J Bagh College Dentistry Vol. 33(1), March 2021 Prevalence of self-reported

Prevalence of self-reported halitosis and associated

factors in 15 years old male students in Karbala City-Iraq

Rafal Abdulaziz Alawsiy (1), Nada Jafer MH. Radhi (2)

https://doi.org/10.26477/jbcd.v33i1.2922
ABSTRACT
Background׃ Halitosis is a common condition and is most often caused by a buildup of bacteria in the mouth because of gum

disease, food, or plaque. It can result in anxiety among those affected, it is also associated with depression and symptoms of

obsessive-compulsive disorder. This study aims to assess the prevalence of self-reported halitosis and associated factors (dental

plaque, gingival condition and dental caries) in 15 years old male students in Karbala city in Iraq. Additionally, we studied
adolescents’ concern with their own breath and whether anyone had ever told them that they had halitosis.

Methods׃ A cross-sectional observational survey was conducted to15 years old high school students from public and private

schools in the city of Karbala, Iraq. The random sample consisted of 400 adolescents from 44 schools. An interview with a

structured questionnaire was administered along with measurement of oral parameters (PI, GI, DMF).

Results׃ The prevalence of self-reported halitosis was 48.50% according to question one. The prevalence of halitosis according to

the total score of the questionnaire was 86.5%. 13.5% reported that they didn’t have halitosis. It is concluded that there is a high

prevalence of self-reported halitosis, which is associated with a socio-economic pattern. Most adolescents report a concern with

their own breath. Dental plaque and gingival status are associated significantly with self-reported halitosis. The high prevalence of
self-reported halitosis according to the questionnaire among the students may be due to the consumption of garlic or spicy food,

besides, dental plaque, gingivitis and dental caries cause an increase in volatile silver compound level which cause an increase in

halitosis.

Conclusion׃ Self-reported halitosis is a prevalent situation in about 50% of adolescents in Karbala city. Patients’ self -reported
halitosis is found to be associated with dental plaque, gingivitis and dental caries.
Keywords׃ Halitosis; adolescent; prevalence. (Received: 15/1/2021, Accepted: 24/2/2021)

INTRODUCTION
Halitosis is a state in which respired air is offensively

changed both for patients and for people with whom
they communicate (1). It distresses millions of people
around the world, although its prevalence fluctuates,

seemingly elicited by the shortage of oral hygiene
and a disorganized lifestyle. It can cause social

restrictions, interfere in the quality of life, and maybe
a gauge of important systemic diseases. In most
societies where halitosis is prevalent, people look for

solutions, usually due to the discomfort or
embarrassment to which they are subjected (2).
One of the aims for studying halitosis is its social

impact as a result of patients feeling unconfident in
social, professional and family contacts. It may also

affect the quality of life and cause embarrassment to
people relating to the individual with bad breath.
The measurement of volatile sulfur compound

(VSC) concentrations in the exhaled air to assess
halitosis is the only method used in some studies.

(1) Mater student, Department of Pedodontics and Preventive

Dentistry, College of Dentistry, University of Baghdad.

(2) Assistant professor, Department of Pedodontics and Preventive

Dentistry, College of Dentistry, University of Baghdad.

Corresponding email, nooraliomran88@gmail.com

The results of these surveys have a different meaning

from studies that determine the percentage of people
who report having halitosis by a questionnaire (1).
Both conclusions are meaningful to understanding

the issue, but observation through VSC monitors is
considered a surrogate conclusion (measure the

disease route, and in general it is therapy centred) (3),
whereas self-reported awareness of halitosis is
documented as a true outcome. Epidemiological

observation taking into consideration both types of
outcomes provides important information and allows
broader acceptance of the issue (1).

Adolescence is the evolution period between
childhood and adulthood and is categorized by

several changes in biological, psychological and
social development (4). Adolescents are subject to
several health linked signs, including halitosis,

which exceeds the biological scope, affecting the
social scope and possibly hurting the physical and
psychological health of affected individuals (5).

Furthermore, the presence of halitosis may indicate
incidence of important systemic diseases requiring
crucial diagnosis and treatment. Nevertheless, in Iraq

there are limited papers on adolescents, and still
fewer on adolescent halitosis.

https://doi.org/10.26477/jbcd.v33i1.2922
mailto:nooraliomran88@gmail.com

J Bagh College Dentistry Vol. 33(1), March 2021 Prevalence of self-reported

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study design/study setting
This study was a cross-sectional study that was

carried out during the period between December
2019 and February 2020. The survey was conducted

among secondary schools in Karbala City-Iraq. The
age was taken according to the criteria of the World
Health Organization (1997) and according to the last

birthday. The size of the sample composed of 400
students who were randomly selected from 5477.
❖ (The students with the systemic disease were
excluded, besides, students in the study were free of:
a) Medical history of infectious diseases.
b) Malocclusion and draining fistulas associated
with chronic alveolar abscesses.
c) Usage of any chemical form of plaque control.
d) Presence of crowding/overlapping of teeth.
❖ The children were examined by the single
calibrated examiner for the following clinical

parameters:

1. Self-reported halitosis by questionnaire.
2. plaque by using the plaque index (PI) developed
by Silness and Loe (1964) (6).
3. Dental Gingival health—to check the gingival
health of the subject, the gingival index (GI)
developed by Loe and Silness (1963) (7) was used.
4. Dental caries—decayed, missing, filled teeth
index (DMF-T, DMF-S INDEX) (WHO 1987) for
permanent teeth.

Questionnaire
A well-made format (questionnaire) was designed
from previous studies (2,8,9,10) and administered to the

students who meet the criteria The questionnaire was
tested in a pilot study on 100 male students and
validity and reliability was adopted, the

questionnaire was adjusted in the light of pilot
responses. The questionnaire was anonymous (no
identification of an individual was possible). The

questionnaire originally formulated in English,
subsequently translated into Arabic and then

retranslated into English, and ethical approval was
achieved from the ethical committee in the college of
dentistry and from the psychological department of

the Faculty of Arts in Baghdad University.

Statistical analysis
Data were translated into a computerized database
structure. An expert statistical counsel was sought.

Data description, analysis and presentation were
performed using Statistical Package for Social

Science (SPSS version 21; Chicago, In Press, USA),

sample size calculator for prevalence studies

(version 1.0.01) done by Daniel WW, 1999.
Statistical analyses can be classified into two

categories:
1-Descriptive Analysis: Frequencies and percentage
for nominal variables, minimum, maximum, mean,

standard deviation (SD) and Standard error (SE) for
quantitative variable
2- Inferential analysis:

A. Independent sample T-test: test the difference
between two independent groups.
B. Paired sample t-test: test the difference between

two related means for one sample or two raters.
❖ Level of significance as Not Significant P>0.05,
Significant P<0.05, highly significant P<0.01.

RESULTS
The prevalence of halitosis among 400 students aged

15 years of male’s secondary schools in Karbala
city/Iraq was 48.50% according to question one, as
seen in the table (1).
Regarding question one of the self-reported
questionnaire of halitosis, as illustrated in Table 2,

the mean value of plaque index and gingival index
among students with halitosis is higher than those
with no halitosis, which was statistically significant,

(P<0.001).
The findings of plaque index regarding the self-
reported questionnaire of halitosis were illustrated in

Table (3), the mean values of plaque index among
students with halitosis were higher than those

without halitosis, the higher mean value was
recorded in question (4), which was asking the
students if their breath interfered with social life.

These findings were statistically significant,
(P<0.001).
Similarly, the mean value of the gingival

index among students regarding the self-reported
questionnaire of halitosis, was seemed to be higher
in students with halitosis than without halitosis,

(Table 4). The higher mean value was recorded in
question (3), which was asking the students about

receiving any professional treatment for halitosis.
This finding were statistically significant, (P<0.001).
However, the last question (Q7), which asked the

students If they take any measures against halitosis,
the difference observed failed to reach the level of
statistical significance (P>0.05).

J Bagh College Dentistry Vol. 33(1), March 2021 Prevalence of self-reported

Table (1): Distribution of students by

questionnaire.

Question No. Percent %

Q1 Yes 194 48.50

NO 206 51.50

Q2 Yes 188 47.00

NO 212 53.00

Q3 Yes 87 21.75

NO 313 78.25

Q4 Yes 162 40.50

NO 238 59.50

Q5 Yes 190 47.50

NO 210 52.50

Q6 Yes 217 54.25

NO 183 45.75

Q7 Yes 179 44.75

NO 221 55.25

Table (4) clarifies the mean values and standard
errors (SE) of the caries-experience (DS, MS, FS,

DMFS and DMFT) regarding the self-reported
questionnaire of halitosis. the mean differences of
DMFT were statistically significant concerning

questions (2,4,5,6,7), similarly the mean differences
of DS were statistically significant concerning
questions (4,5,6), likewise the FS mean differences

were statistically significant concerning question (5),
and the mean differences of DMFS were statistically
significant concerning question (5,6,7) (P< 0.001).

On the other hand, other findings were statistically
not significant (P> 0.05).

DISCUSSION
In the present study, 400 students of 5477 aged 15

years old were selected randomly from 44 males’
secondary schools in Karbala city/Iraq, to measure
the prevalence of self-perceived halitosis in

secondary schools’ students aged 15 years, as no
previous Iraqi study on halitosis was done in this area

for this age. The selected student was interviewed in
an isolated room in each school to ensure privacy and

to avoid embarrassment while answering the

questionnaire, and all the oral parameters including
dental plaque, gingival condition and dental caries.

Plaque Index of Silness and Löe (1964) (6) and
Gingival Index of Löe and Silness (1963) (7) were
used to assess dental plaque and gingival health

condition, respectively. These indices were used due
to their flexibility, which provides the possibility of
selection of index teeth for examination rather than

the whole dentition and keeps the duration of
examination to a minimum; in addition to their ease
of application (11).

The age and gender were stationary, as age was not a
risk factor for the increase in the level of VSCs (12).

Multiple regression analysis revealed that male
gender was the only variable showing a significant
relationship with higher questionnaire scores. These

findings corroborate previous studies showing the
predominance of halitosis in male children aged 6-9
years, 6 -16 years (13), and 7 - 15 years (14). However,

a study carried out in Israel (15), showed no difference
between the sexes in the 5 -14 age group, nor was

there a difference in the adult population (9).
However, some studies have found a higher
prevalence of halitosis in women (16). It is difficult to

determine the actual influence of factors such as age
and gender on halitosis, since breath odor may be
influenced by many factors such as periodontal and

dental status, dental hygiene, tongue coating,
smoking, nutrition, level of education, and

medication (17).
Self-assessment or self-perception of halitosis is a
highly relevant outcome since it involves the

individual in the process and makes him/her
understand the importance of the condition (18). it is
safe to assume self-perception as a true patient-

centered outcome, which is highly recommended in
present research in the health field6. In the present
study the overall prevalence of halitosis according to

the questionnaire (depending on the answer of
question one which inquired the students if they have

had bad breath to assess the awareness of the students
about halitosis), the result was approaching fifty
percent, this was almost similar to the results

reported in Qassim, Saudi Arabia (19), which is also
lower in comparison to a study done in Kinondoni
(2013), but at the same time is higher

J Bagh College Dentistry Vol. 33(1), March 2021 Prevalence of self-reported

Table (2): Descriptive and statistical test of Plaque index and gingival index among the presence of

halitosis.

variables

T df P-value Yes NO

Mean SE Mean SE

PLI 0.952* 0.035 0.747 0.032 4.311 398 0.000 S

GI 0.852* 0.032 0.723 0.031 2.871 398 0.004 S

**=highly significant at p <0.01

Table (3) ׃ Descriptive and statistical test of Plaque index among questionnaire

SRQ= self-reported questionnaire of halitosis No.= number *S꞊ Highly significant p <0.01

Table (4) ׃ Descriptive and statistical test of gingival index among questionnaire

SRQ

Categories

T df P-value* Yes NO

No. Mean SE No. Mean SE

Q2 188 0.918* 0.034 212 0.784* 0.034 2.765 398 0.006*

Q3 87 1.048* 0.056 313 0.791* 0.026 4.455 398 0.000*

Q4 162 0.988* 0.039 238 0.751* 0.030 4.906 398 0.000*

Q5 190 0.986* 0.036 210 0.721* 0.031 5.626 398 0.000*

Q6 217 0.928* 0.032 183 0.750* 0.036 3.702 398 0.000*

Q7 179 0.948* 0.039 221 0.765 0.029 3.795 398 0.000*

J Bagh College Dentistry Vol. 33(1), March 2021 Prevalence of self-reported

Table (5) ׃ Descriptive and statistical test of caries experience among questionnaire.

SRQ

Dental caries Categories

T df P-value Yes NO

Mean SE Mean SE

Q2 DS 2.441 0.161 2.264 0.174 0.741 398 0.459NS

MS 0.186 0.069 0.189 0.066 0.026 398 0.979NS

FS 1.250 0.139 1.118 0.126 0.705 398 0.481NS

DMFS 3.877 0.267 3.571 0.257 0.828 398 0.408NS

DMFT 2.234* 0.107 1.915 0.104 2.141 398 0.033*

Q3 DS 2.575 0.233 2.284 0.138 1.003 398 0.316NS

MS 0.230 0.113 0.176 0.052 0.469 398 0.639NS

FS 1.437 0.240 1.109 0.099 1.451 398 0.148NS

DMFS 4.242 0.397 3.569 0.209 1.503 398 0.134NS

DMFT 2.322 0.166 1.994 0.083 1.818 398 0.070NS

Q4 DS 2.648* 0.195 2.143 0.150 2.086 398 0.038*

MS 0.154 0.068 0.210 0.065 0.575 398 0.566NS

FS 1.327 0.175 1.080 0.102 1.301 398 0.194NS

DMFS 4.129 0.310 3.433 0.227 1.855 398 0.064NS

DMFT 2.321* 0.122 1.891 0.093 2.853 398 0.005*

Q5 DS 2.616* 0.174 2.105 0.163 2.147 398 0.032*

MS 0.158 0.064 0.214 0.070 0.592 398 0.554NS

FS 1.453* 0.161 0.933 0.100 2.799 398 0.005*

DMFS 4.227* 0.284 3.252 0.237 2.649 398 0.008*

DMFT 2.337* 0.114 1.819 0.095 3.511 398 0.000*

Q6 DS 2.687* 0.182 1.945 0.142 3.127 398 0.002*

MS 0.253 0.075 0.109 0.054 1.513 398 0.131NS

FS 1.221 0.117 1.131 0.150 0.480 398 0.632NS

DMFS 4.161* 0.261 3.185 0.255 2.647 398 0.008*

DMFT 2.323* 0.101 1.760 0.106 3.819 398 0.000*

Q7 DS 2.508 0.167 2.217 0.168 1.214 398 0.226NS

MS 0.168 0.067 0.204 0.067 0.376 398 0.707NS

FS 1.346 0.165 1.045 0.103 1.606 398 0.109NS

DMFS 4.022 0.281 3.466 0.245 1.498 398 0.135NS

DMFT 2.229* 0.120 1.932 0.093 1.984 398 0.048*

with halitosis. However, another study showed no
significant association between plaque accumulation
and halitosis in 2000 Belgian patients (24), this was

inconsistent with the findings of Liu et al. (2006) and
Kanehira et al. (2004) (plaque index).

Gingivitis is reversible and infrequently developed to
periodontitis in children and adolescent except in
special circumstances like aggressive periodontitis

and periodontitis associated with systemic diseases
(25). In the current study the finding is consistent with
Liu et al. (2006) (12), Kara et al. (2006) (26), P. S. Patil

et al. (2014) (27), Al- Saidy (2013) (28), Ziaei N (2019)
(29) and Alzoman H. (2020) (30). Although halitosis is

possibly not caused by periodontal disease, there is
ample proof to suggest that periodontal disease
increases the severity of halitosis with higher

production of volatile sulphur compounds (27). This
can be explained as periodontal conditions favour

bacterial growth and retention of debris, besides, the
blood decomposition products can themselves
produce Sulphur containing peptides and amino

acids that are the source of volatile Sulphur
compounds. However, Kanehira et al. (2004) (31)

reported no association between halitosis and
periodontal condition.
In the present study, there was a highly significant

association between dental caries experience
represented via DMF index and self-reported
halitosis, which was in agreement with CM

Kayombo (2017) (20). The findings were opposing
with those of Miyazaki et al. (1995) (32), Kanehira et

al. (2004) (31) and Liu et al. (2006) (12). Glucose and
sucrose can constrain the enzymee activity of
salivary peptides by making an acidic environment
(33). Therefore, an acidic condition created by dental
plaque may destroy VSC production. However,

J Bagh College Dentistry Vol. 33(1), March 2021 Prevalence of self-reported

Nalcaci et al. (2008) (34) found that the prevalence

and severity of dental caries had a significant role in
halitosis, as an increase in DMFT indicates an

increase in caries and a low oral hygiene level, and it
seems rational that this may increase the chance of
halitosis. Previous studies have shown that this is

true (29), this was a result to increase the incidence of
unidentifiable Gram-negative rods, Gram-positive
rods and Gram-negative coccobacilli, the increase in

species diversity found in halitosis samples proposes
that halitosis may be the result of complex
collaborations between several bacterial species (35).

CONCLUSION
Patients’ self-reported halitosis was found to be

associated with dental plaque, gingivitis and dental
caries. The existing findings suggest that a self-
reported questionnaire of halitosis can be used to

judge one’s halitosis.

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المستخلص

ؤدي رائحة الفم الكريهة هي حالة شائعة وغالبًا ما تحدث بسبب تراكم البكتيريا في الفم بسبب أمراض اللثة أو الطعام أو البالك. يمكن أن ي ׃خلفيةال
لفم كما أنه يرتبط باالكتئاب وأعراض اضطراب الوسواس القهري. كان الهدف من هذه الدراسة هو تقييم انتشار رائحة ا المتضررين،إلى القلق بين

سنة في مدينة كربالء 15حالة اللثة وتسوس األسنان( لدى الطالب الذكور في سن األسنان، الكريهة المبلغ عنها ذاتيا والعوامل المرتبطة بها )لوحة

.ةكريهفم درسنا قلق المراهقين بأنفاسهم وما إذا كان أي شخص قد أخبرهم من قبل أن لديهم رائحة ذلك،في العراق. باإلضافة إلى
كربالء، سنة من المدارس الحكومية والخاصة في مدينة 15تم إجراء مسح رصد مقطعي على طالب المدارس الثانوية في سن المواد والطرق:

، PIمدرسة. مقابلة مع استبيان منظم وأجريت جنبا إلى جنب مع قياس المعلمات الشفوية ) 44مراهق من 400العراق. تكونت العينة العشوائية من
GI ،DMF.)

كريهة حسب الدرجة الكلية ٪ وفقًا للسؤال األول. كانت نسبة انتشار رائحة الفم ال48.50كان انتشار رائحة الفم الكريهة المبلغ عنها ذاتيًا النتائج:
والتي ذاتيًا،أن هناك انتشاًرا كبيًرا لرائحة الفم الكريهة المبلغ عنها أي ٪ بعدم إصابتهم برائحة الفم الكريهة. 13.5٪. بينما أفاد 86.5لالستبيان

سنان وحالة اللثة بشكل كبير مع رائحة الفم ترتبط بالنمط االجتماعي واالقتصادي. أبلغ معظم المراهقين عن قلقهم من أنفاسهم. ارتبطت لوحة األ

قد يكون االنتشار الكبير لرائحة الفم الكريهة المبلغ عنها ذاتيًا وفقًا لالستبيان بين الطالب بسبب تناول الثوم أو الطعام الكريهة المبلغ عنها ذاتيا.
باإلضافة إلى أن طبقة البالك والتهاب اللثة وتسوس األسنان تسبب زيادة في مستوى مركب الفضة المتطاير مما يؤدي إلى زيادة رائحة الفم الحار،

.الكريهة

رائحة الفم ٪ من المراهقين في مدينة كربالء. تم العثور على 50رائحة الفم الكريهة المبلغ عنها ذاتيا هي حالة سائدة في حوالي : اتاالستنتاج
.الكريهة للمرضى المبلغ عنها ذاتيًا مرتبطة بلويحة األسنان والتهاب اللثة وتسوس األسنان

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