ReseaRch PaPeR Journal of Agricultural and Marine Sciences Vol. 24 : 2– 18 DOI: 10.24200/jams.vol24iss1pp2-18 Reveived 5 May 2019 Accepted 18 August 2019 Co-management Feasible in Achieving Fisheries Sustainability? A Case of Oman’s Lobster Fishery Shekar Bose*1, Abdullah Hilal Al Balushi 2, Ahmed Al-Haddabi3, Ruqaiya Al-Bulushi4 Dr. Shekar Bose*1 ( ) Associate Professor, Department of Natural Resource Economics, College of Agricultural and Marine Sciences, Sul- tan Qaboos University, P.O Box 34, Al-Khod 123, Sultanate of Oman Email: sbose@squ.edu.om. 2Oman Animal and Plant Genetic Resource Center, Box 515, PC123, Muscat Oman. 3Director of Fisherie Develop- ment, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. Muscat, Oman. 4Fisheries Management Division, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, Muscat, Oman. Introduction The 2018 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) report on the state of world fisheries and aquaculture highlighted the critical importance of fisheries and aquaculture sector to the global economy and well-being of coastal commu- nities through providing employment, food and nutri- tional security, and income and livelihoods (FAO, 2018). It is also well-recognized that small-scale fisheries (SSF) that predominate in developing countries constitute a significant part of the global fisheries sector and are crit- ical for socio-economic well-being and food security of the world’s most vulnerable communities (Schuhbauer and Sumaila, 2016; Jentoft, 2014; Teh et al. 2011). For instance, Teh & Sumaila (2013) estimated that SSF em- ploy about 22 million fishers (i.e. about 44% of all fishers) engaged in harvesting sector. In a consultative meeting organized by FAO in co-operation with the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries (hereafter, MAF) held in Muscat, Oman, March 26-28, 2012, attainment of sus- tainability in small-scale fisheries in the Near East and North Africa region was highlighted with the purpose of bringing together responsible fisheries and social devel- هل االدارة التشاركية جمدية لتحقيق استدامة املصايد: دراسة حالة ملصايد الشارخة يف سلطنة عمان شيكار بوز*1 وعبداهلل هالل البلوشي2 وامحد اهلدايب3 ورقية البلوشي4 Abstract. This study assesses the feasibility of co-management arrangements in managing scalloped spiny lobster (Panulirus homarus) fishery in the Sultanate of Oman. The appraisal is conducted using various indicators involving pre-implementation phase and institutional characteristics and substantiated by findings of the review of relevant local and global literature and the results of a structured questionnaire survey conducted during 9-28 June, 2013 with 536 randomly selected fishers from three Governorates namely Al-Sharqiyah South, Al-Wusta, and Dhofar. The former method helps identifying suitable assessment criteria and provides indication of readiness while the later method helps determining primary stakeholders’ perceived views on various aspects of regulatory measures and co-management ar- rangements. While findings related to fishers’ commitments, willingness to support government decisions, willingness to participate in co-operative research, and preference for co-operative decision-making are promising, institutional weaknesses identified under the category of ‘interactive organization’, ‘resource ownership and control’, ‘existence of planned process’, and ‘diversity’ should be of major concerns for policy-makers in moving towards co-management arrangements. Based on the findings some policy implications are also discussed. Keywords: co-management; fisheries sustainability; lobster fishery; Oman. املستخلص: تقّيم هذه الدراسة جدوى اإلدارة التشاركية يف إدارة مصايد شارخة الصخور )Panulirus homarus( يف سلطنة عمان. مت إجراء التقييــم باســتخدام العديــد مــن املؤشــرات مشلــت مرحلــة مــا قبــل التنفيــذ وخصائــص املؤسســة مًدعمــة مبخرجــات الدراســات املرجعيــة احملليــة والعامليــة ذات الصلــة ونتائــج اســتبيان أجــري خــالل الفــرة مــن 9 اىل 28 يونيــو 2013 مــع 536 صيــاداً مت اختيارهــم عشــوائياً مــن ثــالث حمافظــات هــي: جنــوب الشــرقية، والوســطى، وظفــار. ســاعدت املنهجيــة االوىل يف حتديــد معايــر التقييــم املناســبة كمــا وفــرت مؤشــرًا علــى مــدى االســتعداد، بينمــا ســاعدت املنهجيــة الالحقــة يف حتديــد وجهــات نظــر أصحــاب املصلحــة الرئيســيني حــول اجلوانــب املختلفــة للتدابــر التنظيميــة وترتيبــات اإلدارة التشــاركية. وعلــى الرغــم مــن أن النتائــج املتعلقــة بتًقيــد الصياديــن، والرغبــة يف دعــم القــرارات احلكوميــة، والرغبــة يف املشــاركة يف البحــوث التعاونيــة، وتفضيــل اختــاذ القــرارات بصــورة تعاونيــة هــي قضايــا واعــدة، اال ان الضعــف املؤسســي احملــدد حتــت فئــة »املؤسســة املتفاعلــة«، و »ملكيــة املــوارد والتحكــم هبــا »، و »وجــود خطــة للعمليــات« و »التنــوع« جيــب ان تكــون أكــر اهتمامــات صانعــي السياســات يف االجتــاه حنــو ترتيبــات اإلدارة التشــاركية. يف ضــوء املخرجــات مت ايضــاً مناقشــة بعــض اآلثــار املرتبــة علــى السياســات. الكلمات املفتاحية: اإلدارة التشاركية، استدامة املصايد، مصايد الشارخة، عمان 3Research Article Bose, Al-Balushi, Al-Haddabi, Al-Bulushi opment (FAO, 2012). However, SSF in developing countries including the Sultanate of Oman (hereafter, Oman) are usually char- acterized by the problems of overfishing, overcapacity, non-compliance, weak enforcement, economic inef- ficiency (Al Siyabi & Bose 2018; FAO 2017; Pomeroy, 2012; Salas et al. 2007). In Oman, the socio-economic significance of the fisheries sector in the country’s eco- nomic diversification policies and sustainable develop- ment drive is well-echoed in the national policy agenda (MNE, 2007a; MNE, 2007b; Bose et al. 2010). For in- stance, to enhance achievement of economic diversifi- cation policy objectives. The fisheries sector has been identified as one of the five promising sectors in the 9th Five-Year Plan (2016-2020) and the sector is expected to achieve an average growth rate of 6.5% (in constant pric- es) and the share in GDP is expected to rise from 0.5% to 0.6% (SCP, 2016). Accordingly, considerable efforts have been directed by government agencies in Oman to ensure sustainable utilization of fisheries resources and to maximize so- cio-economic benefits from the sector (MNE, 2007b). Despite such efforts, some challenges such as overfish- ing of high value commercial species such as kingfish (Al-Oufi et al. 2004; Al-Balushi et al. 2016) and lobster (Al-Haddabi, 2010), inefficiency in fishing operations (Al-Siyabi and Bose, 2018), weak enforcement and the presence of non-compliance (Al-Subhi et al., 2013; Bose et al., 2017) etc. are still confronting the sector and ad- versely impacting on the progress towards sustainability in fisheries. To address these challenges the implementation of co-management approach to effectively manage SSF has been advocated since the late 1980s by the scholars in the field (Jentoft, 1989; Pomeroy, 1995; Sen and Niel- sen, 1996; McCay & Jentoft, 1996; Pomeroy & Berkes, 1997; Jentoft, et al. 1998; Jentoft, 2004; Al-Habsi, 2012; Kalikoski & Franz, 2014; to name a few). It is noted that routinely ascribed characteristics such as undemocrat- ic, unfair, and ineffective to the top-down-management approach to fisheries management (i.e. command-and control approach) form the basis for joint action or co-management (Fiorino, 1990; Berkes, 2009). Co-management has been touted in fisheries man- agement with the expectation to: 1) encourage dem- ocratic participation of resource user-groups in reg- ulatory decision-making that helps advancing equity, legitimacy and efficiency (Nielsen et al. 2004; Al-Balushi et al., 2016), 2) improve rule compliance and hence reg- ulatory effectiveness (Pomeroy & Berkes, 1997; Al-Subhi et al. 2013), 3) empower local community (Nielsen et al. 2004) and boost fishers’ competence by upgrading their skills through training and through the formation of so- cial capital (for example, fishers’ social networks) (Rydin & Pennington, 2000; Schusler, et al. 2003; Nenadovic & Epstein, 2016), 4) foster mutual respect and hence cooperation (Bose & Cress-Morris, 2009), 5) minimize transaction costs (Abdullah et al. 1998), 6) provide basis for the integration of scientific knowledge with fishers’ knowledge and hence improved management (Mackin- son, 2001; Bergmann et al. 2004; Hartley & Robertson, 2009), and 7) help broaden decision makers’ under- standing of user-groups’ perceptions and attitudes that improves regulatory effectiveness and the successful implementation of policies (Mackinson, 2001; Jentoft & McCay 1995). Recognizing these potentials, Al-Oufi (2002), Al-Hab- si (2012), Al-Subhi et al. (2013), Al-Balushi et al. (2016) and Bose et al. (2017) advocated the approach to local fisheries management. The encouragement and devel- opment of fisheries co-management approach in man- aging fisheries resources in Oman is also echoed in the development of long-term strategic direction and policy recommendations for the sector by international ex- perts (WB & MAF, 2015). Although, community-based management approach in the form of traditional com- mittee (locally termed as ‘Sunat Al-Bahar’ Committee) has existed in Oman, the functioning of such committee has diminished over time.(Al-Oufi et al. (2000); Al-Sub- hi et al.2013). The top-down management approach is more evident in Oman and fishers’ participation in deci- sion-making is not well-articulated. While, research on co-management in fisheries was conducted with geo- graphical intent (Al-Oufi, 2002, Al-Habsi, 2012), the fea- sibility of such management approach has not received adequate attention. Given this background and considering the strategic importance of the fisheries sector, the main objective of this case study was to assess the feasibility and desirabil- ity of co-management approach to the management of the scalloped spiny lobster (Panulirus homarus) fishery in Oman. The main reasons for considering lobster fish- ery are two-fold: first, the fishery has been experiencing a prolonged period of high fishing pressure (Fig. 2). The decline in total landings has caused legitimate concern among policy makers, scientists, and fishers about its possible socio-economic consequences. Second, lobster is one of the high-valued species in Oman and the fish- ery provides significant employment and income oppor- tunities to the traditional fishing communities. This research has significance in terms of academ- ic, industry and policy perspectives. While various country-specific studies have been conducted on this approach, however, research on this topic in Oman is scarce, and to this end, this paper not only fills the existing knowledge gap in local research but also com- plements the existing global literature by adding coun- try-specific case study. The documentation and dis- semination of country specific experience have been encouraged by Nielsen et al. (2004) to guide others. Furthermore, by presenting barriers and opportunities for moving towards partnership approach this study contributes to the practical realm as well, as it provides policy makers and fishery managers of local and global 4 SQU Journal of Agricultural and Marine Sciences, 2019, Volume 24, Issue 1 Is Co-management feasible in achieving fisheries sustainability? A case of Oman’s lobster fishery resources called ‘collective’ or ‘public good’ (Ostrom, 1990). Interested readers are referred to Plummer & Fitzgibbon (2004) for further details on a conceptu- al framework developed through blending theory and practice on co-management. Despite these potential benefits, some limitations of co-management approach are also documented in the literature. It is argued that no self-interested individuals would join a collective effort when there are incentives generated by externally enforced rules (address free-rid- er problem) (Ostorm, 2000). Another is the dilemma for legitimacy when representatives have fixed mandates and a system based on personal representation that is, fishers’ cooperatives may represent only members’ inter- ests (Jentoft, 2000). Next is the accountability and moti- vation, which are related to human dimension (Grafton, 2007). It is worth mentioning that in reviewing fisheries governance mechanisms involving countries from South East Asia and Southern Africa, Nielsen et al. (2004) pro- vided evidence of mixed results of co-management ap- proach. Similar view of mixed results is also recognized in Cinner et al. (2012). Case study background In Oman, the lobster fishery is located in three Gov- ernorates namely Al-Sharqiyah South, Al-Wusta, and Dhofar (see Figure 1). The governorate Dhofar was dom- inant in terms of landings (67.8%) followed by Al-Wusta (25.8%) and Al-Sharqiyah South (6.4%) (MAF, 2012). origins with knowledge that has the potential to assist in designing effective strategies. Co-management: pros and cons Co-management was initially considered as a pow- er-sharing arrangement between the management authority and a community of resource users and the concept has been evolved over time with the experience from the field (Sen & Nielsen, 1996; Pomeroy & Berkes, 1997). For instance, Berkes (2009) branded co-manage- ment as a process/mechanism of determining power sharing, building institutions, building trust and social capital, solving problems, and as people-centered gov- ernance approach. The emerging interest in the co-management of nat- ural resources has a sound theoretical basis as it has deep roots in public-choice and social-choice theories (Sen, 1995; Ostrom, 1998; Jentoft, et al. 1998). The con- trast between these two theoretical postulates is that the former is based on individual rationality where - as ‘homo economicus’—individual behaviour is based on self-interests, while the later promotes an integrated social preference from diverse individual preferences (Sen, 1995). Fisheries managers and policy makers are already aware of the problems caused by biological and economic overfishing, stock depletion, and user-group conflicts associated with open access fisheries (Gordon, 1954; Seabright, 1993). However, with regard to the ef- fective management of common property resources like fisheries (Gordon, 1954) a dichotomy of opinion prevails in the existing literature. One group advocated government ownership or privatization to sustain com- mons. For instance, to sustain commons Hardin (1968) suggested for some sort of mutually agreed upon coer- cion involving the government to solve ‘the tragedy of commons’. Linked to this proposition, economists argue that adoption of private property rights would results in conservation and economically efficient use of common property resources as the internal benefits and costs ac- crue to the owner (Schlager & Ostrom, 1992; Ostorm, 2003). However, opponents (mostly anthropologists and social scientists) argued that this proposition is not cross-culturally valid and have promoted effective lo- cal institution by resource users as a way to avoid the ‘tragedy’ (Acheson, 1989; Ostrom, 1990; Agarwal, 2001). By drawing a distinction between ‘common-property’ and ‘communally owned resources’ and citing a number of cases, Acheson (1989) pointed out that communal- ly owned property is not necessarily subject to overex- ploitation as property owned communally does have an owner after all. Here lies the idea of collective action or co-management as local level management system can co-exist with the centralized institution involving gov- ernment and avoid ‘tragedy’ of commons. It is argued that under some circumstances local-level communi- ties can generate institutions and rules to manage their Figure 1. Map of the Sultanate of Oman with study sites 5Research Article Bose, Al-Balushi, Al-Haddabi, Al-Bulushi The fishery is regulated under the Marine Fishing and Living Aquatic Resources Protection Law and its Execu- tive Regulations. Besides other relevant articles, Article 14 of the Marine Fishing and Living Aquatic Resourc- es Protection Law that is specific to the lobster fishery includes the following elements: 1) prohibition of lob- ster catching during the breeding and reproduction sea- son, 2) harvesting lobster shall be by lobster traps with specifications determined by the competent authority, 3) prohibition of catching or handling egg bearing lob- ster, and lobster with carapace length less than 80 mm, 4) prohibition of processing or dealing in lobster during the breeding and reproductive seasons, and 5) amount of lobsters in possession must be registered at the end of each season with the competent authority. Since 1986, a number of Ministerial Decisions were issued related to the fishing season in the lobster fish- ery (Al-Haddabi, 2010). Non-compliance with the reg- ulations includes penalties such as fine (fixed amount and doubled with recurrence of offense), imprisonment, confiscation of catch, gear, boat and license (for a period or permanently) based on court’s decisions (Al-Haddabi, 2010). Artisanal fishers have been using lobster trap, gill- nets and tangle nets to harvest lobster with nets being the dominant fishing gear. This suggests that the regula- 0 500 1000 1500 2000 1986 1989 1992 1995 1998 2001 2004 2007 2010 2013 2016 Year La nd in gs (t on s) Figure 2. Total landings of lobster (mt) from 1988 to 2017. 0 1000 2000 1986 1989 1992 1995 1998 2001 2004 2007 2010 2013 2016 Year Va lu e (1 00 0 O M R ) Figure 3. Gross value (‘000 OMR) of lobster landings during 1991-2017. 6 SQU Journal of Agricultural and Marine Sciences, 2019, Volume 24, Issue 1 Is Co-management feasible in achieving fisheries sustainability? A case of Oman’s lobster fishery tory measure involving fishing gears as stipulated in the Marine Fishing and Living Aquatic Resources Protection Law as ‘Harvesting lobster shall be by lobster traps with specifications determined by the competent authority’ has not been enforced. In addition, there is no special li- cense requirement for harvesting lobster. The data from the present study suggests that a considerable number of part-time fishers are involved in the lobster fishery. According to data on landings collected by the MAF, the lobster landings dropped from 1936 mt in 1988 to 339 mt in 2017, an average growth rate of -5.83% during the period of 1988-2017 (Fig. 2) with most of the drop during in the first decade. The gross value of lobster catch has shown the similar pattern (but to a lesser extent), an average growth rate of -1.54% during 1991- 2017 (Fig. 3). However, it is interesting to note that the unit value of lobster has shown a positive growth (2.12%) during the 1991-2017 (see Figure 4). This indicates an economic potential that can be achieved if the sustain- able utilization of the resources was adhered to. As shown in Figure 2, the fishery has experienced a considerable decline in total landings. During the period Table 1. Assessment criteria with explanatory note for co-management feasibility. Criteria Explanatory note Pre-implementation phase Initiator of the idea of co-management How and by whom the idea of co-management is conceived? Conditions and driving force Issues and conditions (i.e. drivers) in fisheries that led to the idea of co-man- agement Community willingness to support the idea Extent of fishers willingness to support the idea of co-management Communicative process comprising participation, preparation, reflection and adaptation Existence of mechanisms for regular exchange of management information with fishers, fishers’ access and willingness to take part in management meet- ings, active participation of fishers in the preparation of co-management plan Institutional characteristics Interactive organization This promotes institutional flexibility not only in terms of space and time but also in terms of process/functions, and structure. It also embraces the presence of advisory organization that represents fishers’ interests. It also points out institutional fitness to accommodate effectively geographically oriented fishing communities. Resource ownership and control This includes access and withdrawal rights, collective choice rights (manage- ment rights, exclusion rights, enforcement rights, and transfer rights). Existence of planned process Existence of the process of preparing co-management plans with clear objec- tives, and functions and responsibilities of each institutional actor. Diversity Comprises equity (i.e. fairness in the representation of the range of interests, and participatory democracy), fisheries contribution to economic develop- ment, and fisheries sustainability. Source: Noble (2000), Chuenpagdee & Jentoft (2007), Cinner et al. (2012). 4000 6000 8000 1986 1989 1992 1995 1998 2001 2004 2007 2010 2013 2016 Year Va lu e (O M R /to n) Figure 4. Gross value (OMR/mt) of lobster landings during 1991-2017. 7Research Article Bose, Al-Balushi, Al-Haddabi, Al-Bulushi 1988-2017, the fishery experienced changes in manage- ment measures related to fishing season including its duration and timing through the issuance of a number of Ministerial Decisions. For instance, a two months period (December-February) fishing season was first introduced in 1992 and subsequently changed to the period October 15-December 15 in 2002. Prior to 1992, fishing season was six months period (October-March). In 2009, the fishery was technically inoperative due to a decision on the shift in fishing season (from 15th Octo- ber -15th December to 1st March- last day of April). The indicators of severity of exploitation of lobster resources are identified in various studies as follows 1) the catch is dominated disproportionately by younger size group (Mehanna et al. 2012; MAF, 2012; Rogers, 2002), and 2) the dramatic decline in catch over the period (Fig. 2). In addition, a large proportion of egg bearing females in the catch, as pointed out by Mehanna et al. (2012) and Rogers (2002) harms the reproductive potential of the population. There is also a substantial indication of fish- ers’ non-compliance with the regulations specific to the lobster fishery as stated above (Roger 2002, Al-Haddabi, 2010; Mehanna et al. 2012; MAF, 2012) which under- mines the effectiveness and legitimacy of regulations. Materials and Methods Selection of criteria for assessment Prior to addressing the research objective and to provide specificity to the subject-matter at hand, some relevant criteria were selected from the literature for evaluative purpose. Table 1 presents the selected criteria with brief explanation. In appraising the pre-implementation stage of co-management, Chuenpagdee & Jentoft (2007) have identified some key criteria that include: i) how and by whom the idea of co-management is conceived, ii) condi- tions and driving force that led to the idea, iii) communi- ty willingness, iv) communicative process, v) participa- Table 2. Respondent’s profile. Item Al-Sharqiyah South (N= 68) * Al-Wusta (N= 106) * Dhofar (N=362) * No. % No. % No. % Boat Owner 67 98.5 82 96.5 298 83.5 Crew 1 1.5 3 3.5 59 16.5 Participation Full-time 63 92.6 25 23.8 225 62.2 Part-time 5 7.4 79 75.2 137 37.8 Experience in fishing ≤ 10 years 6 8.0 16 15.2 78 21.8 Above 10 years 61 91.0 89 84.7 279 78.2 Educational Status ≤ Elementary & Preparatory 61 92.4 64 62.7 91 25.4 Above Elementary & Preparatory 5 7.6 38 37.3 267 74.6 Is (was) your father a fisher? 68 100.0 105 100.0 235 65.1 Community dependency on fisheries 68 100.0 67 63.2 295 81.5 Is (was) your father a fisher? 68 100.0 105 100.0 235 65.1 Age of respondent (average years) 44.3 31.2 37.2 Proportion of annual income from fishing (%) 90 51 46 * For each question the percentage figure is calculated based on the total number of responses rather than the overall sample size (N). All figures have been rounded to nearest decimal place. 8 SQU Journal of Agricultural and Marine Sciences, 2019, Volume 24, Issue 1 Is Co-management feasible in achieving fisheries sustainability? A case of Oman’s lobster fishery tion and preparation, and vi) reflection and adaptation. Similar thematic criteria were also used by Cinner et al. (2012) in analyzing transitions towards co-management involving three African countries. From an institutional perspective, Noble (2000) has added some institutional criteria (along with sub-criteria) that are prerequisites to effective co-management namely: i) the extent of in- teractiveness in organization, ii) the extent of resource ownership and control by community, iii) level of com- munity support, iv) presence of planned process, and v) diversity. Furthermore, the following important obser- vations are made from a brief review of literature. First, driving forces that led to the introduction of co-man- agement initiatives were not common across countries that provide justification for the case study at hand. For instance, conflicts over fisheries resources that popular- ized co-management in South East Asia (Nielsen et al. 2004), is relatively uncommon in Oman. Second, while the factors of influence differ in their extent across coun- tries, the overall objective of resource sustainability had been the main attraction to co-management approach. Third, the deliberation of co-management approach helps create a bridge between the two theoretical postu- lates namely public and social choice theories. To facilitate the process of assessment, this paper draws evidence from studies on co-management of local and global origins, and elicits fishers’ views on various aspects such as, socio-economic, technical, and regula- tory aspects of the fishery, awareness of co-management requirements, willingness to participate in management decision-making, monitoring and research, and sharing management responsibilities, etc. A field survey based on face-to-face interviews with a structured question- naire was conducted during June 9-28, 2013 with ran- domly selected 536 lobster fishers from three Governor- ates namely Al-Sharqiyah South South, Al-Wusta, and Dhofar. Prior to the design of the questionnaire for the field surveys, a pilot field visit was made to Al-Sharqiyah South (March 17, 2013) and discussions were held with local officials and fishers to gain a clear understanding of the key issues and challenges faced by the fishery. Fol- lowing the field visit and based on the review of existing literature, a questionnaire was developed. In the absence of any specific register for lobster fishers to draw samples from, the interview was carried out by asking whether the respondent has involvement in lobster fishing. The sampling approach relied on a stratified sampling based on the number of boats involving 11 coastal villages from Al-Sharqiyah South, Al-Wusta, and Dhofar Gov- ernorates. The participation in the survey was voluntary and to avoid any inappropriate use of survey informa- tion the respondents were kept anonymous according to the code of conduct of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries (MAF). On average it took about 40 min- utes to complete the questionnaire in the field. Survey data were processed using Excel and SPSS. A workshop comprising the data collectors was held on June 5, 2013 to reduce potential ‘interviewer bias’, and to discuss the interview protocol and the structured interview ques- tions. During the workshop data collectors were given opportunity to review the questionnaire and to clarify any question if arises. It can be noted from Table 2-9 that survey questions are both binary and scale-based in nature. The scale-based questions were measured on a five-point scale. Results This section presents respondents’ background profile, some economic fundamentals, and the assessment of the feasibility of co-management arrangements in the lobster fishery under the selected criteria presented in Table 1. Respondent’s profile and some economic fun- damentals Table 2 presents respondent’s profile. Majority of the re- spondents in all study sites were boat owners and had more than 10 years of fishing experience. The number of full-time fishers in Al-Sharqiyah South was compar- ative higher than that of the other study sites. Overall, a majority of the respondents had low educational attain- ment with the average age profile ranged from 31.2 years to 44.3 years. It was perceived by the respondents that fisheries are an important part of community livelihoods and the average proportion of fishing income (generated from all fishing activities) out of overall household in- come ranged from 46% to 90%. The crude estimates of average catch, average price, average gross earnings, and average operating costs per Table 3. Crude estimates of average catch, average price, and gross earnings. Governorates Average Catch (kg)/ Boat Average Price (OMR)/ kg Average Gross Earning (OMR)/ Boat/ Trip Average Operating Costs (OMR)/ Trip* Al-Sharqiyah South 7 7.4 51.80 7.00** Al-Wusta 36.56 5.5 201.08 30.32*** Dhofar 21.03 4.8 100.94 67.60 ( for trap)*** 38.15 ( for net)*** * The average operating costs per fishing trip for the fiberglass boats engaged in harvesting kingfish was estimated to be OMR 6.87 (Al-Oufi et al., 2004). ** excluding labor cost. *** including labor cost. 9Research Article Bose, Al-Balushi, Al-Haddabi, Al-Bulushi trip for the boats engaged in lobster fishing are provid- ed in Table 3. The price (OMR/kg) of lobster during the 2013 season ranged from 4.8 OMR in Dhofar to 7.4 OMR (Al-Sharqiyah South). In Al-Sharqiyah South and Al-Wusta, lobster is sold predominantly to retailers and truckers respectively, while retailers, truckers, and com- panies are engaged in buying lobster in Dhofar Gover- norate. The average (gross) earning of the respondents from Al-Wusta was about four and two times higher than that of the respondents from Al-Sharqiyah South and Dhofar respectively. During the pilot visit fishers and the local officials reported that lobster catch had al- ways been high during the earlier part of the season and declined gradually towards the end of the season during which fishers divert their fishing efforts to catch other species. In Al-Sharqiyah South and Al-Wusta nets were used for harvesting lobster, however, in Dhofar, both traps and nets were used. On average, the crew members per boat ranged from 2 to 3. The trip duration per day ranged from 5 hours (Dhofar) to 11 hours (Al-Sharqiyah South), and trip numbers ranged from 5 to 6 times per week. Criteria-based assessment of co-management feasibility Initiators of the idea of co-management It was evident from a number of local studies that the present-day concept of co-management was embedded in the currently operated Sunat Al-Bahar Committee at coastal wilayat level headed by the Wali and that in- cludes member from fishing community and the MAF. The ‘Sunat Al-Bahar’ (meaning the ‘code of the sea’) historically encompassed rules and person with exten- sive knowledge. The task of the committee is to study fisheries related decisions of the Ministry, help in solv- ing conflicting issues, and communicate fisheries issues with fishers and the management authority. (Al Oufi et al. 2000; Al-Balushi et al. 2016; Al-Subhi et al. 2013). However, local studies also pointed out the dimin- ishing role of the traditional committee (Al Oufi et al. 2000, Al-Subhi et al. 2013) and recommended the re- vitalization of the function of traditional institution to enhance community attitudes to resource use and rule compliance (Al-Balushi et al. 2016; Al-Subhi et al. 2013). Recently, the 2040 strategy developed for the sector by the World Bank (WB) has placed a greater emphasis on Table 4. Effect of charbohydrate type and concentration on solanine % (mg.g-1 DW) in microshoots, callus and cell suspension of in vitro grown S.nigrum, in addition to wild (in green house) grown S. nigrum. Item Fishers Compliance Al-Sharqiyah South (N=68)*** Al-Wusta (N=106)*** Dhofar (N=362)*** No. % No. % No. % Compliance with fisheries regulations ≤ 50% 34 50.0 68 64.1 236 65.6 Greater than 50% 34 50.0 38 35.8 124 34.4 Violation of lobster fishery rules ≤ 50% 42 61.8 72 67.9 238 67.0 Greater than 50% 26 38.2 34 32.1 117 32.9 Enforcement Item (Measuring scale used: 1=Strongly agree and 5=strongly dis- agree) Al-Sharqiyah South (N=68) Al-Wusta (N=106) Dhofar (N=362) K-S Test (df =2) Mean HFS* Mean HFS Mean HFS Adequacy of enforcement at sea 2.87 4 1.66 2 2.67 2 53.78** Adequacy of enforcement at landing sites 2.76 4 2.44 2 2.52 2 2.65 Self-enforcement 3.63 5 2.50 2 3.46 5 36.32** * HFS represents highest frequency score. **The Kruskal-Wallis (K-S) test results indicate that the results are significant at the 1% level (Critical value is 9.21). *** For each question the percentage figure is calculated based on the total number of responses rather than the overall sample size (N). All figures have been rounded to nearest decimal place. 10 SQU Journal of Agricultural and Marine Sciences, 2019, Volume 24, Issue 1 Is Co-management feasible in achieving fisheries sustainability? A case of Oman’s lobster fishery consultation with stakeholders to improve communica- tion necessary for effective fisheries management (WB & MAF, 2015). Therefore, it appears that local and in- ternational experts have been the initiator of the idea of co-management. Conditions and driving force The primary driver of the recent co-management appeal resulted from overfishing of certain high valued spe- cies (Al-Balushi et al. 2016), extent of non-compliance (Al-Subhi et al. 2013), weak enforcement (Bose et al. 2017) in general and the catch of undersized lobster in particular (Bose et al. 2017). To address this situation, local researchers recommended the implementation of partnership approach as a tool to revitalize the role of traditional committee, and to enhance awareness, mu- tual trust and legitimacy (Bose et al. 2017; Al-Subhi et al. 2013). With regard to the case in hand, inadequacy of en- forcement and non-compliance with regulations (Table 4), lack of fair market price, decline in stocks (Table 9), etc. pose threats to both biological and economic via- bility of the fishery which have been major concerns to both fishers and fishery managers. The decline in lobster stock (Fig. 2), and lack of enforcement and compliance were of common concerns to respondents. A majority of the respondents from Al-Sharqiyah South in particular viewed that fisheries enforcement at sea and at landing sites was inadequate. The extent of compliance with fisheries regulations in general and lobster regulations in particular perceived by respondents is consistent with enforcement inadequacy (see Table 4). It is noted that ‘self-enforcement’ is not a practical option at the cur- rent stage and there was a significant difference in views across the Governorates. Co-operative decision-mak- ings involving fishers and the management authority were preferred by a majority of the respondents across all Governorates and the non-parametric test results did not show any significant difference in their views (Table 6). Community willingness and support With regard to community willingness and support, the results are positive as respondents acknowledged the resource threats and a relatively high proportion of respondents from Al-Sharqiyah South and Dhofar ex- pressed their high level of commitment to co-manage- ment. Furthermore, respondents’ were willing to: 1) par- ticipate in decision-making, 2) provide fishery-related information, 3) take part in monitoring and enforcement activities, and 4) take part in cooperative research. Re- spondents were prepared to assist the authority by sup- porting decisions (Table 7). When asked if they would like to form a local committee, a majority of respondents agreed to form a local committee involving relevant stakeholders for effective management of the lobster fishery. It is also noted that a relatively high proportion of respondents from Al-Wusta and Dhofar showed low level of willingness to take full management responsi- bility (Table 7). This is, perhaps, because they felt they would be unable to manage the fishery on their own and hence co-operative decision-making was preferred by a majority of the respondents across all Governorates as mentioned above. While a generational transfer of fishing profession was observed in case of Al-Sharqiyah South and Al-Wusta Governorates, involvement of new generation fishers (34.9%) was noted in case of Dhofar (Table 2). When asked ‘whether they would encourage their next generation to choose fishing as profession’ 85% and 43.9% of the respondents from Al-Wusta and Dhofar respectively responded negatively. Table 5. Views on management regulations. Item (Measuring scale used: 1=Strongly agree and 5=strongly disagree) Al-Sharqiyah South (N= 68) Al-Wusta (N= 106) Dhofar (N=362) K-S Test (df =2) Mean HFS Mean HFS Mean HFS Which of the following general tools of fisheries management do you feel are most effective in reducing fishing pressure? Size limit 3.13 4 2.26 1 2.84 4 18.92* Closed season 3.03 4 2.82 1 2.49 1 9.05** Market control 1.84 2 1.97 1 1.59 1 35.96* Gear restrictions 2.01 2 2.02 2 1.61 1 41.52* Closed area 3.07 4 3.36 4 3.15 5 2.08 *The Kruskal-Wallis (K-S) test results indicate that the results are significant at the 1% level (Critical value is 9.21). ** The Kruskal-Wallis (K-S) test results indicate that the results are significant at the 5% level (Critical value is 5.99). 11Research Article Bose, Al-Balushi, Al-Haddabi, Al-Bulushi of effective co-management that involves, among others, concept clarity, capacities of fishers (i.e. technical exper- tise, administrative skills, and social cohesion), provi- sion of protection from outsiders, provision of legislative support, credible commitments and accountability from both parties, mutual trust, refraining from opportunis- tic behaviour etc. (Charles, 2008; Singleton, 2000) was found to be low among respondents across the sampled areas. Resource ownership and control While fishers having valid fishing and boat licenses have the legal right to access the fishery and harvest lobster, they do not possess collective choice rights that include management rights, exclusion rights, enforcement rights, and transfer rights. Furthermore, private prop- erty rights for individual fishers or communities in the form of individual quota (i.e. individual/community har- vest rights) do not exist in the fishery. There is no clear evidence of power delegation or transfer (i.e. decen- tralization) of management functions to the traditional community organization to manage and control lobster resources. Furthermore, the scope of delegation and de- centralization is diminished by the absence of fishers’ technical capacities and lack of awareness about the es- sentials of co-management approach. The diminishing role of traditional institution within fishing communi- Communicative process To the best of authors’ knowledge no planned process exists at present in connection with the preparation of co-management plan, and therefore, the contemplation of the criteria such as ‘participation and preparation’ and ‘reflection and adaptation’ mentioned by Chuenpagdee & Jentoft (2007) was not possible. Furthermore, mech- anism for exchange of management information with fishers is unclear and information exchange is irregular in nature. Interactive organization The low level of fishers’ participation in traditional in- stitution (i.e. Sunat Al-Bahar committee) undermines its continued existence, operational effectiveness and the advisory role of traditional organization in fisher- ies management (Table 7). Furthermore, it weakens the representative voice of fishing communities. Responses with regard to the occurrences and level of awareness of consultation meeting, participation in ministry meet- ings in case of Al-Sharqiyah South and Dhofar, prop- er acknowledgement of fishers’ views raised, extent of fishers’ involvement in traditional committee, and level of fishers’ representation (particularly in Al-Sharqiyah South), undermine the basic characteristics of interac- tive organization (Table 7). The level of awareness of the ‘terms and conditions’ Table 6. Views on management regulations. Questions Al-Sharqiyah South (N= 68) ** Al-Wusta (N= 106) ** Dhofar (N=362) ** χ2 test (df=6) Yes % Yes % Yes % Do you agree with having a lobster closed-season? 27 39.7 32 30.2 284 78.5 108.11* Do you agree with the minimum size restrictions? 52 76.5 44 41.5 306 84.5 88.80* Do you agree with the restrictions on gear that can be used? 49 72.1 82 77.4 338 93.4 46.05* Do you agree with the restrictions on taking lobster with eggs? 53 77.9 91 85.8 348 96.1 41.43* Do you respect lobster closed-season? 67 98.5 92 86.8 342 94.5 11.76 Do you catch lobster during closed season? 3 4.4 16 15.1 13 3.6 53.86* Do you get lobster as bycatch during closed season? 18 26.5 60 56.6 213 58.8 33.42* Should the Ministry, the fishermen or both make decisions on managing the lobster fishery? χ2 test (df=4) Ministry 1 1.5 6 5.8 9 2.5 5.48 Fishermen 5 7.4 2 1.9 5 1.4 Both 62 91.2 95 92.2 348 96.1 * The results are significant at the 1% level (Critical values for 6 and 4 dfs at 1% level are 16.81 and 13.28 respectively. ** For each question the percentage figure is calculated based on the total number of responses rather than the overall sample size (N). All figures have been rounded to nearest decimal place. 12 SQU Journal of Agricultural and Marine Sciences, 2019, Volume 24, Issue 1 Is Co-management feasible in achieving fisheries sustainability? A case of Oman’s lobster fishery ties, perhaps, influenced by the ever-changing nature of fisheries issues involving resources and user-group (Nielsen et al. 2004). Across all Governorates, a relative- ly high proportion of respondents (>50%) raise fisheries issues through the Sunat Al-Bahar Committee (Table 9), however, the traditional committee have no legal rights to impose any regulatory measures. As discussed earlier the lobster fishery is managed through the implementation of regulatory measures such as closed season, gear restrictions, and size limits, by the management authority. Although the respon- dents respect the measure of closed season, less than 50% of the respondents from Al-Sharqiyah South and Al-Wusta agreed with the measures. With regard to ‘minimum size’ a similar pattern was observed in case of Al-Sharqiyah South. A significant difference in the views of the respondents on their agreement with the regulatory measures was observed across the sampled areas (Table 5). While prohibition of catching egg bear- ing females, market-based control, and gear restrictions were viewed as effective management measures by a ma- jority of the respondents across the sampling areas, the extent of disagreement reflected through the perceived views on ‘closed season’ and ‘minimum size’ indicate the site-specific diversity that require specific attention from the authority (Table 6). Both functional and territorial characteristics should also be taken into consideration to promote equity through participatory democracy. Existence of planned process There is no evidence of common priority-setting efforts with participation from both sides. Lack of efforts in this regard reflects organizational inertia undercutting the progress to improve the situation. Based on the findings it can, perhaps, be suggested that interviewed fishers may not wish to maintain the status quo as the Table 7. Awareness, participation, membership and representation. Item A l - S h a r q i y a h South (N= 68) ** Al-Wusta (N= 106) ** Dhofar (N=362) ** Yes (%) No (%) Yes (%) No (%) Yes (%) No (%) Awareness of consultation meeting for making regulations 13.2 85.3 34.0 63.2 47.8 51.7 Participation in Ministry meetings (2011-2013) 11.8 88.2 50.9 45.3 37.3 62.7 Recognition of views raised in meetings (if partic- ipated) 51.5 (N=47) 17.6 16.0 (N=38) 26.4 19.3 (N=201) 36.2 Membership in Sunat Al-Bahar Committee 7.4 91.2 12.3 84.9 3.9 96.1 Do you feel that Sunat Al-Bahar Committee represents you? 41.2 58.8 81.1 16.0 62.7 36.2 Way of Helping the Authority Al-Sharqiyah South (N= 68) ** Al-Wusta (N= 106) ** Dhofar (N=362) ** K-S Test (df =2) Yes (%) No (%) Yes (%) No (%) Yes (%) No (%) Supporting decisions 76.5 17.6 52.8 46.2 94.5 4.1 119.18* Participating in decision-making 79.4 14.7 72.6 26.4 92.0 4.1 46.02* Sharing management responsibilities 45.6 48.5 58.5 39.6 71.3 21.3 26.02* Providing information 61.8 32.4 71.7 26.4 84.5 13.5 19.10* Monitoring and enforcement 86.8 7.4 58.5 39.6 92.8 5.5 81.93* Participating in research project 61.8 32.4 30.2 67.0 76.2 15.5 97.14* Taking full management responsibility 42.6 52.5 21.7 76.4 49.4 39.8 32.64* Formation of a local stakeholder committee to better manage 67.6 32.4 75.5 22.6 82.0 16.3 9.73* * The Kruskal-Wallis (K-S) test results indicate that the results are significant at the 1% level (Critical value is 9.21). ** For each question the percentage figure is calculated based on the total number of responses rather than the overall sample size (N). All figures have been rounded to nearest decimal place. 13Research Article Bose, Al-Balushi, Al-Haddabi, Al-Bulushi current bio-economic situation (such as stock status, fishing costs, lack of local market outlets, competition etc.) affecting the livelihood of fishers (see Tables 4 and 5). Majority viewed that creating awareness and market opportunity through government initiative would help mitigating such concerns. This signal is conducive to the introduction of partnership arrangements. It is also not- ed that the existing institutional environments are not unfavorable either as there has been a long tradition of community organization (i.e. Sunat Al-Bahar Commit- tee) and partnership in the sector. However, as noted from the responses (see Table 8), the delegation of re- sponsibilities that suits the capacity of the local commit- tee should be decided upon carefully. Al-Balushi et al. (2016) argued that the authority could take essential steps to reform the traditional in- stitution by establishing clearly defined roles for and responsibilities of the committee in relation to fisheries management. This action will not only provide an oppor- tunity for the management authority to raise commu- nity awareness of fisheries issues, but also help reduce any communication gaps between the authority and the primary stakeholders. It is important to note that such approach focuses on disseminating conservation eth- ics through awareness programs and helps reduce local opposition to regulations. Of course, the effective solu- tions to the prevailing issues are likely to emerge over time through a learning process, however, inclusion and transparency in decision-making and, persistent dia- logue with community leaders and members could help gain support from the local community. Diversity There is no evidence of the existence of well-articulated process that supports equity in relation to fishers’ par- ticipation in decision-making. With regard to fisheries contribution to economic development, the existing conditions identified above will not only weaken the sector’s contribution to national food security and com- munity well-being but also fail to ensure access of new generation of fishers to lobster resource. In addition, this study identified some key challenges for the fishery in- cluding overfishing, decline in economic returns, mar- ket inefficiency, ineffective management measures, lack of enforcement and compliance, amongst others that need to be addressed to protect stock and achieve long- term sustainability. Discussion and policy implications The results associated with boat-ownership, average age profile and the proportion of income from fishing indi- cate that the livelihoods of those owner operators and younger fishers are linked to the long-term sustainability of the fishery. The results with regard to the dependency on fishing income are consistent with the proportion of part-time fisher in the respective Governorate. The low- est proportion of annual income generated from fishing in case of Dhofar is consistent with Al-Marshudi & Ko- tagama (2006) who reported that fishers from Dhofar have other jobs along with fishing. The low level of ed- ucational attainment particularly in Al-Sharqiyah South and Al-Wusta not only limits fishers’ choice of profes- sion as pointed out by Bose et al. (2013), but also fishers’ ability to contribute to co-management arrangements. Furthermore, if fishers’ unwillingness to encourage their next generation to take fishing as profession is true it may inspire short-term interests of fishers which is not conducive to long term sustainability. It should be noted that the existing regulatory mea- sure of closed-season was not agreed upon by the ma- jority of the respondents from Al-Wusta and Al-Shar- qiyah South. Consequently, the existing management approach will be ineffective and, therefore, will not be able to deliver the desired results. The disagreement Table 8. Factors of co-management. Factors Al-Sharqiyah South (N= 68) Al-Wusta (N= 106) Dhofar (N=362) K-S Test (df =2) Mean HFS2 Mean HFS Mean HFS Awareness of ‘terms & conditions’ of Co-manage- ment1 1.2 1.0 2.1 1 1.9 1 28.33* Willingness to take responsibility 3.1 5.0 2.6 3 2.1 1 32.95* Ability to Manage lobster resource 3.2 5.0 2.7 3 2.2 1 29.53* Level of commitment 4.1 5.0 2.8 3 3.1 5 32.60* 1‘terms and conditions’ of effective co-management involves, among others, concept clarity, capacities of fishers (i.e. technical ex- pertise, administrative skills, and social cohesion), provision of protection from outsiders, provision of legislative support, credible commitments and accountability from both parties, mutual trust, refraining from opportunistic behaviour etc. (Charles, 2001; Singleton, 2000). 2 HFS denotes ‘highest frequency score’. * The Kruskal-Wallis (K-S) test results indicate that the results are significant at the 1% level (Critical value is 9.21). 14 SQU Journal of Agricultural and Marine Sciences, 2019, Volume 24, Issue 1 Is Co-management feasible in achieving fisheries sustainability? A case of Oman’s lobster fishery with regard to the existing closed-seasons may be in- fluenced by the genetically different stock structures of scalloped spiny lobster (Panulirus homarus) as observed by Al-Breiki et al. (2018). Roger (2002) pointed out that if the priority is resource conservation then it is import- ant to determine the reasons behind the non-preference of the existing closed-seasons by initiating a cooperative research. Although a majority of the respondents agree with the gear restrictions, the findings indicate that the use of traps as required by the regulation was not popu- lar among fishers and consequently not followed by the majority of the respondents from Al-Sharqiyah South and Al-Wusta. Presence of significant diversity between Governorates with regard to views and perceptions of fishers should be taken into consideration and evaluated appropriately prior to developing partnership arrange- ments. The ‘one-size-fits-all’ approach would not be conducive as the findings indicated significant differenc- es in respondents’ preference structures with regard to the extent of participation in co-management. The driving force behind the move towards co-man- agement for the case in hand was found to be from local scientists and international experts which is in contrast with the findings from Cinner et al. (2012) where move towards co-management in case of Kenya, Tanzania, and Madagascar was mainly driven by donor ideology and subsequent support. However with regard to conditions that led to the development of co-management idea, the present finding is in line with the case of SSF of Lake Chiuta where circumstances such as environmental deg- radation and overexploitation of fish stocks led to the government initiated development of co-management in the early 1990s (Donda, 2017). Yang & Pomeroy (2017) mentioned that to prevent the increasing rate of deteri- oration of SSF resources in the Philippines and due to poor performance of the other management system gov- ernment actively promoted the development of commu- nity-based fisheries management (CBFM). They argued that the CBFM approach improved equity in the fishing community with regard to community participation in fisheries management, control of resource use pattern, the level of bargaining power over decision-making, fair allocation of operational rights and family income. Respondents’ unwillingness to take full manage- ment responsibility should not hinder the possibility of co-management approach. Noble (2000) argued that even if fishers are not capable or not willing to take full responsibility of resource management, they can active- Table 9. Raising issues, fishery concerns, and government support. Item* Al-Sharqiyah South (N= 68)* Al-Wusta (N= 106)* Dhofar (N=362)* No. (%) No. (%) No. (%) Approach to raise fisheries concerns: Local Fisheries Office 10 14.7 2 1.9 44 12.2 Sunat Al-Bahar Committee 62 91.2 86 81.1 268 74.0 Wali’s Office 4 5.9 48 45.3 142 39.2 Peers 20 29.4 50 47.2 98 27.1 List of major concerns about the lobster fishery: Fishing Season Nil 0.0 Nil 0.0 174 48.1 Decrease in Stock 51 75.0 26 24.5 250 69.1 Non-Compliance 37 54.4 50 47.2 216 59.7 Market Price 39 57.4 11 10.4 1 0.3 Lack of Enforcement 32 47.1 82 77.4 236 65.2 Government Support: (Yes) 67 98.5 65 61.3 341 94.2 Type of support from the Government Management 21 30.9 5 4.7 166 45.9 Administration 53 77.9 0 0.0 230 63.5 Training 39 57.4 8 7.5 145 40.1 Research 18 26.5 1 0.9 141 39.0 Creating Market Opportunity 48 70.6 34 32.1 196 54.1 Creating Awareness 58 85.3 4 44.3 229 63.3 * For each question in the table, the percentage figure was calculated based on the total number of responses rather than the overall sample size (N). All figures have been rounded to nearest decimal place. 15Research Article Bose, Al-Balushi, Al-Haddabi, Al-Bulushi ly participate in planning and decision-making through properly planned co-management arrangements. In ad- dition, Noble (2000) pointed out that a full institutional restructuring is not always necessary to make partner- ship arrangements possible. Despite respondents’ unwillingness to take full re- sponsibility of resource management (particularly in Dhofar and Al-Wusta) their high level of commitment (Al-Sharqiyah South and Dhofar) and full support for the co-operative approach signify the fact that the ap- proach is demand (fishers)-driven. The management au- thority should take advantage of this signal and initiate a plan and capacity building efforts through the design of co-operative research projects which may provide opportunities for both parties to collectively arrive at more effective solutions to overfishing and non-compli- ance problems. Tightly constrained fishery budget make it all the more crucial to reduce management and en- forcement costs. Furthermore, the finding with regard to fishers’ willingness to take part in cooperative research provides support to design a knowledge-based planning process through the integration of socio-cultural and economic characteristics of local community and eco- logical knowledge of fishers. Non-compliance has also been viewed as one of the key factors responsible for overfishing of lobster stock which is in line with the observation by Rogers (2002). The capacity to detect non-compliance is of utmost im- portance, not only to gain better information for stock assessment purpose but to protect stock and ensure the integrity of management measures and sustainability of lobster resources. As the majority of the respondents are ready and willing to support the authority (see Ta- ble 7), local officials and fishers can join together un- der a partnership arrangement to become stronger and more effective in enforcement monitoring and of rules and regulations. To cite an example, Cinner et al. (2012) pointed out that the enforcement of regulation banning beach seine nets was effective through the establishment of Beach Management Unit (BMU) – a formal organiza- tion of fishers and other stakeholders in Kenya. For the present case, the establishment of an integrated compli- ance program will be critical to the effectiveness of fish- eries management. Donda (2017) examined the impacts of co-management arrangements in case of Lake Chiuta, Malawi and observed that such arrangements benefit- ed government in terms of reduced enforcement costs and creating positive image for establishing a sustainable fishery through fostering user participation, and bene- fited fishers in terms of getting government protection from outsiders, increased income, employment and im- proved livelihoods. The recent report by the World Bank and MAF mentioned that the commitment to increase stakeholder input and participation in the fisheries sec- tor is an important step toward maximizing voluntary compliance (WB & MAF, 2015). With regard to respondents’ low level of educational attainment and lack of awareness about the ‘terms and conditions’ of co-management indicate that intervention to augment fishers’ capacity through the development of technical and administrative skills and strengthen- ing traditional institutions through appropriate aware- ness program may prove beneficial in the long-run and may be the key for resolving local level fisheries issues. In stressing the gender issue in traditional fisheries in Oman and low educational attainment of fisherwomen involved in shellfish fisheries, Bose et al. (2013) also rec- ommended a ‘target group’- based approach to skill de- velopment programs to equip fisherwomen with generic skills that are easily transferable to other occupations. The ‘Fisheries Extension Department’ should play a sig- nificant role not only in delivering various extension ser- vices but also promoting awareness among fishers about their roles and responsibilities in achieving sustainability in the fishery. Fisheries extension program must strive to educate fishers on the association between overfishing and its impact on the resources on which many of the fishers depend for their livelihoods. Capacity building efforts, if they are to be sustained, must include provi- sions of long-term support from the authority. However, the ultimate success of any co-management initiatives would depend upon their ability to influence fishers’ at- titudes towards resource sustainability. However, exten- sion officers should receive appropriate training to deliv- er intended services to fishers effectively. The details of such a partnership arrangement with respect to its type, selection of members, functions, responsibilities etc. need to be worked out. Considering the fishery situation, an arrangement of participatory management should be considered in- volving the key stakeholder groups and strived for broad consensus on the management measures to ensure the protection and conservation of the lobster resources. This approach will enhance trust, legitimacy and en- courage voluntary compliance and reduce enforcement expenditures. The evolution of co-management institu- tion for Pacific Northwest salmon fisheries as reported by Singleton (2000) illustrates the fact effective partner- ship approach is possible despite the historical adversar- ial relations between the state and the American Indian tribes as they were engaged collectively in collecting and analyzing data and implementing other initiatives. In a Canadian case Davis (2008) found that incentive to participate, consensus decision-making and indepen- dent facilitation were essential to ensure fairness and effectiveness of the planning process. The process can be developed through the issuance of Ministerial De- cision that will not only provide the legal mandate but also help attracting community and industry attention to the fishery. Examples of such decisions can be found in Al-Balushi et al. (2016). The study by Al-Balushi et al. (2016) exemplifies that a co-operative management plan could be developed and differences in interests could be accommodated with impressive rating on the compre- 16 SQU Journal of Agricultural and Marine Sciences, 2019, Volume 24, Issue 1 Is Co-management feasible in achieving fisheries sustainability? A case of Oman’s lobster fishery hensiveness of such plan. Development practitioners argue that property rights institutions should be designed to be beneficial, flexible, socio-culturally sensitive, politically encouraged, legally and socially recognized, enforceable by a legitimate au- thority, and conducive to local conditions in order to ef- fectively conserve resources and protect community in- terests (Acheson, 1989; Seabright, 1993; Agarwal, 1994; Ostrom, 2003). Conclusion This case study focuses on the feasibility of co-manage- ment in the lobster fishery of Oman and highlights some strengths and weaknesses related to the feasibility and desirability of such management approach. While find- ings related to fishers’ commitments, willingness to sup- port government decisions, willingness to participate in co-operative research, and preference for co-operative decision-making are promising, institutional weakness- es identified under the category of ‘interactive organi- zation’, ‘resource ownership and control’, ‘existence of planned process’, and ‘diversity’ should be of major con- cerns for policy-makers in moving towards co-manage- ment arrangements. Although the results are dependent on the limited in- dicators used in the feasibility assessment, it is believed that the incorporation of additional indicators in the assessment process would not alter the basic thrusts of the conclusion. If continuity and long-term sustainabil- ity of the fishery is a priority, then fishers’ commitment in running an economically viable and environmentally sustainable fishing should be secured through a partner- ship approach. 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