Journal of Applied Botany and Food Quality 90, 246 - 258 (2017), DOI:10.5073/JABFQ.2017.090.031 Civil and Environmental Engineering Department, Environment Laboratory - University of Perugia An Ethnobotanical investigation of traditional knowledge and uses of edible wild plants in the Umbria Region, Central Italy Aldo Ranfa, Mara Bodesmo* (Received January 26, 2017; Accepted April 15, 2017) * Corresponding author Summary These days edible wild plants (EWPs) play a fundamental role in the Mediterranean diet, thanks to their content of mineral elements and bioactive compounds with proven benefits for human health. The present study aims to document ethnobotanical knowledge and uses of EWPs in Central Italy so that this knowledge will not be lost. During various nature fairs and exhibitions in Umbria three hundred subjects were interviewed face-to-face between March and May 2013-2015. The participants provided information on local plant names, where and when the plants were collected, part(s) used, categories used, folk medicinal uses, taste perception and other uses. The results were analyzed using two ethnobotanical indices: the Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC) and Relative Importance Index (RII). The 100 EWPs mentioned by the respondents belonged to 23 families, Asteraceae (33%), Brassicaceae (17%) and Lamiaceae (11%) being the most dominant. The part(s) used were leaves (49%), shoots (17%), flowers and inflorescences (10%). Fourteen food use categories were cited, of which boiled 31%, 28% raw, 12% in vegetable soups, 11% fried in fat, without or with beaten eggs. Twenty-seven plant species were also mentioned as having folk medicinal uses. Keywords: Central Italy, Umbria Region, edible wild plants, ethno- botanical knowledge, folk medicinal uses, taste perception Introduction Plants are an essential part of food intake; these days the bulk of our food requirements is satisfied by a few plant species of culti- vated crops. In particular only seven species supply 90% of calories pro-capita worldwide, among them wheat, maize, rice and potatoes. However, it should not be forgotten that thousands of plant species are eaten locally, of which very few have been partially domesti- cated; indeed most are collected in the wild and belong to the im- mense patrimony of edible wild plants (EWPs) present on our planet (Heywood, 2011). Over the last two decades there has been a growing interest in EWPs which has prompted researchers to record local knowledge of various uses to preserve traditions and disseminate information. Numerous research projects have shown how the European continent, for ex- ample countries such as Poland (Łuczaj and SzymańSki, 2007), Slovakia (Łuczaj, 2012), the Iberian Peninsula (Tardío et al., 2006; Pardo de SanTayana et al., 2007), Italy (Ranfa, 2005; Signorini et al., 2009; Ranfa et al., 2011; Guarrera and Savo, 2013; Ranfa, 2014; SanSanelli and TaSSoni, 2014; Ranfa et al., 2015) and Greece (Della et al., 2006), possess a rich and varied culture with respect to EWP uses (Pardo de SanTayana et al., 2010; Łuczaj et al., 2012). These species are in the centre of a new approach con- cerning food which focuses on health and uncontaminated food sources (Łuczaj et al., 2012). Especially in the Mediterranean area, numerous studies have explored the extraordinary richness of wild species and the traditional uses associated with them (Della et al., 2006; dogan, 2012), as well as looking into their importance as a source of bioactive compounds (Sanchez maTa et al., 2012). Indeed in the Mediterranean area there is still a strong tradition in the use of EWPs. Currently, around 2 300 wild plant and mushroom species are used directly in human food consumption or to prepare condiments and drinks (caneva et al., 2013). In Italy there are at present 828 edible species belonging to 98 bo- tanical families whose ethnobotanical uses have been documented (Romojaro et al., 2013). Furthermore these species are arousing much interest thanks to their nutraceutical value and the benefits that derive from frequent, habitual use (nebel et al., 2006). Some studies carried out in Italy have shown that these species have significant nutraceutical values, as they are rich in mineral elements and bio- active compounds, with proven benefits for human health (ranfa et al., 2011; guarrera and Savo, 2013; ranfa et al., 2014; maurizi et al., 2015; ranfa et al., 2015) thanks to their high polyphenol and unsaturated fatty acid contents (de lorgeril and Salen, 2007). In the past, most studies in Umbria concentrated on recovering local knowledge regarding medicinal (lePoraTTi et al., 1985; Nardelli, 1987) and food uses (dalla ragione I, dalla ragione L., 2003), while more recent research has shown that, with respect to many cultivated species, EWPs possess higher fibre content, are anti- oxidant and flavonoid-rich, and have beneficial effects in preventing chronic modern-day diseases (ranfa et al., 2011; maurizi et al., 2015; ranfa et al., 2015). The aim of this study is to collect and document local knowledge of traditional EWP uses together with information on collecting, processing, cooking and folk medicinal uses. Until now, in Umbria little research, fragmented to say the least, has been carried out in this field. Therefore, this study represents one of the first attempts to document and preserve an important part of our ethnobotanical heritage which risks being lost. Field work The study was conducted in Umbria, Central Italy, in an area of 8 456 km² ca. with 895 259 inhabitants (Fig. 1). The river Tiber flows through the region, which is typified by a wide range of physical and climatic features, thus determining a great floristic diversity with over 2 000 different plant species (conTi et al., 2007). The landscape features extensive plains where anthropogenic acti- vity is concentrated and where over the years a progressive reduction of floristic diversity has been observed. On the other hand, the hilly and mountainous areas maintain high naturalistic diversity with a high percentage of forest cover and a low percentage of urbanization (aa.vv., 2004). Umbria is a region of rich biodiversity, having 95 Sites of Commu- nity Importance (SCIs) and 5 Special Protection Areas (SPAs) that cover 15% of the regional territory (miniSTero dell’ambienTe e della TuTela del TerriTorio e del mare, 2015). There are still extensive rural areas dotted with small villages where the countryside has altered very little, and where the knowledge and use of EWPs is still very much alive (Fig. 1) (ranfa et al., 2011, 2014, 2015). Ethnobotanical knowledge in Central Italy 247 Material and methods Ethnobotanical data were collected during some events centred on EWPs which took place in Umbria, in the Perugia and Spello mu- nicipalities, aiming to disseminate and promote knowledge of wild plant species. Of particular importance are the 2013, 2014, and 2015 editions of the Mostra delle erbe spontanee, organized by the Perugia Mycological and Field Naturalists’ Association (Circolo Micologico Natualistico Perugino), where potted wild plants bearing labels that described botanical characteristics, food use and medicinal proper- ties were on display, and also the 2014 and 2015 editions of the Wild Plants Show (‘Subasio con Gusto - Rassegna delle Erbe Campagnole) held in the Spello municipality where various events promoted infor- mation on and uses of EWPs. The data collected during these themed events were representative of the entire Umbria region as participation was high and the infor- mants came from various localities throughout Umbria. In both municipalities various field trips encouraged the general public to participate in the collection and identification of wild spe- cies. Therefore, over the past few years these species, for example ‘raponzoli’ (Campanula rapunculus L.), ‘caccialepre’ [Reichardia picroides (L.) Roth], ‘papavero’ (Papaver rhoeas L.) and ‘borragine’ (Borago officinalis L.) are beginning to appear more frequently in local street markets (Fig. 2 a, b, c, d, e). Moreover, local restaurants are including dishes based on wild plants in their menus, one of the most recent being a ‘pesto’ made with wild greens (Fig. 2-f). Research on the uses of EWPs began in 2012 (Ranfa et al., 2013) and continued in 2013, 2014 and 2015. With respect to data collected in 2012, information relative to the aforementioned species has been integrated to include food use categories, taste perception and other uses. Furthermore 55 new species have been indicated. Ethnobotanical information was collected by means of standard eth- nobotanical tools (AlexiadeS, 1996), through 881 open anonymous and face-to-face interviews. The 300 informants were represented by 180 females and 120 males, aged between 45 and 80 years, of which only 10 informants were under 55 years of age. Each infor- mant, chosen at random, filled in more than one form and supplied information on 2-3, and in some cases 3-4, wild plant species, inclu- ding local name, places of collection, period of collection, part(s) used, categories used, folk medicinal uses, taste perception and knowledge of particular anecdotes and recipes. For the data in the manuscript, the local and national guidelines have been used and appropriate per- mission for the study were requested. Regarding local names, the informants indicated the names commonly used in their own areas. However, only the informants over 65 years of age supplied typically local names because mainly this group still conserves this know- Fig. 1: Field work. Perugia and Spello, the municipalities where the themed events were organized. (Source: Umbria Geo Database, Umbria Region) Fig. 2: Exhibition of wild plants: field work to collect and identify wild plants, Spello, during the ‘Subasio con gusto’ event (a); wild edible plants on sale in a local market: ‘raponzoli’ (Campanula rapunculus L.) (b); common edible wild plants in the Umbria region, for example ‘caccialepre’ [Reichardia picroides (L.) Roth] (c), ‘papavero’ (Papaver rhoeas L.) (d) and ‘borragine’ (Borago officinalis L.) (e); pesto made with wild edible greens (f). 248 A. Ranfa, M. Bodesmo ledge, while the others gave more widely-known names which were similar, if not identical, to the Italian scientific names, probably due to the large amount of information available through various chan- nels (i.e. the internet, many thematic books, etc). The voucher speci- mens collected have been deposited in the Plant Bioresources for the Environment Laboratory of Civil and Environmental Engineering Department, University of Perugia, Italy. These samples constitute the voucher specimens used in this research, and the herbarium will be enriched and extended over time with the addition of further spe- cies identified by future informants. Successively, the International Plant Names Index (http://www.ipni. org/) was consulted to verify the accepted nomenclature for each species. Two indices were calculated for data analysis: the Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC) (Tardío and Pardo-de-SanTayana, 2008) and the Relative Importance Index (RII) (Pardo-de-SanTayana, 2003; Tardío and Pardo-de-SanTayana, 2008). The Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC) is obtained by dividing the number of informants who mention the use of the species which correspond to the frequen- cy of citation (FC) by the total number of informants participating in the investigation (N) (eq. 1). RFCs= FCs\N (1) where FC is the frequency of citation of the species, that is, the num- ber of informants who cited that species, and N is the total number of informants who participated in the study. This index varies from 0 if the species was not cited to 1 if the species was cited by all in- formants. The Relative Importance Index (RII) regards both the number of in- formants and the number of uses. In this case only food use was taken into consideration because the informants cited it most fre- quently (eq. 2): RIs= RFCs(max) +RNfUs(max)\2 (2) where RFCs(max) is the relationship between the frequency of citation of a given species (FCs) divided by the maximum number of infor- mants citing any species and RNfUs(max) is the relationship between number of food uses (NfU) given for that species by the total num- ber of food uses given for all species. A correlation analysis of the two indices was then carried out using Pearson’s correlation Index (r) which represents a measure of the strength of the linear relationship between two variables. Results A total of 100 uses for EWPs (Tab. 1) was documented. All species belong to 23 botanical families, most frequently repre- sented by Asteraceae (33%), followed by Brassicaceae (17%) and Lamiaceae (11%). Part(s) used Tab. 2 shows the percentages of part(s) used. Leaves are mainly eaten when young and tender as a raw vegetable or cooked in tradi- tional dishes, for example as a filling for ravioli or in savoury pies. Lepidium latifolium leaves are used as mustard or pepper. Mentha aquatica, Mentha pulegium, Mentha suaveolens, Origanum vulgare and Origanum majorana leaves are used for infusions or dried and used to season meat and fish. Bellis perennis, Borago officinalis, Calendula arvensis, Campanuula rapucunculus, Viola odorata flowers or inflorescences are eaten raw in salads, used to make jam or else candied. Ranunculus ficaria, Urospermum. dalechampii and Taraxacum officinale flower buds are used in place of capers. Smilax aspera flowers are eaten in salads. Young shoots are eaten raw or boiled; Melissa officinalis shoots are used in alcoholic beverages, Smilax aspera shoots are preserved in oil or pickled, while Rubus ulmifolius shoots are used like asparagus in omelettes. Chenopodium album, Alliaria petiolata and Diplotaxis tenuifolia are all eaten; Foeniculum vulgare seeds are used in alcoholic beve- rages, Papaver rhoeas seeds are added to bread and cookies, and Sinapis alba seeds are used to make mustard. In 5% of the plants the stems are eaten, especially in Brassica nigra and in Foeniculum vulgare in which stems are eaten for their refresh- ing properties. In some species the roots are roasted as a coffee substitute (i.e.: Chondrilla juncea, Cichorium inthybus, Reichardia picroides, Sonchus spp., Taraxacum officinale). Muscari comosum bulbs are boiled, preserved in oil or pickled. Ragadiolus stellatus rhizomes are also eaten. Food use categories The most frequent method is boiling (B) to produce ‘cooked greens’ (Tab. 2) which are then seasoned with oil, salt and lemon juice, the most commonly used species being Sonchus spp., Cichorium inty- bus, Crepis spp., Rumex spp. and Urospermum dalechampii. About 28% of EWPs are eaten raw (R) in mixed-leaf salads where the sweeter herbs such as Plantago lanceolata and Borago officinalis mitigate the bitterness of Cichorium intybus, Taraxacum officinale and Helminthotheca echioides. In raw salads Sanguisorba minor, Campanula rapunculus, Tordylium apulum, Reichardia picroides, Daucus carota, and Capsella bursa-pastoris are indicated as be- ing very tasty. About 12% of the species are used in vegetable soups (VS), such as Achillea millefolium, Arctium lappa, Cardamine hir- suta and Foeniculum vulgare. 11% are fried in fat, with or without beaten eggs (“frittata”) (F), for example Asparagus acutifolius, Clematis vitalba, Calamintha ne- peta, Humulus lupulus and Sonchus aspera. About 6% are used as a filling in ravioli or savoury pies (FIL) espe- cially Borago officinalis and Urtica dioica, and 2% in risotto such us Silene vulgaris, Allium spp. and Diplotaxis muralis. Some species are used in alcoholic beverages (AB). For example, Achillea millefolium seeds are placed in wine barrels to improve wine preservation. Other uses included, for example, Allium neapolitanum used to make repellents for moths, beetles and other insects, dried Calendula ar- vensis petals are used to aromatize wine, which after being left in the sun for ten days becomes excellent vinegar. Clematis vitalba roots are smoked, Parietaria officinalis leaves are used to clean wine flasks, while Taraxacum officinale leaves are used in infusions and the flowers used to make jam. Details are shown in Tab. 2. Taste perception The EWPs with a bitter taste were Urospermum dalechampii, Clematis vitalba, Cichorium intybus, Crepis spp. and Taraxacum of- ficinale. Many of the informants stated that flavor depends greatly on when the plants are collected, and that they are less bitter before flowering. EWPs with a spicy taste are Sanguisorba minor that tastes like fresh walnuts, Tordylium apulum that tastes a little like cucum- ber, and then there are the aromatic plants such as Origanum spp. and Thymus spp. Camapanula rapunculus roots are sweet while the leaves are rather bitter, Tragopogon pratensis leaves are bitter while the root tastes like walnuts. The EWPs which are reputed to have a sweet taste are Lactuca spp., Malva sylvestris, Papaver rhoeas, Ragadiolus stellatus, Silene vulgaris and Sonchus spp. Local dishes The informants provided various traditional recipes. In particular, a popular springtime salad consists of ‘caccialepre’ (Reichardia picroides) leaves which are dressed with heated olive oil, salted an- http://www.ipni.org/ http://www.ipni.org/ Ethnobotanical knowledge in Central Italy 249 Ta b. 1 : L is t o f t he e di bl e w ild p la nt s ci te d in th e st ud y ar ea . Sc ie nt ifi c na m es F am ily L oc al n am es P ar t( s) u se d F oo d us e Ta st e F ol k m ed ic in al u se s O th er u se s N um be r of ca te go ri es * pe rc ep ti on ci ta ti on s 1 A ch ill ea m ill ef ol iu m L . A st er ac ea e ac hi lle a, m ill ef og lie le av es A B , R , V S bi tte r bo ile d le av es a pp lie d se ed s tie d in a c ot to n ba g 15 to c ut s an d w ou nd s pl ac ed in w in e ba rr el s to fo r h ea lin g im pr ov e w in e pr es er va tio n 2 A ju ga r ep ta ns L . L am ia ce ae bu gu la , c on so lid a, e rb a sh oo ts , y ou ng le av es B , R bi tte r 5 di S . L or en zo , e rb a m or a 3 A lli ar ia p et io la ta C av ar a B ra ss ic ac ea e al lia ri a co m un e, e rb a ag lin a se ed s, y ou ng le av es B , R , V S, ta st y le av es a pp lie d to g um s se ed s us ed in th e sa m e 3 & G ra nd e O th . to tr ea t g en gi vi tis , s ee ds w ay a s m us ta rd s ee ds st im ul at e ap pe tit e 4 A lli um n ea po lit an um A lli ac ea e ag lio b ia nc o, le av es , y ou ng b ul bs B , R , F , V S sp ic y us ed a s an in se ct a nd 13 C ir ill o ag lio n ap ol et an o m ot h re pe lle nt 5 A lli um tr iq ue tr um L . A lli ac ea e ag lio a ng ol ar e, a gl io le av es , y ou ng b ul bs B , R , F , V S sp ic y re du ce s hy pe rt en si on , 5 tr ig on o, a gl io s el va tic o an tib io tic , d is in fe ct an t, re du ce s gl yc em ia , ca rd io st im ul an t 6 A lli um u rs in um L . A lli ac ea e ag lio o rs in o le av es , y ou ng b ul bs B , R , F , V S sp ic y fr es h le av es a pp lie d to th e 6 sk in a ct a s a ru bi fa ci en t, po un de d an d us ed a s a po ul tic e to s oo th e ab sc es se s an d bo ils 7 A rc tiu m la pp a L . A st er ac ea e ba rd an a m ag gi or e, la pp a le av es , r hi zo m es , s te m s, B , R , V S bi tte r in fu si on s tim ul at es 10 ba rd an a, la pp ol a yo un g sh oo ts ha ir g ro w th 8 A sp ar ag us a cu tif ol iu s L . L ili ac ea e as pa ra go , a sp ar ag o de i tu ri on es B , F , R bi tte r 25 bo sc hi 9 B ar ba re a vu lg ar is R . B r. B ra ss ic ac ea e er ba d i S . B ar ba ra c om un e, flo w er s, le av es , s ho ot s B , V S sp ic y 3 ru co la p al us tr e 1 0 B el lis p er en ni s L . A st er ac ea e m ar gh er iti na , p ra to lin a flo w er s, le av es B , R , O th . bi tte r le av es a pp lie d to th e gu m s flo w er s us ed fo r l ud ic 25 to s oo th e sm al l c ut s, ac tiv iti es ‘l ov es m e, lo ve s ch ew ed to re fr es h th e m e no t’ ; l ea ve s us ed m ou th as a te a su rr og at e 1 1 B or ag o of fic in al is L . B or ag in a- bo rr ag in e, b or ag in e flo w er s, le av es B , F , F IL ., R sw ee t flo w er s m ac er at ed in w in e 40 ce ae fo r a w ee k m ak e an e xc el - le nt b od y- cl ea ns in g dr in k; flo w er s m ac er at ed in w hi te vi ne ga r t ur n bl ue ; fl ow er s fr oz en in ic e cu be s 1 2 B ra ss ic a ni gr a (L .) B ra ss ic ac ea e ca vo lo s en ap e- ne ra , flo w er s, le av es , s ee ds , B , F , R , O th . ta st y se ed s in th e w at er fo r 5 W .D .J . K oc h ra pa s el va tic a st em s fo ot b at hs 1 3 B un ia s er uc ag o L . B ra ss ic ac ea e ca sc el lo ra , c as ce llo re le av es , y ou ng s ho ot s B , R sp ic y le av es a re d iu re tic 8 co m un e, c as se lla , co te ca cc hi e, n av on e se lv at ic o 250 A. Ranfa, M. Bodesmo 1 4 C al am in th a ne pe ta (L .) L am ia ce ae ca la m en to , m en tu cc ia flo w er s, y ou ng le av es B , F ta st y st im ul at es b ile p ro du ct io n, 20 Sa vi co m un e, n ep et el la s el va tic a, st im ul at es a pp et ite , l ea ve s po le gg io s el va tic o ru bb ed o n in se ct b ite s 1 5 C al en du la a rv en si s L . A st er ac ea e ca le nd ul a de i c am pi , flo w er s, le av es B , R sw ee t le av es h ea l w ou nd s dr ie d pe ta ls g iv e ar om a to 10 fio rr an ci o se lv at ic o w in e w hi ch , a ft er te n da ys in th e su n, b ec om es a n ex ce lle nt v in eg ar 1 6 C am pa nu la r ap un cu lu s L . C am pa nu la - ra po nz ol o, ra m po nz ol o, flo w er s, le av es , r oo ts o r B , R ro ot s w ee t, us ed to tr ea t i nfl am m at io n 25 ce ae ra pe ro nz ol o, ra pu nz ol i ro ot st oc ks , y ou ng s ho ot s le av es b itt er of th e or al c av ity , l ea ve s us ed to tr ea t w ar ts , i nf us io n of fl ow er s us ed a s a ga rg le 1 7 C ap se lla b ur sa -p as to ri s B ra ss ic ac ea e bo rs a di p as to re , le av es , y ou ng s ho ot s B , F , R , V S ta st y 20 (L .) M ed ik . s ub sp . bo rs ac ch in a, e rb a bo rs a, bu rs a- pa st or is er ba c io cc a, e rb a ra pe ri na 1 8 C ar da m in e hi rs ut a L . B ra ss ic ac ea e bi lle ri p ri m at ic ci o, flo w er s, le av es B , R , V S ta st y 2 ca rd am in e 1 9 C ar lin a ac au lis L . s .l. A st er ac ea e ca rc io fo d i m on ta gn a, c ar do fl ow er h ea ds B , R bi tte r 3 di s an P el le gr in o 2 0 C en tr an th us r ub er (L .) D C . V al er ia na - ba rb a di G io ve , c am ar ez za yo un g le av es B , R , V S bi tte r 5 su bs p. r ub er ce ae co m un e, s ao ni na , v al er ia na ro ss a 2 1 C he no po di um a lb um L . C he no po di a- ab iti llo , f ar in ac ci o, le av es , y ou ng s ho ot s B , R , F il. , V S bi tte r 5 ce ae fa ri ne llo c om un e 2 2 C he no po di um C he no po di a- fa ri ne llo b uo n- en ri co , le av es , y ou ng s ho ot s B , R bi tte r 5 bo nu s- he nr ic us L . ce ae fa ri ne llo tu tta b uo na 2 3 C ho nd ri lla ju nc ea L . A st er ac ea e er ba p iz zu ta , g in es tr el la , le av es , y ou ng s ho ot s B , F , R , O th . ta st y fr es h le av es a pp lie d di re ct ly 15 la tta jo la , m as tr ic i, pi ol e, he al w ou nd s, c ut s an d ul ce rs , pi ol et ta ac ne a nd e cz em a 2 4 C ic ho ri um in ty bu s L . A st er ac ea e ci co ri a, c ic or ie tta , r ad ic ch io l ea ve s, le av es s ta lk s, ro ot , B , F IL ., R , bi tte r to as te d ro ot s ub st itu te s 30 se lv at ic o, ra di ci a m ar e yo un g sh oo ts O th . co ff ee 2 5 C ir si um a rv en se (L .) Sc op . A st er ac ea e ca rd o ca m pe st re , le av es , y ou ng s ho ot s B , F , V S bi tte r 5 sc ar da cc io ne , s to pp io ne , st op po lo ne 2 6 C le m at is v ita lb a L . R an un cu la - cl em at id e, v ita bb ia yo un g sh oo ts F, R is ., R , bi tte r ro ot s sm ok ed in th e sa m e 38 ce ae V S w ay a s to ba cc o 2 7 C re pi s sa nc ta (L .) A st er ac ea e cr ep id e, d ol ce tta , yo un g le av es B , R bi tte r 10 B ab c. s ub sp . s an ct a ra di cc hi el la d i t er ra sa nt a 2 8 C re pi s ve si ca ri a L . A st er ac ea e co ta , c re pi de v es ci co sa , yo un g le av es B , R bi tte r 3 ra di cc hi el la v es ci co sa , ra di cc hi o sc ol te lla to 2 9 D au cu s ca ro ta L . A pi ac ea e ca po b ia nc o, c ar ot a ro ot s, y ou ng le av es B , R sw ee t tr ea tm en t f or b ro nc hi tis in 10 se lv at ic a, g al lin ac ci , ho rs es , t he in fu si on is a pa st ic ci on a st ro ng d iu re tic Ethnobotanical knowledge in Central Italy 251 3 0 D ip lo ta xi s er uc oi de s (L .) B ra ss ic ac ea e m ar ai uo le , r uc he tta yo un g le av es B , R ta st y 10 D C . s ub sp . e ru co id es vi ol ac ea , r uc he tto ne 3 1 D ip lo ta xi s m ur al is (L .) D C . B ra ss ic ac ea e ru ch et ta d ei m ur i yo un g le av es R ta st y 5 3 2 D ip lo ta xi s te nu ifo lia (L .) B ra ss ic ac ea e er ba d ia vo la , r uc ol a, le av es , s ee ds R , V S, O th . ta st y se ed s us ed in th e sa m e 10 D C . ru co le tta , r uc ol et ta d i w ay a s m us ta rd ca m po , r uc he tta s el va tic a 3 3 E ch iu m v ul ga re L . B or ag in ac ea e er ba v ip er in a, v ip er in a le av es B sw ee t in fu si on o f s ee ds 3 az zu rr a st im ul at es la ct at io n 3 4 E ru ca s at iv a M ill er B ra ss ic ac ea e ru co la c om un e le av es B , R ta st y 5 3 5 F oe ni cu lu m v ul ga re M ill . A pi ac ea e fin oc ch io c om un e le av es , s ee ds , s te m s, B , F , V S, ta st y in fu si on c al m s hi cc ou gh s 18 yo un g sh oo ts O th . 3 6 G eu m u rb an um L . R os ac ea e ca ri ofi lla ta c om un e, yo un g le av es R , F il. , V S bi tte r 3 ga ro fa ni no 3 7 H el m in th ot he ca e ch io id es A st er ac ea e as pr ag gi ne v ol ga re , e rb a le av es B bi tte r 3 (L .) H ol ub br us ca , e rb a br us ci a, sp ra gg in e 3 8 H um ul us lu pu lu s L . C an na ba ce ae br us ca nd ol i, lu pp ol o yo un g sh oo ts B , F , R is . bi tte r 10 co m un e 3 9 H yo se ri s ra di at a L . s ub sp . A st er ac ea e ra di cc hi o se lv at ic o, yo un g le av es B , R bi tte r 3 ra di at a tr in et te , t ri nc ia te lla 4 0 H yp oc ha er is a ch yr op ho ru s A st er ac ea e co st ol in a an nu al e yo un g le av es B , R bi tte r 4 L . 4 1 H yp oc ha er is r ad ic at a L . A st er ac ea e co st ol e d’ as in o, c os to lin a yo un g le av es B , F IL ., R ta st y ro ot s fe d to p ig s 5 gi un co lin a, in gr as sa po rc i, pi at te llo 4 2 K na ut ia a rv en si s (L .) C ou lt. D ip sa ca ce ae am br et ta c om un e, le av es R , V S bi tte r 7 ve do ve lla , v ed ov in a 4 3 La ct uc a m ur al is (L .) A st er ac ea e la ttu ga d ei b os ch i yo un g le av es R , V S sw ee t 3 G ae rt n. 4 4 La ct uc a pe re nn is L . s ub sp . A st er ac ea e la ttu ga p er en ne , yo un g le av es B , R bi tte r 3 pe re nn is la ttu ga ru pe st re 4 5 La ct uc a se rr io la L . A st er ac ea e er ba b us so la , l at to na , le av es B , R sw ee t 5 la ttu ga s el va tic a, la ttu gh el la 4 6 La m iu m p ur pu re um L . L am ia ce ae fa ls a or tic a pu rp ur ea , yo un g sh oo ts F, R , V S sw ee t 6 or tic a ch e no n pu ng e 4 7 La ps an a co m m un is L . A st er ac ea e ca vo lo s el va tic o, e rb a de lle yo un g le av es B , F IL . bi tte r 2 su bs p. c om m un is m am m el le , g re sp ig no lo am ar o 4 8 Le on to do n au tu m na lis L . A st er ac ea e de nt e di le on e au tu nn al e, yo un g le av es B , R , V S bi tte r 2 de nt e di le on e ra m os o 252 A. Ranfa, M. Bodesmo 4 9 Le on to do n cr is pu s V ill . A st er ac ea e de nt e di le on e cr es po , yo un g le av es B , R bi tte r 3 su bs p. c ri sp us sp iz zi ca po lli 50 Le on to do n hi sp id us L . A st er ac ea e de nt e di le on e co m un e yo un g le av es B , R bi tte r 3 51 Le pi di um d ra ba L . B ra ss ic ac ea e co co la , l at to na se ed s, y ou ng le av es B , F , V S, sp ic y sp ic y se ed s as a s ub st itu te 3 su bs p. d ra ba O th . fo r p ep pe r 52 Le pi di um la tif ol iu m L . B ra ss ic ac ea e le pi di o la tif og lio , le av es , y ou ng s ho ot s R , O th . sp ic y sl ic es o f t he b ul b ap pl ie d to 3 m os ta rd in a, p ep er el la th e te m pl es s oo th e he ad ac he 53 M al va s yl ve st ri s L . M al va ce ae m al va s el av tic a flo w er s, le av es , F, R , R is ., sw ee t in fu si on s fo r t he re lie f o f 15 su bs p. s yl ve st ri s yo un g sh oo ts V S he ar tb ur n an d in di ge st io n 54 M el is sa o ffi ci na lis L . L am ia ce ae ce dr on el la , c itr on el la , e rb a le av es , s ho ot s A B , F , R , ta st y 10 lim on a, m el is sa v er a R is . 55 M en th a aq ua tic a L . L am ia ce ae m en ta d ’a cq ua , flo w er s, le av es , s te m s A B , F , O th . ta st y 5 su bs p. a qu at ic a m en ta st ro d ’a cq ua 56 M en th a pu le gi um L . L am ia ce ae m en ta p ol eg gi o le av es , s te m s R , O th . ta st y 3 su bs p. p ul eg iu m 57 M en th a su av eo le ns E hr h. L am ia ce ae m en ta a fo gl ie ro to nd e, le av es R , O th . ta st y 3 m en ta s el va tic a 5 8 M us ca ri c om os um (L .) L ili ac ea e ci po lla cc io , l am pa gi on e, bu lb s B , O th . bi tte r 5 M ill . la m pa sc io ne , m us ca ri se lv at ic o 5 9 M ya gr um p er fo lia tu m L . B ra ss ic ac ea e m ia gr o lis ci o st em s, y ou ng le av es B , F IL ., R ta st y 5 6 0 N as tu rt iu m o ffi ci na le B ra ss ic ac ea e cr es ci on e d’ ac qu a, flo w er s, le av es , R ta st y 10 R . B r. su bs p. o ffi ci na le cr es ci on e de lle fo nt an e, yo un g st em s cr es ci on e di s or ge nt e 6 1 O ri ga nu m m aj or an a L . L am ia ce ae am ar ic o, e rb a pe rs a, flo w er s, le av es R , V S, F , ta st y so ot he s ea ra ch e 6 m ag gi or an a, o ri ga no O th . m ag gi or an a, p er si a 6 2 O ri ga nu m v ul ga re L . L am ia ce ae ac ci ug he ro , e rb a ac ci ug a, flo w er s, le av es R , V S, F , ta st y or ig an o- fla vo ur ed w in e 12 su bs p. v ul ga re er ba ro ss a, m ag gi or an a O th . pe lo sa , o ri ga no c om un e, re ga m o 6 3 P ap av er r ho ea s L . Pa pa ve ra ce ae p ap av er o co m un e, p at at in a, se ed s, y ou ng le av es , B , F IL ., sw ee t po ds u se d by c hi ld re n 15 su bs p. r ho ea s ro so la cc io yo un g sh oo ts R , V S, O th . as ‘s ta m ps ’ 6 4 P ar ie ta ri a of fic in al is L . U rt ic ac ea e ve tr io la c om un e yo un g le av es , y ou ng s ho ot s B , V S sw ee t le av es u se d to w as h 10 gl as s bo ttl es 6 5 P as tin ac a sa tiv a L . A pi ac ea e pa st in ac a co m un e ro ot s, y ou ng le av es B , R bi tte r 10 6 6 P et as ite s hy br id us (L .) A st er ac ea e fa rf ar ac ci o m ag gi or e le av es s ta lk s B , F IL ., R bi tte r in fu si on o f l ea ve s 5 P. G ae rt n. , B . M ey er e t ca lm s co ug hs Sc he rb . s ub sp . h yb ri du s 6 7 P ic ri s hi er ac io id es L . A st er ac ea e as pr ag gi ne c om un e, yo un g le av es B , R bi tte r 10 er ba b ru sc a Ethnobotanical knowledge in Central Italy 253 6 8 P la nt ag o co ro no pu s L . Pl an ta gi na , ba rb a de l c ap pu cc in o, yo un g le av es B , F bi tte r de co ct io n of ro ot s as a n 8 su bs p. c or on op us ce ae ba rb a de l f ra te , c or on op o, an tid ot e to v ip er b ite er ba s ae tta , e rb a st el la 6 9 P la nt ag o la nc eo la ta L . Pl an ta gi na - la nc iu ol a, li ng ua d i c an e, yo un g le av es B , F IL ., R bi tte r 9 ce ae pi an ta gg in e m in or e, pl an ta go 7 0 P or tu la ca o le ra ce a L . Po rt ul ac ea - er ba g ra ss a, p or ca cc hi a, yo un g le av es B , R bi tte r 5 ce ae po rc el la na c om un e 7 1 R an un cu lu s fic ar ia L . R an un cu la - ce lid on ia m in or e, e rb a fa va , bu lb s, fl ow er s, B , R , O th . bi tte r le av es c he w ed to c le an 8 ce ae fic ar ia , r an un co lo fl av ag el lo y ou ng le av es te et h an d re fr es h th e m ou th 7 2 R ap ha nu s ra ph an is tr um B ra ss ic ac ea e ra fa no , r am ol ac ci o le av es , r oo ts , s te m s B , F IL ., R ta st y in cr ea se s bi le s ec re tio n 6 L . s .l. se lv at ic o, ra pa st el lo , ra va ne llo s el va tic o 7 3 R ei ch ar di a pi cr oi de s (L .) A st er ac ea e ca cc ia le pr e, c re pa te rr a, flo w er s, le av es , r oo ts B , R , O th . bi tte r 40 R ot h sc ac ci al ep re , g ra tta lin gu a 7 4 R ha ga di ol us s te lla tu s (L .) A st er ac ea e er ba c or ne tta , r ad ic ch io yo un g le av es B , R sw ee t 5 G ae rt n. st el la to , r ag ag gi ol o, ra gg io lo 7 5 R ub us u lm ifo liu s Sc ho tt. R os ac ea e ro go , r ov o co m un e yo un g sh oo ts B , F bi tte r 5 7 6 R um ex a ce to sa L . Po ly go na ce ae a ce to sa , e rb a br us ca , yo un g le av es F, F IL ., V S bi tte r 5 su bs p. a ce to sa ro m ic e ac et os a 7 7 R um ex a ce to se lla L . Po ly go na ce ae a ce to se lla , yo un g le av es B , F IL ., R , bi tte r 2 ro m ic e ac et os el la V S 7 8 R um ex c ri sp us L . Po ly go na ce ae r om ic e cr es po le av es B , F IL ., V S bi tte r 6 7 9 R us cu s ac ul ea tu s L . L ili ac ea e pi cc as or ci , p un gi to po , tu ri on es B , F , R bi tte r 1 ru sc ol o 8 0 Sa lv ia p ra te ns is L . s ub sp . L am ia ce ae ch ia re lla , s al vi a de i p ra ti, le av es B , F , V S bi tte r 3 pr at en si s sa lv ia p ra te ns e 8 1 Sa ng ui so rb a m in or S co p. R os ac ea e bi bi ne lla , b ip in el la , le av es , y ou ng s ho ot s R , V S ta st y 20 m el on ce llo , p im pi ne lla , sa lv as tr el la m in or e, ve llu tin o ro ss o 8 2 Sc an di x pe ct en -v en er is L . A pi ac ea e ac ic ul a m in or e, e rb a le av es , y ou ng s te m s R bi tte r 5 sp ill et ta 8 3 Si le ne v ul ga ri s (M oe nc h) C ar yo ph yl la - bu bb ol in i, co nc ig li, e rb a le av es , y ou ng s ho ot s F, R is ., R , sw ee t, ta st y flo w er s pr es se d on th e sk in 6 G ar ck e ce ae de l c uc co , s tr ig ol i, st ri co li V S to m ak e sm al l ‘ ex pl os io ns ’ 8 4 Si na pi s al ba L . B ra ss ic ac ea e se na pe b ia nc a se ed s, y ou ng le av es B , O th ., V S ta st y 4 8 5 Si na pi s ar ve ns is L . s ub sp . B ra ss ic ac ea e se na pe s el va tic a st em s, y ou ng le av es B , V S, F IL . ta st y oi l e xt ra ct ed fr om th e 3 ar ve ns is se ed s us ed in la m ps 254 A. Ranfa, M. Bodesmo 8 6 Sm ila x as pe ra L . L ili ac ea e ed er a sp in os a, s al sa le av es , y ou ng s ho ot s B , F , R , O th . bi tte r 3 pa es an a, s al as ap ar ig lia , st ra cc ia br ag he 8 7 So nc hu s as pe r (L .) H ill A st er ac ea e cr es pi gn o sp in os o, le av es , r oo ts , y ou ng s ho ot s B , F IL ., R , sw ee t in se ct b ite s or a s a re m ed y 15 cr es pi gn ol a O th ., V S fo r m ou th u lc er s 8 8 So nc hu s ol er ac eu s L . A st er ac ea e gr us pi gn o, c ru sp in o, le av es , r oo ts , y ou ng s ho ot s B , F IL ., R , sw ee t ro ot ro as te d as a c of fe e 25 cr is pi gn o, c ru sp ig no , O th ., V S su rr og at e gr es pi gn o, c re sp ig no 8 9 St el la ri a m ed ia (L .) V ill . C ar yo ph yl la - ce nt oc ch io c om un e, le av es , y ou ng s ho ot s B , F , R sw ee t 5 ce ae ce nt oc ch io , e rb a ga lli ne lla 9 0 Su lla c or on ar ia (L .) M ed ik . Fa ba ce ae gu ar da ru bi o, s ul la c om un e flo w er s, s te m s, B , F , R sw ee t as tr in ge nt , r ed uc es b lo od 3 yo un g le av es ch ol es te ro l 9 1 Ta ra xa cu m o ffi ci na le A st er ac ea e de nt e di le on e, p is ci ac an e, flo w er s, le av es , r oo ts B , R , F IL ., bi tte r ro ot ro as te d as a s ur ro ga te 20 (g ro up ) pi sc ia lle tto , r ad ic ch io d ei V S, O th . fo r c of fe e pr at i, so ffi on e, v ol ar in a 9 2 Th ym us s er py llu m s .l. L am ia ce ae pe po lin o, s er pi llo , le av es R , V S, O th . ta st y 6 se rp ol lin o, ti m o se rp ill o 9 3 To rd yl iu m a pu lu m L . A pi ac ea e om br el lin i d i p ra to , le av es B , R sw ee t, ta st y in fu si on re du ce s ha ir lo ss 12 om br el lin i p ug lie si , pi m pi ne llo ne , s ap or ite lla 9 4 Tr ag op og on p ra te ns is L . A st er ac ea e ba ci ap re ti, b ar ba d i b ec co ro ot s, s te m s, y ou ng le av es B , F , R , O th . bi tte r cl ea ns es th e bo dy , c al m s w at er d is til le d fr om th e 4 co m un e, b ar ba d i p re te , co ug hs , r oo t c on ta in s pl an t u se d to ‘d ry c le an ’ sa ls efi ca in su lin , i s su ita bl e fo r le at he r di ab et ic s 9 5 Tr ag op og on p or ri fo liu s L . A st er ac ea e ba rb a di b ec co v io le tta , ro ot s, y ou ng le av es B , R bi tte r 2 ra pe ro nz ol o se lv at ic o, sa ls efi ca 9 6 Tu ss ila go fa rf ar a L . A st er ac ea e fa rf ar ac ci o, fa rf ug io , p iè le av es B , R bi tte r us ed to c al m c ou gh s 2 d’ as in o, u gn a d’ as in o 9 7 U ro sp er m um d al ec ha m pi i A st er ac ea e am ar ag o, c ic or ia m at ta , flo w er s, le av es , r oo ts B , F IL ., R bi tte r bu ds u se d in th e sa m e w ay 15 (L .) F .W . S ch m id t co te ca cc hi a, g ru gn o, as c ap er s gr ug no le , l at tu ga cc io 9 8 U rt ic a di oi ca L . s ub sp . U rt ic ac ea e or tic a, u rt ic a le av es , y ou ng s ho ot s B , F , F IL ., sw ee t ru n ha nd s th ro ug h ha ir 6 di oi ca R is . be fo re to uc hi ng th e pl an t to a vo id p ri ck s an d st in gs 9 9 Ve ro ni ca b ec ca bu ng a L . Sc ro ph ul ar ia - er ba g ra ss a, yo un g le av es , y ou ng s ho ot s R bi tte r 6 ce ae ve ro ni ca b ec ca bu ng a 1 00 Vi ol a od or at a L . V io la ce ae vi ol a m am m ol a flo w er s R , O th . sw ee t 4 To ta l 88 1 *A bb re vi at io n fo od u se s: A B : a lc oh ol ic b ev er ag es ; B : b oi le d ; F : f ri ed in fa t, w ith ou t o r w ith b ea te n eg gs (“ F ri tta ta ”) ; F IL . : r av io li fil lin g or s av ou ry p ie fi lli ng ; O th : O th er (u se d as m us ta rd , p ep pe r, se ed in br ea d an d co ok ie s, p ic kl ed o r in o il, r oo t r oa st ed a s a co ffe e su bs tit ut e, d ri ed , i nf us io n) ; R is : r is ot to ; R : r aw ; V S: v eg et ab le s ou ps . Ethnobotanical knowledge in Central Italy 255 chovies and vinegar and then tossed by hand to mix the condiments well. Risotto with ‘strigoli’ (Silene vulgaris) is also popular, while ‘vitabbia’ (Clematis vitalba), ‘asparago’ (Asparagus acutifolius) and ‘pungitopo’ or ‘piccasorci’ (Ruscus aculeatus) are used in omelettes. Another local traditional dish is a flatbread cooked on a hot stone slab (torta al testo), then split open and filled with cooked greens (called ‘erba cotta’) made up of a mixture of several species, inclu- ding ‘crespigno’ (Sonchus spp.), ‘cicoria’ (Cichorium inthybus) and ‘grugno’ (Urospermum dalechampii). Folk medicinal uses Twenty-seven plant species were also mentioned as having thera- peutic effects (see Tab. 1). Achillea millefolium, Bellis perennis and Calendula arvensis leaves were cited as being used to heal cuts; Calendula arvensis leaves are particularly effective in the treatment of bedsores, while Chondrilla juncea is used to treat ulcers, acne and eczema. Alliaria petiolata leaves are used to soothe inflammation of the gums and mouth, Bellis perennis leaves are chewed to refresh the mouth and an infusion of Cichorium intybus acts as a powerful laxative and diuretic. Fresh Allium ursinum leaves are applied to the skin as a rubefacient or pounded and used as a cataplasm to soothe abscesses and boils. An infusion of Arctium lappa was reported to favor hair regrowth. Ballota nigra leaves are used for footbaths, Campanula rapunculus leaves soothe inflammation of the oral cavity and reduce warts, while an infusion of the flowers is used as a gargle. Infusions of Malva sylvestris were indicated for the relief of heartburn and indigestion. Daucus carota is used to treat bronchitis in horses, while the infusion acts as a strong diuretic. An infusion of Echium vulgare seeds stimulate milk production in lactating women, while an infusion of Foeniculum vulgare seeds calm hiccups and aid digestion. Lactuca spp. were indicated as having sedative properties, indeed in the past the latex was extract- ed (in particular from Lactuca virosa) and made into small balls to make ‘lattucario,’ similar to chewing gum, which was then given to hyperactive children. Sliced Lepidium latifolium bulbs are applied to the temples to relieve headache. Infusions of Nasturtium officinale, Mentha pulegium, Petasites hybridus and Tussilago farfara are used to calm coughs and Origanum majorana is used to alleviate earache. A decoction of Plantago coronopus roots is used as an antidote for viper bites. Ranunculus ficaria leaves are chewed to clean teeth and refresh the mouth, and Sonchus asper is employed against insect bites or as a remedy for mouth ulcers. Tordylium apulum and Urtica dioica infu- sions reduce hair loss and brighten natural hair color. Calamintha nepeta leaves are rubbed on insect bites. Borago offi- cinalis flowers macerated in wine for a week produce an excellent purifying and diuretic beverage. Other uses Various other uses were also reported. Small cotton bags containing Achillea millefolium seeds are put into wine barrels to improve wine preservation. Alliaria petiolata seeds are used to make mustard, while Lepidium draba seeds are used like pepper. An infusion of Bellis perennis leaves produces a drink similar to tea, and the leaves left to macerate in vinegar give it a bluish tinge. The flowers are also added to ice cubes. Dried Calendula arvensis petals are used to aro- matize wine, which, after having been left in the sun for ten days, becomes excellent vinegar. In the past large pieces of fresh Clematis vitalba vine were dried and then smoked like cigarettes. Parietaria officinalis leaves were used to wash glass bottles. Some ludic uses were cited: Bellis perennis flowers were used to play ‘He loves me, he loves me not’, and children used Papaver rhoeas seed pods as stamps. Silene vulgaris flowers were squeezed to ‘ex- plode’ on the skin like tiny bombs. Tab. 2: EWPs studied: percentages of parts used, food use categories and taste perception. Part(s) used Leaves (49%), shoots (17%), flowers and inflorescences (10%), stems (7%), roots (6%), seeds (4%) and bulbs (3%) Food use Boiled (31%), raw (28%), vegetable soups (12%), fried categories without or with eggs (11%), filling (ravioli or savoury pie) (6%), risotto (2%), alcoholic beverage (1%), other (9%) Taste Bitter (48%), tasty (27%), sweet (25%) perception Discussion The comparison of the present study with studies other researches carried out in the Mediterranean area shows that the majority of the EWPs used for human consumption belong to the Asteraceae fami- ly as they are considered to be particularly appetizing and above all widely-known (forbeS, 1976; della et al., 2006; Dogan, 2012). As other studies (ghirardini et al., 2007) have also shown, the data demonstrate that collecting and consuming EWPs is still an impor- tant local activity. Moreover, many species are also known and col- lected for their medicinal properties (e.g. Guarrera et al., 2005; PaSSalacqua et al., 2007; guarrera and Savo, 2013). In Central Italy in particular ethnobotanical knowledge is very much alive (guarrera and lePoraTTi, 2007), while nutraceutical properties have been studied extensively (ranfa et al., 2014, 2015; maurizi et al., 2015). With reference to the informants, there was a greater number of women, who provided more details than the male informants, pro- bably because collecting and cooking wild plants is almost exclu- sively a female occupation, and it is them who possess the greatest knowledge of EWPs, in agreement with other studies (ForbeS, 1976; Ranfa et al., 2014; SanSanelli and TaSSoni, 2014). Some studies have shown a greater male presence, but this can be explained by the fact that the questionnaires were distributed in places such as cafes and social clubs where mainly men gather. Access to private homes, where women tend to spend the whole day, is usually more difficult, as the women themselves are diffident and shy of strangers (forbeS, 1976). The data collected confirm that species such as Cichorium intybus, Sonchus asper and Borago officinalis are among the most widely known, as has also been reported in other studies (SanSanelli and TaSSoni, 2014). The parts most frequently used are the leaves (49%), see for example SanSanelli and TaSSoni (2014). In reference to food uses, the species are most commonly consumed boiled or eaten raw (Ranfa et al., 2014; BodeSmo et al., 2015). The raw consumption of these species is predominant in some parts of the Mediterranean area such as in the Turkish Aegean region and in Greece, where they are seasoned with olive oil or yoghurt (della et al., 2006; Dogan, 2012). Regarding taste perception, 48% of the EWPs were indicated as having a bitter taste (see Tab. 2), the most bitter ones were Urosper- mum dalechampii, Clematis vitalba, Cichorium intybus, Crepis spp. and Taraxacum officinale, as also indicated by SanSanelli and TaSSoni (2014). ghirardini et al. (2014) state that Taraxacum of- ficinale (dandelion) also known as ‘pisciacane’ or ‘piscialetto’, is one of the most bitter species, and its flavor is particularly appreciated in Central and Southern Italy. The data obtained in this research show that not only food, but also 256 A. Ranfa, M. Bodesmo folk medicinal uses, are widespread, already shown by other studies carried out in Central Italy, in Latium and the Abruzzo region in particular (guarrera et al., 2005). Some species listed in Tab. 1 have also been recorded in other stu- dies, for example Bellis perennis and Calendula arvensis leaves used to heal cuts, confirmed by other researchers (PaSSalacqua et al., 2007), Cichorium intybus used as a powerful laxative and diuretic, as reported in other studies (LenTini and Raimondo, 1990; PaSSalacqua et al., 2007). Infusions of Malva sylvestris were in- dicated for the relief of heartburn and indigestion. Use in gastro- intestinal disorders has been reported by other authors (Dogan and Ugulu, 2013; Leto et al., 2013). Daucus carota is used to treat bron- chitis in horses, while the infusion acts as a strong diuretic (Leto et al., 2013). Other studies have mentioned the hypnotic properties of Lactuca spp. (YakooT et al., 2011; Guarrera and Savo, 2013). Urtica dioica was often indicated as one of the most widely-known species in Central Italy for the treatment of various ailments, with Herpes zoster in first position (uncini manganelli et al., 2005). Calamintha nepeta leaves are rubbed on insect bites (PaSSalacqua et al., 2007). Borago officinalis flowers macerated in wine for a week produced an excellent purifying and diuretic beverage (Leto et al., 2013). With reference to the RFC, the most frequently cited and most fre- quently used species are Borago officinalis, Reichardia picroides (RFC=0.05), Clematis vitalba (RFC=0.04), Asparagus acutifolius, Bellis perennis, Campanula rapunculus, Cichorium inthybus and Sonchus oleraceus (RFC=0.03). It has also been demonstrated that Borago officinalis is one of the most frequently cited and used species in both the Southern and the Northern Italian sites (ghirardini et al., 2007). On the basis of the RII calculation, Borago officinalis and Scandix pecten-veneris (RII=0.32), Cichorium inthybus (RII=0.30), and Sonchus oleraceus (RII=0.29) are the species with the greatest num- ber of food uses, and therefore the most versatile. The two indices calculated by the Pearson coefficient correlation (0.51) showed a positive correlation, thus confirming that the most frequently cited species corresponded to those having the greatest number of food uses. Details are shown in Tab. 3. Conclusion The study shows that in Central Italy, and in the Umbria region in particular, knowledge and use of EWPs is still very much alive, not only in food use, but also for medicinal and ludic purposes. However this knowledge is principally in the hands of the elderly who rarely, and with great difficulty, manage to transmit it to the younger genera- tions due to lack of interest on their part, as was pointed out by more than one informant. As the FAO recognizes, nutrition and biodiversity converge towards a common objective of making uncontaminated food available within a policy of sustainable development, and in this context wild species play a key role in safe global nutrition (fao, 2009). The eco- nomic aspect must not be underestimated, as EWPs, which are sold mainly in local markets, are included in the diet of a billion people worldwide. Regulated markets do not exist, so despite their nutrition value, EWPs are excluded from official statistics on economic values of natural resources although in many countries they represent an important supplement to income. Furthermore a renewed interest in these species would stimulate the study of local flora and also contribute to disseminating knowledge, thus encouraging the conservation of local customs and traditions as well as deepening the understanding of local communities’ attitudes towards, and management of, their own resources, particularly the use of plants as food or medicine. This would permit these same communities to continue to draw sustainable benefit from their local ecosystems. Moreover the importance of biodiversity conservation is also a cen- tral issue in Pope Francis’ Encyclical Letter ‘Laudato si’ on care for our common home, which says: “…but a sober look at our world shows that the degree of human intervention, often in the service of business interests and consumerism, is actually making our earth less rich and beautiful, ever more limited and grey, even as tech- nological advances and consumer goods continue to abound limit- lessly. We seem to think that we can substitute an irreplaceable and irretrievable beauty with something which we have created our- selves…. ” (Pope Francis, 2015). Tab. 3: Synthesis of the most relevant data Most bitter species Cichorium intybus, Clematis vitalba, Crepis spp., Taraxacum officinale, Urospermum dalechampii Most frequently cited and Asparagus acutifolius, Bellis perennis, Borago officinalis, frequently used species Campanula rapunculus, Cichorium inthybus, Clematis vitalba, Reichardia picroides, Sonchus oleraceus Species with the greatest Borago officinalis, Cichorium inthybus, number of food uses Scandix pecten-veneris, Sonchus oleraceus Bellis perennis, Calendula arvensis used to heal cuts Borago officinalis flowers macerated in wine for a week produced an excellent purifying and diuretic beverage Calamintha nepeta leaves rubbed on insect bites Cichorium intybus a powerful laxative and diuretic Daucus carota used to treat bronchitis in horses, while the infusion acts as a strong diuretic Malva sylvestris indicated for the relief of heartburn and indigestion Urtica dioica often indicated as one of the most widely-known species in Central Italy for the treatment of various ailments, with Herpes zoster in first position Species with most folk medicinal uses http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378874104004453 Ethnobotanical knowledge in Central Italy 257 Authors’ contributions MB wrote the manuscript and processed statistical data and analy- sis. 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Address of author: Dr. Aldo Ranfa, Dr. Mara Bodesmo, Department of Civil and Envirnomental Engineering, Environment Laboratory - University of Perugia, Borgo XX Giugno, 06100 Perugia E-mail: bodesmo@gmail.com E-mail: aldo.ranfa@unipg.it © The Author(s) 2017. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Share-Alike License (http://creative- commons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). http://dx.doi.org/10.5073/JABFQ.2015.088.036 http://www.umbriageo.regione.umbria.it/ http://www.umbriageo.regione.umbria.it/ mailto:bodesmo@gmail.com mailto:aldo.ranfa@unipg.it