thousand oaks, ca: corwin press, 1999), and better policies, better schools (boston, ma: allyn and bacon, 2004). email: vance_randall@byu.edu julie m. hite is a professor emeritus from the educational leadership and foundations department at brigham young university, where she taught strategic organizational leadership in education. she received her master’s degree in organizational behavior from brigham young university and her phd from the university of utah in strategic management with focus on entrepreneurship and social/organizational networks. her research has focused on strategic organizational networks, resource acquisition, and organizational performance in the context of u.s. and ugandan schools, using quantitative, qualitative and network methods. email: julie_hite@byu.edu this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 347 selecting content analysis approach in social networking sites: what is the best for cyberbullying studies? budianto hamuddin 1 , fathu rahman 2 , abidin pammu 3 , yusring sanusi baso 4 , and tatum derin 5 abstract insight into students‟ behavior and interaction is essential when it comes to improving the development and implementation of educational policies. content analysis is a staple method to study online communication. however, there seems to be no clear reference for researchers to decide which approach is suitable to address a particular purpose. so, this study aims to recommend the most suitable content analysis approach for sns research. this study extracted relevant studies from open-access databases and analyzed the full-texts with nvivo 12. from a raw data collection of 120 texts, this study identified 19 approaches. this study recommends four approaches which are ideal to study cyberbullying among students in the higher education context, specifically on the types, styles, motives, and solutions of cyberbullying. first is neuendorf‟s descriptive content analysis approach to study about the types. second is hijmans‟ rhetorical content analysis to study the styles. third is hsieh and shannon‟s directed content analysis approach to study the motives. fourth is miles and huberman‟s collaborative social content analysis to study the solutions. these four approaches have different focuses that seem to be the perfect match to study different aspects of online interaction on sns, particularly in the context of cyberbullying. keywords content analysis, cyberbullying, social studies, social networking sites 1 a senior lecturer at universitas lancang kuning, pekanbaru, riau and phd student at the faculty of cultural sciences, hasanuddin university, makassar, indonesia: budihamuddin@pasca.unhas.ac.id 2 a professor at the faculty of cultural sciences, hasanuddin university, makassar, indonesia: fathu.rahman@unhas.ac.id 3 a senior lecturer at the faculty of cultural sciences, hasanuddin university, makassar, indonesia: abidinpammu60@gmail.com 4 a senior lecturer at the faculty of cultural sciences, hasanuddin university, makassar, indonesia: yusring@unhas.ac.id 5 a researcher at lppm, universitas lancang kuning, pekanbaru, riau and: t.derin@unilak.ac.id mailto:budihamuddin@pasca.unhas.ac.id mailto:fathu.rahman@unhas.ac.id mailto:abidinpammu60@gmail.com mailto:yusring@unhas.ac.id mailto:t.derin@unilak.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 348 introduction social studies have a long and expansive history of capturing researchers‟ curiosity on the „why‟s and „how‟s of human behavior in a large variety of contexts, ranging from a particular event in time to a certain type of interaction (lune & berg, 2017; yasin & mustafa, 2020). the context of this study focused on is the online interaction in higher education context as information and communication technology (ict) integration during teaching practices is currently a highly relevant and urgent matter during the worldwide covid-19 outbreak (habibi et al., 2020). in understanding a certain phenomenon of interest, researchers use different methods to study them based on words (qualitative), numbers (quantitative), or a combination of both type of data (mixed). one method, in particular, is a highly flexible research analysis method (hoffman et al., 2011), leading researchers to develop dozens of approaches to conduct the method. one of it is content analysis, which is a popular research method choice to study how people socialize, both in the unfiltered reality and in the fascinating cyberspace. one platform, in particular, known as social networking sites (sns), allows people to interact through screens in real-time, making sns one of the leading interests in the field of social studies. therefore, there is a high curiosity from this study to identify and recommend the most suitable content analysis approach for studying student interaction in sns, especially regarding cyberbullying or similar any other similar online activities. content analysis describes and identifies the relationships of message/content characteristics in a way that leads to a thorough understanding of how humans communicate (neuendorf, 2017). content analysis has been a standard research instrument of social studies since it was first used to analyze word frequency, though berelson (1952) may have been the first to conceptualize the procedure as content analysis. this method‟s popularity has been attributed to its strength of reducing large volumes of qualitative data to enable researchers to achieve a variety of specific purposes (bengtsson, 2016). since content analysis is such a flexible research method, researchers seem to have different perspectives on content analysis. there are three camps of view regarding the content analysis. on the one hand, it is considered as a quantitative method, rigidly following the standards of a scientific method (neuendorf, 2017). on the other hand, it is argued as a qualitative method, meaningfully interpreting the evident themes without involving statistics (drisko & maschi, 2016). alternatively, it is defined as a mixed-method, with quantitative content analysis as the methodological basis and qualitative content analysis as the basis for the interpretative phase (mayring, 2014). despite the long-standing debate on what content analysis truly is, methods of content analysis continue to proliferate due to the rise of technology making corpora of data on forms of human communications, including on sns, available to be studied. even more so after the 1990s in which human interaction has been changing of dimension since the emergence of information communication technology (ict) (ellis et al., 2019). the year of 2002 introduced smartphones and its worldwide adoption was three times faster than the introduction of home telephones (salehan & negahban, 2013). corpora of data on human interaction are increasing at an exponential rate, considering that people nowadays dominantly spend their time for irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 349 human interaction on a daily basis through keystrokes and screens than face-to-face in the outside world. socialization can easily be done through text with typographic emoticons (e.g. stickers, emojis, gifs) being used to represent emotions and actions on social networking sites (sns) (kapoor et al., 2018). consequently, social studies have begun to shift from conventional social interaction that takes place in real life to this era‟s social network interaction which occurs in the no longer fictional cyberspace (gomez-diago, 2016; hamuddin et al., 2019). ict has changed the way people meet, be friends, conduct business, etc. the advent of chat rooms and websites, in particular, allow more than two people to millions of humans around the globe to interact in the form of comments. comments offer a new dimension in interaction because of its nature being asynchronous and instantly sharable (hamuddin et al., 2020; thayalan & shanthi, 2011). inevitably, numbers and frequencies play a significant role in the quality of human interaction on cyberspace. for instance, one aggressive comment may cause emotional pain for the person targeted, but multiple aggressive comments from the same or multiple sources would most likely terrorize the person targeted. this type of interaction has been defined as cyberbullying by bill belsey in 1999, affecting 3 out of 4 children and students at a rate that has doubled from the first decade of the 21 st century (hinduja & patchin, 2019). this is exacerbated by the fact that cyberbullying could be mediated by almost any type of ict, such as electronic mails (emails), instant messaging, text messaging (sms), chat rooms, web sites, and social networking sites (sns) which include but not limited to facebook, instagram, twitter, and blog. in the context of cyberbullying as part of online interaction, the fact that aggressive online comments are in the dozens to thousands in quantity means that content analysis which breaks down huge textual data may be one of the best methods to fully capture an understanding of cyberbullying. it is not the aim of this study to advocate content analysis as the perfect method because any and all research methods have their own strengths and weaknesses (atieno, 2009; choy, 2014). the same logic applies for the different approaches to content analysis method. coping with existing studies on the methodology of content analysis, this study would like to explore and select the correct content analysis approach that would be the best one to use to study cyberbullying on sns. research in social studies, especially when it comes to the integration of social networking sites (sns) into the curriculum, will inevitably proliferate, so it is important to find the most suitable approach to study the contents of any sns activity. more specifically, this study would try to answer, “what is the most suitable content analysis method to explore certain things about cyberbullying among university students on sns, e.g. types, styles, motives, and solutions against cyberbullying?” literature review at its heart, content analysis codes the targeted data and follows it with summarization and analysis. it is often used for systematic literature reviews, with the targeted data usually textual, with frequency counts being the most popular technique, and manifest contents being the most popular focus (gaur & kumar, 2018). for online activity research, far from being constricted to text, the data is usually multi-modal, involving text and non-text elements such irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 350 as visual and audio contents (cheng et al., 2019). tiggemann and zaccardo (2018) conducted a content analysis on 600 instagram images that were posted with a targeted hashtag, „fitspiration‟. their aim is to analyze the image samples on how they display body shapes, and they coded the images based on largely two elements, the image and the quotation variables. park et al. (2019) used a combination of descriptive and predictive content analysis on 708 pinterest posts or pins, studying the visual characteristics and information richness of skin cancer pins to predict online users‟ engagement. content analysis of social media posts can also be used on data types other than texts and images. previous studies using content analysis have noted that the method, when applied on social media messages or posts, could not infer whether the presumed concerning the effect that an image or message affected the viewer (tiggemann & zaccardo, 2018). but, this limitation can be overcome if the content analysis is applied to transcripts of interviews or focus groups (graneheim et al., 2017). this is proven by kruizinga et al. (2018), who used directed content analysis to extend their semi-structured interview model of spiritual care with cross-cultural perspectives drawn from interviews. ngai et al. (2020) also analyzed the contents of 608 covid-19 posts to develop an integrated framework that governments can use to engage the public regarding the pandemic. the study analyzed the samples‟ contents based on three main dimensions, i.e., content, message style, and interactive features, then coded them further based on more sub-dimensions. their content analysis involves a significant variety of variables, including topics, narratives, multimedia, hashtags, likes, shares, comments, and links. other studies used content analysis on more lengthy data, such as newspaper articles and reports. shafiq & kiran (2018) stated that they used content analysis on 62 editions of selected newspapers in the wake of a conflicting religious issue at the time. the study aimed to broadly find out how english and urdu newspapers cover sensitive religious issue, and they were focused on counting the numbers of news stories and editorials and comparing them to see if newspapers in different languages proportionally covered the topic. ramabu's (2020) content analysis involves 101 reports on child sexual abuse from five newspapers for two years. the study conducted a content analysis on the reports to determine the types of sexual abuse acts, the characteristics of the victims and perpetrators, the circumstances, the responses, the case statuses, and the prevention messages that they could find in the reports. reviewing the literature led the researchers to notice that previous studies are inconsistent when they describe their content analysis method. there seems to be no clear guidance or recommendation on why certain approaches of content analysis were used. many seldom expand on how they specifically approach their data analysis methods, often only mentioning that they analyzed their data with content analysis. some characterized it as either qualitative or quantitative content analysis (godskesen et al., 2013). some specified the type of content analysis approach that they used (kruizinga et al., 2018; shafiq & kiran, 2018). some studies were vague in describing their content analysis steps, such as one study which stated that their content analysis is quantitative and rhetorical in different sentences, yet did not clearly distinguish them (shafiq & kiran, 2018) and another study which mentioned that they used content analysis for the first phase of a study and then “a more detailed content analysis” for the next phase (mahrt & puschmann, 2014, p.10). content analysis is a powerful tool for irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 351 researchers to stockpile and analyze multi-modal data, making it a valuable technique for social studies on online information dissemination and communication (arafat et al., 2020; kiran & mahmood, 2019). therefore, this study is interested in addressing this seeming research gap of an unclear guideline on all kinds of approaches to content analysis and which ones are the most suitable for specific purposes. methodology this study intended to recommend the most proper content analysis approach for studies on cyberbullying on social networking sites (sns). logically, this study needed to identify the approaches to content analysis method that have been used until now. figure 1. conceptual framework firstly, the researchers collected books and articles that discussed content analysis to discover all the different approaches to content analysis. it seems there are hundreds of content analysis approaches that have been developed over the years by researchers from different backgrounds. the problem lies in the limited access to review all the approaches, so this study collected data from google scholar and zlibrary. this study referred to the studies indexed in google scholar because the repository enables researchers to access studies from various publishers. as not all studies indexed in google scholar can be downloaded, this study also chose to refer to zlibrary because it also has an open access policy on books and studies that are downloadable with free of charge and comes in the form of complete files of the book or article. this study conducted library research as a natural qualitative approach, using the keyword “content analysis” to obtain the raw data for this study. in the end, the raw data retrieved on 25 december 2019 from both databases are 120 studies that have either explored or employed content analysis. secondly, this study analyzed the raw data of 120 studies to identify the approaches to content analysis from the most influential studies, indicated by the citation number according to google scholar. to ensure a complete perusal of the raw data collection, this study used the computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software (caqdas) known as nvivo, which enables researchers to easily manage data analysis and synthesis (frey, 2018). using the latest version, nvivo 12 software, this present study is can determine the content analysis approaches that have been proposed and developed to date. thirdly, this study focused on one of the most common and problematic features of cyberspace interaction that has emerged as a major interest in the study of sns, which is cyberbullying (hamuddin et al., 2018). collecting raw data of studies on content analysis from zlibrary and google scholars determining the approaches by using nvivo 12 to comb through the full-texts recommending the most suitable approaches for studies on sns, especially about cyberbullying irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 352 cyberbullying acts are visible on sns through multimedia features, i.e. text, audio, and visual. so, this study tried to see if it is possible to determine the types, styles, motives, and solutions to cyberbullying by analyzing the content of cyberbullying among university/college-level students, as they are one of the least studied demographic in cyberbullying studies. when talking about cyberbullying, the aspects that researchers aim to analyze are: (1) the types of cyberbullying, which is evident in the content, (2) the styles of cyberbullying messages, which should be shown by the kind of language features are used, (3) the motives of cyberbullying, which might be indicated by certain words or phrases, and finally (4) the solutions to fight against cyberbullying, which would need to know the types, styles, and motives to be able to address them. in the end, this study would recommend which content analysis approach is most suitable to study each of these four kinds of content. this study contributes to researchers who might be still confused or find it difficult to decide on which approach they should use to conduct their social studies. these recommended approaches may be used as methods for further study of researchers in the same field regarding any human-driven activities on sns, particularly the aggressive online actions which are prevalent and problematic for sns users of all demographics. findings the raw data retrieved from zlibrary and google scholars consist of 20 books and 100 articles exploring and employing content analysis (n = 120). as both databases have an open access policy, this study was able to download the complete files of the studies. the nvivo 12 software eases this study in exploring the contents of the collected studies and identified a variety of content analysis approaches. as the aim of this study is to recommend the most influential approaches to content analysis, this study narrowed down the data into six studies which are the most influential ones according to their citation number (table 1). table 1. the selected studies on content analysis citation study author(s) 107868 qualitative data analysis: an expanded sourcebook (1994) matthew b. miles & michael huberman 24132 three approaches to qualitative content analysis (2005) hsiu-fang hsieh & sarah e. shannon 11478 the content analysis guidebook (2017) kimberly a. neuendorf 6990 qualitative content analysis (2004) philipp mayring 345 content analysis (2016) james drisko & tina maschi 122 logic for qualitative media content analysis: a typology (1996) ellen hijmans irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 353 table 1 shows the six selected studies on content analysis from the highest frequency of citation. the researchers uploaded the full-texts onto an nvivo project file to assist the content analysis. word search functions available in the nvivo 12 software allows the researchers to quickly extract all passages of sentences and paragraphs within the full-texts, which contain the word 'approach'. researchers combed through the automatic data extracts to exclude irrelevant passages. the extracts that actually refer to a content analysis approach are coded based on the approaches, and two researchers studied these extracts. meanwhile, two other researchers read through the entire full-texts and manually highlighted and coded the approaches that they identified. finally, the researchers discussed both findings to discuss, clarify, and understand all of the approaches that are identified. in the end, this study identified nineteen (19) approaches to this research method, as table 2 illustrates. table 2. approaches to content analysis authors type approach description miles & huberma n (1994) qualitative 1. interpretative researcher, with their own understandings and as a member of a particular culture, treats social action and human activity as text, presuming that interviews, stories, photographs and others were created for the purpose of communication. 2. social anthropological researcher, possessing special perspective on the population because the researcher has interacted with them for a considerable time, finds patterns across multiple sources (e.g. diaries, pictures, observations, interviews) to understand behavioral regularities of everyday life. 3. collaborative social researcher, with subjects participating as to accomplish an action or change something in a given setting, considers the data as both feedback and information to generate a shared perspective of the situation or problem. hijmans (1996) qualitative 4. rhetorical analysis researcher questions how the message is presented visually or textually, focusing straightforwardly to the structural characteristics. it is a broadly stylistic analysis that pays attention to distinctive features, i.e. composition, form, metaphors, structure of argumentation/reasoning, and word choices. 5. narrative analysis researcher focuses on formal structure from the narrative perspective, which has a clearly marked beginning and ending of a story with characters, conflicts, and choices. 6. discourse analysis researcher dissects the wording and patterns of reasoning, with the semantics of language or sign used to discover the themes of communicator motives and ideology. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 354 table 2. continuation… 7. structuralist-se miotic analysis researcher is concerned with the deeper meaning of the message, aims at latent meanings and the signifying process through signs and symbols, and makes assertions on themes in culture and society. 8. interpretative analysis researcher draws upon their own experiences as a resource and asks descriptive research questions to discover and form theory using theoretical sampling and comparative analysis in general. hsieh & shannon (2005) qualitative 9. conventional researcher creates categories directly and inductively from the raw data. 10. directed researcher creates desired categories from existing theories relevant to the research focus and immerses in the raw data to gather themes. 11. summative researcher counts and compares existing words/phrases in raw data and extends to include latent meanings and themes. mayring (2014) mixed 12. qualitative researcher links a concrete research question with theory and justifies every step of the research, assigning categories to text as qualitative step and analyzing category frequencies as quantitative step. drisko & maschi (2016) qualitative 13. basic focuses on manifest content and employs statistical analyses. 14. interpretative focuses on both manifest and latent content, drawing on narrative analysis. 15. qualitative focuses on both manifest and latent content, drawing on narrative analysis, doesn't involve any quantification. neuendor f (2017) quantitativ e 16. descriptive researcher measures all variables without trying to infer or predict the source or recipient. 17. inferential researcher infers to the source of variables in interpersonal communication-type study and infers to the recipient in mass communication-type study. 18. psychometric researcher provides clinical diagnosis based on a substantial amount of source's messages to infer a source's psychological characteristics. 19. predictive researcher predicts some outcome or effect of the message under examination by measuring its key characteristics, necessitating the need for surveys or experimental methods. the 19 approaches above all have different labels and descriptions, though they are less strict classification and more general labels that may overlap as researchers differ in their applications of content analysis. although researchers historically disagree with the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 355 methodological details, generally all three camps of view agree that content analysis involves at least three key steps, i.e. collecting data, categorizing data, and analyzing data. the methodological details differ depending on the question researchers try to answer. therefore, different aspects of cyberbullying that will be examined in this study, i.e. types, styles, motives, and solutions, might fit with different approaches of content analysis. discussion content analysis on types of cyberbullying cyberbullying, in essence, is an action mediated by information communication technology (ict) that makes the receiver feels a degree of negative emotion. however, this “action” actually comes in a variety of types depending on what is contained in the messages. the use of certain words or phrases used in a cyberbullying message might identify it to be one type of cyberbullying rather than another. for instance, „have you heard about x lying?‟ is distinct from „x is lying, dude!‟ in the way agency was indicated. the former example is a classic opening to spread a rumor, one of the most common types of cyberbullying. the italicized phrase frames the sentence as a question which leaves room for doubt and doesn‟t assign the source of the message responsibility for the information. meanwhile, the latter is a direct statement coming from the source on the subject of someone else, so this example would be less of a rumour and more outing type of cyberbullying. the examples above indicated that the type of cyberbullying could be determined by analyzing the text of the message itself. there seems to be no need to analyse the text further, such as the context, the intent of the source, or the effect on the receiver. since it stays true to what the text says (manifest content) and relatively ignores what may be underneath the text (latent content), possible approaches of content analysis to study cyberbullying types are rhetorical (hijmans, 1996), conventional (hsieh & shannon, 2005), directed (hsieh & shannon, 2005), qualitative (mayring, 2014), basic (drisko & maschi, 2016), and descriptive (neuendorf, 2017). hijmans‟ rhetorical approach is a strictly objective analysis on the textual and visual characteristics of given content. it focused on how these different characteristics were chosen, presented, and organized in the message. since it‟s quite broadly stylistic, the rhetorical approach may best be shelved for a different purpose. considering that the aim here is only to determine what type of cyberbullying a particular message may be, hsieh & shannon‟s conventional or directed approach might be possible to be used. both approaches have researchers create categories directly from the raw data that have been collected. the difference is that a directed approach pre-determined the coding based on an existing relevant theory, while the conventional approach specifically aims to describe a phenomenon because there is limited, if any, existing theory or relevant literature. since there is actually a rich literature on the types of cyberbullying acts, the directed approach may be more preferable than the conventional approach. the directed approach lets researchers further describe a phenomenon as it is more structured than conventional approach and it accommodates irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 356 unknown or new variables that weren‟t possible to be put in a category with the initial coding by giving them a new code. mayring‟s qualitative approach is another possible content analysis approach to study cyberbullying types. this mixed-method resembles hsieh & shannon‟s directed approach as both make relevant theories to be the foundation for initial coding of content analysis. both offer descriptive evidence based on frequency rankings that may support or not support the theory that the researchers used. in the context of sns study, mayring‟s approach has an edge as it always sees the raw data in a particular context of communication. with the qualitative approach, researchers would specify which messages on sns relate to a particular type of cyberbullying, which is known from the list of themes that were already developed in advance from the theory. a couple of other approaches focusing on manifest content are drisko & maschi's basic approach and neuendorf's descriptive approach. the difference between the two seems to be how they treat the variables of the content data. drisko and maschi's basic approach aims to use statistical analyses to understand the data, while neuendorf's descriptive approach aims to understand all variables without trying to infer the reasons or the people behind the messages and not to predict the message's possible effects on the people who receive them. to study the types of cyberbullying or other similar sns activity, there are three approaches researchers may use, namely qualitative (mayring, 2014), basic (drisko & maschi, 2016), and descriptive (neuendorf, 2017) content analysis approaches. content analysis on styles of cyberbullying the styles of cyberbullying refer to what kind of representation is used to convey the message. social networking site (sns) users deliver what they intend to convey in different frames. they could use offensive words to attack the recipient, or they could merely use an emoticon that represents their anger, or a sticker representing their opinion of the recipient. overall, the interaction between users is conveyed by three features of multimedia, namely text, typographic emoticons, and non-text. the first are text-based messages which consist of meaningful words. these words represent meanings, concepts, definitions, characteristics, metaphors, symbols, and description of things (moss & shank, 2002), and people are notoriously creative in deliberately presenting language features in certain ways to convey a certain or double meaning (mellati et al., 2018; thurlow & mroczek, 2012). with words, a message could show what the source intends to do or think, though it could be by explicit means or implicit means depending on how sns users play with words (riffe et al., 2014). cyberbullying largely happens through words because almost all online platforms provide commenting features for users who only allow words and typographic emoticons (jibril & abdullah, 2013). cyberbullying in particular also occurs rather often because sns users engage more actively when making negative comments and elicit few replies for positive comments (thelwall et al., 2012). the second is typographic emoticon-based messages, which include stickers, gifs, emojis, emoticons that may also feature text. these function as a representation of human facial expressions and gestures which are lacking in written text interaction (amaghlobeli, 2012). whether the message has words or not, using typographic irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 357 emoticons generally makes an online interaction seem more positive than negative (filik et al., 2016; teh et al., 2016). typographic emoticons don‟t just infuse emotional touch to electronic communication visually, but also audibly with the advent of audio stickers. however, cyberbullying acts undoubtedly involve typographic emoticons, and the use of this multimedia feature does not make the message any less emotionally harmful. a recipient would feel the same hurt whether they receive 'you're nothing but trash' or 'you're nothing but [an emoji of faces].‟ the third is non-text-based messages, which include audio and visual content, the latter of which could be either still pictures or moving images/videos. cyberbullying incidents using pictures and videos arguably make the most noises in the media, though they are least explored empirically compared to text because the resources to cyberbully via images and videos are rarer compared to the simple resources of words and symbols for cyberbullying via text and typographic emoticons. based on these three features, the content researchers need to analyse should consider the characteristics of text, the message cues of typographic emoticons, and the audiovisual signs of non-text-based messages. with the objective being styles of messages and not their meaning, possible approaches of content analysis to study it are rhetorical (hijmans, 1996), narrative, (hijmans, 1996), conventional (hsieh & shannon, 2005), directed (hsieh & shannon, 2005), basic (drisko & maschi, 2016), and descriptive (neuendorf, 2017). hijmans' rhetorical approach is one of the best choices as it takes a highly objective stance. it only focused on structural characteristics of a message, so this approach lets researchers analyse word choices, metaphors, sentence composition, including visual signs for non-text messages. hsieh & shannon's conventional and directed approaches are also suitable to generate the themes of styles since they both create categories from the raw data collection. drisko and maschi's basic approach codes the data in a way that lets researchers employ statistical analyses to make sense of the phenomenon, without considering possible meanings or motives behind the messages. in this way, it is similar to neuendorf‟s descriptive approach, which doesn‟t try to predict the receiver or source of the messages. unlike hijmans‟ rhetorical approach, though, both of these approaches don‟t take into account of online interaction‟s “linguistic wordplay.” another feature of online interaction is the element of multiple feedbacks. a comment that received multiple replies becomes a “thread” which has a clear beginning and ending of the back to back replies. with such characteristics, researchers may use hijmans‟ narrative approach, which focuses on the formal structure of messages from a narrative perspective. therefore, the approaches recommended for the study of styles of cyberbullying and other similar online activities are rhetorical and narrative content analysis (hijmans, 1996). content analysis on motives of cyberbullying sns users who commit cyberbullying acts have their own reasons to do so. for university students, in particular, their motives of cyberbullying are of interest because they generally do not have immaturity as the reason and should already be aware that cyberbullying is not a good act (francisco et al., 2015). so, it is important to know why university students, who are already adults, engage in cyberbullying which harms another person. if researchers irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 358 focus on the text alone, they will find no specific phrase or word that hints to the motive of the source of this message. most cyberbullying message neither explicitly state nor implicitly clue in the source‟s feeling as well. one example of cyberbullying message is „take a swan dive off a roof.‟ the source of this message seems to convey a dislike toward the recipient, but they might as well have sent the message because they were already feeling angry and was merely lashing out online they were persuaded by someone else. to figure out cyberbullying motives, researchers need to see beyond the text to discover the reasons that lie behind cyberbullying acts. latent content, therefore, would be crucial for researchers‟ consideration. there are many content analysis approaches that consider latent content, whether exclusively or along with manifest content. they include interpretative (miles & huberman, 1994), discourse (hijmans, 1996), structuralist-semiotic (hijmans, 1996), interpretative (hijmans, 1996), directed (hsieh & shannon, 2005), interpretative (drisko & maschi, 2016), qualitative (drisko & maschi, 2016), inferential (neuendorf, 2017), and psychometric (neuendorf, 2017). miles and huberman‟s interpretative approach sees the text as a collection of meaningful symbols representing human activity, and the way to understand it is by way of interpretation based on researchers‟ own experiences as they are also part of the community. for the specific purpose of determining the motives of cyberbullying a particular message may be, this approach might not be the best match because it lets researchers use pre-established codes based on their personal experiences, so any “external information” that wasn‟t predicted become very difficult to be acknowledged as a possible, entirely different style of cyberbullying act. on the other hand, hijmans, discourse approach lets researchers dissect the wording of messages to establish patterns of reasoning. this approach discovers the themes of the sources‟ motives and even ideology based on the semantics of the language. however, discourse approach depends on seeing the consistency of the source‟s motives from a substantial amount of data on that one single source, so the use of this approach hinges on the raw data of individual sources being highly substantial. echoing this approach is hijmans‟ structuralist-semiotic approach which dives into the deeper meaning of messages based on signs and symbols of language. this approach discovers the themes of the sources‟ culture and perhaps positions in society. unlike the discourse approach, the structuralist-semiotic approach doesn‟t require huge amounts of messages from one source, so it has an edge in terms of time spent to study cyberbullying motives. although this approach does depend on researchers determining the cultural demographic of sns users who engage in cyberbullying so that cultural interpretation would be possible to do. provided the findings are rich in data, it is possible for researchers to conduct a comparative analysis and form a theory of the phenomenon. hijmans‟ interpretative approach specifically enables researchers to analyze data based on researchers‟ own experiences, so this approach requires highly explicit coding rules to ensure that the content analysis process is clear because this approach makes the data serve to discover new findings. so, it is possible to find new kinds of cyberbullying motives with hijmans‟ interpretative approach. studying motives behind messages of online activity may require researchers to touch psychology or similar disciplines involved with human behaviour. there is one content analysis approach that lets researchers use an established theory as a foundation to create categories from the raw data, and it is known as hsieh & shannon‟s irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 359 directed approach. drisko and maschi's interpretative and qualitative approaches both focus on manifest and latent content, both draw on narrative analysis, though the latter approach doesn't involve any quantification. these approaches don‟t seem to touch on motives that lie beyond the text, though, so they may be set aside to study different research questions. neuendorf‟s inferential and psychometric approaches both focus on investigating elements beyond the text. the focus of the inferential approach seems to depend on the type of study. if researchers aim to address psychological or interpersonal communication research questions, inferential approach infers to the source of the messages. if researchers aim to address mass communication research questions, inferential approach infers to the receiver of the messages. on the other hand, psychometric approach seems highly rooted in psychology as it aims to provide clinical diagnosis, inferring to the source‟s psychological characteristics based on a substantial amount of their messages. both of these approaches are suitable to study cyberbullying motives because they have a great interest in going beyond the description of messages. there are many possible approaches to study cyberbullying motives, but the ones this study recommends to be used are structuralist-semiotic (hijmans, 1996), interpretative (hijmans, 1996), directed (hsieh & shannon, 2005), inferential (neuendorf, 2017), and psychometric (neuendorf, 2017). content analysis on solutions to cyberbullying cyberbullying as an sns problem would not contain its own solutions if researcher only pays attention to what is contained in the message, whether manifest or latent. for example, it is unlikely to know or guess any correct solution to deal with the comment „you‟re such a weirdo,‟ „let‟s just kick x out of the group, god,‟ or any other type of cyberbullying messages. any solutions recommended would need to be carried out at some point to see if the action changes the cyberbullying situation. this means that there is a need to gather data from people who try out the solutions so it would be possible to obtain a shared solution to a given problem. the likely content analysis approaches to study the solutions to cyberbullying maybe miles and huberman‟s collaborative social approach (miles & huberman, 1994), hijman‟s interpretative approach (hijmans, 1996), and neuendorf‟s predictive approach (neuendorf, 2017). miles and huberman‟s collaborative social approach lets researchers involve people to participate in accomplishing an action and give feedback to be the data for the study. it might take a substantial length of time to conduct and finish the study, so a different approach that does not take as much time may be hijmans‟ interpretative approach. this approach lets researchers draw on their own experiences as a resource to comparatively analyse the data. thus, an established theory as a solution to cyberbullying can be tested with the researcher as a competent observer. neuendorf‟s predictive approach seems to be a combination of both previous approaches. it initially lets researchers predict the message‟s outcome or effect on the receiver and then requires surveys or experimental methods to test the researchers‟ predictions. with this approach, researchers can measure key characteristics of messages to answer their questions. however, this approach may take even longer for researchers to conduct and complete, whereas cyberbullying incidents are still on-going. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 360 therefore, out of the three possible approaches to study the solutions to cyberbullying, this study recommends the collaborative social content analysis approach because this approach simultaneously involves the participants to act and obtain data from the action. conclusions to find the most suitable content analysis method to explore the types, styles, motives, and solutions against cyberbullying among university students on social networking sites (sns), this study used nvivo 12 to analyse 120 studies on content analysis. from the 19 content analysis approaches found, this study determined that different approaches are suitable to be used to study different kinds of research aims in the context of cyberbullying among university students on sns. the qualitative (mayring, 2014), basic (drisko & maschi, 2016), and descriptive (neuendorf, 2017) content analysis approaches can be used to study the types of cyberbullying. the rhetorical and narrative content analysis (hijmans, 1996) can be used to study the styles of cyberbullying language. the structuralist-semiotic (hijmans, 1996), interpretative (hijmans, 1996), directed (hsieh & shannon, 2005), inferential (neuendorf, 2017), and psychometric (neuendorf, 2017) can be used to study the motives of cyberbullying. the predictive content analysis approach (neuendorf, 2017) can be used to study the solutions that are suggested and implemented to deal with the social phenomenon of cyberbullying. to enrich the literacy of every researcher who is focused on exploring online human behaviour and social phenomena on social networking sites, this study recommends four content analysis approaches to explore certain aspects of cyberbullying and other similar online interactive activities. first is a descriptive content analysis approach (neuendorf, 2017) to study the types of cyberbullying because it focuses on the message without being concerned with possible meanings that are implicit. second is rhetorical content analysis (hijmans, 1996) to study the styles of cyberbullying because it reconstructs a message‟s textual and visual characteristics. third is directed content analysis approach (hsieh & shannon, 2005) to study the motives of cyberbullying because it refers to a relevant, established theory to see what is beyond the text. fourth is a collaborative social content analysis (miles & huberman, 1994) to study the solutions to cyberbullying because it allows researchers to gather a shared perspective on a solution to a given problem. these four approaches to content analysis each have different focuses that seems to be the perfect match to study different aspects of online interaction on sns, particularly in the context of cyberbullying. future studies can overcome the limitation of this study‟s nature as a content analysis by implementing and testing the recommended content analysis approaches. acknowledgements the researchers express their gratitude to the ministry of research, technology and higher education of the republic of indonesia who partially supported this study through the national competitive scheme 2018 and the graduate school in universitas hasanuddin who also partially supported this study through the s3 research program. any opinions, irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 361 findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those 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(2020). the correlation between school principal competence and teachers‟ social behaviours. irje |indonesian research journal in education|, 4(1), 151– 170. https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/irje/article/view/9093 biographical notes budianto hamuddin is a senior lecturer at universitas lancang kuning, pekanbaru, riau and phd student at the faculty of cultural sciences, hasanuddin university, makassar, indonesia; budihamuddin@pasca.unhas.ac.id fathu rahman is a professor at the faculty of cultural sciences, hasanuddin university, makassar, indonesia: fathu.rahman@unhas.ac.id abidin pammu is a senior lecturer at the faculty of cultural sciences, hasanuddin university, makassar, indonesia: abidinpammu60@gmail.com yusring sanusi baso is a senior lecturer at the faculty of cultural sciences, hasanuddin university, makassar, indonesia: yusring@unhas.ac.id tatum derin is a researcher at lppm, universitas lancang kuning, pekanbaru, riau and: t.derin@unilak.ac.id mailto:budihamuddin@pasca.unhas.ac.id mailto:fathu.rahman@unhas.ac.id mailto:abidinpammu60@gmail.com mailto:yusring@unhas.ac.id mailto:t.derin@unilak.ac.id this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 29 ict-pedagogy integration in elementary classrooms: unpacking the pre-service teachers’ tpack mark gill m. mercado 1 and florante p. ibarra 2 abstract this study aimed to investigate the technological pedagogical content knowledge (tpack) self-efficacy and ict integration skills of elementary pre-service teachers in elementary classrooms. the respondents were fifty-two (52) elementary pre-service teachers enrolled in the student teaching program at the central luzon state university. results revealed that most of respondents perceived themselves to be highly proficient in all domains of tpack framework: technology knowledge (tk), content knowledge (ck), pedagogical knowledge (pk), pedagogical content knowledge (pck), technological content knowledge (tck), technological pedagogical knowledge (tpk) and technological pedagogical content knowledge (tpck). most of them were found to be good in integrating ict in classroom instruction, particularly in terms of planning and implementation.respondents’ gpa in educational technology and ict-related courses was found to have negative significant relationship with their planning and implementation of ict-integrated instruction. their tpack self-efficacy had a highly significant relationship with their planning and implementation of ict-integrated instruction. keywords information communication technology, self-efficacy, teacher education, technology integration, tpack 1 a fulltime instructor at central luzon state university department of elementary education, philippines; mgmmercado@clsu.edu.ph 2 an accredited full-fledged professor at central luzon state university graduate school of education, philippines; fpibarra@clsu.edu.ph mailto:mgmmercado@clsu.edu.ph mailto:fpibarra@clsu.edu.ph irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 30 introduction as modern technology paved its way to classrooms, there had been an increased interest in the development of technology integration in instruction to provide better quality education among the students. as adcock (2008) emphasized, “the evolution of teaching and learning through technology integration is apparent to all levels of education which has changed the classroom as well as the roles of the teachers and students”. this inspired a new conceptual reform in delivering quality and effective instruction and the need for individuals to be involved in technological change and development had arisen (kazu & erten, 2014). recognizing the possible significant benefits of technology in the field of education, various researchers tested and evaluated the effects of modern technology in teaching and learning (sife, lwoga, & sanga, 2007; walters & lydiatt, 2004). they concluded that properly designed learning materials inspired and delivered by modern technology could add more value to the teaching and learning environment (walters & lydiatt, 2004). in developing countries (like the philippines), information and communications technology (ict) had been considered as a key factor to improve teaching and learning processes (sife, lwoga, & sanga, 2007). though the utilization of modern technology in classrooms yielded positive effect on teaching and student learning, researchers pointed out that it was important to have the right competency and literacy in utilizing these technologies to really improve learning. the proper use of available modern technology [rather than the presence of that technology] could advance student learning and could improve the efficiency and effectiveness of teaching (walters & lydiatt, 2004). thus, teachers should have technical competence and literacy to properly use technologies in classroom instruction. kereluik, mishra, and koehler (2011) explained that technical competence and technical literacy required having knowledge and skills on knowing how to use the technologies which would provide comprehensive learning and effective teaching. the responsibility of training prospective teachers to gain technical competence and literacy, which was vital for a successful classroom technology integration, laid on the hands of institutions offering teacher education program. the need for pre-service teachers to be involved in technological change had ascended demanding teacher education programs to strengthen courses integrating technology in classroom teaching. in the asia-pacific region, various efforts and practices (sife, lwoga, & sanga, 2007; unesco, 2013) were undertaken by different institutions to strengthen the use of ict for teaching and learning. the united nations, educational, scientific, and cultural organization (unesco) bangkok collected and documented case studies from different institutions offering educational technology and ict-related courses in different countries including the philippines. the reviewers concluded that the cases demonstrated the viability of tweaking existing education technology courses to be more adaptive to the needs of the current realities towards better integration of contents with ict and their subsequent application in real world environments (unesco, 2013). irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 31 the commission on higher education (ched) also recognized the importance of gearing quality prospective teachers who could be capable of integrating technology in classroom teaching. through cmo order 30, series of 2004, the ched mandated all teacher education institutions (teis) to strictly follow the set of program specifications and embraced the new teacher education curriculum. this curriculum included two (2) educational technology courses to prepare teachers with technological competence and skills to facilitate and evaluate learning in diverse types of students in a variety of learning environment. it was in this light that this study was conceptualized. with the acquired knowledge and experiences from various content, theories, methods/ strategies, and field study courses, pre-service teachers were expected to have acquired technological, pedagogical and content knowledge which were important in establishing technology integrated instruction. the advancement of technology in our classrooms had increased the interest of teacher education institutions (teis) to develop prospective teachers who could be capable of integrating technology in classroom teaching. however, some researchers suggested that many teacher education programs had not been preparing teacher candidates adequately to integrate technology, and many teachers in schools were reluctant to use technology for teaching and learning (walters & lydiatt, 2004; zhao, pugh, & sheldon, 2002) supporting the results of research conducted by vannatta and beyerbach (2000), hew and brush (2007) recognized that student teachers had very little knowledge about effective technology integration, even after completing courses about instructional technology. though technology courses had offered a variety of technological tools and had provided opportunities to learn and practice technical skills, it had been emphasized that mere exposure to a number of ict tools would not necessarily mean that pre-service teachers can develop abilities to design successful, technology integrated lessons(hyo-jeong & bosung, 2009). these mentioned setbacks in foreign context prompted the researchers to investigate the current condition of ict integration among elementary pre-service teachers. in this regard, this study aimed to investigate the pre-service teachers’ ict integration in classroom teaching in elementary classrooms during the student teaching program and determine the relationship between pre-service teachers’ socio-demographic characteristics, technological pedagogical content knowledge (tpack) self-efficacy and their preparation and implementation of ict-integrated lessons. moreover, it was also conducted to determine the problems or challenges that might impede successful technology integration in classroom instruction. specifically, it aimed to: 1. describe the socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents in terms of age, sex, major/ specialization, grade level handled, subject taught, ict-related trainings attended, personal ict equipment, and gpa in educational technology and ict-related courses; 2. determine the respondents’ tpack self-efficacy; 3. describe the ict program of the cooperating schools in terms of administration, facilities and equipment, and problems encountered; irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 32 4. find out respondents’ ict integration in classroom instruction in terms of planning (curriculum goals and technologies, instructional strategies and technologies, technology selections, and fit) and implementation (instructional use and technology logistics); 5. determine whether pre-service teachers’ socio-demographic characteristics and tpack self-efficacy are related to ict integration in classroom instruction; and 6. identify problems of pre-service teachers in integrating ict in classroom instruction. literature review theoretical and conceptual framework this study was anchored on the tpack framework developed by mishra and koehler (2006) and self-efficacy theory proposed by bandura (1977). this study also used tpack-based evaluation model suggested by abbit (2011).tpack framework was introduced to the field of educational research for understanding teacher knowledge required for effective technology integration (mishra & koehler, 2006). this framework arises from multiple interactions among content, pedagogical, and technology knowledge. it encompassed understanding the representations of concepts using technologies; pedagogical techniques that may apply technologies in constructive ways to teach content in differentiated ways according to students’ learning needs; knowledge of what could make concepts difficult or easy to learn and how technology can help redress conceptual challenges; knowledge of students’ prior content-related understanding and epistemological assumptions; and knowledge of how technologies can be used to build on existing understanding to develop new epistemologies or strengthen old ones (mishra & koehler, 2008). it was composed of seven domains: technology knowledge (tk), content knowledge (ck), pedagogical knowledge (pk), pedagogical content knowledge (pck), technological content knowledge (tck), technological pedagogical knowledge (tpk), and technological pedagogical content knowledge (tpck). self-efficacy referred to an individual’s perception dealing with different challenges, the ability to accomplish an activity, and his/her belief in his/her own capacity (senemoğlu, 2010). it was described as an individual’s perception of personal ability to assume a task and complete it, thereby enabling an individual to accomplish his goals amidst the challenges or difficulties. furthermore, bandura (1997) claimed that self-efficacy could predict positive motivational and achievement outcomes across contexts, including persistence and performance. pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy oriented on tpack framework was necessary to understand their perceived knowledge of different domains under the tpack framework. abbitt (2011) examined the development of the tpack framework with a particular focus on assessing tpack in the context of pre-service teacher preparation programs. in his review of different existing methods, he suggested the combination of different valid and reliable instruments to properly assess pre-service teachers’ development of tpack and technology integration in classroom instruction. he recommended the irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 33 utilization of [a]survey of pre-service teachers’ knowledge of teaching and technology (schmidt, et al., 2009) and [b]technology integration assessment rubric (harris, grandgenett, & hofer, 2010). he further explained that these instruments were highly complementary in their current form and appropriate to elementary education or early childhood education programs due to the design of the survey of pre-service teachers’ knowledge. based on the framework, theories, and model presented above, the researcher was able to design the conceptual paradigm of this study. figure 1.the conceptual framework showing the relationship between the independent and dependent variables methodology research design this study employed a mixed method design quantitatively and qualitatively. for the quantitative part, the researchers used a correlation design and for the qualitative part, interviews with selected participants were used. this study was likewise correlational for it aimed to determine whether the respondents’ socio-demographic characteristics and tpack self-efficacy were related with classroom integration of ict. sampling procedure since the aim of this study was to investigate the integration of ict in classroom instruction among elementary pre-service teachers, the researcher employed purposive sampling method. purposive sampling as defined by black (2010) is a non-probability sampling method and it occurs when “elements selected for the sample are chosen by the judgment of the researcher. elementary pre-service teachers who were [a] enrolled in the student teaching program this second semester 2016-2017; and [b] deployed in muñoz socio-demographic characteristics ict integration in classroom instruction (planning and implementation) technological pedagogical content knowledge (tpack) self-efficacy irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 34 south central school, deped-clsu (lab.) elementary school, san jose west central school, and san jose east central school were selected as respondents of the study. these cooperating schools were chosen over other schools with the assumption that these schools had established ict programs and had more facilities to support ict integration in classroom instruction. the initial plan of the researchers was to have a total enumeration of the pre-service teachers who fitted to the abovementioned criteria. as each of them was given a copy of the research questionnaire, not all of them positively responded to the request. fifty-two (75.4%) pre-service teachers participated in the study. instrumentation four (4) instruments were used in this study. the first instrument was developed by the researchers covering respondents’ socio-demographic characteristics (age, sex, major/ specialization, grade level handled, subjects taught, ict-related trainings attended, personal ict equipment, and gpa in ict-related and educational technology courses).the second instrument was based on the “survey of pre-service teachers’ knowledge of teaching and technology” developed by schmidt et al. (2009). it consisted of seven sub domains under tpack framework (tk, ck, pk, pck, tck, tpk, and tpck). these sub-domains included4-10 survey items measuring multiple knowledge domains represented in the framework. respondents were asked to indicate the degree of their proficiency to the survey items of the instrument on a scale of: 1 – strongly disagree, 2 – disagree, 3 – agree and 4 –strongly agree. a pre-testing was also conducted to pre-service teachers at the muñoz north central school to test the reliability of the instrument. to measure internal consistency, alpha reliability coefficient was calculated. the result was 0.951 indicating that the survey questionnaire was reliable considering 0.70 or higher could be considered “acceptable” in most social science research situations (mishra & koehler, 2006). the third instrument was utilized to determine pre-service teachers’ planning and implemenation by analyzing lesson plans and observing actual demonstrations. technology integration observation instrument, developed by hofer et al. (2011),was found to be highly reliable with a computed internal consistency of 0.914 (cronbach’s alpha). because of its validity evaluations, it was offered to other researchers for research purposes. thirty (30) respondents were interviewed during classroom visitations and observations, and analysis of lesson plans. coding of responses was applied to analyze data for emergent themes. the last instrument was also developed by the researcher and designed to describe ict program of the cooperating schools in terms of administration, facilities, equipment, and problems relative to teaching and learning. methods of data analysis based on the objectives and hypotheses of the study, the data were analyzed by using the different statistical methods in statistical package for social science (spss). descriptive statistics like mean, standard deviation, percentages, ranks and frequency counts were irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 35 utilized to describe the socio-demographic characteristics, tpack self-efficacy, and planning and implementation of the respondents. pearson product moment correlation was used to identify the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. on the qualitative part, coding was applied to analyze data gathered from the thirty respondents for emergent themes (wolcott, 1990). after repeated readings, overlap shown among codes was reduced when similar codes were clustered together and were combined into a number of broad categories or themes. to provide more detailed background information of the data, the themes were tallied to reveal frequency of responses and were converted to percentage for easier view of the data summary. results and discussion socio-demographic characteristics age. the age of the respondents ranged from 19 to 32 years old with a mean of 20.06 (sd=2.26). almost half (48.1%) of the respondents were 19 years old while 40.4 percent of the respondents aged 20 years old. a very small number of respondents (11.5%) was 21 years old and above. this indicated that almost all of the respondents were in the age bracket that could be expected from typical enrollees for this fourth year level of college. sex. based on gathered data, most of the respondents were females (88.5%). this confirmed the typical condition in our educational system where teaching positions were predominated by female. major/specialization. most of the respondents (86.5%) were taking generalist as their specialization while only seven respondents (13.5%) were taking pre-school education. according to the official enrolment report of the office of admissions for the school year 2016-2017, the number of bachelor of elementary education (beed) students taking generalist as their specialization was greater than those who were specializing in pre-school education. grade level. findings also indicated that the respondents were widely spread on different grade levels in the cooperating schools. respondents who handled grade 5 pupils obtained the highest number (12 or 23.1%), followed by respondents assigned to grade 3 (9 or 17.3%). the least number (5 or 9.6%) was obtained by respondents who were handling grade 1 and 2. subject taught. respondents who handled science obtained the highest frequency (19 or 36.5%), followed by respondents assigned to mathematics (13 or 25.0%), and language arts – filipino and english (11 or 21.2%). ict-related trainings attended. more than half of the respondents (53.8%) indicated that they had attended ict-related trainings and/ or seminars. all of the indicated seminars were categorized as local and primarily provided by the institution. meanwhile, almost half of the respondents (46.2%) indicated that they had not attended any ict-related trainings and/or seminar. probably, the college provided seminars/ trainings but not all pre-service teachers were involved. irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 36 personal ict equipment. table 1 also revealed that most of the respondents owned three to four ict equipment (46.2%). it was followed by respondents with one to two ict equipment (34.6%). meanwhile, only three respondents indicated that they owned seven and more number of ict equipment (5.8%). when asked about the ict equipment possessed, almost all of the respondents (96.2%) owned cellular/ mobile phone, forty-seven respondents (90.3%) owned personal computers (laptop, desktop, netbook, or notebook). only four (2.38%) respondents had their own router/ switch/ hub installed with internet connection. table 1a. socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents characteristics frequency (n=52) percentage age 19 years old 25 48.1 20 years old 21 40.4 21 years old and above 6 11.5 mean ( x  ) = 20.06 sd= 2.26 sex male 6 11.5 female 46 88.5 major/ specialization generalist 45 86.5 pre-school education 7 13.5 grade level handled kindergarten/ pre-elementary 7 13.5 grade i 5 9.6 grade ii 5 9.6 grade iii 9 17.3 grade iv 7 13.5 grade v 12 23.1 grade vi 7 13.5 subject taught mathematics 13 25.0 science 19 36.5 language arts (english/mt/ filipino) 11 21.2 araling panlipunan/social science 4 7.7 mapeh 4 7.7 values education 1 1.9 irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 37 ict-related trainings and seminars attended attended 1 seminar related to ict 28 53.8 did not attend any ict-related training/ seminar 24 46.2 number of personal ict equipment owned with 1-2 ict equipment 18 34.6 with 3-4 ict equipment 24 46.2 with 5-6 ict equipment 7 13.5 with 7 and more number of ict equipment 3 5.8 gpa in educational technology and ict-related courses. respondents’ academic performance in subjects related to the use of technology in teaching obtained an overall mean of 2.13 which could be verbally interpreted as “good” in the standpoint of clsu grading scheme. it can also be noticed that the mean of grades obtained by the respondents in educ 120 (ict in education) was 2.15 (good), in educ 120a (educational technology i was 2.18 (good) and in educ 120b (educational technology ii) was 2.08 (good). only eight respondents obtained a grade of 1.00 – 1.50 (excellent) in all ict-related courses taken. table 1b. gpa in educational technology and ict-related courses grade range frequency (n=52) descriptive rating ict in education (educ 120) educational technology i (educ 120a) educational technology ii (educ 120b) 1.00-1.50 3.0 1.0 4.0 excellent 1.51-2.00 26.0 22.0 30.0 very good 2.01-2.50 16.0 25.0 14.0 good 2.51-2.75 1.0 4.0 1.0 fair 2.76-3.00 6.0 0.0 3.0 passing mean= 2.15 2.18 2.08 sd= 0.41 0.29 0.37 overall mean 2.13 good legend: 1.00-1.50 excellent 1.51-2.00 very good 2.01-2.50 good 2.51-2.75 fair 2.76-3.00 passing irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 38 tpack self-efficacy table 2 presents the tpack self-efficacy of the respondents. analyzing the data presented, they posted an overall tpack self-efficacy mean of 3.03 which determined that their tpack self-efficacy levels were at the level of “high proficiency”. also, the overall standard deviation was 0.31 indicating a narrow distribution of responses. these findings could be possibly attributed to the prior experiences of the respondents in using technology in teaching as all of them underwent ict-related courses such as ict in education, educational technology i, and educational technology ii. among the domains in the tpack framework, tck and tpk obtained the highest means( x  =3.20, 3.13 respectively). meanwhile, tk obtained the lowest mean( x  =2.87).it can also be noticed that respondents were found to be highly proficiency in all items except for item “i can explain advantages of using technology in a content area” which had a descriptive rating of very high proficiency ( x  =3.31). technology knowledge (tk). tk of the respondents had an overall mean of 2.87 which indicated that respondents were found to be highly proficient in this domain. all items under this domain received a descriptive rating of “agree”. the overall standard deviation of 0.27 indicated that respondents’ answers were narrowly dispersed in terms of tk. it can be implied that elementary pre-service teachers perceived themselves that they had sufficient knowledge to learn technologies easily and technical skills needed to use technology. these findings supported the results determined by kazu and erten (2014) in testing tpack self-efficacies of preservice teachers in turkey. content knowledge (ck). by looking at the respondents’ self-efficacy under ck, it was indicated that respondents were highly proficient on matters concerning content based on the overall mean obtained ( x  =2.97). these finding supported the study of kazu and erten (2014) that pre-service teachers perceived themselves as proficient in various lesson contents. these results could also be related to the respondents’ degree program (bachelor of elementary education) where different content areas were included in their curriculum. also, interdisciplinary integration was included in professional subjects allowing them to relate two subject contents in one lesson. pedagogical knowledge (pk). the domain pk had an overall mean of 3.00 and standard deviation of 0.25, which means that respondents’ knowledge on teaching was sufficient. it also showed that all items under pk received a descriptive rating of “agree”. the same result was obtained by kazu and erten (2014) where pre-service teachers viewed themselves as efficacious when it came to assessing student performance. these findings suggested that pre-service teachers had sufficient self-efficacies on classroom management, learning and teaching methods, learning and teaching processes and practices. pedagogical content knowledge (pck). the overall mean of the items was 2.99 with a descriptive rating of “high proficiency” and the standard deviation was 0.27.these findings implied that respondents’ perceived knowledge of the pedagogies and teaching practices was sufficient. as suggested by aquino (2015), this can also be attributed to having professional subjects which covered the preparation, utilization of different methods and strategies to teach a specific content area. moreover, respondents were exposed to lesson plan irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 39 development and demonstrations aligned to different subject matters during their student teaching program. technological content knowledge (tck). respondents suggested that their knowledge in this domain was sufficient. with an overall mean of 3.20 and standard deviation of 0.36, respondents were found to be highly proficient in this domain. these findings coincided with the findings of aquino (2015) where she found out that science pre-service teachers’ high tck can be attributed to their personal ict equipment or devices. most of the respondents had possession of mobile phones and computers which can be used to gather and analyze data or information about a specific content. technological pedagogical knowledge (tpk). on the aspect of tpk, respondents revealed that they had sufficient understanding of how teaching and learning changed when particular technologies were used. with an overall mean of 3.13 and standard deviation of 0.37, respondents were found to be highly proficient in this domain. this entailed that respondents had confidence on their use of technologies to improve teaching and learning. respondents’ adaptation and use of technology to different teaching activities can be associated with their possessed ict devices. this was observed by the researcher and the cooperating teacher during their implementation of the lesson. majority of them used computer as in various ways to support different teaching activities (e.g. using the computer for drill, review, motivation, and application). technological pedagogical content knowledge (tpck). this domain was seen as the intersection of all three bodies of knowledge. understanding of this knowledge could go above and beyond understanding technology, content, or pedagogy in isolation, but rather as an emergent form that understands how these forms of knowledge interact with each other (koehler and mishra, 2008). tpck obtained an overall mean of 3.07 with a descriptive rating of “agree (high proficiency)”and standard deviation of 0.42. all of the items under this domain also got a descriptive rating of “agree” which revealed that respondents had confidence that they were highly proficient in this domain. as argued by aquino (2015), the way pre-service teachers viewed the interrelationship of content, pedagogy and technology resulted to their confidence in choosing and utilizing technologies that would enhance their teaching and learning of a specific content or topic. this can be associated with their learning experiences while they were attending classes in college and performing demonstration teaching inside and outside the campus. table 2. summary of respondents' tpack self-efficacy domains mean sd descriptive rating technology knowledge (tk) 2.87 0.27 agree content knowledge (ck) 2.97 0.24 agree pedagogical knowledge (pk) 3.00 0.25 agree pedagogical content knowledge (pck) 2.99 0.27 agree technological content knowledge (tck) 3.20 0.36 agree irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 40 technological pedagogical knowledge (tpk) 3.13 0.37 agree technological pedagogical content knowledge (tpck) 3.07 0.42 agree overall tpack self-efficacy 3.03 0.31 agree legend: 3.26-4.00 strongly agree (very high proficiency) 2.51-3.25 agree (high proficiency) 1.76-2.50 disagree (low proficiency ) 1.00-1.75 strongly disagree (very low proficiency) ict integration in classroom instruction table 3 presents the results of classroom observations and analysis of lesson artifacts during the student teaching program. to generate quantitative data from observations, the researcher utilized the “technology integration observation instrument” developed by hofer et al. (2011) during actual demonstration. it can be observed that pre-service teachers’ ict integration in classroom instruction obtained an overall mean of 3.06 and standard deviation of 0.36 which implied that most of the observed lessons were rated as “good”. based on the gathered data, most of the respondents were observed to have selected technologies aligned with one or more curriculum goals set on their lesson plans. with a mean of 3.18, the alignment of curriculum goals and technologies was described to be “good”. most of the respondents were also observed to have used technologies to support instructional strategies ( x  =3.10) and had their content, instructional strategies, and technology fitted together within their lesson plans ( x  =2.85). technology selections of the respondents were also considered appropriate and “good” based on the observed lesson plan ( x  =3.10). most of the respondents were also considered “good” and effective in using technologies in instruction ( x  =3.11). teachers and students were able to use and operate the technologies presented in the class ( x  =2.94).these findings indicated that most of the respondents were “good” in planning and implementing technology-integrated lesson in the classroom. planning. when asked about what encouraged the respondents to select a topic or concept for integration of technology, majority of the respondents disclosed that the improvement of pupils’ learning was their priority (17 or 32.7%) increasing pupils’ motivation (12 or 23.1%) and ease of introducing a topic (10 or 19.2%) were also considered in the selection of topic and technology to be integrated. these findings can be attributed to their confidence level in tpk and tpck domains which indicated that they were highly proficient in explaining the advantages of using technology in a content area and selecting technologies to use that would enhance their teaching and support students’ learning. moreover, all of the respondents indicated that learning a lesson integrated with technology was a good idea. one respondent claimed: “i incorporated technology in this lesson because it helped my students to understand our lesson by listening to the audio recorder. other than that, it’s a way to motivate them to listen and participate in our discussion.” it was also worth mentioning that majority of the respondents revealed that the materials (e.g., pictures used in the irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 41 presentation, video presentation) they used in the implemented lesson were obtained from other sources (e.g., internet-based materials, downloaded files). table 3. results of classroom observation and analysis of lesson plans criteria mean sd descriptive rating planning curriculum goals and technologies (curriculum-based technology use) 3.18 0.49 good technologies selected for use in the instructional plan are aligned with one or more curriculum goals. instructional strategies and technologies (using technology in teaching/ learning) 3.10 0.53 good technology use supports instructional strategies. technology selection(s) (compatibility with curriculum goals &instructional strategies) 2.85 0.35 good technology selection(s) are appropriate, but not exemplary, given curriculum goal(s) and instructional strategies. fit(content, pedagogy and technology together) 3.10 0.51 good content, instructional strategies and technology fit together within the instructional plan. overall mean 3.06 0.30 good implementation instructional use (using technologies effectively for instruction) 3.11 0.49 good instructional use of technologies is effective in the observed lesson. technology logistics (operating technologies effectively) 2.94 0.40 good teacher and/or students operate(s) technologies well in the observed lesson overall mean 2.96 0.31 good overall ict integration 3.06 0.31 good legend: 3.26-4.00 best 2.51-3.25 good 1.76-2.50 fair 1.00-1.75 poor irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 42 other respondents used self-created materials while other used a combination of self-created materials and materials obtained from other materials. some respondents modified and customized materials obtained from other sources. one respondent shared: “i searched for a video in youtube and edited it a little”. another participant commented: “audio clips are downloaded from youtube”. respondents were also asked about the activities or exercises they prepared for teaching their lesson with technology. most of the respondents used technology for presentation and illustration (22 or 42.3%), interactive activities (9 or 17.3%), and listening activities involving audio materials (6 or 11.5 %). preparations made by the respondents were also affected by the use of technology. almost all of them felt prepared to teach the lesson using technology. when asked about how the incorporation of technology affected their preparations, half of the participants revealed that the use of technology made their preparations faster and easier. however, twenty-five per cent of the respondents said that it required time and effort to finish the materials of the lesson. mixed perceptions of the respondents can be explained by how they obtained materials appropriate for their lesson and how they used ict tools for the preparation of their materials. almost half of the respondents indicated that they had obtained their materials from other sources (which materials were commonly downloaded from the internet, e.g. video clip). correspondingly, almost half of them disclosed that they used these materials for presentation/ illustration. obtaining readily available materials, which were compatible with their set lesson objectives and aligned with their teaching strategies, positively impacted their preparation for their lessons by making them cost and time efficient. when interviewed, one respondent said, “in preparing my lesson, technology helped me save time and effort; and my expenses decreased”. another respondent commented: “well, i prepared differently because incorporating technology in the preparation of my lesson made everything a lot easier than preparing using traditional materials.” on the other hand, there was a likely possibility that respondents who had indicated that they had put more effort and time in the preparation of their lesson may be those whose prepared materials were self-created. it can also be related to the teaching activities they were trying to implement and accessibility of needed equipment/ tools. as one respondent said, “the incorporation of technology was not easy because it took time to prepare the presentation and [there is] lack of equipment to be used.” respondents’ motivation relative to technology integration jived with their expectations. most of them had expectations that because of technology integration, their students would learn the lesson easily (38 or 73.1%). further, they also expected that their students did the activities in the lesson actively (6 or 11.5%) and appreciated the use of technology in learning (6 or 11.5%). implementation. respondents, during implementation of the lesson, were rated as “good” in terms of instructional use of technology and operation of technology inside the classroom (see table 3).when observed, they were comfortable in using the technology in teaching the lesson. when asked about what aspect of technology-integrated lesson went well and supported student learning, most of the respondents disclosed that the use of technology in developmental activities (20 or 38.5%) and abstraction (11 or 21.2%) helped irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 43 the students in learning the content or topic of the lesson. moreover, the operation of the technology was thought to be helpful in supporting the students. they also described their students as more engaged and active during the lesson. students’ attention to the content was also sustained. some of the respondents believed that they needed to improve their activities in application (9 or 17.3%), utilization of technology inside the classroom (8 or 15.4%), classroom management (6 or 11.5%), communication skills (5 or 9.6%), and motivational activities (5 or 9.6%).when asked about what were the difficulties they had in guiding the students to use technology, they disclosed that students were not behaving properly (14 or 26.9%), too focused on the technology use and did not listen to their instructions (13 or 25.0%), and did not use the technology properly (7 or 13.5%). contextual factors affecting technology integration. during observation, contextual factors that affected the planning and implementation of technology-integrated lesson were also considered. these were used to help scorers analyze the observed lesson objectively in relation to the content objectives and teaching approaches/ methods employed by the respondents. based ontable 4, there were contextual factors that positively and negatively affected the observed lesson. among the positive contextual factors noted during observation, the suitability of technology used for instruction (41 or 78.8%) was the most observable. this indicated that respondents were able to use the technology to support teaching learning during the progress of the lesson. it was followed by respondents’ methods, strategies, and techniques used inside the class (39 or 75.0%); and students’ attitude towards learning (9 or 17.3%). on the other hand, frequent contextual factors that negatively affected the observed lesson were the following: availability of needed technology (22 or 42.3%), medium of instruction (20 or 38.5%), and behavior of students (11 or 21.2%). table 4. list of factors that affected the observed lesson contextual factors frequency (n=52) percentage rank positive contextual factors suitability of technology used for instruction 41 78.8 1 method, strategy, and techniques 39 75.0 2 attitude of students towards learning 9 17.3 3 negative contextual factors availability of needed technology 22 42.3 1 medium of instruction 20 38.5 2 behaviour of students 11 21.2 3 classroom management 6 11.5 4 large class size 5 9.6 5.5 diversity of students 5 9.6 5.5 irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 44 list of materials used during the observed lesson. following the modified guidelines set for the use of technology integration observation instrument, the researcher recorded all ict tools/ equipment used in the lesson implementation for the purpose of discussion. among the ict tools used in the observed lessons as shown in table 5, computer (42 or 80.8%) was the most frequent ict material used by the respondents. most of these computers (laptop, netbook, and notebook) were personally owned by the respondents. it was followed by television (8 or 15.4%), projector (7 or 13.5%) and speaker (7 or 13.5%). table 5. list of ict equipment/ tools used during lesson ict equipment/ tools used frequency (n=52) percentage rank computer 42 80.8 1 television 8 15.4 2 projector 7 13.5 3.5 speaker 7 13.5 3.5 audio recorder and player 2 3.8 5.5 dvd/ cd player 2 3.8 5.5 ict program of cooperating schools cooperating schools are very important in the culmination of prospective teachers. they are said to be key partner institutions providing real-world experience to practicing student teachers. administration. all schools had ict coordinators (9 or 100.0%) and more than half (5 or 55.6%) had designated ict teachers. while it was true that there were ict coordinators as mandated by the department of education, it was worthy to mention that none of the participating schools had ict technician which was vital in maintaining the equipment in the school. less than half of the schools (4 or 44.4%) had budget for the implementation of the school ict program plan. facilities and equipment. seven schools (77.8%) had ict building/ room. all of the schools with ict building/ room had computer tables, chairs, and proper electrical wirings. it can also be observed that only three schools (33.3%) indicated that they had ict building/ room with at least ten networked personal computers and air-conditioning units. all schools were using windows operating system. four schools (44.4%) stated that their internet service provider was globe telecom while three schools (33.3%) indicated pldt. it was indicated that all schools had available lcd projectors, desktop computers, and printers. based on the gathered data, lcd projector obtained the highest total number of available units (72), followed by desktop computer (67), and television (51). meanwhile, telephone (7), interactive whiteboard (7) and digital camera (5) garnered the least total number of available units. it was worth mentioning that among the schools with lcd irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 45 projectors; only one cooperating school indicated a total number of fifty available units which was relatively larger than other schools with 1-5 projector units. moreover, only three schools stated that the total number of their available desktop computers units were more than ten. table 6. list of equipment available in cooperating schools list of equipment frequency (n=9) % total no. of units lcd projector 9 100.0 72 desktop computer 9 100.0 67 television (connected to cable) 7 77.8 51 laptop/ netbook/ notebook computer 8 88.9 44 printer 9 100.0 35 scanner 6 66.7 14 cd/ dvd player 7 77.8 12 telephone 6 66.7 7 interactive whiteboard 7 77.8 7 digital/ video camera 4 44.4 5 problems relative to ict integration in teaching and learning. the researcher also asked common problems relative to ict integration teaching and learning in cooperating schools. coding of answers was done to categorize the themes of the answers expressed by the respondents. as shown in table 7, insufficient number of computer units (3 or 33.3%); lack of ict teacher/ technician in the school (3 or 33.3%); and lack of trainings to enhance teachers’ knowledge of ict (3 or 33.3%) tied in the first rank. these were followed by poor network connection (2 or 22.0%); lack of budget to implement the program (1 or 11.0%); and defective computer units (1 or 11.0%). table 7. problems relative to ict integration in teaching and learning problems frequency (n=9) percentage rank insufficient number of computer units 3 33.0 2 lack of ict teacher/ technician in the school 3 33.0 2 lack of trainings to enhance teachers’ knowledge of ict 3 33.0 2 poor internet connection 2 22.0 4 lack of budget to implement the program 1 11.0 5.5 defective computer units 1 11.0 5.5 irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 46 relationship between elementary pre-service teachers’ socio-demographic characteristics and ict integration in classroom instruction based on the result shown in table 8, gpa in educational technology and ict-related courses was found to have highly negative significant relationship with pre-service teachers’ planning of instructional strategies and technologies (r=-0.623) while the rest of the variables were found to have no relationship with their ict integration in classroom instruction. gpa and instructional strategies and technologies. it was found that gpa in educational technology and ict-related courses obtained a highly negative significant relationship with pre-service teachers’ planning of instructional strategies and technologies (r=-0.623). the negative correlation can be explained as the mean grade of respondents in subjects related to technology integration which was set to 1.00 as the highest number value while 3.00 as the lowest . the researcher based this order from the grading scheme of central luzon state university where the highest possible passing grade that can be given to an individual is 1.00 (excellent) while the lowest possible passing grade is 3.00 (passing). table 8. relationship between respondents’ socio-demographic profile and ict integration planning implementation curriculum goals and technologies instructional strategies and technologies technology selection(s) fit instructional use technology logistics age -0.144 -0.05 -0.05 0.004 -0.139 0.004 sex -0.137 0.159 0.068 -0.009 0.108 0.096 major/ specialization -0.091 -0.239 0.087 -0.019 -0.028 0.135 grade level handled 0.002 0.191 -0.003 0.077 -0.024 -0.144 subject taught -0.052 0.055 0.038 0.081 -0.118 0.146 ict-related trainings and seminars attended 0.25 0.08 0.146 0.015 0.156 0.172 number of personal ict equipment owned 0.146 0.133 0.148 0.033 0.056 0.085 gpa in educational technology courses -0.086 -0.623** -0.144 0.004 -0.217 0.101 **correlation is significant at p<0.01. *correlation is significant at p<0.05. irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 47 thus, this relationship indicated that higher academic performance of respondents in technology-related courses positively affected their integration of technology in classroom instruction, particularly their planning of instructional strategies and technologies to be utilized. it was also supported by the data gathered through interview. in the summary of coded responses from the result of interview conducted after the observation, respondents suggested that because of the educational technology courses they had attended, they became prepared and knowledgeable on how to integrate ict in their lessons. furthermore, these courses also helped them create lessons that were easier to discuss and understand; helped them create good presentations; and helped them gain confidence in using technology inside the classroom. it was worth mentioning that when respondents were asked about their preparation in their educational technology courses, they had indicated that their professors/ instructors helped and prepared them to successfully integrate technology in their lessons. on the other hand, other variables were found to have no relationship with pre-service teachers’ ict integration in classroom instruction. these findings could have been affected by the homogeneity of the samples. meanwhile, numerous studies found similar results where these factors were not significantly correlated with technology integration (berry, 2011; brunk, 2008; chen, 1986; inan & lowther, 2010; karakaya & avgin, 2016; schulze, 2014). age, for instance, was found to have no direct relationship with teachers’ integration of technology in instruction. as disclosed by schulze(2014) in his study to determine relationship between teacher characteristics and educational technology, technology integration and respondent age did not seem to have a dominate age group for integration. this result was also supported by technology experiments conducted by berry (2011), brunk (2008), and inan and lowther (2010). as cited by schulze (2014), they found that age did not seem to play a role in determining the amount of technology integration. sex, which was considered one of the limitations of this study, had found to be not correlated with technology integration and tpack. the fact that gender might affect teachers’ attitudes toward ict was firstly rejected in chen’s (1986) study, where he found no correlation between gender and teachers’ attitudes in integrating technology in instruction. on a study conducted by karakaya and avgin (2016), it was understood that there was no statistical logical difference between male and female respondents’ tpackscs and other sub-dimensions of tpack (tck, tk). this confirmed the results that there were no statistically significant differences among pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy perception levels towards technology integration based on gender (keser, yilmaz, & yilmaz, 2015). in other words, it can be explained that being male or female did not have an impact on self-efficacy perception level towards technology integration and actual integration of technology in classroom instruction. however, this assumption was not statistically proven given the uneven number of respondents in this study. moreover, ict-related trainings and seminars attended and number of personal ict equipment owned by the respondents were found to be not significantly related to their integration of technology. although more than half of the respondents indicated that they had attended one seminar related to ict, the results showed that this did not have any irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 48 relationship with their performance in integrating technology in the classroom. this can be interpreted in a way that while trainings and seminars may positively affect an individual’s knowledge about technology, it may have limited impact on classroom practice. relationship between elementary pre-service teachers’ tpack self-efficacy and ict integration in classroom instruction table 9 shows the relationship between the respondents’ tpack self-efficacy and ict integration in classroom instruction. it was found that all tpack sub-domains were significantly related to technology integration. technology knowledge (tk) and ict integration. it was found that respondents’ perceived tk had highly significant relationship with technology selections (r=0.526) and technology logistics (r=0.542).based on the data presented, the subdomain tk had a highly significantly relationship with technology selections (r=0.526). this indicated that respondents’ perceived knowledge about various digital technologies, such as the internet, digital video, interactive whiteboards, and software programs, was significantly related to their planning and selection of technology appropriate to the curriculum goals of their lesson and instructional strategies to be employed. it also revealed that respondents’ tk was highly correlated to technology logistics (r=0.542) which indicated that their perceived knowledge on various digital technologies greatly affected their use and operation of technologies during implementation of the lesson. these findings can be explained by the respondents’ self-efficacy in selection and utilization of technologies to be used appropriate in teaching and learning content. this coincided with the results found by mustafina (2016) that the level of confidence and knowledge that the respondents possessed played a significant role in their attitudes toward technology. these aspects predetermined the teachers’ acceptance of this technology and their “likelihood” to use ict in pedagogical/teaching practices. respondents reported that they were highly proficient when it came to knowledge related to technology. this was verified when respondents disclosed that they chose appropriate technologies for the improvement of pupils learning of the topic and they were comfortable in using technology inside the classroom. their high confidence in perceived tk and actual use of technology in lesson implementation can also be related to the exposure to available technologies. based on the given data in table 5, almost all of them used computers as ict tool in teaching and learning a subject content which was one of the common ict tool they were exposed to. therefore, it also supported this relationship between having technical skills in using technologies and gaining technical competency in using ict tools in teaching and learning. content knowledge (ck) and ict integration. as shown in table 9, perceived ck of the respondents was found to have significant relationship with technology selection, fit, and technology logistics. though the significance of the correlation was not high, the data still suggested that respondents’ perceived ck was related to their selection of appropriate technology in relation to curriculum content and instructional strategies irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 49 (r=0.306). respondents’ perceived ck was also found to be significantly correlated to the fitness of curriculum goals, instructional strategies, and technologies used in the instructional plan (r=0.285). it was also indicated that their perceived ck had a significant relationship with their utilization of technologies during implementation of a lesson (r=0.316). this suggested that their knowledge about various subjects/ topics can affect the way they used a particular technology inside the classroom. subject matter/content was a thought to be a major factor that a teacher should consider when it comes to planning teaching and learning activities and selecting appropriate technologies. respondents’ understanding of the content to be taught (having sufficient knowledge about various content areas; explaining various concepts in a specific content area; having various ways and strategies of developing understanding of a specific content area; and making appropriate connections to other content areas) had a direct effect on their selection and use of appropriate technologies to be used. this clearly supported shulman’s(1986) claim that teachers must know and understand the subject they teach before they present to the students. otherwise, teachers who did not have these understandings can misrepresent those subjects to their students as argued by ball and mcdiarmid (1990). table 9. relationship between respondents’ tpack self-efficacy and ict integration planning implementation curriculum goals and technologies instructional strategies and technologies technology selection(s) fit instructional use technology logistics technology knowledge (tk) 0.13 0.055 0.526** 0.173 0.062 0.542** content knowledge (ck) 0.213 0.147 0.306* 0.285* 0.214 0.316* pedagogical knowledge (pk) 0.280* 0.049 0.175 0.169 0.107 0.462** pedagogical content knowledge (pck) 0.213 0.279* 0.303* 0.028 0.176 0.420** technological content knowledge (tck) 0.415** 0.459** 0.292* 0.045 0.388** 0.162 technological pedagogical knowledge (tpk) 0.384** 0.547** 0.449** 0.171 0.388** 0.342* technological pedagogical content knowledge (tcpk) 0.553** 0.451** 0.355** 0.389** 0.532** 0.313* **correlation is significant at p<0.01. *correlation is significant at irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 50 pedagogical knowledge (pk) and ict integration. the table shows that respondents’ pk had a significant relationship with their use of curriculum-based technologies and had a highly significant relationship with the operation of these technologies inside the classroom. the data revealed that respondents’ perceived knowledge of different teaching strategies was significantly correlated with curriculum goals and technologies (r=0.280). as shown in table 9, respondents’ perceived pk had been found to have highly significant relationship with technology logistics (r=0.462). argued by mishra and koehler (2008) in their paper about technology integration, this domain pertained to deep knowledge about the processes and practices or methods of teaching and learning and how it encompassed (among other things) overall educational purposes, values and aims. respondents reported that they had understanding of different teaching methods and strategies which could be helpful in improving students’ learning. this knowledge had been their selection of technology to achieve the set objectives (curriculum goals) because it required them to have an understanding of cognitive, social and developmental theories of learning and how they applied to students in their classroom (mishra & koehler, 2008). thus, appropriate use of technology should be based on a teacher’s devised teaching and learning activities. pedagogical content knowledge (pck) and ict integration. it was found out that this domain was significantly related to instructional strategies and technologies, technology selections, and technology logistics. as table 9shows, respondents’ pck had a significant relationship with their planning of instructional strategies and technologies (r=0.279). respondents’ perceived pck was also found to be significantly correlated with technology selections (r=0.303). the data also revealed that their perceived knowledge under this domain had a significant relationship with technology logistics (r=0.420). pck was actually based on the concept of shulman (1986) about the intersection of pedagogy and content in education which includedrepresentation and formulation of concepts,pedagogical techniques, knowledge of what madeconcepts difficult or easy to learn, knowledge of students’ prior knowledge and theories of epistemology. however, donald (2002) claimed that different disciplines emphasized certain processes and under-emphasized others. for example, verification in science subject would be pragmatic, while in english subject, verification would be a search for interpretive coherence. the knowledge of evaluating what technological tools should be used to support teaching and learning of the concept was clearly demonstrated by most of the respondents during the observed lesson. developmental strategies and abstraction were found to be the key aspects which helped students fully understand the lesson. in relation to this, students were also found to be more engaged and active during the lesson and their focus on the content was sustained. technological content knowledge (tck) and ict integration. tck of the respondents was found to be highly correlated with their curriculum-based use of technology, instructional strategies and technologies, and instructional use during implementation of the lesson. respondents’ perceived tck had a significant relationship with curriculum goals and technologies (r=0.415). it was also revealed that their perceived irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 51 tck was highly associated with instructional strategies and technologies (r=0.459). table 9 also reveals that respondents’ knowledge of this sub domain had a significant relationship with their use of technology for instruction during implementation of the lesson (r=0.388). understanding the manner in which technology and content influenced and constrained one another was the focus of this domain. these findings supported the study of mishra and koehler (2008) that teachers needed to master more than the subject matter they taught, they must also have a deep understanding of the manner in which the subject matter (or the kinds of representations that can be constructed) can be changed by the application of technology. based on respondents’ performance and self-efficacy under this domain, it can be concluded that their tck had a direct relationship with their preparation of technologies aligned with curriculum goals. as mishra and koehler (2008) claimed, teachers should understand which specific technologies were best suited for addressing subject-matter learning in their domains and how the content dictated or perhaps even changed the technology or vice versa. technological pedagogical knowledge (tpk) and ict integration. this part presents the results of relationship between respondents’ perceived tpk and their actual integration of ict in classroom instruction. as shown in table 9, respondents’ knowledge in this domain had a highly significant relationship with curriculum goals and technologies, instructional strategies and technologies, and technology selections. it also was significantly related to technology logistics. the data revealed that respondents’ knowledge on the use of technology to effectively implement a teaching strategy had a highly significant relationship with curriculum goals and technologies (r=0.384). as shown in table 9, respondents’ tpk was found to have highly significant correlation with instructional strategies and technologies (r=0.547).respondents’ knowledge on this domain was also revealed to have a highly significant relationship with technology selections (r=0.449). the data also revealed that their tpk had a significant relationship with technology logistics (r=0.342). observation results showed that among the factors that positively affected the integration of ict in the lesson, suitability of the technology used was the most highly observable. it was followed by methods and strategies. aside from this, gathered data also revealed that developmental strategies and abstraction were the aspects of technology-integrated lesson that greatly impacted the students’ learning. along with these results, students were observed to have learned the content of the lesson. these clearly established a direct positive relationship between their perceived pck and their actual integration of technology in classroom instruction. respondents were observed to have deeper understanding of the constraints and affordances of technologies and the disciplinary contexts within which they functioned. knowing these pedagogical affordances and technological constraints, they were able to plan disciplinarily and developmentally appropriate pedagogical designs and strategiesreporting similar results with mishra and koehler (2008). technological pedagogical content knowledge (tpck) and ict integration. tpck of the respondents was found to have significant relationship with their planning and implementation during ict integration in classroom instruction. it had been found to be irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 52 significantly correlated with all the elements of planning: curriculum-based use of technology (r=0.553); planning and strategies (r=0.451); technology selections (r=0.355); and fitness of technology, content, and pedagogy (r=0.389). it was also found to have relationship with their instructional implementation: instructional use (r=0.532) and technology logistics (r=0.313). tpck was defined as the “intersection of all three bodies of knowledge” (mishra & koehler, 2008). understanding of this knowledge could be above and beyond understanding technology, content, or pedagogy in isolation, but rather as an emergent form that understands how these forms of knowledge interact with each other. respondents’ tpack self-efficacy was found to have direct relationship with ict integration. thus, it can be concluded that developing technological content knowledge among pre-service teachers could be very important to effectively integrate ict in classroom instruction. as argued by numerous researchers, technology integration in teaching and learning required understanding the dynamic, transactional relationship among these three knowledge components (abbitt, 2011; bruce & levin, 1997; dewey & bentley, 1949; harris, mishra, & koehler, 2009; mishra & koehler, 2008; rosenblatt, 1978). problems relative to integration of ict in classroom instruction table 10 shows the problems encountered by respondents in integrating ict in classroom instruction. it can be noticed that among the problems identified, “lack of internet connection/ slow connectivity” (27 or 51.9%) and “lack of computers, equipment and devices” (21 or 40.4%) obtained the highest frequency. these results could be associated with the problems identified by the cooperating schools: insufficient number of computer units and poor network connection (see table 7). these problems affected the use of technology inside the classroom, limiting the possible ways of preparation and implementation of technology-integrated lesson. table 10. problems encountered by respondents in integrating ict in classroom instruction problems relative to ict integration frequency (n=52) percentage rank lack of internet connection/ slow connectivity 27 51.9 1 lack of computers, equipment and devices 21 40.4 2 lack of technical knowledge in using various devices 5 9.6 3 lack of electricity 2 3.8 4 lack of preparations in creating videos and presentations 1 1.9 5.5 insufficient learner's capacity in using the ict equipment 1 1.9 5.5 irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 53 conclusions and recommendations conclusions based on the results of the study, the conclusions were drawn. most of them were female and taking generalists as their specialization. this implied that there was homogeneity when it came to the respondents who participated in the study. further, only half of them attended a local ict-related seminar conducted by the institution. respondents reported that opportunities to work with different technologies were insufficient. it meant that most of the respondents were not able to use various technologies in the courses that they had attended .most of the respondents were able to integrate ict in classroom instruction. in terms of overall ict integration, they were found to be “good” in all components of technology integration – planning and implementation. most of their instructional materials were obtained from other sources and were commonly used for presentations/ illustrations. none of the cooperating schools had employed ict technician which was found vital in maintaining ict equipment in the school. the leading problems reported by schools relative to integrating ict in teaching and learning were insufficient number of computer units, lack of ict teacher/ technician in the school, and lack of trainings to enhance teachers’ knowledge of ict. gpa of the respondents in educational technology and ict-related courses had highly but negative significant relationship with their preparation and implementation of instruction integrated with technology. it implied that pre-service teachers with higher academic performance performed better in preparation and implementation of technology-integrated lessons. pre-service teachers’ tpack self-efficacy had highly significant relationship with their preparation and implementation of technology-integrated instruction. this tended to suggest that the higher tpack self-efficacy of pre-service teachers, the more effective they would be in integrating technology in classroom instruction. recommendations in the light of the results and conclusions of this study, the following measures are strongly recommended: 1. although age, sex, grade level handled, subject taught, ict-related trainings attended, and personal ict equipment were not found to be related to pre-service teachers’ integration of ict, these factors should still be considered by other researchers. since homogeneity of samples affected the results of this study, future researchers should include good and large distribution of samples. moreover, participation of pre-service teachers to various ict-related seminars should be encouraged by the institution. irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 54 2. since respondents reported that opportunities to work with different technologies were insufficient, professors/ instructors of educational technology and ict-related courses should be encouraged to provide opportunities for pre-service teachers to use a wide range of technologies in classroom instruction. 3. while most of the respondents were able to integrate ict in classroom instruction, the college of education should provide more opportunities for the pre-service teachers to further develop their skills in using technology in classroom instruction. pre-service teacher should also be trained in selecting and creating instructional materials; and utilization of these materials in various instructional techniques. 4. cooperating schools should be encouraged to develop plans to improve their ict program. furthermore, concerned government units should also be advised about the problems encountered relative to ict integration in classroom instruction (e.g. insufficient number of computer units, lack of ict teacher/ technician in the school, and lack of trainings to enhance teachers’ knowledge of ict). 5. since gpa of pre-service teachers in educational technology and ict-related courses was found to be significantly related to their development of technology-integrated instruction, teacher education institutions, particularly the college of education, should strengthen educational technology and ict-related courses by engaging students to various activities essential for the development of their ict integration in classroom instruction. 6. since pre-service teachers’ tpack self-efficacy was found to have significant relationship with their ict integration in classroom, pre-service teachers should be encouraged to develop their tpack. tpack-oriented trainings should also be provided by the institution for them to fully understand the multidimensional aspects of technology integration. references abbitt, j. t. (2011). an investigation of the relationship between self-efficacy beliefs about technology integration and technological pedagogical content knowledge (tpack) among preservice teachers. journal of digital learning in teacher education, 27(4), 134-143. adcock, p. k. (2008). evolution of teaching and learning through technology. the delta kappa gamma bulletin, 74(4), 37. aquino, a. b. (2015). self-efficacy on technological, pedagogical and content knowledge (tpack) of biological science pre-service teachers. asia pacific journal of multidisciplinary research, 3(4), 150-157. ball, d. l., mcdiarmid, w., houston, w. r., & sikula, j. (1990). handbook for research on teacher education. the subject-matter preparation of teachers. new york, ny: macmillan. bandura, a. (1997). self-efficacy: the exercise of control (pp. 3-604). new york: h freeman. berry, r. l. 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(2008, march). introducing technological pedagogical content knowledge. in annual meeting of the american educational research association (pp. 1-16). mustafina, a. (2016). teachers’ attitudes toward technology integration in a kazakhstani secondary school. international journal of research in education and science (ijres), 2(2), 322-332. schmidt, d. a., baran, e., thompson, a. d., mishra, p., koehler, m. j., & shin, t. s. (2009). technological pedagogical content knowledge (tpack) the development and irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 56 validation of an assessment instrument for preservice teachers. journal of research on technology in education, 42(2), 123-149. schulze, k. r. (2014). relationships between teacher characteristics and educational technology. online submission. senemoglu, n. (2010). gelişim, öğrenme ve öğretim: kuramdan uygulamaya (development, learning and instruction: from theory to application). shulman, l. s. (1986). those who understand: knowledge growth in teaching. educational researcher, 15(2), 4-14. sife, a., lwoga, e., & sanga, c. (2007). new technologies for teaching and learning: challenges for higher learning institutions in developing countries. international journal of education and development using ict, 3(2), 57-67. bangkok, u. n. e. s. c. o. (2013). case studies on integrating ict into teacher education curriculum in asia. vannatta, r. a., & beyerbach, b. (2000). facilitating a constructivist vision of technology integration among education faculty and preservice teachers. journal of research on computing in education, 33(2), 132-148. walters, t., & lydiatt, s. (2004). teaching, technology, and the modern classroom. learning and teaching in higher education: gulf perspectives, 1, 1-6. wolcott, h. f. (2008). writing up qualitative research. sage publications. zhao, y., pugh, k., sheldon, s., & byers, j. l. (2002). conditions for classroom technology innovations. teachers college record, 104(3), 482-515. biographical notes mark gill m. mercado is a fulltime instructor at central luzon state university department of elementary education. he holds a bachelor of elementary education (generalist) with distinct honor of cum laude and master of science in education major in general education at central luzon state university. he is currently pursuing his doctor of philosophy in curriculum and instruction at philippine normal university. his research interest includes educational technology and teaching strategies. florante p. ibarra is an accredited full-fledged professor at central luzon state university graduate school of education. he teaches courses such as advance methods of educational research, philosophy of education, and philosophy in educational management ethics. he was a recipient of the 2009 classic fulbright scholarship award to the unites states for his doctor of education in music and music education at columbia university, graduate school of education in the city of new york, usa. a multi-awarded music educator and music researcher, his interests focus on classroom instructions, teaching and learning musical traditions and cultural anthropology. he published various research articles in reputable international journals indexed in scopus. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 86 fighting against corruption through character education: the voices of indonesian primary school teachers muhammad sofwan* 1 , panut setiono 2 , ahmed elsayed mohamed elsayed 3 , ferdiaz saudagar 4 abstract indonesian government is currently through a tough moment where corruption has been massive. one of the long-term solutions of this practice is the implementation of character education from early ages. the purpose of this research was to find out the importance of character education in the fight against corruption for primary school students. the study was part of a research and development study aiming to design a model for integrating character education in integrated thematic learning in primary schools. we used semi-structure interviews to get data from eight participants who were indonesian teachers of primary schools about the issue. this case study was analyzed through a thematic analysis. the findings show that character education is important for tackling corruption behaviors from early ages, shaping students’ mind towards the danger of corruption, producing excellent students with a good moral and behavior, and influencing teachers’ perception towards corruption. recommendations are offered for indonesian education betterment. keywords corruption, character, education, primary school teachers 1. *corresponding author: faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, jambi, indonesia; muhammad.sofwan@unja.ac.id 2. faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, jambi, indonesia; maspanutsetiono@gmail.com 3. university of malaya, malaysia; ahmed_sayed.moh44@yahoo.com 4. faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, jambi, indonesia; ferdiaz.saudagar@unja.ac.id mailto:muhammad.sofwan@unja.ac.id mailto:maspanutsetiono@gmail.com mailto:ahmed_sayed.moh44@yahoo.com mailto:ferdiaz.saudagar@unja.ac.id irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 87 introduction there are many theories both character education and many standpoints on the roles of education on character and national development. some educational experts have informed that schools as educational institutions have suitable settings for moral education since the main purpose of these institutions is student learning, and the purpose of learning is to improve students' cognitive factor (newmann & wehlage, 1995). two main goals of educational institutions focus on improving cognitive-academic improvement and character formation. cognitive-academic improvement aims to improve students’ knowledge and ability. on the other hand, character formation forms students’ attitudes and behaviors which are shown through some merits such as honesty, responsibility, self-discipline, integrity, respect, and reliability. the significance of education to democracy has been highlighted as democracy requires a certain step of an educated citizenry to appropriately run. the major element to improve morality is discipline sense and good behavior in line with collective and autonomous practices. method of facilitating quality education in a democratic community requires educated people who understand the political lives of social duties (dewey, 1969; deroche & williams, 1998). therefore, the major aim of education is to transfer the culture of people, to transform young people into their way of life as well as to shape their character for appropriateness of their community. lickona (2004) delivers the importance of concrete recommendation for human development and moral reasoning for those working in educational institutions. on the other hand, corruption is difficult to define; however, we realize corruption when we are confronting it. some literature defines corruption as the abuse of power for private gains (hamzah, 1991; nussbaum, 2006; riley, 1998; treisman, 2000). it has very seriously damaging effects on national development. it is morally wrong since it is not compatible with the ethical value of human beings. corruption is a serious threat to indonesia for the country’s economic development and new established-democracy (riley, 1998; schutte, 2012). to encourage effective governance, indonesian system of democracy is made based on the three highest institutions; the legislature, the executive, and the judiciary. however, because of corruption, the criminals from these three institutions’ in many cases do improper activities stealing people’s money (putra, 2003; republic of indonesia, 2001). with the destructive power of corruption, dishonest people have been role models for the youths as future leaders to continuously decline the moral standards and committed to having corrupt practices in indonesia. to act against the corruption, character education is important to be taught from early ages. therefore, this study aimed at elaborating the importance of character education to fight against corruption for primary school students. to achieve the purpose of the study, two main questions guided our research: (1) what are the needs of teachers teaching character education? and (2) how do they deal with problems? literature review corruption and its impacts in indonesia indonesian people have been discussing a series of national debates and a storm of reports of how corrupt leaders plundered the nation and have had a wave of social reforms to tackle corruption unsuccessfully. these efforts were unsuccessful, not because they were irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 88 wrong but the environment in which the ideas were practiced by the reforms had lost the capacity to preserve good ideas. more importantly, people who carry out the reform are somehow corrupt which prevents them from being effective. the missing parenting material is leaders (and followers who have part to blame) lack of moral mission and goals (fullan, 1993). for example, parents, school administrators, political leaders, and public institutions have failed to comprehend their ethical and moral responsibilities to young people and society at large. many of them cannot distinguish between right and wrong, fair and unfair things because most are not given the right character during the early years of their school (lickona et al., 1996). corruption also occurs in the enforcement of indonesian law, everyone can be different before the law. law in some cases treats politicians who are strong and corrupt differently from the poor; therefore, a law is not a good guide to good behavior. changing laws is no better than the behavior of corrupt leaders. therefore, indonesia's political and social system does not serve the interests of ordinary people (komalasari & saripudin, 2015; swanda & nadiroh, 2018). this has forced some good individuals in the community to discard ideal behaviors to shorten wealth. corrupt law enforcement officials use money and their position to distort the rule as well as allow their corrupt friends to escape punishment under the pretext of strengthening the rule of law. sponsors have a negative impact on indonesian politics because it leads to conflicts of interest. corruption is a human behavior affecting policymakers and officials’ minds and hearts applying the law and makes them impotent (haynes, 1994). corruption has destroyed the morality of some indonesian leaders. however, human morality tells us that corruption is wrong which causes a lack of character and moral education of young people (putra, 2003). character education character education has been the main agenda for the national movement in many advanced countries includes teaching students about human values ((mcbrien & bradnt, 1997). the purpose of character education is to create schools in order to improve ethical and responsible people (lickona, 2004). adults should be familiarized with character education for their change of attitudes. however, it is difficult to get adults to change, particularly, the adults with the established bad behaviors (persson, rothstein, & teorell, 2010). for example, the districts, which authorize schools in the usa, committed to making efforts to expose their students important core of character education with the emphasis on the core values of the social share (pnsc, 2018). character education is an important part of every aspect of education since it facilitates a long-term solution to moral and academic aspects for people across the world. character education has been a research object for many studies; however, there is no certain rule and method for effective character education, but there are some common and basic principles of character education; it should promote core values of ethics of good character including feeling, thinking, and behavior with meaningful academic curriculum aiming for the students’ success. character education should start with character building implemented by engaging family and community (lickona, schaps, & lewis, 1996). in implementing effective character building for character education, effective schools are needed in order to reinforce good character traits through a thorough approach such as adult modeling, good school climate, and access to comprehensive guidance or counseling (haynes, 1994). irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 89 the leaders of indonesia (parents, politicians, and educators) should truly focus on the students’ bad behaviors and low academic achievements as well as unethical behavior and inappropriate work ethics of adults with their destructive impacts on national development. they should make character education as a priority (ryan, 1996; wahid, djasli, & wibowo, 2006). a well-implemented character education has the potential of addressing negative social problems, cultism, and violence and cheating in examinations, and sorting in schools. it could also a way out to fight the rampant corruption and fraud that is the destruction for indonesian democracy, politics, and economy. character education should be compulsory taught in indonesian schools and must be legal. for an effective war on corruption in indonesia, an appropriate strategy must target young people and instill their own good and moral character. through good character, the community will help young people to develop good governance, integrity, credibility, and other necessary virtues (lickona, 2004). if young people are properly educated and if their minds and hearts are denigrated of corruption they will grow up and know what is right and wrong, and know their social responsibilities and limitations. the lack of good moral character can cause greed, selfishness, and corruption. corruption is a moral problem (wraith & simpkins, 1963) which is incompatible with the moral values of good citizens. indonesia can deal with corruption through the management of ethics and individual integrity and formulate it to be honest. the matter of corruption is difficult to solve in indonesia (komalasari & saripudin, 2015; swanda & nadiroh, 2018). the threat has destroyed the nation's democracy and hampered indonesia's economy. to maintain true democracy in indonesia, leaders and citizens must assume their social responsibility as needed by democratic citizens. for business to grow and be right, the workforce must have a good work ethic and character of honesty, reliability, and capacity to cooperate with others for the common good. businesses and companies must also increase their social responsibility as reflected in the impact of their business activities and practices on their immediate community. the virtues could be obtained through good character education. someone who is morally literate will have far better equipment than moral illiterate people to achieve a reasonable position and be ethically maintained on difficult issues (bennette, 1993; stambach, 2012). methodology a qualitative design with the case study approach was used to find out the importance of character education in fighting against corruption for primary school students. to achieve the purpose of the study, two main questions guided our research: what are the needs of teachers teaching character education? and how do they deal with problems? in this study, the influence of the work of the three qualitative experts, stake (1995), merriam (1998), and yin (2014) was used in this study design. they described a case study as a bounded system where researchers determine boundaries and establish clear statements about the emphasis of the research. a case study is a holistic (consideration to similar relations of the phenomenon and its contexts), empirical (observation-based), interpretive (intuition of the researcher), empathic (perspective to mirror on how individuals think), and integrated (stake, 1995). similarly, yin (2014) stated, “a case study is an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon (the case) in depth and within its real-world context” (p. 16). merriam (1998) argued that an exploratory case study was appropriate if the focus of the research has not irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 90 been investigated exhaustively which is similar to this study context, to find out the importance of character education to fight against corruption in indonesia. merriam (1998) further recommended that through studying an issue, which has not been investigated thoroughly, researchers have chances to explore relevant aspects and provide descriptive information for larger and future research. in this study, the approach was decided to use in order to analyses the importance of an integrated model of character education in primary school. what merriam (1998) stated about the use of a case study for understudied investigation was inspired this research to be under the case study tradition particularly, in analyzing the importance of an integrated model of character education in primary school. research site, sampling, procedures, and participants this research was funded by jambi university through its financial scheme distributed by the faculty of education and teacher training. getting access is very important in qualitative data collection. this research was conducted at two primary schools in jambi, indonesia. the two schools were financed by jambi municipality government. we applied a purposeful sampling with a convenience case approach. “convenience cases [are those] which represent sites or individuals from which researchers can access and easily collect data” (creswell, 2007. p. 126). we applied this strategy in order to choose research sites and participants because we had the access, collecting data and doing research at the two schools. through the adoption of a qualitative case study approach, the findings of this research could not be generalized to the other schools or participants. participants of this study were previously invited with an official letter. six of eight invited primary teachers of the two schools were voluntarily got involved by filling in the research consent form given prior the process of data collection. when we held this research, all participants possessed more than 6 years’ experience of teaching in primary schools. the demographic questionnaire was addressed to obtain general data of their age, experience, and educational backgrounds. the explanation of the right to answer or not to answer the research question was informed and they all agreed that their opinions would be inserted in the final report of the research. the explanation of the research purpose was also conducted as well as the information of the consequences of their opinions to become the research data. member checking was carried out by telling our participants the data that would be used in this research. the participants’ names and research sites were pseudonyms considered as ethics of the research. p1, p2, p3, p4, p5, p6, p7, and p8 were used as participants’ alias names in this research. data collection and analysis semi structured interview was utilized to obtain information about the importance of character education in fighting against corruption for primary school students. the interview was recorded through using the j6 samsung smartphone in the two schools as noted earlier. each interview lasted between 30 and 40 minutes. the official invitation was sent in july 2017. guided by the protocol designed based on the reviews of prior research during the interview, some questions about the importance of an integrated model of character education in primary schools were asked to participants. in a specific term, some questions irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 91 were asked regarding the expectation of the participants in order to teach anti-corruption attitudes to students of primary schools in indonesia. in dealing with the validity and reliability known as trustworthiness in qualitative tradition, the researchers’ member checking and reflexivity (creswell, 2014) were done. the researchers did a triangulation in the research by analyzing the data from three perspectives of data collection techniques interview. in verifying the accuracy of the findings and interpretations, member checking was used. we gave back the transcription, findings, and a final report to each interview member teacher. this was opted to make sure that each teacher agreed with the data obtained and used as well as presented in the elaboration of the research findings. findings the purpose of this research was to find out the importance of character education in fighting against corruption for primary school students. from this research, there were four themes revealed: (1) tackling corruption behaviors from early ages, shaping students’ mind towards the danger of corruption, producing excellent students with a good moral and behavior, and influencing teachers’ perception towards corruption. tackling corruption behavior from early ages character education is important to tackle corruption behaviors from early ages. by teaching character education, students are hoped to understand that corruption is a bad thing to do. as they are taught that it is bad, it will tackle the behaviors. when the virtue of character education has been rooted from early ages, it is a step to tackle corruption behaviors. as quoted from one participant’s opinion, “a very important thing to teach from early ages. indonesia is being attacked by the act of corruption as we watch tv every day where there are many indonesian politician, businessperson, and bureaucrats caught to bribe or get money illegally.” (p2) corruption possesses many damaging effects, destroying national institutions including in education, inequitable social services, and severe injustice in the courts, along with economic inefficiency and environmental exploitation. through character education which should be implemented and taught from early ages, it can be reduced; however, it requires years to do. this is one way to tackle corruption in indonesia as a developing country. “the character education is very important in tackling corruption which have very serious threats and effects on national institutions. from young children, it is our effort to teach character education in indonesia.” (p7) the earlier a student is taught about the negative effects of corruption, the better it would be a step to tackle corruption in a country. since the effect of character education should be started from early ages. irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 92 shaping students’ mind towards the danger of corruption character education is also important to shape students’ mind towards the danger of corruption. when part of character education discusses the danger of corruption, students’ mind should be important to pay attention. there is news everyday about people who corrupt country’s money. it would be a poison for young children about the corruption, which might be not an extraordinary crime anymore. character education taught in primary schools must have impacts on changing young students’ mind about the danger of corruption. two of the participants informed, “i think it is very important to have full attention towards the case of corruption in indonesia. people in indonesia watch corruption news every day. it is common to watch indonesian corruption eradication commission announce a suspect of corruption on daily basis.” (p5) character education can be a tool to stigmatize to young students that corrupting is an extraordinary crime.”,(p6) values education with a good character education is concerned as vital elements to shape young students’ mind. like political institutions, character education is hopefully becoming a broader future of democracy for the corruption-free era. one of the participants said that everybody should focus on giving the right direction for a better generation in order to make this country better. one way to do that is through character education. producing excellent students with a good moral and behavior another reason why character education is important for fighting against corruption perceived by the participants of the study is that it aims to produce excellent students with a good moral and behavior. according to one line of thought, character education occurs through a sequence of stages which better start from the early ages since the beginning of education. two of the participants’ opinions were quoted, “in order to prepare indonesia to become a better nation. it is important to have excellent students with moral and behavior. therefore, character education is a solution for a better generation.” (p4) “to change a view of a generation is not an easy process. it is a long-time process in which people have to keep promoting character education in an attempt to tackle corruption. if it is done high-quality students with moral and value are a guarantee in a country.” (p1) it has been commonly understood that practices of ethics and values of moral and beliefs are achieved through some long time processes. therefore, to produce high-quality generation of anti-corruption, it is important to include character education in primary schools as it is the first stage of school with formal teaching and learning processes. irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 93 influencing teachers’ perception towards corruption the importance of character education for fighting against corruption has been revealed for the need of students. however, teachers of primary schools are also influenced by the character education. the perception towards corruption of the teacher is also important factor why character education is important to be included in primary education syllabus. as two of the participants revealed, “i myself is influenced by the implementation of character education in primary education. what i mean here is that i know how bad corruption has been part of a damaging factor of this country.” (p2) “we should learn how the corruption has been ruining the country for years. i think this is not only about educate students about corruption but also educate us not to corrupt indonesia’s money.” (p3) adults should also learn how to tackle corruption through character education. the teachers also take important messages about fighting against corruption through character education they teach. problems of conducting character education besides the importance of character education to fight against corruption, problems of conducting character education emerged from the interview. funding for character education was mentioned as the main problem of conducting character education in indonesian primary schools. underfunding and lack of specialists in the areas, conducting effective character education in indonesian schools would seem an overwhelming task. “corruption is an extraordinary crime in indonesia. thus, the government should provide more money to make this character education to be more established.” (p1) “it is hard to implement character education in primary schools. we need more cutting age tools or technological devices to make it fun activity.” (p8) character education will be well-implemented if the required human and financial sources are facilitated. little can be done to restructure schools to change the mind and heart of the youths without good character education. even in some schools, there is an absence of character education as the main reason for the leadership problem facing the nation today. in addition, teachers understanding of character education should also be developed by the government through seminar and training to strengthen the effort to better the implementation of character education in primary schools. discussion many indonesian youths today do not live in productive ways because they are not educated and maintained by the community. youth in indonesia like the others in other irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 94 communities, need good character education to grow up, to be able to distinguish between right and wrong and become adults with responsibility (stambach, 2012). as such, indonesian education reformers must focus on giving students the tools needed to learn and become better citizens (putra, 2003). national education reform must focus on the important things. this study underlines the importance of character education as it is a tool to fight corruption from early ages. corruption will effectively be tackled with a combination of good laws and good character education of the population through tackling corruption behavior from early ages, shaping students’ mind towards the danger of corruption, producing excellent students with a good moral and behavior, and influencing teachers’ perception towards corruption. this study informs that students are expected to understand that corruption is negative through character education teaching (komalasari & saripudin, 2015). indonesian people need to be educated on the danger of corruption from young ages as it is the best way to tackle corruption in indonesia. character education is also important to shape students' minds about the dangers of corruption. character education must have an impact on changing the minds of young students of the dark sides of corruption. the value of education with good character education is considered as an important element to shape the minds of young students. another reason why character education is important for fighting against corruption for primary school students reported in this study is it produces excellent students with a good moral and behavior for future generation (swanda & nadiroh, 2018). character education should be through many stages; however, students from early ages are better taught character education in order to fight against corruption as it was also discussed by some previous researches (komalasari & saripudin, 2015; swanda & nadiroh, 2018). not only for students, character education in primary schools is also important for teachers. the teachers take important messages about fighting against corruption through character education they teach. beside the importance of character education to fight against corruption, problems of conducting character education emerged from the interview. funding for character education was mentioned as the main problem of conducting character education in indonesian primary schools. some previous studies also informed similar facts about the problems in implementing character education to fight against corruption (swanda & nadiroh, 2018; sulistiyawati, risnawati & purba 2017). well-designed and implemented character education will make better student behavior and create an environment for effective teaching and learning. tthe law will provide legal supports to the program. schools should be caring institutions. if teachers have the competence to teach and are well-motivated and students are consistently given positive guidance (rather than letting them behave like wild animals), they will behave well and learn and understand their social responsibilities and limitations; this has the potential to reduce corruption and the community will progress. moral decay in this country is widespread and has affected schools that are supposed to be caring and character printing institutions. for decades, indonesian schools have carried out character education and the nation’s social morality has since swooped sharply. students today are threatened by corruption models when they see news about corruption every day. with indonesia's harsh and corrupt, environment providing good role models to young people will make a lot of difference in their lives (republic of indonesia, 2001; wahid et al., 2006). reform efforts in the education sector have not been successful because of the lack of character education to fight corruption. irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 95 conclusion this paper has stated that children’s character education is needed to overcome the root causes (psychological and philosophical dimensions) of corruption in indonesia. character education will be tackling corruption behaviors from early ages, shaping students mind towards the danger of corruption, producing excellent students with a good moral and behavior, and influencing teachers’ perception towards corruption. because it seems that most politicians who grow up in communities are filled with corruption and are founded on wrong principles and broken contracts. they do not seem to understand their social responsibility and the impact of their unethical behaviors on society. character education will also provide important virtues for young people and adults to enable them to become good citizens and success in a rapidly changing and highly competitive global economy. for an anti-corruption crusade to be successful, indonesia needs political leaders with moral goals to make a positive difference in the lives of all citizens and the community must start asking corrupt leaders to be responsible for their actions. failure gives them adequate consequences because their unethical behavior drives corruption in the public and private sectors. however, character education alone will not be sufficient; to deal with corruption effectively, the program must be complemented by 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(2010). the failure of anti-corruption policies: a theoretical mischaracterization of the problem. qog working paper series, the quality of government institute, department of political science university of gothenburg. irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 96 public schools of north carolina (psnc). (2018). character education. retrieved from http://72.14.253.104/custom?q=cache:ditmteaohiuj:www.ncpublicschools .org/charactereducation/+is+%22character+education%22%3f&hl=en&ct=clnk& cd=7&gl=us on september 29, 2018 putra, a. h.s. (2003). korupsi di indonesia: budaya atau politik makna? yogyakarta: insist press. republic of indonesia. (2001). undang-undang republik indonesia tentang tindak pidana korupsi no. 20. republic of indonesia. riley, s.r. (1998). the political-economy of anti-corruption strategies in africa. the european journal of development research,10, 129-159. ryan, k. (1996). character education in the united states. journal for a just and caring education, 2, 75-84. schutte, s.a. (2012). against the odds: anti-corruption reform in indonesia. public administration and development, 32(1), 38–48. stambach, a. (2012). rethinking culture and education. british journal of sociology of education, 33(2), 323-333. sulistyawati, s., risnawaty, & purba, n. (2017). anti corruption education through characters building value. iosr journal of humanities and social science (iosr-jhss), 22(1), 07-11. swanda, i. m., & nadiroh, u. (2018). the importance of anti corruption education teaching materials for the young generation. in journal of physics: conference series, 953 (1), 012167. treisman, d. (2000). the causes of corruption: a cross national study. journal of public economics, 76, 399-457. wahid, s.a., djasli, h.a., & wibowo, w. (2006), membangun karakter dan kepribadian melalui pendidikan kewarganegaraan. university press: jakarta. wraith, r., & simpkins, e. (1963). corruption in developing countries. london: george allen and unwin. biographical note muhammad sofwan is a phd student and junior teaching staff at faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, jambi, indonesia and can be reached at muhammad.sofwan@unja.ac.id panut setiono is a junior teaching staff at faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, jambi, indonesia and can be reached at maspanutsetiono@gmail.com ahmed elsayed mohamed elsayed is a phd student at university of malaya, malaysia and can be reached at ahmed_sayed.moh44@yahoo.com ferdiaz saudagar is a phd student and junior teaching staff at faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, jambi, indonesia and can be reached at ferdiaz.saudagar@unja.ac.id http://72.14.253.104/custom?q=cache:ditmteaohiuj:www.ncpublicschools.org/charactereducation/+is+%22character+education%22%3f&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=7&gl=us http://72.14.253.104/custom?q=cache:ditmteaohiuj:www.ncpublicschools.org/charactereducation/+is+%22character+education%22%3f&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=7&gl=us http://72.14.253.104/custom?q=cache:ditmteaohiuj:www.ncpublicschools.org/charactereducation/+is+%22character+education%22%3f&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=7&gl=us mailto:muhammad.sofwan@unja.ac.id mailto:maspanutsetiono@gmail.com mailto:ahmed_sayed.moh44@yahoo.com mailto:ferdiaz.saudagar@unja.ac.id this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 421 processing of written sentences on the example of russian-english bilinguals liubov darzhinova abstract written language processing is broadly explained from the perspective of english and alongside with the other world languages. the current study views the concerned type of processing through the russian-english linguistic combination, which is seen as having a limited research in the investigation into written language processing. by using a mixed methods research design, 21 russian-speaking users of english were engaged in the study. the subjects filled in the questionnaire about their linguistic background followed by the participation in the experiment. the experimental setting was as follows: each subject had to classify the 240 russian-english sentences as correct or not during the time interval of 5000 milliseconds. the results of the study conform with the bia model, and suggest that semantic type of written language processing is more accurate than syntactic type but at around same level in time constraints. keywords bilinguals, english, language processing, russian, written language, written sentences center for research on linguistics and languages studies (crlls), the education university of hong kong, hong kong; liubov@s.eduhk.hk irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 422 introduction processing of written language encompasses diverse stages of intricate cognitive processes (kendeou et al., 2016). consequently, syntactic information facilitates in combining the words we read in a way so that we can get the meaning of sentences which is semantics. to comprehend a sentence, a language user is supposed to perform a number of particular tasks concurrently, associating words with their meanings, which is semantics, and transferring or deriving meaning from the relationship among words in a sentence, which is syntax (wu et al., 2016). overall, both syntax and semantics add up to their equal functioning in language processing. in bilinguals, the situation is complicated by the need to choose a language for decoding. in other words, there is a competition of languages and the bilinguals‟ job is to correctly choose a communicative code among their language systems, while automaticity of perception between the signified and the signifier provides a fully-fledged perception and targeted information transfer (abisheva, 2001). the focus of applied linguistics on written language processing has lately been the research on individuals using behavioral methods among which are as error rates, reaction time measures and others. it is also found out that theoretical and experimental progress has been achieved by defining the semantic and syntactic types of operations that underlie language processing in english comparing with other world languages. it is observed the existing linguistic literature has a limited body of knowledge providing implications to the semantic and syntactic types of bilingual language processing. russian, which is the eighth spoken language (eberhard et el., 2019), still does not have an extensive research on this matter. however, to the best of the author‟s knowledge, the studies encompassing the russian-english linguistic pair are up to now related to the issues of translation ambiguity (e.g., jouravlev & jared, 2019), cross-language cognates (e.g., sherkina-lieber, 2004), auditory language processing (e.g., marian & spivey, 2003), the relationship among syntactic, working memory, and phonology (e.g., abu-rabia, 2001), etc. to address the revealed gap, the current paper aims to address a long-standing linguistic dilemma by exploring semantic and syntactic aspects of written language processing based on the russian-english linguistic combination. the study attempts to answer these two research questions: 1. which type of written language processing on the sentence level in l1 and l2 is faster, semantic or syntactic? 2. which type of written language processing on the sentence level in l1 and l2 is more accurate, semantic or syntactic? literature review written language processing linguistics increasingly acknowledged the awareness of written language processing as a „multisensory experience‟ to advance a deeper understanding of the events described (de koning & van der schoot, 2013). readers need to create a consistent representation of the meaning by integrating the semantic properties of word by word in accordance with irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 423 certain syntactic rules (hagoort, 2013). to reach a comprehension of what is written, readers need to integrate the situational information with their basic knowledge, by which a non-linguistic, comprehensible and cohesive mental picture of the „state of affairs‟ described in the sentence will be constructed (bråten et al., 2011). other studies suggest that processing of written language includes the re-activation of sensory, motor, as well as emotive experiences that are kept in areas of the brain responsible for real perception, action, and emotions, which the reader has attained throughout prior contacts in the real world (barsalou, 2008; pulvermüller, 2005; zwaan & radvansky, 1998). in particular, in accordance with the embodied concepts of cognition, readers build a mental simulation of the events taken place in the sentence (kintsch, 1988; van den broek, 2010). for example, to understand a sentence, such as „she saw the egg in the skillet‟, it is necessary to reactivate the perceived information to imitate the shape of the object (an egg with the sunny side up), which is disguised in the sentence (engelen, bouwmeester, de bruin, & zwaan, 2011; zwaan & pecher, 2012). pursuant these views, it may be reached that readers quickly integrate various types of information; thus, they decode lexical elements, create syntactic structures, and gradually assign the interpretation to the incoming line of words. written language processing in bilinguals the comprehension of syntactic structure is of paramount importance in written language processing and is considered as the process of analyzing and determining the structure of a text which is made up of sequence of tokens with respect to a given formal grammar. it is also considered as a vital stage for semantic analysis (mallamma et al., 2014). in the situation of bilingualism, language users deal with information from the other language, which becomes activated as well (de groot, delmaar, & lupker, 2000). since typical literate native speakers easily complete these processes, it is suggested that the understanding of sentences in a second language (l2) is less effective. processing of l2 sentences shows that building a syntactic structure is more difficult than understanding of sentences in l1 (roberts, 2013). differences in native and non-native syntactic processing may reflect quantitative delays in lexical access that are related to l2 processing. these slowdowns can have the „hook‟ effect in that the construction of the syntactic structure is delayed or weakened compared to native processing (hopp, 2015). based on that, it can be presumed that due to the complexity of linguistic phenomena across the world languages, ambiguity and ultimate conveying different semantics; it is quite complicated to construct the characteristics for bilingual language processing. it must be pointed out that the research on semantic and syntactic types of written language processing is present in linguistic literature, though only focused on english in conjunction with the other languages. written bilingual language processing on the sentence level a previous study (navracsics & sáry, 2015) presented the outcome of a psychophysical bilingual experiment carried out on 97 hungarian speakers of english as l2. irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 424 the participants were exposed to l1 and l2 sentences, and they were anticipated to make decisions concerning the acceptability of those sentences. the authors concluded significant differences in l1 and l2 concerning semantic and syntactic types of processing in both rts and acceptability judgments in most cases. they also found that language proficiency plays a decisive part in the processing of sentences, in contrast to the age of acquisition of l2. the other study (ravi & chengappa, 2014) directed at “exploring the semantic and syntactic processing variances between native and second languages in 20 early high proficient kannada–english bilingual adults through accuracy and rt measurements.” their subjects participated in a semantic judgment task as well as the task of syntactic judgment both in kannada and in english. the participants were requested to respond by pressing keyboard buttons. the results showed that the level of accuracy was better in l1 than in l2 for all three types of sentences, whereas the overall processing speed was better in l2 than in l1 for all the given types of sentences. it is indicated that participants handled semantic violations with higher accuracy and speed of processing if comparing with syntactic violations. the study (foursha, austin, & van de walle, 2006) on grammaticality judgment found that “early, balanced spanish-english bilinguals produced higher rts in response to sentences, indicating a processing effect compared to english monolinguals.” nonetheless, on accuracy rates, bilinguals attained like english monolingual speakers. the authors concluded that these results “provided no evidence for cross-linguistic syntactic interference in early, balanced bilinguals during processing of english in comparison with spanish.” methodology research instruments the present study used a mixed methods design. to follow the set trend of using a behavioral measurement in an investigation into processing of languages, which has blossomed in the past two decades and with the aim of measuring performance of participants in written language comprehension, the psychophysical method was implemented. the use of a custom-made matlab program (matlab, 2014) allowed to present the experimental stimuli. the outcome of each trial is the data with reaction times and accuracies, which are the important research strands. in order to collect data relatively promptly and in a unified fashion, paper-based questionnaire, relating to participants‟ linguistic configuration, as a research instrument was implemented. thus, all the participants have filled in information about themselves such as their sex, age, handedness, age at the onset of acquisition of english, way of second language acquisition. the questionnaire asked the participants to give answers to fourteen questions: eight questions of which have three options, five dichotomous questions (to choose between two alternatives) and one open-ended question, requesting information from the participants. among the advantages of using such an instrument is that it is quite useful for large groups when interviews would be impractical and due to further visual comparison of irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 425 answers. the standardized fashion of questionnaire approaches all the participants of the study in the same manner. participants due to the infeasibility of random selection of the participants, a convenience sampling was employed. twenty-one russian-speaking users of english as l2 (19 females and 2 males), who are early bilinguals, have participated in the study. most of them are undergraduate students of english studies and psychology majors at kalmyk state university named after b. b. gorodovikov (elista, russia), while the rest is researchers at the aforementioned university. the accepted subjects are with self-reported c1 and b2-levels of english in accordance with the common european framework of reference for languages (cefr, 2001). as for the students, their midterm and final exam test results implied that there were no outliers with quite high or quite low proficiency levels compared to peers. the mean age of the participants is 21.8 years old. they were 19 right-handed and 2 left-handed subjects with normal or corrected-to-normal vision. none had a history of reading disabilities or neurological and psychiatric disorders. all the participants gave their written informed consent to participate in the experiment. material the stimulus material is based on the two languages of the indo-european language family, russian and english, which are especially dissimilar in various essential facets. in particular, the grammatical structures demonstrate substantial alterations. as such, english has a fairly fixed word order. meaning is conveyed via the addition of words (for example, auxiliaries) and movement of words in constrained limits. while russian expresses meaning chiefly with the help of differences in the alignment of words, for instance, by inflections or the addition of prefixes and suffixes. its word order is very fluid. the stimulus of the current study consists of 240 english and russian sentences, among which are 60 russian and 60 english correct control sentences. along with these, 30 russian and 30 english semantically anomalous sentences, which have critical words in initial, internal or final position. in addition, 30 english and 30 russian syntactically violated sentences, with errors in word order and case agreement, were created. having a clear understanding of the amount of visual information processed during a fixation on sentence, such factors as word‟s frequency, length and ease of integration into the sentence influence, were considered while generating the stimulus material. accordingly, all the sentences contain from six to ten syllables and the words in the sentences are included in the list of frequently used words. the sentences have a mean length of 4.77 words (sd = 1.35 words). all the english sentences were derived from the bilingual study on hungarian-english language users (navracsics & sáry, 2015) with the authors‟ consent, whereas all the russian sentences were generated by the author. irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 426 data collection procedure and analysis data collection was divided into three parts. the subjects were run individually in one session lasting approximately 40 minutes. in the first part, the subjects received explanation about the experiment, read and signed their informed consents and received training for the experiment. in the second part, they filled out a questionnaire. in the third part, subjects were seated in a comfortable chair in front of a laptop and introduced to the pilot behavioral experiment. during the pilot trial, all the subjects have completed a practice with 8 sentences that are likely to appear in the actual task. the subjects were asked to push the left or right arrow to judge about the correctness of the sentence, which made them move to the next sentence. the same procedure repeated until each sentence was over. once they are done with the trial and understand their task, in the actual experiment, the participants were presented with 30 experimental trials. the viewing distance was set to be the approximately normal viewing distance of a computer screen (~ 50 cm). the trials consist of semantically and syntactically correct and incorrect sentences in both russian and english. the 240 stimulus sentences were evenly distributed among 8 blocks and randomly intermixed within each block. in other words, the order of the sentences was randomized for each trial and then presented to all participants, though each participant viewed all the sentences. the sentences were appearing in black letters against a white background for the duration of 5000 milliseconds. proportional font with a relatively small letter size (28 segoe ui) was used in order to minimize saccadic eye movements during the psychophysical test. the sentences went visually one by one in the center of the computer screen; each one appeared after the centered red asterisk, which serves as a fixation point. the participants were instructed to read the sentences carefully and to give their responses as fast and as accurate as possible. their ultimate task was to decide by pushing the right or left arrow of the keyboard whether the sentence is correct or not. if they thought that the sentence is correct, they had to push the right arrow, if the sentence is not correct, they used the left arrow. beyond time, the computer did not accept decisions, and the fixation point was appearing again for 2000 milliseconds before the next sentence came up. the program recorded correct and incorrect hits alongside response latency times. findings and discussion the first research question the reaction time results (see figures 1 & 2) have shown the following numerical data. in the processing of semantically correct russian sentences the reaction time is the shortest among all – 1.44 s, followed by syntactically correct russian sentences – 1.54 s, semantically incorrect russian sentences – 1.57 s, syntactically incorrect russian sentences – 1.59 s, semantically incorrect english sentences – 2.03 s, syntactically violated english sentences – 2.04 s, semantically correct english – 2.06 s, syntactically correct english irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 427 sentences – 2.09 s. the mean reaction time for semantic comprehension is 1.78 s, while for syntactic it is equal to 1.81 s. figure 1. rts in comprehension in russian, s figure 2. rts in comprehension in english, s the data with rts per each type of sentence within the two languages are given in table 1. table 1. rts for four types of sentences across l1 and l2 type of sentences language rt, s semantically correct russian 1.44 english 2.06 syntactically correct russian 1.54 english 2.09 semantically violated russian 1.57 english 2.03 syntactically violated russian 1.59 english 2.04 1.54 1.59 1.44 1.57 syncorrr synincorrr semcorrr semincorrr 2.09 2.04 2.06 2.03 syncorre synincorre semcorre semincorre irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 428 as it can be observed, semantic type of written language processing at the sentence level in l1 and l2 seems to be at around same level as syntactic type in time constraints. the second research question considering the accuracy results, the best were which the participants achieved in the judgments about the russian sentences in the following order: semantically correct sentences, semantically incorrect sentences, syntactically correct sentences, and syntactically incorrect sentences. the next results were those of the english sentences: syntactically violated sentences; semantically correct sentences, semantically violated sentences and syntactically correct sentences. for comparing the l1 comprehension across semantics and syntax, see figure 3. in order to compare semantic and syntactic comprehension in english, see figure 4. figure 3. accuracy of judgments in comprehension in russian, % figure 4. accuracy of judgments in comprehension in english, % 91.9 89.67 93.81 93.65 syncorrr synincorrr semcorrr semincorrr 71.59 84.44 77.94 71.9 syncorre synincorre semcorre semincorre irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 429 the data with percentages per each type of sentence within the two languages are given in table 2. table 2. accuracy for four types of sentences across l1 and l2 type of sentences language accuracy, % semantically correct russian 93.81 english 77.94 syntactically correct russian 89.67 english 71.59 semantically violated russian 93.65 english 71.90 syntactically violated russian 89.67 english 84.44 the subjects showed the smallest error rate (6.19%) and shortest response time (m = 2.03 s) in the semantic comprehension, and the highest error rate (28.41%) and longest response time (m = 2.09 s) in the syntactic comprehension. as expected, the subjects generally performed well on the comprehension sentences in their l1, with the mean accuracy equal to 92.25%. looking at the figures and tables above, it is observed that semantic type of written language processing at the sentence level in l1 and l2 is more accurate than syntactic type. questionnaire findings in accordance with the data obtained from the questionnaire, all the participants speak russian at home, while 2 participants have specified that they use both languages while communicating with their friends. mother‟s l1 is russian of the participants in almost all the cases, except for one, when father‟s l1 is indicated as russian – 18, kalmyk – 3. eighteen subjects have mentioned that russian is the language they are comfortable in, while 2 participants feel comfortable in both (russian and english), and 1 participant – in english. fourteen participants read more in russian, while 7 prefer to do it in english. books, scientific and internet articles, comics, magazines are the favorite sources of reading for the participants of the study. sixteen participants prefer to read books only, 5 participants are fond of reading articles (4 – scientific; 1 – internet), while two participants are likely to read books along with comics or magazines respectively. average reading time for the participants is several hours for 9 participants, 1 hour for 7 participants, and 30 minutes for 5 participants. among the reasons to do so, the subjects have specified enjoyment (19) and its obligatory nature (1), while one of the participants marked both options. twelve participants have stated in the questionnaire that they do not consider themselves bilinguals, while the rest of them believe they are. five of the subjects have spent a certain amount of time in an english-speaking country, 2 months as the longest and 11 irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 430 days as the shortest. three of the participants have stayed in an english-speaking country for 3 weeks, while two of them spent 2 weeks and 1 participant stayed for 1 month there. many of the participants would like to work or study abroad, 18 out of 21 subjects. they are all exposed to english daily, as the younger participants are english studies and psychology major university students, and the older subjects are researchers at the university, who more or less use english in their everyday and professional life. statistical findings the received data were primarily checked for normality via spss. the test of normality (shapiro-wilk) showed that the data is normally distributed (bigger than .05), that is why parametric test was chosen. the within group comparison showed that there is no significant difference between rts in semantic and syntactic written language processing at the sentence level in l1 and l2 (see tables 3 & 4). table 3. the results of a paired-samples t-test for rts in l1 syncorrr semcorrr synincorrr semincorrr m= 1.54, sd= .33 m= 1.44, sd= .28 m= 1.59, sd= .30 m= 1.57, sd= .36 t(20)= 3.109, p = .006 t(20)= .575, p = .572 table 4. the results of a paired-samples t-test for rts in l2 syncorre semcorre synincorre semincorre m= 2.09, sd= .58 m= 2.06, sd= .60 m= 2.04, sd= .57 m= 2.03, sd= .60 t(20)= .874, p = .393 t(20)= .271, p = .789 it is found that there is a significant difference between accuracies in semantic and syntactic written language processing at the sentence level in l1 and l2 (see tables 5 & 6). table 5. the results of a paired-samples t-test for accuracies in l1 syncorrr semcorrr synincorrr semincorrr m= 91.90, sd= 7.11 m= 93.80, sd= 6.08 m= 88.25, sd= 9.46 m= 93.65, sd= 5.04 t(20)= -1.333, p = .197 t(20)= -2.795, p = .011 irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 431 table 6. the results of a paired-samples t-test for accuracies in l2 syncorre semcorre synincorre semincorre m= 71.58, sd= 12.76 m= 77.93, sd= 14.27 m= 84.44, sd= 12.26 m= 71.90, sd= 17.53 t(20)= -3.537, p = .002 t(20)= 4.659, p = .000 the results of the analysis of reaction times address the first research question of the conducted study: it is suggested that semantic type of written language processing at the sentence level in l1 and l2 is not significantly faster than syntactic type. in accordance with the analysis of the data of accuracies, it is argued that semantic type of written language processing at the sentence level in l1 and l2 is more accurate than syntactic type. overall, the results of the research validated the bia model (dijkstra & van heuven, 1998) in the sense that “there is a precise mechanism for the way in which orthographic forms are activated in two languages when a bilingual recognizes visually presented words or sentences.” as soon as orthographies of russian and english are not similar, there is a non-parallel activation that results in less competition at the lexical and sub-lexical levels. conclusion among possible limitations of this study is a rather limited number of employed subjects due to the restricted time constraints of this study. this point might be taken into consideration for future research by the author of this research and possibly by other investigators who are interested in this area. as a suggestion for the further investigation, age and other retrieved information from the questionnaire might be focused more deeply and presumably may lead to varied conclusions. disclosure statement no potential conflict of interest was reported by the author. acknowledgments i am so much grateful to prof. dr. judit navracsics (hungary) for her insightful guidance throughout this study and her inspiring motivation. my big thanks go to mohammed fawzy (egypt hungary), who assisted me in the experimental part of the research. also, i want to acknowledge dr. szilvia bátyi (hungary) for her valuable comments on the statistical analyses of this study. i would like to thank the lead editor of irje for supportive feedback and helpful remarks. i thank enormously the participants of the experiment, namely, the students and staff of kalmyk state university named after b. b. gorodovikov (russia), for giving me their precious time and possibility to work on this research. most importantly, i irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 432 would like to say big thanks to my mother, svetlana darzhinova, for her 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(2016). reading comprehension: core components and processes. policy insights from the behavioral and brain sciences, 3(1), 62–69. irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 433 kintsch, w. (1988). the role of knowledge in discourse comprehension: a construction-integration model. psychological review, 95(2), 163-182. mallamma, v. r. et al. (2014). semantical and syntactical analysis of nlp. international journal of computer science and information technologies, 5(3), 3236 – 3238. marian, v., & spivey, m. (2003). bilingual and monolingual processing of competing lexical items. applied psycholinguistics, 24(2), 173-193. matlab. (2014). version r2014b. natick, massachusetts: the mathworks inc. navracsics, j., & sary, g. (2015). written sentence comprehension in l1 and l2. in: multidisciplinary approaches to multilingualism, peter lang verlag, 339-357. pulvermüller, f. (2005). brain mechanisms linking language and action. nature reviews. neuroscience. 6. 576-82. ravi s. k., & chengappa s. k. (2015). sentence processing in high proficient kannada– english bilinguals: a reaction time study. international journal of multilingualism, 12, 3, 376-392. roberts, l. (2013). sentence processing in bilinguals. sentence processing. 221-246. sherkina-lieber, m. (2004). the cognate facilitation effect in bilingual speech processing; the case of russian-english bilingualism. cahiers linguistics d’ottawa, 32, 108-121. van den broek, p. (2010). using texts in science education: cognitive processes and knowledge representation. science, 328, 453-456. wu, c. y., vissiennon, k., friederici, a. d., & brauer, j. (2016). preschoolers' brains rely on semantic cues prior to the mastery of syntax during sentence comprehension. neuroimage, 126, 256-266. zwaan, r., & radvansky, g. (1998). situation models in language comprehension and memory. psychological bulletin, 123, 162-85. zwaan, r., & pecher d. (2012). revisiting mental simulation in language comprehension: six replication attempts. plos one 7(12): e51382. biographical notes liubov darzhinova is currently a researcher and a phd fellow in linguistics at the center for research on linguistics and language studies, the education university of hong kong. liubov is also a teacher-volunteer of blended learning course of ielts at the center for language in education, the education university of hong kong. she completed her ma in applied linguistics at the university of pannonia, hungary and got her ba in english and german studies from kalmyk state university, russia. her research interests include bilingualism, language assessment, language processing, second language acquisition, etc. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 434 analyzing difficulties in problem solving of the polygon area for elementary students ahmad nizar rangkuti 1 abstract mathematics is part from a human activity; it cannot be separated from daily human life, both in theory and in practice. problem solving is the most important topic in learning mathematics. however, problem solving is a complex process that has many components. one of them is the difficulty of students in answering the questions about how to find the area of polygon. students are hard to find out two or more shapes contained in polygon. the students are hard to find unknown measurements, because they do not understand the questions. therefore, teachers should give guidance to the students in order to help them to solve problems correctly. the purpose of this study was to analyze students’ difficulties to solve the problems of the polygon area questions for the fourth grade of one state elementary in padang sidimpuan city. there were 33 participants consisting of 16 male and 17 female students. the students were given a problem solving test and the questions were related to a wide area of polygon consisting of five questions. the findings of the study indicated that students were hard to find solutions to solve mathematical problems of the polygon area flat shapes in class, suggesting that teachers should strive to develop students’ critical thinking as well as creative thinking so they will have a good problem solving skills. keywords polygon, problem solving, student difficulties 1. tarbiyah and teacher training faculty, iain padangsidimpuan, north sumatra, indonesia; nizarahmad1304@iain-padangsidimpuan.ac.id mailto:nizarahmad1304@iain-padangsidimpuan.ac.id irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 435 introduction mathematics is a subject matter that is closely related to human daily activities. mathematics comes from the real world of humans and will be useful for human life. many activities cannot be separated from mathematics. it requires mathematics to be taught to students as early as possible in order to keep up with the competition in the era of technological and information development as it is today (syaiful et al., 2019). problem solving is an important thing in mathematics. it has a complex process and components (çeziktürk et al., 2019; syaiful et al., 2019). finishing mathematical tasks with problem solving has principle differences. students are only asked to be able to provide answers, when finishing mathematical tasks, whereas the problem in mathematics is if the process requires reasoning, predicting, searching for formulas and the answers cannot be obtained directly. one of the characteristics of a problem is that if solving the problem requires reasoning / thinking, challenging students to presume or predict possible solutions, by having a single non-answer and it can be proven that the answer is correct. thus, the critical thinking skills possessed by students are demanded to be better. critical thinking is the activity of analyzing an idea in an increasingly specific direction, being able to distinguishing, identifying, reviewing and developing it into further perfect direction (wujiati et al., 2019). problem is a situation where someone wants to take action to get what he wants. syaiful et al. (2019) that problem solving is a process that is carried out in a planned manner so that problems can be overcome. problem solving is a kind of process that created to solve a problem. lestari and mokhammad (2015) mention that the problem-solving ability, namely the ability of students to solve routine, non-routine, non-applied routine and non-applied non-routine problems in mathematical subject matters. routine problems mean problems which are solved by repetitive algorithms. non-routine problems mean new problems that need to be solved in planning, solving, and not just using formulas, and theorems. applied routine problems mean problems that are related to the real life of students. routine non-applied problems mean the problem is related to the real world which is solved using an algorithm. applied non-routine problems mean problems where the solution is required to plan to make connections to the real world. non-applied non-routine problems are a problem that is closely related to the relationship of mathematics solely. many learning theories have been designed in the implementation of the mathematics learning process; one of them is vygosky's theory (danoebroto, 2015). he states that learning can occur effectively and efficiently if one student learns cooperatively with other students in a supportive situation and environment, which is certainly guided by the teacher or adult people. in mathematics, constructivism has done a lot about research, application and testing in different class situations and conditions. from the results of research, the application and testing of these experiments have produced a variety of perspectives that also contribute to the development and innovation of learning, especially mathematics. the purpose of this study was to analyze students’ difficulties to solve the irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 436 problems of the polygon area questions for the fourth grade of one state elementary in padang sidimpuan city. literature review: problem solving in math problem solving holds a particular meaning in the study of mathematics. a main aim of mathematics teaching and learning is to build the ability to solve a wide-ranging variety of complex mathematics problems. to be a good problem solver in mathematics, individual must develop a basis of mathematics knowledge. silver (1979) found that successful problem solvers were more possible to classify mathematics problems on the base of their fundamental similarities in mathematical structure. problem solving is a significant activity in teaching mathematics as the capability to solve problems gotten in mathematics teaching can commonly be shifted to be used in solving other problems (bell, 1978). also, according to rahayu (2008), problem solving is a process of thinking as an effort to find a problem and solve it based on information collected from various sources so that an appropriate conclusion can be drawn. additionally, wahyudin (2003) states that problem solving must be an integral part of the teaching process as they teach. schoenfeld (1979) specifies that competent mathematics students may have difficulties in doing what may be considered basic mathematics for their level of achievement. furthermore, ruseffendi (1988) states that problem solving consists of five steps that must be done, namely (1) presenting the problem in a more distinctively form, (2) stating the problem in an operational form, (3) arranging alternative hypotheses and work procedures that are estimated well to solving the problem, (4) testing hypotheses and doing work to get results (data collection, data processing, etc.), the results may be more than one, and (5) re-checking whether the results obtained are correct or not, maybe also choose the best solution. in addition, polya (1957), problem solving consists of four main steps, namely (1) understanding the problem, (2) making a plan / carry out settlement, (3) carrying out the plan / reckoning, and (4) re-checking. additionally, problem solving is needed if someone wants to solve a problem but don't know how to solve it clearly (ruseffendi, 1988; silver, 1979; syaiful et al., 2019). the ability to solve problems is very important to be known by the students in order to avoid the difficulties in solving problems, especially solving problems in wide area of polygon tasks. the obstacle that is often experienced by students when they want to find out the solutions to solving wide area of polygon is that the students hard to find the two shapes contained in the polygon. in addition students are difficult to find out unknown measurements, because they do not understand the problems and it could say that they need teachers’ guidance from the beginning till the end to do their task properly. irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 437 methodology this study was to analyze students’ difficulties to solve the problems of the polygon area questions for the fourth grade of one state elementary in padang sidimpuan city. the participants in this study were all of the students of the fourth grade of one state elementary in padang sidimpuan city. there were 33 participants with 16 male and 17 female students. all of the participants were voluntarily willing to participate in the study. the students were given a problem solving test and the questions which were related to a wide area of polygon consisting of five questions. the test was given in order to measure their ability to solve the problems. the questions were made in the form of contextual tasks. the questions were in the form of contextual questions. furthermore, to make the instrument better, firstly the grill instrument was arranged into problem solving instrument items of polygon. before questions were given to all participants, all were validated by mathematic education experts and mathematics teachers. this process was done in order to make sure that all questions were appropriate for the level of participants in order to achieve the purpose of the study which was to analyze students’ difficulties to solve the problems of the polygon area questions for the fourth grade of one state elementary in padang sidimpuan city. additionally, this study set the indicators of problem solving capability as indicated in the following table. table 1. indicators of problem solving capability aspects measurement indicators question number understanding the problem  write down what is understood  write down logical reasons 1 s/d 5 planning a solution  write down mathematical equation models and ways of solving that can be used in a problem calculating  carry out the plans that have been made and prove if the steps that have been chosen are correct re-checking  re-checking the settlement, doing the test again or trying the answers  check work related to calculations and analysis  checking for work related to completeness or lack of clarity findings and discussion high-level mathematical thinking skill is needed by students. the ability to think a high-level of mathematics must have an impact on students related to the ability to solve irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 438 problems (problem solving) in daily life. mathematical thinking skills consist of critical thinking skills as well as creative thinking, problem solving skills, and analytical skills. the ability to think critically as an ability that should be mastered by students for every level in schools ranging from elementary to high school (regulation of the minister of education and culture republic of indonesia number 21 year 2016 about high school content standards, 2016). the content standard requires that critical thinking skills must be possessed by students. it is known that the ability of students to think critically will be able to finish or solve mathematical problems. through critical thinking skills students are expected to be able to learn and provide solutions to any problems faced systematically and originally. this indicates that the importance of the ability of critical thinking to solve problems. therefore, students must be equipped with the ability to think critically as much as possible in order to have the maximum problem-solving ability which can be done through mathematical activities in accordance with the learning objectives of each mathematics subject matter. this expectation is not in accordance with the reality. it was found at the location that the problem solving abilities of students still varied from the ability of the high category to the low category. the results of tests conducted in this study revealed that there were still many students who received low grades. the acquisition of low scores was the result of students' critical thinking skills that have not yet developed as expected as schoenfeld (1979) states that capable mathematics students may have problems in doing what may be considered basic mathematics for their level of achievement. the low ability to solve mathematical problems of students can be seen from the acquisition of students' answers when doing mathematical problems which were still unsatisfactory. when given questions related to polygon area building to all 33 students, most of them obtained unsatisfactory results. these results are in line with silver (1979) found that successful problem solvers were more possible to classify mathematics problems on the base of their fundamental similarities in mathematical structure. the results can be in the following table regarding the result of a math test for the materials of polygon area building with a total of 5 questions. table 2. the results of a test of the area of polygon no. students’ code number score no. students’ code number score 1 001 40 21 021 90 2 002 30 22 022 50 3 003 20 23 023 30 4 004 70 24 024 30 5 005 70 25 025 30 irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 439 from the table 2, it can be seen clearly that only 1 students got the highest score (100) with the code number of 028, and there were 2 students who got 90, with a code numbers of 020,021, and 6 students got 80 with a code number of 007,008,017,018,019,027, 5 students got 70 with the code number of 004,005,006,009, and033. furthermore, 2 students got the score 10 and it was below the minimum mastery criteria (kkm) for the polygon material with the code 030,031, and the students who had a score of 20. there were 4 students who got a score of 30 with a code number of 002,023,024,025, only 1 students who got 40 with a code number of 001, the students with a score of 50 as many as 3 students whose code numbers were 012,013,022, students who had a score of 60. there were 5 students with a code number of 010,011,014,015,016. the following figure shows a histogram of the test results on the area of polygon. figure 1. histogram of mathematics test results for polygon area table 2. the results of a test of the area of polygon… (continued) 6 006 70 26 026 20 7 007 80 27 027 80 8 008 80 28 028 100 9 009 70 29 029 20 10 010 60 30 030 10 11 011 60 31 031 10 12 012 50 32 032 20 13 013 50 33 033 70 14 014 60 total: 1820 15 015 60 average: 55,15 16 016 60 17 017 80 18 018 80 19 019 80 20 020 90 irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 440 furthermore, it could be seen from table 3 that there were questions that were difficult for students to work on. table 3. the results of the test of the polygon area which are difficult to do by the students no. questions’ number total students category 1 1 7 students wrong 26 students correct 2 2 18 students wrong 15 students correct 3 3 20 students wrong 13 students correct 4 4 22 students wrong 11 students correct 5 5 31 students wrong 2 students correct it could be seen from the table, the question number 4 was to be the most difficulty one to be answered by the students. as many as 22 students made mistakes when answering math problems and only 11 students could answer correctly, for question number 5, there were 31 students that answered it wrongly while 2 students who correctly answered the question. so, it could be concluded that students were hard to find solutions to solve mathematical problems of the polygon area flat shapes. conclusion the correct mathematical problem solving according to the problem solving procedure is one of the difficult parts for students. the study looked at students’ difficulties to solve the problems of the polygon area questions for the fourth grade of one state elementary in padang sidimpuan city. many students considered it difficult to find solutions to solve mathematical problems, especially for the polygon area flat shape. school-age children are the potential and effective age to develop. the students in the fourth grade who are between eleven to twelve years old are having a concrete operational level; it means that in the learning process, children can be explored and developed their potential by using concrete objects. through the results of this study, it is expected that teachers always strive to develop students’ critical thinking as well as creative thinking so they will have good problem solving skills. the learning process should use concrete objects to provide interpretations and understandings for students and followed by the abstract concepts. the findings of the study irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 441 suggest that teachers should be active in exploring and developing students’ critical thinking and creative thinking. additionally, teachers should encourage students to follow a general problem solving procedure by asking their students to read the problem carefully. the first and most essential step is to read the problem carefully to understand what their students are asked to find out and what information their students have been given. then, providing their students with a strategy and make sure that their strategy is actually answering the question. references bell, f. h. (1978). teaching and learning mathematics in secondary school. new york: wc brown company publisher. çeziktürk, ö., i̇nce, s., yalim, g., karadeniz, k., & kenar, z. (2019). making a rhombicosidodecahedron: mathematical thinking revisited. irje (indonesian research journal in education), 3(1), 120-140. https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v3i1.4865. danoebroto, s. w. (2015). teori belajar konstruktivis piaget dan vygosky. indonesian digital journal of mathematics and education, 2(3), 191–198. lestari, k. e., & mokhammad, y. (2015). penelitian pendidikan matematika. bandung: pt. refika aditama. rahayu, s. (2008). analisis kemampuan siswa dalam memecahkan pada sub konsep pencemaran lingkungan melalui metode studi kasus. bandung. upi ruseffendi, e.t. (1988). pengajaran matematika modern dan masa kini untuk guru dan calon guru. bandung: tarsito. schoenfeld, a. h. (1979). can heuristics be taught? in j. lockhead, cognitive process instruction. philadelphia, pa: franklin institute press. silver, e. a. (1979). student perceptions of relatedness among mathematical verbal problems. journal for research in mathematics education, 10(3), 195-210. syaiful, muslim, huda, n., mukminin, a., & habibi, a.(2019). communication skills and mathematical problem solving ability among junior high schools students through problem-based learning. international journal of scientific & technology research, 8(11), 10481060. wahyudin. (2003). peranan problem solving. bandung: pps upi bandung. wujiati, toho cholik mutohir, nining w. kusnanik, zukhairina, sri hidayati, emosda, ekawarna, yennizar, amirul. mukminin. (2019). critical thinking skills based– physical activities learning model for early childhood. the journal of social sciences research,5 (3), 738-755. biographical notes ahmad nizar rangkuti is a faculty member at tarbiyah and teacher training faculty, iain padangsidimpuan, north sumatra, indonesia; nizarahmad1304@iain-padangsidimpuan.ac.id https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v3i1.4865 this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 461 the efl students’ 21st century skill practices through e-learning activities hadiyanto 1 abstract this study aimed to investigate students’ perception on 21 st century skill practices through e-learning activities. the 21 st century skills consist of two main components; soft skill and hard skills. self-assessment questionnaires were distributed to 33 students to assess their practice level of their own 21 st century skills in e-learning activities of tesol curriculum design course. students’ e-learning activities were designed and directed by a teacher in order to allow students practice the 21 st century skills. the findings showed that the overall 21 st century skills practiced by the students were at a high level. looking at both components of 21 st century skills, both soft skills and hard skills were practiced by students at a high level. all sub components of soft skill; communication skills, it skills, numeracy skills, problem solving skills and team work skills were practiced at a high level. however, it skills were the highest among others skills practiced by the students in e-learning activities. hard skills and their components; specific knowledge and specific skills of tesol curriculum design were also practiced at a high level. the students attempted to gain their hard skills through practicing of soft skills in e-learning activities. in conclusion, the students were able to practice and enhance their 21 st century skills through elearning activities. keywords hard skills, e-learning, learning activities, 21 st century skills, learning strategies, soft skills, tesol 1 faculty member, universitas jambi, jambi, indonesia; hadiyanto@unja.ac.id mailto:hadiyanto@unja.ac.id irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 462 introduction the teaching and learning process today is inseparable from the role of ict (information technology and communication). the ict has inspired the birth of new concepts of learning through computer that is better known as e-learning. e-learning is a learning system which is implemented online by utilizing internet technology. the growing e-learning usage has impacted on the improvement of facilities and features inside e-learning in order to optimize e-learning usage in many ways. for instance, the current edmodo template of e-learning allows teachers to group students, post video, create assignments, make quizzes, exercises and survey, and also link to other resources and online multi-media. moreover e-learning can provide more flexibility for student learning beyond classroom border and anticipate constrains such as time, facilities, learning resources, and classroom. however, the effectiveness and varieties of e-learning usage depend on teachers’ competencies (hadiyanto, 2019). the 21 st century skills in this current study are defined as skills developed during teaching and learning process at university in order to provide students with soft skills and hard skills (dikti, 2011). hadiyanto (2010) states that the term of soft skills is an interchangeable term with generic skills, key skills or transferable skills that the government and industry consider essential for successful work. the current popular term that is used to describe soft skills and hard skills is much similarly defined as the 21 st century skills. the definition of soft skills then is defined as the ability of generating communication skills, it skills, numeracy skills, learning how to learn skills, problem-solving skills, and working with others in completing task and work. each component of soft skill in this study is (1) communication skill is defined as the ability to express and exchange ideas through oral and written communication as well as present information through audio and visual (hadiyanto et al., 2013; washer, 2007), (2) it skills are the ability of installing, applying digital application to support learning and working such as using microsoft office and its features, internet, website, email, messenger, online conference, others necessary tool (hadiyanto et al., 2018; washer, 2007), (3) numeracy skills refer to the ability of using simple statistics or calculation with number, understanding and creating graphs for presentation (washer, 2007), (4) learning skills are defined as the ability of applying varied learning methods and techniques to achieve the goal of learning including, doing self-evaluation for the aim of improvement (hadiyanto, 2019; jones, 2009), (5) problem solving skills are the ability to identify and solve problems appropriately in learning activities and make sure the same problems not happen again (bialik et al., 2015; senthil & rajamanoharane, 2016), and (6) working with others refers to the ability to get in touch, get along, interact and work with other people both on a one to one basis and in a team (washer, 2007). hard skills relate to the competencies of course knowledge; it consists of specific, technical knowledge and skills of a course. specific knowledge is a theoretical, factual, and actual matter that is possessed by someone on her/his major of knowledge. specific technical irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 463 skills are dealing with someone’s ability and capacity to apply his/her major specific knowledge into real context of working (babic & slavkovic, 2011; dikti, 2011; hadiyanto et al., 2018). ristekdikti (2015) suggests applying student-centered learning (scl) inside classroom and outside classroom learning to let students practice and acquire soft skills and hard skills. the use of e-learning and its features is expected to enhance students’ softs skills and hard skills that in the current study we call as 21 st century skills. e-learning features allow students to discuss, present, download and upload files, submit assignments, chats, links to other resources, video presentation, work in group and others encouraging learning activities. as revealed by hadiyanto,( 2019) and senthil and rajamanoharane (2016), the varied activities are able to enhance students’ hard skills and soft skills such as communication skills, it skills, numeracy skills, team work skills, problem solving skills, and learning skills. the current study was investigating students’ practice of 21 st century skills through learning activities of edmodo usage. this study presented students’ perception on their 21 century skill practices through e-learning activities of tesol curriculum design. literature review concept of e-learning activities e-learning is a process of learning that involves the use of electronic equipment in creating, fostering, delivering, assessing, and facilitating a teaching and learning process with students as the center which is done interactively whenever and wherever. e-learning is defined as the use of internet technology to convey learning. the basic criteria for e-learning are: network (network), delivery of course matter to users via computer and mobile with standard internet technology, and focus on broad learning (rosenberg & foshay, 2007). e-learning allows students to develop their knowledge and skills by appropriate learning activities. the e-learning requires a media to be able to display course materials and questions and also requires communication facilities to be able to exchange information between participants and instructors. e-learning itself is one form of the concept of distance learning. the form of e-learning itself is quite extensive, a portal that contains scientific information can already be said to be an e-learning site. e-learning or internet enabled learning combines teaching methods and technology as a means of learning. e-learning is an effective learning process that is produced by combining the delivery of digital material consisting of support and services in learning (schober et al., 2008). there are three functions of e-leaning towards learning activities, namely: (1) in addition, which is optional for participants to use e-learning (2) complement; e-learning material is used as an enrichment or remedial material for learning participants, and (3) substitute (substitution); e-learning totally functions as an alternative delivery of learning (kara, 2016; rosenberg & foshay, 2007). irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 464 elements and characteristics of e-learning activities conventional teaching methods are still less effective when compared to modern teaching methods. the e-learning system is expected not only to replace but also to be able to convey active classrooms which emphasize on student-centered learning. materials, students grouping, learning module, video, books, scoring system, and all features in conventional classroom should be available in e-learning features as well. previous literature such as kara (2016), rosenberg and foshay (2007), senthil and rajamanoharane (2016), shulamit and yossi (2017 ) and witherspoon (2011) has indicated that the elements and characteristics of e-learning are different things as described in the following. among elements of e-learning discussed by literature mentioned above are: (1) questions: material can be provided in the form of modules, the questions are provided and the results of the work can be displayed. these results can be used as benchmarks and students get what is needed. (2) community: students can develop online communities to gain support and share information that is mutually beneficial. (3) online learning: teachers are always online to facilitate students in learning activities. (4) opportunity to work together: there is application that can arrange online meetings so learning can be done simultaneously or in real time without distance constraints. (5) multimedia: the use of audio and video technology in the delivery of material so as to attract interest in learning. the characteristics of e-learning in the learning process are (1) utilizing electronic technology services. teachers and students, students and fellow students or teachers and fellow teachers can communicate relatively easily without being limited by things that are protocoled, (2) utilizing the advantages of computers (digital media and computer networks), (3) using self-learning materials stored in computers so that they can be accessed by teachers and students anytime and anywhere if they need them, (4) utilizing learning schedules, curriculum, learning progress results and matters relating to education administration can be seen at any time on the computer, and (5) materials designed and fostered by professional material development forces. one social network that has enough features to support e-learning learning is edmodo. edmodo accounts can be obtained without paying with the website address www.edmodo.com. on the main page of edmodo, it appears that users of edmodo are limited, namely teachers, students, parents and schools. edmodo has learning management system (lms) features to support e-learning such as a folder for placing course matter, posting messages for mutual questions and answers between fellow group members, assignments, quizzes and polls. in addition, there are facilities to enable small groups for cooperative learning. methodology the design of the study was a classroom survey which aimed at enhancing students’ 21 st century skills through e-learning activities. data were collected from 32 students who irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 465 pursued e-learning activities in tesol curriculum design course. self-report questionnaires were adapted from hadiyanto (2017). the 5-point likert scales (never, rarely, sometimes, often, and very often) were used for the students to measure their practice on 21 st century skills through e-learning activities. reliability and validity had been analyzed and resulted cronbach alpha coefficient .72 and corrected item-total correlation at 0.30 and above. in conclusion, the instruments were reliable and valid to be used for measuring the students’ 21 st century skills practices through e-learning activities. the students’ respond with the numbers of 15 were descriptively calculated and interpreted in five levels of 21 st century practices as shown in table 1. table 1. interpretations of mean scores mean score interpretation 1.00 to 1.80 very low 1.81 to 2.60 low 2.61 to 3.40 medium 3.41 to 4.20 high 4.21 to 5.00 very high table 1 illustrates that a mean score between 1.00 and 1.80 indicates a very low level of practices of 21 st century skills. a mean score between 1.81 and 2.60 a low level, a mean score between 2.61 and 3.40 a medium level, a means score between 3.41 and 5.00 a high level of mean score.20, 4.21 and 5.00 a very high level (hadiyanto et al., 2017). six major learning activities were implemented in e-learning, group discussion, video presentation, group assignment, individual assignment, and individual discussion, and finding and sharing resources. group discussion activities were started by a topic discussion. students discussed among their group member to gather a summary and conclusion of the topic. through the discussion in e-learning group, the students practiced communication, team work, problem solving, learning skills, and it skills. next, video presentation, teacher pointed out a topic for each group of the students to be presented through e-learning. students worked in group to develop a video presentation on their topic given. every group posted the video presentation on edmodo, and most of the class members followed and learned from the video presentation. questions, comments, and suggestions were addressed to a group and responded by members of intended group. the learning activities continued until the next topic. the practices of students 21 st skills were observed. also, group assignment was designed by the teacher and posted to each student group. the group leader led the discussion online, managed, and divided task to each group member. some groups managed and completed their assignment by collaborating online, while other groups managed their time to work on face to face meeting and offline discussion at a place and irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 466 reported or posted to their group assignment online. online group assignment let the students practice their 21 st century skills online and offline. individual assignment, firstly, teacher gave topics and described an assignment to be conducted by the students, and submission deadline was set up. students worked online and offline to complete the assignment. students were asking their classmate online and discussion also occurred. few students also sent massages to the teacher asking more details about assignments. resources of the assignment were mentioned and written in their writing reports. indicators of 21 st century skills components were practiced. students submitted their assignment individually. finding and sharing resources, finding and sharing was an independent e-learning activity. teacher shared some topics and sub-topics for online activities. each student freely selected a topic to be learned. then, students individually searched and found relevance resources to learn and share to other members. after reading and learning from the resources, some students shared and convinced interesting issues that they have had to post on e-learning walls and got responses from others. individual discussion was begun by giving a topic, and each group member was allowed to start first. in these e-learning activities, students had experienced questioning, answering, and responding. at most group, the students who were starting the discussion became a main presenter. at the end of discussion, each individual was coming with his/her own conclusion; however, the agreement of content from individual to individual was obtained. findings this study aimed to investigate students’ perception on 21 st century skill practices through e-learning activities. the 21 st century skills consist of two main components; soft skill and hard skills. table 2 displays the overall result of a mean score of students’ practices on the 21 st century skills through e-learning activities. table 2 reveals that the overall 21 st century skills practiced by the students were at a high level (mean 3.71). looking at the 21 st century skills practices in terms of softs skills and hard skills found that both were practiced by students at a high level. also, all sub components of soft skills communication skills, it skills, numeracy skills, problem solving skills, and team work skills were practiced at a high level. however, the practices of it skills were the highest among other skills practices. components of hard skills; specific knowledge of tesol curriculum design and specific skills of tesol curriculum design were also practiced at a high level. table 2. level of student’ 21 st century skills practice in e-learning activities soft skills mean std. level communication 3,60 ,314 high it skills 4,04 ,236 high numeracy 3,63 ,341 high irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 467 table 2. continued… learning skills 3,71 ,325 high problem solving skills 3,69 ,435 high team work 3,71 ,452 high overall soft skills 3,72 ,293 high specific knowledge of tesol curriculum design 3,76 ,492 high specific skills of tesol curriculum design 3,79 ,447 high hard skills (tesol curriculum design) 3,77 ,431 high 21 st century skills in overall 3,71 ,310 high soft skills the findings of students’ soft skills practices consist of communication skills, it skills, numeracy skills, problem solving skills and team work skills. table 3 reveals that in general, students practiced communication skills at a high level (mean score 3.62). varied mean scores of students’ communication skills were found between indicators, however, all indicators of communication skills were at a high level (mean 3.41 to 4.20) except the indicator of a1 (doing presentation) that was at a medium level. this means that presentation through e-learning was not very highly practiced. table 3. level of student’ communication skill development in e-learning activities communication skills mean s.d level doing presentation 3,16 ,503 medium using different formats 3,50 ,510 high using vocabularies, expressions and body language 3,70 ,690 high integrating ideas or information 3,45 ,508 high summarizing key issues 3,79 ,721 high giving feedback 3,58 ,583 high communicating some ideas in writing 3,75 ,607 high writing a report 3,62 ,571 high summarizing key issues (written) 3,57 ,492 high overall 3,62 ,314 high as displayed in table 3, students practiced it skills at a high level of 4.05. furthermore, three of six indicators yielded a mean score at a very high level (mean 4.21 – 5.00), they were indicators b1, b2, and b5. this means that the students practiced it skills at a very high level in terms of statements or indicators; selecting relevant information from it sources using software or application features, sharing references and resources using it and irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 468 applications. on the other hand, indicators of the number b3, b4 and b6 were practiced at a high level of mean score. table 4. level of students’ it skills practice in e-learning activities it skills mean s.d level selecting relevant information from it sources 4,37 ,646 v.high sharing references and resources using it and applications 4,45 ,508 v.high developing assignments in the form of text, image, chart, etc. 3,62 ,575 high presenting using some illustrations in power point 4,00 ,722 high using software or application features 4,25 ,607 v.high developing the structure of presentation 3,54 ,588 high overall 4,04 ,236 high table 4 shows that the overall mean score of the numeracy skills practices was at a high level (mean score 3.63). all indicators were practiced at a high level. and there were no indicators of numeracy skills practiced at a very high level. compared with others soft skills, numeracy skills were the second lowest after communication skills practiced by the student through e-learning activities. table 5. level of students’ numeracy skills practice in e-learning activities numeracy skills mean s.d level reading tables, charts, graphs and numbers 3,62 ,494 high measuring learning activities and outcome 3,58 ,717 high using effective and efficient ways 3,50 ,589 high presenting based on points but calculable 3,91 ,583 high labelling tables, charts and graphs 3,70 ,624 high managing time for working on assignment 3,62 ,646 high improving on use of numeracy to support learning 3,50 ,589 high identifying the relevant information sources 3,62 ,575 high overall 3,63 ,341 high students’ practices of learning skills through e-learning activities were at a high level (mean score 3.71). the findings also showed that all indicators were practiced at a high level by the students in e-learning activities of tesol curriculum design. irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 469 table 6. level of students’ learning how to learn skills practice in e-learning activities learning skills mean s.d level improving academic performance 3,50 ,589 high assessing the effectiveness and efficiency 3,66 ,701 high identifying factors impacted on learning outcomes 3,79 ,508 high setting realistic targets and plan 3,66 ,761 high learning independently and be responsible 3,66 ,701 high identifying ways my work best 3,70 ,624 high putting together ideas or concepts 3,75 ,607 high reviewing what and how to learn 3,75 ,607 high consulting with lecturers 3,75 ,675 high adapting learning strategy 3,91 ,829 high comparing information from various resources. 3,51 ,579 high overall 3,71 ,325 high table 6 reveals that the students practiced problem solving skills through e-learning activities was a a high level (3.69). all indicators of problems solving skills were also practiced at a high level. in brief, problem solving skills could be practiced by students through e-learning activities in edmodo. table 6. level of students’ problem solving skill practice in e-learning activities problem solving mean s.d level identifying a problem 3,87 ,679 high solving problems with several ways 3,83 ,816 high using different methods to analyses a problem 3,62 ,646 high accommodating diverse perspectives 3,66 ,761 high solving problems by resources provided 3,65 ,637 high presenting an approach to solve a problem 3,50 ,589 high overall 3,69 ,435 high as displayed in table 7, students rated their practices of working with other skills at a high level (mean score 3.71). all indicators were also rated at a high level; however, there was no indicator that was rated at a mean score of 4.20 and above. these findings indicated that e-learning activities could enhance students’ working with other skills. irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 470 table 7. level of working with other development in e-learning activities working with others mean s.d level learning activities in a group 3,75 ,607 high having conversations with different races in learning 3,58 ,717 high working in team 3,58 ,583 high resolving conflicts in team work 3,66 ,637 high giving feedback to improve team work 3,70 ,806 high keeping yourself and others motivated 3,83 ,637 high respecting diverse perspectives 3,91 ,775 high thinking and offering ideas to a group work 3,66 ,816 high overall 3,71 ,452 high hard skills the students revealed that their practices of hard skills for both course knowledge and course skills were at a high level. all indicators of course knowledge and skills were also at a high level. this means that e-learning activities can facilitate students to acquire hard skills at a high level. table 8. level of students’ hard skills practices in e-learning activities course knowledge mean s.d level presenting course content specifically both oral and writing 3,83 ,701 high discussing specific course content with your colleaque 3,75 ,737 high connecting course content across topics 3,66 ,701 high answering questions, giving specific and practical explanations 3,79 ,658 high contributing specific ideas of course content in group work 3,79 ,779 high overall 3,76 ,492 high course skills mean s.d level practicing the course content knowledge 3,75 ,737 high applying what has been studied 3,58 ,717 high applying course skills in practical assignment 3,79 ,721 high giving an example of the course content practices 3,91 ,503 high improving and updating course skills 3,91 ,583 high overall 3,79 ,447 high irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 471 discussion this study searched on the students’ practices of the 21 century skills through learning activities of tesol curriculum design course by using e-learning classroom. group discussion, video presentation, group assignment, individual assignment, and individual discussion were main methods and activities applied in the e-learning classroom. in general, the findings revealed that the students’ practices of the 21 st century skills through e-learning activities were at high level. these findings indicated that e-learning activities can be used as a tool to enhance students’ 21 st century skills through e-learning. students were also frequently practiced soft skills and hard skills as two main components of the 21 st century skills in their e-learning activities. it was observed and controlled by the teachers that the content of practicing soft skills in e-learning activities was specific knowledge and skills of tesol curriculum design that is called as hard skills. soft skills were as a vehicle to obtain hard skills while teachers were the men who took a control in order that vehicle went to the right way until the goal of learning obtained. a unique different focus with other related studies was the current study investigating the practices of the 21 century skills by the students through e-learning or virtual classroom activities, while related studies were conducted in conventional classroom. further findings of sub-components of soft skills implied that the students generated intensely communication skills, it skills, numeracy skills, problem solving skills, and team work as a vehicle to gain hard skills. however, none of the skills was applied at a very high level of a mean score. this becomes an important note for the further researchers to seek more effective ways of embedding the 21 st century skills into a virtual classroom such as e-learning and mobile learning. the students’ practices of it skills were the highest among other skills. this could be understood because e-learning is used as a place of learning activities so that the students unconsciously practiced indicators of it skills more intense rather than other soft skills’ components. looking at the findings of the hard skills practices, specific knowledge and specific skills of tesol curriculum design were also practiced at the high level by the students. the findings were in line with teachers’ observation during the e-learning activities that the intensity of students’ practices of soft skills improved students’ hard skills practice as well (babić & slavković, 2011; hadiyanto, 2019; schober at al., 2008). though none of 21 st century skills were practiced at the very high level, the value of the findings is important as a starting point for the practices of 21 st century skills in e-leaning, mobile learning, and other virtual learning activities. furthermore teachers should be more critical to seek on every space of e-learning features and improve online teaching method and technique in order to optimize students’ 21 st century skills so that they obtain the top level of mean score practices. teachers are also suggested to seek on other application to be integrated in to e-learning usage in order to optimize the practices of the students’ 21 st century skills through e-learning activities. irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 472 conclusion six e-learning activities including group discussion, group assignment, individual assignment, and individual discussion, findings and sharing resources were applied by the teachers in generating their e-learning teaching activities. the study revealed that the students were able to identify their level of 21 st century skills practices in e-learning activities of tesol curriculum design course. the practices of 21 st skills were performed at high level by the students. looking at separated components of soft skills, it skills were accomplished at the highest level of mean score rather than other components of soft skills, while learning skills and team work skills were practiced at the second highest mean score, followed by problems solving, numeracy and communication skills. in terms of hard skills components, specific skills were practiced by the students higher than specific knowledge of tesol curriculum design. in conclusion, the students 21 st century skills can be developed not only in classroom but also through e-learning class activities in more effective ways. the results of the study open the door of new avenues for further research in this regard. for instance, the future research in the area is suggested to search on the effect of e-learning strategies, method and activities on students’ 21 st century skills through experimental design research. references babić, v., & slavković, m. (2011). soft and hard skills development: a current situation in serbian companies. university of kragujevac, serbia university of kragujevac, serbia. bialik, m., bogan. m., fadel. c., & horyathova. m. (2015). character education for the 21 st century: what should students learn? center for curriculum redesign. boston, massachusetts. retrieved from: http://curriculumredesign.org/wp-content/uploads/ccr charactereducation_final_27feb2015.pdf direktorat jendral pendidikan tinggi. (2011). kerangka kualifikasi nasional indonesia. kajian tentang implikasi dan startegi implimentasi kkni. http://penyelarasan.kemdiknas.go.id/uploads/file/buku%20qualification%20fram ework%20dikti.pdf hadiyanto. (2010). the development of core competencies at higher education: a suggestion model for universities in indonesia. educare, 3(1), 11-22. hadiyanto, makmur, mukminin, a., hidayat, m., & failasofah. (2013).teaching in a digital era: english lecturers’ readiness toward the internet use in teaching and learning at selected higher education institutions in indonesia. asia-pacific collaborative education journal, 9(2), 113-124. hadiyanto (2019). enhancing students’ core competencies by applying blended cooperative e-learning (bcel) in teaching and learning process. advances in social science, education and humanities research, 253, 69-173. http://penyelarasan.kemdiknas.go.id/uploads/file/buku%20qualification%20framework%20dikti.pdf http://penyelarasan.kemdiknas.go.id/uploads/file/buku%20qualification%20framework%20dikti.pdf irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 473 hadiyanto, fajaryani, n., & masbirorotni (2018). constructing the measurement of efl students’ core competencies practices in learning activities. tojet, 17(3),16-25. jones, a. (2009). redisciplining generic attributes: the disciplinary context in focus. j stud high educ, 34(1),85-100. kara, s. (2016). how and why? edmodo as a blended learning tool: a brief overview of usage and research. proceedings of iserd international conference, bali, indonesia, 9th may. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/108a/18e5955cf52e4d4d9ab8c0bf7973627a09ed.p df ristekdikti (2015). standar nasional pendidikan tinggi direktorat penjaminan mutu. [online]. retrieved from: http://bpm.umsida.ac.id/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/3.-standar nasional-pendidikan-tinggi-sn-dikti.pdf. ristekdikti (2016). panduan penyusuanan kurrikulum pendidikan. http://bpa.uad.ac.id/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/panduan-penyusunan-kurikulu m-pt-tahun-20161.pdf. rosenberg, m. j, & foshay. r. (2007). e-learning: strategies for delivering knowledge in the digital age. new york: mcgraw-hi. schober, b., wagner, p., reimann, r. & spiel, c. (2008). vienna e-lecturing (vel): learning how to learn self-regulated in an internet-based blended learning setting. international journal on e-learning, 7(4), 703-723. senthil, k. n., & rajamanoharane, s. w. (2016). enhancement of skills through e-learning: prospects and problems. the online journal of distance education and e-learning, 4(3),24 -32. nc usa: association for the advancement of computing in education (aace). shulamit, k., & yossi, e. (2017 ). development of e-learning environments combining learning skills and science and technology content for junior high school. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 11, 175-179. witherspoon, a. (2011). edmodo...a learning management system. available: http://www.plugintotechnology.com/2011/01/edmodoa-learning-management system.html washer, p. (2007). revisiting key skills: a practical framework for higher education. journal of quality in higher education, 13(1),57-67. biographical notes hadiyanto is a faculty member at universitas jambi, indonesia. he holds an m.ed. in tesl and a phd in adult and professional development education from the national university of malaysia. he is currently vice dean for academic affairs at faculty of humanities, universitas jambi. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/108a/18e5955cf52e4d4d9ab8c0bf7973627a09ed.pdf https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/108a/18e5955cf52e4d4d9ab8c0bf7973627a09ed.pdf http://bpm.umsida.ac.id/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/3.-standar-%20nasional-pendidikan-tinggi-sn-dikti.pdf http://bpm.umsida.ac.id/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/3.-standar-%20nasional-pendidikan-tinggi-sn-dikti.pdf http://bpa.uad.ac.id/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/panduan-penyusunan-kurikulum-pt-tahun-20161.pdf http://bpa.uad.ac.id/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/panduan-penyusunan-kurikulum-pt-tahun-20161.pdf http://www.plugintotechnology.com/2011/01/edmodoa-learning-management%20system.html http://www.plugintotechnology.com/2011/01/edmodoa-learning-management%20system.html irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 43 blended learning in a reading course: undergraduate efl students’ perceptions and experiences nova lingga pitaloka, 1 hesti wahyuni anggraini, 2 dedi kurniawan, 3 erlina, 4 and hariswan putra jaya 5 abstract research on blended learning in reading course especially is limited. this study aimed at revealing the implementation of blended learning in reading course for undergraduate efl students at one public university in south sumatera and the students’ perceptions on the e-learning incorporated in the blended learning in the reading course. the study was carried out through a qualitative method using a case study approach. the first semester students, consisting of 13 female and 5 male students, majoring in english education study program at a public university in south sumatera participated in this study. the researchers used observation, documentation, and semi-structure interviews to collect the data. the collected data were analyzed qualitatively. the findings covered two major issues in accordance with the research questions: the implementation of the blended learning and students’ perceptions of the e-learning. the findings showed that in the reading course, 4 meetings were conducted with e-learning and 12 others were employed in the classroom with various activities. in terms of students’ perceptions, the students reported some advantages and challenges that they encountered in e-learning. this study also provided some implications and recommendations for further research. keywords blended learning, e-learning, reading, undergraduate efl 1 lecturer at the language and arts education department, faculty of teacher training and education, sriwijaya university, palembang, indonesia; novalinggapitaloka@fkip.unsri.ac.id 2 lecturer at the language and arts education department, faculty of teacher training and education, sriwijaya university, palembang, indonesia; hestiwahyunianggraini@fkip.unsri.ac.id 3 lecturer at the language and arts education department, faculty of teacher training and education, sriwijaya university, palembang, indonesia; dedikurniawan@fkip.unsri.ac.id 4 lecturer at the language and arts education department, faculty of teacher training and education, sriwijaya university, palembang, indonesia; erlina@fkip.unsri.ac.id 5 lecturer at the language and arts education department, faculty of teacher training and education, sriwijaya university, palembang, indonesia; hariswan_pj@fkip.unsri.ac.id mailto:novalinggapitaloka@fkip.unsri.ac.id mailto:hestiwahyunianggraini@fkip.unsri.ac.id mailto:dedikurniawan@fkip.unsri.ac.id mailto:erlina@fkip.unsri.ac.id mailto:hariswan_pj@fkip.unsri.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 44 introduction education field is constantly changing in order to keep the pace with the dynamic world such as the phenomenon of industry 4.0 which has brought enermous rapid changes in education. the old-fashioned teacher-centered approach now has shifted to a studentcentered approach which is facilitated with more sophisticated ways of learning such as digital learning with the use of ict and internet (eryansyah, erlina, fiftinova, & nurweni, 2019; haryanto, sulistiyo, fransiska, & yose, 2019; mercado & ibarra, 2019; prasojo et al., 2019). in relation to this phenomenon, an increasing number of universities have encouraged a new digital learning culture, such as blended learning. blended learning is a combination of face-to-face and online learning by utilizing the benefits of online classes without completely losing the advantages of the face-to-face instruction (hadiyanto, 2019; muhaimin et al., 2019; mukminin et al., 2019; vernadakis, giannousi, derri, michalopoulos, & kioumourtzoglou, 2012; syaiful et al., 2019). hockly (2018) adds that the utilization of computer technology integrated in the blended learning is frequently considered to be carried out in different places from the face-to-face instruction, and mostly in the students’ own time. further, bataineh and mayyas (2017) explain that blended learning incorporates both of in-class and online instruction, which offers different variations of teaching and learning methods (e.g., lecture, discussion, guided practice), delivery modes (face-to-face vs. computer mediated), and modalities (e.g., synchronous vs. asynchronous) to improve the teaching and learning. thus, in other words, blended learning is the mix of two learning modes: face-to-face classroom and online classroom to get all of the learning benefits of both modes. the incorporation of blended learning into the english language teaching has attracted massive attention. many studies have reported the use of blended learning in the teaching and learning of different english language aspects such as vocabulary (djiwandono, 2018; tosun, 2015) and grammar (aslani & tabrizi, 2015) and english language skills such as listening (rahmawati, 2019), reading (radial, 2019; setyawan, 2019), speaking (chen, 2015), and writing (liu, 2013; muhtia, suparno, & sumardi, 2018). in reading course, students are demanded to have abundant practices of reading to improve their reading skill. the more students are exposured to english reading activities, the better their reading skill will be. in relation to this, blended learning fits to this demands as students can have more practice in-class and online class and eventually results in the improvement of reading skill. as reported by djiwandono (2018) and ghazizadeh and fatemipour (2017) in their studies, efl students experienced higher reading scores after they were taught by using blended learning. the blended learning had facilitated the learners in their attempt to develop their reading comperehension skill. additionally, ang and yunus (2018) argue that it is beyond doubt that the ict integration in teaching and learning activities triggers students’ motivation to read texts on screen rather than in their book. ict has its attractiveness which can increase students’ attention when it comes to reading compared to reading texts on paper (habibi et al., 2019). irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 45 despite the growing interest in blended learning approach in english language teaching, there have been few studies which investigate thoroughly how the blended learning is actually implemented along with students’ voice regarding their experience of the online class (e-learning), especially in a reading skill. recent studies were mostly aimed at comparing students’ reading achievement with and without blended learning in reading courses. investigating the blended learning implementation in a reading course and students’ voice about their e-learning in the blended learning of reading course based on their perceptions will provide some insights and guidance for efl teachers to design blended learning for reading courses which matches students’ needs and preferences. this is supported by onetstelma, slaoti, and motteram (2013) who highlight that adult learners possibly have well-built thoughts about what works for them and how they would like to learn. in relation to the use of technology, this serves as a strong filter. their preferences may be because of positive or negative learning experiences; they may be culturally situated; they are ground for negotiation to facilitate the adult learners to have the most impactful learning.this present study, thus, aimed at revealing the implementation of blended learning in a reading course and students’ perceptions on the implementation of e-learning in their reading course. these aims are formulated in research questions: (1) how is the implementation of blended learning in a reading course for undergraduate efl students at one public university in south sumatera? (2) what are their perceptions on the e-learning incorporated in the blended learning of the reading course? literature review blended learning blended learning has attracted many scholars’ attention which results in various definitions of blended learning based on their own perspectives. for example, milad (2017) defines blended learning as the utilization of various technologies, pedagogies, context, and delivery modes in order to make a strategic combination which results in improvement on students’ success. it is also known as the integration of technology-based materials and traditional print materials. tawil (2018) argues that it is called blended learning when there is an integration of two instructional media, where one represents the traditional methods used in the traditional classroom where face-to-face interaction is used, and the other a technological mode of instructions of relaying information to the learners. graham (2006) claims that blended learning is implemented in one of the different levels, namely: (1) activity level: when an activity integrate both face to face and technologybased elements then blending at the activity level takes place. (2)course level: the blend in course level occurs when the distinct face to face and computer mediated activities are integrated. (3) program level: in this program level, blending can be used through either of these two models. in the first model, the learners choose a blend between face to face courses and online courses and the second one is a combination between the two which is arranged by the program. (4) institutional level: some of the institutions carry out the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 46 blended learning by integrating face to face and computer mediated instruction. many organizations besides institutions of higher education are making models of blended learning at an institutional level. regarding the levels of blended learning discussed above, graham (2006) mentions that the level of blended learning is determined by the learner or designer/teacher. learners usually can make a choice at the levels of institutional and program. while designers/teachers usually decide at the course and an activity level. e-learning e-learning as part of blended learning needs to be understood well about what it actually entails. clark (2004 as cited in soong, 2012) explains that e-learning is any different approaches used in instruction which these approaches integrates ict. further, in more detail, milad (2017) explains, ―e-learning courses consist of multimedia presentations, simulations, combinations of animations, video and audio sequences, text commentaries and last but not least, learners’ knowledge checking tests‖ (p.28). thus, when e-learning is dicussed, then ict comes up as it is always unseparable aspect of e-learning (habibi et al., 2018; marzulina et al., 2018). solak and cakir (2015) emphasize that the most crucial features of e-learning lie on the separation of teacher and student in synchronized or nonsynchronized activities, and students conduct these activities on their own. this individual activities result in students’ learning independence and self-directed learning process regardless students’ ages. al-dosari (2011) explains that in the asynchronous mode, the interaction of the users does not need to takes place at the same point in time. this includes e-mail, miling lists, file download, hypertext publication (i.e.: www), and newsgroups/bulletin. in synchronous mode, simultaneous engagement between participants is required, for example audio-videostreaming and videoconference, chat, and whiteboard. methodology research design, respondents, and locale of the study this research employed a qualitative approach, specifically a case study. a case study is employed when a bounded system, for instance activity, event, process, or individuals, is investigated through an in-depth analysis of data collected extensively from multiple sources (creswell, 2012; erlina et al., 2019; habibi et al., 2019; mukminin et al., 2017). this study took place in an english education study program of a public university in south sumatera. the researchers chose this university because in this university the reading course was carried out through blended learning and the online learning was done with the help of elearning site provided by the university. besides, this university got an a for its accreditation, so that the blended learning at this university can be a model for others. therefore, the researchers were interested in exploring deeply the implementation of blended learning in reading course for undergraduate efl students at this university and the students’ perceptions on the e-learning incorporated in the blended learning in the the reading course. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 47 the researchers chose participants of this study by using purposive sampling. thus, all of the freshmen of class taking ―literal reading‖ course which was conducted through blended learning took their part as the participants. the participants were 5 male and 13 female students. their range of age was around 16-18 years old. in this study, pseudonyms were used for the sake of participants’ confidentiality. data collection and analysis in this study, observation, documents, and semi-structured interview were carried out to collect the data. these procedures were used to answer the first question reated to the blended learning implementation, while to know students’ perceptions on the e-learning students were involved in a one-to-one interview by using semi-structured questions to get in-depth information. prior to all of the data collection process, the researchers introduced themselves and informed all of the participants the aims of the observation, documents, and semi-structured interview and the participants agreed to be observed, answer and show any documents they had related to the implementation of the blended learning. observation was done by observing the activities conducted in the face-to-face inclass instruction for several times until the description of the activities were well-established. during this observation, field notes were used to record the activities. then, document was conducted by visiting and examining the website, i.e.: https://lp3mpunsri.gnomio.com/ used for e-learning. students activities for the whole semester covering 16 meetings were described in the e-learning website. the last, semi-structured interview were also used to investigate how the blended learning (in-class and online learning) was implemented and their perceptions on the e-learning (online class). during the interview, students were free to answer in english or their mother tongue in order to convey their ideas freely without language barriers. the interview with each student was video-taped and transcribed and translated into english. the collected data were the analyzed qualitatively. the steps of analyzing the data followed the procedure described by creswell (2012) and mukminin et al. (2017) by organizing and preparing the data, reading through the data, coding the data into categories, building themes, representing and reporting the findings, and interpreting the data. to build the trustworthiness, triangulation was used by incorporating different data collection methods (i.e., observation, documentation, and interview) to confirm the data validity from different sources. besides, member checking was also carried out to confirm the credibility and control of biases by returning the transcribed interview text back to the participants and asking them for its accuracy. ethical considerations this study was dependent on human beings as the key basis of the data. to cope with the ethics, still in indonesia, an irb authorization process is not used, we covered the identities of people, places, and the research site through the use of made-up names to keep https://lp3mpunsri.gnomio.com/ irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 48 the rights of human participants. we also persuaded our participants that their contribution was totally volunteer and their stories would be privately treated. findings the implementation of blended learning in literal reading course blended learning was implemented in literal reading course in the first semester. this course was offered to the first semester students majoring in english education study program in one public university in south sumatera with three credit hours. blended learning was done by combining traditional in-class delivery and e-learning. following the policy of the university, e-learning had to be implemented as many as 4 meetings as an addition to or substitution to the face-to-face interaction in the classroom. in literal reading course, out of the total 16 meetings the students had with their lecturers, 4 meetings were conducted out of the classroom by using e-learning excluding the mid semester and final examination. related to the e-learning, the lecturer created an online class by using the elearning site facilitated by the university. the other 12 meetings were conducted through face-to-face interactions in the classroom including the mid semester and final examination. implementation of e-learning. the e-learning was conducted in the 10th, 11th, 12th, and 13th meetings. the e-learning was not conducted in the beginning of the course as students needed to get familiar first with the course in order to be able to learn independently through individual or group interactions through online learning. at first, students were given the manual to be the members of the class with the online class code. students had to make their account and joined the class by themselves using the class code. once students opened the online class, they were given lists of topics with various activities. students were also welcomed with a video about the literal reading course at glance. the video consisted of the course description, learning objectives, and learning materials. the video was created by the teacher of the course. figure 1. video in the e-learning of literal reading course irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 49 in this e-learning, students’ attendance was recorded digitally so that the teacher did not need to check them one by one manually as in the classroom. regarding the learning activities, students experienced various reading activities for each meeting. in some parts, students were provided with some instructional videos containing explanations of the materials. in other activity, students were asked to download materials from the online course and submit their work to this e-learning site. they also had a forum where the students discussed the materials or answers of exercises or quizzes with other students and teachers. besides, they had some reading exercises in which they read a number of passages and answered some reading comprehension exercises and quizzes. these exercises and quizzes also varied in forms such as multiple choice, true-false, short answer, and essay. figure 2. various activities in the e-learning of literal reading course in some exercises or quizzes, students were given certain duration to complete them. the duration was set by the teachers, so that students doing their tasks were not able to submit their works when the time was expired. after doing certain tasks such as multiple choices, true false or short answer questions, students were able to see their scores automatically displayed on the computer screen. while for other activities like students’ participation in the forum or uploaded assignments needed thorough detail assessment from teacher, so that the score could not be displayed directly for the students. implementation of in-class delivery. in this type of teaching and learning process, in-class delivery, the students and teacher carried out the course in a classroom. they have face-to-face interaction without the intervention of the ict. teacher taught the students through 3 stages, namely pre, whilst, and post activities. in this teaching and learning mode, students were given some explanations through lecturing and discussions. for the materials, the teachers and students used only one textbook for the reading course. students were taught the reading skills such as previewing and predicting, skimming, irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 50 scanning, and guessing meanings of words from context, identifying main idea, and other skills. students were given abundant texts and they had to apply their reading skills in completing the tasks. they were also given certain durations to complete the activities, but in this face-to-face interaction, students often asked for more time to the teacher so that the duration for doing the tasks was extended. students did their tasks by using paper and pen, which were not used at all in e-learning activities. then, the teachers and students had some discussions related to the reading texts and tasks. students’ perceptions on the blended learning in literal reading course to explain in detail efl students’ perceptions on the blended learning they had in literal reading course, their responses in the interview were coded and built into themes and sub-themes. the result is diplayed in tabel 1. table 1. themes and sub-themes themes sub-themes advantages of e-learning flexible learning challenging learning understandable materials ease of use variations in learning challenges in e-learning poor internet connection limited time in reading exercises/quizzes exact wordings for short answer test advantages of e-learning. based on students responses in the semi-structured interview, it showed that they had the same main points about e-learning which can be described in one theme, namely advantages of e-learning. these advantages of e-learning were divided into sub-themes namely flexible learning, challenging learning, understandable materials, ease of use, and variations in learning. firstly, most of the students said that elearning offered flexibility for them. they could access the e-learning wherever and whenever they wanted to. the learning could be done as long as they had internet connection and smartphone or laptop. students’ statements on flexibility were as follows: ―it (the e-learning) made the learning and instruction easy. as a college student, i really enjoyed it as i could do it wherever i was.‖ (student 1) ―the strength of e-learning was that we could do everything at home with only laptop or smartphone. we did not have to go to the campus.‖ (student 2) ―the e-learning could be used at any places as long as internet connection was available. students could concentrate on the learning optimally.‖ (student 3) irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 51 next, students felt that the learning became challenging through e-learning. they felt that it was a new experience for them and they were challenged especially when they had to complete some timed reading exercises and quizzes. ―it was good enough and made me feel challenged as i had to read fast when doing the quiz with duration.‖ (student 4) besides, students also reported that the materials presented in the e-learning were easy to understand. they also reported that the materials helped them develop their reading skill. ―the given materials, in my opinian, were easy to understand so that i could follow the materials step by step.‖ (student 5) ―i would say that the materials/content delivery in e-learning of literal reading course used good language and word choice, so students could get the meanings of the materials. besides, there were contents delivery through video with some examples created by the teacher‖ (student 6) in addition to understandable materials, a number of students reported that the features in the e-learning were easy to use though some students said that at first it was a little difficult as using e-learning was a new experience, but they eventually managed to use the e-learning very well. ―for me, the e-learning was easy to use as it had simple features and well-ordered presentation so that it was not confusing at all.‖ (student 7) ― in the beginning of using the e-learning, i felt it was difficult as it was my first time using e-learning, and i was not accostumed to the fast duration (of reading), but as time goes by i got used to it.‖ (student 8) some students, finally, had the same perception that the e-learning offered variations in their learning experience. they felt that it would be boring if they had the same activities throughout the course. ―... because some of the students perhaps felt bored when they were presented with the same media or delivery technique over and over.‖ (student 9) ― ... as with the combination of face-to-face interaction and e-learning, we can get knowledge through more various learning systems.‖ (student 10) based on what they had experienced during blended learning, especially in the e-learning mode, students found the e-learning as a useful alternative to the face-to-face learning in the classrrom as they could use it easily with learning flexibility (not limited to time and space), a wide range of learning variations with understandable materials, and challenging activities. challenges in e-learning. in addition to the benefits of the use of e-learning that students had reported, students also mentioned that they had some challenges to deal with when they were using e-learning. poor internet connection, limited time in completing quizzes/exercises, and providing exact wording in short answer test were some shortcomings they encountered. most of the students were in agreement that it was hard for them, sometimes, to use e-learning as their internet connection was not good enough or even not available. they reported that their learning activities in e-learning was sometimes hindered by the poor internet connection. to make it worse, it made them miss the online learning activities as they were diconnected. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 52 ―one of the weaknesses was internet connection. when it was not good, our activity was disrupted and even we missed it.‖ (student 11) ―i think there was not (any weaknesses of e-learning), but it took so long to open the e-learning due to poor internet connection.‖ (student 12) another challenge they felt was they were in a rush in completing the timed reading comprehension exercises and quizzes. during the e-learning, there were some reading exercises or quizzes that they had to complete under certain duration such as when they were learning the reading skill like skimming or scanning that they had to read faster. ―the weakness (of the e-learning) was that i had to complete the tasks given by the lecturer in a rush. i, whose reading level was very basic with limited vocabulary had to read faster and found the time given to complete the tasks was too short.‖ (student 13) the last point that some students highlighted was the weakness of the e-learning system in short-answer question. they reported their answers had to be in exact same words as the answer key recorded in the system. eventhough they had the same main points in their answers yet with different words, their answers were considered wrong by the system. ― the failure of the e-learning, in my point of you, was when our short answers had to be exactly the same as the shorts answers programmed in the computer. if the answers were not an exact match, they were considered wrong by the system. at that time, i used different words but with the same meaning. ― (student 14) from the statements above, students, in fact, experienced some difficulties when they had to do the e-learning. the poor internet connection became the major problem encountered by the students. students sometimes missed the e-learning as their internet connection was not good. some of them also report that they encountered a dfficulty in reading activities, especially when they had to complete the timed reading comprehension test as they had to answer all of the questions before the time set by the system was over. the last obstacle they had was about the short answer system that required them to write exact words as recorded in the system. if the students used different words which its meaning as actualy the same as the answer key in the system, the answers were considered wrong. this resulted in students’ low scores of reading comprehension test in the form of showrt-answer questions. discussion in the light of the result above, it is known that most of the reading classes were conducted in the classroom and the e-learning was implemented four times as it was in accordance with the policy of the university regarding blended learning implementation that the maximum number of meetings for e-learning was four times. tawil (2018) emphasizes that the face-to-face instruction to complement the e-learning classes is prominent in language teaching. the integration of these modes can increase the efficiency through blended learning, which eventually will result in improvement in language teaching. in this study, the e-learning could serve as either additional classes or substitutional classes to the inclass instruction. this is in line with what hadiyanto (2019) summarized in his study that eirje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 53 learning can serve as additional learning, complement, and substitution which the latter one is used in the e-learning implementation of the reading course in this current research. this study also revealed students’ perceptions on the use of e-learning in the blended learning reading course. students reported some benefits and challenges of the incorporation of elearning in their reading course. they pointed out some benefits of e-learning such as flexible learning, challenging learning, understandable materials, ease of use, and variations in learning. in terms of flexibility as one of the benefits of e-learning, this is also supported by the result of a study in which all of the participants pointed out that the fundamental reasons for implementing online instruction were flexibility and self–control within the learning environment (armstrong, 2012). furthermore, in a study conducted by radial (2019) points out that blended learning relies much on the integration of multiple methods which results in improved pedagogy that could meet wide varieties of students’ needs for its easiness in terms of learning access and its flexibility. furthermore, oliver and trigwell (2005) mention that in the variation theory of learning, learning takes place if learners experience variation as variation facilitates discernment and discernment triggers learning. this made possible with the use of e-learning. students also mentioned some challenges of e-learning such as poor internet connection. in relation to this problem, oweis (2018) argue that in e-learning has some technical problems like poor internet connection along with its high mintenance cost. furthermore, omer, klomsri, tedre, popova, allvin, and osman (2015) reported in their study that the students emphasized the crucial role of good internet connection. they mentioned that poor internet connectivity made students miss the online classes or assignment submission deadlines. it also led to disruption of ommunication between students and teachers. another problem that students encountered in the e-learning was limited time in completing quizzes/exercises. in the reading comprehension tests, the teacher set the duration for students to complete the task so that students had to use their reading skill especially skimming and scanning. in practising the skimming and scanning skill, students had to read the reading passages fast. to make sure that they read fast in order to apply the reading skills, the reading comprehension tests were set with duration. that is why students had limited time to complete the tests.in this case, the e-learning system was beneficial and helped teachers to make students train their reading skills. in the students’ point of view, however, they were overwhelmed with the timed reading comprehension test. the last problem the students report was that in short answer test, students had to answer by using the words which had to be exactly the same as the answer keys recorded in the system of e-learning. concerning this issue related to the system of the e-learning, kintu, zhu, and kagambe (2017) mention that system quality contributes to problems in blended learning so that the content delivery mode or the e-learning platform should meet certain threshold for teachers as an attempt to obtain the maximum perfomance of the blended learning. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 54 conclusion and recommendations this study yielded several findings. first, the implementation of the blended learning was divided into 12 meetings of in-class delivery and 4 meetings of online learning. in the classroom, students learned by using reading course textbooks with lecturing and discussion activities without any ict uses. in other four meetings through online classes, students used various materials such as reading passages from their book and internet, and materials in videos. they also had chat forum, and timed reading exercises, and quizzes. students’ perceptions on the implementation of e-learning were categorized into advantages and challenges of e-learning. they found that the e-learning offered some benefits like flexible learning, challenging learning, understandable materials, ease of use, and some variations in learning. the students, however, encountered some problems such as poor internet connection, limited time in reading comprehension exercises and quizzes, and the use of exact wordings for short answer test. this study provide some implications for future researchers, teachers and course designers. regardless these findings, this present study has some limitations. first, the results are not representative of the teachers and students at the university as this is a small-scale study. despite these limitations, this study can contribute to the 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(2012). the impact of blended and traditional instruction in students performance. procedia technology, 1, 439-443. biographical notes nova lingga pitaloka is a lecturer at the language and arts education department, faculty of teacher training and education, sriwijaya university, palembang, indonesia; novalinggapitaloka@fkip.unsri.ac.id hesti wahyuni anggraini is a lecturer at the language and arts education department, faculty of teacher training and education, sriwijaya university, palembang, indonesia; hestiwahyunianggraini@fkip.unsri.ac.id dedi kurniawan is a lecturer at the language and arts education department, faculty of teacher training and education, sriwijaya university, palembang, indonesia; dedikurniawan@fkip.unsri.ac.id erlina is a lecturer at the language and arts education department, faculty of teacher training and education, sriwijaya university, palembang, indonesia; erlina@fkip.unsri.ac.id hariswan putra jaya is a lecturer at the language and arts education department, faculty of teacher training and education, sriwijaya university, palembang, indonesia; hariswan_pj@fkip.unsri.ac.id mailto:novalinggapitaloka@fkip.unsri.ac.id mailto:hestiwahyunianggraini@fkip.unsri.ac.id mailto:dedikurniawan@fkip.unsri.ac.id mailto:erlina@fkip.unsri.ac.id mailto:hariswan_pj@fkip.unsri.ac.id this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 6 the development of reflective thinking in the first six years of teaching kálmán sántha 1 abstract the aim of this paper is to investigate the development of reflective thinking in the first six years of a beginner teacher‟s career. the qualitative study involved a beginner teacher of english in a primary school, who was selected on the basis of availability. changes in reflective thinking by means of a structured reflective diary after three and six years were studied. in the reflective diary created at the end of the third and sixth years, the teacher had to answer the following questions: what am i doing well? why? how do i know i have to do so? what do i have problems with? why? where do i make mistakes? what chances of development do i have? the processing of the diaries was done using content analysis, combining deductive and inductive logic. the basis of main codes and sub-codes was set up, also relying on triangulation. the reliability of coding was ensured by intra-coding. the results showed that after the third year, reflections appeared at a technical level, usually answering the question “what?”. after the sixth year, the reflections were more complex, and often dealt with insights about teachers‟ activity. besides “what?” questions “why?” and “how?” were in focus. the results have shown that during continuous reflection teachers may develop and improve a system combining theoretical and practical skills that can embrace the entirety of pedagogical work. the results show that continuous reflection contributes to the differentiation of pedagogical knowledge. the paper addresses those who are interested in the exploration, analysis, and development of reflective thinking. keywords beginner teacher, qualitative research, reflective thinking, structured reflective diary, teacher activity 1 university of pannonia, faculty of modern philology and social sciences, institute of education, veszprém, hungary; santhak@almos.uni-pannon.hu irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 7 introduction people – laymen, beginners and experts – have different approaches towards the teaching profession. some say that good teachers are born. some say that certain elements of the teaching profession can be learnt, developed, and awareness can be raised. at forums focussing on teacher training and further training in hungary questions are ecnountered about levels of professional performance, the content of competence-based teacher training, and the exploration of reflective thinking. the author argues that it is important to explore and analyse reflective thinking in teacher training, as well as in everyday pedagogical activities, because it can increase the efficiency of teaching and pedagogical work. the paper emphasises that a teacher with a reflective approach will analyse the effects of teaching on himself/herself and on the students as well, and will constantly look for ways of improving his/her activities. on the basis of this the focus is on the comprehensive exploration of the reflective competence, also considering that among education science specialists there is no consensus as to how and to what extent the reflective competence of teacher trainees can be measured, or if it can be measured at all. tynjälä‟s (1998) statement is also taken into account, which states that the written work of teachers and teacher trainees (e.g. reflective diary, lesson commentary, portfolio) help and necessitate the integration and reorganisation of information, and also involve analytical thinking. in my opinion that reflection can be learnt and practised (etscheidt, curran & sawyer, 2012), and i discuss how the structured reflective diary can be a tool for analysing reflective thinking. this paper presents the development of the reflective thinking of a teacher based on qualitative studies after three and six years in service. i was looking for an answer to the question to what extent reflective thinking is modified and gets more complex during the first six years of a teacher‟s career. another question is how – on the basis of their ever-developing multiple reflections – teachers form a complex theoretical and practical system that enables them to embrace the entirety of teachers‟ work, and that has an effect on the efficiency of the teaching and learning processes. literature review in education science discourse, reflection is defined as a key competence of the professional teacher (leonhard & rihm, 2011). during the years of becoming a teacher, acquiring an approach that necessitates reflection during and after pedagogical activities (i.e. teaching) can be seen as a key competence for students who want to become teachers (baumgartner & welte, 2009). reflective thinking has an effect on all areas of pedagogical work, as it helps the analysis and development of activities. the study of the reflective thinking of teachers began in the usa in the 1980s, the notion of “reflective teacher” was introduced in education sciences by donald schön. schön (1987) studied how intellectuals from all walks of life think during their problem-solving activities (schön, 1983), and he later also studied how students can be taught reflective practice (schön, 1987). in his interpretation, reflection can be seen as a dialogue between the situation and the person reflecting (schön, 1983). also, falus and kimmel (2003) argue that reflection is a systematic review of the effects of teaching activities on others (learners, parents, the process of teaching and learning) and the teacher. sometimes teachers‟ professional dialogues contribute to the development of activities, the term „collegial reflection‟ refers to this (szivák, 2003). during collegial reflection, irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 8 the reflection usually focuses on past events, e.g. it can be a complex analysis of lessons held previously. the process can be seen as a discovery and analysis of the experience gathered during teaching (sántha, 2013). taking the concept of collegial reflection further, häcker (2017) thinks reflection cannot be seen as an isolated task, but must appear in an institutionalised environment. this suggests that the process of becoming a teacher can be facilitated by an atmosphere and management open to reflection, where professionalisation can be helped by useful insights and supportive dialogue. in our days, there is information at hand about the spiral structure of reflection (jank & meyer, 2002), the factors that limit reflection (kimmel, 2006; sántha, 2013), and there are models related to levels of professional performance. these prepare the analysis of activities, and visualise the differentiation of reflective thinking as a function of time spent in service (diaconu, 2002). among the models, the stories-model is worth a mention (students training of reflection in educational settings) (levin & meyer-siever, 2018), which sees the discovery and development of reflective thinking in a four-phase model. this presents the topic of reflective thinking in its complexity, including recall of the theoretical and/or empirical background of the reflected situation, the perception of different perspectives (how participants experience the situation), using alternatives (what other ways of behaviour can be found on the basis of previous phases), as well as individual professional development (e.g. differentiating between strengths and areas to be developed). during the exploration of reflective thinking qualitative methods that establish and “visualise” the links between the teacher‟s theoretical and practical skills, and help reflection can be applied. with their help, the logic of the thinking and activity behind the processes represented in the textual information can also be discovered. the qualitative techniques that can be used to discover reflective thinking include different collections of documents and portfolios (levin & meyer-siever, 2018), the video analyses of stimulated recall and the commentaries that help the analysis (lutovac, kaasila & juuso, 2015; messmer, 2015; sántha, 2013), as well as the display of unstandardised network cards together with commentaries (sántha, 2017). additionally, levin and meyer-siever (2018) argue that the interview situations of stimulated recall can make the study of reflective thinking more exact. when looking at the methods of discovering reflective thinking in a critical way, maclellan (2008) called attention to the fact that the verbal discovery of reflective thinking will not automatically lead to the improvement of reflective performance. frankhauser (2016) thinks video recordings (and their analysis) could be the key to developing the process, because the recordings can serve as models, can show didactic examples necessary for efficient teaching, and best practices that can be integrated into the teacher‟s activities. further, the reflections on what is seen can be linked with the goals and perceptions during the lessons, so they can generate a complex development process. wyss (2013), with an eye on complex discovery techniques and triangulation, used several tools (e.g. reflection questionnaires, stimulated recall videos) to analyse the reflective competence of teachers. reflective teachers broaden their scope of activity with a constant interplay of activity and reflection. reflecting continuously on their activities, teachers make an attempt to constantly develop their teaching practice. this way, their professional skills develop and become systematic through practical experience. reflection requires the explication and, consequently, growing awareness of unconscious, subjective theories. during the years of becoming a teacher, acquiring an approach that necessitates reflection during and after irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 9 pedagogical activities (i.e. teaching) can be seen as a key competence for students who want to become teachers (baumgartner & welte, 2009). methodology i used a qualitative approach (phenomenological research) to study the development of reflective thinking. i decided to use a qualitative study because this explores the individual parameters concerning reflective thinking in a deep and context-dependent manner. based on this, a personal development plan can be created for the person in the study, which can contribute to the development of teaching activities. the research was designed based on open questions and problems instead of a hypothesis. i was looking for an answer to the question to what extent reflective thinking is modified and gets more complex during the first six years of a teacher‟s career. statements about the development of reflective thinking were developed step by step on the basis of systematic data analysis. participants during the design process, i planned to involve three beginner teachers in the study so that a better understanding of the development of their reflective thinking. thus patterns in the reflective thinking of beginner teachers can possibly be discovered then might be used later in more complex analyses (e.g. mixed methods). however, after detailing the objective, time span, and qualitative methodological aspects of the study, only one teacher agreed to participate. those who rejected taking part did so because of lack of time and the long time span of the study. in the end, one teacher, teaching english in a primary school of a county city in hungary, agreed to participate. this teacher was open enough to carry on the research even after 6 years, saying this is a good way to follow-up one‟s activity, its changes, and this is how one can learn from the whole process. because of the problems mentioned above, i selected the sample on the basis of availability. ethical parameters during the research process, i strived to establish a good working relationship based on dialogue. the research was based on constructive ethics; this is the model that facilitates opening up inner ideas, so helping the implementation of successful qualitative studies. the teacher taking part in the study was familiarised with the objectives, the time schedule, the methodological approach, and i also made it quite clear that anonymity for all participants is guaranteed. instrument and procedures during the study process – three years and six years after starting the teacher‟s career – i made a structured reflective diary with the teacher. the teacher was asked to create the diaries at home, or in an environment void of any kind of disturbance. this was a way of opening up and accessing a large spectrum of data. creating a reflective diary is a time-consuming process, but this technique is absolutely suitable to discover context-dependent elements. the diary was structured because the teacher had to answer the following questions: irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 10 1. what am i doing well? why? how do i know i have to do so? 2. what do i have problems with? why? where do i make mistakes? 3. what chances of development do i have? there was no length constraints imposed on the reflective diaries, so teachers were free to word their reflections. an advantage of this technique is that notions, events in the classroom, and situations can be textually represented, described, and analysed in the diaries, so diaries help the discovery of reflective thinking. with reflective diaries, i had a 30-page text corpus for analysis. data analysis the textual evidence of the reflective diaries was analysed with qualitative content analysis. the processing of the diaries was done with a combination of deductive and inductive logic. the deductive coding logic enables a coding according to a list (a priori), so the code list included the most important content nodes: “what am i doing well”, “how do i know i have to do so”, “what do i have problems with”, “where do i make mistakes”, “what chances of development do i have”. following this, i assigned the text segments available to the codes from the code list. this was followed by the further categorisation of the text segments according to an inductive coding logic. during coding it is worth ensuring the unambiguity of the codes, as ambiguities and overlaps hinder data processing. the codes can be matched with quotations that help thematic organisation and search in the database. the reliability of coding was ensured by intra-coding (dafinoiu & lungu, 2003). this means that the same coder carries out two separate coding sessions, i.e. recodes the text, and then compares the first result with the second one. this is usually done a few days after the first so that experiences from the first coding do not interfere with the second coding. in the case of both text corpora, recoding was carried out one week after the first, and the results were completely identical. the role of triangulation in the research it is necessary to review triangulation typologies according to denzin‟s interpretation (denzin, 1989; flick, 2014), which makes a distinction between the triangulation of theoretical, methodological, and investigator data, to get a better picture of the research process. to fulfil the requirements of theoretical triangulation, i used a theoretical approach using several different criteria. methodological triangulation was not used, as one single method was used to research the issue. the fact that our choice falls upon a reflective diary is justified because this technique is suitable to explore beliefs, to understand participants‟ thoughts, and helps overcome temporal, material and technological barriers of the study. to implement personal triangulation, when analysing the diaries, i returned to the teacher after the third and sixth years, and asked the teacher about partial results. the teacher also told us about the necessity of getting feedback. the temporal, spatial, and personal distinctions required to the triangulation of the data was not supported by the one-participant study, it was only the data collection in every three years that was carried out. this did not mean a limitation to the information available, the diaries testified the development of reflective thinking in detail. irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 11 findings the results of the reflective diaries are presented in a main code – sub-code system in table 1. main code 1, meaning a positive approach to activity, was complemented with 6 sub-codes after 3 years, and 6 sub-codes after 6 years. the negative features of activity were complemented with 6 sub-codes after 3 years, and 5 sub-codes after 6 years. when reflecting on chances of development, 2 sub-codes appeared after 3 years, and 3 sub-codes after 6 years. table 1. main codes and sub-codes main codes year 3 sub-codes year 6 sub-codes 1. what am i doing well? how do i know i have to do so? methodology, administration, assessment, collegial reflection, children, parents methodology, teaching profession – good teacher, disciplining, collegial reflection, comparison 2. what do i have problems with? where do i make mistakes? methodology, disciplining, control – assessment, collegial reflection, criticism of teacher training, problem of children and parents reflection, further training – self-training, methodology, resources, control and assessment 3. what chances of development do i have? time, classroom observation (collegial reflection) own personality, easing stress, review of teacher–parent relationships the findings of the reflective diary after 3 years on the basis of the results of the diary made after 3 years, reflections on methodology, assessment, collegial reflection, as well as the children and their parents appeared both in problem areas and areas seen as problem-free by the teacher. the question is what system of beliefs and activities induced the appearance of the reflections. in the diary after the third year, the number of problem areas is slightly higher than the number of successful areas. the activity of the teacher was influenced by the classic problems of starting a career; initial problems came from administration, time-management, objectives, and planning. the problem of isolated and global planning surfaced here, the teacher wants to see all activities as an organic process, but the lack of experience makes this impossible: “one has to know the goal of the lesson. sometimes i feel i do not arrive to think globally. i prepare from lesson to lesson, but i‟m never quite sure i achieved what i wanted.” irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 12 besides sticking to the original lesson plan (“i cannot plan lessons so that they last for 45 minutes. once i finished 10 minutes before the end of the lesson (...) i made some desperate efforts to fill the rest of the lesson”. “i don‟t change my lesson plan because i don‟t know how to do it.”) deviations also occurred, as well as the necessity of change, which means flexibility, an adaptation to changing learning and teaching situations. the initial insistence on schemata was replaced by context-dependence, the teacher tried to harmonise the theory learnt at school with real-life pedagogical situations: “i think it is a form of success when i have a good idea during the lesson and i can modify my plans a little.” sticking to classical methods and ways of working hinders interactivity, still the teacher used such a methodological approach to be “as safe as possible”. the teacher decided to use interactive and new generation methods most appropriate to students‟ age and the pedagogical situation less frequently: “group work or pair work is not often used. i make efforts to give them such tasks, but frontal teaching offers security for me, thus i can see and hear what they‟re producing (...)”. to create a methodological culture and successful teaching activity, a neat board appearance is indispensable: “i‟m not satisfied with my board appearance (...) sometimes i forget that students can‟t always read my writing.” administrative burdens also surfaced at the evaluation stage, although the focus of reflections fell on finding the correspondence between the grades and students‟ actual performance: “i find it very hard to keep an exact record of grades and also to tell children what mark is given for which achievement.” children were given a central place in the teaching and learning process. the teacher thought that an equal partnership may eventually lead to efficient work, but this is very hard to achieve: “children like my lessons (...) i know this because they usually raise their hands, and come up to me to talk after lessons. the young ones like to hold my hand when we are going somewhere. this really feels good.” “i like playing with and talking to them, i find them interesting, and they like the fact that a teacher takes part in things they find important.” the harmonious relationship with the students helped the teacher through problems of disciplining: “sometimes i had problems with disciplining (...) i do know what is right and wrong, but transmitting the message is not easy for me.” irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 13 when dealing with the teacher‟s activity, the invaluable role of experienced colleagues, known as collegial reflection cannot be ignored, which can contribute to the development of reflective thinking to a great extent? “i have a (female) colleague (...) i tell her my ideas. she thinks i‟m creative and she also praises my enthusiasm. this encourages me to work the way i do, or to try to do even better.” “i did class observation at a (female) colleague‟s class, and that lesson made me realise that texts and tasks can be approached from other angles.” in everyday school work, parents also have a significant role besides the teacher–student– material triangle. the reflections of the teacher focussed on the relationship with parents, with a special attention to its quality and the problems of pronouncing an opinion: “despite my age and lack of experience i get on well with parents, but probably i‟m too tactful when speaking about problems.” the teacher also spoke about the necessity to participate in further training and broaden experiences, as all these contribute to making the teacher‟s activity more efficient: “i don‟t have the slightest idea how to start looking around.” the findings of the reflective diary after 6 years after 6 years of teaching, the reflective diary reflects the changes in the reflective thinking of the teacher. in some content nodes, there are significant changes compared to the diary three years earlier. the teacher was aware of this, and also reflected on this fact in the diary: “if i think about how i taught 3 or 4 years ago, and how i teach now, it‟s chalk and cheese. i‟ve also changed a lot as a person. my beliefs about life and human values have changed, and i see differently the meaning of life, too.” the methodological approach of the teacher became more complex and flexible after the sixth year, understanding the structure and process of the classes became much more important: “i‟ve learnt how to be flexible as really anything can happen during a lesson (...) i always have an extra game up my sleeve with which i can enchant pupils.” “i always make a lesson plan, i must put down the structure of the lesson, because it makes my work easier.” however complex the reflections might be, differentiation still remains a problem area: “differentiation for me is an insurmountable problem (...) i simply cannot believe that a good (i.e. communicative, diverse, playful, activity-centred) class ban be held in a way that all the 20 members of the group do their tasks adequately. still, groupwork and pairwork are present during the lessons.” irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 14 the diary after the sixth year also included reflections about resources. this is a problematic area as creating extra material has an effect on the teacher‟s workload: “as i work with a lot of extra material (which is always connected to the subject matter), i always have a lag compared to the coursebook – this disturbs me because parents and children only see that my pupils have done fewer units from the book than other classes, but i believe the knowledge of my pupils is deeper.” workload can also be found when the teacher speaks about assessment: “i don‟t evaluate the performance of the children after every lesson. although i made a lot of progress, sometimes i forget about red marks in the junior section. i think that‟s because i‟m on the run, and once the lesson is over, i concentrate on the next already.” reflections about disciplining and the relationship with pupils converge, they describe the same things and are reflective of the teacher‟s attitude: “i think immediacy is important, i always explain to my pupils what mistakes they make and how to avoid it next time.” “i don‟t know exactly when i began to know, or rather feel, the slight differences between the different types of punishments.” collegial reflection was also present in the activities of the teacher. this is by all means positive as the development of a reflective working culture necessitates colleagues who understand and accept reflections. al this can be a key to efficiency: “i like to ask for help from my older colleagues and i also have the courage to do so.” after 6 years spent teaching, the teacher reflected usefully on the entirety of the teaching profession, also collecting the characteristic features of good teacher: “a good teacher must not only be good at his/her profession, but must also have a road horizon to be able to form relevant opinions in certain topics and to be successful.” “consistency is a very important requirement in education and teaching.” to develop professional competence, further training and self-training are indispensable: “i think efficient further trainings are very important, teachers do not always have enough time to educate themselves.” “i should read more books about pedagogy and psychology, although i only have little time to do so, i would be very happy to take part in such training courses.” irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 15 the findings of chances of development even at the beginning of the teaching career, the teacher had a negative opinion about staff and staff members hindering the formulation of a reflective working culture and developing reflective thinking. inadequate professional and material contexts and the everyday challenges of the teaching profession put serious limitations on reflection. a partial exception from these limitations (e.g. the positive attitude of some colleagues) does not enable someone to develop a reflective working culture. this also means that to be able to reflect, one has to do away with every obstacle. this can be helped by self-education and further training. “i find it a good thing but it also frustrates me when a senior colleague comes to observe my lessons. they could probably give me feedback about things i don‟t recognise myself. they could also give me useful information and help, but i still don‟t believe the teaching staffs are suitable places for this kind of exchange.” discussion the results show that structured reflective diaries visualise professional development, show to what extent the teacher can systematically reflect on and make conclusions about the teaching activity and the learning and teaching process, and how the teacher can make these results relevant for his/her own teaching. a condition of this is the mixing of theoretical and practical knowledge, so the individual development line of the teacher‟s knowledge can be drawn. this also suggests that the reflective diary is capable of drawing highly individual and different development lines. from these reflections the distinction between „after action‟ and „during action‟ reflections can clearly be seen (schön, 1987), but these did not separate so markedly in the diary after 3 years. the teacher was trying to make his/her activities more efficient, and all this shows marks of consciousness. in the teacher‟s thoughts we can also find a need for collegial reflection, this corresponds to what has been suggested by häcker (2017). the results supported the claim of levin & meyer-siever (2018), which says the discovery of reflective thinking is hindered by the fact that setting up codes and categories does not lead to an unambiguous distinction between the main content nodes of reflective thinking. the results show that in the case of teachers‟ activities, a network-like interlocking of the content nodes is visible (e.g. giving marks can function as motivation, assessment, as well as disciplining action in the classroom). the network-like structure of the content nodes also carries in itself the criticism of the hierarchical nature of reflective thinking. this can be seen in the diaries after years 3 and 6 as well, as some elements in the development of teachers‟ activities appear in extremely complex structures (see also collegial reflection or the need for self-training and further training), sending the hierarchical structure in the background and shifting the focus on a multidimensional approach. in the following section, i am going to study the development of a reflective attitude on the basis of frequent and infrequent, as well as critical and non-critical motifs (figure 1). our aim is to create a clear picture that makes teachers think, and that also helps them describe their own critical and non-critical motifs, also giving them a chance to reflect upon these. irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 16 figure 1. motifs of reflection after years 3 and 6 when discussing infrequent critical and non-critical motifs, no significant difference between 3 and 6 years spent in education can be found. the focus of critical motifs was the changes in the teacher‟s methodological battery. i have to note here that although after 3 years the lesson plan and changes were seen as critical points, after 6 years this was put into the non-critical category. experience-based security, and flexible lesson planning and implementation now appeared at a non-critical level. when discussing the development of reflective thinking, significant changes in frequent critical motifs can be seen, where complex reflections after the 6 th year can be found. the focus of these were „after action‟ and „during action‟ reflections. the teacher also named the different areas of these reflections, so awareness of the complexity of teaching activities can be detected. further training and self-education appeared as ways of improving teaching efficiency, and reflections about the entirety of the teaching profession became visible. after 3 years, the teacher did not produce reflections of such complexity and depth. most similarities between the 3 rd and the 6 th year can be seen in the case of frequent and non-critical motifs. in both cases, the most important content elements are disciplining and children, but the complexity and nature of the reflections was modified. after the 6 th year, reflections were primarily focussing on the cause-and-effect relationships of the teaching activity. critical motif frequent motif infreque nt motif after year 6, differentiation assessment – red mark (bonus for learners) resources after year 6, teaching profession reflections (after and while acting) further training, self-education after year 3, assessment: oral and written tests, explaining marks making an opinion: about the children to the parent, about marks after year 6 children disciplining after year 3 children disciplining planning after year 6 planning after year 3 explanation parents after year 3, changes in the lesson plan forms of work board appearance reading specialised literature non-critical motif irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 17 conclusions the results have shown that during continuous reflection – and through the growing complexity of these reflections – teachers may develop and improve a system combining theoretical and practical skills that can embrace the entirety of pedagogical work, thus contributing to the improvement of efficiency. developing a system needs conscious and hard work, results show that most reflections after year 3 got no further than the most basic technical level: most of them described what the teacher did without discussing the reasons why. at that stage, only few answers to the question “how can one know what is right?” could be found. after the sixth year, the reflections were more complex, and often dealt with understanding the pedagogical activity. signs of uncertainty can be detected, but the reflections have already become more complex. we can see from the diary that continuous reflection contributes to the differentiation of pedagogical knowledge. to reach this stage, it is important to develop a reflective working culture and to find colleagues who are willing to give professional help. careful consideration of the right research method to study the mental structures of teachers is essential, as the way teachers recall their own activities during the reflection process is highly dependent on the research method used. when doing further research to discover reflective thinking, the use of methodological triangulation as a relevant method should be taken into account. in the present case, i did not use methodological triangulation, and only used a reflective diary, which is capable of discovering the reflections and is not constrained by material or technical conditions. the use of several methods in the name of triangulation can make the discovery of reflective thinking more detailed and nuanced, and the complementary nature of the results enable a more multi-faceted analysis. the results are relevant both for teacher training and working teachers as they show a possible way of discovering and developing reflective thinking, and, in addition, based on these results, it is possible to create development plans for beginners to help the process of becoming a teacher. for those who have already been teaching for several years, they offer a chance for continuous dialogue and development. references baumgartner, p., 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(2015). stimulated recall as a focussed approach to action and thought processes of teachers. forum qualitative sozialforschung / forum qualitative social research, 16(1). retrieved from http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0114-fqs150130. sántha, k. (2013). stimulated recall in exploring the constraints of reflective thinking. problems of psychology in the 21st century, 6(3), 47−54. sántha, k. (2017). network cards as a way of discovering the reflective thinking of teacher trainees: the relevancies of a qualitative analysis. pedacta, 7(1), 13−18. schön, d. (1983). the reflective practitioner. how professionals think in action. london: temple smith. schön, d. (1987). educating the reflective practitioner. san francisco: jossey-bass. szivák, j. (2003). a reflektív gondolkodás fejlesztése (developing reflective thinking). budapest. tynjälä, p. (1998). writing as a tool for constructive learning: students„ learning experiences during an experiment. higher education, 36(2), 209–230. wyss, c. (2013). unterricht und reflexion. eine mehrperspektivische untersuchung der unterrichtsund reflexionskompetenz von lehrkräften. münster, new york: waxmann. biographical note kálmán sántha, associate professor, university of pannonia, faculty of modern philology and social sciences, institute of education. his research area is qualitative research methodology, abduction in the qualitative research and analysis of teacher‟s activites and thinking. http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0114-fqs160392 http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0114-fqs150130 this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 204 the effect of different approaches to learning strategy instruction on vocabulary development darin nshiwi 1 abstract this research falls within the area of teaching english as a foreign language (fl). it focused on the short-term effects of memory and cognitive strategies on learning vocabulary and shed light on the approaches adopted by efl teachers while teaching these strategies. it investigated whether these strategies were taught implicitly or explicitly or both. to conduct this mixed research, two main tools were applied: the first was a questionnaire to evaluate the memory and cognitive strategies used by efl teachers and intermediate learners; the second was a vocabulary test to investigate the effect of using memory and cognitive strategies on vocabulary learning. these tools were applied to the sample that included 36 intermediate learners who were divided into experimental (15 students) and control (21 students) groups and 30 efl teachers. the data obtained were dealt with descriptively and analytically. the findings show that training students to use memory and cognitive strategies explicitly enhances vocabulary learning more than implicit instruction. keywords cognitive strategies, memory strategies, vocabulary learning strategies 1 multilingualism doctoral school, the university of pannonia, hungary; and an english language instructor at arab international university, yarmouk private university and damascus university, syria; dareen33omar@gmail.com mailto:dareen33omar@gmail.com irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 205 introduction many language instructors consider vocabulary is the bedrock of learning a new language. "without grammar, little can be conveyed, without vocabulary, nothing can be conveyed" (wilkins, 1972, p.111). vocabulary learning is considered the mediator through which one can acquire various types of linguistic knowledge. according to the national reading panel (nrp, national institute of child health and human development, 2000), readers‟ command of vocabulary is strongly related to their understanding of the text. also, it emphasizes that vocabulary instruction is also essential to the development of literacy: learning vocabulary will enhance learning in general. schmitt and mccarthy (1997), for example, state, "it seems that virtually anything, that leads to more exposure, attention, manipulation, or time spent on lexical items adds to students‟ learning" (p.122). to promote language learning, oxford (1990) argues that learning strategies are widely recognized for the contribution they can make to the process. likewise, schmitt and mccarthy (1997) insist on the key role of investigating learning strategies to make the process of learning vocabulary easier. the close connection between vocabulary and learning strategies has been studied thoroughly by researchers (abdelrahman, 2013; bolukbas, 2009). however, even though of the ample of research in the field of language learning strategies (llss), the approaches of teaching these strategies (explicitly or implicitly) did not get much attention. to that end, the researcher aspired to shed light on the impact of these different approaches on learning vocabulary by using memory and cognitive strategies. this research falls within the area of teaching english as a foreign language (fl). it focused on the short-term effects of memory and cognitive strategies on learning vocabulary and sheds light on the approaches adopted by efl teachers while teaching these strategies. to achieve the purpose of the study, the following research questions guided this study: (1) what are the effects of teaching memory and cognitive vocabulary strategies (explicit/implicit) on learning vocabulary? (2) which group (experimental/control) used vocabulary memory strategies the most? which group (experimental/control) used vocabulary cognitive strategies the most? what are the applied approaches used by efl teachers at hli for teaching vocabulary learning strategies (explicitly, implicitly or both)? literature review what is vocabulary? and criteria for the selection of vocabulary vocabulary is the essential pillar of learning any language and is a basic element in learning reading, writing, speaking, and listening. schmitt & mccarthy (1990) argue that “no matter how well the student learns grammar, no matter how successfully the sounds of l2 are mastered, without words to express a wide range of meanings, communication in an l2 just cannot happen in any meaningful ways” (p. ix). merriam webster‟s collegiate dictionary (2004) defines vocabulary as “a list or collection of words and phrases usually alphabetically irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 206 arranged and explained or defined.” many researchers have established certain criteria to help teachers decide what vocabulary to select. in her online-article teaching and learning vocabulary: an introduction for english students, campillo (1995) (pp.40-42) suggests the following criteria: frequency, learning a word means learning the frequency of occurrence of this word. the frequency of a word has been regarded as a key element in a given word's difficulty. haynes (1993) argues that vocabulary's frequency is probably a greater factor in word difficulty. it is reasonable to teach the most frequently-used words, especially if they refer to objects from learners' surroundings, such as colors, food, days of the week, and classroom instructions. nation (2001) states that there are four forms of words in a text: 1) high-frequency words: these vocabularies are almost 80% of the running words in texts; 2) academic words: normally, these words constitute about 9% of the running words in the text; 3) technical words: these words form about 5% of the running words in the text; 4) low-frequency words: these are the words of moderate frequency that did not manage to get into the high-frequency list. they make up over 5% of the words in an academic text. range, vocabulary development is a basic aspect of making the transition from lower levels to more advanced levels in language proficiency. some learners seem to have attained a learning plateau, and this can result from the overuse of lower-level vocabulary and inability to attain advanced level vocabulary. availability and/or expediency, "words may be learned or taught because they are seen to be of special relevance to particular situations" (wallace, 1988, p.16, as cited in campillo, 1995, p.41). thus, students have to know words such as 'chalk' and 'duster', because they apply to the context in which they find themselves, although they have a very low frequency and restricted range. specific need/interest on the learners' part, knowing a vocabulary also means learning when to employ it in a formal or informal situation. words selected could not be just the ones mentioned in the course book; they might be chosen to address the requirements of the learners who want to voice their subjective views and opinions about a specific issue like 'sport'. thus, it is suggested that instructors bear in mind this idea into and stipulate their learners with the appropriate words for the sake of motivation. teachers might think of postponing the instruction of certain items that could be very difficult for young learners, whether in their pronunciation and spelling such as 'archaeology' and 'architecture' or in the distinction between close meanings such as 'do' and 'make'. cultural factors, cultural factors should also be taken into consideration while teaching vocabulary. even though you hear 'ice storm' a lot in canada, and 'sleet' in brazil, it is not useful to teach them to syrian learners, for example, because these words are far away from students' culture and experience where words like 'sea', „mountain‟, and 'rain' will make more sense. classification of vocabulary learning strategies efl students may utilize different strategies to learn the vocabulary of the intended language. according to griffith (2013, p. 15), "language learning strategies are activities irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 207 consciously chosen by learners to regulate their language learning strategies". these strategies have been linked to successful language learning (chamot & o'mally, 1994; oxford, 1990). a very essential constituent of language learning strategies is vocabulary learning strategies which were examined by gu and johanson (1996) who classified them into four main sections: metacognitive, cognitive, memory, and activation strategies. figure 1. vocabulary learning strategies' classification metacognitive strategies made up of selective awareness and self-initiation strategies. language learners who employ selective awareness strategies understand which words are essential for them to learn and are important for adequate comprehension of a text. according to gu and johnson‟s taxonomy (1996), cognitive strategies entail guessing strategies, masterful use of dictionaries and note-taking strategies. learners using guessing strategies draw upon their past experiences (schemata) and use linguistic clues like grammatical structures of a sentence to guess the meaning of a word from the context. memory strategies are categorized into practicing and encoding categories. word lists and repetition are examples of practicing strategies. instructing strategies compromise strategies such as association, imagery, visual, auditory, semantic, and contextual encoding as well as word-structure (i.e., analyzing a word in terms of prefixes, stems, and suffixes). activation strategies involve strategies in which the students use new words in various contexts. for instance, learners may create sentences by using the words they have just learned. gu and johnson (1996) subdivided these vocabulary learning strategies into eight types: beliefs, metacognitive regulation, guessing strategies, dictionary strategies, vocabulary learning strategies classification metacognitive cognitive memory activation strategies selection: identifying essential words for comprehension self-initiation: using various methods to interpret the meanings of words guessing, suing linguistic items using dictionaries note taking rehearsal: word lists, repletion encoding, association (imagery, visual) usage of words in various contexts irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 208 note-taking strategies, rehearsal strategies, encoding strategies, and activation strategies. table 1 shows these categories and their sub-categories. table 1. categories and sub-categories of vocabulary learning strategies (gu & johnson's, 1996) 1. beliefs a. words should be memorized b. acquire vocabulary in context c. learn vocabulary and put it to use 2. metacognitive regulation a. selective attention b. self-initiation 3. guessing strategies a. using background knowledge/wider context b. using context cue/immediate context 4. dictionary strategies a. dictionary strategies for comprehension b. extended dictionary strategies c. looking-up strategies 5. note-taking strategies a. meaning-oriented note-taking strategies b. usage oriented note-taking strategies 6. rehearsal strategies a. using word list b. oral repetition c. visual repetition 7. encoding strategies a. association/elaboration b. imagery c. visual encoding d. auditory encoding e. using word-structure f. semantic encoding g. contextual encoding 8. activation strategies oxford's taxonomy (1990), the present study mainly depended on oxford's learning strategies classification and adopted them while training students to use memory and cognitive strategies. oxford (1990) classified learning strategies into two main sections: direct strategies and indirect strategies. figure 2. language learning strategies irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 209 direct strategies, as stated by oxford (1990), are mental processing strategies that encompass using the aimed language. they contain three sub-categories: memory, cognitive and compensation. memory and cognitive strategies are the focus of this research. memory strategies are also recognized as mnemonics. memory strategies echo a very basic principle that is, organizing information in your memory. memory strategies are divided into the following strategies: a. creating mental linkage, b. applying images and sounds, c. reviewing well and d. employing action. cognitive strategies are essential in acquiring any language. they vary from repeating, analyzing expressions to summarizing. their unified task is to alter and transmute the target language by the learner to be learned and memorized. there are four main groups: a. practicing, b. receiving and sending messages, c. analyzing and reasoning and d. creating structure for input and output. oxford (1990) states that compensation strategies will help learners to know the new words' meaning despite the lack of the needed knowledge. these strategies are distributed into two main sub-sets: guessing intelligently and overcoming limitations in speaking and writing. indirect strategies consist of three categorizations according to oxford (1990). the first category consists of metacognitive strategies, which concentrate on teaching students to use their cognition that is regulating the learning process by using functions such as centering, arranging and planning. effective strategies are included in the second category that helps learners to regulate their emotions and motives. the last part of the indirect strategies is the social strategies that qualify learners to learn new words by interacting with other students. teaching vocabulary schmitt (2000) confirms that vocabulary should be taught gradually over a while from various resources. teaching vocabulary might be affected by the adopted method of teaching english. in the syrian context, there are two approaches to teach vocabulary. the first one is the teacher-centered approach (the traditional approach). this approach mainly depends on the grammar-translation method. most teachers, who adopt this approach, write a list of words and their meanings, and the students have to memorize them. the second approach, which is adopted at the higher language institute, is the student-centered approach. this approach, which is derived from the communicative approach, concentrates on asking students about the meaning of a new word, guessing their meaning from the context or using a dictionary as a last resort. there has been no unanimity on the ideal way to teach vocabulary. schmitt (1997) claims, "there is no “right” or “best” way to teach vocabulary. the best practice in any situation will depend on the type of student, the targeted words, the school system and curriculum, and many other factors” (p. 132). nevertheless, learning vocabulary could not happen in a vacuum. it should be planned. schmitt (1997) suggests that the initial stage in vocabulary acquisition is to establish a form-meaning link, which is what the most of vocabulary materials and activities seek to do. on the other hand, graves (2006) offers a framework for successful vocabulary programs that support effective teaching and students‟ development of word knowledge. the foundation of his instructional program includes a four-part approach to developing robust irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 210 vocabularies: (1) provide rich and varied language experiences, (2) teach individual words, (3) teach word-learning strategies, and (4) foster word consciousness (pp. 4–8). teaching vocabulary learning strategy (vls) hatch & brown (1995) argue that teaching strategies are related to everything teachers do or should do to help their learners learn. which teaching strategy an instructor will utilize relies on the available time, the content (i.e. the knowledge which the learners have to gain), and its value for the learner (i.e. which learning strategy the learners have to learn or apply). several approaches for teaching vocabulary used to be applied in several contexts, and the communicative language teaching approach (clt) was amongst the most effective ones. clt focused on teaching strategies hand in hand with teaching language elements (brown, 2000). several factors mentioned in the literature prove to have a negative effect on vocabulary learning. they are described as "lack of strategy training" which has been found out to have a strong connection with the proficiency level of learners (bolukbas, 2009). training students to use vocabulary learning strategies is a vital part of the process of teaching vocabulary. oxford (1990) suggests three types for the strategies training model. the first type is called awareness training. awareness training depends on conscious-raising and familiarization. students should be conscious of the significance of using strategies and their important effect on the process of learning. one-time strategy training is the second type of training strategy. it is mainly built on learning and practicing one or more strategies in the usual language tasks. this sort is the adopted type in this research. the third type is long-term strategy training. what distinguishes this type from the one-time strategy training is that it is extended to a longer period, and it covers most of the learning strategies. the indirect /implicit approach implicit/indirect teaching means teaching without raising conscious attention or awareness. in the implicit teaching model, the hypothesis is that the new vocabulary will be comprehended “incidentally”, by exposure to diverse contexts, reading texts and other materials without intentional memorization. accidental vocabulary strategies' teaching is teaching throughout exposure when learner's attention is concentrated on language use, rather than on the process of learning itself. teachers who adopt this approach tend to teach vls indirectly. most of the time, teachers depend on their textbooks to provide the needed exercises to practice these strategies indirectly. for example, teachers will indirectly teach students how to guess the meaning of the new vocabulary. teachers who follow this approach claim that teaching vocabulary strategies indirectly would save time to practice the other skills of (listening, reading, speaking, and writing). hatch & brown (1995) argue that unplanned vocabulary activities take less time than planned vocabulary teaching strategies. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 211 the direct /explicit approach explicit teaching aims to lead the learners' awareness. oxford & scarcella (1994) state, "explicit vocabulary instruction is necessary to guide learners to learn specific strategies for acquiring words, and show students how to learn words outside their l2 classes" (p.235). followers of this approach are expected to present vls systematically founded on delicate consideration of the needs and goals of the learners, and other influencing factors such as age and culture. learners are also trained to be conscious of the importance of vls and the process of learning and practicing them. moreover, substantial emphasis on the significance of using vls inside and outside the class is confirmed in this approach. vocabulary learning activities are contextual (e.g., word association, visuals, and semantic mapping). advocates of this approach highlight the importance of the time and efforts that are spent on enhancing vls will reflect its value afterward. methodology research design, participants, and locale of the study this is a mixed study (experimental followed by a survey) that was held at the higher language institute (hli), damascus university. in this research, two main classes of intermediate learners were under investigation. the rationale for choosing this level, in particular, is because this research aims at examining the problem of ineffective use of vocabulary learning strategies. therefore, the intermediate level was chosen since learners who belong to this level have acquired certain communicative abilities that could not be found in lower levels, and they need to learn many words in a short period. o'malley et al. (1985) confirm that using strategies may be related to the level of knowledge because beginners cannot successfully utilize the strategies that require higher levels of foreign language knowledge. therefore, it can be deduced that proficient learners of the target language (english) can employ strategies to use more successfully. the coursebook series being taught at the (hli) is face 2 face, cambridge university press publication. an important point is that hli learners are not taught vocabulary learning strategies directly since the course book uses indirect teaching strategies. each course at the higher language institute consists of 25 sessions, each lasts for two hours (50 hours in total), and two exams; one takes place in the middle of the course (mid-term exam) and consists of four sections: listening, reading, writing, grammar, and structure. the other one is the final exam, which includes the same sections of the mid-term exam, in addition to a speaking test that is held the day after the final exam. therefore, all four skills are tested explicitly, and vocabulary is usually tested in the grammar section. all the participants signed consent forms to use their data in this research. the sample of this research consisted of two groups: the first group of participants contained efl intermediate learners taking courses at the hli: 15 intermediate learners in irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 212 the experimental group who were trained explicitly to use memory and cognitive strategies. in addition, 21 intermediate learners in the control group were trained implicitly to use these learning strategies. 40% of the sample in the experimental and control groups are males, while 60% of the samples were females. the second group of participants was 30 efl experienced teachers. 24% of the samples in the teachers' group were males, while 76% of the samples were females. questionnaires' and test validity and reliability to confirm the validity of the used questionnaires, four referees were requested to check their validity as designed and organized by the researcher depending on oxford's taxonomy in classifying memory and cognitive strategies. the rationale behind checking the validity is to confirm that all the elements in the questionnaire are accurate and suit the topic of the research. three out of the four referees agreed on the suggested elements. one of the referees suggested replacing the word "approach" with the word "method" because it will minimize the scope of the question, and it was changed upon approval of the supervisor of this research. therefore, the validity of the used questionnaires was confirmed by the three referees' rating. to confirm the validity of the vocabulary test, three teachers at the higher language institute were asked to proofread the tests and give the researcher any other comments. the first question was modified to suit the purpose of the research. then, the pre-tests were passed on to 15 intermediate learners. next, a few items were modified to exclude vocabulary which was answered correctly by the majority of the learners. cronbach's alpha test was used to check the reliability of the two questionnaires and the results of the teachers' questionnaire are as the following: the first section is 92; the second section of the test is 77. the results of the learners' questionnaire are as follows: the first section is 84, and the second section is 78. this means that the stability condition is fulfilled and the two questionnaires are reliable. data collection and analysis two tools were used in this study to gather data: a vocabulary test and two questionnaires (one for the learners and the other is for the teachers). the content of the vocabulary test and the two questionnaires all aim at answering the research questions concerning the used teaching techniques by the vocabulary learning strategies used by the learners. teachers' questionnaire ,the questionnaire is divided into two main parts. section one is allocated to collect general information about the age and professional background of teachers. the open-ended questions were intended to investigate in general the used methods in teaching vocabulary learning strategies. the second section consists of 30 items to explore the most and least used memory and cognitive strategies which are proved to be easily analyzed according to edwards and william (1998). the choices presented in the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 213 questionnaire were: i always use it i often use it -i sometimes use it i seldom use it i never use it. these choices are included to investigate the different levels of using these strategies. language learning strategies mostly inspired the items of the questionnaire: what every teacher should know by oxford (1990). section ii of the questionnaire is divided into two parts: the first one is about memory strategies and the second one is about cognitive strategies. memory strategies are covered in items 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, which are about creating mental linkage, and then items 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12, which are about applying images and sounds. item13 is for reviewing well, while items 14 and 15 are for employing action. items 16 and 17 are for practicing. the second part is talking about cognitive strategies: items 18, 19, and 20 are about receiving and sending messages. items 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, and 27 represent the section on analyzing and reasoning strategies. items 28, 29, and 30 focused on creating the structure for the input and output. learners' questionnaire, the second questionnaire used in this research was directed to intermediate efl learners at the higher language institute (hli). this questionnaire was written in english then translated into arabic. the questionnaire was divided into two main sections. the first section concentrated on general information about the learners. section ii consisted of 28 items representing the employed memory and cognitive strategies. the choices presented in the questionnaire were: i always use it i often use it -i sometimes use it i seldom use it i never use it. these alternatives are included in an attempt to investigate the different levels of using these strategies. language learning strategies mostly inspired the items of the questionnaire: what every teacher should know by oxford (1990). section ii is categorized into two main parts: the first one is about memory strategies and the second one is about cognitive strategies. memory strategies are covered in items 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7, which are about creating mental linkage, and items 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, and 13, which are about applying images and sounds. item 14 is for reviewing well, while item 15 is for employing action. the second part is talking about cognitive strategies: items 16 and 17 are about practicing learning new words, while items 18, 19, and 20 are about receiving and sending messages. items 21, 22, 23, 24, and 25 represent the section on analyzing and reasoning strategies. items 26, 27, 28 focused on creating the structure for the input and output. vocabulary test, a vocabulary test was implemented by the researcher at the end of the course to both the experimental and control classes, to evaluate the new vocabulary knowledge of learners and to investigate the extent to which these words were learned. this test was piloted, and three questions were changed to meet the research need. the 33 vocabulary questions were based on the course book material. they were designed by the researcher to suit the research purpose. the vocabulary test was given on the final day of the course to both the experimental and control classes to investigate also the effect of teaching vocabulary learning strategies explicitly to the experimental group and implicitly to the control group. 33 vocabulary questions were distributed to investigate the effect of using vocabulary strategies on enhancing learners' vocabulary learning. to analyze the data, the spss program was used. the data were analyzed by adapting descriptive statistics to investigate the effects of using memory and cognitive strategies on irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 214 vocabulary learning. in the teachers and learners‟ questionnaires, 5 selections were given for every statement: i always use it i often use it -i sometimes use it i seldom use it i never use it. teacher and learner's answers were calculated and transformed into percentages. the result of each research question was presented and displayed directly after the question. moreover, the results were classified and displayed in suitable tables and figures. ethical considerations to conduct this study, the higher education board at damascus university has granted the researcher a written permission statement to carry out this research at the higher language institute. in addition, informed consent was obtained from all the participants. findings to examine the effect of memory and cognitive strategies on learning vocabulary a t-test was conducted. the results of the t-test are presented in table 2. tables 2. t-test results comparing experimental and control groups' vocabulary test's results t-test n m sd std. error mean control 21 26.57 4.51 .98 experimental 15 29.93 2.86 .73 table 3. vocabulary test statistical information for control and experimental groups t-test levene's test for equality of variances t-test for equality of means f p t df equal variances assumed 5.068 .031 -2.538 34 equal variances not assumed -2.730 33.640 as shown, tables 2 and 3 show that the mean score of the control group in the vocabulary test was 26.57 with a standard deviation of 4.51, whereas the experimental group mean score was 29.93 with a standard deviation of 2.86. this indicates that the difference in the mean scores between the control group and the experimental group was statistically significant (p= 0.031 at 0.05 level of significance). according to these statistics, it can be inferred that the experimental group outperformed the control one in the vocabulary test. this result shows that explicit training to use memory and cognitive vocabulary learning strategies is important to learn vocabulary. this goes in line with a study conducted by rasekh and ranjbary (2003). their research included two groups of efl language learners at the intermediate proficiency level. the learners were distributed into a control and an experimental group. these two groups were trained on vocabulary learning strategies for 10 weeks. however, the experimental group received metacognitive strategy training during the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 215 course of the semester. the research results manifest that explicit metacognitive strategy training has a significant positive effect on vocabulary learning. a statistical comparison between the control and the experimental groups regarding the implementation of memory vocabulary learning shows that memory vocabulary learning strategies were more used in the experimental group, as they were taught explicitly except for the strategy of reviewing well which was used equally in both groups. figure 3 demonstrates a comparison between the control and experimental groups while using memory strategies. figure 3. memory strategies used by the experimental and control groups according to the way they are trained a statistical comparison between the control and the experimental groups regarding the implementation of cognitive vocabulary learning shows that cognitive vocabulary learning strategies were more used in the experimental group as they were taught explicitly, except for the strategy of creating structure which was more used in the control group. figure 4 shows the comparison between the control and experimental groups while using cognitive strategies. figure 4. cognitive strategies used by the experimental and control groups according to the way they are trained 80% 56% 33% 33% 95% 78% 33% 67% creating mental linkagesapplying images & soundsreviewing wellemlpoying actionscontrol group experimental group 83% 85% 84% 74% 99% 94% 89% 72% practicng receiving & sending applying & reasoning creating structurecontrol group experimental group irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 216 the statistical analysis of the used approaches by efl teachers at hli for teaching vocabulary learning strategies (explicitly, implicitly or both) will be shown in figure 5. figure 5. adopted approaches by teachers in teaching learning strategies: explicitly, implicitly or both 24% of the teachers at the hli teach vocabulary learning strategies explicitly. specifically, 25% of teachers who have less than 3 years of experience, 40% of teachers who have 3-5 years of experience, and 12.5% of teachers who have more than 5 years of experience teach vocabulary learning strategies explicitly. when asked why? teachers replies varied; for example: teacher 1 said: "explicit teaching of vocabulary enables us to familiarize students with the strategies to acquire new words easily." 36% of the teachers at the hli teach vocabulary learning strategies implicitly. specifically, 50% of teachers who have less than 3 years of experience, and 37.5% of teachers who have more than 5 years of experience teach vocabulary learning strategies implicitly. teacher 2 says:" i teach vocabulary learning strategies implicitly because it is easier for students, and the time factor is also an important cause." 40% of the teachers at the hli teach vocabulary learning strategies both explicitly and implicitly. specifically, 25% of teachers who have less than 3 years of experience, 60% of teachers who have 3-5 years of experience, and 50% of teachers who have more than 5 years of experience teach vocabulary learning strategies both explicitly and implicitly. teacher 3 says: "i mix between the two methods. it depends on the type and level of the students." figure 5 shows the percentages of the teachers who train their learners explicitly, implicitly or both. according to the statistical data, only 24% of the participants train learners to use memory and cognitive strategies explicitly, whereas 40% of them use both implicit and explicit approaches and the remaining 36% train students implicitly. this result 25% 50% 25% 40% 0 60% 12.50% 37.50% 50% explicitly implicitly both less than 3 years between 3 to 5 year more than 5 years irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 217 can be ascribed to the fact that teachers at the hli are concerned with teaching the other skills at the expense of teaching learning strategies in general. also, the taught course book (face 2 face) does not contain a specific section on how to teach these strategies. the development and adaptation of instructional materials that provide learning strategy instruction either as a supplement to the core second/foreign language textbooks or as an integrated system included in core textbooks should be considered. many researchers recommend that instruction in learning strategies be direct rather than embedded (palincsar & brown, 1984; wenden, 1987; weinstein & mayer, 1986) or that direct instruction is added to a curriculum or instructional materials designed with embedded strategies (derry & murphy, 1986). discussion the first question in this research aims to investigate the effect of memory and cognitive strategies on learning vocabulary. an independent-samples t-test was used to compare the results of learners who were trained to use memory and cognitive strategies explicitly with learners who were trained to use these strategies implicitly. the results show the superiority of the group that was trained explicitly. the result of the first question is in line with other studies that investigate the impact of language learning strategies (lls) on vocabulary learning in the field of teaching english as a second or foreign language. for example, tassana-ngam's study (2004) demonstrated a good impact on vocabulary learning strategies, namely: „dictionary work‟, „keyword method‟, „semantic context‟, „grouping word families‟, and „semantic mapping‟, on vocabulary learning. ghorbani (2011) also researched the impact of memory strategies. the findings of this study revealed a positive correlation between memory strategies and long-term retention. tavakoli and gerami's study (2011) investigated the effect of keyword methods on efl learners‟ vocabulary learning and retention. this research shows great significant results for the keyword strategy training on vocabulary learning. this study is in line with another study that was conducted by bolukbas (2009) to examine the effect of language learning strategies on learning vocabulary of turkish as a foreign language. the results showed positive results of strategy training. however, this study manifested the psychological side of language learning training. the participants in this study were stressed because they were not exposed to the strategy's training before. another study, which was done by rahimay and shams (2012), showed that learners who did better in the vocabulary test use more strategies than low-score learners. the high-score group used vlss the most. these strategies were cognitive, memory, and determination strategies. the metacognitive and social strategies were the least often used ones. another study specialized in the effect of semantic mapping was conducted by abdelrahman in 2013. the focus was to explore the effect of this strategy on the efl students‟ acquisition of the lexical items. only semantic mapping, which is considered one of the most effective memory strategies (direct strategies), was used. the results revealed significant differences between the experimental and control groups in favor of the experimental group. likewise, the main concern of ostovar-namaghi's ma thesis (2013) irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 218 was to investigate the effect of strategy training on the vocabulary development of efl learners in public high schools of iran. similar to the conclusion drawn by rahimy and shams (2012), the results were better for the group that got vocabulary strategy training over the group that learned vocabulary through prescribed by textbook activities interestingly, the current study's findings reveal the connection between the mode of teaching and the students' use of llss. the data from the second and third questions show that students in the explicitly trained group used memory and cognitive strategies more than the implicitly trained one. this result can be attributed to the fact that learners from the cognitive style continuum are class-oriented (witkin, 1976). it means that learners tend to develop skills that they are trained to use. as o'malley et.al (1985) put it, “students without metacognitive approaches are essentially learners without direction or opportunity to review their progress, accomplishment, and future directions.” (p.561). for that reason, o'mally & chamot (1990) support the inclusion of learning strategies in the classroom discourse as it fosters the learning process. this study also aims to highlight the role of the teachers in fostering lls. hall (1997) highlights the teacher's role as a bedrock in fostering strategy development. according to hismanoglu (2000), the teachers' role can exceed the mission of training the students on using lls but it also includes analyzing the course-books to determine whether lls training is included or not; in case of being neglected to look for extra material to foster lls. hall (1997) confirms that explicit strategy training is fruitful while approaching language as problem-solving, he states: the role of questioning and reflective tasks is important as through asking oneself 'how did i learn that?' that awareness of one's' plans' is developed. the reflection can be part of skills development in such often-neglected areas as note-taking. if one examines this one skill as an example, one can find an important area for strategy training. given that notes are a means by which learners focus on what they are trying to learn it is useful to point out to auditory learners how highlighted information is weighted by stress and tone. visual learners can be taught the relationship between the heard information and the user of color to learn salient pieces of information. (p.7) hall (1997) also stresses the importance of the evaluation of how teachers and learners process information. he states that teachers' self-evaluation can be a model for learners. conclusion and implications this study aims at exploring the effect of teaching memory and cognitive strategies explicitly and implicitly on vocabulary learning for intermediate learners at the (hli). it attempts to find out if the results differ depending on the teaching method. this research also seeks to identify the preferred method used by teachers while using memory and cognitive strategies. the findings of this research are based on the data obtained from efl intermediate learners, in addition to efl teachers at the higher language institute (hli) while teaching one course (intermediate level 1). the results of this research are linked to the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 219 findings of previous similar studies in the field of vocabulary learning strategies, and it confirms the positive correlation between explicit lls training and vocabulary learning. a number of limitations to the research must be taken into consideration. the research has investigated the effect of teaching memory and cognitive strategies on learning vocabulary for efl intermediate learners from different points of view, which aimed at distinguishing it from previous research in the same field. however, the research has only concentrated on memory and cognitive strategies due to the lack of time. the study was conducted on two classes at the intermediate level. investigating other levels may add more insights into using these strategies. only the short-term effects of both memory and cognitive strategies were investigated. other studies can investigate the long-term effects of those strategies such as compensation and metacognitive strategies. the study was conducted at the hli. it would add more value to the research if it were applied at the university level since it concentrates on adult learners. to conclude, a number of limitations, as the aforementioned points demonstrate, are due to time limitations. some recommendations for further research in the field are suggested in the following section. based on the findings of this research and its limitations, the following can be taken into account to build upon the results of this research and the previous studies: the effect of memory and cognitive strategies can be investigated from the elementary level to the advanced one to investigate the effect of using these strategies from different angles and detect any other varieties at different levels. researching memory and cognitive strategies can include a greater number of both learners and teachers to gather various viewpoints. to gather more rich data, interviewing both learners and teachers can add a wider scope on the effect of using memory and cognitive strategies implicitly or explicitly. more weight can be given to the learning strategies proposed section by assigning it certain marks in the language test. further research on memory and cognitive strategies might be studied in different contexts. future research can investigate memory and cognitive strategies in different contexts and compare the results of teaching those strategies in these contexts. disclosure statement there is no conflict of interest reported by the authors. acknowledgments we would like to thank all participants who participated in this study. also we would like to thank irje and reviewers for accepting our article. references abdelrahman, o. n. 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(1990). learning strategies in second language acquisition. cambridge: cambridge university press. o'malley, j. m., chamot, a. u., stewner‐manzanares, g., kupper, l., & russo, r. p. (1985). learning strategies used by beginning and intermediate esl students. language learning, 35(1), 21-46.and ostovar-namaghi, s. a. (2013). the effect of strategy training on the vocabulary development of efl learners in public high schools of iran. theory and practice in language studies, 3(11), 2061-2066. oxford, r. (1990). language learning strategies. new york, 3. oxford, r. l., & scarcella, r. c. (1994). second language vocabulary learning among adults: state of the art in vocabulary instruction. system, 22(2), 231-243. palinscar, a. s., & brown, a. l. (1984). reciprocal teaching of comprehension-fostering and comprehension-monitoring activities. cognition and instruction, 1(2), 117-175. rahimy, r., & shams, k. (2012). an investigation of the effectiveness of vocabulary learning strategies on iranian efl learners‟ vocabulary test score. international education studies, 5(5), 141. rasekh, z. e., & ranjbary, r. (2003). metacognitive strategy training for vocabulary learning. tesl-ej, 7(2), 1-18. schmitt, n. (1997). vocabulary learning strategies. in n. schmitt, & m. mccarthy (eds.) vocabulary: description, acquisition and pedagogy. cambridge: cambridge university press. schmitt, n. (2000). vocabulary in language teaching. cambridge: cambridge university press. schmitt, n., & mccarthy, m. (eds.). (1997). vocabulary: description, acquisition and pedagogy. cambridge: cambridge university press. tassana-ngam, i. (2004). the effect of vocabulary learning strategies training on thai university students’ word retention in the second language classroom. unpublished thesis. retrieved february 18, 2015, from http://www.lll.hawaii.edu/nflrc/networks/nw14/ tavakoli, m., & gerami, e. (2011). the effect of keyword and pictorial methods on efl learners‟ vocabulary learning and retention. porta linguarum, 1(19), 299-316 wallace, m. j. (1982). teaching vocabulary (no. 10). heinemann. wenden, a. (1987). how to be a successful language learner: insights and prescriptions from l2 learners. learner strategies in language learning, 103117. weinstein, c. e., & mayer, r. e. (1986). the teaching of learning strategies in m, wittrock (ed) hand book of research on teaching pp (315-327). new york, macmillan. wilkins, d. a. (1972). linguistics in language teaching. london: edward arnold. wilson, d., & cakir, h. (2011). two dimensions of teacher knowledge: the case of communicative language teaching. system, 39, 381-390. witkin, h. a. (1976). cognitive style in academic performance and in teacher-student relations. individuality in learning, 38, 1-58. http://www.lll.hawaii.edu/nflrc/networks/nw14/ irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 1|june|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 222 biographical notes darin nshiwi is a phd student at multilingualism doctoral school, the university of pannonia, hungary; and an english language instructor at arab international university, yarmouk private university and damascus university, syria; dareen33omar@gmail.com mailto:dareen33omar@gmail.com this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 448 undergraduate novice researchers’ experiences in conducting mini-research in education: kolb learning cycle adaninggar septi subekti 1 abstract this study investigated eight pre-service english teachers‟ first experiences in conducting mini-research analyzed using four stages of kolb experiential learning cycle, consisting of concrete experience (ce), reflective observation (ro), abstract conceptualisation (ac), and active experimentation (ae) stages. it was conducted to fill the void in studies in the area of research methods instruction in the english as second language (esl) context. the study used qualitative analysis on secondary data in the forms of student reflections. through thematic analysis, this study found five themes. from three themes of experiences, it was found that the participants‟ experiences were mainly in the first three stages of the cycle, ce, ro, and ac. only two of the five themes suggested that the participants had achieved, to certain extent, ae stage, characterized with decision-making and problem solving, which may be attributed to the participants‟ being beginner researchers who still needed more experiences in research. keywords kolb experiential learning cycle, secondary data, thematic analysis 1. english language education department, faculty of education and humanities, universitas kristen duta wacana, yogyakarta, indonesia; e-mail: adaninggar@staff.ukdw.ac.id mailto:adaninggar@staff.ukdw.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 449 introduction people often hear or say such common saying as “practice makes perfect” to mean that people are getting better in doing something when they keep practicing it. this saying may be stemmed from a long existing scholarly theory proposed by john dewey in 1938 highlighting the important role of „trying‟ to do something to understand problems and find possible solutions, emphasizing that every experience is a force leveling up those who have it (chrysostomou, 2013). dewey‟s idea brought a noteworthy change in the concept of learning in which there had been clear movement from passive to active learning, bringing to the spotlight constructivism, believing learners to be the ones constructing knowledge through reflections (chrysostomou, 2013; kolb & kolb, 2008). the concept of experience and reflection produces learning has since been established in literature in the field of education. john dewey‟s seminal work might have set the embryo of the idea of „experiential learning‟ recognizing the role of experience and reflection in learning (mesquita, 2016). since then, educational field began to pay more attention to the potential role of learners‟ hand-on experiences in learning. a breakthrough in the recognition of experience for learning might be set through the seminal work of david kolb introducing kolb learning cycle (kolb, 1984) possibly taking into account a central principle in dewey‟s earlier theory that learning growth based on experiences does not have an end (mesquita, 2016). despite the potential role of continuous hand-on experiences in learning, several courses at the university level seem to overlook it, research methodology courses being one of them. typically, courses on research methodology are given when students are in the upper semester readying themselves for conducting research for their theses. however, several studies have found that despite the importance of research courses, many students perceived such courses as intimidating and terrifying ones (crooks et al., 2010; denham, 1997; pfeffer & rogalin, 2012). denham (1997) even mentioned that research methods could be the most difficult course to teach at undergraduate level. some authors argued that from the very beginning, students tend to be intimidated by the name of the course, the materials, and even construct formidable psychological barriers that even to teach them fairly simple methodological concepts could be very difficult (ball & pelco, 2006; denham, 1997). negative perceptions on research courses may partly be attributed to the impressions of such courses (braguglia & jackson, 2012). these courses have long been characterized with boring lectures on various methodological concepts and demands to understand those concepts as well as perceived irrelevance of the materials to students‟ every day‟s lives (ball & pelco, 2006; breunig, 2010). despite the afore-mentioned inherent challenges in teaching this course, this course seemed to receive inadequate attention (crooks et al., 2010). the same previously mentioned phenomenon might also be typical in the contexts of english language education department (eled) preparing future english teachers. despite the previously mentioned issues and the widespread availability of books on research methods (e.g.: creswell, 2014; kothari, 2014; walliman, 2011, to name a few), scientific studies focusing on research method courses for pre-service english teachers were still very rare. in fact, as future teachers, pre-service english teachers might not only need research skills in order to complete their theses but also to conduct continuous educational irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 450 research practices in their day-to-day teaching profession in the future (hine, 2013). moreover several studies indicated that english teachers or pre-service english teachers generally face difficulties in conducting research (see cirocki, 2014; hine, 2013), further giving some kind of support that the issue of instruction in research method courses in eled might have been under-researched and under-addressed. in consideration of previous studies in the field of research method teaching favoring learners‟ hands-on experiences in learning research rather than teacher-centred approach, and a more interesting way to teach about methods (e.g.: braguglia & jackson, 2012; breunig, 2010; davidson & palermo, 2015), a research method class named data analysis was, based on the information in the syllabus, designed to facilitate learners to have hands-on experience on analyzing various data through mini-research data analysis process. this included conducting interviews, observations, and distributing questionnaires and analyzing the obtained data in relation with research questions, which at this stage could be adapted from existing studies in english language teaching (elt). it was expected that on the completion of the course, the pre-service teacher students were able to conduct interviews and analyze interview data using thematic analysis, conduct observation using field notes and report the findings, prepare questionnaires, distribute them, record obtained data in spss, execute descriptive statistics and correlation formula on the data, and interpret the findings. the assessments in the class included three progress assessments assessing their overall performances in interviews, observations, and quantitative methods, respectively, and two written reflections on their learning experiences. in relation with that and the previously-mentioned issues surrounding research method courses and scarcity of studies on research method instruction in the english as second language (esl) contexts, this paper aims to answer the research question: how are pre-service teachers‟ first experiences in conducting mini-research using various methods in data analysis class seen from kolb experiential learning cycle? literature review david kolb introduced kolb learning cycle adapting the basic principle of dewey‟s earlier theory that learners learn through continuous hands-on experiences (kolb, 1984). kolb learning cycle, furthermore, consists of four stages or components of learning. for successful learning, kolb argued, learners should actively engage in all four components, concrete experience (ce), reflective observation (ro), abstract conceptualizations (ac), and lastly, active experimentation (ae) (kolb, 1984). ce stage necessitates learners to be open-minded towards any new experiences and engage themselves in that experience to gain as much knowledge as possible (kolb, 1984). in the ro stage, learners should be able to reflect on the experiences they have obtained in the ce stage and observe any meaningful knowledge from various viewpoints (kolb, 1984). the next stage, ac, is where the obtained knowledge from the previous two stages are integrated; that is the integration of their background knowledge and experiences and new experiences to create concepts or a new understanding (kolb & kolb, 2008). in the last stage, ae, furthermore, learners transforms the new understanding obtained in ac to theories or realizations that could be applied in decision making as well as problem solving (kolb et al., 2005). it is further argued that irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 451 learning is not only the product of cognitive process but also that of holistic integration of learners‟ thoughts, feeling, perceptions, and behaviors (kolb & kolb, 2008). kolb learning cycle can be seen in figure 1. figure 1. kolb learning cycle (kolb, 1984) experiential learning demands teachers to take a role of facilitators and guides helping learners to have as meaningful experiences as possible rather than take up the role of traditional teachers as experts (knutson, 2003). even though many esl instructors have been familiar with this role, paradigm shift is needed for those instructors who still believe that teacher-centred approach is the best way to teach content courses (knutson, 2003), research methodology course being one of them. whilst teachers no longer take the role of depositor of knowledge in class, their role as facilitator is central and will contribute much to the success of the students‟ learning through their thought-provoking questions, and accepting heart and mind (boggu & sundarsingh, 2016; knutson, 2003). through carefully designed tasks, teachers could facilitate learners to produce what swain (1995) called as “pushed output”, which is an output learners are questionably able to produce unless they are forced to do so by the tasks. in this case, teachers help learners to integrate the experiences and provide a connection between the experiences and the goal of the class and curriculum in general (boggu & sundarsingh, 2016), thus helping facilitate relevance. experiential learning has been implemented in various educational disciplines (kolb et al., 2005) suggesting its interdisciplinary popularity. in esl field, for instance, there have concrete experience (ce) (doing/having an experience) reflective observation (ro) (reviewing/reflecting on the experiences) abstract conceptualisation (ac) (concluding/learning from the experience/creating new understanding) active experimentation (ae) (planning/trying out what have been learnt/problem solving) irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 452 been several studies on experiential learning in the indonesian contexts (e.g.: komalasari, 2013; meitikasari, 2016; mudra & indrayadi, 2017) and outside indonesia (e.g.: biabani & izadpanah, 2019; burns & danyluk, 2017; campos, 2017) and they generally found favorable results on the role of experiential learning towards learners‟ language learning. meitikasari (2016), for instance, reported that experiential learning helped the indonesian learner participants achieve higher writing performance. burns and danyluk (2017) also found that their pre-service teacher participants developed emergent professionalism through examining their hands-on learning environment and various sources of feedback on improvements. in the field of research methodology teaching, experiential learning has been implemented across educational disciplines as well (e.g., braguglia & jackson, 2012; breunig, 2010; davidson & palermo, 2015). davidson and palermo (2015) found that undergraduate nutrition students showed enjoyment and improvement in research skills when they experienced research itself, consistent with findings of previous studies in the same field. braguglia's and jackson's (2012) study in the business management field, furthermore, reflected critically on experiences in teaching research courses at undergraduate level. they found a research methodology course offering interactive environment where students master technical information through experience, reflection, and critical analysis is more effective for the development of students‟ research skill and generally more favored by students. this resonates several other authors‟ idea that in order to learn research and evaluate research practices critically, problem solving experiences are better than memorizing research definitions and terms (e.g.: ball & pelco, 2006; lundahl, 2008; pfeffer & rogalin, 2012). methodology research design, site, and participants in general, the present study employed qualitative research design with secondary document analysis as the method of data collection (creswell, 2014). the secondary documents were in the forms of student participants‟ written reflections they submitted to the class teacher in the middle and at the end of the even semester of 2018/2019 academic year. the reflections were about any notable experiences they had during practicing conducting mini-research using interviews, observations, and questionnaires. there were in total sixteen reflections with 500-1000 words in length each. these reflections were written in english. as the secondary data were not specifically aimed for the study, there was a possibility that particular information in relation with the research purposes was not extensively available (hox & boeije, 2005; walliman, 2011). hence, these data were evaluated to ensure the adequacy as well as the suitability to address the research purpose before they were further analysed (hox & boeije, 2005; kothari, 2014). furthermore, the use of reflections could also serve some merits as learners were not under study at the time of writing the reflections. this enabled more truthful accounts free from any tendencies from participants to “help” the research by giving desirable, yet dishonest responses as what they irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 453 wrote in the reflections was not influenced by the current study‟s purposes in any way (subekti, 2019). the use of students‟ reflections in the area of experiential learning is an already established practice. in the field of research method instruction, more specifically, several previous studies has highlighted the roles of the student researchers‟ reflective accounts in capturing the dynamics of their experiences in dealing with research (e.g.: boggu & sundarsingh, 2016; emo et al., 2015). besides, in the esl field, the use of reflections is not new at all (see komalasari, 2013). more specifically, analysing students‟ reflections to capture students‟ reported experiences could not only be seen as methodologically appropriate (creswell, 2014), but it was also a strategic choice considering the big role of reflections in the field of experiential learning (chrysostomou, 2013; kolb, 1984; mesquita, 2016). the participants of the research were eight pre-service english teachers taking data analysis class at a university in indonesia in the even semester of 2018/2019 academic year. of these eight participants, one was male and the other seven were female. they were in the sixth semester of their undergraduate study. the participants filled consent forms indicating their voluntary participation in the study as well as their consent allowing the uses of their reflections to be used for this study‟s purposes. this practice was in accordance with several principles of research ethics emphasizing voluntary participation and the participants‟ autonomy in making decisions (israel & hay, 2006). to protect the confidentiality of the participants (israel & hay, 2006), throughout the presentation of the data in the report, the participants‟ real names were changed into pseudonyms. data analysis the students‟ reflections were analysed using thematic analysis. as suggested by braun and clarke (2006), results would be presented in themes. the first step was to familiarise with the analysed data by reading and rereading them and giving comments in each of the microsoft word reflection file on potential themes. the next was finding the recurring themes and it was conducted through taking separate notes on possible themes. then, extract examples, the participants‟ verbatim quotes, best reflecting the themes in relation with the research purposes were selected for report (braun & clarke, 2006). they were presented sequentially from the mostly repeated to the least. the use of verbatim quotes, instead of indirect reports, were emphasised in this study to enable each theme to offer rich descriptions of data as the key characteristics of qualitative research (creswell, 2014). the use of thematic analysis allows an in-depth presentation of qualitative results showing particularity and uniqueness of each participant‟s viewpoints (creswell, 2014). to ensure trustworthiness of the study, participant review (gray, 2014) was conducted after thematic analysis was completed. at this stage, all of the eight participants were asked to review the synthesised themes for accuracy of representation (gray, 2014). after participant review was completed, the results of the thematic analysis were further reported and analysed. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 454 the sequence of data collection and analysis could be observed in figure 2. figure 2. sequence of data collection and analysis findings there were eight student participants in which one was male and the other seven were female. at the time of the study, they were in their sixth semester of their study. the pseudonyms of the participants were as follows: banu (male/m), linda (female/f), lina (f), merry (f), sari (f), susi (f), julia (f), lisa (f). table 1 shows the emerging themes on the participating students‟ first experiences in their conducting mini-research using various methods. table 1. emerging themes on the student participants’ first experiences in their conducting mini-research using various methods theme 1. conducting interviews was not as easy as the students imagined. sub-theme 1.1. interviewing demanded good skills in asking impromptu questions. sub-theme 1.2. transcribing and translating interview transcripts could be time-consuming and they needed students‟ focus. sub-theme 1.3. finding interview participants could be tricky. theme 2. experiences in conducting various methods enabled students to decide what methods they were going to use in their theses. theme 3. the experiences were relevant to their future needs in conducting research for their theses. theme 4. the experiences facilitated the students to realise their difficulties and formulate solutions. theme 5. teacher‟s encouragement and demand were necessary to push students to stretch their own limit. reviewing data analysis class syllabus for suitability with kolb‟s learning cycle contacting students taking data analysis class to be the participants distributing consent forms to the students to use their mid-semester and final written reflections as data analysing the students‟ reflections based on kolb‟s learning cycle using thematic analysis conducting participant review for accuracy of reviewing all the reflections for adequacy and suitability to address the research purposes reporting the results and conducting analysis of the results irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 455 theme 1. conducting interviews was not as easy as the students imagined almost all learners reported that they used to think conducting interviews was easy, but they later found that it was not that simple. lina and linda, for examples, explicitly reported: “... doing the interview ... is not easy.” [linda] “... i thought that interview was really easy ... until the time came, i did the interview and i felt how hard it was.” [lina] as to why the students perceived conducting interviews was challenging, this study found several recurring sub-themes. sub-theme 1. 1. interviewing demanded good skills in asking impromptu questions. the most common findings on the perceived difficulties were on preparing interview checklist and asking follow-up questions on site. lina and susi, for instances, reported that their first interviews did not run as expected because they did not know how to ask further questions to their participants once these participants had responded to their initial questions. “... i found difficulties in formulating... questions. i had no idea to ask more questions... when i asked about my friend‟s perceptions... she gave an answer. but the problem here was i did not know what to ask next.” [lina] “questions i prepared were not answered well by the participant and i was also confused what to ask next... the participant just answered “yes/no” then i was confused on how to continue my interview.” [susi] julia, furthermore, also reported the same challenge. as she was still lacking, she reported that the success of the interviews was partly attributed to her interviewees. when the interviewees talked more without any prompting, the interviews tended to be more successful, and vice versa, if the interviewees were reticent ones, the more unlikely she would obtain much information. regarding this, julia asserted: “maya* did not talk as much as nora* did. so, i had to make spontaneous questions to get more answers. this was quite challenging… i needed to make more than four spontaneous questions to fulfil ten minutes.” [julia] *formerly identifying information changed into pseudonyms despite their reported lacking, however, some students were able to come up with ideas on what to do differently for more successful interviews. for example, whilst merry prepared more interview questions beforehand, sari used “why” questions to inquire more. they reflected: “[preparing] more questions [interview checklist] beforehand is better to find more information from the participants.” [merry] irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 456 “... while interviewing we have to dig much information from the participants naturally... asking them like „why do you think so?‟ we can follow the participants' flow but do not lose focus. remember, we have to always remember our research questions.” [sari] sub-theme 1.2. transcribing and translating interview transcripts could be time-consuming and they needed students’ focus. the second most commonly reported difficulty in relation with conducting interviews was the transcription and translation stages. lina, for instance, reported that translation machine could not help her much and she should translate manually. she reported: “my interviewee and i did not use the formal language, so google translate could not translate it properly. therefore, i translated it myself manually.” [lina] the use of informal indonesian language in interviews seemed to pose a particular challenge for the students. susi also reported a slightly similar view: .”.. such a burden for me to finish these two things [transcription and translation]... we were using informal indonesian language and there were a lot of informal indonesian words in my interview... i was not sure on how to transcribe them correctly... the process did not end there. the next step was waiting and it was translation! ... so difficult for me to finish... a lot of informal words...” [susi] lisa seemed to conclude that to finish the whole process, persistence and focus were needed. she stated: “[that we] should listen and type the recording word by word [transcribing] was not really easy. it really demanded our focus and [i] needed some time to repeat it again and again.” [lisa] sub-theme 1.3. finding interview participants could be tricky. the students reported that to find participants willing to be their interviewees posed a particular challenge. banu reported he thought finding research participants was easy just like it seemed to be in many journal articles he read. he then realised that he might have mistaken. he stated: “… what i learned from this class is conducting the research... especially looking for participants was not as easy as [it looked like in] journal [articles] that we read.” [banu] sari also acknowledged the same challenge, commenting that she had a particular difficulty in finding matching schedules between her and the prospective interviewees. “... finding participants is not easy... i contacted two of students and none of them had a matching schedule with me. eventually, i had to change my topic... it was difficult to match schedule with students from other faculties.” [sari] even when an appointment had been made, some unexpected things might happen. this was reported by merry in which the prospective teacher participant suddenly forgot they had prior appointment. she said: irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 457 “i contacted a teacher to be my participant... he agreed... we made an appointment... [but then] he forgot it and i should suddenly change my plan.” [merry] theme 2. experiences in conducting various methods enabled students to decide what methods they were going to use in their theses after conducting mini-research using various methods in data analysis class, learners seemed to be pleased with all the experiences and have been able to consider each method‟s merits and challenges. regarding this, sari and susi commented: “i am really grateful to experience them [the methods] because i could comprehend each method; both its strength and weakness... each has its own challenge.” [sari] “i am so grateful learning different methods... each of them has its own strength and weakness.” [susi] both went on to state that experiencing various methods helped them decide which methods they were going to use in their future theses. they further reported: “i have decided qualitative method... to be implemented in my future thesis... [i] decide the suitable method... real plan for future thesis.” [sari] “i have decided that i am going to use qualitative method for my future thesis by conducting observations and interviews... also, comparing methods that i learned in this class, i still prefer qualitative method. it caught my interest... after i have experienced other methods, i find that i am more capable to conduct qualitative method than other methods.” [susi] another student, lisa, also gave comments resonating similar message. she stated, “by learning two models of research methods, i can understand which method that is appropriate to be used... the class helps us to be ready to decide how many participants we need, [and] the sequence of conducting research.” [lisa] theme 3. the experiences were relevant to their future needs in conducting research for their theses learners reported the usefulness of the experiences they obtained from the class for their future theses. linda commented that through the class, she finally realised that conducting interviews and observations, which she would do in her future thesis, needed thorough preparations and treatments. she reported: “[the class] helps me to know how to make interview questions, transcribe, do thematic analysis, and build an observation checklist. beforehand, i really did not know that observation and interview need such treatments... [now] i really know how to make my interview and observation run well for my thesis later.” [linda] irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 458 though being less evident as a recurring theme, the class was also perceived positively in equipping learners with knowledge on how to conduct quantitative research in their theses. it could be seen from merry‟s remarks: “as i plan to use quantitative method [in my thesis], this class really helps me to learn about analysing data using spss. i learn how to make correlation formula.” [merry] julia, another student deciding to conduct quantitative research, even commented that the hands-on experiences she obtained in the class facilitated her to understand her choice of method better. she stated: “[though] i have difficulty understanding and interpreting the correlation in spss ... i keep trying to understand and interpret the correlation in spss ... i need to explain further the results of the correlation in my thesis... [the class] really helps me not only to understand some theories of the quantitative and qualitative methods but to practice directly in the field. so, later when i do my thesis… i will… exactly follow the sequences... that i have done in this class.” [julia] theme 4. the experiences facilitated the students to realise their difficulties and formulate solutions facing challenges when practicing using certain methods did not seem to discourage the students from practicing the methods in the future. lina, for instance, despite acknowledging that she was weak in dealing with number and making mistake in interpreting correlation data in spss, decided she would use quantitative in her thesis. she seemed to be determined in compensating her lacking by continuing practising. she commented: “i do not fully understand about correlation [formula]. it is very hard... honestly, i am very slow at analysing... numbers ... yet, it does not mean that i give up. i can still learn and improve myself... i will continue to study hard... i read some books and articles... about quantitative method... i could learn how to deal with my mistakes ... i made mistakes in analysing the data. yet, it was yesterday. that means there is still time to learn from my mistakes and practice more.” [lina] in a similar tone, sari reported her experience of having unfruitful interviews where she was unable to obtain useful data due to her lacking in questioning skills and through that experience, she was able to formulate possible solution. she stated: “going through this experience [missing in-depth perceptions of the participants due to low quality interviews], i will do real action to improve my skill, especially in finding the participants, preparing and asking questions in detail and obtaining good quality data.” [sari] another student, susi, who faced a similar challenge in interviewing, had even planned to practice with her fellow friends before conducting real interviews in her thesis. she stated: irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 459 “i did not refer to my research questions [when asking questions]... the data that i got was not answering my research questions... before conducting the real interview for my future thesis, i have to practice a lot... my plan is to practice with classmates and also other students from different faculties or even university.” [susi] theme 5. teacher’s encouragement and demand were necessary to push students to stretch their own limit. the last but not least, teacher‟s encouragement and reassurance were reported as a factor contributing to the students‟ courage in dealing with the demands of the class. this theme was particularly evident at the beginning of the semester when the students might still feel anxious about their perceived incompetency in facing stereotypically difficult research method courses such as data analysis. sari, for example, confessed that her teacher‟s assurance boosted her self-confidence. she reported: “honestly, in the first meeting of the class, i was afraid of facing this subject because i thought i would not be ready for this. but, the teacher told us, „you will never know if you never try‟. therefore, instead of being worried too much, i tried first.” [sari] furthermore, the teacher‟s emphasis on hands-on experience rather than merely getting things right as the focus of the class was also reported to alleviate the students‟ worry. regarding this, susi remarked: “i was actually not so ready for it [interviewing], yet the teacher told us that the most important thing in this class is „hands-on experience‟. therefore, i just followed what she asked us to do and finally i could finish my first interviews with three participants... i never postponed my work, so it was finally done. as the teacher said the most important thing is „hands-on experience‟ so from it i know the struggle of using qualitative method.” [susi] lisa, who was initially able to conduct interviews for only four minutes long, could finally be able to conduct two interviews, each of which being ten minutes long, after the teacher demanded her to do so whilst still emphasising on hands-on experience. lisa reported: “my teacher [said] we should get [at least] ten minutes for each interview. she also asked us to look for more than one interviewee, so we could compare different interview results. i tried again to interview my friend [after conducting an interview for only four minutes], and finally, i got more than ten minutes for that interview. then i did my second interview… i also got more than ten minutes.” [lisa] discussion the most recurring theme on the unexpected difficulty surrounding conducting interviews captured learners‟ reflective observation (ro) and abstract conceptualisation (ac) irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 460 of their experiences in conducting their first-ever research-based interviews. learners came to a realisation (ro and ac), through their concrete experience (ce) (kolb & kolb, 2008) of conducting interviews, that conducting interviews to answer research questions were not the same as, or as simple as, having informal conversations with people in daily life. the finding that the participants stopped at the third stage, ro, in which they realised challenges of interviewing through reflections of experiences, may be attributed to the fact that the participants had never conducted any research-based interviews before. hence, whatever they experienced in the process may be a first for them. however, this also suggested that the hands-on experiences they had facilitated them to realise future challenges in conducting interviews they otherwise would not have realised sooner, signifying, to some extents, learning progress. furthermore, the results indicating that the hands-on experiences on conducting various methods enabled them to decide the methods of their future theses indicated the ability of decision-making. this showed evident ro, ac, and ae of learners (kolb, 1984). this finding might also suggest the effectiveness of experiential learning in teaching students research, further replicating the findings of several previous studies in the field of research methods (e.g.: braguglia & jackson, 2012; breunig, 2010; davidson & palermo, 2015; lundahl, 2008). another thing worth further comment was that the participants achieved all the four stages of kolb learning cycle, especially the ae stage characterised with decision-making ability, after they experienced conducting mini-research with different methods in a semester. this indicated that the more exposure to various hands-on experience the students had, the more they learned. moreover, the theme on the relevance of the experiences they got in data analysis class to their future needs of conducting research for their theses might suggest, to some extent, the success of the implementation of experiential learning in data analysis class unlike many such classes heavily focusing on understanding concepts without hands-on experiences in conducting research (breunig, 2010). that learners saw connection between the class instruction and their future needs in doing their theses also indicated that the course had facilitated relevance (ball & pelco, 2006). seen from kolb learning cycle, learners‟ excerpts also further suggested reflective observation on their own experiences and connect the experiences with their future needs (kolb, 1984). this finding may also give some kind of support that research method courses should be designed as relevant as possible to learners‟ future needs of conducting research, minimising the stigma on the perceived irrelevance of research method courses‟ materials to students‟ needs (see ball & pelco, 2006; breunig, 2010). furthermore, the fourth theme that learners‟ experiences in the class facilitated them to realise their difficulties and formulate solutions was particularly interesting. it was worth noting that all four components of kolb learning cycle were evident in this particular theme. based on learners‟ reflective observation on their research experiences, learners created a new understanding based on which they made decision on how to solve their problems. the excerpts from learners in this theme reported that they were progressing from ae, ro, ac, to ae (kolb et al., 2005; kolb & kolb, 2008). this finding could indicate that learners‟ immediate needs could stimulate them to achieve the last stage of kolb learning cycle, ae. students faced the reality that they were not yet good at irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 461 things they really needed for success and this realisation compelled them to plan possible solutions. the last recurring theme was teacher‟s encouragement and demand were necessary to push students to stretch their own limit. whilst this theme indirectly further confirmed the reiteration of several authors stating that learners tended to be intimidated by the research method course even before it started (e.g.: ball & pelco, 2006; denham, 1997), as seen from learners‟ excerpts, this theme also indicated the phenomenon of “pushed output” (swain, 1995). it was a phenomenon in which learners were finally able to perform something they previously thought they were not able to do due to being compelled by the task, in this case, by their teacher‟s encouraging instruction, neutralising learners‟ anxiety. this theme, as seen from sari‟s comments, also suggested learners‟ open-mindedness to experience something new however daunting it might be, suggesting the first step of experiential learning, ce (kolb & kolb, 2009; kolb, 1984). susi‟s and lisa‟s comments, furthermore, indicated that they pushed themselves and finally succeeded in meeting the expectation of conducting interviews with minimum 10 minute-duration, suggesting open-mindedness to a new experience as the starting points of learning (kolb, 1984). from all the five themes, three themes suggested that learners‟ experiences were dominant in the first three stages of kolb learning cycle. they were ce, where learners actually experienced conducting mini-research studies, re where they reflected on their experiences and mentioned various new knowledge they obtained from the experiences, and ac where they formulated new understanding or realised something they did not know previously. ae, characterised with planning, decision-making and problem solving based on experiences (kolb et al., 2005; kolb, 1984), were evident in only two themes out of five in which learners reported that from the experiences and their mistakes, they knew what to do in the future theses including deciding what methods they would use and anticipating potential problems. that the last stage of the cycle was only evident in two themes might be attributed to the participants being very new in the field of educational research and they were yet to take real full-scaled research studies. hence, characteristics seen in ae were not fully evident at this early stage of participants‟ research journey. however, it should also be noted that kolb learning cycle is not a matter of rigid step-by-step process, one after another, but it depicts learning growth based on experiences which does not have an end (kolb & kolb, 2008; mesquita, 2016). hence, it was possible that instead of continuing the step to ac, after ro, learners went back to ce, then went all the way to ro and then ac. in other words, whilst it was possible that learners continued their ac to ae, it was also possible that they went all the way back to ce. all depended on various factors such as individual learners‟ engagement in their experiences, level of difficulty of tasks, and external factors like, as seen in this study, teachers‟ encouragement stimulating learners to produce “pushed output”, output learners were doubtfully able to produce if they were not required to do so by the task (swain, 1995). conclusions and recommendations the present study has several possible contributions and implications. this study became one of very rare studies on educational research method instruction in the esl irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 462 setting, which may have long been neglecting the teaching of research methods to esl pre-service teachers at university. hence, this study offered an exploration of the under-research field, thus paving a way for further research in the area. furthermore, as it was found that experiential learning focusing on hands-on experiences were reported not only to help learners really understand research methods but also to actually facilitate them to be engaged in the process of learning, it was suggested that research method instruction in the eled settings shift from typical lecturing style and memorisation of various terminologies in research to the one allowing learners to actually experience research first-hand with prior, necessary lecture sessions on theories to equip them. despite the possible benefits this study offered in the field of educational research methods and on research method instruction, the limitation should be acknowledged. the use of learners‟ reflections written only in the middle and at the end of the semester might contribute to this study‟s inability to capture a relatively complete picture of learners‟ experiences in kolb learning cycle. for example, the themes could not capture the possibility of the progression of learners‟ learning from ae, characterised with decision-making and problem solving, to ce, in which they re-experience and solved problems using their previously-acquired understanding even though, intuitively speaking, despite not saliently, might have happened during the process of their experiencing research. in the light of the study‟s limitation on its inability to capture, in a very detailed way, learners‟ experiences, it is suggested that future studies researching research method instruction take into account learners‟ research journals written in a more frequent manner, such as those written once a week. this will improve the level of details of their experiences. however, care must be taken that writing research journals too frequently might be too burdensome for students who have a high load of other responsibilities. furthermore, as this study had explored research method class‟ students‟ experiences in conducting mini-research in a qualitative way, to investigate using an online survey the views of teachers teaching research method classes at 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(2016). experiential learning (el): an effective teaching method to construct students‟ writing skill viewed from self-efficacy. prosiding ictte fkip uns 2015, 1, 1–9. mesquita, c. (2016). dewey‟s foundations for the experiential based learning. in g. a. massari, f. m. miron, v. kamantauskiene, z. alat, c. mesquita, m. tzakosta, j. k. verheij, & t. zirina (eds.), a handbook on experiential education: pedagogical guidelines for teachers and parents (pp. 26–30). editura universității alexandru ioan cuza din iași,. mudra, h., & indrayadi, t. (2017). experiential learning model in enhancing prospective english teachers‟ teaching competence. indonesian efl journal: journal of elt, linguistics, and literature, 3(1), 78–98. pfeffer, c. a., & rogalin, c. l. (2012). three strategies for teaching research methods: a case study. teaching sociology, 40(4), 368–376. https://doi.org/10.2307/41725520 subekti, a. s. (2019). a study of introduction to colllege english‟s teachers‟ beliefs in their teaching roles. international journal of indonesian education and teaching, 3(1), 21–40. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.24071/ijiet.2019.030103 swain, m. (1995). three functions of output in second language learning. in b. cook & b. seidlhofer (eds.), principles and practices in applied linguistics: papers in honour of h. g. widdowson. oxford university press. walliman, n. (2011). research methods: the basics. routledge. biographical notes adaninggar septi subekti, who obtained her m.sc. in tesol from university of edinburgh, scotland, uk, currently works as a lecturer at the english language education department, faculty of education and humanities of universitas kristen duta wacana (ukdw), yogyakarta, indonesia. the editor-in-chief of saga journal ukdw, she is also a reviewer of ijeltal journal, iain samarinda, and llt irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 465 journal, sanata dharma university. her research interest includes l2 learner‟s individual differences, global englishes, l2 writing, inclusive education, and literature. throughout her teaching career, she has taught students from various levels of education, including teaching esp to medical students and biology students as well as teaching non-english teachers of high schools. though her specialty is in english instruction, she was once also a teacher of the indonesian language at arizona state university from 2013 to 2014. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 215 principals’ perceptions on admission services in kwara state secondary schools, nigeria: a phenomenology approach yusuf suleiman 1 , zahyah hanafi 2 , and muhajir tanslikhan 3 abstract admission service is an essential service that is needed for the implementation of school programmes and for students‟ academic success in secondary schools. therefore, this study investigated principals‟ perceptions on admission services in secondary schools. the research design adopted for the study is phenomenology approach. the participants of the study consist of all principals in kwara state secondary schools. purposive and convenience sampling techniques were used to select 20 principals as participants needed for the study. instrument titled “interview protocol on admission services ipas” was used to elicit views on admission services from the participants. findings of the study revealed that effective admission service had a link with students‟ academic achievement in school. specifically, it indicated that students who went through initial admission screening, such as entrance examination and oral interview performed excellently when given admission. also, their views revealed that admission service was one of the fundamental services in school system and its importance cannot be underestimated. finally, it was suggested that proper planning of admission process should be put in place to ensure good admission service exercise in the school system. keywords admission services, principal, phenomenology approach, secondary school 1. department of educational management and counselling, faculty of education, al-hikmah university, ilorin, kwara state, nigeria; yusufsuleiman@alhikmah.edu.ng 2. school of educational studies, geomatika university, malaysia 3. universitas dr. soetomo, indonesia mailto:yusufsuleiman@alhikmah.edu.ng irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 216 introduction admission service is a systematic process of admitting qualified students who have satisfied the entrance requirements designed by the school. it is also the process by which candidates seeking for admission to schools are selected based on their intellectual ability using the school‟s requirements in selecting the prospective students (archibong, jude, & etudor-eyo, 2011; hsie & hu, 2006; israel & israel, 2014; juradja & munich, 2010; lewin, 2015). the presence of admission services in school is key to overall academic success in the education system. applicants‟ desire for education often put an enormous pressure on secondary schools concerning candidates to be selected for placement in schools (adnett, mccaig, slack, & bowers‐brown, 2011; welsh, 2002; yusuf, zahayah, & tanslikhan, 2016). according to corcoran and baker-smith (2010), the admission unit of the school determines the eligibility of the applicants, as it is saddled with the responsibilities of dealing with those seeking admission. the strategists used for selecting are a quota system, gender, politics, and influence. okoroma (2008) opined that the rate of admission seekers in the nigerian education system is increasing on a yearly basis due to the passion that people have for education. this becomes problematic for schools in deciding on what strategy to adopt for the selection of the applicants. the most common strategy for selection of applicants in the nigerian education system is test and interview. ludeman (2002) and juradja and munich (2010) highlight functions of admission services to include; doing research on demographic trends in school-going population; evaluating the credentials of students of the school; notifying the students about the deferment and termination of students and strategies to recruit new students. sawyer (2013) is of the view that scores of the applicants are the best method that admission personnel can use to screen out those that got the lowest score during the test. before applicants can be screened out, certain benchmarks must be put in place to serve as a standard. it makes it easy for a school to take decision on who to be admitted and who not to be admitted. furthermore, there is a double standard in admission and selection process in the education system, which hinders quality education in nigeria (okoroma, 2008). according to asuru (2002), poor admission policies/unqualified candidates are a common feature in nigerian education system. okoroma (2008) regrets the level of nepotism, favouritism and other vices have beclouded the admission and selection process at all levels of education, which has allowed unqualified candidates to get admission, leaving eminently qualified candidates to be denied admission. israel and israel (2014) confirmed that the poor quality of education in nigeria can be attributed to poor quality of students admitted into schools and that some students got admitted without going through a proper admission process. in the same vein, okoroma (2008) and yusuf (2017) submit that non-adherence to admission standards allow poorly qualified candidates to be admitted into education system in nigeria. moreover, studies suggest that the principal has the responsibility of ensuring efficient and effective services (including admission services) in secondary schools (yusuf, 2017). specifically, school‟s principal, in conjunction with the admission section, set out the irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 217 strategies to be used for the selection of qualified applicants who are seeking placement in a school. in view of the above, the present study investigated principals‟ perceptions on admission services in kwara state secondary schools, nigeria. specifically, it aimed to inquire from the principals their views on issues relating to admission services. since principals are saddled with the responsibility of ensuring effective implementation of admission services, it is believed that their views would shed more light on how admission services influence students‟ academic success in secondary schools with a view to offer a better understanding of the study phenomenon. thus, this study is to investigate principals‟ perception of admission services via a phenomenology approach. this following questions guide the study: 1. what is principal‟s view concerning contemporary issues on admission service in secondary schools? 2. what is principal‟s perceived problems militating against admission services in school? 3. what is principal‟s perceived solutions to the problems of admission services in school? literature review theoretically, student development theory, which is also known as the student services theory, is seen as the part of educational psychology, which theorizes that students gain in a post-educational environment, has been used to explain the importance of admission services in school. the theory articulates that there are certain needs that should be provided for students to improve their knowledge. it is assumed that student needs are influenced by their environment and genetics). this theory can be classified into five groups, namely psycho-social theory, cognitive structural theory, person-environment, humanistic existential and student process models (astin, 1984). the most significant aspect of the group is the psychosocial theory, which has to do with future issues that are related to sequential age which concentrate on individual‟s advancement through a series of stages which is in consonance with the students‟ needs (moore & upcraft, 1990). cognitive structural theory has to do with the way students see and rationalize their school experiences. person-environment talks on the relationship between conceptualization of students and environment. it specifically looks into student and its environment. also, humanistic existential theory focuses on some conceptualization of human student nature, responsibility, self-actualization and freedom and that personal growth is driven by self-awareness, self-disclosure and self-acceptance. similarly, the student development model means the practical and abstract of the needs of the student in school (moore & upcraft, 1990), and part of the need is admission services. basically, psychosocial theory is synonymous with the admission services because it helps to test the intellectual acumen of the students before placement. student development theory helps to understand that development of students starts from the aptitude and interview test that are conducted by the school before their admission. in applying students‟ development theory to this study, irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 218 this theory provides a framework for better knowledge on how students‟ needs (including admission services) should be provided in school so that school can actualize its aim and objectives of establishment. also, the theory enables students to explore variety of services provided for them in order to excel in their academic endeavor (renn, 2008). a reasonable number of quantitative studies have established a relationship between admission service and academic achievement in schools (buchanan & jones, 2010; clinedinst & hawkins, 2011). for instance, archibong, jude, and etudor-eyo (2011) examined the relationship between admission based on gender and students‟ academic achievement in federal government schools in nigeria. the outcome of the study found a significant relationship (high) between admission and academic performance. they were of the view that writing and interview are the most reliable ways for determining students that are to be enrolled for school programs. they concluded that admission of new students should be subject to thorough scrutiny. if the applicants are subjected to due process of admission, it would definitely have a positive relationship with their academic performance. future studies were suggested on admission service and academic performance. in the same vein, sackett, kuncel, arneson, cooper, and waters (2009) worked on the relationship between admission service and academic achievement in colleges and universities. their study found a positive significant relationship between admission services and academic performance. likewise, shaw, marini, and mattern (2013) studied the relationship between admission, placement tests, and students‟ academic performance.. their first year results were used to determine whether a relationship exists between admission services and academic performance in schools. they reported that, admission service do not highly significantly correlate with academic achievement. in another related study, juradja and munich (2010) worked on the gender gap, competitive pressure and admission performance in czech republic schools. they found that admission services influenced academic performance of students. additionally, albanese, snow, skochelak, huggett, and farrell (2003) conducted a study on admission and students‟ academic performance of medical students. their study showed high correlation between admission and academic performance of students. similarly, adnet et al. (2011), hoefer and gould (2000), kuncel, kliegger, connelly, and ones (2013) all found highly significant relationships in their separate studies. they agreed that admission service is the first service to be provided to the prospective applicants. the admission service personnel should be proactive in dealing with the applicant seeking for admission in schools. asuru (2002) and yusuf, zahayah, and thanslikan (2016) confirmed that admission service is needed to achieve school success. kuncel, crede, and thomas (2007) also conducted study on graduate admission test and grade points as the predictive indicators. the findings of their study explained that, admission test conducted for applicants seeking for admission in the school made students to perform excellently when they were admitted. lamadrid-figueroa, castillo-castillo, fritz-hernández, and magaña-valladares (2012) focused their research on the nexus of admission service and academic performance in school. they are of the view that although admission service is a good predictor of students‟ academic performance but future studies is needed to confirm or disconfirm the current findings. agboola, adeyemi, and ogbodo (2014) examined admission irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 219 service as a predictor of students‟ academic achievement. their study revealed a significant relationship between students admitted through criteria policy and academic achievement of such students. they recommended that stakeholders in admission process procedure should assess the helpfulness of admission policies with a view of making a decision on whether to review the admission policy or abolish it. moreover, fan, tsai, su, kosik, morisky, chen, and lee (2010) investigated the impact of admission services by using interviews on medical students‟ admissions as it correlates with academic performance in taiwan. the outcome of the study found a low relationship between interviews and academic performance. yusuf (2017) investigated the relationship between admission services and students‟ academic achievement in secondary schools. an adapted questionnaire was used to elicit data on admission services. the outcome of the study found a positive relationship on admission and academic achievement. the study suggests that a qualitative study should be carried out to support or discountenance the findings. studies suggest that the role of the school principal covers many different areas including teacher evaluation, student discipline, leadership, and many others. being an effective principal is hard work and is also time-consuming. a principal is well-adjusted within all the roles and works hard to ensure he/she is doing is best for all constituents involved (akkary, 2014; amanchukwu & ololube, 2015; rinne, järvinen, tikkanen, & aro, 2016). school principal plans, organize, direct, control, and manage the educational and administrative aspects of secondary schools including physical and human resources. on admission services in school, the school principal plays a vital role in deciding upon the strategies to be used for the selection of applicants. principal, vice-principals, and personnel of the admissions unit brainstorm on the tactics to be used to select qualified applicants (akkary, 2014).the principal determines the admission strategies to be used with head of the admission unit which is called “admission officer”. the admission officer superintends the unit in conjunction with other admission personnel of the unit (adeyemo, 2010; juradja & munich, 2008; okoroma, 2008; israel & israel, 2014; lewin, 2015; sawyer, 2010; soares, 2012). in view of the above studies, it can be deduced that majority of the studies agreed that students who are admitted through proper admission process do well in the school system. taken together, it can be said that the phenomenology approach is yet to be fully explored to investigate admission services in school. methodology research design the research design adopted for the study is a phenomenology type of research. according to creswell (2013), the main goal of the foregoing type is to arrive at a description of the nature of the particular phenomenon. the basis for conducting this study via this approach is to avail us an opportunity of getting a better understanding of how principals‟ perceptions on admission services because the issue on admission services are key to irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 220 achieving the goals of secondary education as enshrined in the national policy of education (creswell, 2013; federal republic of nigeria, 2013; wikiversity, 2015). sampling techniques and participants the study participants consist of all principals of secondary schools from the three senatorial zones in kwara state. in order to select the needed participants for the study, we employed three sampling techniques: stratified, purposive and convenience techniques. first, stratified was used to group schools according to three senatorial districts (kwara south, kwara central, and kwara north) in the state. second, we adopted the purposive technique to select secondary schools across the three. third, convenience sampling technique was used to select 20 schools principals out of the schools selected for the study (creswell, 2013). table below shows how 20 schools‟ principals were selected from the three senatorial districts using stratified, purposive and sampling techniques. table 1. selection of principals for the study s/n senatorial district number of school selected number of principal selected 1 kwara south 10 10 2 kwara central 6 6 3 kwara north 4 4 total 20 20 data collection, codification and transcription, and analysis procedure according to turner (2010), interview protocol is a document is used to conduct an interview session. it contains an introduction, the questions to be asked of the interviewee and topic to focus on in observation. it is also a set of questions to facilitate and guide semi-structured open-ended interviews. in view of the foregoing, we developed an instrument titled “interview protocol on admission services (ipas)” to enquire information from the school principals. the interview protocol has five items; the items were formulated based on research questions of the study. we have valid reasons for the use of interview for the study. first, interview protocol covers vital information that can be used to collect relevant information from the interviewees on admission services. second, interview protocol helps to get an in-depth view, in which an inference can be made from it. the interview protocol was checked by experts in the school of education and modern languages, universiti utara malaysia, to ensure that the questions contained therein suit the purpose of the study. a pilot study was conducted in one secondary school principal that was not selected for the main study. the essence of the pilot study was to ensure the dependability of the interview protocol before the main data collection. the pilot data were transcribed and given back to the principal to check the field-notes and recorded interview to be sure whether what we wrote and recorded are exactly what was taken from him. the irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 221 pilot study‟s findings helped to address and adequately prepare for the main study (creswell, 2013; silverman, 2016; wikiversity, 2015). during main data collection, the selected 20 principals were told to check the field-notes and recorded interview to be sure whether what the researcher wrote and recorded are exactly what was taken from them. the interviewees were given adequate time to respond to the questions contained in the interview protocols. the interviewees were successfully interviewed with the use of digital tape recorder, ipad phone, laptop, pencil, biro, and jotter. the interview sessions were conducted by the authors of this study (creswell, 2013; turner, 2010). to ensure the accuracy of the interview conducted, we carefully and meticulously paid attention to the tape recorder which was used to grant the interviewees from the school principals (silverman, 2016). the interviews we conducted were transcribed; we did the transcription so as to ensure proper transcription of all the interviews granted. the transcription of the interviews produced 16 data pages. the minimum time spent on informants during the interview was 15 minutes while the maximum lasted for 37 minutes. all the interviewees‟ interviews were used for the study. before the analysis of the transcribed interviews, codification and categorization of the themes were done. we jettisoned the idea of manual analysis in qualitative research because we believe that using sophisticated software will help to understand the work better (blismas & dainty, 2003). after the transcription of the interview, the transcribed interviews were carefully coded thematically. below is the code assigned to the 20 selected principals. table 2. informants and code assigned code assigned code assigned informant 1 informant 11 informant 2 informant 12 informant 3 informant 13 informant 4 informant 14 informant 5 informant 15 informant 6 informant 16 informant 7 informant 17 informant 8 informant 18 informant 9 informant 19 informant 10 informant 20 note: informant connotes principal ethical consideration ethical consideration can be identified as one of the most essential parts of the research. research may be condemned to failure if this part is missing (turner, 2010). silverman (2016) defines ethical consideration as a fundamental issue in research, which investigator needs to comply with to ensure truth and prevent errors. thus, ethical consideration requires trust, accountability, fairness, and mutual respect among all parties involved in research. to ensure that this study is free from ethical issues, therefore we irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 222 obtained an introductory letter from the awang had salleh graduate school of arts and sciences, university utara malaysia. the letter was taken to all the selected schools used for the study. the school principals agreed to be part of the study by given their approval before the commencement of the study. this foregoing is consistent with the recommendation of creswell (2013) on the need for ethical consideration in research. specifically, he opined that research participants should not be exposed to harm in any ways whatsoever, respect for the dignity of research participants should be prioritized as well as full consent should be obtained from the participants prior to the study. additionally, the protection of the privacy of research participants has to be ensured. adequate level of confidentiality of the research data should be ensured while anonymity of individuals and organizations participating in the research has to be ensured. findings after data collection, transcription and thematic codifications, three main themes and ten sub-themes were generated in line with the three research questions and objectives of the study. theme one of the study is based on the issues on admission services, theme two is on problems of admission services while theme three is on solutions to the problems of admission services in secondary schools. specifically, table below shows the three main themes and their sub-themes. table 3. thematic coding of the transcribed interview theme one: issues on admission services sub-themes: 1. meaning of admission services 2. nature of admission services 3. provision of admission services 4. importance of admission services theme two: problems of admission services sub-themes: 1. high number of applicants 2. improper planning of admission process 3. politicization theme three : solutions to the problems of admission services sub-themes: 1. de-politicization 2. proper admission planning process 3. high priority on merit irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 223 theme one: contemporary issues on admission services in school informants‟ views on issues of admission services form the theme as displayed in the general model of the study. specifically, the sub-themes under theme include meaning of admission service, nature of admission services, provision of admission service, and importance of admission service. sub-theme one: meaning of admission services, according to informant 5, “…admission service is the process of admitting students into the school by following certain procedures that are in line with admission guidelines. it is a process of admitting students that have the certain criteria for admission into the school system. similarly, informant 7 and 19 were of the view that: “admission can define as the service that takes care of selecting qualified candidates that are seeking placement in school. it is an integral part of the input in the education system. it is the first services that students get before other services.” (informant 7) “admission service is the service provided to recruits the best of the applicants seeking admission placement in the school system.” (informant 19) furthermore, informant 14 opined,“…. admission service is a process which involves selecting candidates who are duly qualified for admission”. informant 16 who support the view of the foregoing expressed, “… admission services are services provided for applicants seeking placement in the school system.” according to informant 17, it is a process of selecting the right candidates for placement in school”. in the same vein, informant 13 understood admission services as: “it can be seen as the process of selecting the suitable candidates for placement in school. admission services are meant to pick the students who are academically ready for academic rigor in school. admission services are essential for the development of the school. admission is a process where prospective students will undergo before getting admitted into the school system. it is a valuable service in the school. it can also be defined as the services that deal with the process of admitting applicants seeking placement in the school system.” likewise, the views of informants 9, 2 and 8 are also in consonance with the position of other informants; they described admission services as: “admission service is a process in which applicants are selected through certain procedures. admission service is an important service in the school. it is the first service that students get before other services.” (informant 9) “admission is about recruiting students into the school for academic excellence. it can be defined as the method used in selecting applicants for admission. it is a kind of service rendered to students seeking placement in school.” (informant 2) irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 224 “it is an essential service that is needed for the development of the education system. admission services are done purposely to recruit students into the school system.” (informant 8) in summary, it has shown that admission services in the school system are akin to the development of the education system. virtually, all the informants interviewed unanimously agreed that admission is a unique service that is first given to prospective applicants seeking placement in the school. it is the cornerstone of the education system at all levels of education (primary, secondary, and tertiary). sub-theme two: nature of admission services, response from informant 10 also revealed that “… state government through the ministry of education is responsible for admission into the junior section. the ministry spearheads the conduct of common entrance examinations…they usually send those that passed the examinations to us for consideration based on a benchmark that the ministry sets out. similarly, the response from informant 20 revealed, “the admission into junior section is usually decided by the state ministry of education. the ministry conducts entrance examination for applicants and has benchmarks which schools will use in admitting students. on senior section, the admission is usually based on the performance of students in secondary examinations conducted examination body (neco). students who pass with five subjects (including math and english) will be admitted to senior classes.” supporting the views of other informants, the view of informant 13 on the nature of admission services in the school shows that: “like other public schools, the ministry of education takes care of the entrance examination of applicants for admission into jss1; they only send those that passed the examinations in various schools of their choice based on the benchmark for admission. on senior section, their admission is based on the performance of students in junior examinations conducted by neco. students who passed with five credits and above will be admitted to various classes of their choice based on their subjects.” the response from informant 15 said that “… we have an admission committee who is responsible for the placement in our school…we advertise, conduct examination as well as interviews with prospective students in our school. informant 19 reported, “like other public schools, the admission here is being conducted the state ministry of education. firstly, an examination called common entrance is usually conducted for applicants seeking placement in our school. after that, successful candidates would be picked based on the score obtained in common entrance. in junior section, the admission is always based on the junior examination results.” sub-theme three: provision of admission services in school, interview conducted for schools‟ principals confirmed the adequate provision of admission services in their respective schools. they point out that the non provision of the service is a disservice to students. the majority of the informants used for the study were very sure of the delivery irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 225 of the services above in their schools. for instance, informant 14 expressed that “admission services are well provided in their school… a school that does not provide it is not a normal school… a school is known by the nature of admission services offered for her students”. in support of the foregoing statement, informant 19 said, “… the provision of admission service is a necessity in education sector, so the provision of it cannot be compromised.” similarly, informant 4 affirmed that “… admission services should be provided at all levels of education (primary, secondary, and higher institution), therefore we provide admission services in our respective schools.” also, informant 12 is of the view that “… provision of admission services for students is carried out in our schools. however, schools should provide admission services for the development of the education system. likewise, informant 10 admitted the provision of admission services for their students in school. sub-theme four: importance of admission services on students’ academic achievement, according to informant 16, admission services help to select qualified candidates for admission. it shows the academic excellence of the school. it helps to fulfill the essence of education. informant 6 also lends credence to the importance of admission in the school that “… admission services help to select the best students to the school and that it creates competition amongst the candidates… it also ensures academic assurance in the school”. in support of the other informants, informants 16 admitted, “admission service helps to admit qualified applicants for admission. it promotes excellence and it eradicates mediocre in the school system. it also helps to promote the image of the school. it promotes academic excellence.” (informant 16) “it helps students to perform better when admitted into the school. it helps to fulfill the essence of education. it is an essential service in the school system.” (informant 14) the above on importance of admission into the school system shows the level of magnitude of importance in which admission stands for. about what others have said, there are expected positive responses are emanating from the informants of the study. informant 7 said, “… to recruit the best students among multiple applicants seeking placement in the school.” informant 5 expressed,…” admission services is meant to fulfill the essence of education because it helps in selecting the best applicants for admission”. similarly, informant 6 opined that it ensures quality assurance in education. also, informant 11 is of the view that…”it helps to determine the number of students to be admitted.” likewise, informant 18 expressed, “the importance of admission is to get students into the school system. another purpose of admission is to fulfill the essence of education which is a social service which government is providing to all interested candidates in the state. another important is for the students to be able to finish his/her in time so as to allow such students to get admission into the university system. the importance of admission service is also to test the intellectual ability of the students.” (informant 18) in the same vein, the more responses emanating from the informants revealed the significance of admission services in school settings. informant 1 said, “… it helps to pick irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 226 select the best candidates for admission and that it promotes academic excellence as well as ensures quality assurance in education”. buttressing this point, informants 17 asserted, “…it makes admitted students perform better and it changes the tone of the school… it also helps to select the right candidates for admission to the school. informant 11‟s view concerning the importance of admission is that“… the importance of admission is to scout for the best brains for placement in our school, and it helps to promote academic excellence so as to enhance the academic performance of students.” theme two: problems of admission services in school after codification of the transcribed interview, codification, problems of admission services in school emerged as theme two of the study. precisely, high number of applicants, improper planning of admission process and politicization of admission emerged as the sub-themes of the theme two. sub-theme one: high number of applicants, according to informant 1 …”high number of applicants is one of the problems that schools in nigeria face when selecting new students to be enrolled.” in the same vein, informants 1 and 2 expressed, “people‟s flair for qualitative education is on the rise. due to this, we often battle with high demand for admission placement in school. since we have limited space in our school, we used admission guidelines to edge out unqualified candidates with a view to admit those that are well qualified among them.” (informant 1) “generally, high number of applicants for admission is a serious concern when it comes to admission services in education system.” (informant 2) in the same vein, there are other informants who hold similar view concerning the high number of applicants that are seeking admission in secondary schools in kwara state. informants 7 and 8 asserted, “the rate at which applicants are seeking placement, most especially in public schools is high. high number of applicants is one of the factors that are militating against effective admission services in secondary schools.” (informant 7) “even though the state ministry of education does the conduct of the entrance examination for the prospective applicants, the number of applicants that scaled through the entrance examination that the ministry of education sends to us which we are to consider for admission is high.” (informant 8) furthermore, informant 10 bare his mind on the issue concerning the high number of applicants as a problem affecting admission services in secondary schools in kwara state, nigeria. he opined, “high number of applicants is a common feature when discussing the issue of admission services in school. we receive high number of applications on yearly basis due to the standard that our school is known for. in order to reduce trim down the applicants, we used different admission process techniques to select the best irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 227 candidates among them. those selected will then be admitted into various classes in our school.” (informant 10) sub-theme two: politicization, politicization encompasses getting what, when and how in an organization. in view of the interview granted in this study, politicization of admission emerged as sub-theme of theme two. the view of the informants 8 and 15 expressed, “generally, the issue of admission services in school is a sensitive issue due to the nature of the services. since education cannot be separated from politics, then politics cannot be disjointed from admission services at all levels of education (primary, secondary and tertiary institutions.” (informant 8) “it is a known fact that some applicants get admitted into school through connections, this cannot be rule out considering the nature of our society. politics and education cannot be separated because sometimes it‟s through politics that some schools got established and get its resources to function (informant 15). in the light of the above statements, it shows that politicization of admission is common in schools because education and politics cannot be separated from each other. sub-theme three: improper planning of admission process, planning is an essential ingredient to achieve the desired goals and objectives in education system. if the school programs are not properly planned, then the goal set by the school will not be achieved. in view of the data collected for this study, informants are of the view that improper planning is one of the problems of admission services in education system. they opined, “improper planning includes inadequate registration and documentation of admission seekers, inadequate preparation for entrance examination to be conducted for admission seekers, and lack of preparation for interview to be conducted for admission seekers.” (informant 6) “this issue is a common feature in both public and private schools in nigeria. thus, improper planning of admission process leads to improper selection of applicants to be admitted into the school.” (informant 18) theme three: solutions to the problems of admission services in school solutions to the problems of admission services emerged as theme three based on research question three of the study. the sub-themes of theme three includes: de-politicization, proper admission planning process, and high priority on merit. sub-theme one: de-politicization, de-politicization means to remove from the arena or influence of politics from something. it can also be defined as a way of doing something without having political coloration (informant 12). informant 13 irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 228 opined that…”de-politicization of admission and selection services in schools will go a long way in ensuring effectiveness in education system.” similarly, informant 19 expressed, “selection of applicants seeking for admission at all levels of education (primary, secondary, and tertiary institution) should be devoid of politics. since selection of applicants is a very sensitive issue, then it is outcome should not be influenced by external factors (politicians, parents, traditional rulers, etc.). it is advisable that these external factors should steer clear of admission selection.” (informant 19). sub-theme two: proper planning of admission process, the interview conducted in this study confirmed the above submission on the need to ensure that proper planning of admission process is indeed needed to stem the problem of admission services in the school system. informants 1, 4 and 8 are of the view, “the solution to the problem of admission services is to ensure that proper planning of admission process is put in place to ensure the objectives of which admission services seek to achieve.” (informant 1) “since the state ministry of education and public schools involve in admission process in public secondary schools in nigeria, the processes involved should be well planned to ensure quality assurance in our education system.” (informant 4) “proper planning of on how to conduct the entrance examination as well as interview to be used for the applicants should be well deigned, this would enable them to ensure that the aim of education is achieved.” (informant 8) informant 10 expressed, “proper planning of admission process increases the efficiency of the school. it reduces the risks involved before, during and after the admission and selection activities. thus, effective planning of admission such as entrance examination and interview should be properly coordinated by the school principals in conjunction with the state ministry of education. it utilizes with maximum efficiency the available time and resources.” (informant 10) sub-theme three: high priority on merit, on high priority on merit in admission, informant 10 expressed, “academic success is determined in view of the success recorded by students in terms of grades obtained in their various examinations. thus, merit is an important yardstick for determining students who have done well in the school system. thus, in this study, the interview conducted for informants (school principals) show that high priority on merit when selecting applicants for placement in school will help to promote academic excellence.” (informant 10) in the same vein, informant 2 is of the view that: irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 229 “admission services in school should be based on merit. applicants with high grades in entrance examination and interview should be selected first in line before considering those with those grades below high grades. instilling merit in the process of admission services is a factor that promotes academic excellence and ensures quality assurance. sincerely, the importance merit cannot be over-emphasized, hence the need for merit in school system.” (informant 2) the above statement confirms that merit should be used in selecting the applicants for admission. discussion in line with the first research objectives of this study, our objective was to analyze the contemporary issues on admission services in school. thus, evidence from our study revealed that there were issues on admission services, they were: meaning, nature, provision, and importance. these issues formed the sub-themes under theme one. on the meaning of admission services as explained by the informants, they gave an insight into what admission services is all about. thus, they saw it as a careful selection of applicants for placement in the school system by using various selection procedures. the foregoing finding is similar to the studies of juradja and munich (2010) and lamadrid-figuera, castillo-castillo, fritz-hernandez, and magana-vallandares (2012) who opined that admission service is the process of selecting qualified applicants to be admitted in the school system. concerning the nature of admission services in secondary schools, our study established that the nature of admission services differs. we found that admission and selection procedures in public secondary schools were jointly carried out by the state ministry of education and schools. for applicants to be admitted into junior secondary school level, the state ministry of education conducts the entrance examination (on mathematics, english and general paper), and interview (oral examination) for the applicants. the school chooses the candidates to be admitted based on benchmark set by the school. in similar vein, for admission into senior secondary section, national examination council (neco), which is a government‟s education agency, is saddled with the responsibility for conducting an examination for applicants who had completed their junior secondary schools and are interested in going to senior section. the nature of admission services is in congruent with the work of agboola, adeyemi, and ogbodo (2014), who are of the view that the nature of admission in public schools is the same. on provision of admission services in the school system, we found that admission services were provided in schools. this finding is similar to the work of adnett et al. (2011) who observed that the provision of admission services helps to fast track the development in the education system. this will, in turn, manifest in the academic achievement of students. also, we found that admission service was an important service that influences students‟ academic achievement in secondary schools. students who passed through the admission and selection process (i.e., examination and interview) tended to do well when admitted into school. this finding is congruent with the earlier studies conducted by albanese et al. (2003) archibong et al. (2011), shaw et al. (2013) and yusuf, zahayah, and thanslikan (2016) who conducted studies on the relationship between admission services irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 230 and students‟ academic performance and found that the importance of admission cannot be underestimated because it helps to determine the success of the school. likewise, the finding is in line with the studies carried out by kuncel, crede, and thomas (2007) and sacket et al. (2009) who concurred that good admission and selection procedures help to promote academic achievement in secondary schools. for the second research objective of the study, which sought to identify the problems militating against admission services in secondary schools, three key problems were found to be militating against admission services in secondary schools. they are high number of applicants, politicization of admission, and improper planning of admission process. high number of applicants was an important factor that militates against effective admission services. the number of applicants seeking for placement was more than the number of applicants that schools can accommodates. this study is in consonance with the work of okoroma (2008) who opined that the high number of applicants seeking for admission in schools is alarming. this trend is applicable to primary, secondary and tertiary institutions. also, the politicization of admission was a factor that affects an effective admission service in secondary schools as expressed by the school principals selected for the study. the selection of applicants for admission is often influenced by external factors (e.g., applicants‟ parents, politicians, etc.). this affects the proper selection of applicants to be admitted into the school system. another problem facing admission services in schools is the improper planning of admission process. improper planning process entails inadequate planning on how to execute admission process such as examination and interview. this finding is in line with the study of okoroma (2008) who is of the view that lack or inadequate planning of admission services is one of the banes of education in nigeria. on last research objective of the study, we sought to proffer solutions to the problem of admission services in the school system. three important solutions (de-politicization, proper admission planning process and high priority on merit) were offered by the school principals which they believe can help to ensure effective admission services in education system. firstly, de-politicization of admission in this context as explained by the school principals encompasses separating politics from services in education system. politics of any kinds should not be mixed with the issue of admission services in school, if the school‟s goals and objectives are to be achieved. the selection of process of the applicants should not be influenced by external factors. admission issue should not be tampered with or manipulated because it may lead to ineffectiveness in school (okoroma, 2008). secondly, proper planning of admission process is suggested by the school principals as a way of providing efficient and effective admission services in school. since planning is a crucial and paramount function of school principals, effective admission planning process gives the school principal a sense of direction, and brings a clear idea of what need to be organized. in order to achieve the purpose of admission services in school, the objectives laid down in planning become guiding post for directing and mobilizing the activities involved in admission services. the quality of leadership, motivation and communication displayed by school principals to a large extent is conditioned by these objectives. thirdly, high priority on merit is given by the school principals as another possible solution to the problem of admission services in education system. applicants who irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 231 perform brilliantly during the entrance examination and interview and obtain high score should be given admission in view of their sterling performance in the selection process. admission in schools should be based on merit because merit often leads to academic excellence. this finding is in line with the study conducted by killgore (2009) who averred that applicants should be admitted according to their success in entrance examination and interview conducted by the school. selective admissions practices mean that the “best” students are rewarded with admission to the best schools. meritocratic values should be incorporated into admission practices in education system. the finding is also in tandem with the student psychosocial aspect of student development theory, which postulates that admission services helps to test the intellectual acumen of the students before placement. student development theory helps to understand that development of students starts from the aptitude and interview test that are conducted by the school before their admission (renn, 2008). taken the research objectives achieved in this study together, thus our study contributed to the body of knowledge from three perspectives, namely practical, theoretical, and methodological perspectives. from practical perspective, our study will serve as a guide to government at all levels to have a better understanding of admission services with a view to improve it. it will also assist educational planners, policy makers and school administrators in how to implement the various activities involved in admission services so as to ensure effectiveness in school. from theoretical perspective, our study extends the existing studies by validating students‟ development theory, which helps to understand the importance of admission services to students‟ academic achievement. from methodological perspective, we increase the body of knowledge in view of the interview protocol developed for this study, which helps to investigate principals‟ perception on admission services because literature indicates that studies on admission services are often investigated using quantitative approach. conclusion and recommendations based on evidence from our study, it can be said that admission service is one of the fundamental services in school system. its importance cannot be underestimated. being the first service that students will first experience before other services, it should be well provided so as to ensure that the aims and objectives of secondary education are attained. based on the findings of the study, we recommend (1) entrance examination and interview should always be used to select applicants that are seeking placement in secondary schools, (2) proper planning of admission process should be put in place to ensure an itch free admission service exercise in the school system, (3) admission services in the school should be devoid of internal and external influence, and (4) merit should be the watchword of the school principals when providing admission services in the school system, this will ensure efficient and effective admission service in school; and lastly, admission services should be well provided in secondary schools. this study has several limitations which we believe future studies should be able to address. firstly, we selected only secondary schools‟ principals as our informants for the irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 232 study. therefore, future studies should include admission personnel unit in the school with a view to getting comprehensive information as regard the admission services in school. secondly, since this study focused on students‟ admission in school, inquiries should be made from students so that adequate information about their views on admission will help researchers to draw conclusion. thirdly, we used interview to gather relevant information from the informants. thus, the use of other methods of data collection in research, such as focus group discussion (fgd) will help to get information which will assist to know more about admission services in school. lastly, a mixed-method approach of data collection will help to get comprehensive information on admission services. references adeyemo, s. a. 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(2015). multiple response analysis. available at: https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/multiple_response_analysis . irje | vol. 3 | no. 2| year 2019 |e-issn: 2580-5711 235 biographical notes dr. yusuf suleiman is currently a lecturer in the department of educational management and counselling, al-hikmah university, kwara state, nigeria and also an associate lecturer with unicaf university, cyprus. he is the founder/chief executive officer of yusa‟ad educational services limited and also a consultant to success heritage model academy (shma), delta state, nigeria. he is an expert in quantitative and qualitative research. his area of expertise includes school services, supervision, entrepreneurship, training and leadership. email: yusufsuleiman@alhikmah.edu.ng or y.suleiman@unicaf.org. professor dr. zahayah hanafi is currently a lecturer in school of educational studies, geomatika university, malaysia. she is an expert in quantitative and qualitative research. email: zahyah20022@yahoo.com dr. muhajir tanslikhan is currently a lecturer in school of education, universitas dr. soetomo, indonesia. he is an expert in both quantitative and qualitative research. email: muhajir98@gmail.com. mailto:yusufsuleiman@alhikmah.edu.ng mailto:y.suleiman@unicaf.org mailto:zahyah20022@yahoo.com mailto:muhajir98@gmail.com this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 387 learner autonomy: a qualitative inquiry into indonesian tertiary efl students’ voices daflizar * abstract this study sought to explore indonesian tertiary efl students‟ voices on learner autonomy. specifically, it investigated the students‟ conceptualization of the concept of learner autonomy, students‟ perceptions of the benefits of learner autonomy, and their perceptions of the factors that hinder and support the development of learner autonomy. the study employed a qualitative design with a case study approach and involved 30 first-year students of two institutions of higher education in jambi province, indonesia. the data were collected using semi-structured interviews were analyzed using a thematic analysis following the steps proposed by braun and clarke (2006). the results revealed that the students had a limited understanding of the concept of learner autonomy. however, they believed that they would benefit from learner autonomy in terms of timing, learning effectiveness, and learning resources. the students also identified several hindering and supporting factors related to the development of learner autonomy. practical implications for the indonesian context are discussed. keywords learner autonomy, benefits of learner autonomy, hindering factors, supporting factors, teacher‟s role * senior lecturer at the english education department of the faculty of education and teacher training, state islamic institute of kerinci, indonesia; daflizar@yahoo.com mailto:daflizar@yahoo.com irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 388 introduction learner autonomy, broadly defined as learners‟ ability to take charge of their own learning, has long been considered a desirable goal of education in many countries and is associated with lifelong learning theories and pedagogies that are affecting global educational policies and classroom teaching (armitage et al., 2012). the rapid advancement in the digital world with a variety of learning tools has provided students with an abundance of learning resources and enables them to get entirely or partially involved in their learning. within this shifting landscape of teaching and learning, learner autonomy is an essential element in students‟ learning, including in learning a foreign language. in indonesia, it is an eminent reality that opportunities to use english in the classroom are scarce. once students leave the classroom, the opportunities become scarcer as the students are totally immersed in their first language environments. dissatisfaction over students‟ english language achievements has long become one of the main concerns despite the long history of english language teaching in this country. the outcomes are even still unsatisfactory provided that the latest curricula have advocated learner-centered approaches. many suggest that the enduring problems do not only stem from the curriculum but also from numerous other factors including, among others, large class sizes, limited time allocation for english instruction, lack of teacher‟s encouragement for students‟ participation in the classroom activities, and students‟ lack of opportunity to use english out of the classroom (dardjowidjojo, 2000; musthafa, 2001; nur, 2004; weda, 2018). despite the multifaceted problems, there remains the responsibility of finding ways to help students attain satisfactory english outcomes. while several avenues have been pursued to address these challenges, one important measure that has not been considered is the development of learner autonomy. the literature has underscored that promoting learner autonomy is of importance because it prepares learners for long-life learning, enhances the quality of their language learning, and allows them to utilize learning opportunities both inside and outside the classroom (cotterall, 1995; palfreyman, 2003). moreover, evidence indicating the practical potencies of learner autonomy has been shown by research. it has been suggested that autonomous learning leads to learners‟ active participation in learning activities (dincer et al., 2012), improves language proficiency (karatas et al., 2015), and increases motivation (e.g. miller et al., 2005). given its numerous advantages, learner autonomy is an important measure to develop in the indonesian context. however, the development of learner autonomy is not an easy and instant process. rather, it is a gradual and complex process (benson, 2011; little, 2007), which is influenced by many factors, including, among others, learners‟ beliefs, attitudes, motivation, personality, and culture (chen & li, 2014). this suggests that exploring students‟ perceptions of learner autonomy is an important step to take before any interventions to help students‟ learning are implemented. a better understanding of students‟ perceptions can assist the implementation of learner autonomy as a goal and make guidance given by teachers to learners more effective (pearson, 2003). thus, the present study aimed to answer the following research questions: 1. how do indonesian tertiary efl students conceptualize the concept of learner autonomy? (2) what are students‟ perceptions of the benefits of learner autonomy? 3. what irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 389 are students‟ perceived factors that hinder and support the development of learner autonomy? literature review learner autonomy learner autonomy has been a matter of interest in the field of language education for several decades. yet, many definitions have been given to the term, which is partly due to diverse perspectives on what it constitutes and the many interpretations of its scope (palfreyman, 2003). moreover, holec (1981) defined learner autonomy as “the ability to take charge of one‟s learning” (p. 3), and this definition has proved remarkably vigorous being the most frequently cited in the literature (benson, 2007; cotterall, 2008). following holec‟s presentation of his definition, many subsequent definitions emerged. for example, little (1991) defines autonomy as “a capacity – for detachment, critical reflection, decision-making, and independent action" (p. 4). he is concerned with the psychological relationship the learner has both with content and the process of learning. little further explains that the capacity for autonomy is manifested in how learners go about their learning and how they transfer what they have learned to wider contexts. according to benson (2001), both holec‟s (1981) and little‟s (1991) definitions cover two essential aspects of the nature of autonomy, i.e. learning management and cognitive capacity. however, a third fundamental aspect in autonomous learning is underestimated, that is, “that the content of learning should be freely determined by the learners” (benson, 2001). learner autonomy has a social aspect, which may entail control over learning situations and the need to have particular capacities regarding the learner‟s ability to interact with others in the learning process. defining learner autonomy as “the capacity to take control of one's own learning” (p. 47), benson asserts that autonomous learners are decision-makers who exercise varying degrees of control over learning management, learning content, and cognitive processes. however, this capacity does not mean learning without the investment of a teacher or as students learning in isolation. rather, an autonomous learner interacts and develops a sense of interdependence with others in the learning process. previous studies on students’ perceptions of learner autonomy a number of studies have been conducted to explore students‟ perceptions of learner autonomy. one of the seminal studies on students‟ perceptions of learner autonomy was conducted by chan (2001). the study involved 20 second-year language major students on the „english at the workplace‟ course in the hong kong polytechnic university. the study explored the learners‟ attitudes and perceptions of language learning, teacher and learner roles, their learning preferences, and perceptions of learner autonomy. the results revealed that the students had a positive attitude towards autonomous learning, demonstrated a clear understanding of the nature of learner autonomy, and were very much aware of its demands. however, most of the participants had an uncertain attitude towards the teacher‟s role. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 390 while a vast majority preferred the teacher to guide them in their learning, the others liked the teacher to give them problems to solve and let them find their own mistakes. in a similar context, chan (2001) conducted another study that involved 30 first-year undergraduates. the study aimed at identifying students‟ views relating to autonomous learning through the means of a questionnaire. it specifically explored students‟ views of autonomous learning and autonomous learners, their perceptions of the teacher‟s and their own roles in learning, and their learning preferences. the results showed that although the majority of the respondents agreed that autonomous learning is important and that the majority seemed to be quite aware of the principles and practice of learner autonomy, the respondents considered the teacher‟s role in language learning as imperative, and they felt that the major decision making should be in the hands of the teacher. in the japanese context, gamble et al. (2012) examined university students‟ perceptions of their responsibilities and abilities to undertake autonomous english learning, and also what they could do inside and outside the classroom based on students‟ motivational levels. the data were collected from 399 participants from seven universities using a questionnaire. the results showed that the students across motivational levels – the highly motivated, motivated, and unmotivated – demonstrated the same perceptions of their responsibilities in performing autonomous learning tasks. in general, regardless of motivational levels, the students preferred the teachers to be more responsible for class management and agreed to share the responsibility with the teacher in the areas related to assessment and setting learning goals. regarding their abilities, on the other hand, highly motivated students showed a tendency to view themselves as being able to be more involved in their own learning than unmotivated students. however, they often did not manifest these perceptions in practice due to a held belief that it was the teacher‟s responsibility or because they had little confidence to do so. khalil and ali (2018) explored the perceptions of learner autonomy of 265 students and 89 efl teachers in technical secondary schools in egypt. the data from the students were collected using a questionnaire and the data from the teachers were collected through a questionnaire and structured interviews. the results showed that the participants had positive views about learner autonomy in language learning. the students were generally aware of the autonomy-boosting practices and teachers‟ roles in fostering autonomy. the teachers also had a clear understanding of the concept of learner autonomy and were aware of its importance in efl classes. swatevacharkul and boonma‟s (2020) conducted a study in an international university in thailand to explore students‟ attitudes toward learner autonomy. using open-response questionnaires, the data were collected from 23 participants consisting of 19 chinese, 3 burmese, and 1 thai. the results demonstrated that the participants appeared to have positive attitudes toward the concept of learner autonomy. they understood that learner autonomy is the ability for successful self-directed learning, which involves self-related, affective, and interaction aspects. the participants also acknowledged the importance of learner autonomy as motivation to learn independently. although a wide range of studies on students‟ perceptions of learner autonomy have been conducted in many non-western contexts, very scant research on this topic has been conducted in the indonesian context. among the few studies that have been undertaken are irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 391 ardi (2013), lamb (2004), lengkanawati (2017), myartawan et al., (2013), and wachidah (2001), each of these studies had a different research focus. ardi (2013) investigated autonomous behavior and english learning activities beyond the classroom. lamb (2004) examined autonomous attitudes amongst junior high school efl learners. lengkanawati (2017) investigated learner autonomy as perceived and experienced by school teachers. myartawan, et al. (2013) examined the correlation between learner autonomy and english proficiency. wachidah‟s (2001) study focused on student learning styles and autonomous learning in a javanese-dominated general high school. taking into account a large number of educational institutions in indonesia and the potential for research given the many facets of learner autonomy, these embody relatively few studies. this study is of significance as it attempted to address this gap and contributes to the literature on learner autonomy specifically in the indonesian context. moreover, the findings from previous studies are still inconclusive and it is also evidence that perceptions are contextually situated. while most of the studies cited above used questionnaires as the data collection instrument, the present study used semi-structured interviews. methodology research design, participants, and locale of the study this study aimed to explore the perspectives of indonesian tertiary efl students on learner autonomy. four research questions were formulated to guide the study, namely: 1) how do indonesian tertiary efl students conceptualize the concept of learner autonomy?; 2) what are students‟ perceptions of the benefits of learner autonomy?; and 3) what are students‟ perceived factors that hinder and support the development of learner autonomy? to achieve the objective of the study, a qualitative design with a case study approach was employed. according to yin (2003), a case study is “an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context, especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident.” thus, this approach was considered appropriate because the present study attempted to explore students‟ perceptions of learner autonomy in the particular context of the province of jambi, indonesia. given the diversity of indonesia‟s ethnic groups and cultures, an in-depth exploration of student beliefs in one regional setting was most appropriate. the study involved 30 efl students from two different institutions of higher education in jambi province, indonesia. all the participants were first-year students doing english language major and non-english language majors, they were both male and female, were from eighteen to twenty years of age, and had varied english language proficiency levels. data collection and analysis the semi-structured interview type was chosen to collect the data in this study. this type of interview was appropriate for providing an understanding of students' perceptions and allowing the interviewer to ask elaboration questions. as berg (2001) stated that in the semi-structured interview, “the interviewers are permitted (in fact expected) to probe far irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 392 beyond the answers to their prepared and standardized questions” (p. 70). the rationale for choosing the interview as the data collection was that the interview “can provide insights into people‟s experiences, beliefs, perceptions, and motivations at a depth that is not possible with questionnaires” (richards, 2009). prior to the data collection, the interview questions were validated. to ensure clarity in the wording, the interview questions were pilot-tested to two non-participants of the study. the interviews were conducted based on a pre-developed set of questions. the participants were asked additional questions, depending on their responses. since the majority of the participants had a low english proficiency level, the interviews were conducted in bahasa indonesia. lopez et al. (2008) suggested that interviews should be conducted in the participants‟ preferred language so that they will have a clearer understanding of the issues under investigation. each interview was planned to last about 15 minutes but some of the interviews lasted longer and each interview was audio-recorded as all the participants had consented to this. two digital recorders in the form of mobile phones (one was used as the backup for the other) were used. before the data were analyzed, the audio-recorded interviews were first transcribed verbatim. after all the data had been transcribed, the transcripts were rechecked to verify that there were no obvious mistakes made during the transcription process. then, the analysis was conducted using a thematic analysis following the steps proposed by braun and clarke (2006). the first step of the analysis was familiarizing myself with the data by reading through the transcripts repeatedly to gain a sense of the whole (tesch, 1990) searching for meaning and patterns. after reading and familiarizing myself with the data, i generated initial codes by identifying the features of the data, for example, identifying text segments, placing brackets around them, and assigning a code word or phrase that precisely described the meaning of the text segment. after that, i made a list of all code words, then grouped similar codes and attempted to identify any overlap and redundancy of the codes. after all the data had been coded and organized, i then searched for themes by sorting the different codes into prospective themes and organizing all the pertinent coded data extracts within the identified themes, which produced a collection of candidate themes. next, i reviewed the themes and refined a set of candidate themes. finally, i defined and constructed a concise and informative name for each theme. to ensure the trustworthiness of the data, several strategies as proposed by merriam and tisdell (2016) were employed. first, the data were triangulated through multiple interviews. second, adequate time was spent in the data collection so that the data became saturated. third, i ensured that no conflict of interest existed between me as the researcher and the participants to avoid biases that may affect the investigation. fourth, i had discussions with experts regarding the process of the study. lastly, i provided rich and thick descriptions to place the study in context to enhance the transferability of the findings. ethical considerations all the participants were given the information form that explained the purposes of the study before they decided whether or not to participate in the study. it was emphasized in the explanation that their identity would be kept confidential and anonymous and that irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 393 they were allowed to withdraw from the interview at any time. to keep the confidentiality and anonymity of the participants, pseudonyms were used in reporting the results. findings the overarching purpose of the present study was to explore the perspectives of indonesian tertiary efl students on learner autonomy. in this section, students‟ responses are presented in four broad themes, i.e. 1) students‟ conceptualization of the concept of learner autonomy; 2) students‟ perceptions of the benefits of learner autonomy; and 3) students‟ perceptions of factors that hinder and support the students‟ development of learner autonomy. student’s conceptualization of the concept of learner autonomy the first question was asked to explore how the students conceptualized the concept of learner autonomy. the results of the interviews revealed that a vast majority of the students simply defined learner autonomy as independent learning that is entirely free from the teacher. nirina, for example, expressed, 'in my opinion, learner autonomy is how we learn without help from teachers, that is, how we strive for learning by ourselves.' in a similar vein, putri commented, 'learner autonomy is how a student finds his/her own ways to get knowledge without guidance from the teacher. they search for learning resources by themselves, for example by searching the internet, reading books, and so forth.' elaborating her similar definition of learner autonomy, rinjani said, „…university students should not be very dependent on the teacher in their learning… they should make efforts by themselves, they should be more active searching their own learning materials instead of waiting for the teacher to provide the materials for them.‟ despite the consensus, however, four students believed that autonomous learning may involve other people, including the teacher and friends. ranti, for example, said, „for me, learner autonomy is learning independently. but, if we have problems, we can ask for help from friends or teachers.‟ a similar comment was given by andika. he stated, „autonomous learning means students make their own effort to learn but there are times when they need help from others.‟ taufik expanded this saying, „autonomous learning is not only when someone studies on his own without others, but it can also be learning together in a group outside class. this way, when we do not understand, we can ask for help from those who know more about the subjects being learned.‟ sintia offered a similar opinion commenting, „besides learning in the classroom, we can also, for example, learn at home or study in groups without teachers.‟ students’ perceptions of the benefits of learner autonomy the results of the interviews demonstrated that there was an obvious agreement among the students that learner autonomy offers a number of potential benefits for students‟ english language learning. seven of the students mentioned that learner autonomy practically compensates for time and resource scarcity in the classroom. some students irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 394 commented that engaging in autonomous language learning activities outside the class provides students with access to learning resources they can use to get the knowledge and skills they want. nirina, for example, noted, „the time allocated for english learning in the classroom is limited while outside classroom learning allows us to search for things we want to know.‟ taufik commented, „we will not always get what we need if we rely solely on the teachers. the teachers will not always be available to teach what we want to learn… so we need to extend our learning beyond the classroom.‟ a similar opinion was expressed by indri, 'when you learn by yourself, you can learn what you want to learn while when you learn in the classroom you will not get all what you want to know.‟ seven of the students reported that autonomous learning can broaden students‟ knowledge, as expressed by zaskia and romi as follows: “when we learn in the classroom, we will only get very little but when we do autonomous learning outside the class, whether by guidance from the teacher or by our own efforts, god willing, we will get more knowledge.” [zaskia] “it is sometimes difficult to understand the lesson when learning english together with classmates. for me, learning individually at home or taking an english course outside the institution seems more effective to me and these can also broaden our knowledge and add what we have got from the lessons in the classroom.” [romi] learning can be more effective and more personalized was another advantage of learner autonomy mentioned by some students. mela, for example, commented, „…learning is more effective when you take control of your own learning. i mean, especially when learning english, it will be easier for you to remember the lessons when you continually practice them.‟ indri expressed a similar comment, saying, „classroom learning is so limited that not all that we desire to learn can be achieved. by learning autonomously outside the class, we will get more and we can learn what we want.‟ students’ perceptions of factors that hinder and support the development of learner autonomy when asked to name the factors that hindered the development of learner autonomy, the shortage of learning resources was mentioned with the highest frequency by the students. in this respect, zaskia, mayang, nirina, and damayanti shared a similar opinion that the number of books available in the campus library or the nearby bookstore is very limited. besides acknowledging the limited availability of english books, kartika added that limited access to digital resources such as computers and the internet was an impediment for her to develop as an autonomous learner. eleven of the students said that an unsupportive learning environment was among the factors that hindered them from developing their autonomy. rendi mentioned the people around him, for example. he said, „if your friends do not practice autonomous learning, you will also tend not to do so.‟ karmila named new technology as one factor that prevented her from being autonomous. she said, „sometimes i spend too much time playing irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 395 with the internet and mobile phones, so i do not have time to learn.‟ mayang said that when she was at home, she often had the intention to learn english but at the same time she had to help her parents to do housework. time shortage was another factor mentioned by 10 of the students. zaskia indicated this in her remark, „sometimes i am very busy at home helping my parents doing housework so that i don‟t have enough time to learn.‟ a similar reason was expressed by indri, „sometimes i have made schedules to learn but there is so much work to do at home, i have to do housework.‟ under the same circumstance, siska said that she is a married woman, thus she has limited time to learn at home. sandi pointed out that he spent most of his time after class involved in off-campus social organizations. he said, „i am very busy after class, i am active in some off-campus social organizations.‟ another factor reported by 4 students was a lack of financial support. romi and wulan, for example, suggested that learning outside the class would incur costs. romi said, „i do not have enough money to buy books and access the internet.‟ wulan said, „for me, the first hindrance is the financial factor. to learn outside the class we need facilities and resources such as computers and books.‟ a similar challenge was expressed by kartika. for ranti and eva, lack of interest was another factor that hampers the development of learner autonomy. ranti commented, „i feel so lazy to read english books… even sometimes i don‟t attend the english classes. the very reason is that i do not like english. i am not interested in learning english.‟ eva related her lack of interest to her friends‟ attitudes towards english. she said, „my motivation to learn english is down when i see that my friends show no interest in learning english.‟ on the factors that supported the development of learner autonomy, on the other hand, willingness to succeed was noted with the highest frequency, by 18 of the students. mella remarked, 'well, as a grown-up i should be autonomous… i want to succeed and i want to finish my study as early as possible.' ayu said, 'i want to be good at english so that i can speak with foreigners, sing in english and i also have the ambition to go abroad.' damayanti also had a similar opinion, saying that she had an ambition to master english and to go abroad. mayang related her autonomous learning to succeed academically. she commented, 'it is natural that when we learn we want to get the highest marks among our friends. when we see a friend gets the highest marks, we will try to achieve the same.' a point to note here is that the above students all had different majors of study. eleven of the students mentioned that they are encouraged to develop their autonomous learning because they want to please their parents. riana said that her parents expect her to be an english teacher. taufik remarked that he should make use of his time to study because his parents have spent much money to pay for his study. in a similar vein, mayang said, „i think family is the main reason. my parents work hard to pay for my study so i have to pay their hard work back by studying seriously, this may make them happy.‟ it is interesting to note that in this culture parents play an important role in their children‟s education. it is usually the parents‟ responsibility to pay for their children even during higher education degrees. another factor, mentioned by 7 students, was a supportive environment. putri and rendi for example, indicated that their friends or peers played an important role in their autonomous learning development. putri commented, „… if i have friends who are good at irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 396 english, i also feel motivated to learn. rendi shared a similar reason, saying, 'i am encouraged to learn english when i see my classmates can speak english well. this is one of the factors which increase my interest to learn autonomously.‟ some students named that willingness to broaden their knowledge is another factor that encourages them to proceed with autonomous learning activities. siska said, „i learn autonomously because i want to get more knowledge and become better at english‟. eko said, „i am aware that i have limited knowledge so if i have time i will use it to learn autonomously to broaden my knowledge.‟ it can be concluded that students had the interest to learn but generally lacked the resources and a supportive environment. the factors that hindered and supported the development of learner autonomy were internal, which is dependent on the individual or, external, driven by social context. concerning hindering factors, lack of interest in learning english was internal while a shortage of learning resources, unsupportive learning environment, time shortage, and lack of financial support were external factors. regarding the factors that supported the development of autonomy, a willingness to succeed, a willingness to broaden their knowledge and a desire to make their parents happy can be classified as internal, while a supportive environment was an external factor. it is interesting to note that the hindering factors tended to be more external. in contrast, the internal factors outweighed the external ones as factors that support the development of learner autonomy. a summary of the factors provided by the students which hindered or supported the development of learner autonomy is presented in table 1 below. table 1. factors that hinder and support the development of learner autonomy factors that hinder the development of learner autonomy factors that support the development of learner autonomy internal external internal external • lack of interest • shortage of learning resources • unsupportive learning environment • time scarcity • lack of financial support • willingness to succeed • making their parents happy • willingness to broaden knowledge • supportive environment discussion the first questions of this study focused on the participants‟ conceptualization of learner autonomy. the results showed that the majority of the students understood learner autonomy more as an action than a capacity to take control of the action. in view of this thinking, it can be inferred that there was a lack of understanding about the concept of learner autonomy among the students. the students‟ understanding may be best illustrated as what lamb (2008) refers to as a “visible, external manifestation of learner autonomy”, in irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 397 contrast to “a more internal, less visible construction of autonomy, in which autonomous learning involves a capacity for taking control, a knowledge of how to learn as well as the motivation to learn” (p. 271). these results are different from those obtained in swatevacharkul and boonma‟s (2020) study conducted in an international university in thailand, in which the participants consisting of chinese, burmese, and thai appeared to view learner autonomy as one‟s capacity to manage their own learning. it is also evident that the students excluded the role of the teacher, which is a key element of the definition of learner autonomy provided in the current literature. according to palfreyman (2003), although the term independence is often used synonymously with autonomy, and independence from a teacher is often regarded as a noticeable sign of autonomy, current researchers suggest that a key element of the construct is that students are able to work independently but in negotiation and with support from teachers. this view of autonomy is based on vygotsky‟s (1978) social interactionism point of view, which suggests that people do not learn in isolation but they learn through interactions with others. according to little (1996), collaborative learning through social interaction is fundamental for learner autonomy because it allows the development of reflective and analytic skills in learners, which “depend on the internalization of a capacity to participate fully and critically in social interactions” (p. 211). social strategies, especially cooperating with others belong to the most important learning strategies language learning use which encourages positive interdependence and mutual support, and are proven to have given significant benefits to language learners (oxford, 1990). the second question focused on students‟ views about the benefits of learner autonomy. it is clear from the students' responses that learner autonomy is regarded as an important aspect of language learning. the reasons for its importance are seen to be its valuable effects on student learning in terms of timing, learning effectiveness, and learning resources. the students‟ responses are in accordance with richards‟ (2015) conclusions concerning the benefits of engaging in out-of-class learning activities, which “offer a wider range of affordances for language use and second language acquisition than are generally available in the classroom. they can provide opportunities for learners to: … have extended contact with english… make use of multimodal sources of learning” (p. 19). these findings also confirm the benefits of learner autonomy identified in the literature, which suggest that learning will be more effective and focused when one is in charge of his own learning (e.g. dam, 1995; little, 1991). the third research question investigated students‟ perceived factors that hinder and support the development of learner autonomy. the most mentioned was the shortage of learning resources. with regard to this, dickinson (1987) believed that for learner autonomy to be exercised, the required materials need to be made available for learners. according to zhao and chen (2014), materials play a pivotal role in developing and breeding learner autonomy, predominantly because they motivate learners for their english study. the students also mentioned an unsupportive learning environment as one of the hindering factors. this matter was also identified in lamb's (2002) study in a similar cultural context: a respondent suggested that he failed to learn english because of his unsupportive friends. regarding this, lamb (2002) wrote, “as if the possibility of his english learning depended on irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 398 a joint agreement among his friends to do so” (p. 43). these two hindering factors were also identified in swatevacharkul and boonma‟s (2020) study in a different context. it may be interesting to note that although some of the students suggested that they had the intention to study after class, they had to help their parents do housework. it is very common in the indonesian context to find that children, especially women, are supposed to help their parents with in-house-related work. also, a large body of literature has suggested that students‟ marital status influences their autonomy (e.g. derrick et al., 2007; kashefian-naeeini & riazi, 2011). for example, kashefian-naeeini & riazi (2011) found that marital status affected students‟ autonomy in that those students who were single not only obtained higher indexes of learner autonomy in comparison with married ones, but they could also get better results in self-assessment which is one of the underlying factors of autonomy. an enormous body of literature has suggested that environmental factors, such as peers, parents, and other social variables, are important determiners of students‟ motivation and self-regulated behavior (e.g., harvey & chickie-wolfe, 2007; wentzel & watkins, 2002). harvey and chickie-wolfe (2007), for example, point out that although independent learning is considered as resulting from individual goals and behaviors, it is essentially socially mediated. self-regulation “implies that internal forces regulate behavior, but the ability to self-regulate is predicated upon environmental variables (social, physical, and economic) that are not universally available” (pp. 24-25). as regards the supporting factors, willingness to succeed was noted by the highest number of students. this suggests that motivation is an integral factor that influences student autonomy. in terms of gardner and lambert‟s (1972) types of motivation, the students‟ responses constitute expressions of both integrative and instrumental motivation. according to dörnyei and ushioda (2011), integrative motivation refers to “a positive disposition toward the l2 group and the desire to interact with and even become similar to valued members of that community” (p. 41). instrumental motivation, by comparison, is related to “the potential pragmatic gains of l2 proficiency, such as getting a better job or a higher salary.” the results also indicated that a sense of obligation to their parents due to the financial support received from them was strong for the students. it is interesting to note that, in most, or even in all, indonesian ethnic groups, parents play an important role in their children's education. the students continue to be dependent on their parents in many aspects of life including financial, even during their education at university. thus, it is very common in this context that parents are among the reasons for students to be motivated to succeed in their education. gratitude and responsibility towards their parents due to their financial dependency and emotional connection present a strong incentive for the students. these results are in line with wentzel‟s (1998) early study which indicated that perceived support from parents predicted students‟ academic goal orientations. it appears from the comments made in the interviews that the students related their willingness to learn to their parents‟ expectations and the support they provide for them, especially financial support. this cultural element needs to be further investigated in the indonesian context and, perhaps teaching and learning may need to be reconciled with family needs. the students‟ responses to a supportive environment confirm harvey & chickie-wolfe's (2007) view that the social group to which students belong affects academic irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 399 effort, habits, motivation, and time spent on academic work. “friends can provide one another with academic support, make learning more pleasurable, and increase one another's desire to succeed academically” (p. 25). it may also be worth mentioning here that students‟ responses were similar to those achieved in lamb‟s (2002) study that was conducted in a similar context; thef respondents mentioned, among others, willingness to succeed, their parents and friends as part of their inspiration for learning english. with reference to the results revealed, it appeared that while both intrinsic and extrinsic factors contribute to the hindering and supporting factors, it is noteworthy that the hindering factors tend to be extrinsic, and, in contrast, the supporting factors tend to be intrinsic. perhaps in the indonesian context, both extrinsic and intrinsic factors should be considered when attempting to foster learner autonomy. conclusion and implications this study investigated indonesian efl students‟ perceptions of learner autonomy. specifically, it explored students‟ conceptualization of learner autonomy, benefits of learner autonomy, and factors that hinder and support the development of learner autonomy. the results revealed that the students had a limited understanding of the concept of learner autonomy. most of them conceptualized learner autonomy as independent learning and associated it with learning in isolation. the results also showed that the students believed they would benefit from learner autonomy in a number of ways, particularly: compensating for time and resource scarcity, broadening knowledge, and more effective and personalized learning. the results identified a number of factors that acted as hindrances and others that supported the development of students‟ learner autonomy. among the mentioned hindering factors were a shortage of learning resources, an unsupportive learning environment, shortage of time, lack of financial support, and lack of interest. on the other hand, willingness to succeed, to please their parents, supportive environment, and willingness to broaden knowledge were the factors perceived to support the development of learner autonomy. it can be deduced from the responses that the hindering factors tended to be extrinsic rather than intrinsic and, in contrast, the supporting factors seem to be more intrinsic than extrinsic. the findings of this study have a number of implications for further implementations. since the teacher has an important role to play in the effort to promote learner autonomy, focusing on what the teacher can do to help students develop their autonomy is crucial. what this study revealed is students lack an understanding of the concept of learner autonomy, which calls for teachers‟ attention to the need for helping the students to first understand and then develop their autonomy. however, as noted earlier in this paper, the development of learner autonomy is a gradual and intricate process. thus, shifting control from the teacher to the students is not an easy task. little (2007, p. 26) indicates “learner autonomy is the product of an interactive process in which the teacher gradually enlarges the scope of her learners‟ autonomy by gradually allowing them more control of the process and content of their learning.” hence, strategy training on autonomous learning is needed as a transitional phase during which control is gradually shifted from the teacher to students. according to dickinson (1993), if the notion of learner irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 400 autonomy implies the ability to take on more responsibility for learning, the ability must entail both strategies and confidence. thus, training learners to act strategically and develop their confidence would enhance the efficiency of the autonomous learning process. it should be acknowledged that setting up subjects specifically allocated to strategy training is more desirable to give thorough training to help students become autonomous. this is especially true for students in the english language major, as they are prepared to be english teachers. rigorous training not only would enhance their autonomous ability for their own learning as pre-service teachers but also enhance their professional development giving them knowledge and skills they could apply in their teaching in the future. however, if integrating strategy training into teaching materials is the only choice, adopting learner-centered approaches along with the strategy training would be required for attempting to promote learner autonomy in the classroom. teachers could integrate a variety of authentic and semi-authentic tasks, and also communicative tasks such as discussions, games, and role-plays to encourage student collaboration and participation. this can be expected to gradually lead to students taking more active roles and responsibilities in the classroom and develop their own individual strategies of learning autonomously. teachers could also talk about the concept of learner autonomy in the classroom and generate discussions that allow the students to contribute to their understanding of learner autonomy. as for the strategy training, wenden (1998) suggested that the contents should address the know-how for learning and strategies for managing learning; it could also be expanded to two sets of skills or strategies: metacognitive and cognitive strategies. as with any research, the present study has limitations. first, since the data were collected from only two institutions of higher educations in one geographical area, the results cannot be generalized to a wider context of indonesia. involving more institutions from different geographical areas could increase the representativeness of the study. second, this study used a qualitative case-study approach where the data were collected only through interviews. employing a mixed-method approach and using additional data collection instruments such as surveys could give more detailed information about students‟ perceptions. despite the limitations, the present study contributes to an understanding of indonesian university students‟ perceptions of learner autonomy and identified several prospective topics of inquiry for future research. the data of the present study were gathered only from students. future research should involve english language teachers to explore their readiness for promoting learner autonomy. future research should also investigate students‟ practices of learner autonomy both inside and outside the classroom using multiple data collection instruments such as observations, classroom recordings, and portfolios to obtain information about students‟ autonomous learning behaviors. disclosure statement no potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors. acknowledgments i would like to thanks all participants of this study for their willingness to freely share their precious experiences and insights with me. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 5| no. 2|december|year 2021| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 401 references ardi, p. 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(2014). correlation between learning motivation and learner autonomy for non-english majors. world transactions on engineering and technology education, 12(3), 374-379. biographical notes daflizar is a senior lecturer at the english education department of the faculty of education and teacher training, state islamic institute of kerinci, indonesia. he obtained his master‟s degree in tesol and ph.d. degree in education (tesol) from the university of canberra, australia. his research interests include learner autonomy, language learning strategies, language teaching and learning, technology-based language learning, and language learning motivation http://doi.org/10.1177/0033688214561621 this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 306 measuring verbal fluency task performance of indonesian bilinguals feisal aziez 1 , hazim alkhrisheh 2 , furqanul aziez 3 , and maulana mualim 4 abstract verbal fluency (vf) task is a tool that has been utilized in bilingual studies to measure executive performance of bilingual individuals. while many of the previous studies compared bilingual speakers‘ performance in vf to their monolingual counterparts, this descriptive study compares exclusively the cross-linguistic vf performance of indonesian bilinguals in their first (l1), second (l2), and third language (l3). the aim of this study was to see whether or not there were any differences in the result of their performance in each of their languages. the participants of the current study were 25 non-native bilingual university students in indonesia who speak english in at least intermediate level. javanese is the l1 of the participants. indonesian is their l2, whereas english is their l3. in the vf task, the participants were requested to generate, in a rapid fashion, semantic category and phonemic category in their l1, l2, and l3. the results showed that the participants‘ vf performance in english and standard indonesian were significantly higher (p < .05) than javanese. however, no significant difference was indicated when comparing the semantic category and phonemic category in all three languages. the findings of this study will be used as a basis for a forthcoming study on vf performance of indonesian bilinguals. keywords: indonesian bilinguals, phonemic category, semantic category, verbal fluency 1. a phd. student at multilingualism doctoral school, university of pannonia, hungary. he is also a lecturer at english education department, universitas muhammadiyah purwokerto, indonesia; feisalaziez@ump.ac.id 2. a phd. student at multilingualism doctoral school, university of pannonia, hungary; hkhrisheh@yahoo.com 3. associate professor at faculty of teacher training and education, universitas muhammadiyah purwokerto, indonesia; f.aziez2010@gmail.com 4. lecturer at english education department, iain purwokerto, indonesia; maulanamualim@iainpurwokerto.ac.id mailto:feisalaziez@ump.ac.id mailto:hkhrisheh@yahoo.com mailto:f.aziez2010@gmail.com mailto:maulanamualim@iainpurwokerto.ac.id irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 307 introduction there are several different ways in which bilingualism is described (romaine, 1995). haugen (1953) says that bilingualism is apparent when a language speaker has the ability produce meaningful statements in a different language. bloomfield (1933) notes that bilingualism is possible only if the "native" mastery of both the languages has been acquired by the speaker. researchers also characterize bilinguals by the speaker‘s level of proficiency in their languages. for example, the term "balanced" bilingual means someone who has relatively equal proficiency proficient in two or more languages. in comparison, bilinguals who are "non-balanced" have different proficiency in their languages meaning that they are usually more proficient in a language compared to their other language(s) (romaine, 1995). across the globe, it has been reported that the majority of the world‘s population routinely speak two languages or more (moreno & kutas, 2005) without apparent difficulty to bear the burden of bilingualism. in the united states, bilingualism is much less common, but the bilingual population (around one fifth of the whole population) is relatively large and increasing in a quick fashion (us census, 2000). the nature of bilingualism offers a chance to explore their language production by questioning how bilingualism affects bilinguals‘ executive control which can be reflected in their ability to produce words in rapid fashion (e.g. verbal fluency). bilinguals may appear to be able to use two or more languages easily in everyday use at a high degree of proficiency. nonetheless, there are some processing costs that have been related to bilingualism. according to some studies, bilinguals tend to score less compared to monolinguals in standardized tests including the boston naming test (e.g. gollan et al., 2007) and picture naming tasks (e.g., silverberg, gollan and silverberg, 2001). they are also reported to display more tip-of-the-tongue (tot) (e.g., gollan and silverberg, 2001) and have poor verbal fluency performance (e.g. gollan et al., 2002). crucially, even when they are tested on their dominant languages (e.g., gollan et al., 2005), and native languages, bilingual people have been reported to be relatively less fluent than monolinguals (e.g., ivanova & costa, 2008). as a multilingual country, there has been little study conducted in indonesia in regards to the verbal fluency performance of the bilingual speakers in the country. in the current study, we assessed the verbal fluency performance of non-native bilingual university students in indonesia who speak english in at least intermediate level, using a verbal fluency task—a commonly used neuropsychological task of lexical knowledge or lexical retrieval ability (friesen et al., 2013). their performance in their first, second, and third language were measured to see whether there was any indication of processing costs. on those bases, the questions that this study attempted to answer were (1) is there any difference in the speakers‘ vf performance in javanese, indonesian and english? (2) is there any difference between semantic categories and phonemic categories regardless of the languages? (3) is there any difference among all scores in the semantic and phonemic categories in all of the languages? irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 308 literature review benefits and costs of bilingualism many studies in bilingualism have pointed out the cognitive benefits of bilingualism both in children and adults (e.g., lauchlan et al., 2012; and antoniou et al., 2016). lauchlan et al. (2012) investigated the benefits of bilingualism on the cognitive ability of children who are the speakers of sardinian and scottish gaelic, two minority languages as well as italian and english, which is their country‘s ‗national‘ languages. their study indicated that these bilingual children exceeded the monolingual children in the cognitive tasks to a significant degree. antoniou et al. (2016), for example, compared the performance in executive control of bidialectal children to that of bilingual children (english–greek speaking) in cyprus and monolingual children (standard modern greek-speaking) in greece. they found that speaking more than one dialect bears similar benefits as speaking more than one language. both bidialectal and bilingual children outperformed monolingual children in executive performance. however, in some other researches (e.g. kirk et al., 2014), the results showed no significant difference in executive control performance between bilinguals and monolinguals. kirk et al. (2014) suggested that there is a possibility that the inconsistent findings of bilingual advantages in terms of executive control are caused by the impact of interactional contexts and bilingual literacy, to which bilinguals are generally exposed to. moreover, some research even reported that bilinguals scored less compared to monolinguals in standardized tests such as the boston naming test (e.g., gollan et al., 2007) and picture naming tasks (e.g. gollan & silverberg, 2001). they are also reported to display more tip-of-the-tongue (tot) (e.g., gollan & silverberg, 2001) and have poor verbal fluency performance (e.g. gollan et al., 2002). crucially, even when they are assessed on their dominant languages (e.g., gollan et al., 2005), and native languages, bilingual people have been reported to be relatively less fluent than monolinguals (e.g., ivanova & costa, 2008). despite the confirmation from recent research on the existence of bilingual disadvantage in the vf task, the explanation to this problem remains elusive (e.g., bialystok et al., 2008; portocarrero et al., 2007). in vf task (see benton et al., 1983), speakers usually have to name, in one minute, as many words as possible in the tested language which belong to a semantic category (e.g. clothing items, furniture, animals, etc.) or letter category (e.g. words beginning with letter, s, f, or a). the most possible explanation on the disadvantages of bilingualism in vf task is that bilinguals may need to retrieve the expected items while, at the same time, attempting to suppress interruption from the non-target language(s) in their mind. unintentional activation of non-target language words may interrupt the retrieval of target language words resulting in fewer correct responses than monolinguals (sandoval et al., 2010). another potential reason is that in retrieving target language words without any intervention from the non-target language, bilinguals are merely slower than monolinguals. (e.g., gollan et al., 2008). another alternative is the differences between monolinguals and irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 309 bilinguals in terms of language specific vocabulary knowledge. although, overall, bilinguals may know more words than monolinguals, bilinguals may know fewer words than monolinguals in each language that they have (e.g., bialystok et al., 2008). undoubtedly, these different mechanisms may occur at the same time, affecting bilinguals‘ verbal fluency performance. verbal fluency task in measuring lexical knowledge or lexical retrieval ability, psychologists and psycholinguists commonly used a type of neuropsychological task called verbal fluency (vf) task (friesen et al., 2013). semantic fluency and phonemic fluency tasks are two types of vf tasks that are most commonly used (shao et al., 2014). in a semantic fluency test, participants are asked to produce, in the target language, as many unique words as possible in a semantic category (e.g. animals, girl‘s names, etc.), whereas in a phonemic fluency test, they are asked to produce as many unique words as possible which starts with a particular letter (e.g. words starting with a, s, d, etc.) in a limited time which is typically 60 seconds (lezak et al., 2004). the correct words produced within each category are then counted and used as the score. however, other studies use other measurements such as the number of repetitions, the length of words in each subcategory, the reaction time between the words, and so on (e.g., shao et al., 2014; troyer et al., 1997; troyer et al., 1998). the cowat (controlled oral word association test) which is the initial letter fluency is the most common variant employed to investigate vf (loonstra et al., 2001). vf task is often used in clinical practice e.g. to support diagnoses of alzheimer‘s disease (e.g., zhao et al., 2013), parkinson‘s disease (e.g., henry & crawford, 2004), schizophrenia (e.g., frith et al., 1995) and neuropsychological assessment (e.g. vaucheret paz et al., 2020). while in non-clinical research, the task is used, for example, to compare lexical retrieval ability in monolinguals and bilinguals (e.g., friesen et al., 2013; patra et al., 2020), between genders (e.g., scheuringer, 2017), age (gaillard et al., 2000) or a combination of different factors such as age and education (e.g., tombaugh et al., 1999). in addition, vf tasks are also used to assess bilingual processing in psychological studies (friesen et al., 2016). the validity of the task comes from evidence related to vf (in addition to executive control abilities) to brain damage (schwartz & baldo, 2001). wysokinski et al. (2010: 438) defined vf as the individual‘s ability to utter words and expressions with required criteria associated with communication and functioning. generating words in vf tasks usually requires individuals to exercise cognitive activation such as short-term memory retrievals, inhibitions, and organizing information. vf tasks are believed to require search strategies from the test takers that utilizes their executive control during the lexical retrieving process and friesen et al. (2013) argue that the demand for executive control is greater in phonemic category tasks. this statement is supported by some researches which indicate that individuals tend to produce fewer lexical items during phonemic tasks than semantic tasks (e.g., gollan et al., 2002; and kormi-nouri et al., 2012; alkhrisheh & de bot, 2019). one potential explanation for this is that the role irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 310 specifications for semantic categories are consistent with the semantic memory structure; in one‘s mind, concepts are clustered based on semantic properties which help during the lexical retrieval process e.g. for speech production (luo et al., 2010). on the other hand, generating words from a phonemic cue is an unusual lexical retrieval approach since lexical entries are not listed in alphabetical order (strauss et al., 2006). shao et al. (2014) attribute the higher cognitive performance demanded by the phonemic category to the lack of existing links between the concepts. the semantic category seems to provoke responses based on already existing links between the concepts. thus, in the phonemic fluency tasks, participants are required to suppress any exploit semantic associations, and instead, turn to novel retrieval strategies. furthermore, the vf task is widely spread because of its validity and association with executive control functioning in which mental access to the lexicon is required to fulfill the task (fisk & sharp, 2004). the aspects of executive control process in vf tasks require participants to focus on the task in order to generate words according to criteria while avoiding repetition. this process involves aspects of executive control abilities including working memory, inhibition, and self-initiation effort. the developmental dynamics of the two variants vary greatly. studies show that the development of the semantic variant is more stable and rapid. it also shows a linear developmental sequence at the age of 12-13 whereas the phonemic variant seems to be less rapid and lasts until adolescence (kavé, 2006; sauzeon et al., 2004). even though vf tasks are commonly employed to assess cognitive deficiencies as mentioned earlier and demonstrated by the previous readings, yet other researchers used the task to assess individual differences considering variables such as gender, age, and the education level as factors that might contribute to the performance of the vf task. heister (1982), for instance, conducted a study to compare males to females in word fluency and ideational fluency to find that females are superior to males in terms of performance in lexical access. weiss et al. (2003), on the other hand, in the vf task results, did not notice any substantial discrepancies between males and females. the reported mixed results are attributed to many reasons such as the interference in lexical decision tasks and tip-of-the-tongue occurrences (bialystok, 2009). connectionists, for instance, argued that bilinguals exhibit weaker associations between words and associated notions in each language since information is stored in terms of weights and activation networks that often compete because they have to control multiple lexical reservoir (michael & gollan, 2005). studies in language-switching have also been reporting disadvantages of bilinguals in terms of language specific knowledge (e.g., altarriba & basnight-brown, 2009). accordingly, bilingualism seems to have costs. most of these costs seem to be deficits in language performance and lexical retrievals. researches in psycholinguistics also made use of vf tasks to detect any forms of cognitive advantage for being bilingual. however, in standard measures of vocabulary tasks, it was observed that bilinguals scored less than monolinguals, experienced more tongue slips, and were slower in naming objects displayed in pictures (bialystok & luk, 2012). in contrast, it has been reported that bilinguals outperformed monolinguals in executive functioning tasks (bialystok et al., 2009). the reported results imply that there are advantages and irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 311 disadvantages of bilingualism represented in cognitive performance on the expense of language decline. the assumption that there are cognitive advantages of bilingualism in certain aspects of cognition does not eliminate the possibility that there are cognitive costs of bilingualism in other aspects of cognition. it has been reported that bilinguals activated multiple sets of lexical representations. as a result, the process of retrieving a suitable lexical candidate for translation took longer than expected, suggesting that interference seems to play a role in lexical retrieval (kroll & stewart, 1994). in the present study, the vf task is used to measure the lexical retrieval ability of indonesian bilinguals in their mother tongue (i.e., javanese), second language (i.e., indonesian), and third language (i.e., english). multilingual condition in indonesia indonesia is a multilingual country with over 700 languages (2010 census). the national language of the country is indonesian, a standardized register of malay, which belongs to austronesian language groups. it has been used for centuries as a lingua franca mainly for trades across the archipelago. most of the population in the country use indonesian as their daily mean of communication which makes it one of the languages in the world with the most speakers. in formal education, administrative works, governance, nearly all national mass media, judiciary, and other purposes, indonesian is widely used in the country. based on the 2010 census by the government, indonesian is the native language of 42.8 million people and as a second language by 154.9 million people who speak it alongside their regional languages and dialects. this means the total number of its speaker is nearly 200 million. indonesian is a common first language in urban areas while in more rural parts of indonesia; it is spoken as a second language. as the official language, it is regulated by the constitution of indonesia in chapter xv, 1945 which says: ―the national language shall be indonesian‖. it is also regulated in chapter iii, section 25 to 45, government regulation no. 24/2009. the language has an important role as a representation of national identity. it also has an imperative role as a unifying language in the diverse and multilingual indonesian ethnic groups spread across the archipelago. in 1945, the country established bahasa indonesia as their official language. the use of indonesian as the national language of the country was uncommon when compared to most other post-colonial countries or states. indonesia did not adopt dutch as the official language. they also did not adopt javanese as the language with most native speakers in the country. at the time, indonesian was only about 5% of the population's native language, while javanese was 42-48% of the population's mother tongue. it was a mixture of practical, nationalistic, and political reasons that ultimately led to indonesian being adopted as a national language. although at that time, javanese has the most native speakers and it was a predominant language used in political, economic, judicial, religious, and literary settings, it lacked the fundamentals to unify the diverse population of indonesia. not only was that javanese considered too difficult to learn by non-native speakers, indonesian had also already widely spread in the archipelago at that time. therefore, it could be more readily irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 312 embraced than any other language in the country. however, javanese and its dialects are still widely used today in daily communication by more than 84 million indonesians. as stated earlier, apart from speaking the national language, the majority of indonesians speak more than 700 indigenous regional languages fluently. the government even boasts that the number could reach 2500 if we include all the dialects of these languages. according to the 2010 survey by the government, 79.5 percent of the population of age above 5 use regional languages at home, while only 19.9 percent of the population use indonesian. according to ethnologue, here are ten regional languages with most speakers in indonesia (van den berg, 2014). table 1. regional languages in indonesia with most speakers no. language number of speakers 1 javanese 84.3 million 2 sundanese 34.0 million 3 madurese 13.6 million 4 minangkabau 5.5 million 5 musi 3.9 million 6 manado malay 3.8 million 7 bugis 3.5 million 8 bandar 3.5 million 9 acehnese 3.5 million 10 balinese 3.3 million some of the regional languages also have their own writing systems or alphabets such as batak, javanese, makassar, and bugis whereas aceh, malay, and wolio adopted arabic alphabets. however, the use of the regional languages‘ writing systems has been significantly decreasing in the last few decades. this is due to the widespread of the indonesian writing system in education and mass media as the national language. javanese, for example, has been taught in the indonesian writing system instead of its writing system for decades. in the country, all regional languages are acknowledged as an important part of the culture which has to be respected and conserved. however, in practice, indonesian as the national language is highly prioritized while the regional languages are given limited space in the curriculum or even completely neglected. since 1995 there has been an effort to include regional languages as a local content in the curriculum. however, the teaching is limited to the elementary (grade 1-6) and junior high school (grade 7-9) level and only regional languages with a high number of speakers are included. some minority languages such as wawonii, kulisusu, kamaru, and busoa are completely neglected. this happens due to government and school policies, lack of teaching materials, limited teaching staff, etc. (van den berg, 2014). english is a compulsory subject taught at almost all levels of education in indonesia (lauder, 2008) for its role as a mean for global communication. the participants in this study were third-year university students of english language programs in a private university in central java in which javanese is the mother tongue of the majority of the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 313 population. therefore, they have been learning english exclusively during the three years. they also still used javanese in their daily communication while indonesian is mainly used mostly in formal situations. the multilingual nature of the context is therefore interesting for exploring the vf performance across the languages. methodology research design, participants, and locale of the study this study used a quantitative method in describing cross-linguistic and cross-categorical performances of indonesian bilinguals. in this study, a homogeneous participant sample was selected through non-probability, convenience sampling (bhattacherjee, 2012). language history questionnaire (lhq) version 3.0 was used to ensure that the bilingual participants were approximately equal in proficiency in their languages. since this study attempted to provide insight to the vf performance of one particular group of bilinguals in indonesia and no comparison was made, no a priori claims should be made about the generalizability of this study. there were 25 participants involved in this research. they were third-year students of an english education department in a private university in central java, indonesia. their age range was from 19 to 21. the participants speak at least three languages; javanese (l1), indonesian (l2), and english (l3). they are mostly early bilinguals—having been exposed to javanese and indonesian at an early age. english is learned at school from the elementary school level. their english proficiency levels at the time of data collection were b1 and b2 (cefr). data collection and analysis the vf task in the present study followed the existing steps that have been used in many previous studies (e.g., friesen et al, 2013; lezak, et al. 2004; shao et al, 2014). first, participants were asked to produce, in rapid fashion, semantic category (i.e. job) and phonemic category (i.e., names of different words beginning with s) in their l1, l2, and l3. the participants were given 60 seconds to produce as many words as possible in each category and each language. before performing the actual task, the participants were given one practice task with a different set of categories to allow them to get used to the task. the responses from the participants while performing the actual tasks were recorded. the scores for each participant were measured by counting the correct and unique words produced by her/him. to ensure the reliability of the correct words produced, two raters were asked to assess them. the scores then were analyzed using one-way anova in spss 22. the task scores from all categories and all languages were compared to each other to see whether or not there is any significant difference. once a significant difference was found, tukey post-hoc tests were performed to see which of the comparisons were significant. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 314 ethical considerations the present study, for ethical considerations, required full consent from the participants prior to the study. participants were informed accordingly about the purpose of the present study and assured that participation was voluntary and they have rights to withdraw from the study at any stage. this study was self-funded and there was no conflict of interests. information on all participants and organization are kept confidential except for the information used for the purpose of the data analysis with the informed consent from the respected parties. this study also ensured an adequate level of confidentiality of the research data. findings abbreviations, for practical reasons, will be used to describe the variables in this study i.e., semjav is semantic category in javanese language; semind is semantic category in standard indonesian; semeng is semantic category in english; phojav is semantic category in javanese language; phoind is phonemic category in standard indonesian; and phoeng is phonemic category in english. comparing bilinguals’ vf performance in javanese, indonesian, and english table 2 shows that the participants produced more words in english (m=11.98, sd=3.74) on both semantic and phonemic categories, which is slightly higher than in indonesian (m=11.80, sd=4.45), whereas they produced least words in their javanese (m=7.34, sd=3.56). table 2. descriptive statistics words production by language language number of words produced n m sd javanese 50 7.34 3.561 indonesian 50 11.80 4.445 english 50 11.98 3.744 the result of the analysis of variance indicated a significant difference (f (22.309) = 2, p= .000) between the languages regardless of the semantic and phonemic categories as shown in the following table. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 315 table 3. anova of words production by language df ss ms f p between groups 2 690.893 345.447 22.309 .000 within groups 147 2276.200 15.484 to see between which language(s) the difference is significant, post hoc analysis was carried out using a tukey, a .05 level of significance was then achieved. we can see from the table below that when compared to javanese (m=7.34, sd=3.56) the scores of english (m=11.98, sd=3.74) and indonesian (m=11.80, sd=4.45) are significantly higher. however, no significant difference is found between english and indonesian. the following table shows the results of all the multiple comparisons among the languages. table 4. anova comparisons of word production from three languages tukey‘s hsd comparison language n m sd javanese indonesian javanese 50 7.34 3.561 indonesian 50 11.80 4.445 < .001 english 50 11.98 3.744 < .001 >1.000 comparing bilinguals’ vf performance in semantic and phonemic categories on category level, we found that the participants produced slightly more words on phonemic category (m=10.99, sd=4.26) than semantic category (m=9.76, sd=4.61) as seen in table 3 below. table 5. descriptive statistics words production by category category number of words produced n m sd semantic 75 9.76 4.606 phonemic 75 10.99 4.257 as seen in the following table, the result of the analysis of variance on semantic category and phonemic category regardless the languages showed no significant difference (f (2.87) = 1, p= .092). irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 316 table 6. anova of words production by semantic and phonemic categories df ss ms f p between groups 1 56.427 56.427 2.869 .092 within groups 148 2910.667 19.667 comparing vf performance across languages and categories overall, the participants produced more words in phonemic category than semantic category of all languages. phonemic category in indonesian (phoind) (m=12.68, sd=3.62) is higher than all other categories with the lowest being semantic category in javanese (semjav) (m=6.84, sd=3.27). in semantic category, learners produced more words in semantic category in english (semeng) (m=11.52, sd=3.95) than semantic category in indonesian (semind) (m=10.92, sd=5.06) and semantic category in javanese (semjav) (m=6.84, sd=6.84). in phonemic category, as mentioned earlier, phonemic category in indonesian (phoind) (m=12.68, sd=3.62) is higher than phonemic category in english (phoeng) (m=12.44, sd=3.55) and phonemic category in javanese (phojav) (m=7.84, sd=3.83). the following table shows the result from the descriptive statistics. table 7. descriptive statistics words production based on category and language category and language number of words produced n m sd semjav 25 6.84 3.275 semind 25 10.92 5.057 semeng 25 11.52 3.949 phojav 25 7.84 3.826 phoind 25 12.68 3.625 phoeng 25 12.44 3.548 to see the statistical significance of the differences among the scores of all categories, an analysis of variance was performed. the result indicated a significant difference (f (9.79)= 5, p= .000) in the categories as shown in the following table. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 317 table 8. anova of words production by all categories and languages df ss ms f p between groups 5 752.693 150.539 9.789 .000 within groups 144 2214.400 15.378 to find out which of the categories are significantly different compared to others, post hoc analysis was conducted using a tukey and a .05 level of significance was achieved. table 9. anova comparisons of word production by all categories and languages category and language tukey‘s hsd comparison n m sd semjav semind semeng phojav phoind semjav 25 6.84 3.275 semind 25 10.92 5.057 .005 semeng 25 11.52 3.949 .001 >1.000 phojav 25 7.84 3.826 >1.000 0.93 .001 phoind 25 12.68 3.625 <.001 >1.000 >1.000 <.001 phoeng 25 12.44 3.548 <.001 >1.000 >1.000 >1.000 >1.000 as seen in table 9, semjav (m=6.84, sd=3.27) is significantly lower compared to other categories except for phojav (m=7.84, sd=3.83). phojav (m=7.84, sd=3.83) is also significantly lower in comparison to other categories except for semjav (m=6.84, sd=3.27) and semind (m=10.92, sd=5.057). although phoind (m=12.68, sd=3.63) is the highest among all, it is only significantly higher when compared to phojav (m=7.84, sd=3.83) and semjav (m=6.84, sd=3.27). semind (m=10.92, sd=5.057) is only significantly higher than semjav (m=6.84, sd=3.27). similar to phoind, semeng (m=11.52, sd=3.949) and phoeng (m=12.44, sd=3.548) are significantly higher only when compared to phojav (m=7.84, sd=3.83) and semjav (m=6.84, sd=3.27). the following table shows all the multiple comparisons among the categories. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 318 discussion there are three important points that can be drawn from the data found. firstly, when comparing the languages regardless the semantic or phonemic category, it is found that the participants‘ vf performance in english and standard indonesian was significantly higher than javanese. therefore, hypothesis (1) is accepted. this finding is interesting since javanese is the participants‘ l1, which is mostly acquired before or alongside indonesian (l2). in fact, the participants generated slightly more lexical items in english (m=11.98, sd=3.74) than indonesian (m=11.80, sd=4.45) although no significance was found. there are some possible explanations for this finding. first, this could be a supportive argument which argues that bilinguals exhibit weaker links between words and associated concepts in each language since information is stored in terms of weights and activation networks that often compete as a result of having to manage more than one lexical reservoir (michael & gollan, 2005). studies in language-switching also reported language specific deficits (e.g., altarriba & basnight-brown, 2009). since the participants were learning english at the time and indonesian is also used in academic situation, their l1 is suppressed to allow executive control to focus more on l2 and l3. secondly, no significant difference between the semantic category and phonemic category regardless the language is found. therefore, hypothesis (2) is rejected. this finding contradicts the studies where the participants tend to produce less lexical items in phonemic tasks than semantic tasks (e.g., gollan et al, 2002; kormi-nouri et al, 2012). despite no significance could be drawn, in fact, this study shows that the participants produced slightly more words on phonemic category (m=10.99, sd=4.26) than semantic category (m=9.76, sd=4.61). this might challenge friesen‘s et al (2013) argument which stated that the demand for executive control is greater in phonemic category tasks. of course, improving the number of participants in this study would be necessary for a stronger argument. finally, as it can be expected from the first analysis, there are several significant differences among the semantic and phonemic categories in all languages. therefore, hypothesis (3) is accepted. to get a more detailed comparison among the categories and languages in the vf task, multiple comparisons were done. from the analysis, semantic category of javanese (m=6.84, sd=3.27) is significantly lower compared to other categories except for phonemic category of javanese (m=7.84, sd=3.83). on the other hand, phonemic category of standard indonesian (m=12.68, sd=3.63) is the highest among all. however, it is only significant when compared to both semantic and phonemic category in javanese. overall, the findings seem to support the recent findings on the costs of bilingualism. even in their dominant language (i.e. javanese), the participants produced less words than their less dominant language (i.e. english). this supports gollan‘s et al. (2005) study which reported that bilinguals were less fluent than monolinguals even in the dominant and native languages (e.g., ivanova and costa, 2008). however, as it was previously mentioned, one cannot simply jump into conclusion on what causes this disadvantage (e.g., irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 319 portocarrero, burright, and donovick, 2007, bialystok, craik, and luk, 2008). although several possible explanations have been provided (i.e. retrieval slowing with interference between languages (sandoval, gollan, ferreira, & salmon, 2010); retrieval slowing without interference (gollan, montoya, cera, & sandoval, 2008); and the reduced vocabulary hypothesis (e.g., bialystok et al., 2008)), assuming the actual cause can still be quite problematic. conclusion and recommendation the findings in this study have shown some interesting insights into indonesian bilinguals‘ vf performance across languages. they seem to support the recent findings on the costs of bilingualism. one important point is that the vf performance in l1 is lower than l2 and l3. this means that even in their dominant language (i.e. javanese), the participants produced less words than their less dominant language (i.e. english). secondly, there was no difference found in the production of lexical items in semantic and phonemic categories which are in contrast to common findings of several relevant studies. although it has been suggested that inferring the possible cause(s) of the cost of bilingualism is still challenging, there is an indication from this study that mind conditioning may play a part in the vf performance. since this study was conducted in an l2 english environment, the participants‘ mind might be affected by the linguistic environment which results in higher number of words produced in english. therefore, future studies using some types of conditioning treatments and control group may reveal the extent of this factor. moreover, since this study involves only one group of 25 english learners in a private university in indonesia, the next study involving a larger number of participants would be crucial in providing more insights into this topic. nonetheless, this study provides further insights on the cost of bilingualism particularly in the context of indonesian bilinguals which may serve as a basis for future research in this topic. disclosure statement no conflict of interest was reported by the authors. acknowledgments we are deeply indebted to all reviewers and editors for accepting our manuscript. references alkhrisheh, h., & de bot, k. 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(2003). brain activation pattern during a verbal fluency test in healthy male and female volunteers: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study. neuroscience letters, 352(3), 191-194. wysokinski, a., zboralski, k., orzechowska, a., galecki, p., florkowski, a., & talarowska, m. (2010). normalization of the verbal fluency test on the basis of results for healthy subjects, patients with schizophrenia, patients with organic lesions of the chronic nervous system and patients with type 1 and 2 diabetes. archives of medical science, 6(3), 438-446. zhao, q., guo, q., & hong, z. (2013). clustering and switching during a semantic verbal fluency contribute to differential diagnosis of cognitive impairment. neuroscience bulletin, 29, 75–82. biographical notes feisal aziez is a phd student at multilingualism doctoral school, university of pannonia, hungary. he is also a lecturer at english education department, universitas muhammadiyah purwokerto, indonesia; feisalaziez@ump.ac.id hazim alkhrisheh is a phd student at multilingualism doctoral school, university of pannonia, hungary; hkhrisheh@yahoo.com furqanul aziez is an associate professor at faculty of teacher training and education, universitas muhammadiyah purwokerto, indonesia; f.aziez2010@gmail.com maulana mualim is a lecturer at english education department, iain purwokerto, indonesia; maulanamualim@iainpurwokerto.ac.id http://www.census.gov/population/cen2000/phc-t20/tab01.pdf mailto:feisalaziez@ump.ac.id mailto:hkhrisheh@yahoo.com mailto:f.aziez2010@gmail.com mailto:maulanamualim@iainpurwokerto.ac.id this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 57 looking at the link between study habits and academic achievement: the case of indonesian efl student teachers lenny marzulina 1 , dian erlina 2 , nova lingga pitaloka 3 , and florensia anggarde paramika 4 abstract the purpose of this study was to look at the link between english as a foreign language (efl) student teachers‟ study habits and academic achievement. a questionnaire of study habits inventory (shi) and students‟ cumulative gpas were used as research instruments to efl student teachers in one english education study program at an indonesian state islamic university. data were analyzed through using the descriptive statistics and pearson product moment correlation. in general, it was found that efl student teachers‟ habits significantly correlated with their academic achievement. also, the results of the linear regression analysis showed that efl student teachers‟ study habits led to their academic achievement. the findings of this study indicated that the correlation between study habits and academic achievement existed. in the context of learning english in a non-english speaking country like indonesia, this study provides information for researchers and teacher educators to understand how the link between study habits and academic achievement is significantly correlated each other. keywords academic achievement, efl student teachers, indonesian state islamic university study habit 1. *corresponding author: english education study program, faculty of tarbiyah and teaching sciences, state islamic university of raden fatah, south sumatra, indonesia; hj.lennymarzulina@gmail.com 2. english education study program, faculty of tarbiyah and teaching sciences, state islamic university of raden fatah, south sumatra, indonesia. 3. english education study program, faculty of tarbiyah and teaching sciences, state islamic university of raden fatah, south sumatra, indonesia. 4. english education study program, faculty of tarbiyah and teaching sciences, state islamic university of raden fatah, south sumatra, indonesia mailto:hj.lennymarzulina@gmail.com irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 58 introduction study habit is a very important characteristic of all human beings who are being educated. as much research is important for a higher academic achievement of students as much as important for their fruitful use of leisure time (acharya, 2012; eliot, foster, & stinson, 2002; ingholt, 2014; haider & verma, 2013; khan, 2016; onuoha & subair, 2013). eliot, foster, and stinson (2002) in their study elaborated that students who used proper study habits could preserve knowledge for a longer time. study habits affect and increase the efficiency of the students with respect to their academic achievement and students who develop good study habits increase the potential to complete their assignments successfully and to learn the material they are studying (khan, 2016; verma, 2016). moreover, the adequate acquisition of a good study habit builds on the student confidence before, during and after an examination (haider & verma, 2013). study habit has long been considered for being an important variable in the academic success or failure of students in educational level. study habits are the regular tendencies and practices that one depicts during the process of gaining information through learning. in a simple term, study habits are the habits when someone studies (bhat & khandai, 2016; crede & kuncel, 2008; kumar, 2015; nonis & hudson, 2010; urh & jereb, 2014). study habits are divided into two types; poor and good study habits which are related to academic achievement. poor study habits include poor attendance, poor note taking, poor time management, last-minute work, procrastination, failure to read direction, and lack of concentration during learning (nonis & hudson, 2010; singh, 2015). poor study habits make students have low comprehension and confidence in the study influencing their academic achievement (marzulina et al., 2018; young, 2018). on the other hand, good study habits are related to good assets to learners because good habits assist students to attain mastery in areas of specialization and consequent excellent performance, while opposite constitutes constraints to learning and achievement leading to failure (lee, 2010; tope, 2011). the relationship between study habit and academic achievement has received attention from scholars (aluja & blanch, 2004; anwar, 2013; aquino, 2011). some studies have been conducted to find out the correlation between study habits and academic achievement. some revealed that study habits had a positive correlation to academic achievement (arora, 2016; singh & mahipal, 2015; siahi & maiyo, 2015). all of the studies informed that there was a strong positive correlation between academic achievement and study habits of adolescents. on the other hand, there were some studies that revealed study habits had no significant relationship to academic achievement (lawrence, 2014; nouhi, shakoori, & nakhei, 2008). however, the references in the context of university students in developing countries like indonesia are still limited. this study was an attempt to fill a gap in the study habits and academic achievement in indonesian higher education and to fill the scarcity of literature and information on study habits and academic achievement. the purpose of this study was to look at the link between english as a foreign language (efl) student teachers‟ study habits and academic achievement in one english education study program at an indonesian state university. the following research questions guided this study: irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 59 1. is there any significant link or correlation between efl student teachers‟ study habits and academic achievement? 2. do study habits influence efl student teachers‟ academic achievement? additionally, this study tested the following hypotheses to address the research question: 1. ho: there is no l i n k o r correlation between efl student teachers‟ study habits and academic achievement h1: there is a correlation between efl student teachers‟ study habits and academic achievement. 2. ho: there is no influence of efl student teachers‟ study habits and academic achievement. h1: there is an influence of efl student teachers‟ study habits and academic achievement. literature review study habits literally, study habits are a combination of two words, namely study and habits. when taking it separately, study means the application of the mind to the acquirement of knowledge. the main purposes of the study were: to acquire knowledge which will be useful in meeting new situations, interpreting ideas, making judgments creating new ideas, and perfecting skills (crow & crow, 2007). for nagaraju (2004), the word of study can be assumed as the way someone to gain knowledge while verma (2016) argued that a habit was something that is done on a scheduled, regular, planned basis and that was not relegated to a second place or optional place in one‟s life. nagaraju (2004) informed that the characteristics of habits are (1) habits are not innate and inherited, (2) they are performed every time in the same way, (3) habitual actions are performed with great ease and facility, (4) habit brings accuracy to the action, (5) habitual acts are performed with least attention or no attention, and (6) nervous system is the principal factor in the formation of habits. therefore, study habits are the behaviors of an individual related to studies (yazdani & godbel, 2014). they are a well-planned and deliberate pattern of study that has attained a form of consistency on the part of the students toward understanding academic subjects and passing examinations (kaur & pathania, 2015). in addition, study habits can be defined as the sum total of all habits, determined purposes and enforced practices that the individual has in order to learn (radha & muthukumar, 2015). also, monica (2015) defined study habits were the regular tendencies and practices that one depicts during the process of gaining information through learning. every student has different study habits. some students can study in a crowded place, but some of them need a private place to study. for achieving good study habits, one must have a desire to learn with full working abilities and talents. students should have more irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 60 interests and self-disciplines in everything. good study habits are good assets to learners because they (habits) assist students to attain a mastery in areas of specialization and consequent excellent performance, while the opposites constitute constraints to learning and achievement leading to failure (tope, 2011). furthermore, lee (2010) argued that good study habits are important for students, especially college or university students, whose needs including time management, note taking, internet skills, eliminatory distractions, and assigning a high prioritizing study (abban, 2012; arora, 2016; boch & piolat, 2005; deore, 2012; nagaraju, 2004; ogbodo, 2010). on the other hand, poor study habits are the habits which do not work and do not help students succeed in their studies (bhat & khandai, 2016). poor study habit is one of the biggest and most persistent problems among the school and college students. there are some poor study habits such as poor attendance, poor note taking, poor time management and procrastination, lack of concentration during learning (capan, 2010; muraina, nyorere, emana, & muraina, 2014; nagaraju, 2004; ogbodo, 2010; reid, 1999; singh, 2015). academic achievement the term academic achievement is the combination of two words academic and achievement. singh (2015) claims the word academic is related to formal education. it is derived from word academy means school, where special types of instructions are imparted. the term academic means an institutional system of formal education in school, college, and university. the academic achievement depends on intellectual abilities like intelligence, aptitude, imagination, memory, study habit, perceptual power and attention, emotional tendencies of the children, physical fitness, environmental factors like home where they lives, the racial nature and religious background of family (alos, caranto, & david, 2015; gudaganava & halayannavar, 2014; illahi & khandai, 2015). furthermore, lawrence and vimala (2012) stated that academic achievement was a measure of knowledge gained in formal education usually indicated by test scores, grade, grade points, and average and degrees. students‟ academic achievement refers to the grades obtained by students upon accomplishing the courses in their study. academic achievement is one of the most important goals of education. the success or failure of a student is measured in terms of academic achievement. in short, academic achievement can be concluded as the score that students obtain in formal education by taking test or being given by a teacher. study habits and academic achievement studies on study habits and academic achievement have long been introduced. (e.g., arora, 2016; lawrance, 2014; nouhi et al., 2008; singh & mahipal, 2015; siahi & maiyo, 2015). for instance, siahi and maiyo (2015) conducting a study to determine the relationship between study habits and academic achievement revealed a positive relationship of 0.66 between study habits and academic achievement. furthermore, arora (2016) found that there wa a strong positive correlation between academic achievement and irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 61 study habits of adolescents. also, nouhi et al. (2008) conducted a similar study found that the correlation between academic achievement and study habits was not significant (r = 0.085, p > 0.05). also, lawrance (2014) conducted a similar study and found that there was no significant relationship between study habits and academic achievement of higher secondary school students. methodology in this study, we used a correlational approach to look at the link between english a foreign language (efl) student teachers‟ study habits and academic achievement in one english education study program at an indonesian state university. we used this approach as we believe that a correlational study investigates the possibility of relationships between only two variables, although investigations of more than two variables are common (fraenkel, wallen, & hyun, 2012; richards & schmidt, 2010). the meaning of a given correlation coefficient of the research can be seen in the table below based on lodico, spaulding, and voegtle (2010). table 1. correlation coefficient interval coefficient level of correlation 0 0.19 no or weak relationship 0.20 – 0.34 slight relationship 0.35 – 0.64 moderately strong relationship 0.65 – 0.84 strong 0.85 – 1.00 very strong the purpose of this design was to identify variables that would positively predict an outcome or criterion. we identified one or more predictor variables and a criterion (or outcome) variable. a predictor variable is the variable used to make a forecast about an outcome in correlational research while criterion variable is the outcome being predicted (creswell, 2012). the first procedure, we identified students‟ study habits by using study habits inventory. in the second procedure, we obtained the students‟ cumulative gpa as the data of their academic achievement. the next step, we analyzed the correlation between variables through spss based on the results of the study habits inventory and students‟ academic achievement (creswell, 2012; lodico et al., 2010). a common and useful way to think about variables is to classify them as independent or dependent (fraenkel et al., 2012). they defined that independent variable was what the researcher chooses to study in order to assess their possible effect(s) on one or more other variables. the variable that the independent variable is presumed to affect is called a dependent variable. in this study, the independent variable is students‟ study habits, and the dependent variable is their academic achievement. irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 62 research site, sampling procedures, and participants the participants of the study were undergraduate english a foreign language (efl) student teachers in one english education study program at an indonesian state university. the distribution of population of the study can be seen below: table 2. distribution of population no semester number of students 1 i 153 2 iii 118 3 v 101 4 vii 95 5 xi 140 total 642 the sample was selected by using an acceptable sampling method, and a minimally acceptable sample size is generally 30 (fraenkel et al., 2012; lodico et al., 2010). in this study, we used a purposive sampling method. the purposive sampling, also referred to as a judgment sampling, is the process of selecting a sample that is believed to be representative of a given population sample (gay, mills, & airasian, 2012). we intentionally selected individuals and sites due to access issues for collection the data. the sample consisted of 219 students in one english education study program at an indonesian state university. table 3. sample of the study no semester number of students 1 iii 118 2 v 101 total 219 data collection methods and data analysis we used two instruments to get the data; questionnaire and students‟ cumulative gpa. to obtain the information about students‟ study habits, we used study habits inventory (shi) from mukhopadhyaya and sansanwal (2009). shi consists of 50 items, based on nine areas for each type of study habits. the following table areas of study habits inventory: irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 63 table 4. study habits inventory specification no areas items in the questionnaire 1. comprehension 2+, 5+, 6+, 8+, 9+, 10-, 13+, 29+, 30+, 31+, 36+, and 47+ 2. concentration 14+, 16-, 17-, 18-, 19-, 20-, 21, 35-,38and 40 3. task orientation 22+, 27+, 28-, 32-, 33-, 34-, 43-, 45and 46 4. study sets 7+, 11+, 15+, 23+, 24+, 25+ and 39+ 5. interaction 26-, 41+ and 42+ 6. drilling 1+, 12+ and 37+ 7. supports 48+, 49+ and 50+ 8. recording 3+ and 4+ 9. language 44+ there are five possible responses to each statement ranging from „always‟ to „never‟. the statement of shi is divided into two categories positive and negative. table 5. likert scale of the statement statements always frequently sometimes rarely never positive 4 3 2 1 0 negative 0 1 2 3 4 in this study, students‟ cgpa was collected as the documentation of students‟ academic achievement result to get the data for this research. it is the result of the students study from all the courses they had taken starting from the first semester to their current semester. to collect students‟ academic achievement, we collected their cgpa by asking directly in the same time when the questionnaires were given to them and from the u n i v e r s i t y administration because some of them did not remember their cgpa. after we got the data, we classified the students‟ cumulative gpa into the category. before the questionnaire was administered, the researcher firstly considered validity and reliability. we used ready-made instruments which have been developed by experts. seliger and shohamy (2001) mentioned that using a ready-made instrument was more advantages than developing a new procedure for which information regarding reliability and validity is available. validity is the development of sound evidence to demonstrate that the test interpretation (of scores about the concept or construct that the test is assumed to measure) matches its proposed use (creswell, 2012). we did not do validity test because the study irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 64 habits inventory was ready-made questionnaire by mukhopadhyaya and sansawal (2009) and it had been already validated to measure students‟ study habits by face validity (kumar, 2015). richards & schmidt (2010) say, “the degree to which a test appears to measure the knowledge or abilities it claims to measure, based on the subjective judgment of an observer”. shi has been used in different sample from junior high school to college students. the reliability of questionnaire in this research was examined by splithalf method. split half method involves scoring two halves (usually odd items versus even items) of a test separately for each person and then calculating a correlation coefficient for the two sets of scores (fraenkel et al., 2012). the result was .91 which is fairly high and indicates that the inventory is reliable. furthermore, johnson and christensen (2012) stated that when we used to check reliability of scores, the coefficient should be at least 0.70, preferably higher. to get the score of study habits inventory, we counted the score of each item consisting of positive (4, 3, 2, 1, 0) and negative (0, 1, 2, 3, 4) statement. then, the score of each item was s u m m e d . after all results of students‟ study habits had been obtained, the score would be put in the category based on the interval score. the interval score of study habits can be seen in the table below: table 6. study habit inventory interval study habit inventory score good 140 – 200 average 70 – 139 poor 0 – 69 additionally, we classified students‟ cumulative gpa obtained into some categories. it can be seen in table below: table 7. students’ academic achievement category no score range category 1 4.00 summa cumlaude 2 3.51 – 3.99 extraordinary (cumlaude) 3 3.01 – 3.50 very good 4 2.51 – 3.00 good 5 2.00 – 2.50 average we used pearson – product moment correlation coefficient to find out the correlation between study habits and academic achievement, which was examined by the irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 65 statistical package for social and science (spss) computer program. the correlation is sought to find out whenever pearson r is higher than 0.19. gay et al. (2012) proposed that when two variables were correlated, the result is a correlation coefficient, which was a decimal number ranging from .00 to 1.00. the correlation coefficient indicated the size and direction of the relation between variables. we used regression analysis to see the value of contribution of predictor variable (the students‟ study habits) toward the criterion variable (the students‟ academic achievement) by analyzing the data of shi and students‟ cumulative gpa. regression analysis can be applied if there is a correlation. in correlation, the effect size is called as the coefficient of determination, symbolized by r2. in short, the coefficient of determination indicates the percentage of the variability between the criterion scores that can be attributed to differences in the scores on the predictor variable (fraenkel et al., 2012). regression analysis can be applied if there is a correlation. findings and discussion from the analysis of the data, we divided our findings into: (1) the result of questionnaire, (2) the result of academic achievement, (3) the result of normality test (4) the result of linearity test (5) correlation between students‟ study habits and their academic achievement, and (6) influence of students‟ study habits and their academic achievement. the result of questionnaire of 219 student teachers, only 148 of them participated in this research because some of them did not attend the class when we were distributing the questionnaire and some were absent due to their illness. the questionnaire of shi consists of 50 items, based on nine areas of study habits; comprehension, concentration, task orientation, study sets, interaction, drilling, support, recording and language. the statements of shi were divided into two categories positive and negative. positive statements consist of 32 items counted from 4 to 0. on the other hand, negative statements consist of 18 items counted from 0 to 4. the result of shi can be seen in the following table: table 8. descriptive statistics of student teachers’ study habits n range minimum maximum sum mean study habits 148 108 81 189 19482 131,64 valid n (listwise) 148 based on the descriptive statistics above, the range score of shi was 108, the minimum score was 81 and the maximum score was 189. meanwhile, the sum score of the students‟ study habits was 19482 and the mean was 131.64. this mean score (131.64) indicated that irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 66 the level of the students was average. the distribution of students‟ study habits can be seen in the table below: table 9. distribution of students’ study habits score interval category frequency percentage 140 – 200 good 58 39 % 70 – 139 average 90 61 % 0 – 69 poor 0 % total 148 100% from the table distribution of shi above, the result showed that 58 students were in the good study habits (140 – 200). on the contrary, 90 students were in average (70 – 139). meanwhile, there was no student in poor study habits. the result of academic achievement for academic achievement, we analyzed participants‟ academic achievement through their cumulative gpa that we obtained the university administration which can be seen below: table 10. descriptive statistics of student teachers’ academic achievement n range minimum maximum sum mean cumulative gpa 148 2.10 1.86 3.96 498.80 3.3703 valid n (listwise) 148 based on the descriptive statistics above, the range of academic achievement was 2.10, the minimum score was 1.86, and the maximum score was 3.96. meanwhile, the sum score of academic achievement was 498.80 and the mean score of academic achievement was 3.3703. this mean score (3.37) indicated that academic achievement of the third and fifth semester were in the very good category. the distribution of the academic achievement results can be seen in the table below: irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 67 table 11. the distribution of academic achievement score interval category frequency percentage 4.00 summa cumlaude 0 % 3.51 – 3.99 cumlaude 53 36 % 3.01 – 3.50 very good 83 56 % 2.51 – 3.00 good 10 6.66 % 2.00 – 2.50 average 1 0.67 % uncategorized 1 0.67 % total 148 100% based on the distribution table above, the result showed that there were no students in the summa cumlaude category. on the contrary, there were 53 (36%) student teachers were in cumlaude, 83 (56%) student teachers were in the very good category, 10 (6.6%) student teachers were in the good category; 1 (0.67%) student was in average category, but 1 (0.67%) student was in uncategorized; 0.67 as his cumulative gpa was less than 2.00. the result of normality test the purpose of the normality test of the data was to find out whether the distribution of the data was normal or not. the probability value for the normality test of the data was .05. the variables are normal if : (a) ho is accepted if the sig is lower than .05, it means the data are not normal, (b) h1 is accepted if the sig is higher than .05, it means the data are normal. to find out whether the distribution was normal or not, the result of the normality test can be seen in the table below: table 12. tests of normality study habits cumulative gpa n 148 148 normal parameters a,b mean 131,64 3.3703 std. d 23,586 .29390 most extreme absolute ,065 ,068 differences positive ,061 ,068 negative -,065 -,062 test statistic ,065 ,068 asymp. sig. (2-tailed) ,200 c, d ,091 c a. test distribution is normal, b. calculated from data, c. lilliefors significance correction, and d. this is a lower bound of the true significance. based on the result of normality test; irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 68 kolmogorov-smirnov, both study habits and academic achievement results were more than .05. the result of shi was .091 (>.05) and academic achievement was .200(>.05) which could be assumed that the data were normal. the normal q-q plot of each variable is illustrated in the following figures. figure 1. distribution of study habits data normal q-q plot of study habits irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 69 figure 2. distribution of academic achievement data normal q-q plot of academic achievement the result of linearity test the purpose of the linearity test of the data was to find out whether the distribution of the data was linear or not. the probability value for the linearity test of the data was .05. irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 70 the variables are linear if : (a) ho is accepted if the sig is lower than .05, it means the data are not linear, and (b) h1 is accepted if the sig is higher than .05, it means the data are linear. to find out whether the distribution of the data was linear or not, the result of the linearity test can be seen on the table below: table 13. anova sum of squares df mean square f sig. cumulati between (combined) 9,640 74 ,130 3,110 ,000 ve gpa * groups linearity 5,408 1 5,408 129,10 2 ,000 study habits deviation from linearity 4,232 73 ,058 1,384 ,084 within groups 3,058 73 ,042 total 12,698 147 based on the table above, the results showed that the deviation from linearity between study habits and academic achievement (sig) was .084 or higher than .05. the result indicated that it was linear. correlation between students’ study habits a n d t h e i r a c a d e m i c achievement to answer the first research question, we used pearson product moment correlation to find out the correlation between study habits and academic achievement. the result of pearson product moment can be seen in the table below: table 14. correlation result **. correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed) based on the pearson product moment above, the correlation coefficient or the study habits cumulative gpa study habits pearson 1 ,653 ** correlation sig. (2-tailed) ,000 n 148 148 irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 71 rvalue was 0.653 and it was higher than rtable 0.161 and the level of probability (p) significance (sig.2-tailed) was 0.000 and it was lower than 0.05. therefore, there was sufficient evidence to suggest that the ho was rejected and h1 was accepted. the result indicated that there was a positive significant correlation between students‟ study habits and their academic achievement. based on the correlation coefficient proposed by lodico et al. (2010), the degree of correlation coefficient was strong relationship. influence of students’ study habits on their academic achievement since there was a correlation between study habits and academic achievement, regression analysis was used to answer the second research question; the influence of independent variable on dependent variable. the result of the test can be seen in the table below: table 15. coefficients a model unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t sig. b std. error beta 1 (constant) 2,30 0 ,104 22,011 ,000 study habits ,0 08 ,001 ,653 10,407 ,000 dependent variable: cumulative gpa the results indicated that the students‟ study habits influenced academic achievement significantly with tvalue (10.407) was higher than ttable (1.976) with sig. value (.00) was lower than probability (.05). therefore, there was a significant influence of students‟ study habits on their academic. table 16. model summary b a. predictors: (constant), study habits b. dependent variable: cumulative gpa moreover, the result of r square (r 2 ) was .426, which means that study habits gave a significant influence in the level of 42.6% toward academic achievement and 57.4% was unexplained factors value. model r r square adjusted r square std. error of the estimate 1 ,653 a ,426 ,422 .22345 irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 72 based on the findings, there was a significant correlation between study habits and academic achievement. also, there was an influence of study habits on academic achievement. first, from the result of pearson product moment correlation, we found that there was a positive significant correlation between study habits and academic achievement of efl student teachers in one english education study program at an indonesian state university (r= 0.653, p< 0.05). in other words, study habits had a relation to academic achievement. o u r finding is in agreement with what previous studies have found. for example, singh and mahipal (2015) agreed that study habits and academic achievement had any correlation. moreover, singh and vyast (2014) argued that the environment of family played a significant role in the educational of students. thus, a comfortable home environment made students comfortable in learning and encourage good study habits for students so that it affects student academic achievement. siahi and maiyo (2015) found that a significant relationship between study habits and academic achievement. the factor that influenced study habits was home environment. also, arora (2016) found that there was an influence between study habits and academic achievement. on the contrary, nouhi et al. (2008) found that students‟ study habits were no correlated with the academic achievement. there are no effects or the effect of study habits vanished when other variables were controlled. it was caused by another factor that was more dominant and had more contribution rather than study habits. conclusion although conclusions are controlled by the small sample size, the findings of this study contribute to our understanding of the link between english as a foreign language (efl) student teachers‟ study habits and academic achievement. overall, the findings in this study indicated first, the result of pearson product moment indicated that there was a positive significant correlation between study habits and academic achievement of the efl student teachers as the result of pearson product moment was r= 0.653, higher than 0.19. our findings showed that the null hypothesis (ho) was rejected and the alternative (ha) was accepted. it can be concluded that there was a strong correlation between efl student teachers‟ study habits and academic achievement. since the range score was between 0.65 – 0.84. it was indicated that the correlation was positive because the value of r was positive indicating that the higher the students‟ study habits, the higher the students‟ academic achievement. second, the result of regression analysis indicated that there was a n influence of study habits on academic achievement since the result of r square (0.426). it can be concluded that students‟ study habits gave 42% to their academic achievement. references abban, k. 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(2011). the effect of study habits on the academic performance of students: a case study of some secondary school in ogun state. ogun state, nigeria: egobooster books. urh, m., & jereb, e. (2014). learning habits in higher education. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 116, 350–355. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.220 verma, a. (2016). a study of academic achievement among high school students in relation to their study habits (impact: ijrhal). international journal of research in humanities, arts and literature. 4(3), 75-88. yazdani, k., & godbole, v. s. (2014). studying the role of habits and achievement motivation in improving students‟ academic performance. european online journal of natural and social sciences, 3(4), 827-839. young, m. (2018). indonesia‟s active, creative, effective and joyful learning: from a university teacher training program to high school classrooms. indonesian research journal in education |irje|, 2(1), 7-31. retrieved from https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/irje/article/view/4467 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.220 https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/irje/article/view/4467 irje | vol. 3 | no. 1| year 2019 |issn: 2580-5711 76 biographical notes lenny marzulina works as a lecturer researcher and head of english education study program in the faculty of tarbiyah and education, state islamic university of raden fatah, palembang, indonesia. she obtained her undergraduate and graduate degrees in english education from sriwijaya university, indonesia. her research interests are on the area of education, language teaching, material development, and tefl. dr. dian erlina works as a lecturer at english education study program in the faculty of tarbiyah and education, state islamic university of raden fatah, palembang, indonesia. nova lingga pitaloka works as a lecturer at english education study program in the faculty of tarbiyah and education, state islamic university of raden fatah, palembang, indonesia. florensia anggarde paramika is a student at english education study program in the faculty of tarbiyah and education, state islamic university of raden fatah, palembang, indonesia. this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 365 structured educational program and peripheral intravenous first-time insertion rate in saudi arabia nicanor m. domingo iii 1 and leila m. collantes 2 abstract peripheral intravenous insertion (piv) is one of the most common clinical procedures which nurses receive little formal training. it is said that more than a quarter of first-time insertion rate (ftir) fail (hess 2010), thus, patient experience is at risk if this is not performed by a trained staff. this study aimed to explore if a structured educational program (sep) was effective to increase a hospital‟s ftir which has a failing international benchmark scores. it used a quasi-experimental design and pre-experimental one-group pretest post-test to examine the pre and post-test data set among 160 respondents. it was found out that the most of respondents are filipinos in their 30‟s who have bachelor‟s degree. they have a decade or less of experience; have had no piv training in their home country; and have less than five daily insertions. it was revealed that the sep was effective knowledge and skills improvement. ages, nationality, years of experience, and specialization were found to be related to improve knowledge; while nationality, licensure exam ratings, frequency of piv insertions, and relevant trainings were associated on an enhanced skill. keywords first-time insertion success, intravenous insertion, structured educational program, quasi-experimental, saudi arabia 1 a nurse team leader in kaauh, saudi arabia; a graduate of doctor of philosophy in development education under the distance, open, transnational university of the central luzon state university, philippines; nmdomingo@dotclsu.edu.ph 2 a professor vi, faculty of the secondary education department, college of education, central luzon state university, philippines; leilacollantes@clsu.edu.ph mailto:nmdomingo@dotclsu.edu.ph mailto:leilacollantes@clsu.edu.ph irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 366 introduction structured educational program (sep) is a type of systematic program where scope is comprehensive, has an adjustable content, and responsive to the individual‟s clinical and psychological needs with consideration to his/her educational and cultural background (nice, 2003). this is particularly beneficial on acquiring new knowledge and skills in a clinical setting; and that is performed efficiently by trained interdisciplinary teams to groups of people with the same field of experience. peripheral intravenous (piv) therapy is one of the most common clinical procedures in a healthcare facility (de lima jacinto, avelar, & pedreira, 2011). piv insertion is the quickest, simplest, and cheapest way to gain access to the vein, and it is used for intravenous fluid replacement, medications, and administration of blood products and contrast dyes. it is the most common clinical procedure that accounts to 7 out of 10 hospital patients receiving a vascular access device (vad) or a cannula. the nurse, as a healthcare provider, is responsible and accountable for ensuring that this procedure is safe and effective (amjad, murphy, nylander, housholder, & ranft, 2011; anson, edmundson, & teasley, 2010; de lima jacinto et al., 2011; doellman et al., 2009; walsh & schad, 2012). first-time insertion success rates (ftir) refers to the proportion of first-time intravenous success of insertion to the total number of insertions. this ranges from 18 to 98% in the literature (jacobson, winslow, 2005; sabri, szalas, holmes, labib, mussivand, 2013). both the inserter and patient factors contribute to difficult piv cannulation. interestingly, previous piv insertion experience plays the major role in its success. patient factors that are associated with higher failure rates include low blood volume, recent chemotherapy and iv drug use. anatomical factors also contribute to a very high or low body mass index, shade of the skin, and the quantity and size of visible and palpable veins. piv insertion is frequently considered simple but can exhaust a clinician‟s time. it is acknowledged that two failed attempts can be considered a „difficult insertion‟. peripheral intravenous catheter failures and its complications are expensive for hospitals and managers. the average cost of a short peripheral intravenous catheter insertion costs between 105 and 135 saudi riyals (php 1,400 and php 1,800) for straightforward “first-stick” insertions (rickard, webster & wallis, 2012). but, the expenses can change significantly, depending on geographic factors, the type of cannula inserted, and the stabilization supplies such as dressings and connectors or tubings which are taken into account when a failed catheter has to be changed. as king abdullah bin abdulaziz university hospital (kaauh) opened its door to princess nourah bint abdulrahman university‟s faculty, staff, and their dependents back in 2017, nursing skillrelated issues emerged with piv insertion in particular. safety events and patient experience reports from the hospital‟s patient safety department revealed that there were around 20 incidents related to multiple piv attempts/failures of insertion of nurses per month which was relatively high compared to few patient visits. the were 65% and 60% as average ftir of adult and pediatric respectively in which this average waswas below the international accepted ftir of adults (75%) and children (70%) (carr et al., 2015). as a result, the nursing department has trained their nurses in busy government hospitals in riyadh and hired iv expert nurses from the philippines in an attempt to irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 367 improve its ftir. there were a couple of short-lived quality projects on piv insertion among staff nurses between 2017 and 2018 but these were deemed to be ineffective band-aid solutions. in this regard, the researchers wanted to impart a more systematic and continuous department-wide research and educational program to explore ways to solve this perennial problem. this study was designed to address performance gaps between the nurses‟ performances and ftir because of the failing rates. the general objective of the study was to determine the effectiveness of the sep on ftir. the study aimed to (1) describe the socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents; (2) determine and compare the pre-test and post-test scores of the respondents from the knowledge-based questionnaire (kbq); (3) determine and compare the ftir before and after the sep; (4) find out the significant relationship between the respondents‟ socio-demographic profile and their post-test scores in the kbq and socio-demographic profile and their ftir after the sep; (5) find out if there is a difference between the respondents‟ pre-test and post-test in the kbq and ftir before and after the sep; and (6) to develop and enhance the procedures from the existing sep based on the study‟s findings. literature review peripheral intravenous (piv) insertion is one of the most common nursing procedures performed in a hospital, but most nurses receive little formal training in this area. many studies have revealed that more than a quarter of first-insertion attempts fail (lapostolle et al., 2007). moreover, pediatric first time insertion rates were even more disturbing were it spiked to above 50% (hess, 2010). it was documented in some studies that there was a 14% failure rate among adults. however, most of the respondents, who are patients, have white skin tones and almost normal body weights. failure rates soared as age gets lower. one of the hospital programs to improve the nurses‟ proficiency in piv insertion is a test-enhanced learning. test‐enhanced learning a teaching strategy that has shown potential in previous studies evaluating acquisition of knowledge; however, there is limited evidence on the effectiveness of pre and post-evaluation scores using knowledge-based questionnaire for procedural skills. but some researchers also cited the importance of pre-instruction and postinstruction evaluation scores to determine and improve the performance of nurses who inserted a peripheral iv (hossain, 2016). meanwhile, a blended test and skills-based program can be effective. a study by keleekai in 2016 indicated noticeable development on nursing skills upon completing the training program. a blended learning program, which included a mixture of both online and simulation-based instruction, significantly improved nurses' knowledge, confidence, and skills in the piv insertion process in a simulated environment. the results of this study were encouraging and support additional research and its impact on direct patient care and, ultimately, piv complications. socio-demographic profile and how it affects the respondents‟ performance of piv insertion is still an area that needs to be examined much further. this could be a great tool to improve the overall ftir. a study of ahmed (2016) discovered that there was highly significant relationship between demographic characteristic of the study group (age, educational qualification, experience, sex) and knowledge level on the prevention of infection or general information of complication and selection of the vein. meanwhile, the irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 368 findings from the study of ho, siew, and tang (2016) showed higher mean scores of the respondents from the specialty areas as compared to the medical surgical wards in terms of knowledge and practice towards piv. several researches had also supported these correlations however; there are no current and consistent findings to support this research. knowledge of human anatomy and physiology aspects of peripheral vascular access is an important factor to a successful piv insertion (hadaway, 2012). retention of information, long-term memory, and application of new knowledge and skills are a part of a sophisticated human thought process. thus, pre-test and post-test scores are integral in improving piv insertion skills. methodology research design, respondents, and sampling procedure this research used a pre-experimental one-group pretest post-test under the quasi-experimental design. it is where one case is studied or observed at two points in time, the first before and the second is after the treatment (nieswiadomy, 2012). using this type of research design, the researchers measured the scores before and again following a treatment, then compared the difference between the pre-test and post-test scores. changes in the outcome of interest were presumed to be the result of the intervention. no control or comparison group was necessary. in this study, the treatment/intervention was the sep and outcomes were the ftir and post-test scores. additionally, this research used descriptive and correlation methods. both designs were presumed to be helpful in describing the respondents‟ profile and correlated these data set to determine what variables were correlated. the study‟s respondents were the staff nurses in kaauh. this hospital is a tertiary care facility in riyadh, kingdom of saudi arabia. the study used purposive sampling technique as sampling procedure. the study had only targeted unit respondents with more than three years of clinical experience and those who were recommended by their managers (due to staffing and scheduling). intravenous access volunteers, the iv access volunteers were nurses who provided their veins for research purposes. the researchers advertised the program to all unit managers and nurses. this advertisement included recruiting and engaging clinical nurses to be part of the iv access volunteers. this was done to enable respondents to practice their skills on an actual vein. it is important to note that there were the same volunteers in the preinstruction/pre-test and post-instruction/post-test to strengthen the study‟s external validity. the 160 respondents needed 10 iv access volunteers, yielding to about 3,200 insertions that were divided in pre and post instruction parts. research framework this research study was anchored on the theory of george miller (1990). miller‟s pyramid is a useful framework to guide and assess the competence of a clinician‟s skill in education. this could also help health educators to gauge learning outcomes or clinical competencies. this is an extremely useful tool in this study as it provides a structured approach to the assessment of nursing competence. this theory also proposed a four-level irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 369 structure, and each of level encompasses precise assessment methods (the levels are “knows,” “knows how,” “shows how,” and “does”). this explains that the study has similar procedure to enhance the learning process by introducing interventions such as knowledge-based questionnaire (kbq), practice and skills check, demonstration, and return demonstration to make nurses competent on piv insertion. moreover, the study was also anchored with the principles of the four levels of education evaluation (1959) by donald kirkpatrick. this framework explains the use of simulation results on improving knowledge and performance. this is true with the study‟s objectives where there were reactions and learning stages (knowledge and skills section) before a behavioral change (or the improvement of knowledge and skills) could happen. this study determined the socio-demographic factors of the respondents, their ftir, and post test scores which are the components of the educational program. these data were analyzed using the inferential statistics and other data management tools in order to investigate if the program is effective to increase the respondents‟ piv insertion knowledge and skills. ultimately, the output of this research aimed to develop a comprehensive sep that would be based on the study‟s findings. this conceptual framework was anchored on the theories of miller (1990) wherein the pre-test instruction and ftir embodied the “knows”, know-how”, and “show-how” before they “does”. this is also true with kirkpatrick‟s theory (1959) wherein the research had addressed the reaction and learning of the respondents first (pre-test and intervention) before the behavioral change occurs (output). based on the said framework, theories, and models discussed, the researchers were able to design the conceptual paradigm: figure 1. the conceptual framework of the study research instruments the researchers used a significant, structured, and self-made instrument that helped gather accurate and reliable data. the research instrument has three parts, namely: part i. input process output enhanced structured educational program irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 370 socio-demographic profile, this part was made by the researchers which comprised of the age, gender, educational attainment, clinical unit, and years of clinical experience. part ii. ftir monitor, the ftir was also measured accurately, hence a form was used. this monitoring tool includes socio-demographic questions essential for statistical analysis in order to examine significant relationships between their profile, ftir and the evaluation scores. this also includes a table which consists of the name of the volunteer, their clinical unit, if the insertion was a success or not, and the signature of the evaluator. part iii. knowledge-based questionnaire (kbq), this questionnaire was used to evaluate the pre and post instruction knowledge of the respondents. this 30-item exam includes questions on insertion, equipment and supplies, complications of iv therapy and its evidence-based guidelines. program evaluation, there were eight questions pertaining to program evaluation as a subjective response to the effectiveness of the program. this was answered after the lecture. data collection technique prior to the data collection, a peripheral intravenous care module and instructional plan were made. afterwards, a written permission was obtained and a proposal review was presented to kaauh nursing affairs evidence-based performance unit. thereafter, the researchers requested for an ethical clearance from the university‟s institutional review board. the staff nurses from different areas were selected based on the inclusion criteria. then, the purpose of the study was explained and a written consent had been taken before starting the study. the data on ftir were measured as the success index of the respondents‟ skills. ftir is the proportion of first time successful peripheral iv insertion made by a nurse (number of first time success piv insertion over the total number of insertions multiplied by 100%). the iv access volunteers have been instrumental in applying the respondents‟ knowledge in an actual scenario. structured educational program (sep), the structured educational program is a 12-day long educational program led by the researchers. the data collection technique has three parts: (1) pre-instruction evaluation. as part of the pre-evaluation, the respondents have had inserted ten vads to the same number of iv access volunteers over a five-day period. ftir was measured accordingly. a pre-test was given during the first day with the use of a knowledge evaluation questionnaire to assess their knowledge. (2) theoretical part. after measuring the pre ftir and pre kbq results, theoretical part came next. this was a two-day pure lecture that was led by the researcher with his team of piv experts. the learning environment was suited according to the respondents‟ need and had included simulation equipment to supplement their learning. there were practice sessions at the end of the lecture in order to facilitate the respondents‟ dexterity on piv insertion. (3) post-instruction evaluation. after the lecture, the respondents repeated the piv insertion to the same access volunteers over a five-day period. ftir was measured ditto. finally, a post-test was answered by the respondents with the use of the same evaluation form that was used in the pre-test. this part enabled the researchers to acquire post ftir and kbq results. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 371 data analysis after a complete data collection, the researchers started summarizing and evaluating the responses of the respondents using frequency distribution, percentages, weighted mean, and independent samples t -test to examine if the socio-demographic profile was related to ftir, post-test exam scores, and if ftir as well as pre-test and post-test were different from each other. also, pearson product moment correlation was used to measure the strength and direction of the relationship between variables. findings socio-demographic characteristics ages, majority of the respondents were in the range of 31-40 (46.25%). the mean age of the respondents was 33 with a standard deviation of 4.94. this means that most of the nurses in this study are in the young working population group. young working population especially nurses tend to work overseas for better pay. a fairly large proportion of them work in the middle east or western countries like the us and the uk because of the huge employment and healthcare benefits. in the present, a high percentage of young people work for their healthcare sector, particularly nurses, encompassing other age groups. although these young people are attracted to work in saudi hospitals because of non-taxable income, better pay, and free housing services, new interns experience negative perceptions from saudi society, which sometimes leads some nursing interns to withdraw from the field (khankeh et al., 2014). sex, based on the data gathered, it was found that most of the respondents were females (81.25%). apparently, most hospitals lean on employing more female nurses as they are less restricted to handle patients (especially female) compared to men (farmer, 2015). gender sensitivity in the culture of saudi arabia has an impact on job performance at kaauh. gender diversity in a healthcare setting, especially in the kingdom could also affect the performance of the nurses in providing care to the patients and their job satisfaction as well. furthermore, male nurses tend to face resistance in the workplace from females since there are a number of limitations for male nurses in saudi especially on performing clinical or nursing procedures such as restricting a male nursing staff to perform female urinary catheterization. nationality, the data shows that 131 (81.88%) of the respondents were filipino nurses. this implies that filipino nurse make up a significant portion of the immigrant nursing population in their countries of destination. this is because of saudi‟s industrialization and slow school infrastructure in the past decades, saudi arabia has been sluggish to produce an adequate number of healthcare workers; and a large number of healthcare professionals continue to be non-saudis. this opened opportunities for nurses to work in the kingdom, offering good compensation and benefits such as free housing, food allowances, and paid annual leaves. philippines, as one of the top producers of nurses irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 372 internationally, has become a major supplier of experienced healthcare workers that had filled in the needed workforce of large hospitals in the kingdom. educational attainment, findings revealed that 143 (90%) of nurses in kaauh have bsn degrees which garnered the greatest number of respondents. the highest percentage, bsn, can be explained because majority of the respondents are filipino nurses. they are mandated by commission of higher education to complete a four-year bachelor‟s degree before taking the professional licensure examination for nurses. meanwhile, other countries such as south africa and some parts of india require a diploma level before their nursing registration. type of nursing school, a higher proportion was in favor of state-funded schools with 83 which is more than a half of the total while those who graduated from privately-owned schools were 77 (48.13%). these scores have been determined of their nursing schools and not of their post-graduate schools. though there is a higher cost related to studying in a private nursing school, there are also some advantages such as their training on both private and government health facilities whereas government-run schools are required to do their nursing training at public hospitals. nevertheless, saudi government does not discriminate nursing schools in employment process. board exam rating, there was exactly similar values on the range of scores of 71-80 and 81-90. these ranges both have the frequency of 72 (45%). board examination ratings differ from country to country. the board exam in the philippines is a 500-item multiple choice exam to test basic nursing level competency where a candidate must obtain a general average of at least seventy five percent (75%) with a rating of not below sixty percent (60%) in any of five test subjects. however, this is entirely different from india in which one takes a relevant nursing course, satisfies its criteria then admitted to their nursing school. after practical exams, they register with their relevant nursing registration council which appraises and screens their documents. they could take nursing examination board to become a registered nurse or on the other hand, finish a four-year course in a university. meanwhile, all nurses who work in saudi should successfully meet the passing rate of 50 percent in saudi prometric exam. these ratings are imperative as theoretical knowledge is a crucial factor to obtain a saudi nursing license and successfully pass core nursing competencies before a nurse could train and handle patients in special hospital areas or even in a ward. years of experience, most of the respondents have less than a decade or a decade of relevant experience with 87 (54.38%). the salary in gulf countries where saudi arabia is a part, depend on nurse‟s qualifications, area of specialty, years of experience, and other skills a nurse may have to suit the position. technically, the more experience the nurse is, the more salary they get. this also accounts to the skill of nurses, as nursing is a highly skilled profession which means nurses build their skills and knowledge over time. mastery of nursing procedures requires hours or even years to perfect competently. clinical unit, the next socio-demographic profile is the clinical unit where almost all the units such as intensive care unit, pediatric ward, neonatal intensive care unit, women‟s health ward, labor and delivery, medical ward, and surgical ward received an equal distribution with 15 (9.38%). frequency of piv insertion, it is evident that nurses have five or less insertions per day. this accounts to 107 (66.88%). majority of the nurses working in wards have fewer piv irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 373 insertion cases as they have less acutely ill patients requiring piv therapy. unlike in the emergency department which has a greater influx of people demanding intravenous access according to their physiological needs. piv insertion is one of the many skills that improve over time and goes proportionally with frequency of performance which would translate that nurses who do more insertions in a regular basis is more skilled than those who do not. training in piv therapy (home country), training in piv therapy in their home country is also less different from each other. those without training in their home country is 86 (53.75%) while 74 (46.25%) had attended a training. in the philippines, only the association of nursing service administrators of the philippines (ansap) is certified by the national nurses‟ organization to conduct piv training. however, there are local trainings sponsored by a number of hospitals for their own, employed nurses. in other countries, private and public trainings are widely available to train nurses and healthcare practitioners on iv therapy. it is noted that continuing education iv course improved the knowledge and skills of experienced nurses. improvement in knowledge was shown immediately after piv therapy courses. on the other hand, training in saudi arabia on piv insertion is limited to theoretical courses with no particular practical examination. training in piv therapy (saudi arabia), as seen in table 1, those who had training on piv insertion were only 70 (43.75%) while 90 (56.25%) of the nurses had no relevant training attended on piv insertion. specialization courses, most of the nurses or 145 (90.63%) have no specialization in nursing. only a few respondents or 15 (9.38%) holds a nursing specialization. these specializations are diverse in kind. nurses can be specialized in a variety of fields such as of maternity or care of mother and child, emergency nursing, neonatal nursing, intensive or trauma care, or even nursing research. although there maybe few courses that offer specialization in nursing in the philippines as a post graduate course, countries such as south africa and commonwealth countries encourage registered nurses to engage in specialization courses after their nursing degree/diploma. these certificate courses lead their career path into a more specific area of specialty and would increase their knowledge and skills to perform their nursing role (e. g., nursing specialization on vascular surgery would be experts on central or difficult piv insertions). table 1. socio-demographic profile of the respondents socio-demographic profile frequency percentage % age 21 – 30 70 43.75 31 – 40 74 46.25 41 – 50 15 9.38 51 – 60 1 0.63 mean 32.94  33 sd 4.94 sex male 30 18.75 female 130 81.25 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 374 table 1. continued… nationality filipino 131 81.88 arab 10 6.25 south african 15 9.38 indian 4 2.50 educational attainment bachelor degree 143 89.38 diploma certificate 12 7.50 master‟s degree 5 3.13 nursing school private 77 48.13 government 83 51.88 board exam rating 60 – 70 71 – 80 81 – 90 16 72 72 10.00 45.00 45.00 91 – 100 0 0.00 years of experience 01 10 11 20 21 30 31 – 40 87 65 7 1 54.38 40.63 04.38 0.63 clinical unit emergency department 15 9.38 intensive care unit 15 9.38 frequency of piv insertion less than 5 5 – 10 11 – 20 107 41 12 66.88 25.63 7.50 greater than 20 training/s attended in home country with training 74 46.25 without training 86 53.75 training/s attended in saudi arabia with training 70 43.75 without training 90 56.25 specialization with 145 90.63 without 15 9.38 n=160 irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 375 pre-test and post-test scores table 2 shows the comparison of pre-test and post-test scores of the respondents from the knowledge-based questionnaire. in the pre-test, the minimum score was 18 with a maximum of 29. the mean score in the pre-test was 23.40 while its standard deviation was 2.62. this was different during the post-test where it was fairly higher with a minimum of 25 and a maximum of 30. the mean score of this test was 28.48 and has a standard deviation of 1.32. table 2. pre-test and post-test scores minimum maximum mean sd pre-test 18 29 23.40 2.62 post-test 25 30 28.48 1.32 n=160 the standard deviation scores in the pre-test was sd= 2.62 which was more distributed than that of post-test (sd=1.32). this means that the respondents have better and consistent scores in the post-test, inferring that their theoretical knowledge has improved after the two-day lecture. this improved because the education program has introduced lectures that were helpful to improve their knowledge on piv insertion. this was delivered through multitude of techniques such as discussion, open discussions, and audio-visual lectures. additionally, the minimum score in the post-test is more than the acceptable passing rate of the course. the researchers used this pre-test and post-test to examine and compare if there are any associated changes in their knowledge on the lecture as part of the sep. a one-group pretest–posttest is used to determine the effect of a treatment or intervention on a given sample (cook & campbell, 1979). however there maybe threats to internal validity using pre-test and post-test. the researchers ensured that these threats are removed such as history and instrumentation. several institutions use pre-test and post-test especially on evaluating the effectiveness of their training program such as the johns hopkins bloomberg school of public health (brieger, 2006) and certain nursing and allied health programs in king fahad medical city, saudi arabia (al-tannir, 2018). ftir before and after the sep table 3 presents and compares the ftir before and after the structured educational program. before the program, the minimum rate of first-time insertion of respondents was 20% while the maximum was 100%. this means that the lowest ftir before the sep was 2 successful pivs out of 10 insertions. after the program, the minimum ftir became 40% with a maximum of 100% which means the lowest ftir after the sep was 4 successful pivs out of 10 insertions. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 376 table 3. ftir before and after the structured educational program minimum maximum mean sd ftir before 20 100 56.06 17.09 ftir after 40 100 77.56 14.70 n=160 the average rate from before the sep was 56.06% and surged to 77.56% after the program. the standard deviation on ftir before was sd=17.09 while this decreased after the program at sd=14.70. the data above indicates that there was an increase in the performance of ftir of the respondents after the intervention. the rate of the minimum score has also doubled while the maximum stayed the same at 100%. meanwhile, the average ftir climbed to approximately 20% proving that there was a significant rise in the performance of peripheral intravenous insertion. overall, the sep brought an improvement in the respondents‟ skills as clearly seen from the rise of first-time insertion rates. this program was regarded effective because it has seen an obvious improvement in the skills of the nurses who participated in the sep. it shows that the sep did not only bring an enhancement in their knowledge, but also enhance their skills. several educational and training programs have also experienced the same results. the results justify the study of jayalaxmi (2016) where it was revealed that their structured teaching program on peripheral intravenous cannulation has been an effective program to improve their staff nurses‟ piv knowledge and practice. this was also true in the study of higgins, keogh & rickard (2015) on a pilot educational program on piv wherein the course was a success especially on giving them the latest evidence-based guidelines on piv insertion. it has used a pre-test and post-test as an evaluation method. relationship between the respondents’ socio-demographic profile and their post-test scores from the kbq table 4 presents the relationship between respondents‟ socio-demographic profile and their post-test scores from the knowledge-based questionnaire. it can be discerned that variables such as age (r = 0.163, p < 0.05), nationality (r = -0.172, p < 0.05), years of experience (r = 0.195, p < 0.05), and specialization (r = 0.208, p < 0.01) were found to have significant relationship to the post-test scores. there are variables that were not related but some of them have shown significant relationship. therefore, null hypothesis is hereby rejected. it deduces therefore that as the respondent ages and has more years of experience; his post-test score becomes higher compared to those young and newly hired respondents. this finding showed that there was a statistical significant relation between total studied nurses‟ knowledge in pre and post educational program and their demographic characteristics. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 377 table 4. relationship between the respondents’ socio-demographic profile and their post-test scores from the kbq socio-demographic profile ftir after r p-value age 0.163* 0.039 sex -0.019 0.812 nationality -0.172* 0.030 educational attainment -0.096 0.229 nursing school 0.047 0.556 board exam rating 0.095 0.233 years of experience 0.195* 0.013 clinical unit 0.087 0.273 frequency of piv insertion -0.108 0.173 relevant training in home country 0.034 0.666 relevant training in saudi arabia 0.016 0.840 specialization 0.208** 0.008 **. correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed) *. correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed) on the other hand, data reveals that filipino respondents perform better in the post-test compared to other nationalities. one possible explanation to this finding is filipino nurses are certified and trained on the standards of the association of nursing service administrators of the philippines (ansap). since ansap is a member of the infusion nurses society (ins), it is apparent that ansap has been following the 2016 ins standards which is the theoretical resource material of this program. therefore filipino nurses are more orientated with the program‟s knowledge-based questions compared to other respondents (south africans and indians) who would base their previous knowledge on peripheral intravenous therapy on their own country‟s piv standards, although there would be a slight difference. more so, highly-significant association exists when respondents have specialization that they tend to score higher compared to those without nursing specialty. this is true with several studies that prove specialization in nursing yields to better outcome not only in skills but in theory as they have required more training and knowledge on a specific nursing area compared to their counterpart who have general background knowledge. relationship between the respondents’ socio-demographic profile and their ftir after the sep table 5 shows the association between respondents‟ socio-demographic profile and their ftir after the structured educational program (sep). it can be seen that variables such as nationality (r = -0.284, p < 0.01), board exam rating (r = 0.259, p < 0.01), frequency of piv insertion (r = 0.299, p < 0.01), and relevant training in home country (r = 0.162, p < 0.05) were found to have significant relationship to the ftir. there are variables that were irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 378 not related but some of them have shown significant relationship. therefore, the null hypothesis is hereby rejected. table 5. relationship between the respondents’ socio-demographic profile and their ftir after the sep socio-demographic profile ftir after r p-value age 0.146 0.066 sex -0.036 0.649 nationality -0.284** 0.000 educational attainment 0.124 0.118 nursing school 0.011 0.895 board exam rating 0.259** 0.001 years of experience 0.098 0.219 clinical unit -0.138 0.083 frequency of piv insertion 0.299** 0.000 relevant training in home country 0.162* 0.040 relevant training in saudi arabia 0.042 0.594 specialization 0.083 0.298 **. correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed) *. correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed) the data discloses that nationality has a significant relationship with ftir after the sep. this means that filipino respondents have better ftir compared to other nationalities. this is because most of the nurses kaauh are filipino nurses. these filipinos worked for a longer period of time than any other nationality and this has helped them to upskill in the nursing profession over time. also, one possible explanation to this finding is that some hospitals in the philippines often require their nurses to undergo a knowledge and skill training on piv insertion from ansap which is increasingly made as a requirement before a nurse can practice in the hospital. another reason is that nurses from the philippines perceived themselves efficient and effective in cognitive competencies and skills. the results of the study of daisy, et al (2015) indicated in their study that filipinos are confident on performing a wide variety of nursing skills (e.g. piv insertion) and that they take cultural background into consideration. additionally, highly-significant relationship exists to ftir scores when respondents have higher board exam rating. this means that the higher the board exam rating of the nurse is, the higher their success on ftir. these ratings are considered private and confidential information among the respondents. additionally, ratings are not a pre-requisite for landing a job in saudi arabia as there is no information that this is significantly related to performance in the eyes of an employer. although there is a scant evidence of a direct relationship of exam scores to piv insertion performance, such an examination can help to gauge the competencies of a professional who is presumed to have learned the knowledge, skills, and attitude in the practice of their profession. the frequency of piv insertion is also highly significant with ftir scores. it means that the more frequent respondents insert a piv device, the more they are skilled on performing the procedure. it means that as nurses irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 379 gain more and more experience on piv insertion day in day out, it increases their ftir. this could also massively improve their self-confidence and cannula implementation when they perform this skill in a continuous basis. difference between the pre-test and post-test on the knowledge-based questionnaires table 6 shows that using a paired-sample t-test, the results revealed that there was a significant difference between the respondents‟ pre-test and post-test on the knowledge-based questionnaires (t (1,159) = -22.87, p < 0.01) indicating that respondents performed better in the post-test. result denoted that the intervention which was the sep has considerably increased their knowledge in piv insertion which influenced their test performance on the kbq. therefore, the null hypothesis that there is no difference between the pre-test and post-test is hereby rejected. table 6. difference between the pre-test and post-test on the knowledge-based questionnaires parameters df mean difference sd t-value p-value pre-test 159 -5.08 2.81 -22.87** 0.000 post-test **. correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed) this finding was the same with the findings of subin (2018) wherein his study‟s post-intervention knowledge scores reveal that almost all the respondents reported an increased knowledge after introducing a structured teaching program. it was found out that more than half of the respondents had reported a good level of knowledge level regarding intravenous cannulation and its complications compared to previous levels. difference between the respondents’ ftir before and after the sep table 7 also used a paired-sample t-test at 0.01 significance level to analyze the difference between the respondents‟ ftir before and after the structured educational program. table 7. difference between the respondents’ ftir before and after the sep parameters df mean difference sd t-value p-value ftir before 159 -21.50 18.97 -14.33** 0.000 ftir after **. correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed) irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 380 similar with the previous table, preliminary assumption testing to check for normality and homogeneity of variance between the variables was conducted and no serious violation was noted. paired-sample t-test found highly significant difference between the respondents‟ ftir before and after the structured educational program (t(1,159) = -14.33, p < 0.01) indicating that respondents performed better after the structured educational program. this means that the nurses who participated in the sep have improved their skills on piv insertion. this finding means that the educational program is effective on increasing the ftir of nurses. therefore, null hypothesis stating that there is no difference between the respondents ftir before and after the sep is hereby rejected. the study agrees with the findings of a training program launched at gloucestershire royal hospital. a year-long clinical skills project has been provided to examine how training in insertion and management of peripheral intravenous cannulation could be developed using a self-directed approach. the said program had positive results which not only improved their insertion skills but the care of the peripheral iv catheter (snelling, 2002). program evaluation the researchers have also conducted a short course program evaluation at the end of the sep. it was found out that majority of the participants rated the program as excellent with weighted mean of 3.89 out of 4.00 (table 8). comments include the following: structured and easy to understand, gained new skills, refreshed skills on a real vein, timely, excellent lecturers, and excellent open discussion between participants. suggestions were also noted such as break time need, and scheduling and time constraints. respondents also commented on inconsistent and non-standardized supplies. they also commented to remove piv complications in the lecture part and allow more practice time. table 8. program evaluation results program evaluation questions 4 3 2 1 weighted mean 1. the objectives of the training were met 148 10 2 0 3.91 2. the presenters were engaging and prepared 149 5 5 1 3.89 3. the presentation materials were relevant 145 9 6 0 3.87 4. the content of the course was organized and easy to follow 140 16 4 0 3.85 5. the course length was appropriate 142 18 0 0 3.89 6. the venue was appropriate for the event 150 10 0 0 3.94 overall weighted mean 3.89 n=160 enhancement of the sep from the study’s findings the researchers obtained extremely useful information to enhance the sep after the data management using inferential statistics and discussion of findings from related irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 381 literature. there are also a number of valuable comments and suggestions from program evaluation that were used to improve the sep: (1) breaks should be given for at least ten minutes every two hours as theory explanation could stress them and lessen their concentration; (2) the ftir monitor pre and post the sep which required respondents to insert ten vads be lessened from five days to three days (this was because they have completed the required insertions in three days); this has also decreased the sep from 12 to 8 days; (3) common complications of piv insertion in the lecture should be removed from the theory as this was not significant in the skills; and (4) increase the time allotment practice sessions in the second day of lecture so that respondents can effectively work at their own pace. table 9 presents the existing and the new sep. this shows the improvement of sep after the study‟s findings whereby it includes the reduction of program days, lectures and enhancement of course content. table 9. existing and new sep existing sep new sep 12 days 8 days 11 activities/lectures 10 activities/lectures 2 hours practice session 5 hours practice session one lunch break and one breaks in morning and afternoon sessions lunch break and every two hours breaks module given days before the program modules given two weeks before the program older and more experienced nurses in piv insertion to be distributed in different groups complications on piv were also removed from the course as this was evaluated to be unnecessary, bringing the practice session from only two to five hours. this would encourage the respondents to be more adept on insertion skills. another change from the existing and new sep is the introduction of breaks every two hours of the lecture. lastly, the modules should be given at least two weeks before the program to let them prepare for the required exams. conclusion and recommendations/implications it was found out that majority of the respondents‟ age is between 31 and 40. most of them are female and came from the philippines. the largest proportion of these nurses have bachelor‟s degree from a government nursing school. their board exam ratings range between 71-80 and 81-90; and have less than ten years of clinical experience. majority of them have less than five insertions per day and had no piv therapy training in their home country, and no specialization courses whatsoever. the study also revealed that there was a significant increase in the minimum scores in the kbq after the intervention. the average score on pre-test was 23 versus a high average score of 28 in the post-test. overall, this concludes that the sep was effective in enhancing the theoretical knowledge of the respondents after the lectures given. irje |indonesian research journal in education| |vol. 4| no. 2|dec|year 2020| |e-issn: 2580-5711|https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/index.php/irje/index| 382 the minimum ftir of respondents has increased to 20% after the intervention. the average rate also climbed considerably from 56.06% to 77.56% after the sep. overall, it means that the sep has improved the piv insertion skills of the respondents. ages, nationality, years of experience, and specialization were found to have significant relationships to the post-test scores. it therefore means that post-test scores soar as age and experience gets higher. moreover, nurses who have specialization have also performed better in the exams. it is an interesting finding that filipino respondents perform better in the post-test than other nationalities. nationality, board exam rating, frequency of piv insertion, and relevant training in home country were found to have significant relationships to the ftir. thus, it can be discerned that filipinos are most likely to perform better in other nationalities on piv insertion; and that the higher their board rating is, the more successful they are on piv insertion which equates to a higher ftir. those who are frequent inserters of vads and previously trained tend to have higher ftir than nurses who inserts less frequently/no relevant training. there was a significant difference between the respondents‟ pre-test and post-test on the kbq indicating that respondents performed better in the post-test. the results showed that the intervention made a big influence on their test performance in the kbq. there was a highly significant difference between the respondents‟ ftir before and after the sep indicating that respondents performed better after the said program. this means that the sep is effective on improving not only knowledge but the piv insertion skills. this program is clearly an effective way to reduce multiple insertions and improve patient outcomes due to consistent failure rates. it is recommended that the selection process of nurses internally and internationally would be based on merits and experience. it is also suggested that the nursing affairs department perform pre-test and post-test on introducing educational programs in order to ascertain if there were any improvements associated with their intervention. presently, the nursing education has no systematized approach on the evaluation of their educational programs. another recommendation is that skills part of the sep must be retained. further research in the future can examine if the results of ftir will change when the number of insertions is modified. currently, this study has had ten insertions. modifying the numbers would be an interesting future research. another recommendation is that the organization‟s budget for education be spent to obtain a long-term effect on nurses‟ knowledge and skills. one effective way is to sponsor nurses in a specialization course as it has proven efficient and effective to improve clinical performance. pre-test and post-test is strongly emphasized on every education program to ensure that knowledge part is evaluated. it is also recommended that pre-test post-test questions are changed in a regular basis in order limit answer key leaks which happens in any institution if same tests are administered in a long period of time. further research can also investigate other formats of exams such as essays or video-assisted exams. it is finally recommended that the sep be adopted by the hospital as a regular educational/training program given to all nurses and should start in the orientation phase of newly-hired nurses. this program should have an adequate preparation as 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(2002). developing self-directed training for intravenous cannulation senior lecturer. university of the west of england, gloucester. subin s (2018). a pre-experimental study to assess the effect of structured teaching program on knowledge regarding intravenous cannulation and its complications among staff nurses working in a selected hospital of bhopal, m.p. ind j holist nurs, 9(1), 1-4. walsh, k., & schad, t. (2012). nursing practice & skill intravenous therapy: preventing and treating infiltration. http://ceu.cinahl.com/course biographical notes dr. nicanor m. domingo iii is a nurse team leader in kaauh, saudi arabia. he is the nurse lead in piv insertion and care in nursing affairs department. he is a graduate of doctor of philosophy in development education under the distance, open, transnational university of the central luzon state university, philippines. nmdomingo@dotclsu.edu.ph dr. leila m. collantes, a professor vi, is a faculty of the secondary education department, college of education, central luzon state university, philippines. she handles several courses related to education, both in the undergraduate and graduate programs. she has been in the academe for more than 23 years. in those years, she served as chair and member of the different examining committees, adviser, and member advisory committee of graduate students taking up their thesis and dissertation in the graduate program; leilacollantes@clsu.edu.ph mailto:nmdomingo@dotclsu.edu.ph mailto:leilacollantes@clsu.edu.ph this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 19 decentralization and effective educational leadership: expectation versus reality cecep somantri 1 abstract decentralization is a management reform that is widely believed to promise a range of benefits in transforming society and the effectiveness of local governance. by 1999, nearly all countries in the world were experimenting with decentralization, at least in policy level. education is inevitably one of the sectors that has been affected by decentralization. in a devolved education system, schools are given both autonomy and responsibilities in decision-making authority. at school level, those who receive the transferred-authority are mainly principals, and hence, they have broadened-roles and responsibilities. however, research and literature drawn from more than four decades show that a devolved environment urges for accountability that is oftentimes regarded as pressure and dilemma by school leaders and teachers. as a result, there is an urgency to have a systemic solution that acknowledges the important role of principals, clarifies the responsibilities and roles of principal, and develops capacity of principals. keywords decentralization, decision-making authority, educational leadership, principals 1 a programme specialist in the field of adult learning and education (ale), the ministry of education and culture, jakarta, indonesia; c.somantri@kemdikbud.go.id mailto:c.somantri@kemdikbud.go.id irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 20 introduction decentralization has become a global development strategy and management reform. jütting et al. (2004, p.7) argue, “decentralization has been advocated by donors and development agencies as an important factor broadening citizen participation and improving local governance, thereby promoting poverty reduction from the bottom up.” as a result, it has been at the centre stage of policy experiments in many countries in various regions (lugaz et al., 2010). for example, in many african countries, decentralization is regarded as a key component of restructuring management of service delivery (unesco, 2004). despite receiving much attention worldwide, both literature and research show that decentralization results variously in its practice. litvack, ahmad, and bird (1998, p.1), for example, explain that, “whatever its origins, decentralization can have significant repercussions for resource mobilization and allocation, and ultimately macroeconomic stability, service delivery, and equity.” meanwhile, king and guerra (2005) argue that decentralization is not a policy panacea, since the reform process is never smooth and is likely to be punctuated by either progress or setbacks. however, statistical tests by triesman (2000, p.2), using data from 54 countries, suggest that, “states which have more tiers of government tend to have higher perceived corruption, and may do a worse job of providing public (health) services.” in accordance with decentralization that has been a “fashion” of management and development reform, fiske (1996) claims that, decentralization of education has also become a global phenomenon. allied to this idea, mcginn and welsh (1999, p.7) argue that “decentralization is one of the most important phenomena to come to the educational planning agenda....” driven by different reasons, many countries have practiced decentralization of education to varying degrees with the hope to foster student and teacher motivation, community participation, and curriculum adaptation to local context (fiske, 1996; mcginn & welsh, 1999). however, international experiences show mixed results of its implementation. a study by habibi et al. (2001, p.17) reports a positive impact of decentralization on education in argentina in improving access to compulsory education, by using “the ratio of students enrolled in secondary school per one thousand primary students.” meanwhile, a study by behrman et al. (2002, p.i) on the role of education decentralization in promoting effective schooling in asian developing countries found that, “while virtually all developing countries have made impressive gains in expanding the coverage of primary schooling, enrollment rates remain generally low at secondary and tertiary levels, particularly for children coming from disadvantaged backgrounds.” it was also discovered that the quality of education is a concern, when viewed from the dropout and grade repetition rates, and standardized test scores (behrman et al., 2002). also, king and guerra (2005), furthermore, studied the impact of decentralization of education in east asia. the study found that, “decentralization laws encourage greater local and community participation in providing and financing education, but this feature exposes inequalities between prosperous and poor areas, and the inability of poor areas to mobilize adequate resources” (king & guerra, 2005, p.195). in line with this finding, donald and boon-ling (2007) identified the impact of decentralization on the quality of education in developing countries. the study found that effective decentralization requires strong institutional capacity building, and effective exercise of responsibilities is dependent upon the capacity of school leaders (donald & boon-ling, 2007). irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 21 based on the implementation of decentralization that has various results as mentioned above, the paper aims at exploring what research says about the challenges of decentralization to the existing leadership cultures in schools so that their effectiveness is further improved. while attempting to do so, the paper seeks to figure out what is meant by decentralization and decentralization of education, why many countries are adopting it, as well as what its impacts are towards education in general and effective school leadership in particular, by referring to relevant international literature and research. decentralization: what and why? although widely being experimented as a mechanism for transforming society, decentralization has been an old debate. conyers (1984, p.188) argues, “the decentralization of government in developing countries has been a topic of debate ever since 1950s.“ however, for more than sixty years, the centralization of power and resources became the trend among industrial nations as it led to massive economic gains and growth (manor, 1999). as a result, after receiving independence from colonial regimes in 1950s and early 1960s, centralization also became the model for development in many countries in africa, latin america and asia (manor, 1999; rondinelli et al., 1983). by time, however, it is proven that centralization has failed to promote development and reduce poverty, since it is often misused as a negative political instrument to create class stratification among people and preserve elitism of the “privileged” (manor, 1999; parker, 1995). as a consequence, during the 1980s, the situation began to change in which decentralization became a widespread phenomenon (fiske, 1996; manor, 1999; mcginn & welsh, 1999; rondinelli et al., 1983). a study from the world bank in 1992 shows that 63 developing countries with populations over 5 million claim to exercise some form of political power transfer to local units of government (dillinger, 1994). by 1999, nearly all countries in the world were experimenting with decentralization, at least in policy level (lugaz et al., 2010; manor, 1999). also, dillinger (1994) reviewed country reports on the spread of decentralization in developing countries. the review notes that, in parts of africa, for example, decentralization is shown with the establishment of local-political entities by the national governments in areas formerly under their administration. in latin america, decentralization is portrayed through a change in appointing mayors: from centrally appointed to locally elected. in asia-pacific, decentralization could be seen in the enhanced local democracy as a result of governance reform (united cities & local governments, 2007). in europe, crucq and hemminga (2007) claim that, although decentralization has been under discussion since 1980s, its adoption became stronger after the creation of committee of the regions (cor) in 1994. the main task of the committee is to ensure that “the european union give decision-making levels close to citizens as much scope for action as possible”(cor, 2000, p.8). it is, however, important to note that decentralization is a broad concept, because it embraces a complex, and at times confusing, set of policies (lugaz et al., 2010). defined simply, decentralization is about authority-transfer from people in one location to those in another level (rondinelli et al., 1983). allied to this definition, florestal and cooper (1997, p.2) mention that, “the broad meaning of decentralization [is] to move decision-making away from the centre and closer to the users of the service.” more specifically, gash et al. (2014, irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 22 p.7) explain that, “decentralization can be broadly defined as the movement of power from central government to lower levels of aggregation.” although the terminology is contested, rondinelli et al. (1983, pp.15-28) explain that there are four different categories of decentralization, namely: (i) deconcentration: the handing over of some amount of administrative authority or responsibility to lower levels within central government ministries and agencies; (ii) delegation: the transfer of managerial responsibility for specifically defined functions to organizations that are outside the regular bureaucratic structure, and that are only indirectly controlled by the central government; (iii) devolution: the creation or strengthening – financially or legally – of subnational units of government, the activities of which are substantially outside the direct control of the central government; and, (iv) privatization: the transfer of power or responsibility to the private sector. besides variation in its categories, in many cases, decentralization has also been motivated by numerous reasons. for example, a study by jütting et al. (2004) shows that decentralization in 19 countries (bolivia, brazil, burkina faso, china, egypt, ethiopia, viet nam, ghana, gunea, india, malawi, mozambique, mexico, nepal, paraguay, philippines, south africa, sri lanka, and uganda) has been motivated by two main arguments: increasing efficiency and improving governance. meanwhile, in indonesia, kristiansen and pratikno (2006) explain that, the country adopted decentralization in 1999 due to a severe economic crisis in 1997, the introduction of free elections and democratic governance in 1999, the central government’s inability to cover national expenditures, and the “push” from international agencies, such as the world bank and the international monetary fund (imf), to see policy reforms in the direction of devolution. different reasons for decentralization are found in the united kingdom (uk). by conducting a study on uk’s seven main decentralizing reforms in 30 years, gash et al. (2014) conclude that decentralization is important in the uk because: (i) although the evidence is varied, decentralization is necessary condition to boost economic growth, reflect local identities and preferences, and foster innovation in public services; (ii) there are people attempting to govern locally who feel they could do more, or better, with greater control and influence over decisions in their areas; (iii) national decisions and negotiations with central government institutions are felt to be highly burdensome and bureaucratic; and, (iv) there are self-interested reasons from those in central government to support pressures from public and local level for decentralization. decentralization of education education is one of the sectors that has been affected by decentralization in countries adopting it. mcginn and welsh (1999) argue that after going through some ideological debates on who should make decisions and finance public schooling for more than fifteen years, many countries turned their attention to the decentralization of education. defined broadly, decentralization of education is the ”transfer of authority for the financing or governance of schools to a subnational agency” (kemmerer, 1994, p. 1412). it also refers to the transfer of authority, at least in basic and secondary education, to more local units of government – provinces, municipalities – or even to the smallest units in the education system, that are schools (florestal & cooper, 1997; lugaz et al., 2010; mcginn & welsh, 1999). irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 23 since decentralization itself is conceptually and practically contested, the same situation also goes to decentralization of education. in some countries like germany, the usa, and some parts of the uk, decentralization of education refers to the transfer of responsibilities away from the educational administration to elected representatives at regional or district level, such as the regional councils or district development committees (lugaz et al., 2010). in addition, bush (2016, p.1) adds that decentralization of education in england “involves the granting of powers by national governments to subordinate bodies.” therefore, in england, “each school has a governing body, with representatives of parents, the local community, teachers and other staff, with the head teacher as an ex officio member” (bush, 2016, p.1). to limit its complexities, decentralization of education in this paper is taken to mean as devolution of education. mcginn and welsh (1999) explain that, when decentralization is understood in the view of devolution, it signifies not simply the transfer of authority, but also responsibilities. there are numerous reasons why a country adopts decentralization of education. the reasons could be categorized in three motives: political, financial and efficiency (behrman et al., 2002; fiske, 1996; florestal & cooper, 1997; mcginn & welsh, 1999). political motives refer to increasing demand for participation in public decision-making by people who have or claim to have been excluded earlier (mcginn & welsh, 1999). a case study by fiske (1996) shows that chile is an example of a country decentralising education due to political motives. chile went through an opposite political transition – from democratic to a military government, and there was a strong support from neoliberal economists and social planners for more decentralization in education (fiske, 1996). financial motives mean that central governments are no longer capable of providing finance to meet the demand for education and schooling (king & guera, 2005; kristiansen & pratikno, 2006; mcginn & welsh, 1999). a case study by pascoe and pascoe (1998), involving 25 high ranking australian policy makers and educational bureaucrats and practitioners, discovered that australia decentralized education due to financial reasons. decentralization of education in australia came in effect after “the victorian commission of audit found public expenditure on education was far too high” and required for incremental change (pascoe & pascoe, 1998, p.3). efficiency motives are arguments supporting that more local decision-making will reduce the cost and long ladder of bureaucracy (behrman et al., 2002; florestal & cooper, 1997; gash et al., 2014; kristiansen & pratikno, 2006; mcginn & welsh, 1999). with fifty state governments and approximately 85,000 local governments, rosenbaum (2013) claims that, to some extent, usa is an example why decentralization is important for efficient management and public services reform, including education. in addition to the three major motives above, another reason is raised in relation to the role of development agencies and donors in reinforcing the decentralization of education in developing countries (jütting et al., 2004; kristiansen & pratikno, 2006; manor, 1999; rhoten, 2000). in argentina, for example, a study in three different provinces by rhoten (2000, p.603) found that unesco, usaid, and the world bank, to a certain extent, advocated decentralization of education by “touting school autonomy and education decentralization as must have reforms in progressive public services management.”. in fact, rhoten’s (2000) study finding was implicitly mentioned in the world bank’s world review, priorities and strategies for education, in 1995. in the review, the world bank (1995, p.5) states that, irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 24 increasing the involvement of parents and communities by making schools autonomous and accountable can offset the power of vested interests…. around the world, parents and communities are becoming more involved in the governance of their children's schools…. many countries have found that communities which participate in school management are more willing to assist in the financing of schooling. although the motives are different from one country to another, however, there are similarities in the objectives why decentralization of education becomes a “fashionable” method of educational reform. florestal and cooper (1997, p.1) argue that many countries decentralize their (at least basic) education systems “to give users a greater voice in decisions that affect them, to better recognize local linguistic or ethnic diversity.” allied to this idea, mcginn and welsh (1999, p.29) add that decentralization of education will “improve the operation of education system” from a formerly centralized system to a local-based one. for example, with decentralization of education, schools will have stronger autonomy to utilize available funding, increase learning innovations, or match curriculum to local interests (mcginn & welsh, 1999). in the end, by borrowing oecd’s language, ball (2003, p.217) explains, “ a devolved environment” will give ‘managers and organizations greater freedom in operational decisions and remove unnecessary constraints in financial and human resource management.” in other words, since decentralization of education, to some extent, locates decision-making authority to school-level (carr-hill et al., 2014), schools will have more rooms for improvement to be effective. impact of decentralization on effective school leadership in a decentralized system, schools are given more autonomy in decision-making authority (de grauwe, 2004; the world bank, 2007. however, which decisions are transferred? and to who (at the school level)? in responding to the first question, de grauwe (2004) explains that, in the decentralization of education, the decisions transferred to schools emphasize on: (i) authority to the principal to manage the school’s financial and human resources, including, for example, staff recruitment and the use of school’s budget; and, (ii) authority to the community, for example on the selection of the principal and the adaptation of the curriculum. meanwhile, in writing the second question, leithwood and menzies (1998) identify four types of authority transfer along with its recipients in the decentralized-education system, namely: (i) administrative control: the principal; (ii) professional control: teachers; (iii) community control: the community or parents; and, (iv) balanced control: parents, teachers and principal in balance authority. in line with these answers, pont et al. (2008a) argue that, decentralization of education makes school leaders, as the ones holding the authority at school level, have broadened-roles and responsibilities. gessler and ashmawy (2014) conducted an explorative qualitative study on the effect of decentralization on vocational school leadership in bremen and lower, saxnomony in germany. with increased autonomy and greater role and responsibilities, gessler and ashmawy (2014) argue that the school principals are responsible to manage various aspects, namely: (i) teaching environment: all affairs related to instructional issues; (ii) personnel management: affairs associated with irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 25 human resources; (iii) financial management: all about financial efficiency; and, (iv) school buildings and furnishings: finance purchases, maintenance and repair. with these responsibilities, gessler and ashmawy (2014, p.184) conclude that, ”decentralization entails the creation of elected bodies through which various stakeholders are involved in the decision-making process, and that schools are able to discretionally plan their own goals and objectives.” as a result, gessler and ashmawy (2014) mention that, effective vocational school principal’s exercise “participatory leadership”. it is a leadership practice that allows the participation of various stakeholders in making decisions through the school conference consisting of the principals and representatives of teachers, students, parents, and relevant enterprises in vocational schools (gessler & ashmawy, 2014). ashmawy (2003) carried out the same study, yet bigger in its coverage, by comparing the effect of education decentralization on school leadership in vocational schools in germany and egypt. with 30 vocational school principals as the samples (15 from germany and 15 from egypt), the study found that principals from both countries have an important role in: (i) being the responsible persons for the compliance to the rules and regulations set by the governments; (ii) motivating teachers and stakeholders to participate in the school life; (iii) sharing information and building good relationships with local educational authorities; (iv) involving stakeholders in the decision-making; and, (iv) guiding the decision-making processes. based on these findings, ashmawy (2003) argues that, in order to be effective, the principals from both countries demonstrate “participatory leadership”. however, it is clear that the study by ashmawi (2004) and the one by gessler and ashmawy (2014) are both limited in their generalizability as the samples are confined to vocational schools, and hence a further study is needed. steinberg (2013, p.6), on the other hand, argues that in a decentralized system, “the role of school principals has shifted from one emphasizing instructional leadership to one focused on transformational leadership, and finally to one involving leadership practices that contains both elements.” this argument is somehow backed up by different research with different findings that, while being contradictory to each other, all show the shift in effective leadership strategies. robinson et al. (2007) carried out a meta-analysis study by involving 27 published studies of the relationship between leadership and student outcomes. the study found that, “the more leaders focus their relationships, their work, and their learning on the core business of teaching and learning, the greater their influence on student outcomes” (robinson et al, 2007, p.636). based on the findings, robinson et al. (2007, p.655) claim that, “the impact of instructional leadership on student outcomes is three to four times greater than that of transformational leadership.” narrowly defined, instructional leadership, also known as “learning-centred leadership” (murphy et al., 2006) or “leadership for learning” (hallinger & heck, 2010), focuses on “actions that are directly connected to teaching and learning” (murphy, 1988, p.127). viewed broadly, instructional leadership also means leadership actions that centre on student learning, including managerial tasks (donmoyer & wagstaff, 1990; murphy,1988). the actions cover many things a principal does to support students’ learning achievement and teachers’ teaching ability (sebring & bryk, 2000). in addition, robinson (2010, p. 2) explains that, instructional leadership also encompasses “sets of leadership practices that involve planning, evaluation, coordination, and improvement of teaching and learning.” in practice, however, critics regard instructional leadership models to heavily rely on principal-centric approach. sergiovanni (1995, p.155), for example, explains , “being a strong irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 26 instructional leader may be a good idea in schools where teachers are poorly trained or lacking in commitment, but it is not a good idea in schools where competence and commitment are not issues.” lambert (2002, p.37), furthermore, argues that “the days of the lone instructional leader are over. we no longer believe that one administrator can serve as the instructional leader for the entire school without the substantial participation of other educators.” allied to these arguments, leithwood (2007, p.629) explains, “instructional leadership has admonished principals to become closely and directly involved in teachers’ classroom instruction. especially in larger schools and those offering the kinds of diverse curricula common to high schools, this admonition has never seemed more than a fond but unrealistic dream to even the most conscientious of principals. it simply flies in the face of the unavoidable demands on principals’ time, attention, and professional resources. it is an image of the principal as an educational “superhero.” day et al. (2016), on the other hand, conducted a study that drew empirical data from a three-year mixed-methods national study investigating the association between the work of more than six hundred effective and improving primary and secondary school principals in england and student outcomes over three years. the study found that, “schools’ abilities to improve and sustain effectiveness over the long term are not primarily the result of the principals’ leadership style but of their understanding and diagnosis of the school’s needs and their application of clearly articulated, organizationally shared educational values through multiple combinations and accumulations of time and context-sensitive strategies that are “layered” and progressively embedded in the school’s work, culture and achievements” (day et al, 2016, p.222). based on the findings, day et al. (2016, p.253) conclude that there is “…no single leadership formula to achieve success…. successful school principals draw differentially on elements of both instructional and transformational leadership and tailor (layer) their leadership strategies to their particular school contexts and to the phase of development of the school.” transformational leadership, put briefly, is “a leadership that facilitates the redefinition of a people’s mission and vision, a renewal of their commitment and the restructuring of their systems for goal accomplishment” (leithwood, 1992, p. 9). basesd on seven quantitative studies, leithwood (1994, p.506) concludes that, “transformational leadership practices, considered as a composite construct, had significant direct and indirect effects on progress with school-restructuring initiatives and teacher-perceived student outcomes.” transformational leadership focuses on five broad sets of leadership practices, namely: setting directions, developing people, redesigning organization, managing people, and coalition building (letihwood, 2007; leithwood & day, 2007). under these core practices, there are twenty-three more specific practices within each category (leithwood & day, 2007). in line with it, bush (2014, p.558) argues that, “the transformational model is comprehensive in that it provides a normative approach to school leadership which focuses primarily on the process by which leaders seek to influence school outcomes rather than on the nature or direction of those outcomes.” there are, however, criticisms against transformational leadership. chirichello (1999, p.5) argues that transformational leadership might be used as a means by”principals to be highly directive and offer little support, yet controlling at the same time.” moreover, bottery (2004, p.17) states that, “transformational leaders were to be social architects, who in creating vision, developed the trust of their followers, building loyalty, self-confidence and self-regard.” meanwhile, by mentioning that in south africa the language of transformation is irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 27 used to underpin a non-racist post-apartheid education system, bush and glover (2014) question the validity of the transformational model in the policy climate within which schools have to operate. the study by day et al. (2016), to some extent, relates back to what marks and printy (2003) found almost thirteen years ago. marks and printy (2003) conducted a study to see the association between principal leadership and school performance by employing twenty-four nationally selected restructured schools in the usa. the study found that, “when transformational and shared instructional leadership coexist in an integrated form of leadership, the influence on school performance, measured by the quality of its pedagogy and the achievement of its students, is substantial” (marks & printy, 2003, p.370). in other words, marks and printy (2003) argue that both shared instructional leadership and transformational leadership are important in influencing pupils’ learning outcome. the former functions to evaluate the principal’s interactive role with teachers in the central areas of curriculum, instruction, and assessment, while the latter is needed to lead schools through reform as it emphasises the ingredients of change—ideas, innovation, influence, and consideration for the individual in the process (marks & printy, 2003, p.391). however, unlike day et al.’s (2016) study, mark and printy’s (2003) study has a minor limitation in the extent of its generalization as the subjects of the study were purposively selected. although these three studies are, to some extent, contradictory, they support steinberg’s (2013) argument on the shift of effective leadership practices in a decentralized system mentioned earlier. literature and research show that decentralization makes school principals have broadened-authority, roles and responsibilities (de grauwe, 2004; leithwood & menzies, 1998; pont et al., 2008a; the world bank, 2007), and therefore, in order to be effective, school principals will have to combine both instructional and transformational leadership practices, not solely focusing on teaching, learning, and pupils’ achievements. the studies by gessler and ashmawy (2014) and ashmawy (2003) basically show how effective principals in vocational schools in germany and egypt have to combine instructional and transformational strategies in order to undertake their responsibilities in managing teaching environment, personnel management, financial management, and school buildings and furnishings. up to this point, it is safe to say that decentralization gives wider autonomy in decision-making to schools to be effective. however, what are the challenges that it gives to the existing school leadership cultures to further improve their effectiveness? challenges of decentralization to the existing leadership cultures in schools a decentralized-education system is not only a matter of giving schools broader autonomy in their decision-making, but it is also followed with a transfer of responsibilities that demands accountability. in the same way, de grauwe (2004, p.3) explains that giving authority and responsibilities to schools is not the same as giving them a “blank cheque”, because more autonomy equals more accountability. in this context, oecd (2010; 2011) research findings imply that there is positive association between positive outcomes and school autonomy, when it is combined with accountability. both pisa 2009 and 2015 results (oecd, 2010; 2011) conclude similarly by confirming the interplay between school autonomy and accountability. oecd (2010; 2011) explain that when school autonomy and accountability are intelligently combined, and supported with systems where principals have irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 28 more autonomy over resources, curriculum and other school policies, students gain better performance. accountability is, however, a contested notion. for example, møller (2007) regards that the term might be difficult to put into practice, since it is rather “elusive.” in the same way, levitt et al. (2008) argue that accountability can be a “slippery” concept, because it can be defined differently in theory and practice, and applied variously in a range of circumstances. in addition, levitt et al. (2008, p.2) explain that accountability is an ethical term as “it concerns proper behaviour, and deals with the responsibilities of individuals and organizations for their actions towards other people and agencies.” to fulfill the semantic as well as academic clarity, accountability, as defined by bovens (2005), based on a research on public accountability, refers to “the methods by which the actor may render an account (i.e. justify their actions and decisions) to the stakeholders and by which the stakeholders may hold the actor to account (i.e. impose sanctions or grant permissions).” in line with this definition, levitt et al. (2008) explain that the “actor” refers to individual or organization, while “stakeholders” refer to people with a particular interest in the work of the actor (including the actor’s conduct, perceptions, attitudes and the outcomes of the actor’s activities). in school context, accountability is oftentimes regarded as “pressure” (mulford, 2006) or “dilemma” (fullan & hargreaves, 2015). it becomes “pressure” and “dilemma” when authority, responsibilities, and management of education have been decentralized to school level, but the curriculum and testing remain centralized (behrman et al., 2002). when this happens, accountability is oftentimes valued in the context of “performativity”. by formulating it based on individualized comments from teachers in the uk, ball (2003, p.216) explains that, “performativity is a culture and a mode of regulation that employs judgments, comparisons and displays as means of incentive, control, attrition and change – based on rewards and sanctions (both material and symbolic).” based on the definition, ball (2003) regards “performativity” as a “terror” for teachers. allied to ball’s (2003) argument, fullan (2003a, p. xiii) argues that, unrealistic expectations and a policy environment that contributes to increased prescription of the statistical targets of learning outcomes, and diminished coherence between learning needs and curriculum, cause “a dismal for principalship.” meanwhile, a case study in five local authorities in england by stevenson (2013) found that when educational achievement is measured solely by standardized tests and the publication of “league tables” of school performance, school leaders, especially principals, are faced not only with “right versus wrong” issues, but also “right versus right” dilemmas. as a result, inevitably, there will be “either/or” situations “where there exists a clear opportunity cost resulting from whatever action is not pursued” (stevenson, 2003, p.380). taken together, ball’s (2003), fullan’s (2003a) and stevenson’s (2013) arguments show that, accountability as perceived in the sense of “performativity” becomes “pressure” and “dilemma” for both school principals and teachers. by borrowing ball’s (2003) language, “the terror of performativity” is faced by different countries with devolved-education system. in england, for example, bush (2016) explains that although affairs related to budgets, school choice and governance have been decentralized to school level, the curriculum remains centralized. the national curriculum is set by the central government through the department for education, and its implementation is monitored by the statutory office for standards in education (ofsted). the inspection irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 29 covers a number of areas, namely overall effectiveness, leadership and management effectiveness, quality of teaching, learning and assessment, personal development, behaviour and welfare, and outcomes for pupils (ofsted, 2016). based on the inspection, ofsted inspectors use the following four-point scale to make all judgments, ranging from: (i) grade 1: outstanding; (ii) grade 2: good; (iii) grade 3: requires improvement; to, (iv) grade 4: inadequate (ofsted, 2016). these judgments will then result in the form of “league tables” (stevenson, 2013), allowing, to some extent, the public to make another judgment on the schools’ accountability based on the ranking. indonesia, on the other hand, is an example of a country where accountability in school context is somewhat measured by standardized tests. since its implementation in 1950, there has been continuous debate on the fairness of determining learning quality through national examination (ministry of education and culture, republic of indonesia, 2015). the debate is raised due to the country’s demographic diversity, covering 81,626 villages, around 17 thousand islands and 680 native languages, as well as discrepancy in education quality among more than 50 million students enrolled in over 200 thousand schools throughout the country (central bureau of statistics, 2016; ministry of education & culture, republic of indonesia, 2015). in its broadest sense, however, accountability does not only bring pressure, but it also opens up opportunity for school leaders and teachers to be effective by showing responsibility. in indonesian context, for example, a quantitative study by pritchett (2013, p.118) suggests that the country would need at least 101 years to reach average oecd levels at finland‘s pace. in line with it, de ree et al. (2016) conducted a large-scale randomised experiment across more than 3,000 teachers and 80,000 students in indonesia. the study found that, “the doubling in pay led to no improvements in measures of teacher effort or student learning outcomes, suggesting that the salary increase was a transfer to teachers with no discernible impact on student outcomes” (de ree et al., 2016, p.1). based on these studies, it can be safely argued that, accountability cannot be solely taken as pressure, because it also seeks for responsibility from (indonesian) school leaders and teachers to work more effectively. case studies in indonesia by raihani and gurr (2006), raihani (2007), and raihani et al. (2013) signify how the pressure from the public as well as the newly adopted decentralization of education system has been able to make the principals become more “transformational”. raihani and gurr (2006) found that, three successful public senior secondary school principals in yogyakarta province demonstrated several common values and beliefs of successful school leadership found by day et al. (2000), namely trust, caring and empathy. in addition, the principals also performed beliefs and values related to their islamic values (e.g. the responsibility to god to do one’s best, and faith and piety), the family-relationship value, and promotion of javanese values. however, emphasised more in the research, raihani and gurr (2006, p.121) found that, ”trust was an important feature of the principals’ leadership due to concerns in indonesia about corruption.” based on these findings, raihani (2007) argues that, the three effective principals in yogyakarta province exercised transformational leadership practices. raihani (2007, p.481) claims that, “the principals demonstrated ability in developing the school vision, setting strategies, building capacity, and establishing a broader network to achieve the benefits of school improvement.” raihani et al. (2013), furthermore, explored the work of mr. mulyono, a successful public irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 30 islamic senior secondary school (man) in palangkaraya, central kalimantan province. the study is worth attention, because “whilst man is a school for muslim children staffed by muslim teachers, both students and staff come from diverse cultural backgrounds that reflect this complex part of the world.” the study found that, in order to be effective, the principal was being humble by showing empathy and respecting others, put quality teaching over ethnicity, worked with religious differences, and developed students’ multicultural awareness (raihani et al, 2013). an important aspect found in the study also relates to trust, since mr. mulyono is not originally from palangkayara. raihani et al (2013, p.185) explain that, “mr. mulyono is not only charged with leading a school in a culturally diverse community, but [also] doing [it] as an ‘outsider.” from the case studies, it could be seen that the “pressure” given to indonesian school principals to show accountability could result positively. since corruption was extensive under the centralised system that anchored in the country for more than 54 years (bjork, 2003; kristiansen and pratikno, 2006), school principals are entitled to show their accountability by being trustworthy as a way to create a culture of trust. in fact, research findings by day (2013, p.105) conclude that, “trust has been found to be key elements in all countries.” however, the question now is how to develop an approach “in which the elements of a devolved system are held in creative tension, with checks and balances to make sure that autonomy does not lead to isolation, that diversity does not become a barrier to collaboration and that accountability does not slip into regulation” (national college, 2012, p.3). more than a decade ago, fullan (2003, p.22) argued that “the solution is to acknowledge the extreme importance of the principalship, clarify the power nature of the principal’s role, and invest in developing capacity of principals in numbers to act as chief operating officers.” in order to realise it, fullan (2003b) explains that it requires individual and system action independently and conjointly. at the individual level, school leaders are to take actions consistent with the moral purpose, and push for and be responsible to the opportunities they have (fullan, 2003, p.63). meanwhile, at the system level, fullan (2003b) emphasizes that, “the point is that leaders learning in context and fostering leaders at many levels is the core strategy.” although fullan’s (2003) proposed-solution might be outdated and was not based on research, austria, england, finland, belgium and australia provide examples of how the solution is implemented in practice (pont, nusche, & hopkins, 2008b). case studies conducted by pont et al. (2008b, p.10) show that, the five countries “demonstrated models of school organization and management that distribute education leadership roles in innovative ways; and showed promising practices for preparing and developing school leaders.” in england, for example, pont et al. (2008b) found a systemic approach that provides opportunities for schools and school leadership to collaborate for school improvement through the role of the national college for school leadership (ncsl). ncsl has played an important role in developing national school leaders, promoting school networks, and enhancing collaboration among schools (pont et al., 2008b). in 2013, ncsl was merged with the teaching agency to form national college for teaching and leadership (nctl) (the uk department for education [dfe] and gove, 2013). nctl has responsibilities to: (i) improve academic standards by: ensuring the availability of a well-qualified and motivated teaching profession, in sufficient numbers to meet the needs of the school system; and (ii) help schools to help each other to improve (nctl, 2016). with its important role and wide range of responsibilities, to some extent, nctl represents england’s serious commitment and effort to improve the quality of irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 31 teaching and educational leadership workforce through individual and systemic approach as suggested by fullan (2003). conclusions decentralization is a globally adopted development strategy and management reform. it widely is believed to promise a range of benefits by being an important element to improve the effectiveness of local governance and broaden local participation. however, since it is motivated by different reasons, decentralization is defined and exercised variously in actual practice. in line with it, literature and research show mixed results in the implementation of decentralization in different countries. one common feature found from research is that, decentralization depends on the capacity and commitment of central government to devolve authority to lower units of government. education, on the other hand, is one of the sectors that has been affected by decentralization in many parts of the world. yet, since decentralization itself is conceptually and practically contested, decentralization of education is practiced variously. in this paper, decentralization of education is interchangeable with devolution of education. in a devolved education system, schools are given both autonomy and responsibilities in decision-making authority. the decisions transferred to school level encompass the authority to the principal to manage the school’s financial and human resources, and the authority to the community (e.g. to select the principal). at school level, those who receive the transferred-authority are school leaders, mainly principals. therefore, under a decentralized-education system, school principals have broadened-roles and responsibilities. research shows that decentralization of education allows the creation of elected bodies to involve various stakeholders in the decision-making process, and enables schools to plan their own goals and objectives independently. as a result, decentralization of education makes principals demonstrate participatory leadership model in order to be effective. in addition, research also supports the argument that decentralization of education has made effective school principals combine elements of instructional and transformational leadership practices. despite giving schools broader autonomy in their decision-making, however, decentralization of education creates a number of challenges to the existing leadership cultures in schools. a devolved environment urges for accountability that is oftentimes regarded as pressure and dilemma by school leaders and teachers. when the curriculum and standardized tests remain under the control of central government, accountability is valued in the context of performativity. yet, when viewed broadly, accountability opens up opportunity for school leaders and teachers to show responsibility in order to be effective. another challenge relates to developing an approach in which elements of a devolved system do not lead to solitude autonomy, segregated collaboration and regulation-based accountability. a solution worth considering is by acknowledging the important role of principals, clarifying the responsibilities and roles of principal, and developing capacity of principals. however, it is important to take into account that it takes individual and systemic approach to realize it. irje | vol. 2 | no. 2| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 32 references ashmawy, i. k. 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(2004). decentralising education management. newsletter – a quarterly publication in english and french. international institute for capacity building in africa. retreived from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002315/231580e.pdf biographical note cecep somantri is a post-graduate student at the university of nottingham, the united kingdom (uk), majoring educational leadership and management 2016/2017. he is also working for at the ministry of education and culture, republic of indonesia as a program specialist in the field of adult learning and education (ale) this study is intended to understand teaching quality of english student teachers when they conduct their teaching practicum. teaching quality is conceptualized based on the principles of effective teaching resulted by teacher effectiveness studies. thes irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 2 indonesian research journal in education (irje) | vol. 2 | no. 1|year 2018 the mission of the indonesian research journal in education (irje) is to serve as a vital and international forum for a different group of scholars and researchers who are of interest in exchanging ideas in order to enrich the theory, policy, and practice of education in indonesia and around the world and who can grasp a noteworthy voice in discussions and decision-making around issues of education. irje is a free, twice-yearly, open access, peer-reviewed, international, and e-journal, published in indonesia, which accepts unpublished, high quality, and original research manuscripts in english, resulting primarily from quantitative, qualitative, and mixed research methodology related to or associated with education. all research articles appearing in irje have undergone a thoroughly peer-review. editorial team lead editor amirul mukminin, jambi university, indonesia managing editors akhmad habibi, jambi university, indonesia dairabi kamil, state islamic university of kerinci, indonesia muhaimin, jambi university, indonesia mukhlash abrar, jambi university, indonesia assistant editors ferdiaz saudagar, jambi university, indonesia masbirorotni, jambi university, indonesia siti rahma sari, jambi university, indonesia failasofah, jambi university, indonesia nunung fajaryani, jambi university, indonesia international editorial board jeffrey ayala milligan, the florida state university, usa thomas f. luschei, claremont graduate university, usa shen chen, university of newcastle, australia abdul jalil bin othman, university of malaya, malaysia tiago neves, university of porto, portugal saedah siraj, university of malaya, malaysia judit navracsics, university of pannonia, hungary irina golubeva, university of miskolc, hungary pedro sanchez escobedo, universidad autónoma de yucatán (uady), mexico https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=-jksvt8aaaaj&hl=en https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=ip8-bosaaaaj&hl=en https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=4lk2yumaaaaj&hl=en https://www.researchgate.net/profile/failasofah_failasofah https://www.researchgate.net/profile/nunung_fajaryani https://umexpert.um.edu.my/jalil https://umexpert.um.edu.my/saedah irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 3 muhammad kamarul kabilan, university of science, malaysia jennifer elsden-clifton, griffith university, australia farrah dina binti yusof, university of malaya, malaysia dina belluigi, queen's university belfast, north ireland, uk. florante p. ibarra, central luzon state university, the philippines abang ismail bin abang julhi, teacher education institute of malaysia yunisrina qismullah yusuf, syiah kuala university, indonesia rafiza binti abdul razak, university of malaya, malaysia lourdes villardon, university of deusto, spain nor azmi mostafa, sultan idris education university, malaysia mohd rashid bin mohd saad, university of malaya, malaysia hadiyanto, jambi university, indonesia muazza, jambi university, indonesia anton widyanto, ar-raniry state islamic university, indonesia eddy haryanto, jambi university, indonesia mohd faiz mohd yaakob,universiti utara malaysia, malaysia layout editors robin pratama, jambi university robi hendra, jambi university focus and scope the indonesian research journal in education (irje) accepts unpublished, high quality, and original research manuscripts in english, resulting primarily from quantitative, qualitative, or mixed research methodology related to or associated with education. these issues include, but not limited to, practices, policies, and research in education from early childhood education to higher education which cover the areas of instruction, learning, teaching, curriculum development, educational policy, language education and policy, bilingual education, multicultural education, art education, teacher education, educational technology, educational developments, educational psychology, and international education in indonesia and other parts of the world. publication frequency irje is published 2 times per year (june and december) by jambi university, the graduate school, doctoral program in education. publisher indonesian research journal in education the graduate school, doctoral program in education jambi university, jl. raden mattaher no.16, jambi, indonesia 36113 issn 2580-5711 https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=k5skd70aaaaj&hl=en https://umexpert.um.edu.my/rafiza https://umexpert.um.edu.my/msaadmr https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=ohvkfocaaaaj&hl=en irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 4 content 5 editorial 7 indonesia’s active, creative, effective and joyful learning: from a university teacher training program to high school classrooms michael sean young 32 identity development among muslim indonesian-american college students: a phenomenological study taufik mulyadin 51 looking at the link between parents’ educational backgrounds and students’ english achievement lenny marzulina, nova lingga pitaloka, herizal, muhamad holandyah, dian erlina, and indah tri lestari 61 student-centred teaching strategies by gender, grade level, and teacher’s self-concept in mexico pedro sánchez-escobedo and ana karen camelo lavadores 74 measurement model of reasoning skills among science students based on socio scientific issues (ssi) mohd afifi bin bahurudin setambah irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 5 editorial the second volume of the indonesian research journal in education (irje) presents together five articles that look at numerous topics on education in indonesia and other countries. the second volume starts with the article “indonesia’s active, creative, effective and joyful learning: from a university teacher training program to high school classrooms” by michael sean young, a professor of education at thomas university in thomasville, georgia, the u.s.a. his study asked how and to what extent professors were modeling and encouraging active-learning methods in the students’ english and education courses in response to decentralization reforms at the university of banten, in serang, indonesia. for the second article, taufik mulyadin focuses on “identity development among muslim indonesian-american college students: a phenomenological study.” his study was conducted to understand muslim indonesian-american college students’ experiences of identity development from the perspectives of the reconceptualized model of multiple dimensions of identity (rmmdi). his study revealed that the salience of four identity dimensions for muslim indonesian-american students including religion, culture, social class, and gender. these identity dimensions were found to be impacted by varied contextual factors such as family, the 9/11, peer support, and college support. another thought-provoking article offered by lenny marzulina, nova lingga pitaloka, herizal, muhamad holandyah, dian erlina, and indah tri lestari, is entitled “looking at the link between parents’ educational backgrounds and students’ english achievement.” they investigated the link between parents’ educational background and students’ english achievement at one senior high school in palembang, south sumatra, indonesia. the results of their study revealed that parents’ educational background significantly correlated with the students’ english achievement. additionally, the results of the linear regression analysis indicated that there was a correlation between parents’ educational background and students’ english achievement. although the contributions was small and there were other factors that contribute to the students’ academic achievement, parents’ educational background is important in supporting their children’s english achievement. the other interesting article “student-centred teaching strategies by gender, grade level, and teacher’s self-concept in mexico” is authored by pedro sánchez-escobedo and ana karen camelo lavadores. their sttudy examined the student-centred teaching strategies of mexican teachers by gender, grade level, and self-concept as an instructor. a conventional sample of 573 teachers from diverse school settings in the state of yucatan in mexico responded to a paper and pencil questionnaire. results indicated, in general, that teachers prioritized classroom management and independent learning activites, in constrast with teaching strategies emphasized by policies and teacher´s training programs in the country, such as cooperative learning, differentiation, or promoting critical thinking. the last article for this issue, “measurement model of reasoning skills among science students based on socio scientific issues (ssi)” is written by dr. mohd irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 6 afifi bin bahurudin setambah. he argues that the lack of reasoning skills has been recognized as one of the contributing factors to the declined achievement in the trends in mathematics and science studies (timss) and programme for international student assessment (pisa) assessments in malaysia. his study focused the development of a measurement model of reasoning skills among science students based on ssi using the analysis of moment structure (amos) approach before going to second level to full structured equation modelling (sem). a total of 450 respondents were selected using a stratified random sampling. results showed a modified measurement model of reasoning skills consisting of the view knowledge (vk) was as a main construct. indonesian research journal in education (irje) is indexed by doaj, index copernicus, and google scholar irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 7 indonesia’s active, creative, effective and joyful learning: from a university teacher training program to high school classrooms michael sean young 1 abstract this study asked how and to what extent professors were modeling and encouraging active-learning methods in the students’ english and education courses in response to decentralization reforms at the university of banten, in serang, indonesia. a discussion of the background of pakem (pembelajaran aktif, kreatif, efektif dan menyenangkan) policy and its implementation builds a framework for identifying and interpreting specific challenges which impact english teacher preparation and the knowledge and implementation of pakem active learning methods. pakem represents a major element of ongoing decentralization policy and was explored thematically through an ethnographic analysis of in-depth accounts of professors, teachers, and students at the campus over ten months. the discussion provides extensive and diverse evidence of dynamic responses to pakem policy changes. lecturers were well informed about and engaged in the implementation of active learning methods in instruction. findings are situated amongst similar case studies on the implementation of active learning pedagogies and consistencies are identified and discussed. keywords pakem, indonesia, university teacher training, high schools, decentralization 1 thomas university, thomasville, georgia, the usa; msy05@my.fsu.edu irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 8 introduction the indonesian school system serves over 50 million students with about 2.6 million teachers in more than 250,000 schools. it is the fourth largest education system in the world (behind china, india, and the united states). the ministry of national education (mone) manages 84 percent of public and private schools and the ministry of religious affairs (mora) 16 percent (the world bank, 2009). since the 1980’s, and assertively in the new millennium, the mone and mora have encouraged the adoption of student-centered and active teaching and learning methods nationally, and these are officially proscribed in policy. the purpose of teacher law no. 14/2005 as to improve education quality by upgrading teacher qualifications and improving education quality is the second of three pillars in the ministry of education’s strategic plan for 2005-2009. in addition to upgrading all teachers’ qualifications to include a minimum bachelor’s degree (s1) and passing the national certification exam, the utilization of active learning methods is viewed as a means of improving teaching quality. pembelajaran aktif, kreatif, efektif dan menyenangkan (pakem) or “active, creative, effective and joyful learning,” is the indonesian conceptualization of actively engaged, student-centered teaching and learning. menyenangkan can also be translated as “fun,” “pleasurable,” “nice,” “agreeable,” etc.…). pakem is used primarily in elementary (sekolah dasar; sd) schools, while the term “contextual teaching and learning” (ctl) is often used at the junior secondary (sekolah menengah pertama; smp) and senior secondary (sekolah menengah atas; sma) school levels. the purpose of active, creative, effective and joyful learning, and contextual teaching & learning, is to improve the quality of teaching and learning in schools, and to make schooling more meaningful and enjoyable for teachers and students. by extension, it is hoped that this will result in greater student participation, especially at the junior and senior high school level, and fewer drop-outs. the philosophical foundations of pakem and ctl run deeply throughout western pedagogical thought, most notably that of john dewey, and also in the cultural and constitutional heritage of indonesia, as well. dewey’s (1916) “democracy and education” and “experience and education” (1938) inspired progressive education and experiential education movements in the u.s. and around the world. dewey’s (1938) pragmatic or instrumentalist philosophy emphasized curriculum and methods that are relevant and meaningful to students’ lives, that promote critical thinking and social interaction for solving real-life problems, and that model the school as a microcosmic democracy within a larger social and national democracy. therefore, this democratic, student-centered paradigm opposes authoritarianism in the classroom as well as in society. dewey (1938) also emphasized change, and the dialectic nature of life. when we learn, we gain knowledge and understanding that provides us with agency to control our lives, and to deal with today’s and tomorrow’s challenges. we need to be able to think and learn in this way; learning what we want to know and need to know, and thus we become intrinsically motivated learners. finally, dewey’s (1938) theory of continuity proposed that each and every experience of an individual influences his or her perception and ability to learn and understand future experiences. consequently, every experience, positive or negative, influences the understanding and effects of all future experiences for an individual. his theory of interaction explains how the continuity of our total experiences serve our perception and understanding irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 9 as we perpetually confront, and deal with a reality day after day. students must be able to connect their learning— the curriculum and classroom activities—with their everyday lives. dewey (1938) asserted that education wasn’t preparation for life—it is life, and we all must re-create ourselves with each passing day and every passing moment. these philosophical and psychological underpinnings support the need for pedagogy of active, creative, effective and joyful learning. among the five principles of the pancasila, the national ideology, the third affirms the unity of indonesia (persatuan indonesia) and strong sense of the nation as a family (keluarga) the fourth affirms the principle of democratic representation, and the fifth affirms the principle of social justice for all indonesians. president yudhoyono has strongly supported the conviction to uphold the ideals of pluralism and tolerance in this socially-conscientious, collective and inclusive indonesian philosophy. again, the pedagogical strengths of pakem and ctl methods for teaching and learning are consistent with the principles guiding the development of indonesian citizens and society: promoting critical thinking skills, problem-solving, productivity, cooperation, inclusivity, active participation, and democracy. it is helpful to understand that the curriculum national standards for each subject are mandated and utilized in the production of textbooks and the development of syllabi, lesson plans and curriculum in all public and private elementary, junior and senior secondary schools. these are the standardized objectives that teachers are trying to accomplish for each subject and grade level. the national competency-based curriculum (cbc,) kurrikulum berbasis kompetensi (kbk) standards have been adapted and structured as the ktsp, or kurrikulum tengkat (levels) satuan (units) pendidikan (education); thus, curriculum levels and units for education (clue) in order promote implementation which is consistent with pakem instructional methods. ultimately, the attainment of the concepts and skills delineated in the cbc and ktsp standards are assessed with the national examination, ujian nasional, for higher education and called eptanas at the elementary, junior and senior high school levels. the purposes of the study were to provide background on the development of the pakem policy, to define and establish criteria for identifying characteristics of pakem and ctl, and to provide a concise rationale of how and why active learning is desirable. next, to provide and analyze ethnographic data selected from a case study of a university teacher training program and senior high schools connected with the lecturers and students of the program. the following research questions guided this study: (1) do lecturers understand pakem? (2) was active, creative, effective and joyful teaching and learning occurring? how do we know this, and why was it, or was it not, occurring? and (3) what factors seem to be involved— i.e., teacher characteristics, education, and experience— that constrained or enabled active learning approaches? the answers to these questions, at this qualitative level, inform our planning and more broadly-based future research on the progress of pakem active learning approaches in teacher training programs and in schools. finally, the findings of this case study can be situated with, and related to, similar efforts to develop and implement active learning approaches internationally, and consistent factors and patterns are apparent. irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 10 literature review usaid’s role in promoting pakem and ctl: the mbe and dbe programs from february 2003 until june 2007, the managing basic education (mbe) program of the usaid and rti international consultants worked in 23 districts in east and central java, aceh and jakarta, building capacity at district and school levels to manage basic education. the project worked to create models of good practice in basic education, including public and private elementary (sd) and some junior secondary schools (smp) because this is the largest sector managed by local governments. the most important objectives the mbe program were first, developing and using models for the management of resources and education funding at the district level and second, improving and expanding school based management (sbm), community participation, and active, creative, joyful and effective learning (pakem) at the school level. the mbe expected that working to promote sbm, pakem and community participation (psm) would serve to stimulate other neighboring schools that wish to improve their quality of education using their own resources. the mbe worked to build models of good management practice in twenty schools, ten in each sub-district within a district, including primary and junior secondary schools, conventional and religious (sd, mi, smp and mts), state and private, in the areas of sbm, community participation and pakem and ctl. 1 the program intentionally worked to build up local government capacity to develop and adapt models, and to perpetuate the best use of these practices, with the purpose of building local ownership and ensuring sustainability. activities generally included each of the groups of stakeholders, in order to develop a common vision, cooperative approaches and a well-informed group of stakeholders. it worked with a cross section of education stakeholders, including the democratic institutions, local parliament (dprd), education council (dewan pendidikan), school committees, local government institutions: the local development agency (bappeda), the education office (dinas pendidikan), ministry of religious affairs and the finance department; schools and local communities: school committees, parents, principals and teachers. the mbe built an interpretation of the “active, creative, joyful and effective learning” (pakem) program upon the active learning through professional support (alps, or cbsa in bahasa indonesia) program, which started in cianjur in 1980 and ran until 1993 (mbe, 2005). the school cluster and teachers’ working group systems, (peningkatan kemampuan guru, pkg or kkg; and mgmp at the junior high school level) adopted throughout indonesia, were also developed at this time to function as major supports for teachers in carrying out the objectives of sbm, pakem, and community 1 acknowledgements: this mbe program was based on the sbm program developed by the government of indonesia, unesco and unicef, and used materials developed by that program. the funding of schools to support the sbm program follows the pattern developed by the dssd program which was funded by the asian development bank (adb). irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 11 participation. principles the mbe established according to alps/cbsa for active, creative, joyful and effective learning are (mbe, 2005): the children do more practical tasks (for example in science), including using the social and natural environments, the children use more teaching aids, libraries and library corners are set up and used, the children’s work is written in their own words, children’s work is displayed in class, teachers show more flexibility in organizing and grouping pupils’ in their learning. decentralized basic education 2 (dbe2) the main purpose of the usaid dbe2 program (in coordination with dbe1 and dbe3) is to provide the government of indonesia (goi) with technical services and resources to improve the quality of teaching and learning in indonesia’s public and private elementary schools, with limited assistance to junior secondary schools. monitoring and evaluation demonstrate the efforts of dbe2 have significantly improved the quality of teaching and learning in targeted schools, as well as strengthening in-service professional development (usaid, 2008). in one component of dbe2, florida state university, one of three u.s. universities partnering with a total of 14 indonesian universities, carried out a project with 7 of them, connecting usaid staff, lecturers from the universities, principals and master teachers with elementary schools in their communities, and training them in pakem methods. two lecturers from one of the university teams will be discussed in this report. manuals, examples of teaching aids and other materials, appropriate for various school subjects like math, science, and bahasa indonesia were used in the trainings, as well as technology such as power-point presentations, cameras and recorders. there are manuals for a total of nine modules for the trainers and participants, including a general manual, or foundation package, “introduction to effective learning in (pakem) subject matter (pengenalan pembelajaran efektif dalam mata pelajaran pokok, 2007) the subject-specific manuals, entitled “paduan untuk fasilitator: what is active learning?” (2007). the texts are all in indonesian language, “what is active learning” provides detailed definitions of each of the terms that make up the acronym, as well as characteristics of active, creative, effective and joyful learning in action. the translated definitions themselves contain examples: with active teaching and learning students “question, discuss, express ideas, discover, and seek information to build knowledge…” (2007). with creative teaching and learning “teachers promote a variety of approaches and activities and are able to create low-cost materials and teaching aids that facilitate understanding” and with effective teaching and learning the “innovations in the learning process lead to optimum student achievement of the competencies in the curriculum, and increased knowledge, skills and abilities” with “joyful teaching and learning the “atmosphere of learning is comfortable, without pressure… enjoying the process of learning, with freedom to try new things without fear of mistakes.” finally, pakem teaching and learning uses principles of contextual learning, cooperative learning, and the accommodation of diverse learning styles and gender (pengenalan pembelajaran efektif dalam mata pelajaran pokok, 2007). a mentoring section of “what is active learning” describes what an observer would see in a class where pakem teaching and learning is taking place, or evidence of the process in action (pengenalan pembelajaran efektif dalam mata pelajaran pokok, 2007). these irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 12 include many of the characteristics mentioned thus far, and compiled in the following rubric “criteria and characteristics for assessing pakem and ctl.” aspects of the classroom environment, such as displaying students’ work (what work, what should not be displayed, how it can be beneficial, keeping it updated) and the idea of flexibility in seating arrangements, like with the clustering of desks for small group work, are discussed in detail. establishing reading corners with shelves and books, their usage, and the use of teaching aids are described, and many photos of the materials are included in the manuals. between 2003 and 2010, several provinces in indonesia made great progress in the adaptation, implementation and effectiveness of school-based management (sbm,) pakem and community participation (psm) for improving schools, due to support from the regional and district education offices. this had been achieved by making systemic changes concurrently with organizational cultural changes, commonly lead by dedicated and dynamic school principals. a clear understanding of the roles of all stakeholders was necessary, with the overall objective being to provide the maximum support possible for the teachers in the field, and thus the teaching and learning process. it was observed at that time that: in turn, strong sbm in schools is improving not only with leadership and allocation of resources, but also with the diffusion and enhancement of pakem (rekdale, 2005). indonesia’s pakem approach encourages learning how to learn, learning by discovery, creativity, and analytical and critical thinking. methods of facilitating and stimulating these types of learning include having students engaged in individual, pair, group and class-wide learning activities, participation in individual and group projects, research, discussion, independent reading and study, creating journals and portfolios, as well as traditional methods such as lecture listening, note-taking, recitation, and textbook, workbook, and paper-based exercises. as the data from this study showed, it can be difficult and at times impractical to utilize pakem methods for instruction, depending upon the nature of the learning objectives, skills, and tasks undertaken. however, according to indonesian policy (unesco, 2008), active learning methods should accompany and supersede traditional methods, when possible, integrated with the schools’ curriculum, which is developed in synchronization with the national subject-area standards of the cbc/ktsp, and realized at the school-level in the syllabi and lesson plans designed by individual teachers. research and evaluations from the usaid and consultants have indicated the benefits of active learning methods for improving education quality (cannon, 2005) and a component of the dbe2 project is currently researching the effects of active learning interventions and the practice of active learning in classrooms. it is appropriate to acknowledge that even these proposed characteristics for a “pakem criteria” are culturally-biased and are open to discussion and consensus. the dbe2 pakem teams there were a total of eight teams from four provinces representing seven universities on the dbe2 project, who developed pakem modules, conducted training with elementary school teachers, and carried out action research on the progress of these teachers to incorporate pakem methods and resources in their instruction. in addition to the study, the dbe2 team research also provided feedback on the progress of the pakem training irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 13 modules and implementation of pakem methods in elementary schools. two male lecturers, tubagus and john, and one female were team members in banten. at workshops held in march 2009, members from the eight teams reported the following issues related to the progress of the pakem training modules and implementation of pakem methods in elementary schools. methodology the university of banten college of education 2 teacher training program, or facultas keguruan ilmu pendidikan (fkip) is the most common form of teacher education programs within a larger university offering diverse programs such as law, political & social science, agriculture, and engineering, among others. the majors within the fkip program include programs of study in early childhood, math, science-biology, indonesian and english language (bahasa inggris) education. this ethnographic study employed individual and focus group interview sessions assembled with professors, lecturers and prospective teachers in this university, as well as administrators, and regional officials involved in the teaching of language arts. participants of varying ages and experience with the language arts curriculum were invited to act voluntarily as members of the purposive sample, nine lecturers and twenty-five student-teachers at ub, for a total of 34 lecturers and student participants. teachers at four senior high schools, three in the city of serang in one in a rural part of the province, were also interviewed. interviews conducted in english and partially in indonesian (with the help of translators) lasted from 40 to 60 minutes each. the questions were thematic, open-ended, and sequenced with each participant responding in turn and listening to one another’s responses in the focus groups. observations were primarily as a participant-observer in classes and campus activities. field notes were fundamentally descriptive, including portraits of subjects, the reconstruction of dialogue, description of the physical setting, accounts of particular events, depiction of activities, and reflexive accounts of the researcher’s thoughts and behaviors. peer reviewers, participants themselves, were involved as partners in the study through the ongoing qualitative practice of member-checks to verify perspectives and accuracy of data collected. the case study focused on six female and five male lecturers in the fkip english education program, the english and education courses they teach, and the students enrolled in those courses. the lecturers and students were self-selected as volunteers, and had varying lengths of experience at the university of banten. students ranged from first year to fourth year and beyond. data were collected through primary interviews, followup conversations, classroom participant-observations, and campus activities participant-observations, from november 20, 2008 to august 19, 2009. class visits were chosen and planned based upon availability and schedule coordination, an attempt to have a balanced number of visits per 2 i will use “college of education” or “education department,” not to be confused with the national “department of education,” or mone. in indonesian it is simply “fkip,” in english: “faculty of teacher training in education.” irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 14 lecturer, and the likelihood of the courses contributing data relevant to the research questions. in the first months, all class visits were scheduled, but later many class visits were unscheduled. all interviews and classes were in english, except for the introduction to education (pengantar pendidikan) and education management (pengalaloan pendidikan) courses, which were taught entirely in indonesian. a longitudinal continuation of this study is planned for 2018, to examine the progress of the pakem initiative. findings state influence on teaching methods: active learning (pakem) pembelajaran aktif, kreatif, efektif dan menyenangkan, (pakem) or “active, creative, effective and joyful learning,” is the indonesian (mone) conceptualization of actively engaged, student-centered teaching and learning. pakem is used primarily in elementary (sekolah dasar; sd) schools, while the term “contextual teaching and learning” (ctl) is often used at the junior secondary (sekolah menengah pertama; smp) and senior secondary (sekolah menengah atas; sma) school levels. the purpose of active, creative, effective and joyful learning, and contextual teaching & learning, is to improve the quality of teaching and learning in schools, and to make schooling more meaningful and enjoyable for teachers and students. by extension, it is hoped that this will result in greater student participation, especially at the junior and senior high school level, and fewer drop-outs. though i have presented a rubric for “active learning,” the “criteria and characteristics for assessing pakem and ctl” based upon trends in indonesian education, i asked lecturers what their views are. for example, one question i asked was “can you describe or further elaborate on what you mean by ‘active learning,’” and “what kinds of methods and activities would this include?” i also asked (and observed) if the teaching behaviors and method were being modeled and discussed in classrooms. the lecturers and students at the ub fkip showed implicit attitudes and offered explicit statements and descriptions that they feel teaching for “active, relevant, and engaged learning” could be accomplished while following a highly-structured national curriculum, resulting in greater student involvement, enjoyment, and achievement. use of discussion, media, research and extracurricular projects to engage students while all lecturers agreed that teaching about and modeling active learning methods was important for their students, who would be expected to incorporate these methods in elementary and secondary schools, the extent of inclusion of active learning methods in all of the classes in this ub program was not clearly agreed upon. several lecturers suggested that differences in the subject matter of courses strongly influenced the nature of integrating active learning methods for different fkip english education classes, and that the goal of maximizing active learning in these classes was not always feasible, desirable or appropriate. these lecturers explained that for some activities in courses like reading and writing, class time was allotted for individual student reading and writing. however, all lecturers and irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 15 students indicated that they thought the extent of incorporation of active learning methods was, and should be greater in the elementary, junior and senior high schools. interviews revealed that all of the lecturers had themselves studied in classes, from elementary school to their own teacher-training programs, with some teachers using active-learning methods. tubagus and john described their own schooling and teacher training experiences, and also were trainers on an active learning elementary school teacher training project. i observed many of their classes and we participated in numerous campus activities together as well. at the university of banten, especially in fkip, principles of pakem and ctl are taught explicitly and modeled and experienced implicitly by many lecturers in diverse courses in the program of study. john’s favorite classes to teach were language lab management and translation. besides teaching the language lab course, in the interview he explained “i work with the english language lab, and with media software that promotes and encourages motivation, and gives support for teachers. in the language lab the students do listening and dictation…they practice translations…work in groups, collaboration with a variety of tasks…” during the course of the fall 2008 semester, “odd” or ganjil, and the spring, “even” or ganap, i observed in this lab management class and in addition to those activities described by john, he and students used power-point presentations, overhead projectors, recorders, and the computers and materials in the language lab itself. typically, there was always a good deal of question and answer, and group discussion. john graduated from lampung university fkip for english education, in lampung province, sumatra, across the sunda strait to the west of banten. he described the incorporation of active learning in his classes there, john: “since junior secondary my teachers have used active learning techniques, such as games, media, using theory to practice…that institution (lampung university) encouraged us to use active learning techniques because the students get bored learning english so that’s why we have to solve that problem by having more interesting ways of teaching and learning. take for one example, at that time (his undergraduate study at lampung) we learned how to operate a language laboratory in the subject of language lab and management to teach english, so how we can combine software and hardware, and using media to encourage the students’ motivation and can help the teacher to be more comfortable with english and the students….when we are trained at the university in this area, yes this applies especially at the junior and senior high levels…when we learn about theories we are trying to apply it in our actual teaching…” me: “so, in coming here to ub, have you tried to keep the same methods and teaching style that you were trained in?” john: “yeah, we do our best to teach our students, because the difference between secondary and university is the students, of course they are already quite mature enough, so that’s why you have to treat them different…but the principles of teaching are the same; we have to teach them actively, in a way that is interesting and to enjoy…let’s say, at that time i was teaching listening or dictation, so i tried to provide or to make my class feel active, and that the students are really getting practice, not only learn about some theories without practical exercise… well, in 2002 i taught first dictation, and then also language laboratory, and education irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 16 management, and translation and english for specific purposes. i have also taught, let’s see, teacher training experience, that’s what we call pplk1…” from the statement above, john emphasized his views that the lecturers in the ub fkip must integrate active learning in the english education courses there in order to model the methods for the students, so that they will understand active learning techniques and use them in their own teaching, at all levels. all of the lecturers shared the attitude that their students need to have teachers as role-models of the best teaching practices, including active learning, so that they will emulate these practices as teachers themselves. john continued to elaborate on the integration of technology and materials with active learning methods, he expressed, john: “i worked with the english language lab, and with media software that promotes and encourages motivation, and gives support for teachers. in the language lab the students do listening and dictation…they practice translations and work in groups, with collaboration and with a variety of tasks…what is my favorite class to teach? i like to teach language laboratory management, but actually my mastery is in translations…one of the principles is to work in groups and collaborative learning, and i try to provide them with a variety of tasks, and i try to guide them to have a source of texts of many varieties, so they have many sources…” me: “the class i visited was esp, and you were using a laptop and projector, and a variety of media to teach the lesson…yes…” john and the other lecturers also repeatedly mentioned the importance of the language laboratory to the program. i visited the laboratory and it had functioning computers that were integrated with lessons that focused primarily on speaking and listening exercises. i observed a lesson in which tubagus had different cards with job descriptions written on them, for the “employers,” and cards with personal and professional attributes on them, for the “job candidates.” these cards were distributed amongst the students, and after a brief moment to prepare, the interviews commenced. this lesson clearly met several criteria presented in the “20 characteristics for assessing pakem and ctl.” many of the lessons in all nine lecturers’ classes combined the use of games and puzzles linked with the learning objectives and the use of teaching aids, as with object lessons. this particular lesson links the practical tasks of interviewing and role playing, including using the students’ social environment, with the speaking course objectives of describing oneself, and one’s qualifications for a job position. regarding research on an active learning training project, which was still in progress at that time, tubagus stated these observations based upon data collected at that point, he noticed, “observing and interviewing both students and teachers in the madrasah gives me a light that active learning, so far, has been considered as an ideal way in helping students learn and actively participate in the classroom. discussion for example, has helped students to be more active under supervision from the teacher. implementing active learning through various games and instructional media, to my observation, attracts many students to be more active and to learn better.” irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 17 these statements underscore many of the positive characteristics attributed to pakem methods, and it also indicates that tubagus believed the active learning modules and training had been helpful for teachers and students. two major problems for teachers in the elementary schools he was studying were described by tubagus next, “however, the biggest barrier so far, as many teachers in the madarash said, is supporting teaching media and facilities. some of them are well trained in active learning to be implemented but they still find the lack of media and facilities are quite disturbing. another problem is related to students' “basic characters.” many of them are introverted (say, "shy") in the classroom. this condition hinders them to fully participate and aspire in their learning process within the classroom.” a shortcoming is that the “shy students” find it difficult to cope with active learning more than “brave students” who “naturally like being active in the classroom.” these observations of tubagus were confirmed by teachers that i visited in the senior secondary schools. a lack of resources and class materials are a hindrance for teachers implementing active learning, as others are the cultural norms of deference to authority and the reserved nature of some students. however, i observed many students who embraced and enjoyed participating actively in lessons at the ub fkip and in the senior high schools. many students i observed over the long course of the study were as ebullient and outgoing as i’ve seen anywhere. there is a likely possibility of the “hawthorne effect” taking place in class observations, as students will often “be on their best behavior,” or sit still and be quiet, when a stranger is visiting a classroom. yudi explained how the use of active learning in the ub english classes is intended not only as a means for effective teaching, but also as a model to be emulated by the students when they are teaching. he said, “i like teaching toefl and learning and planning elt because of learning more about concepts of teaching, and how to relate concepts and practices…this is what i want to know…it gives students ideas on recent ideas and issues which students should know, or be familiar with…we try to integrate principles of active learning… we do not want our classes to be teacher-centered here…for example, we have students go to the internet and share with your friends, then highlight major points for discussion, and we try to select our own materials…for example, learning concepts but also producing, as in speaking and listening, if it’s 60% to 70% passive, then we need to draw together to speak, to talk, and to encourage the students to produce language…” furthermore, ayu related similar experiences in her teaching first at an islamic elementary school in semarang for grades four and five, she expressed, “it was nice explore how to make lesson, they moved around a lot…we sang a lot, and told stories…there was a separation of classes—boys and girls, and the stories would make them more calm. and they really liked the games and songs… like irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 18 ‘keep baby brother, baby sister, pa and mom safe allah…’ a lot about the family, but all in english…” ayu also showed an integration of local culture with active learning as this song for her elementary school students is a popular traditional song for children in indonesia. ayu later taught english speaking and writing at a private university, and described how she enjoyed helping students to understand other cultures, especially american through learning english. she said, “i use these kinds of stories in my ccu course, also, when we talk about cultural backgrounds…and in my introduction to literature course. in my class for example, we will have a topic… i ask the students to use the internet or library for sources, and they do group presentations. in our group discussions i will let them choose themes, like the mosaic or cultural melting pot…and that many ethnicities together don’t have to be mixed…like ‘bhineka tunggal ika’… ‘berbeda beda tapi tetapa satu saja’… ‘different but one’… and the garuda pancasila is the national bird, the condor…they are not sculptures… they are human…give them a chance to speak— this is not meditation class—so please speak up’ i say… and being a friend is important…” additionally, ayu consistently modeled these best practices of active learning and encouraging the affective domain in her teaching of cross-cultural understanding and literature and poetry. in this description, she had also included elements of the state ideology of pancasila, and of the idea of “unity in diversity.” ayu incorporated interactive and fun activities in most of her classes. in a literature and poetry, i observed, after analyzing poetic elements of robert burns and emily dickinson poems, such as rhythm, tone, stress, and metaphor, students were encouraged to give poems and songs in english that they liked, and which they would analyze in small groups. the lecturers and students at ub are very well-informed and engaged with active learning methods in their studies. strategies for active learning in indonesia presented in the rubric from chapter two were consistently integrated and modeled in english and education courses during the school year, and seemed to be the status quo. students assumed personal responsibility for their assignments and were often eager according to their abilities in english, to participate in classroom activities. lecturers and students encourage one another to “not to be shy” and to be self-directed and independent in responding to the challenges of course requirements like reading, writing, and participating in class discussions and activities. the english student association (esa) carnival and the english debate club (edc) the english student association (esa) and the english debate club (edc) are both very popular extracurricular groups for the ub students. virtually, all students in the fkip english teacher training program are members of the esa. in some cases, non-english majors are in these groups and attend meetings and activities, especially in the case of the debate club. i asked john about his views of these groups and he responded, irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 19 mike: “is there, what are the best things you can say about the ub and the fkip english programs here? are there some kind of ratings nationally or awards that students have won? like the edc for example?” john: “well, the students are very active in extracurricular and intra-curricular activities, this is proved with several data that all of the budgets for the student activities are covered by the english student association and english student activities, and then, if we try to have a competition we have the most dynamic and valuable activities. also, the edc english debating club participated here local in banten and national or even international, and is preparing the team for the national competition…sometimes they have won at the national level, so this is also shows and proves to us that the english student association and english student activities really are active at the level of national, and also at the level of this university…” the english student association is a major extracurricular event coordinated mainly by the esa student committee. all of the students take great pride in the event, which is held in the main auditorium and lasts all day. the lecturers were all present and participate as planned by the students. several students from the committee serve as emcees, and the event is almost entirely in english. there is a good deal of language code-switching, and students sometimes speak back and forth from indonesian to english to better express themselves. there were competitions and games of various kinds, in english, and skits, dance performances, songs, and poems read. the competitions match the various cohorts within the year, one through four, against one another and a champion is crowned at the end. awards are also given for the most outstanding students. yudi, as head of the english education program welcomed all in the introduction and gave a closing speech. the event combines the accomplishments of the students’ english studies with fun and comradery, and there was a great deal of noise and excitement throughout the day. this event and its activities demonstrated the self-directed motivation for learning by the esa and debate club students and are substantial evidence of the “attitude that learning can occur anywhere is encouraged; learning inside and outside of school is stressed” and that “students are responsible for interacting with teachers and other students, for finding information, for assessing their own work, and for participating in planning their learning from the pakem rubric, and the students autonomously pursue their own mastery of english and debate skills independently in their own free time. the remaining components of the pakem characteristics, such as recognizing the importance of emotion in learning (the affective domain)—therefore teachers actively promote joy and pleasure in learning, a focusing on learning cooperatively with other students (and teamwork), greater flexibility in arranging learning and teaching facilities (rooms, desks, locations) and grouping pupils in their learning, accommodating diverse learning styles and diverse qualities of past experience, emphasis on activity (problem solving, discussion, inquiry) and higher-order thinking such as application, analysis, evaluation, and intrinsic motivation to learn through interest, curiosity, and responsibility (cannon, 2005) were all observed in practice over the course of the study. irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 20 sani, defi, and reza, and students in the university of banten fkip sani was a second-year student in the ub fkip english program, and a leader of the english debate club. she and fellow students in the club extended their speaking and rhetorical skills, and were able to practice discussing educational issues in english in the development of debate proposals. she was also active as a coach of the serang senior high school debate team, and i attended practices and a major competition with them in tangerang. she was actively involved beyond her own university classrooms and campus by sharing her english and debate skills with the high school student level, and modeling the most effective forensic strategies to win competitions. leading the ub debate club, with minimal interference from the lecturers, sani showed incredible enthusiasm and commitment along with the other club members. debate also falls in the thirteenth characteristics of pakem, and important endeavors (like project-based learning) including current issues (i.e., environmentalism, technology, and politics) is the eleventh; so active learning is taking place beyond the classrooms at ub as well. the topics pursued by the ub debate club and the senior high school debate club included all of these current issues and more, especially issues directly related to students. sani was one of the best performing students in her fourth-year class at ub, and she took the initiative to lead and coach the debate club at senior high school 1, with aiyda as the club’s sponsor. she is only one example of the self-motivation and conviction of the ub english education students i encountered. i asked sani about her knowledge and understanding of the cbc-ktsp and pakem active learning methods based on her experiences at ub, and which courses she felt helped her most as far as incorporating pakem active learning methods, and she expressed, mike: “sani, you said speaking, pronunciation, and structure were courses that helped you most? why is that?” sani: “i would say why i chose these courses first is just because the lecturers. in the speaking class, as a new student, i needed time to adapt with the new environment, which is totally different from senior high school. this kind of transition is pretty hard. but, i thought that the lecturer was successful. he encouraged me to be brave; to speak my thoughts and my mind. the lecturer started from simple things like daily questions that he always asked before starting the material, like ‘how was your day?’ ‘how was the holiday?’ or ‘what did you do last night?’ i admitted that the first time that we had this class, only a few people were brave to speak in front of the class, because maybe they’re not used to it. it’s only about three or four students who are brave to come in front of the class. as the time goes by on the second and third semester, there were more students who made positive progress in terms of speaking. well, i think this is the rule of the lecturer to encourage the students through the very simple things and talking.” english teachers i interviewed and observed at five senior high schools, all were familiar with the national cbc standards for their english classes, and i observed the integration of the skills identified in these standards in their classes. in one case i observed a graduate of the ub fkip english program, aiyda, at senior high school integrating pakem active learning methods with the cbc standards with students happily and playfully using critical thinking irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 21 skills to compose comprehensible sentences out of a collection of words and phrases. aiyda said that she thought the ub fkip english program was an excellent teacher training experience for her, because “at that time both the english program and the university were new, and the lecturers were very great professional educators, and had very many experiences to share. i really liked studying at ub. i liked shafira’s classes, and i got very good grades. i liked songs and movies in english, and dance and theatre. i want to meet ‘hanson’ and speak to them in english! do you know ‘mmm bop?” i said, “of course,” and we laughed. aiyda was in her mid-twenties, had an ebullient demeanor, and was excellent in speaking english. she also had attended this sma 1 for senior high school. i discovered after visiting her classes she also had a highly competent understanding of english grammar and the logical sequencing of sentences in narrative composition, as was demonstrated in a lesson that featured many of the pakem characteristics. aiyda’s lesson plans for the classes i observed were detailed, organized, and engaging. i asked aiyda about the development of the curriculum for the english courses, and she explained, “there are two senior english teachers who work together with the mgmp school curriculum committee, which is like an association of teachers for each subject area, and they follow the cbc-ktsp curriculum to determine the syllabus for each grade level. we apply and develop in lessons plans that we make for each class based on the syllabus, which is based on the standards from the two senior english teachers on the curriculum team.” i replied that this process seemed very similar to our curriculum development and instruction in the u.s. aiyda further elaborated that she understood “ktsp” stands for “kurikulum tengkat satuan pendidikan,” or structuring of skills and competencies for instruction of national cbc standards. she further thought the purpose of the ktsp in the following, “so that students can enjoy the subjects more, and be more active… so they can develop themselves in skills and knowledge spontaneously, and fluently. the lesson plans and activities are different for different skills. it depends, if you want to teach speaking, we have conversational role-play and dialogue. in general, i try to ask students to speak english as much as they can, even simple words like ‘hello.’ in grammar or studying text, or how they can read and understand the text, for example, we use description, giving instructions, and procedural text, like the process of how to follow steps… you know about the debate team—we use debate in the classroom, too. they work in teams and do ‘pros’ and ‘cons’ and deliver it to the class…sometimes i want to make new creations and games” based on aiyda’s statements regarding the cbc-ktsp curriculum standards to the syllabi, lesson plans, instruction. she had similar views with the lecturers at ub, in that ultimately in the classroom the standards, objectives, concepts and skills influence the types of activities the teacher uses to engage the students with the material. i noticed that overall, more students in the high schools were not as proficient in english as those in the ub fkip english program, meanwhile, their enthusiasm and strongly-positive attitudes toward their school work was the same. i met some students, especially three students at sma 1, getting irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 22 involved in the high school’s english debate team, and were very fluent in english. i accompanied these students, along with their coach, sani, to a province-wide english competition held by sma 1 tangerang, and the students excelled in the english debate competition. they affirmed that active engagement with language learning was essential. in aiyda’s classes, as with teachers at the other senior high schools, the english teachers were very fluent in english and demonstrated active learning methods in the implementation the cbc-ktsp curriculum standards in their lessons. discussion active learning and student-centered approaches have been increasingly embraced internationally since the progressive era, culminating in the education for all (efa) world conference on education endorsed by the undp, unesco, unicef, and the world bank in jomtien, thailand, 1990. indonesia is one of many countries incorporating active learning methods for instruction in an effort to improve learning outcomes, and the approaches vary according to unique contexts such as former and developing educational policy, sociocultural factors, resources and external support and existing teacher training. the data analysis and findings for this study showed remarkable parallels to similar efforts to implement active learning methods in other countries. ginsburg (2010) identified four major areas or themes prevalent from studies in cambodia, egypt, jordan, kyrgyzstan, and malawi: (1) reform documents and active-learning pedagogies, (2) professional development initiatives and active learning pedagogies, (3) teachers’ understandings and behaviors related to active-learning pedagogies, and (4) factors that constrain/enable implementation of active-learning pedagogies. these same four themes identified by ginsberg (2010) became apparent inductively for this study with some variations, and these consistencies and variations are discussed in the following findings and conclusion. though these countries and indonesia have unique historical, cultural and political contexts regarding education, involvement from the federal level, and international influences reveal many similar trends in adapting active learning pedagogies. it is important to consider that factors within the four areas are interconnected. analysis of data obtained and experienced from this study showed repeated and authentic evidence of the indonesian acronym pakem “active, creative, effective and joyful learning,” and actively-engaged, student-centered teaching and learning. fieldwork and interviews indicate the university lecturers, teachers and student-teachers observed and interviewed in banten province consistently approach the integration of active learning in teaching practice with high levels of enthusiasm, thoughtfulness and competence. the following findings are linked with the four overlapping areas discussed by ginsburg (2010), along with strengths, challenges and implications for pakem in indonesia. reform documents and active-learning pedagogies studies of policy development and implementation of active learning pedagogies invariably include extensive background research, literature and government documents pertaining to the development of education policies preceding current active learning reforms. common purposes for this are to provide historical and cultural contexts of irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 23 teaching methods in a country or region, to define just what “active learning methods” means for those contexts, and to provide an official rationale for implementing these policy and teaching reforms. this case discussed the evolution of indonesia’s national policies pakem and ctl, and national and international resources such as manuals and modules provided in teacher training, including the 20 characteristics for assessing pakem and ctl” compiled by cannon (2005) the mbe/dbe, and myself. the background research for indonesia shows active learning pedagogies gaining attention and building toward a series of policy development and implementation during the 1990’s and into the new millennium. the explicit description of the meaning and reasons for active learning methods (in the “20 characteristics for pakem” chart), and their observed interpretation, reflect both the cognitive and behavioral dimensions of teaching and learning. the rationales for active learning in indonesian education emphasize improved learning outcomes (ostensibly measured by scores on national standardized tests and other less-tangible means,) increased critical thinking skills as citizens and workers, and the practical purpose of retaining students in school and encouraging progress from grade to grade. elements of these rationales are evident in comparison with the five countries in ginsburg’s study, including the purpose of nurturing problem-solving skills and dispositions favorable for participating in the global economy as in cambodia and jordan (2010). professional development initiatives and active learning pedagogies as with all five cases from the ginsburg’s (2010) study, government and international initiatives supported the professional development of trainers and teachers for understanding and implementing active learning pedagogy and methods in indonesia. workshops, conferences and related activities, as well as the inclusion of active learning in the teacher training curriculum were approaches designed to disseminate and sustain the methods across the province of banten. emphasis was placed on fundamentally understanding and planning of a.l. methods in instruction. the lecturers and students in the fkip program and teachers in secondary schools agreed that the school year, semesters, units and lessons must be well-planned and coordinated with pakem methods and materials integrated with instruction. since planning also applies for the classroom environment and materials, it was agreed that training should include emphases on the importance and careful performance of comprehensive planning and implementation. during my study, john and tubagus were conducting usaid-supported research on the integration of active learning in public and private elementary schools in banten, and rizal and yudi had previously done studies on active learning for english education in banten. shafira and arsi had been actively involved with the mgmp teacher’s association, meeting and working together with english teachers in banten to discuss and improve the teaching and learning process. the lecturers used their own research as examples in the english teacher training program at ub, encouraging students to pursue their own research projects in the form of the undergraduate thesis. lecturers and students from the ub fkip department also actively participated in nationally and provincially sponsored workshops on active learning methods, at times working together with elementary and secondary teachers (shafira and arsi) and john and tubagus with the action research project assessing and promoting the use of active learning methods in banten. irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 24 the findings and implications are largely consistent with some major points of the analysis of teacher training in indonesia, part b (evans et al., 2009). for example, point 9: build upon the dbe successes in school and district management, student centered methods and materials, and junior secondary and life-skill training, points 10-12, deals with coordination between dbe, provincial and district governments, education institutions specifically teacher training colleges, and kkg’s, mgmp’s, mkk’s, pgpt’s, and dbe crc’s), and point 13: “work at the provincial level to establish a “center for effective schools” either at a university or lpmp.” the breadth and depth of pakem dissemination, as well as its sustainability, can be improved with the collaboration of all possible stakeholders. furthermore, these collaborating partners can continue to reach out within provinces to train increasing numbers of teachers and to provide resources and materials. as for training and practice effective pakem instruction requires that teachers have support from school leaders in a context of sbm, communities of practice, and constructive school cultures. many teachers said they would like more and more thorough training and practice. the cluster resource centers, kkg and mgmp teacher groups and “master” or “lead” teachers can be utilized to improve pakem methods and to sustain them independently. these recommendations are all consistent with the emphasis on capacity-building for diffusion and sustaining of professional development programs found in ginsburg’s (2010) case study. teachers’ understandings and behaviors related to active-learning pedagogies participants described how their families influenced their pursuit of teaching, as many lecturers and some students have relatives who are also teachers. many lecturers, teachers and student-teachers stated that they themselves had been taught with active-learning methods at the elementary, junior, and senior high school levels. they also reported that these teachers were the “best” and “favorite.” thus, pakem methods are not entirely new for many teachers. we found that trainers need to get to “know” pakem teachers’ own experiences, build upon them, and identify and involve accomplished teachers in the training. this strategy also embodies and serves as a rationale for utilization of pakem methods: students and teachers enjoy learning more. the essential enjoyment of learning was not noted as a rationale for active learning methods in the ginsburg’s (2010) cases, whereas likely is a prevalent rationale in these countries as well. lecturers, teachers, and students shared university and secondary experiences involving both traditional and active learning teaching methods, and described their own teacher training experiences (many at the university of lampung, nearby sumatra) involving the use of active learning methods. they also explained how and why they believed active learning methods can be more effective for engaging students and increasing the relevance of course material, as demonstrated by the data presented here, and how pakem strategies are easier to integrate with instruction in some courses as opposed to others, depending on the subject matter and objectives. this relates to constraining factors as well. i also observed the implicit and explicit modeling of active learning instruction in classrooms and in activities around the ub campus, including the use of discussion, media and technology, research, and extracurricular activities to engage students. lecturers incorporated many active learning approaches in their instruction, such as utilizing group work in and out of the class, role irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 25 playing, interviewing, debating, cooperative learning, flexibility in arranging learning and teaching facilities, and showing care and concerning for the students’ success, as my data here has shown. lecturers and students also participated in workshops on active learning methods, at times working together with elementary and secondary teachers (shafira and arsi) and as mentioned by several lecturers including john and tubagus, working on an action research project assessing and promoting the use of active learning methods in the province of banten supported by usaid. this involvement deepened their understandings and teaching of active learning. the lecturers, students and teachers all shared the opinion that active learning strategies, together with clearly-structured learning objectives and planning, can help to promote retention and progress of students, and encourage interest in learning and better achievement. all five countries in ginsburg’s (2010) case study analysis reported progress in understandings and implementation behaviors of varying aspects of active learning, as with this case study, was not surprising considering the substantial guidance and resources supporting the instructional reforms from the national and international levels. factors that constrain and enable implementation of active-learning pedagogies lecturers, teachers and students expressed that understanding and using active learning methods is complex, and teachers must actively guide and facilitate pakem instruction. they emphasized, for example, that simply clustering desks and using group presentations do not constitute effective pakem teaching, and that unguided, poorly planned active learning can create distractions from learning. this should be clarified for teachers and school leaders in training. some veteran, civil-service teacher level are resistant to changing their traditional ways of teaching and adopting pakem methods, and we agreed that school leaders and teacher colleagues can demonstrate the benefits of pakem for their colleagues. elements of pakem methods could be included in performance standards, if desired, employed from a national or provincial level, while this might include incentives as well. consideration of the cbc-ktsp standards on national tests, along with a lack of classroom resources and incentives was frequently voiced as challenges to integrating active learning methods. i found that integration of pakem methods will vary for different subjects, such as math, science, civics and language arts, and within skill areas of subjects, for example with speaking-listening, grammar, reading and writing in language arts. thus it is unrealistic to expect every lesson of every course to be taught strictly as “active-learning.” pakem methods should be integrated in a holistic manner with the planning of an entire semester. teachers need to collaborate and mutually support each other. teachers need to be creative in the development of methods and materials; to create, access and utilize various resources, including technology and their teaching colleagues. thus, pakem training should also include guidance to overcome obstacles to resources, materials and teaching aids, and teachers should work together to assess what is provided and what more could be provided in terms of books, materials, activities and websites. “civil service culture” or “institutional culture” (bjork, 2005, 2006) comes from being a civil-service teacher level, which is achieved with experience, a portfolio, and by passing a civil service exam. it may be considered a form of tenure, and once attained, irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 26 according to bjork’s (2005, 2006) study, complying with formal daily routines is the highest priority, and teaching and learning a much lower priority. there are multiple perspectives from which to examine this phenomenon. one prominent perspective that the over-reaching structure of the education system, historically, strongly reinforces authority roles and loyalty and compliance from all actors, students, teachers, and administrators alike, within the hierarchy. these relationships seem authoritarian and even possibly un-democratic and anti-autonomous. an alternative explanation of this is that, if actors are customarily loyal and compliant, they will do what is expected and increase their own knowledge, qualifications and credentials, and will integrate the educational standards with effective active learning teaching methods. bjork (2005) contends this culture affects public junior high school teachers in east java who were generally indifferent to the quality of instruction and actual learning. public senior high school teachers that i interviewed and observed, in the subjects of english and local content curriculum (lcc), did not seem so adversely affected by civil service culture. these teachers i worked with as participant-observer prepared and implemented quality lessons, and showed a commitment to student learning while also adhering to the formal protocols of school relationships. my observations in fkip teacher training courses at ub showed that contemporary school management structures promote parental and community involvement; during visits and observations at high schools i witnessed parents in the administration offices meeting with teachers. while in this case study, the interests of students, parents and the community are more strongly considered in relation to national influences than bjork’s model suggests, there is ubiquitous variation in schools across indonesia and surely an ongoing need for improvement. conclusion: state and international influence and active learning teaching active learning pedagogies, combined with more traditional teaching approaches, are widely recognized for improving learning outcomes internationally. pakem active learning methods have been integrated for instruction in indonesian schools to increase student attendance, involvement, interest, and achievement. i witnessed many elementary and secondary teachers, beyond the scope of the case of lecturers and students in the fkip at ub, who were developing and using active learning methods for instruction, as identified in in the appendix table i have provided and developed. in addition to making learning more relevant to students’ lives and school more enjoyable, these diverse approaches, in addition to traditional lecturing, recitation, and bookwork, are intended to more effectively help teachers and students meet the national standards of the cbc-ktsp. i observed the implicit and explicit modeling of active learning instruction in classrooms and in activities around the ub campus and in secondary schools in banten province, including the use of discussion, media and technology, research and extracurricular activities to engage students. lecturers incorporated many other elements of the “20 characteristics for assessing pakem and ctl” in their instruction, such as utilizing group work in and out of the class, role playing, interviewing, debate, cooperative learning, flexibility in arranging learning and teaching facilities, providing students with helpful feedback, and accommodating diverse learning styles and diverse qualities of past experience and generally caring about the students in regard to the affective domain. john and tubagus were involved with research on active learning methods in banten as part of a usaid irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 27 decentralized basic education (dbe2) project, which may explain their thorough understanding of the pakem initiative. all of the lecturers shared the attitude that their students need to have teachers as role-models of the best teaching practices, including active learning, so that they will emulate these practices as teachers themselves. a primary finding of this study was that pakem methods were well-understood and utilized by lecturers in this university fkip case, and teachers in sma public high schools in the city. an implication of this is that university, particularly, fkip, and all higher learning institution professors and lecturers, as well as “master” or “lead” teachers in provinces and cities of indonesia should be involved with, and leaders of, the in-service professional training of existing teachers. it became apparent in the study that positive teacher characteristics, and personality traits such as enthusiasm, empathy, caring, and being ethical, as described in the indonesian teacher law (2005), and essential conduct such as consistent attendance and involvement with students are necessary for successful pakem instruction and quality teaching in general. teachers’ earlier experiences as students, through college teacher training showed a strong influence on their understanding and implementation of new teaching approaches. teaching traditionally has been widely viewed as a high status profession in indonesia (geertz, 1960). lecturers, teachers and students were generally very sociable, genial and cooperative. code switching between languages was very common in english-taught classes and around the campuses. lecturers and students consistently showed respectful and supportive attitudes toward one another, and this group-centered social dynamic has been described as “asian communitarianism” in the work of tan and ng (2007). asian communitarianism can be learned from huat (2004) and rawls (1971, 1993). pakem teaching reinforces characteristics of best-teaching practices, from planning to assessment and feedback. elements of the affective domain, such as socialization and cooperation are enhanced with pakem methods, as are the promotion of creativity, critical thinking, and problem solving. pakem also stresses the accommodation of diverse learning styles and experiences. pakem, “contextual teaching and learning” (ctl) and active learning in general, by various names like “discovery” or “experiential” learning, are synonymous with good teaching. while traditional methods such as lecture, worksheets and workbooks, memorization, drills, and solitary work at reading and writing can be useful approaches for learning. teachers’ education and experience with pakem, and use of planning, lesson plans, and materials, together with students’, lecturers’, teachers’ and leaders’ expectations, commitments, and collaboration will contribute to improved utilization of active learning in indonesian classrooms. the lecturers, students and teachers all shared the conviction, in concert with the national education policy development; active learning strategies, combined with clearly-structured learning objectives, can help to keep students in school and progressing from grade to grade, and promote engaged interest in learning and better achievement. it is ironic that the mandating of pakem active learning methods by the national government reflects the state’s ongoing influence on educational practice, and simultaneously devolves greater autonomy to schools and teachers in the implementation of these methods. active learning methods are meant to be fundamentally democratic in nature, encouraging participation, and representing the core rationale and purposes of decentralization reforms. for these lecturers, teachers and students, pakem was viewed as an advantageous means irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 28 for improving schooling and learning outcomes. international and national level resources have helped to support the diffusion of the pakem educational reforms, together with enthusiasm and cooperation among many lecturers, teachers and students. however, as identified by ginsburg (2010) in multiple countries, the challenges of national standards and high-stakes tests, limited resources and teaching conditions, and a dearth of incentives all pose challenges to the effective implementation of active learning teaching methods in schools. references bjork, c. (2005). local responses to decentralization policy in indonesia. comparative education review, 47(2), 88-95. bjork, c. (2006). indonesian education: teachers, schools, and central bureaucracy. new york: routledge. cannon, r. (2006). consultant’s guide to pakem & ctl. jakarta, indonesia: usaid. huat, c. b. (2004). communitarian politics in asia. new york: routledge curzon. dewey, j. (1916). democracy and education: an introduction to the philosophy of education. new york, ny: macmillan. dewey, j. (1938). experience and education. new york, ny: kappa delta phi. geertz, c. (1960). the religion of java. chicago, il: the university of chicago press. geertz, c. (1984). culture and change: the indonesian case. man,19(4), 511-532. ginsburg, m. (2010). improving educational quality through active-learning pedagogies: a comparison of five case studies. educational research, 1(3), 62-74. ginsburg, m., & megahed, n. (2008). global discourses and educational reform in egypt: the case of active-learning pedagogies. mediterranean journal of educational studies, 13(2), 91-115. managing basic education (mbe) program. (2005). usaid & rti international consultants. retrieved from http://mbeproject.net/indexe.html. ministry of national education (mone) (2005). strategies of the republic of indonesia, 2005 – 2009. jakarta: ministry of national education ministry of national education of indonesia unicef (2008). vcd videopakem learning english and ips for class v and vi semester i). jakarta: ministry of national education. rawls, j. (1971). a theory of justice. cambridge, ma: harvard u. rawls, j. (1993). political liberalism. new york, ny: columbia u. press. rekdale, p. (2005). indonesian pendidikan (education) network. retrieved from http://pendidikan.net/eindex.html tan, c., & ng, p. t. (2007). dynamics of change: decentralized centralism of education in singapore. journal of educational change, 8(2), 155-168. usaid indonesia. (2008). impact, result and progress: dbe2 monitoring and evaluation report fy 2008. jakarta: education development center, inc. usaid indonesia. (2007). introduction to effective learning in (pakem) subject matter. jakarta: education development center, inc. usaid indonesia. (2007). paduan untuk fasilitator: what is active learning? jakarta: education development center, inc. http://mbeproject.net/indexe.html http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/a_theory_of_justice irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 29 the world bank. (2009). the world bank education in indonesia. retrieved from www.worldbank.org/id/education young, m. s. (2011). a case of the global—local dialectic: decentralization and teacher training in banten, indonesia (unpublished doctoral dissertation), florida state university, the united state of america. biographical note michael sean young, ph.d is a professor of education at thomas university in thomasville, georgia, the u.s.a. he specializes in international and comparative education and earned his doctorate in this from florida state university and masters in international and intercultural education from florida international university. he has taught and researched in the fields of education and english in the philippines, indonesia, the u.a.e., india, south korea, and saudi arabia. he has a book published on education policy and teacher training in indonesia. http://www.worldbank.org/id/education irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 30 acronyms and abbreviations ikipinstitute keguruan ilmu pendidikan. teacher training university. the title ikip is no longer used; i.e., university of pendidikan indonesia, bandung (upi). fkipfakultas keguruan ilmu pendidikan. faculty, or college, of teacher education. pgsmtpteacher training college for junior secondary school teachers (pendidikan guru sekolah menengah tingkat pertama) currently being phased out. pgsltateacher training college for senior secondary school teachers (pendidikan guru sekolah menengah tingkat pertama) currently being phased out. stkipschool of higher learning of teacher education (sekolah tinggi keguruan dan ilmu). often extensions or satellites of ikip programs in teacher training universities. irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 31 criteria and characteristics for assessing pakem and ctl 20 characteristics for assessing pakem and ctl 1 students are responsible for interacting with teachers and other students, for finding information, for assessing their own work and for participating in planning their learning. 2 emphasis on activity (problem solving, discussion, inquiry) and higher-order thinking such as application, analysis, evaluation. 3 intrinsic motivation to learn through interest, curiosity, and responsibility 4 recognizes the importance of emotion in learning (the affective domain)—therefore teachers actively promote joy and pleasure in learning. 5 focus on learning cooperatively with other students (and teamwork) 6 attitude that learning can occur anywhere is encouraged; learning inside and outside of school is stressed. 7 greater flexibility in arranging learning and teaching facilities (rooms, desks, locations) and grouping pupils’ in their learning 8 greater emphasis on a long-term perspective: emphasis on lifelong learning and learning how to learn to face future challenges and changes. 9 assessment of learning (tests and examinations) used to provide students with feedback to help them learn (cannon, 2005). 10 accommodating diverse learning styles and diverse qualities of past experience. 11 important endeavors (like “project-based learning”) including current issues (i.e., environmentalism, technology, politics) 12 service learning (social causes like helping less-fortunate people) 13 debate, creative writing, poetry, music, journals, portfolios, art. 14 games and puzzles linked with learning objectives 15 students use more teaching aids; object lessons 16 practical tasks, including using the social and natural environments 17 libraries and library corners are set up and used 18 student’s work is written in their own words 19 student’s work is displayed in class 20 interview and role playing nos. 1-9 from “student-centered, active learning” (cannon, 2005). 10-20 from mbe, dbe, and myself. irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 32 identity development among muslim indonesian-american college students: a phenomenological study taufik mulyadin 1 abstract this study was conducted to understand muslim indonesian-american college students’ experiences of identity development from the perspectives of the reconceptualized model of multiple dimensions of identity (rmmdi) proposed by abes, jones, and mcewen (2007). through purposeful sampling, six participants were selected for participation in this study. this study was qualitative in nature by using the phenomenological approach to capture the essence of how muslim indonesian-american college students experienced, processed, and interpreted their identity development in college. questionnaire and interviews were utilized for data collection. the collected data were analyzed using the analysis procedures proposed by moustakas (1994) including epoche, phenomenological reduction, imaginative variation, and the synthesis of structural/textural descriptions. the study revealed that the salience of four identity dimensions for muslim indonesian-american students including religion, culture, social class, and gender. these identity dimensions were found to be impacted by varied contextual factors such as family, the 9/11, peer support, and college support. keywords identity development, indonesian, muslim-americans, phenomenology 1 indonesia university of education, bandung, indonesia and ohio state university, the usa; mulyadin.1@osu.edu; opikmulyadin@gmail.com irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 33 introduction in the late 1930s, the american council on education instructed the entire higher education institutions in the united states to enlist individual and professional development as an essential goal to be achieved for their educational practices (evans, forney, & guido, 1998). due to its significance, an understanding on student development in post-secondary education has been widely used as a basis for policy-making in college. student development greatly varies in terms of its focuses and one among them is identity development. for decades, research on identity development with different groups of students has grown rapidly and addressed a variety of identity dimensions including, race, gender, socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and religion (evans, forney, guido, patton, & renn, 2010). there are different models of identity development which have been revealed to explain a wide range of college student groups from diverse backgrounds including not only majority, such as white students (helms, 1990), but also minority groups, such as women (josselson, 1973, 1996), black or color (cross, 1991, 1995; helms, 1990, 1995; horse, 2001; kim, 1981, 2011), multiracial (kerwin & ponterotto, 1994; poston, 1990; root, 1990), and lgbt (cass, 1984; d'augelli, 1994; mccam & fassinger, 1996) students. the presence of these models provides a conceptual and empirical framework for better understanding underrepresented students in college. moreover, the models of identity development can serve as a guide to institutions, administrators, staff, faculty, and other agents in college to provide necessary supports and assistances with the aim of enhancing student success of marginalized groups in terms of academic, personal, and professional attainment (jones & mcewen, 2000). the population of muslim-american people is estimated to be more than 2.7 million with the annual growth rate of about 6% and they constitute around 1% of the total population in the united states (pew research center, 2011). based on the shared aspects of interest, beliefs, national origin, as well as culture and tradition, immigrants from middle east and non-arabic speaking asian countries, including indonesia, mostly represent the largest muslim-american communities (pipes & duran, 2002). an increase of the muslim population in the united states results a growing number of muslim-american young adults entering post-secondary education. however, they are frequently misunderstood and have become increasingly scrutinized as well as prejudices since the horrible event of 9/11 and other following terrorist attacks acted by muslim persons (britto & amer, 2007; cole & ahmadi, 2003; peek, 2005; sirin, bikmen, mir, fine, zaal, & katsiaficas, 2008; williams & vashi, 2007). an insufficient understanding of this group of students has hindered institutions and their agents from identifying their needs and providing necessary supports for enhancing their experiences and development during in college (britto & amer, 2007; cole & ahmadi, 2003; peek, 2005; sirin, bikmen, mir, fine, zaal, & katsiaficas, 2008; williams & vashi, 2007). since the number of muslim-american college students keeps growing, there has been an increasing interest of practitioners and scholars to seek a better understanding of identity development of muslim-american college students (britto & amer, 2007). however, most of existing research studies on muslim-american students in college focused more on middle eastern descent students (e.g., britto & amer, 2007; cole & ahmadi, 2003) and a limited number of identity dimensions (e.g., barazangi, 1989; bartkowski & read 2003; irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 34 haddad, 2004; hermansen, 2000; khan, 2000; marshall & read, 2003; peek, 2005; read, 2003). it is hardly to find research which examines more comprehensive dimensions of identity and involves muslim student groups with non-middle eastern descents, particularly indonesia. this subgroup of muslim-american students is frequently marginalized and even has been subject to exclusion from the largest group to which they belong (sirin et al., 2008; smith, 1999). due to the gap in literature and the necessity to enhance their development during in college, this study utilizing the phenomenological approach aimed to explore muslin indonesian-american college students’ experiences and their identity formation. according to jones and mcewen (2000), the varied salience of distinct identity dimensions is mostly determined by contextual factors which intensely shape the identity formation of an individual. therefore, this study deployed the reconceptualized model of multiple dimensions of identity (rmmdi) proposed by abes, jones, and mcewen (2007) as a lens in understanding experiences and identity formation shared by muslim indonesian-american college students. the following research questions guided this study: (1) what are the lived experiences of muslim indonesian-american college students regarding their identity development in college? and (2) what are salient identities to muslim indonesian-american college students? theoretical framework building upon the previously developed model (jones & mcewen, 2002), abes, jones, and mcewen (2007) proposed the reconceptualized model of multiple dimensions of identity (rmmdi). they asserted that the previous model limitedly focuses on identity component without the inclusion of cognitive and interpersonal components which are needed to gain comprehensive understanding of identity development and the relationship of multiple identities. to address this drawback, they improved the model by incorporating the process of meaning making as an individual capability of filtering contextual influences that shape the formation of his or her personal and social identity. the newer model is later known as rmmdi in figure 1. figure 1. reconceptualized model of multiple dimensions of identity (rmmdi) irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 35 abes et al. (2007) asserted that the salience of identity dimensions heavily relies on contextual factors including family, historical background, cultural traditions, norms, and sociopolitical conditions. hence, to have a better understanding of the identity formation of any individual or group students in college, it should include personal attributes and traits, socio-cultural conditions, family backgrounds, life planning, current experiences, and career decisions (jones & mcewen, 2000). the existing literature revealed that identity development of muslim -american college students is influenced by their social and political conditions, hostility, experiences of discrimination, friends, family, and community (britto & amer, 2007; cole & ahmadi, 2003; peek, 2005; sirin et al., 2008; williams & vashi, 2007). given the intersecting identity dimensions and their environment, understanding how muslim indonesian-american college students experience their identity formation is best achieved by inclusion of contextual factors. literature review muslim-americans and identity development muslim americans in general fall into three different categories. the first category is americans who convert into islam. this group is largely constituted by african-americans and remnants of the nation of islam, a political and religious movement founded in the united states in 1930 by wallace d. fard muhammad with its key figures such as elijah muhammad and malcolm x (smith, 1990). the second category is immigrants who came to the united states seeking better lives and opportunity as well as taking benefit from the more open immigration regulation enacted in 1965 (smith, 1990). the last category is immigrants’ children and many of them are young adults going to high schools and college (pipes & duran, 2002; smith, 1999). they are generally considered as first generation of muslim-americans who grew up or were born in the united states. this study focused more on the last group, muslim indonesian-american young adults who ever went or are currently in college. it estimates that there are around seven million muslim-americans or constitute about 1% of the total population in the united states (pew research center, 2011). this number is as large as the hispanic population few decades ago. with the annual growth of about 6%, muslim-americans are considered a fast growing population compared to less than 1% for the annual growth of the entire population in the united states (pew research center, 2011). only one third of muslim-americans were born in the united states. from those who were born in other countries, more than 20% are of arab decent, less than 10% from iran, 5% from european countries, less than 9% from pakistan, and about 10% from other asian countries including indonesia (pew research center, 2011). in terms of ethnicity, muslim-americans in the united states are very diverse coming from south asian (such as bangladesh, india, pakistan, and iran), south east asian (such as indonesia and malaysia), and arabic-speaking countries (such as saudi arabia, egypt, jordan, and morocco) (pipes & duran, 2002). using religion as a basis for unity, muslim-americans are often referred themselves as umma that literally means a community and this term owns sociopolitical implications reflecting an expectation and ultimate goal to be united under the religion of islam for the greater good (smith, 1999). irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 36 although muslim-american have not attracted yet major intention from researchers of college student development, there have been a small number of studies with the aim of exploring the factors that influence the identity development of muslim-americans young adults. some examined the role of religion (barazangi, 1989; haddad, 2000, 2004; mukminin, fridiyanto, & hadiyanto, 2013). peek, 2005), others focused on the impact of politics (khan, 2000; marshall & read 2003), and several studied the role of gender (bartkowski & read 2003; haddad, 2006, 2007; hermansen, 2000; read 2003; read & bartkowski, 2000). however, none of the existing studies attempting to address the multiple dimensions of identity development with the focus on muslim indonesian-american young adults. under the framework of rmmdi (abes et al., 2007), the salience of each identity dimension is significantly determined by certain contextual factors which have greater influence on an individual’s identity development. hence, it is crucial to explore the dynamics between multiple dimensions of identity and contextual influences in understanding muslim indonesian-american college students’ experiences of identity development. religion and culture religion has been an important identity for muslim-american youth and a point of interest due to the increased declaration of religious sense of self mostly impacted by family, peers, organizational membership, and the sense of alienation particularly after the event of 9/11 (hermansen, 2003; peek, 2005). muslim-americans are more likely to turn to religion as their effort to address hostility issues and create a more familiar and comfortable environment within a least known society (kurien, 2001; kwon, 2000; rayaprol, 1997; smith, 1999). as a result of its significance to their lives in the united states, religion, in terms of identity dimension, has been considered more salient for muslim americans than it was in their origins (peek, 2005). it encouraged the younger generation of muslim americans to be more committed to following and practicing islam than their parents. this was often reflected from their dress, religious rituals, and participation in organizations established to strengthen a sense of self and group unity (abdo, 2005; hermansen, 2000; peek, 2005; pipes & duran, 2002; sirin et al., 2008; smith, 1999). the identity of culture actually reflects the intersection and interconnection of other identity dimensions including ethnicity, class, nationality, and religion (berry, phinney, sam, & vedder, 2006). according to fine (1995), culture is constituted by four core elements: beliefs, values, symbols, and norms. the massification of culture within a community could be accomplished through the involvement of community members such as parents, peers, and neighbors; institutions such as schools and worship houses; and media such as movies, games, and social media (sirin et al., 2008). in terms of rules and standards, islam and its associated cultures are different from or even contradict the western cultures. muslim-americans have to face the western values and customs which are often perceived as a threat to their way of life and faith (pipes & duran, 2002). it concerns many muslim-americans in preserving their family honor and traditional culture and more importantly keeping their faith. within the complexity of the assimilation between seemingly contrasting cultures, islam and western cultures, muslim-american youth have to continuously experience negotiation and integration of these two different value systems in their day to day lives during in college (sirin et al., 2008). irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 37 social class and gender the identity of social class for muslim-americans intersects with culture, particularly as it is seen from the perspective of contextual influences including social and cultural setting, current experiences, family backgrounds, and career and life plans (abes et al., 2007). more than half of muslim-americans in the united states have attended college with about one-fourths are degree holders and this number is much higher than 18% of the total population in the united states (gates & cooke, 2011). even, about 10% of muslim-americans hold post graduate degrees compared to less than 8% of the total population in the united states (gates & cooke, 2011). more than 40% of muslim-americans are employed in full-time job and earn $50,000 or higher (pew research center, 2011). muslim-americans have been perceived as a vibrant community falling into the middle and upper class, receiving higher incomes, and holding exceptionally postsecondary education degrees compared to the general united states population. the identity of gender is interconnected to religion and its associated culture. more than 45% of muslim-americans are female and this percentage is slightly lower than the general population in the united states, about 50% (gates & cooke, 2011). the role of gender in islam and its most cultures is well defined but might become a subject to misunderstanding and misinterpretation by either within or outside the community of muslim-americans. for instance, many muslims believe that a certain separation between male and female individuals who have no family relations. this is necessary since if they are allowed to be together, they would fall into an evil temptation to be committed what are considered sinful actions which would take away or exclude them from the circle of islam and negatively influence society in general (pipes & duran, 2002). in islam, females are allowed to work but they are not obliged to provide for their family since this is considered to be the primary duty of males (smith, 1999). also, to express their sincere obedience to the god, many muslim-american females prefer to dress in a conservative way and often wear a long veil namely hijab. methodology the phenomenological approach was employed in the study in order to capture the essence of how muslim indonesian-american college students experienced, processed, and interpreted their identity development in college. phenomenological research aims to "explore and search for the essential, invariant structure (essence) or the central underlining meaning of the experiences that contain both the outward appearance and inward consciousness based on the memories, images and meaning" (moustakas, 1994, p. 52) of the participants. because the lived experience of the individual with a certain phenomenon is a key element in this study, a phenomenological approach is relevant for the current study on how muslim indonesian-american students experienced and perceived identity development in college within the lens of the multiple dimensions of identity model. irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 38 participants since the purpose of this study was to gain in-depth understanding of identity development of muslim indonesian-american college students, it was sufficient to recruit a small number of participants (creswell, 2013). through purposeful sampling, six participants were selected to take part in this study. all of the selected participants met the criteria assigned in this study for participant selection including: were born or mostly grew up in the united states, had both parents who were indonesian immigrants, were traditional students (age between 18 and 24), completed a bachelor’s degree in no more than five years, and graduated from higher education institutions in the united states. in the process of participant recruitment, i utilized mostly social media, facebook, and whatsapp. this yielded six participants, two males and four females, ranging from 24 to 28 years old. one participant identified herself as coming from upper-middle income family while the rest from middle income family. all six participants attended public four-year institutions in the midwest of the united states. to keep their confidentiality, this study used pseudonym names suggested by the participants: asma, zahra, zaid, ali, hasma, and ayu. data collection and analysis data of this study was gathered utilizing two primary methods including questionnaire and interview. questionnaire listed questions about demographic information as well as their parents’ status and salient identity dimensions. it was used as supplementary data to interviews. each participant took part in an individual and semi-structured interview which lasted about 60-75 minutes. these are some examples of the main questions in the interview: (a) tell me your experiences when you were in college, (b) how were you perceived by others in college?, (c) what challenges did you experience in college?, (d) what did being a muslim mean to you?, and (e) what did being an american to you when you were in college? the participants were asked additional questions to explore issues raised by them during theinterviews. due to the distance issues, the participants and i as a researcher could not make in-person interviews. therefore, interviews were carried out through skype and were audiotaped and then transcribed. the collected data were analyzed by using the data analysis process proposed by moustakas (1994). this process included epoche, phenomenological reduction, imaginative variation, and the synthesis of structural-textural descriptions needed to describe thoroughly the participants’ experiences with formative assessment practices. in the first step, epoche, i temporarily suspended my existing biases, preconceptions, assumptions, and beliefs about the issue under study to better understand the lived experiences of muslim indonesian-american college students. this step is critical in a phenomenological inquiry to gain the pure essence of the phenomenon (moustakas, 1994). the next step was phenomenological reduction as the process to rid the phenomenon under study of its surface appearances and then reveal the essence or deep understanding about it (moustakas, 1994). in this step, i began with careful and repetitive readings of all interview transcripts. then, i highlighted the participants’ responses, eliminated the redundant parts, and developed a cluster or category of meanings from the responses. next, it was imaginative variation where a researcher utilized imagination and approached the phenomenon from divergent angles to unveil possible meanings of narratives (moustakas, irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 39 1994). i followed up the previous step with development of core themes by understanding the transcribed interviews from different perspectives. then, these themes were validated by checking the transcripts. if the identified themes were compatible with the participants’ responses and experiences, they would remain. however, as they did not fit the participants’ words, they would be excluded. then, the last step was the synthesis of structural-textural descriptions to capture the essence of the phenomenon under study (moustakas, 1994). in this step, i took the developed and validated themes and then provided relevant excerpts from the transcripts as well as the description of what was experience of the research participants. for the description, i wrote a paragraph or some of descriptive passages with the emphasis on shared experiences revealed among the research participants. trustworthiness in qualitative inquiry, trustworthiness is commonly determined by the degree of credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability (lincoln & guba, 1985). credibility refers to a degree of correspondence between the findings and the reality. i employed different methods to enhance credibility of the findings. first, triangulation of multiple data sources, interview, and data across multiple participants were employed to cross-check and confirm emerging themes. second, member-checks were conducted with all six participants by sending them summaries of the themes that emerged from the analysis and invited to provide feedback. another aspect needed to establish trustworthiness is transferability. it refers to a degree of applicability of findings in settings outside of the phenomenon being investigated. transferability of the findings in this study was accomplished through thick description allowing the participant to speak in detail about particular experience (lincoln & guba, 1985). being provided a complete description of the participants’ experiences, readers can determine if the findings are transferrable to other situations. findings and discussion this study used abes et al.’s (2007) framework of the rmmdi that provided a useful lens for exploring how muslim indonesian-american college students experienced and perceived identity development. this study identified several dimensions of identity which were salient to the participants including religiosity, social class, culture, and gender. additionally, it revealed that family, the impact of 9/11, peer support, and institutional support were contextual factors which contributed to the participants’ identity development. figure 2 shows how, under the framework of rmmdi, the identified identity dimensions intertwined with contextual influences in the process of muslim indonesian-american students’ identity development. irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 40 figure 2. identity development of muslim indonesian-american college students dimensions of identity religiosity, for all involved participants, religion was more than about ritual practices. islam is a way of life that ultimately affected whole aspects of their lives, including values, relationship with others, daily activities, life and career plans, and also college success. asma said, “believing in allah and everything from him also following his messenger provides a way of life for me. islam gives me a guide how i should live my life in its every aspect. for me, being a muslim is my way to make my life much better. it is not just a religion, in everyday dealings. i always feel connected to the religion when doing anything including what i did during in college when i was an undergraduate.” zaid shared similar thought, “islam is the center point and anything else must rotate around it. everything i do in my life, such as education, my family, my personal life should keep rotating around islam.” even zahra tried to always use relevant verse(s) from the qur’an, a muslim holy book, to verify what she did was in line with the god’s commands. zahra said, “since the second year of my undergraduate, i learned the qur’an more seriously. not only how to read it but also how to understand it accordingly. i just want to make sure that everything i do is actually what allah wants me to do. that’s why i need to better understand the qur’an and so i can verify all of what i do.” religion has become the most salient dimension of identity for most muslim-american young adults who either grew up or were born in the united states with immigrant parents from muslim-majority countries (hermansen, 2000; peek, 2005; pipes & duran, 2002). they are often found practicing islam in a more conservative way than their parents of other individuals of older generation (abdo, 2005). there have been an increasing number of muslim-americans who restrict themselves to halal food and beverages (pipes & duran, 2002). more muslim-american youth wear veils and identify themselves with islam’s conservative principles, and even they need to argue with their parents as they desire to fully practice and embrace islam (abdo, 2005). according to pipes and duran (2002), more than one-third of religion gender class culture family 9/11 peer college religious norms irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 41 muslim immigrants became more likely to be religious after they moved into the united states. one third of female muslim-americans does not wear make-up in public and avoid shaking hands with males who are not relatives for religious reasons. peek (2005) asserted that as individuals, typically children or teenagers, perceive their religion as a part of their personal attributes by the fact that they were born into or raised in it, they are not likely to be engaged in the process of self-reflection and internalization of being a muslim. when they turn to be older and more mature, they become more thoughtful and aware of what they believe and value. as a result, they begin to be more open to idea of questioning their inherited belief and eventually they view it as an essential part or even core dimension of their identity. moreover, as they experience or see hostility against the community of muslims, they identify themselves more closely with being muslims than before. this also what had led the participants in particular to learn the qur’an and islamic literature more deeply as well as align themselves with islam and express it through their physical appearance, talk, and behavior. culture, most participants seemingly identified more with the culture of origin and the country, indonesia, that their parents came from rather than the american culture. ali shared, “the american culture would be the least important aspect of my identities. muslim and indonesian are at the top. although i was not born and never lived in indonesia, i really like the culture and people.” in addition to cultural elements, some participants commented about social and political situations or events in indonesia and how these facilitated the stronger connection between them and their culture of origin. for instance, ayu said, “in 2014 after the presidential election, i was like horey! i am really proud of it.” this sense of pride in their culture and heritage of indonesia was commonly shared among all participants, particularly those who were heavily exposed at home to cultural elements of indonesia including food, language, music, and even frequent visits to indonesia. however, they clearly declared that they were a part of the united states. “i definitely love my country (the united states) where i currently live in. we go out and enjoy the fireworks on july 4 th to celebrate the independence day of this country. it is beautiful thing to see and i am proud to be an indonesian, a muslim and an american at once,” ali said. the definition of the label of muslim-american is complicated since there are many ways for someone to express it. this socially constructed identity was a result of the tragic terror of 9/11. this event caused islam to be a more salient dimension of identity for muslims in the united states and their standing in the general society was increasingly doubted and questioned (sirin et al., 2008). consequently, americans practicing the islamic faith have utilized the label of muslim american in addition to their nationality of origin, such as from an indonesian american to be a muslim indonesian-american, (sirin et al., 2008) as a coping mechanism often used by marginalized groups in the united states such as asian-americans, jewish-americans, and african-americans (grewal, 2009). over time, the label of muslim-american has turned to be a collective identity referring to a group of americans, typically immigrants, who obeyed the religion of islam and had similar experiences as the united states citizens. muslim-american young adults are often found anxious about integrating or balancing their original and american cultures within the united states where they live in (sirin et al., 2008) and therefore the participants continuously negotiates their dual cultural identities, indonesian and american. however, the participants reflected muslim-american young adults in general who had capacity to create integrated and parallel identities as well as to be engaged and involved not only with their ethnic and religious communities but also with the mainstream irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 42 society of the united states (peek, 2005; sirin et al., 2008). muslim indonesian-american young adults are responding to the liberal and open culture, particularly compared to the more conservative environment of origin but islam always comes first. it is in line with the fact that although almost half of muslim-americans identify themselves as muslim first, they do not have any conflict between becoming a muslim and at the same time living in the modern way in the united states (pew research center, 2011). therefore, muslim-americans have integrated to the mainstream society more easily compared to other minority groups in the united states (pipes & duran, 2002). social class, participants shared similar experiences and thoughts that having a good job was their primary reason and goal to attend college. zaid said, “if you are muslim, a minority group like us, you have to attend college and then get degree. so, you can get a job with high salary. and actually, that’s why i went to college.” ali shared that he was not interested in social sciences since it would not generate sufficient earnings, “if you are studying social sciences, oh man, other people would comment ’you are a person of color and you are studying social sciences?’ what are you doing? that’s why instead of studying social sciences, i took a program of computer science like ayah (dad).” while hasma noted, “ i went to college and took medicine. when in high school, i wanted to study something like science or finance because they are big things. while my parents always want me to be a doctor or an engineer, prestigious jobs, i guess. and this is it, i am a doctor now. i think my parents realize what kind of opportunity they wanted to give their children by moving here. so, they should take advantage of it.” different from typical muslim immigrants in european countries mostly living in lower income communities, muslim-americans represent a vibrant community with their higher socioeconomic status (pew research center, 2011). although europe is close to many muslim majority countries, it is not really appealing to wealthy and skillful immigrants. meanwhile, the united states could attract wealthier and more educated muslim immigrants and their success to achieve american dream was primarily driven by high societal and family expectations as well as largely influenced by americans’ openness and tolerance towards muslims until the 9/11 horrible attacks (pipes & duran, 2002). as a result of the high pressure and expectations from the community and families, muslim-american young adults tend to prefer high paying careers such as a doctor and an engineer and hence, once combined, these two fields account for more than 30% of the community of muslim-americans (pipes & duran, 2002). however, recent social and political situations, especially under president donald trump’s administration, have made changes in the environment for muslims in the united states including muslim indonesian-american young adults who have to build a more pronounced identity because of mostly the current islam related issues such the islamic state of iraq and syria (isis), terror attacks, and travel ban that drew more media and public attention on islam and the community of muslims in the united states (saleem & ramasubramanian, 2017). therefore, muslim-americans in general and muslim indonesian-americans in particular have to irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 43 understand who they are in the environment with different culture form theirs and becoming increasingly unreceptive towards their presence. gender, the salience of identity dimensions, such as gender, relies on the extent to which an individual interacts and becomes exposed to these (jones & mcewen, 2000). in this study, gender was a more salient identity dimension for females than males. it is in line with what females in general experience that they have very high salience of gender identity compared to their male counterparts since they live in a conceptually male dominated world (jones & mcewen, 2000). the high salience of gender for the female participants could be reflected from their preference of dress. hasma shared, “being a female in our community, muslims, gives me a much stronger voice. i think people really want to hear voice from the female. being a female and a muslim also wearing hijab (a veil), i would be more likely to be heard and people would respect my opinion and pay attention to what i think and say.” whether they covered their heads or not, all female participants talked about the issues of dress as an essential aspect that would define their identity. muslim-american students in college, particularly those wearing the hijab, are often found experiencing prejudice and alienation by their class or college mates, faculty, and staff whose negative views are driven by their misconception perceiving a female student with the hijab as submissive, oppressed, marginalized, and limited to express their thoughts and feelings (cole & ahmadi, 2003). although some muslim male students probably have similar experiences, there is a greater likelihood that muslim female students are to be subject to hostility since they can be easily identified as muslims from their appearance. it became the reason for some female participants to be reluctant of covering their heads when firstly entering college. zahra shared her experience that she preferred not the hijab to cover her head in the first weeks of entering college. however, she later decided to wear it once she received more courage and realized that wearing the hijab could strengthen her identity as a female and a muslim as well as provide a platform to impact her community and the society in general. she said, “i was very happy for finally making decision on wearing the hijab since i can show to others that i am a muslim and female who has freedom to wear it and still have a life like others such as going to college and actively involving with my community. i can still do all these while wearing the hijab. also, i can still achieve anything i want without having to show my head and hair. i found many women spend more times to enhance their beauty. they focus more on their beauty than their knowledge or behavior. so, i believe hijab makes me and my voice much stronger.” the contact between muslim male and female students was another issue discussed by the participants. ayu said, “a lot of muslim females, of course me too, when i was in college often complained that as muslim males walked passing the sisters (muslim females), they did not say anything. we know the male and he knows we were all muslims but he did not say salam to us. however, when we left, he was talking to a non-muslim female student. “ irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 44 the double standards practiced by muslim male students to their female counterparts were due to the misunderstanding that the rule to avoid intense eye and physical contacts between males and females merely applied to muslims. it was reflected from what zaid shared, “we (muslim males and females) are not as free as with each other like non-muslims who would be with their opposite gender friends. it is certainly because of islamic principles. we do not want to get close just to prevent ourselves from committing any sinful act.” the separation rule comes from the cultural and historical traditions across muslim communities that males and females, especially teenagers and adults, are not allowed to closely mingle with one another to avoid them from falling into evil temptation and then being involved in sinful relations outside of marriage (smith, 1999). however, muslims, especially females challenge the hypocrisy performed mostly by males who can comfortably interact with non-muslim females but tend to be shy and keep muslim females at a distance (smith, 1999). contextual factors family, for most participants in this study, family was found as a major contextual factor in the identity development of muslim indonesian-american students. zahra recalled her experience with her parents, “ i was raised in a very strict family. at that time, i was not allowed to listen to music but islamic songs or quran recitation and have pictures of actors or actresses on my room’s walls. however, i still listened to rhcp (red hot chili peppers) without my parents finding out. but overall, i realize that they were strict for my own good.” muslim parents in the united states share similar concerns of raising their children within the western culture and values which either partly or mostly contradict and even challenge their way of life and faith, islam (pipes & duran, 2002). they worry about preserving their family honor and traditions and are afraid of leaving their culture and faith. therefore, many muslim families put more emphasis on religiosity and islamic lesson as well as values when raising their children and sometimes they seem to be overly strict when doing so (pipes & duran, 2002). the participants also reported that their families impacted their identity development in terms of their degree of conservatism in expressing their faith. ali shared that his conservative family caused him to be conservative as well. he said, “my family is very religious and have high conservatism in practicing islam. so, having grown up within a conservative family, i became conservative too.” on the contrary, ayu was raised within a more secular muslim family and it impacted her identity development. she shared, “i found my parents were not really strict and conservative. although my mother was wearing the hijab, she never pushed me to wear it. however, she gave me courage when i decided to cover my head by the hijab. my parents must have had impact on who i am now.” irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 45 according to abdo (2005), muslim-american young adults who grew up in somewhat conservative and strict environments are more likely to be conservative individuals and those with less conservative or more secular families seem to reflect their families’ impact on them as well. in addition to values and morals, families, mostly parents, provide a source of motivation for their children’s success and even they are not physically present (haddad, 2004). the 9/11, the participants were children as 9/11 happened. after that horrible terror, all participants experienced kinds of bullying and stereotyping in their very young and vulnerable age. it might have made them to question and even challenge their identity as well as discourage them from identifying themselves as muslims. asma shared her experience of being a victim of bullying after the 9/11, “ it was a great time as i was little. i was very very happy. i used to celebrate ramdhan with family and relatives. then, in 2001, that thing (the 9/11) happened and it caused everyone or many people in this country to hate us, muslims. so, i began to keep distant from it a bit. moreover, some i met in college said to me ‘you and your people cannot even read. oh no, i guess you can read very well because terrorists have to read instructions to assemble and blow a bomb. it was really bad.” some students reported that they had similar experiences but these, in turn, made them stronger and they expressed their gratitude for the non-muslims’ support and protection to the muslim community in the united states. zahra said, “we are currently in a time when islam is the new black. i feel like i am being crushed right now. it hurts me a lot as a muslim that they are dehumanizing and insulting my faith. however, in the same time, it made me much stronger and prouder of being a muslim. absolutely, the support from our non-muslim communities is really valuable and made me feel that i am not only a muslim but also an american and so i can confidently declare i am a muslim-american.” these participants’ experiences indicated that the event of 9/11 and its aftermath have had a major influence on their identity development. since the 9/11 and its aftermath, muslim-americans, including muslim indonesian-american students, have become subject to increased prejudice, stereotyping, and hostility (britto & amer, 2007; cole & ahmadi, 2003; peek, 2005; sirin et al., 2008). clearly, bullying and discrimination have a great impact on, in addition to identity development, muslim indonesian-american students’ anxiety when attending a new environment in college. according to connell and farrington (2000), students who have experienced bullying and discrimination tend to have low self-esteem and lack self-confidence and assertiveness. bullied and discriminated students are also often found suffering from any personality problem and facing difficulty in trusting others. they become more cautious and careful with what they state and what they act (connell & farrington, 2000). peer support, most of the participants reported the tremendous influence of their friends’ supports through the organization of msa (muslim student association) on their lives and experiences in college as muslim indonesian-american students. zaid shared his friends’ impact on his process of integrating into college, “the organization, msa, and its members irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 46 provided me a sense of belonging. without the organization and friends there, my experience in college would have been worse. it turned to be my social outlet.” moreover, the msa was found to help the participants enhance their social skills. hasma shared her experience, “in the first time i came to college, i was very shy and quite. after getting involved in the msa and making friends with its members, i became increasingly friendly and open. i realized that i was not very social at that time. however, my involvement in the msa had helped me a lot become more social.” the msa, also, provided the participants with an environment which enabled them to remain on the islamic path as well as refrain from any restricted behaviors. ali described how having lack of the support from peers and an organization such as the msa has put him off the right path. he said, “ once i was involved in the msa and kept contact with friends there, i became more religious. but it was only for a while. then, i slowly left that environment and started doing what typical american students do. later, i regretted my leave and turned back to my muslim friends and tried to get involved again in the msa. it was difficult to keep up with staying on the islamic path without support group like the msa.” peers and the msa are clearly an agent of change in the college experiences of muslim indonesian-american students and their identity development. student organizations and their members in college play a critical role in the development of underrepresented and marginalized students as a source of group support, network, friendship, and mentoring relationships which can facilitate and enhance their success in terms of social adjustment, academic attainment, and persistence in college (swail, perna, & redd, 2003). hence, an organization like the msa in college should be supported by institutions as a critically institutional intervention and resource which help facilitate identity development of muslim indonesian-american students and resolve varied difficulties and problems they experience during in college. institutional support, some participants found their institutions from which they were graduated incredibly supportive by providing them resources and supports to meet their needs as muslims. they specifically mentioned tangible examples including the budget for the msa, the prayer room and the proper washroom to perform wudhu (ablution) that have been provided in several campus buildings, the ability to reserve rooms for prayer meetings, and the availability of halal food in campus. ali said, “there was so much accommodation and flexibility on campus. muslim students were given rooms for our prayers and flexibility around classes. also, we could request an off-day to observe our holidays like ied fitr.” similarly, asma shared, “ my university already had the organization for muslim students, the msa. i think the university really supported it. for example, they offered prayer rooms and other necessary things to practice our religious rituals. and i did not realize that the msa in my university was so big with hundreds of student members.” overall, muslim indonesian-american students seem very pleased with the support they receive from the college. clearly, college support and understanding on muslim indonesian-american students are very important to promote their identity development. irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 47 implications and limitations of the study employing abes et al.’s (2007) framework of the reconceptualized model of multiple dimensions of identity (rmddi), this inquiry unveiled that environmental, cultural, and sociopolitical conditions have created contextual factors (family, 9/11 impact, peer, and college support) that influence the salience of various dimensions (religiosity, culture, class and gender) for muslim indonesian-american young adults during their study in college. the emerging findings from this investigation (the interviews) that have been rarely discussed in existing literature are that msa, the student organization that muslim students on campus are involved in, and college support were found to play a critical role in positively promoting muslim-american students’ identity formation. having supportive environment at college is important for minority college students, including muslim indonesian-american students, because it impacts their entire postsecondary trajectory. however, prejudice based on religious practice and cultural differences remain to negatively influence muslim-american college students’ educational experience. if the institutions do not recognize the oppression they face and its impact on their development, and also unwillingly make efforts to resolve it, muslim indonesian-american college students will be more difficult to successfully persist at college. further research is necessary to identify the identity development of muslim indonesian-american college students across types of socioeconomic status and postsecondary institutions as well as with the focus on on-going students in order to understand their complexities and accommodations they need at college. the current study has several limitations that should be taken into the interpretation process of the findings. first, all participants had attended public four-year institutions in the midwest of the united states which had quite selective admission. it was likely they had satisfactory academic attainment during college years and preparedness prior to attending college. hence, the findings resulted from this study might not describe muslim indonesian-american students enrolled or graduated from less selective institutions. second, another limitation of this study was its focus on muslim indonesian-american students who completed their degree. in addition, the participants in this study were from middle to upper-middle income family. therefore, it is important for readers to be cautious in considering the transferability of this study’s findings to on-going and lower socioeconomic status students. disclosure statement no potential conflict of interest was reported by the author. acknowledgments the author wishes to thank dr. susan jones for insightful learning and discussion particularly regarding the student development and its impact on student success in college. he would also thank indonesia endowment for education (lpdp) for its endless support for his professional development and academic pursuit. irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 48 references abdo, g. 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(1990). resolving ‘other’ status: identity development of biracial individuals. women and therapy, 9, 185–205. saleem, m., & ramasubramanian, s. (2017). muslim americans’ responses to social identity threats: effects of media representations and experiences of discrimination. media psychology, 1-21. sirin, s. r., bikmen, n., mir, m., fine, m., zaal, m., & katsiaficas, d. (2008). exploring dual identification among muslim-american emerging adults: a mixed methods study. journal of adolescence, 31(2), 259-279. smith, j. i. (1999). islam in america. new york: columbia university press. swail, w. s., perna, l. w., & redd, k. e. (2003). retaining minority students in higher education: a framework for success. an ashe-eric reader. san francisco, ca: jossey-bass. williams, r. h., & vashi, g. (2007). hijab and american muslim women: creating the space for autonomous selves. sociology of religion, 68(3), 269-287. biographical note taufik mulyadin is a faculty assistant in educational administration and a staff of vice rector in academic and student affairs at indonesia university of education, bandung, indonesia. he is currently a scholarship recipient of indonesian endowment fund for education (lpdp), batch (pk)-41, and a phd student in higher education and student affairs at the ohio state university. his current study is also a part of joint program between indonesia and united states under the project of higher education leadership and management (helm) managed by the united states agency for international development (usaid). the author’s research interests focus on college student engagement, student success, alumni, and university governance. irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 51 looking at the link between parents’ educational backgrounds and students’ english achievement lenny marzulina* 1 , nova lingga pitaloka 2 , herizal 3 , muhamad holandyah 4 , dian erlina 5 , and indah tri lestari 6 abstract this study investigated the link between parents’ educational background and students’ english achievement at one senior high school in palembang, south sumatra, indonesia. one hundred and eight senior high school students were involved in this study. data were collected through a parents’ educational background questionnaire and an english test. descriptive statistics, pearson product moment correlation, and regression analysis were employed to analyze the data. the results of the pearson product moment correlation coefficient revealed that parents’ educational background significantly correlated with the students’ english achievement. additionally, the results of the linear regression analysis indicated that there was a correlation between parents’ educational background and students’ english achievement. although the contribution was small and there were other factors that contribute to the students’ academic achievement, parents’ educational background is important in supporting their children’s english achievement. keywords parents’ educational background, students’ english achievement 1 *corresponding author: english education study program, faculty of tarbiyah and teaching sciences, state islamic university of raden fatah, south sumatra, indonesia; hj.lennymarzulina@gmail.com 2 english education study program, faculty of tarbiyah and teaching sciences, state islamic university of raden fatah, south sumatra, indonesia. 3 english education study program, faculty of tarbiyah and teaching sciences, state islamic university of raden fatah, south sumatra, indonesia. 4 english education study program, faculty of tarbiyah and teaching sciences, state islamic university of raden fatah, south sumatra, indonesia. 5 english education study program, faculty of tarbiyah and teaching sciences, state islamic university of raden fatah, south sumatra, indonesia. 6 english education study program, faculty of tarbiyah and teaching sciences, state islamic university of raden fatah, south sumatra, indonesia. irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 52 introduction education is essential for the development of society. the more educated the people of a society are, the more civilized and well-disciplined the society might be. education is also a primary need in this era of globalization (haryanto, mukminin, murboyono, muazza, & ekatina, 2016; mukminin, rohayati, putra, habibi, & aina, 2017). education gives insight, grooms the personality, inculcates moral values, adds knowledge, and provides skills for people who will live in a very competitive society. in every field, highly qualified people are needed (mukminin, haryanto, makmur, failasofah, fajaryani, thabran, & suyadi, 2013; mukminin, 2012). however, there are several studies focusing on the problems of education in indonesia including mukminin, lestari, afifah, rahmadani, and hendra (2017) and musyaddad (2013) who argue that there are some problems of education in indonesia including curriculum, budget, quality, purpose of the education, national examination, and learning facility. these kinds of problems have influenced the quality of education both in national and in international levels. for example, although since 1995, indonesia has taken part consistently in every round of trends in international mathematics and science study (timss), the results have not been satisfactory (luschei, 2017), of the 38 countries participating in 1999, indonesia ranked the 34 th and the 32 nd in math and science respectively. in 2003, performance in math increased to 411, while the science score slipped to 420. the reverse occurred in 2007, with math performance decreased to 397 and science improved to 427. scores in both math and science fell in 2011 to 386 and 406 respectively. in 2015, math performance increased to 397, while science performance decreased to 397. (p. 12) the results of indonesian’s participation in timss have implied that the quality of education should become the responsibility of all parties including government, school, and family. family is one of the important factors in supporting the education of their children. as a unit of society, the family is obviously a major socializing agent, so that it is important in determining the child’s motivation to achieve success (muola, 2010). mainly, family has responsibility for socializing children for making them productive members of society. the more the parents are involved in the process of imparting education to their children, the more the children might excel in their academic career and to become productive and responsible members of society (arib, 2017; rafiq, fatima, sohail, saleem, & khan, 2013). additionally, parents’ personal educational backgrounds and economic backgrounds have a significant effect on their children’s education. it means that parents’ educational background plays an important part in their children’s education. the education received by the children depends very much on the education that their parents have (arib, 2017; gratz, nation, schools, & kurth-schai, 2006). in relation to education, english is one of the compulsory subjects in indonesia’s educational system. the internal and external factors, for example, tend to influence the learners’ english achievement (yaghoubi & rasouli, 2015). furthermore, data from education first english proficiency index also showed that the average score of indonesian’s english proficiency was 52.74 and labeled as a moderate proficiency level. this score has placed indonesia in the 28 th rank out of 63 countries in terms of index that irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 53 compares the average english language ability in different countries (oecd, 2012). the data indicate that english proficiency in indonesia is still lower than the other countries. however, learning english is not an easy process, there are some problems or difficulties in learning english. in their study, abrar, mukminin, habibi, asyrafi, makmur, and marzulina, (2018) and mukminin, muazza, hustarna, and sari (2015) found that the problems in learning english such as teacher’s competence, students lack of english foundation background, students’ lack of confidence, inappropriate curriculum, unmotivated, encouraged and gained learning strategy, not practice speaking english with english native speakers, and class environment. some researchers have previously explored parents’ educational background and students’ english achievement. for example, apriana (2015) found that parents’ educational background was significantly correlated to students’ english achievement though the correlation was weak. also, karnegi (2010) found that there was a strong correlation between parents’ educational background and students’ english achievement. schnabel, alfeld, eccles, koller, and baumert (2002) found that a significant positive correlation existed between parents’ education and students’ achievement. it can be concluded that the results of those studies are still inconsistent. additionally, arib (2017) found that there was no significant relationship between parents’ occupation and educational background and students’ achievement in learning english. the findings of the previous studies on the link between parents’ educational background and students’ english achievement are still mixed. the current study investigated the correlation between parents’ educational background and students’ english achievement at one senior high school in palembang, south sumatra, indonesia. two research questions guided this study: (1) is there any link between parents’ educational background and students’ english achievement of the twelfth grade students at one senior high school in palembang, south sumatra, indonesia? and (2) does parents’ educational background influence students’ english achievement of the twelfth grade students at one senior high school in palembang? literature review parents’ educational background refers to “parents’ highest education” that means the highest level of education attained by parents. international standard classification of education (isced) from unesco (2011) has grouped nine levels of education. they are early childhood education, primary education, lower secondary education, upper secondary education, post-secondary non-tertiary education, short-cycle tertiary education, bachelors or equivalent level, master’s or equivalent level, doctoral or equivalent level. parents with higher levels of education are also more likely to believe strongly in their abilities to help their children learn (selvam, 2013). highly educated parents have greater success in providing their children with the cognitive and language skills that contribute to early success in school. selvam (2013) also adds the relationship of parents’ education to their children’s achievement motivation in academic area is meditated by parents’ beliefs and behaviors are likely to be influenced by their educational experiences and how these parental beliefs and behaviors actually influence children’s achievement motivation in academic area. additionally, family characteristics such as parental income, education, and family size seem to be connected to students’ achievement (levin, 1994; hanushek, 2007). irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 54 in terms of student achievement, algarabel and dasi (2001) state that achievement is the competence of a person in relation to a domain of knowledge. additionally, sukmadinata (2007) stated that achievement of students could be seen from mastering the subject that they have taken up. achievement refers to the good result from learning. in addition, english achievement has a strong relation with the academic achievement. english achievement means the competency that is achieved by the students in english subject. being well-educated parents give benefits for their children. intosh (2008) stated that parents could serve as good role models by being conscientious, ambitious, and methodical, all of which will contribute to make their children more successful at school. moreover, educated parents can provide their children with guidance to get good information at home. ghuntla, mehta, gokhale, and berhanun (2012) found that educated parents had more attention to the facility used by their children related to their study, especially in learning english. students from good socio-economical and high parental educational background have good chances for getting admission in good professional courses. parental education level also determines the facilities and the cultural level of the home. udoh and sanni (2012) claim that educated parents often get a better job. thus, with their income, they are better prepared to give educational materials for their children. in other words, this suggests that students manage to support their learning with good educational materials because they have parents who can provide them with educational supporting materials that they need including in learning english. methodology research design and participants in this study, we used a correlational approach to find out the link between parents’ educational background and students’ english achievement. the first procedure was we identified the parents’ educational background by using educational background questionnaire and the second procedure was we gave the students test of toefl. the next step was we analyzed the link between the two variables through spss based on the results of the educational background questionnaire and toefl test. one hundred and eight senior high school students were involved in this study. data were collected through a parents’ educational background questionnaire and an english test. data collection and analysis in this study, we used questionnaire and a test as the instruments to gather the data concerning the link between parents’ educational background and students’ english achievement of the twelfth grade students at one senior high school in palembang, south sumatra, indonesia. to obtain the information about parents’ educational background, we used the questionnaire from unesco (2011) which was adapted by apriana (2015). the questionnaire consisted of parents’ educational background which was related to parents’ highest education. the questionnaire asks about the level education of father and mother of the students. in scoring parents’ education background, the students ticked one of their parents’ educational background levels including early childhood education, primary irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 55 education, lower secondary education, upper secondary education, post-secondary non-tertiary education, short-cycle tertiary education, bachelor’s or equivalent level, master’s or equivalent level, and doctoral or equivalent level. the score was from 0 until 8. the highest level education is, the highest score is. a higher score indicates a higher degree of educational background level. to obtain the students’ english achievement, we used toefl junior test. the purpose of the toefl junior test is to provide an objective measure of the degree to which students in the target population have attained proficiency in the academic and social english language skills. the designers of the toefl junior standard test assert that the toefl junior standard test is an english-proficiency test that is not based on or limited to any specific curriculum. there are three sections: listening, structure, and reading. each section contains 42 four-choice questions with a total testing time of 1 hour 55 minutes. toefl junior test scores are determined by the number of questions that a student has answered correctly. there is no penalty for wrong answers. the category of the result of the test is grouped into very good, good, average poor, and very poor. in terms of correlation and regression, it was necessary to know whether the data were normal for each variable and linear between two variables. in this study, normality test was used to find out whether the data of educational background questionnaire and toefl junior test were normal or not. we used i-sample kolmogorov-smirnov in spss. if p-value is higher than .05, then it was normal and vice versa. in this study, linearity test was conducted to know whether the data of educational background questionnaire and toefl junior test were linear or not. if the score was higher than 0.05, the two variables were linear. linearity test in spss was used to see if the data were linear or not. after getting the result of educational background questionnaire and toefl junior test of students, we used pearson – product moment correlation coefficient to find out whether or not there was a correlation between the variables. the interpretation of coefficient correlation was to find whenever pearson r is higher than 0.34(>0.34). regression analysis was used to find out whether or not parents’ educational background influenced students’ english achievement. we identified the influenced of variables by using the result of r-square. simple regression analysis was used to measure two variables. the score of parents’ educational background as independent variable and students’ english achievement as dependent variable were calculated by spss. findings and discussion parents’ educational background and students’ english achievement one hundred and eight students participated in this study. the descriptive statistical analysis of parents’ educational background for the participants indicated that the maximum score was 8, and the lowest score was 1. the mean score of parents’ educational background for the participants was 5.05 and the standard deviation was 1.588. this mean score indicates that the level of parents’ educational background of participants is short-cycle tertiary education (d2/d3). it was revealed that from the questionnaire, the 9 levels of parents’ educational background were all perceived by the students with different numbers. primary education (sd) was as the least perceived level and bachelor’s or equivalent level was as the most perceived for both father and mother educational background categories. the irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 56 descriptive statistical analysis of english achievement for the participants indicated that the maximum score was 79, and the minimum score was 10. the mean score of english achievement for the participants was 47.02 and the standard deviation was 17.739. this mean score indicates that the level of students’ english achievement of participants is very poor. for each category, 13 students had a good english achievement. 19 students obtained an average english achievement. 5 students had a poor english achievement. 71 students had a very poor english achievement. the results of normality test and linearity test the data were interpreted as a normal one if p> 0.05. if p< 0.05, it means the data were not normal. kolmogorov-smirnov was used to see the normality. the results of normality test indicated that the data from each variable were all normal and appropriate for data analysis with coefficients .290 for parents’ educational background and .605 for english achievement. for linearity test, deviation of linearity was obtained. if probability is more than .05, the two variables are linear. the results showed that, the deviation from linearity betweenparents’ educational background and students’ english achievement was .769. correlation between parents’ educational background and students’ english achievement based on the pearson product moment correlation coefficient, the result indicated that the pattern of correlation between parents’ educational background and students’ english achievement was positive. the correlation coefficient or the r-obtained (.420) was higher than r-table (.176). then, the level of probability (p) significance (sig.2-tailed) was .000. it means that p (.000) was lower than .05. thus, there was a significant correlation between parents’ educational background and students’ english achievement. the details are following: table 1. correlation between parents’ educational background and students’ english achievement parents' educational background english achievement parents' educational background pearson correlation 1 .420 ** sig. (2-tailed) .000 n 108 108 english achievement pearson correlation .420 ** 1 sig. (2-tailed) .000 n 108 108 irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 57 influence of parents’ educational background on students’ english achievement the results indicated that parents’ educational background influenced students’ english achievement significantly with tvalue (4.763) was higher than ttable(1.982) with sig. value (.000) was lower than probability (.05). therefore, there was a significant influence between parents’ educational background toward students’ english achievement. the details are following: table 2. the regression analysis of parents’ educational background and students’ english achievement model unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t sig. b std. error beta 1 (constant) 23.348 5.208 4.483 .000 parents' educational background 4.691 .985 .420 4.763 .000 a. dependent variable: english achievement in addition, to know the percentage of parents’ educational background influence on the students’ english achievement, r-square was obtained. the result of the analysis revealed that the r square (r 2 ) was .176. it means that parents’ educational background led a significant effect in the level of 17.6% toward students’ english achievement, and 82.4% was an unexplained factor value. the details are following: table 3. model summary model r r square adjusted r square std. error of the estimate 1 .420 a .176 .169 16.175 a. predictors: (constant), parents’ educational background based on the result of pearson product moment correlations, it was found that there was a positive and a significant correlation between parents’ educational background and students’ english achievement of the twelfth grade students (r.420).this means that parents’ educational background had a relation to students’ english achievement. the level of correlation between parents’ educational background and students’ english achievement was fair. parents with a higher level of education can stimulate their children in a good learning environment. they can transfer what they have in their children’s cognitive development. for example, by having more discussion about the lesson, using rich vocabulary in the interaction of parents and children, and reading more books with the irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 58 children. this result is in agreement with gratz’s (2006) arguments that parents’ educational background has a relationship with students’ english achievement. furthermore, the more educated the parents are, the more they are able to pass along the education and help their children excel in school. parents with little or no education may find it very difficult to understand or help their children in the area of education. for example, selvam (2013) states that parents with a higher level of education are also more likely to believe strongly in their abilities to help their children learn. highly educated parents have greater success in providing their children with the cognitive and language skills that contribute to early success in school. also, ghuntla, mehta, gokhale, and berhanun (2012) argue that educated parents have more attention to the facility used by their children related to their study. moreover, karnegi (2010) argues that parents who have a high educational background and a good english competence generally prepare their children to face globalization with good english preparation. they will help learning english by doing many ways such as providing their children with facilities, or paying private tutors. furthermore, the result of this present study is also in agreement with the findings of apriana’s (2015) study who found that parents’ educational background was correlated to students’ english achievement even though the correlation was not strong. in addition, ardila, rosselli, matute, and guajardo (2005) indicated that there was a significant correlation between the parents’ educational level and the students’ test performance. conclusion the current study investigated the correlation between parents’ educational background and students’ english achievement at one senior high school in palembang, south sumatra, indonesia. based on the results of the present study, we found that parents’ educational backgrounds were significantly correlated with students’ english achievement with r.420. the category of correlation was fair. additionally, the linear regression analysis showed that parents’ educational background (17.6%) significantly influenced the dependent variable, students’ english achievement. in short, the total contribution of parents’ educational background and students’ english achievement showed a significant link although the contribution was small, suggesting that there were other factors that could contribute to their student’s english achievement such as schools, teachers, friends, and environment. references abrar, m., mukminin, a., habibi, a., asyrafi, f., makmur, m., & marzulina, l. (2018). “if our english isn’t a language, what is it?” indonesian efl student teachers’ challenges speaking english. the qualitative report, 23(1), 129-145. retrieved from https://nsuworks.nova.edu/tqr/vol23/iss1/9. algarabel, s., & dasi, c. (2001). the definition of achievement and the construction of tests for its measurement: a review of the main trends. psicologica, 22, 43-66. apriana, a. (2015). the correlation among parents’ attitude, their educational background and english achievement of the tenth grade students of state senior high schools in indralaya (unpublished undergraduate thesis), sriwijaya university, palembang, indonesia. https://nsuworks.nova.edu/tqr/vol23/iss1/9 irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 59 ardila, a., rosselli, m., matute, e., & guajardo, s. (2005). the influence of the parents’ educational level on the development of executive functions. developmental neuropsychology, 28(1), 539-560. arib, a. w. (2017). do family backgrounds control students’ motivation and achievement in learning a foreign language? the case of one islamic senior high school in jambi. ta'dib: journal of islamic education, 22 (1), 1-38. ghuntla, t. p., mehta, h. b., gokhale, p. a., & shah, c. j. (2012). a study of socio-economic and parental educational backgrounds of first year medical students in medical college bhavngar. international research journal of pharmacy, 3(9), 253-255. gratz, j., nation, s. o., schools, s. o., & kurth-schai, r. (2006). the impact of parents’ background on their children’s education. educational studies, 268, 1-12. haryanto, e., mukminin, a., murboyono, r., muazza, & ekatina., m. (2016). teacher certification policy in indonesia: evidence from certified english teachers at one public high school. turkish online journal of qualitative inquiry, 7(3), 224-244. hanushek, e.a., (2007). education production functions. hoover institution, california: standford university. intosh, j. (2008). family background, parental involvement, and academic achievement in canadian school. journal of economi literature classification, 120, 1-23. karnegi, d. (2010). the correlation between parents’ educational background and students’ english achievement of smp negeri 45 palembang (unpublished undergraduate thesis), sriwijaya university, palembang, indonesia. levin, h. m. (1994). raising educational productivity. california: stanford university. luschei, t. (2017). 20 years of timss: lessons for indonesia. indonesian research journal in education |irje|, 1(1), 6-17. mukminin, a., rohayati, t., putra, h. a., habibi, a., & aina, m. (2017). the long walk to quality teacher education in indonesia: student teachers’ motives to become a teacher and policy implications. elementary education online, 16(1), 35-59. mukminin, a., lestari, p.a., afifah, y., rahmadani, f., & hendra, r. (2017). the national standardized test policy for english subject: students’ perception. journal of education and learning, 11(2), 200-207. mukminin, a., haryanto, e., makmur, failasofah, fajaryani, n., thabran, y., & suyadi. (2013). the achievement ideology and top-down national standardized exam policy in indonesia: voices from local english teachers. turkish online journal of qualitative inquiry, 4(4), 19-38. mukminin, a., noprival, masbirorotni, sutarno, arif, n., & maimunah. (2015). efl speaking anxiety among senior high school students and policy recommendations. journal of education and learning, 9(3), 217-225. mukminin, a., muazza, hustarna, & sari, s.r. (2015). stories from the frontlines: in-service teachers’ demotivating factors and policy recommendations. international journal of academic research in education, 1(2), 40‐52. doi: 10.17985/ijare.56085 mukminin. a. (2012). acculturative experiences among indonesian graduate students in us higher education: academic shock, adjustment, crisis, and resolution. excellence in higher education journal, 3 (1), 14-36. irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 60 muola, j. m. (2010). a study of the relationship between academic achievement motivation and home environment among standard eight pupils. educational research and reviews, 5(5), 213-217. musyaddad, k. (2013). problematika pendidikan indonesia. edu-bio, 4, 51-57. oecd. (2012). pisa 2012 results: what students know and can do – student performance in mathematics, reading and science. france: pisa, oecd publishing. rafiq, h. m. w., fatima, m., sohail, m. m., saleem, m., & khan, m. a. (2013). parental involvement and academic achievement: a study on secondary school students of lahore, pakistan. international journal of humanities and social science, 3(8), 209-210. schnabel, k. u., alfeld, c., eccles, j. s., koller. o., &baumert, j. (2002). parental influence on students’ educational choices in the united states and germany: different ramifications--same effect? journal of vocational behavior, 60, 178-198. selvam, p. (2013). a study on relationship between parental education and student achievement.international research journals, 3(3), 75-82. sukmadinata, n. s. (2007). landasan psikologi proses pendidikan. bandung, indonesia: pt. remaja rosdakarya. udoh, n., & sanni, k. (2012). parental background variables and the career choice of secondary school students in uyo local goverment area, nigeria. mediterranean journal of social sciences, 3(1), 497-504. unesco. (2011). international standard classification of education (isced). montreal, canada: unesco institude for statistics. biographical notes lenny marzulina works as a lecturer researcher and head of english education study program in the faculty of tarbiyah and education, state islamic university of raden fatah, palembang, indonesia. she obtained her undergraduate and graduate degrees in english education from sriwijaya university, indonesia. her research interests are on the area of education, language teaching, material development, and tefl. nova lingga pitaloka works as a lecturer at english education study program in the faculty of tarbiyah and education, state islamic university of raden fatah, palembang, indonesia. herizal works as a lecturer at english education study program in the faculty of tarbiyah and education, state islamic university of raden fatah, palembang, indonesia. muhamad holandyah works as a lecturer at english education study program in the faculty of tarbiyah and education, state islamic university of raden fatah, palembang, indonesia. dr. dian erlina works as a lecturer at english education study program in the faculty of tarbiyah and education, state islamic university of raden fatah, palembang, indonesia. indah tri lestari is a student at english education study program in the faculty of tarbiyah and education, state islamic university of raden fatah, palembang, indonesia. irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 61 student-centred teaching strategies by gender, grade level, and teacher’s self-concept in mexico pedro sánchez-escobedo 1 and ana karen camelo lavadores 2 abstract this study examined the student-centred teaching strategies of mexican teachers by gender, grade level, and self-concept as an instructor. a conventional sample of 573 teachers from diverse school settings in the state of yucatan in mexico responded to a paper and pencil questionnaire. results indicated, in general, that teachers prioritized classroom management and independent learning activites, in contrast with teaching strategies emphasized by policies and teacher´s training programs in the country, such as cooperative learning, differentiation, or promoting critical thinking. there were some gender and grade level differences. in general, female teachers promoted more independent activities than males. as expected, primary school teachers were more concerned with using differentiation teaching strategies than secondary education teachers, considering the greatest variance in younger students. teachers self-concept had differential effects. whilst self-efficacy feelings had no influence in the use of specific student-centred teaching strategies, high self-steem teachers used more student-centred teaching strategies. the importance of asking teachers what they did, and how they felt as teachers was argued in light of results. future research avenues regarding self-concept and teaching strategies are posited. keywords mexican teachers, teaching strategies, self-concept, classroom management 1 college of education, university of yucatan, mexico; psanchez@correo.uady.mx 2 college of education, university of yucatan, mexico; annykaren1@gmail.com irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 62 introduction a robust international body of literature leads investigators to analyze the outcomes of student-centred teaching strategies that promote high-level thinking and the achievement of meaningful relationships and positive psychological well-being (gillies, ashman, & terwel, 2008; johnson & johnson, 1989; tomlinson, 2003). yet, there are relatively few empirical studies on the use of these kinds of teaching strategies in mexico. educational researchers in mexico rarely ask teachers directly what they do in their classrooms and how they feel as teachers. thus, this study seeks to understand the relationship between student-centred teaching strategies and the teachers´ s self-concept, across different levels within the educational system in mexico. we aim to explore the differential effects of teacher’s self-esteem and self-efficacy in relation to their teaching activities. there are relatively few studies in mexico exploring the use of student-centred teaching strategies by grade level. studying the use of specific teaching strategies across educational levels is important since some teaching techniques may be effective in some levels, but inappropriate in others, that is perhaps because the literature on teaching strategies is full of “effective teaching techniques” but they rarely prescribe uses and limitations. even the opposite may be true; sometimes using lower grade level techniques out of classroom may be an important remediation strategy, without taking away classroom-time focus on grade-level standard (dataworks educational reseach, 2014). in general, research on teaching has confirmed the lack of a clear relationship between student outcomes and teacher inputs. apparently, either performance depends upon student’s characteristics and potentials or investigators have failed to identify new variables within the classroom that may help to explain learning and motivation to achieve. few studies focus on the dynamics of the teachers’ self-concept and how this is culturally shaped and instrumental to create a learning environment. wenglinsky (2002) published an outstanding review of teacher classroom practices and their impact on student performance. he asserts that three main classroom practices: individualization, collaboration, and authentic assessment. individualization means that teachers instruct each student by drawing upon the knowledge and experience that each student already possesses and authentic assessment occurs in an on-going basis rather than at a single point in time (golub, 1988; graves & sunstein, 1992; mclaughlin & talbert, 1993). teacher strategies in this study are student-centred, that is, they are based in instructional activities in the classroom that aim to foster learning and positive outcomes for students. we have chosen five most frequently used actions in mexican classrooms including critical thinking promotion, fostering independent study, differentiation of instruction, cooperative learning and classroom management. critical thinking aims to make students think and reflect upon specific problems or curriculum contexts. independent study aims to foster learning by self-initiated activities beyond the classroom. differentiation in teaching refers to the adaptation of instructions considering individual differences. cooperative learning means that teachers allow students to work together in groups and classroom management is closed linked to an atmosphere of discipline and the creation of a positive learning environment. on the other hand, we explored the relationship in the uses of these five specific strategies and the teacher’s self-concept. teacher´s self-concept for this work refers to a broad construct that include teachers’ feelings of self-efficacy and their general perception of irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 63 how good of a teacher they feel they are. the purposes of this study were to identify the use of five student-centred teaching strategies frequently used in mexico and to explore differences by gender, grade level, and their association to self-concept as a teacher. more specifically, this study was to describe the most often student-centred teaching strategies used by mexican teachers, to explore differences by grade level, to explore differences by gender, to explore the relationship between teaching strategies and two main dimensions of teacher´s self-concept: self-efficacy feelings and their self-esteem as teachers. to achieve the purposes of the study, two central research questions guided this study: (1) how are these teaching strategies used in mexico? and (2) how mexican teachers feel about their use? literature review student-centered teaching strategies a robust international body of literature leads investigators to analyze the outcomes of student-centered teaching such as high-level thinking and achievement, meaningful relationships, and positive psychological well-being (gillies, ashman, & terwel, 2008; johnson & johnson, 1989; tomlinson, 2003). additional literature demonstrates the widespread adoption of student-centered teaching practices, from cyprus (hursen & soykara, 2012) to vietnam (nguyen thanh, dekker, & goedhart, 2008). yet, there are relatively few empirical studies of teaching strategies in mexico. student-centered teaching fosters a host of positive outcomes for students. for example, in a meta-analysis of research about cooperative learning compared with competitive or individualistic learning, johnson and johnson (1989) found that cooperative learning fosters considerably greater efforts to achieve among students. these scholars also found cooperative learning promotes supportive social and peer relationships, as well as maturity in cognitive and moral decision making (johnson & johnson, 1989). in another example, studies of differentiation strategies demonstrate the effectiveness of differentiation as responsive to individual student needs, especially in schools where programs for special education or gifted education do not exist (emanuelsson, 2003; tomlinson, 2003). similarly, research shows that effective class management strategies are the “art” of establishing environments that foster student cooperation (cangelosi, 2014). additionally, students experience positive outcomes from teaching practices that promote independent or autonomous work (stefanou, perencevich, dicintio, & turner, 2004) and critical thinking (abrami et al., 2008; hooks, 2010). how are these student-centered teaching strategies, which are known to promote positive outcomes for students, used in mexico? there are literally hundreds of teaching strategies depicted in the literature, some of them traditional and frequently used such as various types of lectures, some others are more sophisticated and innovative with the use of technologies, problem-solving activities or learning projects with different learning conditions. however, in this study we focused in 5 of the most popular teaching strategies referred by our teachers in training at our teacher training program, at the college of education in the university of yucatan in mexico. we explored specifically strategies to promote critical thinking, activities that instill on independent study, differentiation techniques, and strategies of classroom irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 64 management. focusing on five specific teaching strategies has allowed us to compare its differential use across grades and to explore for gender differences. critical thinking logically, because of developmental reasons, teaching strategies that promote critical thinking tend to be more popular in higher grades than in young children. in fact, some authors believe that critical thinking is not a teaching strategy -per se-; rather they see it as a procedure based on strategies that increase cognitive abilities and the probability of a desirable outcome. hence, promoting critical thinking is “teleological in nature: it concerns the attainment of goals, desirable outcomes…to obtain the desired outcome, we have at our disposal (to some degree, with proficiency) a set of cognitive skills” (sohroy, 2005, p. 163). perhaps, as a teaching technique, it was born with socrates along with the famous maieutic method that through incisive questioning the teacher asked to instill the discipline of analysis and seeing the connections between ideas and critical thinking (abrami et al., 2008; hooks, 2010). critical thinking is more than thinking clearly or rationally; it is about thinking independently and be able to formulate one’s own opinions and conclusions. teaching higher-order thinking skills involves not so much conveying information as conveying understanding. students learn concepts and then attempt to apply them to various problems, or they solve problems and then learn the concepts that underlie the solutions. these skills tend to be conveyed in one of two ways: through applying concepts to problems (applications) or by providing examples or concrete versions of the concept (simulations). in either case, students learn to understand the concept by putting it in another context. in the case of an application, this might mean solving a unique problem with which the student is unfamiliar. in the case of a simulation this might mean examining a physical representation of a theorem from geometry or engaging in a laboratory exercise that exemplifies a law from chemistry. while both lower-order and higher-order thinking skills undoubtedly have a role to play in any classroom, much of the qualitative research asserts that the students of teachers who can convey higher-order thinking skills as well as lower-order thinking skills outperform students whose teachers are only capable of conveying lower-order thinking skills (langer & applebee, 1987; phelan 1989). classroom management classroom management refers to the wide variety of skills and techniques that teachers use to keep students organized, orderly, focused, attentive, on task, and academically productive during a classroom. when classroom-management strategies are executed effectively, teachers minimize the behaviors that impede learning whilst facilitating learning. effective teachers tend to display strong classroom-management skills. watkins and wagner (1991) assert that role of the teacher is undervalued in terms of the role she plays in promoting (or discouraging) certain types of behaviors. while a limited or more traditional interpretation of effective classroom management may focus largely on obedience and discipline such as following directions, listening attentively, etc.—a more encompassing or updated view of classroom management extends to everything that teachers may do to facilitate or improve student learning, which would include such factors as attitudes irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 65 (respectful and fair treatment of students), physical environment (learning materials) and expectations. classroom management techniques aim to instill a positive learning environment that facilitates learning and turn the classroom into a fertile thinking and learning ground. cooperative learning and independent work cooperative learning is a systematic pedagogical strategy that encourages small groups of students to work together for the achievement of a common goal. the term 'collaborative learning' is often used as a synonym for cooperative learning when, in fact, it is a separate strategy that encompasses a broader range of group interactions such as developing learning communities, stimulating student/faculty discussions, and encouraging electronic exchanges (bruffee, 1993). cooperative learning as a teaching strategy requires careful planning and preparation. understanding how to form groups, ensure positive interdependence, maintain individual accountability, resolve group conflict, develop appropriate assignments and grading criteria, and manage active learning environments is critical to the achievement of a successful cooperative learning experience. for example, in a meta-analysis of research about cooperative learning, compared with competitive or individualistic learning, johnson and johnson (1989) found that cooperative learning fosters considerably greater efforts to achieve among students. these scholars also found that cooperative learning promotes supportive social and peer relationships, as well as maturity in cognitive and moral decision making (johnson & johnson, 1989). similarly, research shows effective classroom management strategies are the “art” of establishing environments that foster student cooperation (cangelosi, 2014). cooperative learning gives students the opportunity to work with others and see different points of view. research shows that students learn more effectively when working together rather than apart, and it is also known to improve self-confidence in students. the jigsaw technique is especially effective because each student is responsible for one another’s learning, and students find out really quick that each group member has something equally important to contribute to the group in order to make the task a successful one. students are exposed to and use many skills throughout this strategy: communication, problem-solving skills, cognition, and critical thinking -all of which are essential for a successful academic career. teaching strategies based upon collaborative learning had mixed results in mexico. in our culture, team work does not necessarily involve every student in the actual academic work; some of them provide emotional support, drinks and snacks or compensate their absence or lack of work in other ways. self -learning or independent learning is a process of self-regulation. as such, student approach curricular contents on their own, and teaching activities can direct and foster this kind of effort. for this, teachers must plan, monitor, and establish the pace and direction of the homework. self-motivation is a key element for successful independent learning. ‘external’ elements which support independent learning include the development of a strong relationship between teachers and students, and the establishment of an ‘enabling environment’. independent work refers to the work of the student outside the classroom with the help or supervision of a teacher. this is also known as independent learning. additionally, students experience positive outcomes from teaching practices that promote irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 66 independent or autonomous work (stefanou, perencevich, dicintio, & turner, 2004). independent learning is often linked to other approaches to learning such as ‘personalization’, ‘student-centred learning’ and ‘ownership’ of learning. discussion of independent learning frequently arises in the context of important issues such as student-teacher roles and relationships, and the role of information and communications technology (ict) in learning (meyer, haywood, & faraday, 2008). not every student benefits from teaching strategies that promote independent work, younger students, dependent pupils and students with few or non-existent resources at home may not develop their academic work competently. in addition, some basic cognitive skills such as focusing of memory and attention and problem-solving, metacognitive skills associated with an understanding of how learning occurs are necessary. there might be also some cultural factors to consider in approaching cooperative learning in gregarious societies such as mexico. gender and teachers’ self-concept there are various research reports regarding differences by gender and instructional strategies. for example, zhukov (2012) reported that in music education, male teachers gave general directions, whereas female teachers offered more time to practice. also, male and female teachers offered different kinds of reinforcement and feedback (klassen & chiu 2010). in fact, gender differences in teaching styles and student perception have been thoroughly investigated. for example, mullola et al. (2012) reported that student’s temperament played a significant role in teacher's perception of the student's learning style, educational competence and teachability. self-concept is a general term used to refer to how someone thinks about, evaluates or perceives themselves. to be aware of oneself is to have a concept of oneself. self-concept includes two broad dimensions of one`s self-perception. the first has to do with accomplishment of task and it is called self-efficacy, and the second has to do with the value ascribed to one’s self, it is also known as self-esteem. however, self-concept could simply have defined as what a person thinks of oneself. in the literature of educational psychology, self-concept is an integral construct that incorporates all the experience of individual self and it is especially important to consider when explaining somebody´s performance. teacher selfconcept has been a topic rarely investigated in mexico with relation to the use of specific instructional strategies, when in fact these are import indicator of how teachers see themselves in their job and situation. self-efficacy of teachers refers to feelings about their work in the school’s belief other couple because to carry out a course of function successfully (bandura, 1977). in this study, with the purpose of further understand how teaching strategies impact the teacher; teacher’s self-concept was explored with two questions related to the two major dimensions of self-concept: self-perception (how good of a teacher you are?) and self-efficacy (how efficient is your teaching?). teacher self-concept was thus defined as the evaluation teachers make about themselves regarding how good and effective they are as teachers. irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 67 methodology participants a paper and pencil anonymous questionnaire was voluntarily responded by 573 teachers from the different educational levels in the state of yucatan, mexico. from these, 185 (32%) were males and 388 (68%) females. teachers were on the average 32 (sd = 3.2) years old, with a modal seniority of 13 years in the school system. almost half of them worked full time, a quarter of them worked half time, and the remaining quarter were teachers hired on an hourly basis. teachers showed, in general, similar characteristics to teachers in other states in mexico. special fields of teaching were: spanish language (23%), social sciences (32%), stem subjects (20 %), arts and physical education (5%), and others (20%). table 1 depicts participants by gender and grade level taught. table 1. participant characteristics legend: m = males; f = females; (%) data collection and analysis a questionnaire was designed asking for general demographic and labor information. in addition, teachers were presented a list of 15 teaching activities (table 2). they were asked to rate the frequency of use in a six-point likert scale. cronbach reliability coefficient was .766. table 2 presents the table of specifications depicting the dimensions and items in each. primary junior high high school college total m f m f m f m f m f 39 141 34 141 47 74 23 34 185 (32) 388 (68) 180 (31) 215 (38) 121 (21) 57 (10) 73 (100) irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 68 table 2. dimensions of instructional strategies and corresponding survey items dimension items critical thinking instructional activities that foster intellectually disciplined processes as the basis of learn students reflect upon their own work i posit questions to check if they had understood i make them express their thoughts classroom management activities to create and maintain a structured and intentional learning environment i present the classroom objectives i promote order and discipline i administer tests to assess their learning differentiation instructional activities that mean to account for variation in students’ abilities, styles, and preferences. i assign tasks according to the student capacity i check on individual differences i make groups according to abilities cooperative learning classroom activities that attend to increasing social interaction and fostering academic and social learning experiences i promote group-work they develop products to be used by others i promote group tasks independent work instructional strategies that promote individual learning activities under control of the student i check the homework i ask the students to work/use their textbook i assign long term projects a confirmatory factor analysis allowed the establishment post-hoc of five factors/dimensions. these activities were clustered into 5 groups according to their factorial loads. each dimension represented a categorical teaching strategy as described in table 2, including the items clustered by this method. finally, teachers were asked to self-assess in a six-point likert scale: (1) how good they were as teachers and (2) how efficient their instruction was. data were fed into spss version 20 for statistical analysis. parametric testes were sued to explore for statistical significant differences. findings gender differences gender differences were explored using simple t–tests. scores in each category of teaching strategy were pondered in a scale from 1 to 6 by dividing the mean score by the irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 69 number of items in each dimension, so everyone had the same directly comparable scale. table 3 depicts the results of this analysis by gender. table 3. differences in teaching strategies by gender men (n = 165) women (n = 388) t p classroom management 4.23 (.56) 4.26 (.56) .64 .69 independent study 4.17 (1.2) 4.22 (.89) 3.19 .001* cognitive skills 3.91 (.61) 3.94 (.58) .249 .265 cooperation 3.74(.99) 3.75(1.03) .126 .11 differentiation 3.29 (.97) 3.27 (.88) 1.3 .62 legend: m, (sd). in general, classroom management seemed to be the major concern of these teachers. the only statistically significant difference in teaching strategies by gender was found in the analysis of independent study. female teachers promoted more independent activities than males. no other statistically significant differences were found. in general, women showed higher scores than men across most teaching strategies. and when asked how good of a teacher they were, women tended to consider themselves better teachers than men (t = 2.33; p = .027). grade level differences one-way anovas were carried out to explore differences in the use of teaching strategies by grade level. table 4 summarizes the results. table 4. anova: teaching strategies by level of teaching level grade/years primary 1 -6 secondary 7-9 high school 10-12 college ≥ 13 n 181 214 121 54 f p classroom management 4.32 (.56) 4.21 (.58) 4.22 (.52) 4.15 (.57) 1.68 .151 independent study 4.35 (1.14) 4.13 (1.21) 4.17 (.53) 4.0 (.90) 1.76 .134 cognitive skills 3.99 (.55) 3.85 (.61) 3.93 (.61) 4.04 (.58) 2.33 .055 cooperation 3.89 (.99) 3.62 (1.04) 3.69 (.95) 3.76 (3.7) 1.79 .129 differentiation 3.46 (.88) 3.23 (.86) 3.04 (.92) 3.4 (.93) 3.67 .001 frequency of teaching strategies ranked similarly in every level. the only significant difference was in differentiated instruction that logically was more frequently used by primary school teachers. no statistically significant differences were found in college teachers that primarily work with graduate students with those who worked with undergraduates. irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 70 teachers self -concept and use of specific teaching strategies teachers´ self-concept was the sum of two dimensions of perception: self-esteem and self-efficacy. the distribution of both measures, as expected, was skewed to the right, having 78% of teachers with a high self-perception and 22% with low self-perception. no differences in self-efficacy were found by either level taught (primary, secondary, high school, and college) or in the use of a teaching strategy. regarding general self-concept as a teacher (how good of a teacher are you), there were significant differences in 3 of the 5 categories of teaching strategies, as depicted in table 5. table 5. teaching strategies by level of self-concept low (n = 165) high (n = 388) t p classroom management 3.96 (.60) 4.33 (.52) 6.75 .001 independent study 3.95 (.69) 4.28 (1.06) 3.29 .001 critical thinking 3.73 (.59) 3.98 (.57) 4.32 .001 cooperation 3.75 (.92) 3.72 (1.02) .281 .779 differentiation 3.20 (.97) 3.30 (.88) 1.08 .278 legend: m; (sd); t = student’s t; p = alpha probability level. this analysis showed that teachers with high self-esteem as teachers (that consider themselves good teachers) tended to carry out more student-centred teaching activities than teachers with high self-concept in three of the five dimensions under analysis: classroom management, independent study, and critical thinking. no other significant differences were found in these teachers when contrasted by training, experience, field of study, or type of school. discussion the analysis of demographic information indicated that results data from this study could be extended to the average mexican teacher/student. in general, few gender differences were found. the only teaching strategy that seemed to be different by gender was promoting independent study, with women teachers promoting independent study more frequently than men. this may be associated to women reporting interest in paying attention to students’ homework, checking their homework, and the management of textbook and learning materials. traditional gender roles in mexico align with this finding reporting that women, in this case teachers, sometimes also mothers, tend to pay more attention to autonomous activities, such as homework, while men pay more attention to summative assessment, or grades (sánchez & martínez, 2016). however, this difference needs to be better studied by observational and other research strategies. the preference for mexican female teachers to promote independent deserves further investigation. irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 71 asking teachers to assess their own performance as teachers is not common practice in educational research in mexico. yet, we asked teachers about their feelings under the frame of self-concept, a traditional construct in school psychology, divided in two dimensions: their self-esteem and their self-efficacy. in both dimensions, we observed bi-modal presentation of results; nearly 80% of participants had a high self-perception and 20% a low self-perception. overall, there seemed to be no differences in feelings of self-efficacy of teachers and the strategies they use. however, when analyzing the self-steam (how good of a teacher are you?) there were significant differences in the relationships with three of the five strategies. high self-esteem teachers reported more frequent classroom management, independent study, and the promotion of critical thinking skills than low self-esteem teachers. this is an interesting finding, because regardless of perception of effectiveness, those mexican teachers considering themselves good were more like to use student-centred teaching strategies that desire to promote a positive learning environment. this suggests that low self-esteem teachers may have an external locus of control that imputes effectiveness to things other than teaching. this hypothesis, of course, deserves further empirical research. asking teachers what they do and how they feel in educational research is useful to collect empirical data about teachers themselves. although this study approach is simple with direct variables, it generates important information to understand the teaching situation and teacher training in mexico. results, for example, indicated that teachers were most concerned with classroom management and promoting independent study, which goes against common teacher training programs in the country that that emphasizes cooperative learning and differentiation. most importantly, the promotion of critical thinking skills – an aspect salient to many educational reforms and pedagogies – does not seem to be as a frequentist used strategy by teachers in mexico. these results encourage a further study of critical thinking pedagogies in mexico. although we might anticipate more critical thinking pedagogies in high school and higher education, the data showed no differences in grade level. this needs to be further analyzed because of the developmental nature of high school and college-age students who are preparing for adult life. generally, teachers in mexico were concerned with classroom management. this finding makes sense because teachers are concerned with facilitating their classrooms, viewing creating a positive learning environment as their primary responsibility. this permeated across gender and all levels of instruction. interestingly, cooperation and differentiation seemed to be the least of teachers’ concerns even though these topics are highly recommended in the literature and teacher preparation and training programs. also, promoting critical thinking seemed to be in the middle, despite making students think or reflect is a challenge in current education. when we examined teaching practices by grade level, the only difference was that primary school teachers focused more on differentiation than other teachers. this is logical given the developmental nature of young children. educational challenges must be addressed among primary age students such that the students persist in school. in the absence of differentiation, students may drop out of school altogether. differentiation in lower grades seems to be a logical finding considering development issues and the prevalence of learning problems in lower grades. irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 72 the fact that teacher´s self-esteem seems to be a better predictor of the use of student-centred teaching activities is ant interested one for two reasons. the first, relays on the fact that no significant differences were found by their feelings of self-efficacy, related to their perception of how efficient or effective these strategies are. however, teachers reporting higher sense of being a good teacher tend to use these strategies more often that those with lower feelings of teachers´ self-esteem. conclusion in general, three major findings can be derived from the study. first, it can be concluded that female teacher tended to promote more independent study than their male colleagues. second, differentiation of instruction seemed to be preferred by teachers of lower grade levels. the third finding was that teacher’s self-esteem seemed to be a better predictor of student-centred teaching strategies which were used more often by teachers in lower grades. research focusing in teachers‘ practices in developing countries continues to be a need, information yielded in this study may be important for improving teachers ‘training programs and must be considered to implement educational policies that respond to both students and teachers concerns. teaching is a profession in continues change, technological advancements, globalization, social equity movements and many other factors should promote educational researchers to focus their efforts in documenting how these external influences impact teacher perceptions and actions in the classroom. references abrami, p. c., bernard, r. m., borokhovski, e., wade, a., surkes, m. a., tamim, r., & zhang, d. (2008). instructional interventions affecting critical thinking skills and dispositions: a stage 1 meta-analysis. review of educational research, 78(4), 1102-1134. bandura, a. (1977). self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. psychological review, 84, 191-215. bruffee, k. a. (1993). collaborative learning: higher education, interdependence, and the authority of knowledge. baltimore, md: johns hopkins university press. cangelosi, j.s. (2014). classroom management strategies: gaining and maintaining students’ cooperation, 7th ed. san francisco, ca: wiley. dataworks educational reseach. (2014). differentiation strategies: teaching grade-level content to all students. obtenido de. gillies, r.m., ashman, a.f., & terwel, j. (2008). the teacher’s role in implementing cooperative learning in the classroom. new york: springer. golub, j. (1988). focus on collaborative learning. urbana, il: national council of teachers of english. graves, d. h., & sunstein, b. s. (1992). portfolio portraits.portsmouth, nh: heinemann. hooks, b. (2010). teaching critical thinking: practical wisdom. new york: routledge. johnson, d., & johnson, r. (1989). cooperation and competition: theory and research. edina, mn: interaction book company. klassen, r., & chiu, m. (2010). effects on teachers’ self-efficacy and job satisfaction: teacher gender, years of experience & job stress. journal of educational psychology, 102(3), 741-756. irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 73 langer, j.a., & applebee, a.n. (1987). how writing shapes thinking. urbana, il: national council of teachers of english. mclaughlin, m. e., & talbert, j. e. (1993). introduction: new visions of teaching. in m. w. mclaughlin & j. e. talbert (eds.), teaching for understanding (pp. 1-10). san francisco, ca: jossey-bass. meyer, n., haywood, b., & faraday, s. (2008). what is independent learning and what are the benefits for the student? london: department for children, schools and families research. mullola, s., ravaja, n., lipsanen, j. alatupa, s., hintsanen, m., jokela, m., & keltikangas-jarvinen, l. (2012). gender differences in teachers’ perceptions of students’ temperament, educational competence, and teachability. british journal of educational psychology, 82, 185-206. phelan, p. (1989). talking to learn. urban, il: national council of teachers of english. sanchez, p., & martinez, r. (2016). caracteristicas de mujeres de lato rendmiento acadmeico en mexico (unpublishedtesis de masetria), mie. facultad de educacion. universidad autonoma de yucatán. sohroy, w. (2005). knowledwe and thought: an introduction to critical thinking. experimental psychology, 52(2), 163-164. stefanou, c. r., perencevich, k. c., dicintio, m., & turner, j. c. (2004). supporting autonomy in the classroom: ways teachers encourage student decision making and ownership. educational psychologist, 39(2), 97-110. tomlinson, c.a. (2003). fulfilling the promise of the differentiated classroom: strategies and tools for responsive teaching. alexandria, va: association for supervision and curriculum development. watkins c., & wagner, p. (1991). disciplina escolar. barcelona: editorial paidós. wenglinsky, h. (2002). how schools matter: the link between teacher classroom practices and student academic performance. education policy analysis archives, 10(12). zhukov, k. (2012). teaching strategies and gender in higher education instrumental studios. international journal of music education: research, 30(1), 32-45. biographical notes pedro sánchez-escobedo is a former fulbright scholar. currently he is a senior lecturer at the university of yucatan, in the college of education. he has contributed significantly to both educational and psychological fields in mexico. he was in charge of the standardization processes of the three major intelligence scales widely used in mexico in both clinical and educational settings and he has published so far 7 books an more than 100 original research articles. ana karen camelo-lavadores is a doctoral student at the multidisciplinary social sciences degree at the universidad autónoma de yucatán. merida, yucatan mexico. she has a master’s in educational innovation and she focuses on research of gifted and high achieving students. irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 74 measurement model of reasoning skills among science students based on socio scientific issues (ssi) mohd afifi bin bahurudin setambah 1 abstract the lack of reasoning skills has been recognized as one of the contributing factors to the declined achievement in the trends in mathematics and science studies (timss) and programme for international student assessment (pisa) assessments in malaysia. the use of socio-scientific issues (ssi) as a learning strategy offers the potential of improving the level of students' reasoning skills and consequently improves students’ achievement in science subjects. this study examined the development of a measurement model of reasoning skills among science students based on ssi using the analysis of moment structure (amos) approach before going to second level to full structured equation modelling (sem). a total of 450 respondents were selected using a stratified random sampling. results showed a modified measurement model of reasoning skills consisting of the view knowledge (vk) was as a main construct. the items that measure the level of pre-reflection of students fulfilled the elements of unidimensionality, validity, and reliability. although the level of student reasoning skills was still low but this development of measurement model could be identified and proposed teaching methods that could be adopted to improve students’ reasoning skills. keywords reasoning skills, socio-scientific issues, independent knowledge, instrument development, measurement model 1 institut pendidikan guru, kampus bahasa melayu, lembah pantai, malaysia; mohdafifi@ipgkbm.edu.my irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 75 introduction a country with good results and achievements in timss and pisa can be considered a country with the best educational system in the world (liou & hung, 2015; luschei, 2017). conversely, if timms and pisa results indicate a decrease, then a negative reflection is reflected on its education system. this is because the world knowledge-economy (k-economy) competition requires the mastery of science, mathematics, and technology (breiner, johnson, harkness, & koehler, 2012). the decline in the number of students taking science and mathematics is not only happening in asian countries, but also in other developed countries such as in united stated, canada, south korea, and china. pisa 2009 and timms 2012 results show that the number of american students taking science and mathematics subjects experienced a significant drop in k-economy competition, where this competition gave a great blow as there were four countries that led such as finland, canada, korea, and china. despite this problem, the same thing has happened in malaysia (tienken, 2013). ironically, the education system in malaysia is the same as the education system in another country a system that emphasizes the development of strong knowledge content through subjects like science, mathematics and language. however, there is a growing global awareness that 3m's control (reading, writing, and counting) alone is not enough for students who leave the world of schooling. on the other hand, the focus given to the students is not only for the sake of acquiring knowledge, but also towards the higher level of thinking skills (kbat) to produce the first-class students (primary education report of malaysia 2013-2025). based on timss and pisa results for science subjects tested in 2006, 2012, and 2015, malaysia is experiencing a decline compared to other developing countries. even in 2015, the results of timss and pisa experienced a slight increase, yet still did not reach the 500 points level in international achievement. therefore, the emphasis on the need for reasoning skills should be given attention to students in malaysia (ministry of education, 2013). referring to the timss and pisa questions tested, most questions require the mastery of the science concept associated with the student's daily life. social scientific issues are used to focus on understanding the concept of science through observation, reading, and discussion that require high level thinking skills through analysis and synthesis skills. in teaching and learning, these thinking skills and analyses are known as reasoning skills (bao et al., 2009). this skill enables students to make observations, inferences, and conclusions and can relate to the concepts taught through the existing curriculum (dunbar & klahr, 2012). in this regard, the ministry of education has transformed education from pre-school level by introducing reasoning skills. according to the national education policy 2012, since 2011, the reasoning skills have been applied to pre-school students in order to provide the first-year students with creative and critical thinking skills. therefore, the objective of this study was to develop a measurement model of reasoning skills that could explain the characteristics of students in malaysia based on scientific socio-issues. the implications of this study can provide guidance on educational practices to improve the science curriculum, especially biological subjects. hence, this study would answer the research question: which is the model of reasoning skills that can explain the true characteristics of students in malaysia based on socio-science issues? irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 76 literature review reasoning skills reasoning skill is a process that allows students to engage in problem solving skills and build a logical conclusion (daempfle, 2012). during this process, pattern and level of reasoning can be measured by referring to the answers given. the answers can determine the level of the student's reasoning either at low, medium, or high levels. accordingly, the choice of reasoning skills as an endogenous variable is able to identify the processes, stages, and patterns of our students making decisions. during the process of reasoning, cognitive constructivist theory was cited as the theory that was able to form students' cognitive constructivism (piaget, 1976). other models involving the reasoning process are also given a priority during the discussion as it helps the researcher to identify and differentiate the student's reasoning. among the models to be considered are reflective judgment (king, 1981; king, patricia, & kitchener, 1994) and relativist model (perry, 1979). siegler (2016) stated the stages of reasoning were divided into three levels, which are low (concrete), moderate (transitional), and high (formal). at a low level, the phase of concrete involves students to feel or observe the real situation for them to better understand the learning and concepts taught. while for the moderate level is the transitional process in which the student needs a command to do something after a student wants to feel or try first. at this stage, the students do not have intuition to conclude or implement hypotheses (hogan, dwyer, harney, noone, & conway, 2015). at the highest point of action, the phase involved is formal. at this point, students are able to build and generate knowledge and want to test for clarification when they are faced with an ambiguity on given problems. table 1 shows each available reasoning model and its comparison. table 1. comparison table of rs level(daempfle, 2012) rs level piaget perry king & kitchner low concrete dualism pre-reflective medium transitional multiplicity quasi-reflective high formal relativisms reflective socio-scientific issues (ssi) science literacy can be linked to the skills of understanding, embedding, and applying. this is because science literacy involves the skills of scientific knowledge (nuangchale, 2009). when focused on the subject of science, literacy becomes a necessary knowledge of understanding and clarification of the idea that is derived from the relevance of natural phenomena. thus, in explaining the relevance of environmental phenomena and science, socio scientific issues play an important role in generating ideas for solving problems. furthermore, the development of science and current issues are complementary (oecd, 2011). irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 77 at present, the development of science is in line with technological developments. for that reason, the general understanding of the principles of science is very important in their daily lives. communities need to be aware of issues affecting such as health issues and pollution issues as a result of human activities (sadler, 2009). hence, the problems associated with the phenomenon of science and with students’ life can have an impact if the students are able to argue and give their opinions. in line with the questions from timss and pisa, each student needs to know the scientific issues related to the subject matter, and can explain the scientific phenomenon that occurs and is capable of submitting scientific evidence. the study of siegel and ranney (2003) indicates that students agree that the concept of science taught can be linked to the phenomenon of the often-occurring scientific phenomena in their daily lives. indirectly, students can add the concept of science by doing activities that do not conflict with the issues discussed or observed the phenomenon occurring in their environment for certainty. according to guzzetti, synder, glass, and gama (1993), student‘s conception of scientific phenomena is based on observation and daily experience. after experiencing such a situation, this method can give students new ideas or concepts to think. this can prevent students from misunderstanding the concepts learned. this is because when a concept of science has been mixed in the students, it is difficult for them to change it even if a proper concept has been taught by the teacher (hmelo-silver et al., 2007). the concept is usually developed on what has been seen and experienced. a measurement model the first step, in order to produce and obtain a matching model of measurement is through the construction of research hypotheses. then, the value of uni-dimensionality, validity, and reliability is measured and analysed to determine the models fixed. according to gallagher and brown (2013), the measurement of model fixed to the data collection procedures that can develop the reliability of the full structured equation model (sem). if the development of measurement model does not have matching data, then the steps to produce a fully structured equation model (sem) are not worth for the study data (byrne, 2013; kline, 2011; piaw, 2014; zainudin, 2015). the construction stage of the measurement model is also known as a validation factor analysis or confirmatory factor analysis (cfa). cfa is used to measure the consistency of items or significant indicator variables in the selected latent variable (gallagher & brown, 2013). researcher also analysed the fitness indexes to ensure that the data constructed for the development of a structured equation model were matched. zainudin (2015) states that what needs to be identified and measured in the validation factor analysis at this stage is uni-dimensional, convergent, construct, and discriminant validity and consistency of internal, construct, and average variance extracted (ave). to measure uni-dimensionality, the correlation value on the factor loading of a low item will be removed. the load factor acceptance value is greater than 0.5 and above (> 0.5). item removal can only be done on an item only and then the researcher needs re-specification to achieve the uni-dimensionality of the item. in addition, to measure the validity of the instrument that is what should be measured in each construct; there are three types of legality that must be fulfilled. irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 78 the first validity is the convergent validity to ensuring that all items are statistically significant with reference to the average variance extracted or ave with a value greater than or equal to 0.5. the second validity is the construct validity which is looking at the value of validity when fitness indexes meet the goodness of fit index (gfi) value of equal or greater than 0.90 (≥ 0.90), then, the comparative fit index (cfi) with the value equal to or greater than 0.90 (≥ 0.90). next, the root mean square error approximation (rmsea) with the value equal to or smaller than 0.08 (≤ 0.08) and finally chi square test (chisq / df) with a value greater than 5.0. the third validity is the discriminant validity which refers to the state of legality independent of the items overlapping in the same contract or other contract. methodology the data collection technique in this study was a survey. 450 respondents were selected in this study by using a two-stage stratified random sampling (cragin & shankar, 2006). the first stage was to use a simple random sampling of a state based on five zones (north, central, east, and south), the researcher determined the state of each zone using a simple random one state, and the states finally selected were kedah, perak, terengganu, and johor. as for the second stage was a simple random in order to determine the number of students in each state (saunders, lewis, & thornhill, 2012). table 2 shows the method to determine the number of respondents in this study. table 2. method to determine the number of respondents in this study number of respondents number of students selected north zone (kedah) 5,057 97 central zone (perak) 7,168 138 east zone(terengganu) 2,462 47 south zone (johor) 8,761 168 total: (four zones) 23,448 450 the instrument set used in this study was in the form of a written test to measure the level and pattern of scientific reasoning of science students based on socio scientific issues (bell & lederman, 2002). according to bell and laderman (2002), this instrument has a high degree of validity since it has passed the validity process of six experts -four science teachers and two scientists. the scenario questioned in this instrument is based on socio-scientific issues that can be used for biology subjects. the reasoning skill instrument has three different scenarios that discuss the issues of ssi adapted from bell and laderman (2002). the scenario is common queried and can be answered by the students stating the reason for their decision, in addition to saving time. this instrument refers to the dimension of reasoning which consists of three scenarios, the scenario i (climate change) and ii (nutrition), there are five sub-questions and for scenario iii (smoking and cancer), there are 3 sub-questions. each question requires students set decided whether to agree or not and why? because the answer that gets a high score rubric is the answer that needs justification, mechanisms, and irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 79 examples. table 3 shows an example of scenario iii through the issue of smoking and cancer were administered to students. to analyse the questions to the students scientific reasoning skill, argumentation reasoning rubric complex analysis has been carried out (tal & hochberg, 2003; zohar & nemet, 2002). the section devoted to supporting each student's response to their arguments by stating the justification and by explaining the mechanisms that was showed in table 4. rubric given score will refer to the score level of rs. the same reasoning score level with a study conducted by perry (1999) and king and kitchner (1994) involving the rs scheme scoring in determining the level of reasoning is as shown in table 5 (lawson, 2004). table 3. an example of scientific reasoning questions for scenario iii scenario iii many researchers believe that smoking accounts for a large proportion of all cancers and as much as 30% of all cancer deaths. cigarette smoking has specifically been implicated as the cause of cancer of the lung, oral cavity, larynx, oesophagus, bladder, kidney, and pancreas. additionally, the risk of developing cancer is greater for people who smoke more and who start smoking at a younger age. furthermore, researchers believe that smoking may be the cause of 25–30% of all heart disease. exposure to passive tobacco smoke is very likely a significant cause of cancer in non-smokers. some scientists believe that the increased risk could be as high as 50%. it has been estimated that thousands of people die each year due to exposure to passive cigarette smoke. recently, nicotine in cigarette tobacco has been identified as a drug whose addictiveness exceeds that of opium and heroin. in addition to this, documents have come to light that indicate that some tobacco companies have used a variety of methods to increase the amount and potency of nicotine in cigarette tobacco. finally, it has been shown that many people begin smoking as teenagers, and once started, have a very difficult time quitting. in contrast to these claims, tobacco companies have consistently asserted that while tobacco may be associated with increased risk for various cancers and heart disease, it has never been proven to cause these diseases. furthermore, to smoke or not is a free choice that should be up to the consumer, not government agencies. sub questions 3a. given the reported dangers of cigarette smoke and its addictiveness, should legislation be passed that would make cigarette smoking illegal? why or why not? 3b. would you support legislation that makes it more difficult for minors to obtain cigarettes and/or penalizes tobacco companies who target minors in their advertising? why or why not? 3c. do the alleged dangers of passive cigarette smoke justify banning smoking in public places such as restaurants and bars? why or why not? irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 80 table 4. the schematic showing the score and answers to students' reasoning scenario score reasoning score i, ii, & iii 0 no answer or no justification in context of question 1 one justification of decision: mechanism unelaborated 2 two or more justifications of decision: mechanisms unelaborated 3 one justification of decision: mechanism explained with examples 4 two or more justifications of decision: one mechanism explained 5 two or more justifications of decision: multiple mechanisms explained table 5. the score scheme and the level of reasoning skill score level of rs 0-1 level 1 (low – pre reflective) 2-3 level 2 (medium – quasi reflective) 4-5 level 3 (high – reflective) results the research hypothesis tested for the measurement model of reasoning skills is: h1-the measurement model of reasoning skills has validity and has fixed with the study data. in this model there are three sub-constructs that measure rs as a result of the built efa: view knowledge (vk), context knowing (ck), and independent knowing (ik). figure 1 shows the measurement model of rs which is being constructed. this model was developed based on data from written test instruments. this measurement model of rs did not match with the study data. this model was not significant and the research hypothesis was rejected. there are six items that do not meet the criteria for subtracting, namely ck (ps1a, ps1b, and ps1c) and ik (ps3a, ps3b, & ps3c). figure 1. the first measurement model of reasoning skills ck ik v k irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 81 in table 6, sub-constructs that do not meet the requirements of uni-dimensionality, validity, and reliability through load factor assessment (ps1a, ps1b, ps1c, ps3a, ps3b, and ps3c). whereas, the value of c.r in the sub-construct of ck is 3.165 and ave = 3.221. while for ik, the value of c.r is 0.190 and ave = 0.119. table 6. the value of each substructure and item variables sub constructs items outer loading (>0.5) removed items c.r (≥0.6) ave (≥0.5) ave squar ed reasoning skills (rs) context knowing (ck) ps1a ps1b ps1c 3.08 0.059 -0.07 removed removed removed 3.165 3.221 1.779 view knowledge (vk) ps2a ps2b ps2c ps2d ps2e 0.898 0.917 0.758 0.856 0.096 0.593 0.858 0.770 independent knowing (ik) ps3a ps3b ps3c 0.549 0.377 -0.354 removed removed removed 0.190 0.119 0.435 to ensure the measurement model of rs, six non-fixed items were removed. after six items from the ck and ik sub-constructs were removed, the modified measurement model of rs developed on the second was significant and fixed to the study data. hence the hypothesis was accepted. table 7 and figure 2 show the acceptance measurement model of rs and the only remaining vk sub-contract with five items (ps2a, ps2b, ps2c, ps2d, & ps2e). figure 2. the measurement model fixed to the study data the measurement model of rs fixed the study data is shown in the analysis through table 7. the value of the five remaining items in the vk sub-constructs has been uni-dimensional vk irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 82 requirements of more than 0.5. while for the value of c.r is 0.593 mean that ≥ 0.6 and ave is 0.858 which is ≥ 0.5. table 7. findings of the modified measurement model of rs was fixed to the study data variable sub-construct items outer loading (>0.5) c.r (≥0.6) ave (≥0.5) ave squared rs view knowledge (vk) ps2a ps2b ps2c ps2d ps2e 0.898 0.917 0.758 0.856 0.096 0.593 0.858 0.770 discussion in this study, reasoning skill is a process of generating grounds through generating ideas to solve problems (voss, perkins, & segal, 2009). this rs represents the ability of students to engage in various empirical-inductive patterns of thinking to hypothetical-deductive thinking (gerber, cavallo, & marek, 2001). this instrument was taken from the socio scientific issue of bell and lederman (2002), which had three major scenarios related to and 11 questioned items. it is the environmental issues such as nutrition, effects of cigarettes and cancer, and genetic engineering. the measurement model of rs which was developed on the second was valid and fixed the study data. the findings of the measurement model of rs illustrate to the researcher that students in malaysia were not able to explain the process of claiming to more concrete by getting a simple reason and giving a less complete explanation. this model is parallel to the reflection model between piaget (1976), perry (1999), and king and kitchner (1994) involving the level and pattern of reasoning. for piaget (1976), the low level is known as concrete while perry (1999) is known as dualism and king and kitchner (1994) known as pre-reflection. this finding is different from bhat (2016), the knowledge and context of teaching in science should have a significant relationship with what the student learns. when measuring students' level of reasoning in this study, descriptive results shows 78% of students answer at a low level by giving a short answer without a detailed explanation (ikhwan, sadiah, & eshah, 2017). the findings of darus' (2012) study, based on the results of timss and pisa indicate that students in malaysia still have an inadequate attitude when answering questions, especially questions requiring longer reading or essay questions. in addition, students have become accustomed to short, structured, and multi-choice question formats on previous tests. conclusion in conclusion, the development of measurement model of reasoning based on socio scientific issues is able to conform and identify the levels and constructs that need to exist irje | vol. 2 | no. 1| year 2018 |issn: 2580-5711 83 during the process of clarifying for science students especially in biological subjects. the study of tal, kali, magid, and madhok (2011), a solution to solving socio-scientific issues can expose students to the ability to understand and make students more active in class than passive through traditional methods. compared to students in malaysia, they are still unable to formalize and reflect on any questions raised. this implication actually allows students learn to be centralized. students are free to give reasons for each question as long as they are able to argue in the classroom. there is no wrong answer from 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(2002). fostering students knowledge and argumentation skills through dilemmas in human genetics. journal of research in science teaching, 39(1), 35– 62. https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.10008 biographical note dr. mohd afifi bin bahurudin setambah is a lecturer at jabatan penyelidikan & rekayasa penemuan, institut pendidikan guru kampus bahasa melayu, lembah pantai 59990. kuala lumpur. mohdafifi@ipgkbm.edu.my mailto:mohdafifi@ipgkbm.edu.my