Preliminary Thesis 15 JOURNAL FOR ECONOMIC EDUCATORS, VOL. 8, NO. 1, SPRING 2008 UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH SOCIAL MOBILITY IN THE UNITED STATES AS A MARKOV PROCESS Zol Alexei Hooper and E. Anthon Eff 1 Abstract Previous research on intergenerational mobility in income, occupation, or social class as a Markov process typically uses regression models to analyze cross-sectional data. In this paper we draw data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY) to build Markov transition states, producing a set of stylized facts from these longitudinal data. We derive the probabilities that children will repeat the occupational, educational, or child-raising choices of their parents. This gives us insight into how such lifestyle choices are vertically transmitted from parents to children, and the degree of persistence of these choices over the generations. Introduction There has been much research on intergenerational mobility. As Gaer, Schokkaert, and Martinez (2001) postulate, we attempt to measure it not only for a description of movement, but also to learn something about economic opportunity and the equality or inequality of life chances and opportunities. For example, if the inheritability of status is so large as to limit equality of opportunity, when and how should government step in to level the playing field (Ahlburg, 1998)? For that matter, what exactly is being inherited? Whereas earlier studies like Blau and Duncan (1967) concentrated more on a person’s socio-economic status in and of itself relative to his/her parents, later approaches such as Jenks et al. (1979) began to focus on the determinants of status i.e. the level of investment in a child. Certainly from a government intervention standpoint, it is important to know the component causes of (im)mobility rather than just the end effect. Background To interpret data, we must use a set of assumptions that will destroy some trees so as to make the forest visible. The first of these assumptions is the Markov assumption, or more accurately, the assumption that transition probabilities have the Markov property. In a system with the Markov property, the probability of achieving any given future state is conditioned only on the present state and not on the past states. For example, in dice-driven board games, the probability of adopting any of the set of possible future states, given the present state depends only on how the dice are rolled and not on how the game acquired the present state. This assumption allows us to treat people in the same categories as having the same transition probabilities. Also, it provides a method to estimate future transitions, for which there are no data, using the distribution of status in the present state. 1 Zol Alexei Hooper, Actuarial Science Major, Middle Tennessee State University; E. Anthon Eff, Associate Professor, Economics and Finance Department, Middle Tennessee State University. This article is based on an Honors Thesis by Zol A. Hooper mentored by E. Anthon Eff. 16 JOURNAL FOR ECONOMIC EDUCATORS, VOL. 8, NO. 1, SPRING 2008 Hodge (1966) compared actual movement data with a simulation based on the Markov chain. Among his findings was that only 13.4% of grandsons in his data set would need to change occupations to come in line with the “perfect” mobility condition in which every generation is independent of the last. This implies that the cumulative effect of the generations before the parents (the past states) does not matter greatly. Even so, there are still caveats. Bowles & Gintis (2002) point out two common types of measurement error in income mobility studies: the misreporting of parents’ income and transitory influences on children’s income that do not necessarily reflect permanent status. These transitory influences exaggerated early estimates of mobility by underestimating a core metric of mobility called the elasticity of earnings. The elasticity of earnings communicates how quickly the offspring’s earnings change with respect to the parent’s income. It is measured by finding the average percentage change in the earnings of the population of offspring when the population of parents’ earnings changes by one percent. A large elasticity of earnings indicates that the offspring’s earnings are strongly affected by the parent’s earnings, which is not desirable in an economy that strives to provide equal opportunity for all. According to Zimmerman (1992), these two errors led early researchers to conclude that the elasticity of earnings was no more than 0.2. His own estimates, which correct for these errors, find elasticities closer to 0.4, indicating much less mobility than was previously thought. A second assumption that goes hand-in-hand with the Markov assumption is that of homogeneity—that the entire population under study is subject to the same transition probabilities. Homogeneity allows us to treat the relative number of persons making a specific movement, as in a table of actual movement data for example, as probabilities which can be assembled into a Markov transition matrix. McFarland (1970) notes that separating the population into various classes may achieve a better fit at the cost of more variables and the need for more data. He further cautions that attempts to estimate the n-step transition matrix by raising the one-step matrix to the nth power may overestimate mobility. The assumption violation that he is warns about here, however, is that of stationarity—the assumption that transition probabilities remain constant (stationary) over time. By many accounts, mobility decreases over time. As he puts it, “If the proportion of people moving declines over time, then there is considerable appeal to the notion that, in one way or another, the probability of moving declines over time,” (McFarland, 1970, p. 466). Many personal traits can determine a person’s economic success, but some matter more than others. Bowles, Gintis, and Groves (2005) argue that the transmission of IQ, even if we can assume that to be a measure of pure intellect, or cognitive ability, is not nearly as important economically as the level of schooling completed, which is a function of intellect, motivation, and resources, or cognitive performance. Recent findings by Bouchard (2004) indicate that a wide variety of human traits previously thought to be shaped solely by the environment are in fact heritable. He also finds that the effect of genetics on intelligence, political leanings, and religiosity increase with age. Restuccia and Urrutia (2004) assert that economic opportunity is largely influenced by investment in early education and that this explains the relatively high persistence in earnings between generations in the U.S. That is, families which are too poor to afford the resources to invest in their children’s early (formative) education are more likely to produce adults who have a relatively lower chance of completing college. If we assume that this connection between early education and economic opportunity is true, then its effect is bolstered by the relative opportunity cost of having children. That is, a 17 JOURNAL FOR ECONOMIC EDUCATORS, VOL. 8, NO. 1, SPRING 2008 person who gives up less economic opportunity top bear children, or perceives that s/he gives up less opportunity, is more likely to bear them. Thus, poor persons are more likely to have children in youth while they lack adequate resources to invest in their children’s education. Meanwhile, those who have waited a relatively long time to bear children, perhaps by choosing to complete their schooling and obtain a job first, are more likely to be able to afford the resources that would allow their children to maximize their potential. In the spirit of recent work that seeks to quantify factors other than income, we want to investigate the transmission of lifestyle choices using Markov chains in the same way as they have been used to study intergenerational income in years past. Table 1 Number of respondents Persons living with at age 14 Category 8570 FATHER-MOTHER MARCOU 191 FATHER-STEPMOTHER FATHER 30 FATHER-OTHER WOMAN RELATIVE FATHER 9 FATHER-OTHER WOMAN FATHER 146 FATHER-NO WOMAN FATHER 6 FATHER-MISSING WOMAN FATHER 841 STEPFATHER-MOTHER MOTHER 14 STEPFATHER-STEPMOTHER OTHREL 2 STEPFATHER-WOMAN RELATIVE OTHREL 2 STEPFATHER-OTHER WOMAN OTHREL 2 STEPFATHER-NO WOMAN OTHREL 102 MAN RELATIVE-MOTHER MOTHER 2 MAN RELATIVE-STEPMOTHER OTHREL 235 MAN RELATIVE-WOMAN RELATIVE OTHREL 1 MAN RELATIVE-OTHER WOMAN OTHREL 17 MAN RELATIVE-NO WOMAN OTHREL 54 OTHER MAN-MOTHER MOTHER 1 OTHER MAN-STEPMOTHER OTHREL 9 OTHER MAN-WOMAN RELATIVE OTHREL 57 OTHER MAN-OTHER WOMAN NONREL 6 OTHER MAN-NO WOMAN NONREL 2124 NO MAN-MOTHER MOTHER 1 NO MAN-STEPMOTHER OTHREL 138 NO MAN-WOMAN RELATIVE OTHREL 18 NO MAN-OTHER WOMAN NONREL 3 NO MAN-NO WOMAN NONREL 22 OTHER ARRANGEMENT NONREL 3 ON MY OWN NONREL 60 MISSING MAN-MOTHER MOTHER 1 MISSING MAN-WOMAN RELATIVE OTHREL Framework The various descriptors of social mobility that we collect are intended to give a more balanced picture than what could be obtained from job category alone. Because occupations are continually being created and made obsolete, social mobility cannot be defined solely in terms of 18 JOURNAL FOR ECONOMIC EDUCATORS, VOL. 8, NO. 1, SPRING 2008 occupation. But the movement from one generation to the next can still be described in terms of education level, prestige level, and family structure. Family Structure The NLSY contains several variables that can be used to keep track of respondents from the 1970 census and tie them together. The variable R0001900 records the living arrangements of the respondent when s/he was 14 years old. Of those respondents, the 12,667 that completed the survey were arranged as shown in Table 1. For subsequent years (1982-1994, 1996, 1998, 2000, 2002, 2004), the NLSY follows those same children with a variable for the usual living arrangement for each child. The 3,104 respondents who had had at least one child produced the categories shown in Table 2. Table 2 Number of respondents with first child in category for 1982 Living arrangement for child, 1982 Category 2555 IN R'S HOUSEHOLD R. married: MARCOU; R. unmarried male: FATHER; R. unmarried female:MOTHER 405 WITH OTHER PARENT R. female: FATHER; R. male: MOTHER 61 WITH OTHER RELATIVES OTHREL 4 IN FOSTER CARE NONREL 28 WITH ADOPTIVE PARENTS NONREL 2 LONG TERM CARE INSTITUTION NONREL 0 AWAY AT SCHOOL NONREL 45 DECEASED 0 LIVES PART-TIME WITH BOTH PARENT OTHREL 0 LIVES PART-TIME WITH R AND OTHER OTHREL 4 OTHER OTHREL 0 CHILD DELETED To control for age, only those records for children exactly 14 years old were extracted. Then, in order to make transition matrices from these data, the data were collapsed into five types of living arrangements for each sex: with both biological parents; with father; with mother; with other relatives; and with non-relatives. In order to obtain proportions representative of the entire U.S. population, the weights for the transition matrices reflected those measured for the respondents in 1979 (R0216100). Occupational Category The NLSY contains one variable (R0006900) giving the occupation code of the 1970 census for the longest job the respondent’s mother held in 1978 and a corresponding variable (R0008300) for the occupation code for the respondent’s father. Other variables give the occupation of the respondent in 1994 and 2000. The occupation codes for up to five different jobs are given for each year. In addition, the principal occupation of the respondent’s most recent spouse is given (1979-1992, 1995). Together with the sex of the respondent, these data make 19 JOURNAL FOR ECONOMIC EDUCATORS, VOL. 8, NO. 1, SPRING 2008 possible transition matrices between the occupation of a parent and the occupation of a child or child-in-law. In order to make transition matrices from the 440 occupation codes from the 1970 census, we first aggregated occupations into several broad classes: Clerical, Craftsmen, Farm Labor, Farmers, Laborers, Managers and Officials and Proprietors, Military, Operatives, Private household workers, Professional and Technical, Sales, and Services. We decided to focus only on the relationship between a parent’s occupation and that of same-sex children and children-in- law. We therefore produced four sex-based transition matrices: fathers to sons; fathers to sons- in-law; mothers to daughters; mothers to daughters-in-law. Keeping in mind that these data come from 1978, the two matrices based on the father’s occupation are likely to be the most illuminating. We again used the weights for the respondents in 1979 (R0216100), in order to obtain proportions representative of the entire U.S. population. The weights for each respondent were divided by the number of times they appeared in the data. Occupational Prestige We also used the occupational prestige scores developed by Stevens and Featherman (1981) for the 1970 census codes. Each record was assigned its occupational prestige, and (using weights) the observations were divided into 11 quantiles. The table below shows the prestige range for each quantile, as well as the number of occupations in each and the percent of all observations in each. The quantiles were calculated for only two transition matrices—fathers to sons and fathers to sons-in-law—and the quantiles are slightly different for each of these since the observations are different for each of these. Table C Rank Minimum score Maximum score Number of Occupations Percent Fathers to Sons 0 905 1,469 35 9.9 1 1,474 1,725 30 9.3 2 1,740 1,909 21 9.6 3 1,918 2,064 20 9.7 4 2,065 2,604 35 8.8 5 2,620 3,477 42 9.4 6 3,520 4,181 17 7.1 7 4,246 4,934 17 6.2 8 5,023 5,023 1 10.7 9 5,033 7,008 34 9.7 10 7,034 9,166 51 9.6 Fathers to Sons-In-Law 0 905 1,501 42 9.8 1 1,508 1,746 29 9.9 2 1,750 1,950 24 9.0 3 1,959 2,078 18 9.8 4 2,091 2,604 37 9.4 5 2,620 3,438 39 10.0 6 3,461 4,181 21 7.4 7 4,246 4,964 19 6.5 8 5,023 5,023 1 10.9 9 5,033 7,307 42 9.9 10 7,364 9,166 50 7.6 Highest Grade Completed The NLSY also contains variables giving the highest grade completed by the respondent’s mother (R0006500) and father (R0007900), as of 1979. Other variables give the highest grade 20 JOURNAL FOR ECONOMIC EDUCATORS, VOL. 8, NO. 1, SPRING 2008 completed by the respondent (1979-1992). We make four sex-based transition matrices for the highest grade completed using the largest of the figures given for the respondent and the 1979 weights (R0216100). Findings First, remember a few things about the framework: that the data for the parents’ principal occupation are coming from 1978, that the weight of each person is divided by the number of times s/he appears, and that the latest surveys of respondents’ spouses occurred in 1979-1992 and 1995, whereas the surveys of the respondents themselves occurred in 1994 and 2000. From the NLSY data we produce a set of fifteen of transition matrices for the four categories. These are found in the appendix. The transition matrices show the distribution of movement between the statuses of the respondents and their children in various descriptors of social mobility. To help digest this data, we generate the steady state matrices by raising the transition matrices to the 99 th power. Remember the example of the dice-driven board game? When we multiply the transition matrix by itself, we are in effect doing the same thing as rolling the dice in a board game. At any given time in the game, the status of the next round depends on the status of the present round, the present round being the data that forms the transition matrices. The status of each subsequent round in the future, however, depends less and less on the status of the current round and more and more on the probabilities that determine how the game shifts from one round to the next. By the time the game has been run for 99 rounds (this is an arbitrary number chosen by the authors that is intended to be overkill), we assume that the state of the game depends completely on the probabilities of making each kind of transition, and not at all on the state of the game in the beginning. Put differently, it means that the category of occupation of this generation’s children, the status of this round of the game, does not at all affect the category of occupation of this generation’s children’s children’s … children’s children. Therefore, the rows of the steady state matrices are all equal, so for each category, we have transposed just one row from each of its matrices into a column of the steady state matrix. For example, the steady state matrix for Family Structure (Table 1) has three columns, one for each transition matrix in that category. The steady state matrices represent a projection of the trends in the transition matrices. They are not predictions. They are instead matrices that project the state that would result if the trends of the present remain steady. Essentially the steady state is the logical extreme of the hypothesis that the percentage of persons who make each transition in the transition matrix represent the probability of making that transition. The steady state also acts as a summary of the transition matrices by collapsing the data of each transition matrix into just one row. Family Structure From Table I in the appendix, the reader can see that fewer than half of the male children were raised by couples. Actually, there is a strong trend ( ≥ 38%) of males being raised by single mothers regardless of the family structure of the parents. Females (Table II) are more likely than males to be raised by couples, although females also show a significant likelihood of being raised by a single mother. Interestingly, the children of males raised by “others” were predominantly raised by relatives as opposed to couples or single mothers. Other than this, the children of both sexes are predominantly raised by couples and single mothers. The trends in the transition matrices point toward most children being raised by either couples or single mothers. Although once the data is collapsed into Table 3, the almost mirror 21 JOURNAL FOR ECONOMIC EDUCATORS, VOL. 8, NO. 1, SPRING 2008 image reversal between the sexes of numbers for couples versus single mothers is more pronounced. Steady State of Family Structure in Percentages, Rows are Guardians, Columns are Sex Table 3 Guardian Male Female Total Couple 36.216 50.321 46.745 Mother 51.295 33.590 38.000 Father 6.036 8.090 7.498 Relative 6.363 4.658 5.174 Other 0.090 3.340 2.583 Occupational Category Appendix Tables IV through IX show some significant differences between career paths with regard to sex and marital status; however, age is a confounding variable. For example, we cannot tell just by looking whether the increased tendency of wives relative to unmarried daughters to hold clerical jobs is due to marital status or age at the time of this part of the survey. We speculate that the lower unemployment among married children is related more to marital status than age, considering that the married people are actually younger. Categories of occupation that appear more prevalent in males include those of managers, officials, and proprietors, operatives, craftsman, and laborers. Categories more prevalent in females include clerical, professional, technical, private household worker, and services. While unemployment is lower for married persons of either sex, unmarried males have the highest unemployment while married males have the lowest, as shown in Table 4. Steady State of Occupational Category of Longest Held Job in Percentages, Rows are Categories, Columns are Children Table 4 Father Father Mother Mothers Father Mother Occupation Son Daughter Son Daughter S*-In-Law D*-In-Law Matrix Matrix Matrix Matrix Matrix Matrix Clerical 5.259 23.939 4.800 23.865 5.115 31.681 Craftsman 18.316 1.576 17.169 2.025 23.024 1.566 Farm Labor 0.425 0.077 0.716 0.191 0.992 0.248 Farmers 0.383 0.030 0.495 0.119 0.411 0.046 Laborers 7.324 1.850 6.637 1.955 7.835 1.300 Man, Off, Prop 16.160 13.579 16.933 13.881 11.676 8.404 Military 0.140 0.004 0.221 0.000 4.721 0.697 Operatives 12.415 4.531 12.975 3.951 17.158 3.947 Private HHW 0.063 1.956 0.110 1.245 0.030 1.311 Prof, Tech 17.094 24.077 17.680 24.931 14.404 22.110 Sales 4.860 4.794 4.711 4.435 5.393 6.885 Services 8.366 14.982 8.063 14.683 6.529 14.949 Other/None 9.193 8.604 9.489 8.719 2.712 6.857 *Son-In-Law, Daughter-In-Law 22 JOURNAL FOR ECONOMIC EDUCATORS, VOL. 8, NO. 1, SPRING 2008 Occupational Prestige Tables X and XI in the appendix show the distribution of occupational prestige for sons and sons-in-law. A quick glance at the distribution of prestige for blood sons shows that they roughly equal their fathers; six of the table’s eleven modes fall along the diagonal. Additionally, most of the double-digit percentages correspond to low-to-low or high-to-high transitions. It is interesting to note that low-to-low-and high-to-high transitions are also common in the prestige distribution of sons-in-law. This is despite the fact that the sons-in-law had not had as long to build their careers before being surveyed as had the blood sons. Singling out the double-digit percentages will more visibly show that the middle class disproportionately transitions to low prestige levels in these data. Although Table 5 shows the bimodal distribution of prestige for blood sons, the prevalence of high-to-high transitions for sons-in-law is relatively muted compared to Table XI. Steady State of Occupational Prestige in Percentages, Rows are Prestige Level, Columns are Sons Table 5 Prestige Blood In-Law 0 10.162 13.373 1 9.362 13.023 2 10.169 11.026 3 7.507 7.543 4 7.708 9.490 5 6.374 7.825 6 6.300 6.030 7 8.704 8.717 8 12.389 7.672 9 10.982 8.887 10 10.343 6.414 Highest Grade Completed Tables XII through XV in the appendix show the distribution of highest grade completed for parent and child, male and female. There are some interesting trends in education in these data that are similar for all of the tables. The reader will notice a very prevalent triangle of zeros in each table that indicates the very low probability that any respondent would have attained less education than his/her parent. Also there is an area of low probability in the upper right corner of every table that corresponds to the low probability of uneducated parents to produce extremely educated children. The most common educational attainments for these data are a high school degree or a Bachelor’s degree. The reader can see that virtually every mode corresponds to children achieving either a high school diploma or a Bachelor’s degree. As a group, daughters conform more strictly to this tendency. Further, the mode for daughters switches from diploma to Baccalaureate earlier than it does for sons. Given the descriptions above, the summary that Table 6 provides should not be surprising. The authors suggest that the reader look at the appendix directly, especially for this category, because of the large loss of detail between the transition matrices and the steady states. 23 JOURNAL FOR ECONOMIC EDUCATORS, VOL. 8, NO. 1, SPRING 2008 Steady State of Highest Grade Completed in Percentages, Rows are Highest Grade Completed, Columns are Children Table 6 Father Father Mother Mother Grade Son Daughter Son Daughter Matrix Matrix Matrix Matrix Null 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 1 st 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 2 nd 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 3 rd 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 4 th 0.001 0.000 0.002 0.000 5 th 0.010 0.008 0.012 0.009 6 th 0.006 0.004 0.006 0.004 7 th 0.184 0.200 0.209 0.071 8 th 0.692 0.626 0.678 0.319 9 th 1.764 0.994 1.672 0.675 10 th 3.104 2.507 2.991 2.038 11 th 4.770 3.329 3.999 1.870 12 th 32.088 28.611 27.199 18.813 13 th 9.172 8.863 7.089 9.463 14 th 9.641 11.052 8.174 11.533 15 th 4.898 6.873 6.192 7.314 16 th 19.212 21.786 20.929 28.599 17 th 4.335 6.973 5.727 7.217 18 th 4.507 4.585 6.502 6.531 19 th 2.553 2.017 3.367 2.832 20 th 3.063 1.569 5.254 2.711 Conclusions The family structure of male respondents is further from the societal ideal of a nuclear family than that of female respondents, with more males raised by mothers than by couples. There are significant differences in occupational categories between married and unmarried children, although we cannot say whether occupation drives marriage or vice versa. The earlier survey of the spouses is a confounding factor, but certainly it would be surprising to find that having less time to develop one’s career improves the chances of holding a job. The unmarried children in the data tend to maintain approximately the same job prestige as their parents. The children’s spouses, who were surveyed earlier, tend to hold less prestige than the parents, especially when the parents have a medium level of prestige. The one-step matrices for education display several interesting patterns. Children tend to slightly exceed the educational attainments of their parents. There is a pronounced pattern of children exactly attaining high school degrees until their parents have completed some college. The pattern is more consistent with females regardless of the parent. It tends to take more highly educated parents to produce a son with a Baccalaureate compared to a daughter. Even once the parents have enough education to make a Bachelor’s degree the most likely outcome, a son will be less likely to get one than a daughter. This may tie in with the lower probability that sons are raised by couples. 21 JOURNAL FOR ECONOMIC EDUCATORS, VOL. 8, NO. 1, SPRING 2008 REFERENCES Ahlburg, D. 1998. “Intergenerational Transmission of Health.” The American Economic Review, 88.2 (May): 265-70. Blau, P. M., and O. Dudley Duncan. 1967. The American Occupational Structure. New York: John Wiley and Sons. Bouchard, T. J., Jr. 2004. “Genetic Influence on Human Psychological Traits” Current Directions in Psychological Science. 13.4 (August): 148-151. Bowles, S., H. Gintis, and M. O. Groves. 2005. Unequal Chances. New Jersey: Princeton University Press. Bowles, S., and H. Gintis. 2002. “The Inheritance of Inequality.” The Journal of Economic Perspectives, 16.3 (Summer): 3-30. Gaer, D. van de, E. Schokkaert, and M. Martinez. 2001. “Three Meanings of Intergenerational Mobility.” Economica, New Series. 68.272 (November): 519-37. Hodge, R. W. 1966. “Occupational Mobility as a Probability Process.” Demography, 3.1 (February): 19-34. Jenks, C., S. Barlett, M. Corcoran, J. Crouse, D. Eaglesfield, et al. 1979. Who Gets Ahead? The Determinants of Economic Success in America. New York: Basic Books, Inc.. McFarland, D. D. 1970. “Intergenerational Social Mobility as a Markov Process: Including a Time-Stationary Mark-Ovian Model that Explains Observed Declines in Mobility Rates Over Time.” American Sociological Review. 35.3 (June): 463-76. Restuccia, D., and C. Urrutia. 2004. “Intergenerational Persistence of Earnings: The Role of Early and College Education.” The American Economic review. 94.5 (December): 1354-78. Stevens, G. and D. L. Featherman. 1981. “A Revised Socioeconomic Index of Occupational Status.” Social Science Research. 10 (December): 364-95. Zimmerman, David J. 1992. “Regression Toward Mediocrity in Economic Stature.” The American Economic Review, 82.3 (June): 409-29. 22 JOURNAL FOR ECONOMIC EDUCATORS, VOL. 8, NO. 1, SPRING 2008 Appendix Family Structure, Rows are Guardians, Columns are Children Measured in Percentages, with Mode Bolded for Readability Sex: Male Table I Guardian Couple Mother Father Relative Other Couple 46.532 43.067 6.732 3.420 0.249 Mother 32.445 52.516 7.010 8.030 0.000 Father 35.484 64.516 0.000 0.000 0.000 Relative 9.111 75.918 0.000 14.971 0.000 Other 0.000 38.753 2.149 59.098 0.000 Sex: Female Table II Guardian Couple Mother Father Relative Other Couple 59.719 27.062 8.823 2.001 2.395 Mother 41.414 42.941 6.501 5.501 3.642 Father 40.236 26.075 14.377 14.313 4.999 Relative 34.193 52.503 4.655 4.128 4.522 Other 45.234 29.739 2.582 13.569 8.876 Sex: Total Table III Guardian Couple Mother Father Relative Other Couple 56.591 30.859 8.327 2.338 1.886 Mother 39.218 45.286 6.626 6.120 2.750 Father 39.085 35.388 10.894 10.846 3.788 Relative 30.684 55.778 4.004 5.645 3.889 Other 33.723 32.033 2.472 25.155 6.617 22 JOURNAL FOR ECONOMIC EDUCATORS, VOL. 8, NO. 1, SPRING 2008 Occupational Category, Rows are Fathers, Columns are Sons Measured in Percentages, with Mode Bolded for Readability Table IV Occupation Cleric Craft Farm L. Farm Labor Man Milit Oprtv House Prof, T Sales Servc Null Clerical 6.945 15.344 0.000 0.000 5.167 13.810 0.000 11.281 0.000 18.398 6.308 12.035 10.714 Craftsman 5.748 23.990 0.309 0.531 8.268 14.362 0.020 14.549 0.000 12.041 3.581 7.072 9.529 Farm Labor 2.183 20.915 7.141 2.329 12.451 7.508 0.000 24.847 0.210 4.702 2.954 5.301 9.458 Farmer 2.506 17.045 5.075 16.439 5.709 10.240 0.642 14.408 0.000 11.515 4.003 5.620 6.798 Laborer 4.475 23.663 0.144 0.655 15.446 8.121 0.165 19.517 0.129 5.686 3.716 9.170 9.113 Man, O, P* 3.371 15.552 0.620 0.116 4.923 22.656 0.143 9.128 0.165 23.070 8.492 4.823 6.940 Military 2.474 23.307 1.016 0.000 5.892 15.859 0.000 15.568 0.000 14.608 3.728 10.335 7.213 Operatives 4.577 21.667 0.481 0.107 8.588 13.288 0.244 16.419 0.000 10.078 2.981 12.598 8.972 Household* 0.000 25.135 0.000 0.000 12.560 0.000 0.000 25.135 0.000 0.000 12.560 24.612 0.000 Prof, T* 4.331 11.374 0.460 0.572 3.843 21.730 0.079 4.323 0.138 33.154 5.039 5.821 9.137 Sales 10.485 18.443 0.000 0.000 3.336 19.962 0.095 8.798 0.000 17.878 8.436 4.018 8.549 Services 7.708 16.962 0.060 0.080 9.484 11.460 0.479 16.012 0.000 11.161 3.529 14.111 8.955 Null* 5.258 18.671 0.684 0.310 9.155 12.627 0.113 16.417 0.028 10.560 2.718 10.640 12.819 *Managers, Officials, and Proprietors; Private Household Workers; Professional and Technical; Unemployed/Data Not Available 23 JOURNAL FOR ECONOMIC EDUCATORS, VOL. 8, NO. 1, SPRING 2008 Occupational Category, Rows are Fathers, Columns are Daughters Measured in Percentages, with Mode Bolded for Readability Table V Occupation Cleric Craft Farm L. Farm Labor Man Milit Oprtv House Prof, T Sales Servc Null Clerical 29.317 1.859 0.000 0.000 1.914 14.712 0.000 5.199 2.064 16.539 5.761 18.052 4.582 Craftsman 28.656 2.829 0.510 0.282 1.708 11.510 0.000 6.911 1.386 15.237 4.200 16.315 10.457 Farm Labor 29.249 1.354 3.723 0.000 3.535 7.668 0.000 12.188 1.771 7.474 5.562 17.758 9.717 Farmer 21.128 2.184 0.000 1.704 1.696 12.804 0.000 1.900 0.845 31.193 1.109 14.059 11.377 Laborer 29.301 2.148 0.000 1.058 3.730 9.913 0.137 10.118 1.611 11.026 2.472 20.294 8.192 Man, O, P* 21.995 1.952 0.116 0.000 0.770 18.151 0.000 2.240 0.761 29.082 4.600 10.372 9.960 Military 21.061 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.882 16.627 2.124 3.671 0.528 28.275 3.651 19.541 3.638 Operatives 23.810 3.560 0.402 0.127 2.598 9.571 0.000 8.082 1.230 17.176 3.880 21.072 8.491 Household* 21.945 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 35.968 0.000 10.524 31.563 0.000 Prof, T* 16.832 0.608 0.000 0.000 1.572 14.479 0.000 1.626 1.371 39.031 5.163 8.441 10.877 Sales 23.802 0.531 0.000 0.000 1.721 12.164 0.000 2.078 1.692 28.406 6.368 16.106 7.133 Services 27.161 1.580 0.094 0.000 2.975 11.945 0.000 7.777 0.090 19.428 2.585 16.693 9.674 Null* 24.869 2.442 0.209 0.000 1.903 10.739 0.012 7.598 1.415 14.648 4.137 20.027 12.001 *Managers, Officials, and Proprietors; Private Household Workers; Professional and Technical; Unemployed/Data Not Available 24 JOURNAL FOR ECONOMIC EDUCATORS, VOL. 8, NO. 1, SPRING 2008 Occupational Category, Rows are Mothers, Columns are Sons Measured in Percentages, with Mode Bolded for Readability Table VI Occupation Cleric Craft Farm L. Farm Labor Man Milit Oprtv House Prof, T Sales Servc Null Clerical 5.566 20.246 0.370 0.452 6.429 16.612 0.000 9.914 0.089 19.502 5.021 7.569 8.231 Craftsman 5.686 17.798 0.000 0.000 7.269 14.851 0.310 14.073 0.000 11.541 5.694 12.240 10.540 Farm Labor 5.370 21.171 8.471 5.335 12.210 5.085 0.000 24.170 0.310 1.683 1.927 6.813 7.455 Farmer 0.000 15.172 3.623 0.000 16.084 11.865 11.865 27.189 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 14.202 Laborer 4.868 17.429 3.869 0.000 12.676 10.526 0.000 29.892 0.000 14.651 0.000 2.201 3.887 Man, O, P* 3.467 15.082 1.243 0.406 3.666 24.192 0.000 5.637 0.597 23.758 4.068 6.735 11.148 Military 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 50.000 50.000 0.000 0.000 Operatives 5.149 24.108 0.208 1.247 9.372 11.941 0.000 17.462 0.000 11.307 2.977 5.916 10.312 Household* 4.934 23.619 0.169 0.000 14.931 7.794 0.000 18.488 0.159 7.445 1.498 15.475 5.489 Prof, T* 4.351 10.734 0.000 0.381 2.619 20.794 0.343 8.352 0.000 28.961 7.724 7.285 8.457 Sales 6.006 16.394 0.414 0.264 5.622 21.244 0.566 9.466 0.000 18.005 5.328 8.409 8.282 Services 4.777 19.804 0.334 0.748 9.518 12.340 0.105 16.048 0.000 11.582 3.099 11.891 9.754 Null* 5.236 18.793 0.832 0.685 7.625 15.446 0.138 14.059 0.025 13.355 4.475 8.803 10.527 *Managers, Officials, and Proprietors; Private Household Workers; Professional and Technical; Unemployed/Data Not Available 25 JOURNAL FOR ECONOMIC EDUCATORS, VOL. 8, NO. 1, SPRING 2008 Occupational Category, Rows are Mothers, Columns are Daughters Measured in Percentages, with Mode Bolded for Readability Table VII Occupation Cleric Craft Farm L. Farm Labor Man Milit Oprtv House Prof, T Sales Servc Null Clerical 29.071 1.513 0.170 0.255 1.013 13.441 0.000 3.412 1.786 22.297 4.145 14.208 8.690 Craftsman 27.646 2.104 0.000 2.014 1.056 14.952 0.000 4.320 3.257 17.400 2.841 12.963 11.447 Farm Labor 18.605 1.130 4.922 0.000 1.873 3.593 0.000 14.218 0.000 19.472 0.000 21.930 14.258 Farmer 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 37.428 0.000 10.848 0.000 37.428 14.296 Laborer 17.163 8.281 0.000 0.000 6.874 16.787 0.402 0.912 0.000 22.471 9.987 12.007 5.117 Man, O, P* 22.028 2.095 0.000 0.000 4.113 16.908 0.000 2.766 1.623 23.080 4.682 14.832 7.874 Military 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Operatives 26.024 3.497 0.000 0.000 2.220 10.947 0.000 12.510 1.713 14.599 3.239 15.839 9.413 Household* 24.817 3.087 0.000 0.000 3.428 6.708 0.000 10.363 1.635 13.079 3.010 25.288 8.585 Prof, T* 18.235 1.770 0.142 0.000 1.084 14.694 0.068 1.294 0.641 38.945 4.921 10.385 7.819 Sales 22.024 1.732 0.082 0.000 1.419 16.804 0.480 1.633 2.692 19.988 4.867 19.474 8.804 Services 27.579 1.845 0.508 0.000 2.346 11.990 0.000 6.860 0.428 17.222 3.590 18.545 9.086 Null* 23.168 2.284 0.311 0.200 1.995 11.425 0.000 6.303 1.113 19.351 4.645 17.512 11.693 *Managers, Officials, and Proprietors; Private Household Workers; Professional and Technical; Unemployed/Data Not Available 26 JOURNAL FOR ECONOMIC EDUCATORS, VOL. 8, NO. 1, SPRING 2008 Occupational Category, Rows are Fathers, Columns are Sons-In-Law Measured in Percentages, with Mode Bolded for Readability Table VIII Occupation Cleric Craft Farm L. Farm Labor Man Milit Oprtv House Prof, T Sales Servc Null Clerical 4.815 23.422 0.000 0.000 6.627 16.011 3.440 15.175 0.000 13.318 3.494 11.506 2.193 Craftsman 5.679 25.302 0.916 0.455 8.063 10.935 3.718 19.348 0.019 11.433 5.149 6.439 2.544 Farm Labor 2.353 25.502 10.812 0.459 16.275 1.716 1.686 23.216 0.000 7.304 1.590 6.273 2.815 Farmer 3.573 23.868 7.410 5.400 5.351 6.940 0.946 15.100 0.000 11.133 6.827 10.579 2.874 Laborer 5.751 23.659 1.135 0.134 11.257 7.464 3.740 22.923 0.060 11.613 2.845 6.104 3.315 Man, O, P* 4.068 21.163 0.524 0.439 7.144 14.376 4.235 11.118 0.045 18.329 9.599 6.097 2.863 Military 1.858 24.393 0.000 0.000 7.660 13.910 18.086 7.483 0.000 16.924 4.926 3.261 1.498 Operatives 5.448 28.425 1.608 0.499 8.704 7.885 5.198 23.223 0.085 7.281 1.897 7.276 2.473 Household* 0.000 19.717 0.000 0.000 7.158 14.311 6.282 39.433 0.000 0.000 0.000 6.282 6.817 Prof, T* 5.306 15.202 0.870 0.806 4.996 15.021 3.253 12.313 0.000 25.622 8.006 5.367 3.238 Sales 4.562 16.896 0.489 0.101 6.852 17.444 2.843 12.785 0.024 20.132 9.325 5.753 2.794 Services 6.734 24.678 0.450 0.059 8.857 9.066 5.720 17.931 0.000 12.443 4.594 6.993 2.476 Null* 4.629 21.299 1.325 0.261 7.938 11.796 5.097 20.545 0.000 10.526 4.705 8.037 3.843 *Managers, Officials, and Proprietors; Private Household Workers; Professional and Technical; Unemployed/Data Not Available 27 JOURNAL FOR ECONOMIC EDUCATORS, VOL. 8, NO. 1, SPRING 2008 Occupational Category, Rows are Mothers, Columns are Daughters-In-Law Measured in Percentages, with Mode Bolded for Readability Table IX Occupation Cleric Craft Farm L. Farm Labor Man Milit Oprtv House Prof, T Sales Servc Null Clerical 37.914 1.138 0.268 0.083 1.396 7.926 0.266 2.885 1.315 21.463 5.530 12.956 6.859 Craftsman 25.741 3.878 0.000 0.551 1.258 10.905 0.212 7.548 0.228 19.306 6.681 17.292 6.399 Farm Labor 17.484 4.340 1.314 0.000 1.041 1.120 0.000 13.534 3.039 6.697 2.837 41.336 7.259 Farmer 33.069 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 3.313 0.000 8.494 9.063 8.494 0.000 26.051 11.515 Laborer 20.871 1.535 0.000 0.000 4.274 8.100 3.495 9.910 2.434 3.256 12.013 28.523 5.590 Man, O, P* 29.170 2.576 0.000 0.000 0.719 11.659 0.272 1.617 1.804 21.002 7.504 17.843 5.833 Military 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 100.000 0.000 0.000 Operatives 32.064 2.732 0.600 0.000 1.521 4.614 1.293 12.466 1.740 13.382 4.052 19.308 6.227 Household* 36.868 0.457 0.419 0.071 1.590 6.924 0.248 7.196 2.180 8.286 7.200 18.485 10.077 Prof, T* 23.787 1.133 0.073 0.000 1.077 10.638 1.152 1.140 0.967 34.581 6.806 11.807 6.839 Sales 41.114 1.228 0.000 0.000 1.849 7.636 0.492 3.563 0.291 18.256 6.897 11.705 6.969 Services 30.498 2.220 0.516 0.000 1.062 6.635 0.962 6.775 1.643 16.516 6.150 20.190 6.835 Null* 30.434 1.708 0.544 0.148 1.665 7.149 0.792 7.528 1.738 17.082 5.603 16.776 8.833 *Managers, Officials, and Proprietors; Private Household Workers; Professional and Technical; Unemployed/Data Not Available 28 JOURNAL FOR ECONOMIC EDUCATORS, VOL. 8, NO. 1, SPRING 2008 Occupational Prestige, Rows are Fathers, Columns are Sons Measured in Percentages, with Mode Bolded for Readability Table X Prestige 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 21.660 16.192 16.495 8.677 5.914 5.255 5.164 6.068 6.429 5.477 2.670 1 15.026 17.108 10.650 7.517 9.664 5.862 6.065 6.210 9.770 6.078 6.049 2 12.237 12.925 12.796 8.484 9.547 8.151 9.298 7.398 9.694 6.083 3.386 3 13.660 9.573 12.553 15.589 9.484 4.670 4.934 5.885 8.669 8.541 6.441 4 12.192 8.865 11.698 7.849 11.569 5.868 9.221 9.480 8.337 8.401 6.521 5 10.011 6.684 9.573 8.194 9.781 12.007 5.833 9.016 12.950 9.933 6.018 6 6.738 9.146 10.957 8.631 5.888 7.555 7.130 10.096 12.061 14.126 7.671 7 5.203 7.518 10.243 6.845 9.386 4.653 5.730 9.547 15.624 11.806 13.444 8 4.950 6.252 8.833 5.607 4.983 6.353 5.809 10.403 19.950 12.141 14.721 9 7.067 4.596 4.584 4.365 5.550 5.488 4.859 10.888 15.828 20.476 16.301 10 4.253 4.474 5.426 4.327 5.700 6.028 5.874 10.196 13.409 15.914 24.399 29 JOURNAL FOR ECONOMIC EDUCATORS, VOL. 8, NO. 1, SPRING 2008 Occupational Prestige, Rows are Fathers, Columns are Sons-In-Law Measured in Percentages, with Mode Bolded for Readability Table XI Prestige 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 21.916 13.682 14.551 7.450 10.950 5.939 6.277 6.201 4.205 5.673 3.155 1 17.472 18.363 11.751 5.588 11.296 9.218 6.363 5.810 6.145 5.429 2.565 2 15.466 20.221 14.350 8.332 10.451 9.066 4.256 4.684 6.553 4.005 2.616 3 12.808 10.100 10.241 12.460 11.920 7.005 8.083 8.013 5.676 9.017 4.676 4 10.190 14.205 12.640 8.319 11.219 7.761 5.856 7.901 9.138 8.088 4.683 5 9.835 12.032 11.377 8.758 10.711 8.725 5.397 8.518 7.815 10.407 6.426 6 13.411 13.673 10.745 5.871 8.307 8.533 5.081 10.847 8.532 9.644 5.356 7 9.982 6.630 8.526 8.354 6.122 7.148 8.198 13.754 8.497 10.669 12.120 8 11.879 10.996 9.743 7.943 6.545 8.957 5.441 10.463 9.200 10.674 8.158 9 8.990 8.544 6.343 6.299 6.923 6.993 4.987 11.331 12.668 13.808 13.116 10 5.771 8.038 6.286 3.650 6.989 6.801 6.597 14.526 9.238 18.091 14.013 30 JOURNAL FOR ECONOMIC EDUCATORS, VOL. 8, NO. 1, SPRING 2008 Highest Grade Completed, Rows are Fathers, Columns are Sons Measured in Percentages, with Mode Bolded for Readability Table XII Grade Null 0th 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th Null 0.000 0.000 0.103 0.000 0.048 0.059 0.480 0.405 1.237 5.268 7.200 0 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.767 3.945 0.000 2.048 0.000 5.014 10.297 1 st 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 7.915 21.427 0.000 2 nd 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 1.076 5.743 0.000 6.851 2.022 9.308 6.339 3 rd 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 1.403 2.312 4.057 11.417 7.913 4 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.883 0.483 0.799 0.850 4.995 6.777 13.187 5 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.997 5.328 13.316 6 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 1.017 2.518 8.317 8.390 7 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.845 2.538 7.535 8 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.080 0.063 0.000 0.850 6.326 5.546 9 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.111 1.793 2.144 5.065 10 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.141 1.105 4.618 4.939 11 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.073 0.000 0.441 0.697 2.849 12 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.019 0.000 0.244 0.792 2.194 13 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.266 2.303 14 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.110 0.273 1.814 15 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 2.520 0.328 16 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.963 17 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 18 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 19 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 20 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 1.298 31 JOURNAL FOR ECONOMIC EDUCATORS, VOL. 8, NO. 1, SPRING 2008 Highest Grade Completed, Rows are Fathers, Columns are Sons Measured in Percentages, with Mode Bolded for Readability Table XIII (cont.) Grade 10th 11th 12th 13th 14th 15th 16th 17th 18th 19th 20th Null 11.284 13.565 36.336 7.844 5.639 2.484 4.489 0.864 1.068 0.718 0.909 0 th 5.338 10.968 36.107 9.445 5.525 5.248 2.246 2.490 0.000 0.564 0.000 1 st 5.077 20.254 14.579 20.050 10.698 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 2 nd 21.496 4.187 30.637 3.591 2.399 4.742 1.609 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 3 rd 9.595 10.144 35.193 8.440 1.365 3.834 2.365 0.000 0.882 0.000 1.080 4 th 8.481 15.480 28.528 2.768 5.396 0.676 7.919 1.304 0.000 1.473 0.000 5 th 14.864 6.961 39.906 3.423 5.737 4.090 1.560 2.427 0.000 0.561 0.829 6 th 7.686 11.267 33.909 3.310 5.439 1.107 8.906 0.200 1.928 2.712 3.295 7 th 14.040 18.022 40.248 3.849 4.037 1.060 4.316 1.719 0.000 0.000 1.791 8 th 7.145 9.892 42.103 6.227 5.803 4.329 7.016 2.296 1.152 0.170 1.002 9 th 7.389 12.760 49.798 6.894 6.258 2.589 3.731 0.565 0.904 0.000 0.000 10 th 6.444 13.828 39.897 8.787 7.408 4.641 4.405 0.525 0.862 0.724 1.675 11 th 7.034 8.921 50.023 9.104 6.428 2.103 10.478 0.974 0.000 0.000 0.875 12 th 4.545 6.607 46.939 10.097 8.094 3.199 11.464 2.136 1.845 1.074 0.751 13 th 4.108 3.738 27.590 12.250 11.396 6.795 17.466 3.035 6.461 2.198 2.392 14 th 2.773 3.280 26.935 10.041 11.181 5.633 24.302 3.791 4.950 2.744 2.173 15 th 0.433 4.315 24.326 14.988 16.611 6.140 18.410 8.501 2.921 0.000 0.507 16 th 0.923 2.222 18.890 8.937 12.432 5.148 30.583 6.649 5.261 5.953 2.040 17 th 0.000 1.749 19.416 4.686 8.877 7.923 21.314 12.355 14.607 4.292 4.782 18 th 1.322 1.109 10.891 1.763 7.228 7.240 36.474 5.335 12.165 5.757 10.715 19 th 0.000 0.000 25.575 0.609 0.651 5.586 19.514 6.200 7.470 1.090 33.306 20 th 0.000 1.450 7.124 6.914 9.652 9.170 32.175 9.312 8.767 3.323 10.816 32 JOURNAL FOR ECONOMIC EDUCATORS, VOL. 8, NO. 1, SPRING 2008 Highest Grade Completed, Rows are Fathers, Columns are Daughters Measured in Percentages, with Mode Bolded for Readability Table XIV Grade Null 0th 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th Null 0.000 0.000 0.144 0.000 0.061 0.310 0.363 0.444 2.958 3.385 6.265 0 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 3.568 2.104 0.000 6.362 3.350 5.941 9.581 1 st 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 4.769 0.000 3.149 0.000 3.868 4.915 2 nd 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 3.051 0.000 0.000 3.167 2.210 9.543 0.955 3 rd 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.465 0.000 0.917 1.848 0.464 5.131 12.315 4 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 1.449 0.000 0.000 0.655 8.836 5.030 4.763 5 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 1.059 1.359 1.785 1.361 4.588 6 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.301 0.208 0.000 0.726 0.452 0.620 4.892 7.492 7 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.466 0.000 6.129 3.256 8 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.093 0.615 2.374 5.619 9 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 1.148 1.587 6.373 10 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 1.123 2.030 4.127 11 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.073 0.406 1.880 3.419 12 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.498 0.509 1.542 13 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 1.502 0.680 14 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.783 0.253 15 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.222 0.548 16 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.463 17 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 1.280 0.000 18 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.180 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 19 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 20 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.213 33 JOURNAL FOR ECONOMIC EDUCATORS, VOL. 8, NO. 1, SPRING 2008 Highest Grade Completed, Rows are Fathers, Columns are Daughters Measured in Percentages, with Mode Bolded for Readability Table XV (cont.) Grade 10 th 11 th 12 th 13 th 14 th 15 th 16 th 17 th 18 th 19 th 20 th Null 8.033 9.180 38.134 7.776 8.142 3.076 7.037 2.162 1.693 0.430 0.408 0 th 8.135 11.425 26.584 6.085 4.847 3.805 2.862 5.350 0.000 0.000 0.000 1 st 18.210 7.049 27.489 4.799 19.983 2.350 3.420 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 2 nd 8.563 3.919 48.248 4.996 9.809 0.881 3.373 0.000 1.285 0.000 0.000 3 rd 10.181 5.460 37.129 6.929 5.094 3.870 9.675 0.522 0.000 0.000 0.000 4 th 7.274 6.968 35.293 11.067 3.821 4.482 5.153 0.000 4.639 0.000 0.571 5 th 5.953 3.273 47.576 4.847 11.126 5.247 10.327 0.511 0.988 0.000 0.000 6 th 5.104 9.451 37.643 9.635 6.456 3.809 9.371 2.472 0.795 0.173 0.401 7 th 9.447 2.800 52.983 9.487 6.378 2.508 4.448 0.389 0.000 0.000 1.709 8 th 5.750 6.987 46.271 12.871 4.603 4.295 7.087 2.020 1.279 0.000 0.136 9 th 6.945 9.642 48.643 8.298 9.054 4.219 3.432 0.000 0.256 0.000 0.403 10 th 6.947 4.784 51.933 10.058 5.119 3.861 7.002 0.216 1.490 0.720 0.590 11 th 7.214 11.423 45.828 8.190 9.262 3.552 4.287 1.132 1.815 0.000 1.520 12 th 3.835 4.060 42.431 10.799 10.295 5.262 13.641 2.994 2.626 0.482 1.026 13 th 1.555 2.475 39.301 11.783 8.477 12.677 14.647 3.930 1.478 0.000 1.495 14 th 3.153 5.727 25.935 12.845 18.144 8.869 14.710 5.413 3.729 0.366 0.074 15 th 3.331 2.223 19.637 4.831 10.263 8.140 26.724 9.324 9.959 4.798 0.000 16 th 0.713 2.134 16.835 6.937 10.655 7.872 33.097 11.457 4.860 2.821 2.157 17 th 0.000 0.000 11.282 6.200 9.125 2.540 33.440 20.368 8.587 4.169 3.009 18 th 0.000 0.263 6.972 4.324 17.261 6.382 37.529 7.258 10.772 4.517 4.542 19 th 0.000 0.000 9.518 1.088 6.362 8.769 42.373 7.197 11.828 12.866 0.000 20 th 0.000 2.491 5.958 6.750 12.604 3.407 38.081 4.976 6.880 7.589 11.050 34 JOURNAL FOR ECONOMIC EDUCATORS, VOL. 8, NO. 1, SPRING 2008 Highest Grade Completed, Rows are Mothers, Columns are Sons Measured in Percentages, with Mode Bolded for Readability Table XVI Grade Null 0 th 1 st 2 nd 3 rd 4 th 5 th 6 th 7 th 8 th 9 th Null 0.000 0.000 0.177 0.000 0.174 0.102 0.460 0.558 1.229 6.277 10.190 0 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 1.044 1.926 0.000 2.849 2.246 5.511 5.521 1 st 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 9.901 0.000 0.000 0.000 9.346 12.091 2 nd 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 2.864 4.845 0.000 5.332 1.471 1.228 4.582 3 rd 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 2.864 2.428 3.035 1.806 2.311 5.071 4 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 2.937 2.673 2.233 7.978 8.868 5 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 3.073 5.209 4.478 6 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 2.004 0.280 8.413 8.681 7 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.980 0.000 0.307 6.629 10.129 9.897 8 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.102 0.000 1.670 7.139 6.135 9 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.748 5.685 9.330 10 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.062 2.117 5.229 5.374 11 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.076 1.138 2.378 4.775 12 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.041 0.000 0.106 0.760 1.955 13 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.473 0.000 2.021 14 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.953 15 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 1.525 16 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.255 0.851 17 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 1.317 18 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 19 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 20 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 35 JOURNAL FOR ECONOMIC EDUCATORS, VOL. 8, NO. 1, SPRING 2008 Highest Grade Completed, Rows are Mothers, Columns are Sons Measured in Percentages, with Mode Bolded for Readability Table XVII (cont.) Grade 10 th 11 th 12 th 13 th 14 th 15 th 16 th 17 th 18 th 19 th 20 th Null 9.718 15.054 35.936 5.818 3.378 2.990 4.452 1.693 1.348 0.139 0.307 0 th 8.249 12.693 37.326 3.787 2.208 11.065 3.730 1.078 0.000 0.767 0.000 1 st 7.674 0.000 32.692 21.106 7.189 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 2 nd 8.979 13.643 41.278 6.466 9.312 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 3 rd 12.151 8.533 35.019 17.540 2.764 1.738 1.955 1.436 0.000 0.000 1.347 4 th 14.549 13.828 25.136 3.310 12.199 2.207 1.833 1.083 0.000 1.165 0.000 5 th 6.775 17.330 37.691 11.793 5.215 0.000 6.719 0.000 0.000 0.619 1.098 6 th 6.961 16.434 31.421 6.777 5.785 2.871 4.514 1.220 2.319 0.000 2.321 7 th 12.236 12.329 36.046 3.313 4.577 1.135 1.679 0.744 0.000 0.000 0.000 8 th 9.348 13.691 41.887 6.536 3.479 2.107 4.590 1.824 1.397 0.095 0.000 9 th 13.182 13.363 37.452 9.109 4.743 0.588 4.123 0.492 0.098 0.844 0.244 10 th 9.018 10.026 38.872 8.132 9.226 2.899 5.456 0.781 1.113 0.883 0.814 11 th 5.405 12.217 45.448 7.631 8.226 4.361 6.096 0.423 1.005 0.073 0.747 12 th 4.153 6.083 43.029 9.754 8.906 3.873 14.615 2.232 2.046 1.275 1.172 13 th 3.182 3.869 30.024 8.896 13.970 3.902 16.921 6.294 8.027 1.119 1.301 14 th 2.560 2.783 22.227 11.347 7.078 5.729 25.273 9.603 3.799 3.068 5.581 15 th 1.893 2.500 17.782 11.813 7.072 5.090 25.400 7.394 7.873 9.346 2.312 16 th 1.246 1.913 12.633 4.452 12.998 5.670 29.606 6.199 9.984 7.429 6.764 17 th 0.000 2.690 25.949 0.917 2.116 13.149 25.275 6.959 5.756 4.806 11.065 18 th 3.880 0.000 20.513 4.702 1.524 18.222 31.321 1.296 7.138 3.644 7.762 19 th 0.000 0.000 13.561 0.000 0.000 1.829 34.739 33.051 0.000 0.000 16.820 20 th 0.000 0.000 10.587 1.944 1.624 11.508 14.370 9.050 30.654 0.000 20.263 36 JOURNAL FOR ECONOMIC EDUCATORS, VOL. 8, NO. 1, SPRING 2008 Highest Grade Completed, Rows are Mothers, Columns are Daughters Measured in Percentages, with Mode Bolded for Readability Table XVIII Grade Null 0 th 1 st 2 nd 3 rd 4 th 5 th 6 th 7 th 8 th 9 th Null 0.000 0.000 0.316 0.000 0.473 0.681 0.000 0.346 1.408 5.023 10.244 0 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 4.256 3.021 1.169 5.191 0.874 9.231 6.401 1 st 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 8.404 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 8.295 2 nd 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 1.938 0.000 2.206 3.049 10.590 8.305 8.053 3 rd 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.982 0.711 0.000 3.254 4.092 5.288 7.383 9.556 4 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 1.074 2.170 17.816 3.420 11.532 5 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.967 2.140 1.217 4.251 13.101 6 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.722 0.000 1.020 0.691 3.628 2.877 9.387 7 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.206 0.325 7.797 3.986 5.664 8 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.698 2.286 3.313 4.325 9 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.156 0.626 4.026 4.248 10 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.535 2.531 3.795 11 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.906 1.152 3.318 12 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.135 0.697 1.817 13 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.207 14 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.077 0.000 0.000 0.641 0.000 15 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 16 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.442 17 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 18 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 19 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 20 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 37 JOURNAL FOR ECONOMIC EDUCATORS, VOL. 8, NO. 1, SPRING 2008 Highest Grade Completed, Rows are Mothers, Columns are Daughters Measured in Percentages, with Mode Bolded for Readability Table XIX (cont.) Grade 10 th 11 th 12 th 13 th 14 th 15 th 16 th 17 th 18 th 19 th 20 th Null 5.881 8.572 37.023 4.939 7.568 3.498 7.532 4.444 0.949 0.158 0.945 0 th 8.377 5.759 22.773 8.848 12.774 4.593 4.612 0.782 1.339 0.000 0.000 1 st 23.113 7.372 38.565 0.000 11.051 3.200 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 2 nd 9.896 4.039 33.192 7.181 8.234 0.000 0.000 1.681 1.636 0.000 0.000 3 rd 6.855 5.434 27.800 8.044 6.505 1.625 10.835 1.635 0.000 0.000 0.000 4 th 12.861 6.713 32.783 4.492 1.832 2.267 2.342 0.699 0.000 0.000 0.000 5 th 9.182 14.771 33.203 5.101 7.266 2.572 6.228 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 6 th 7.561 10.466 35.554 10.379 6.520 2.888 3.661 2.699 1.043 0.000 0.905 7 th 4.244 3.190 50.609 8.287 8.592 3.882 2.895 0.000 0.325 0.000 0.000 8 th 8.063 9.492 47.590 7.487 4.467 2.254 7.455 1.282 0.411 0.277 0.600 9 th 12.113 8.561 45.156 9.128 6.343 5.107 2.789 0.137 0.514 0.000 1.096 10 th 11.018 5.943 50.207 8.046 7.606 3.743 5.303 0.254 0.475 0.379 0.167 11 th 6.613 9.813 52.249 8.352 5.890 2.120 8.093 0.775 0.591 0.000 0.127 12 th 2.405 4.620 40.832 10.912 10.105 5.367 14.301 3.931 3.138 0.689 1.050 13 th 3.197 2.553 18.451 17.971 15.958 12.152 18.286 6.166 4.163 0.793 0.104 14 th 2.408 2.274 16.668 9.063 16.120 8.900 26.006 7.291 4.809 2.539 3.205 15 th 3.334 0.000 20.515 1.457 15.143 8.458 36.176 1.733 10.825 0.614 1.743 16 th 0.963 0.350 8.971 8.299 11.279 7.325 35.466 9.884 7.207 6.744 3.069 17 th 0.369 0.000 4.443 3.138 11.077 14.774 32.390 16.311 8.351 3.444 5.703 18 th 0.000 0.000 7.348 3.848 12.065 2.870 37.608 12.613 11.315 1.589 10.745 19 th 0.000 0.000 3.484 0.000 0.000 0.000 69.262 0.000 27.254 0.000 0.000 20 th 0.000 0.000 0.000 47.742 0.480 0.000 49.038 2.739 0.000 0.000 0.000