A Cross-Cultural Comparison of Expatriates’ Shopping Behaviour Geri J. Wijnen Development Manager • Wereldhave, The Netherlands Astrid D. A. M. Kemperman Eindhoven University of Technology • Eindhoven, The Netherlands Ingrid I. Janssen Tias Nimbas Business School • Tilburg, The Netherlands Abstract Explored is how shopping centre attributes can be adapted to culture-related shopping behaviour of expatriates. While awareness of consumer ethnicity and ef- fectiveness of culture-based market segmentation are on-going and relevant topics in retailing, there is only limited information available on consumer behaviour of expats, as well as on the translation of market segmentation strategies to shopping environment. An online survey among British, Japanese, and American expatriates in the Amstelveen/Amsterdam region (the Netherlands) points out the importance of both lifestyle and ethnicity for the shopping behaviour. Managerial implications for retailers, shopping centre developers, and operators are also discussed. Introduction Globalisation causes consumers to develop more homogeneous needs, tastes, and lifestyles. However, at the same time, it might also lead to greater heteroge- neity, as it opens doors for consumers to belong to and identify themselves with several groups simultaneously (De Mooij & Hofstede, 2002). Expatriates are a typi- cal example of such a heterogeneous group. Expatriates are in fact all persons who have moved outside their country-of-origin for the purpose of work or study (Am- sterdam Municipality, 2007). However the term is commonly used for profession- als employed outside of their host-country (Farquhar, 2009). In this study, the term expatriate is used to refer to both the working expat as well as the partner of the working expat. Expatriates are usually highly educated and receive an above av- erage income-including various (tax) benefits and remunerations (Farquhar, 2009; Amstelveen Municipality, 2008). Because of their affluence they form an interesting target group. Expatriates are often regarded as cosmopolitan consumers (Hannerz, 1990; Caldwell, et al., 2006), but they also stay attached to their cultural or ‘ethnic’ background (Thompson & Tambyah, 1999), and acculturate to a certain extent to the 126 Journal of Business Strategies host-country’s culture (Koubaa, 2011). Their adjustment to a host-country has been widely studied (Black et al., 1991; Van Vianen et al., 2004; Grinstein & Wathieu, 2009). It is clear that non-work or general lifestyle adjustment practices in the host country takes a central position in the life of expats and their well-being (Black, 1988; Black & Stephens, 1989; Andreason, 2008). Gilly (1995) and Koubaa (2011) explored some aspects of expatriate consumer behaviour. However, only limited market information is available about their shopping behaviour. In this study we are interested in the culture-related aspect of expatriates’ shopping behaviour. The cultural aspect of shopping behaviour has been studied extensively world-wide, varying from direct cross-cultural comparisons of shop- pers in different countries (Sood & Nasu, 1995; Brunsø & Grünert, 1998; Nicholls et al., 2000; Seock, 2011) or within countries (Shim & Eastlick, 1998; Ackerman & Tellis, 2001; Michon & Chebat, 2004; Chebat & Morrin; 2007) to relating shopping behaviour to cultural values and dimensions (Homer & Kahle, 1988; Kahle, 2000; Hofstede, 2001; Kacen & Lee, 2002; de Mooij, 2004; Rubio-Sanchez, 2007; Zhang & Mittal, 2008). However, these ideas have never been applied to a multi-faceted segment like expatriates. The translation from culture to shopping environment has received limited attention in research literature while the retailing industry is continuously being confronted with the importance of local sensitivity in their marketing strategies. In recent years for example, both Wal-Mart and IKEA realised that adaptation of their standardized products and strategy to local consumer preferences is necessary to be successful (Holstein 2007; Halepete et al., 2009; Strategic Direction, 2009). Interna- tional real estate operators and developers also know that there are cultural aspects to location, accessibility, retail mix, leisure, architecture, climate, and routing. In the US, one is familiar with so-called ‘ethnic malls’ that fully target a specific ethnic market such as Hispanics, Afro-Americans or Asians (Lavin, 1996; Hazel, 2005; Shearin, 2006; The Economist, 2009). Cross-border shopping tourism is another field in which such cultural aspects are discernible (Timothy, 2005; Yüksel, 2007). Awareness of the effect of culture on consumer behaviour and the effectiveness of culture-based market segmentation are therefore on-going relevant topics. Thus, although the translation from cultural marketing segmentation strate- gies to the shopping environment is made in practice, research in this area has been sporadic. The relation between items such as shopping behaviour, shopping value, quality perception, and emotions on one hand and the shopping environment (Babin & Attaway, 2000; Stoel et al., 2002; Allard et al., 2009; Jackson et al., 2011; Masi- cotte et al., 2011) as well as retail atmospherics (Turley & Milliman, 2000; Michon Volume 29, Number 2 127 et al., 2005; Chebat & Morrin, 2007) on the other, only recently received more atten- tion. The relation between culture and the shopping environment has thus remained largely under-analysed. Chebat and Morrin (2007) found in a field-study that French-Canadians have a higher perception of product quality while shopping in a warm coloured mall dé- cor, while Anglo-Canadians experience this perception with a cool colour décor. In contrast, Shim and Eastlick (1998) found that ethnic identification has a greater influence on personal values and attitudes towards shopping centre attributes and shopping behaviour than ethnicity itself. Michon and Chebat (2004) suggested that both the shopping environment and ethnic diversity should receive more attention from researchers and mall managers. Likewise, the International Council of Shop- ping Centers (2009) stresses the necessity of understanding the cultural context of developments to retain a local sense of place in shopping centres. Therefore, the aim of this study is to examine how shopping centre attributes can be adapted to culture-related shopping behaviour of expatriates. In this study, a ‘shopping centre’ is considered to be a planned retail development comprising at least three shops, under the freehold, managed and marketed as a unit with a minimum gross retail area of 5000 m2 (Dennis, 2005). Specifically, the cultural values and shop- ping behaviour of expatriates living in the Amstelveen/Amsterdam area in the Neth- erlands are investigated through a literature review and data collection, with in-depth interviews and an online survey. The survey results are also compared to existing data on Dutch consumers from market research specialist Strabo. The outcomes provide shopping centre developers, managers, and retailers with information about how to adapt shopping centre attributes to optimize the shopping experience of expatriates. Culture and Values The relation of culture and shopping behaviour is the focal point of this study. However, the concept of culture is rather complex and cannot be quantified directly. Over the years, numerous attempts have been undertaken to describe the concept (e.g., Tylor, 1881; Geertz, 1973; MCracken, 1988; Hofstede, 1980; Rice, 1993). Ac- cording to Rice, culture is “the values, attitudes, beliefs, artefacts and other mean- ingful symbols that help people interpret, evaluate and communicate as members of society.” Values can be regarded as the most important manifestations of culture, next to rituals, heroes, and symbols (Hofstede, 2001). The term ‘value’ was defined by Rokeach in 1973 as “an enduring belief that one mode of conduct or end-state of existence is preferred over an opposing mode of conduct or end-state of existence.” 128 Journal of Business Strategies Values are more or less stable over time and can be determined through research techniques such as interviewing and observation, making them crucial for cross-cul- tural research (De Mooij, 2004; Hofstede, 2001). Values therefore make the concept of culture measurable and comparable. Note, that there is a fundamental and para- doxical problem in trying to compare cultures, since the distinctive “idiosyncratic cognitive categories and dimensions” (Brunsø and Grünert, 1998, p. 149) that define a culture are exactly those elements that are discarded when trying to catch the con- cept in a cross-culturally valid value system. Moreover, the main value theories have all been developed in a Western context, creating another cultural bias. The Value-Attitude-Behaviour Hierarchy Values owe their importance to their central role in consumer behaviour and decision-making. Several theories have been applied to explain consumer behaviour. The theory of planned behaviour (TPB) asserts that specific salient beliefs influ- ence behavioural perceptions and subsequent actual behaviour (Ajzen, 1985; 1991). There are three types of beliefs in the TPB that affect three perceptual constructs: behavioural beliefs influence attitudes, normative beliefs affect subjective norms, and control beliefs shape perceived behavioural control. In turn, these three percep- tual constructs determine behavioural intentions and actual behaviour. TPB has been recently applied in studies that have examined multi-channel consumer behaviour (Keen et al., 2004; Kim & Park, 2005). One study specifically takes in consideration cross-cultural effects while studying e-commerce activities (Pavlou & Chai, 2002). This study applied Hofstede’s cultural dimensions (Hofstede, 2001) to the TPB con- ceptual framework. Theories on individual choice behaviour may also be valuable to explain consumer behaviour (Louviere & Hensher, 1981; Sands, Oppewal, & Bev- erland, 2009; Timmermans, 1982). These theories assume that consumers perceive shopping centres as bundles of features, called attributes. While selecting the most preferred shopping centre consumers evaluate these attributes. It is assumed that the consumer will choose the shopping centre with the highest perceived value of all attributes. Both theories (TPB and theories on individual decision making) count for value systems as being an important determinant for behaviour. However, for this study we have chosen to apply the value-attitude-behaviour hierarchy that was first distinguished by Homer and Kahle (1988). This theoretical framework has also been applied in shopping research (Shim & Eastlick, 1998; Swinyard, 1998) and is closely related to the personal value system of Vinson et al. (1977) (see figure 1). The influence of values on behaviour is regarded as indirect, flowing from abstract Volume 29, Number 2 129 values (global values) via mid-range attitudes (domain-specific values and evalua- tions of product attributes) to specific behaviours. Figure 1 Value-Attitude-Behaviour Hierarchy Based on the Personal Value System of Vinson et al. (1977) Global Values Global values reflect more general values or desired end-states such as those defined by Rokeach (1973). Several methods for measuring such values have been applied in cross-cultural consumer research over the years such as Hofstede’s cul- tural dimensions (2001) and the List of Values (LOV) (Kahle, 2000). Relations be- tween cross-cultural shopping behaviour and Hofstede’s individualism-collectivism, uncertainty avoidance, and power distance have been identified (Kacen & Lee, 2002; de Mooij, 2004; Zhang & Mittal, 2008). The LOV was used by Shim and Eastlick (1998) to explain shopping behaviour and attitude towards mall attributes among Hispanics and Anglo-Americans, and recently by Kuruvilla and Joshi (2010) to de- velop a shopper typology for Indian consumers. As for the rest, the role of personal values in a cross-cultural shopping context has been largely neglected so far. Domain-Specific Values Domain-specific values are kinds of attitudes towards certain social or eco- nomic activities. In a shopping context, this can be recognized as the attitude towards a shopping experience, or perceived shopping value (Babin et al., 1994). Shopping value can be assessed along two dimensions, namely, a utilitarian dimension related to task orientation and a hedonic dimension reflecting personal gratification and self- expression found in the shopping experience itself. Utilitarian and hedonic shopping value have turned out to be valuable constructs in shopper research (Griffin et al., 2000; Michon & Chebat, 2004; Seo & Lee, 2008; Allard et al., 2009) and in relation to the shopping environment (Babin & Attaway, 2000; Stoel et al., 2003; Eroglu et al., 2005; Jackson et al., 2011). However, the idea of hedonic and utilitarian shop- ping value has only been applied in a few cross-cultural studies. For example, Shim and Gehrt (1996) found differences in shopping value orientation between Hispanic Evaluations of product attributes Domain-specific values Global values Behaviour 130 Journal of Business Strategies and native Americans, while Nicholls et al. (2000) compared Chileans and Ameri- cans, and Griffin et al. (2000) compared US and Russian shoppers. Michon and Chebat (2004) found that French-Canadian mall shoppers exhibit more hedonistic shopping value than Anglo-Canadians. Rubio-Sanchez (2007) studied the relation between cultural dimensions and shopping value. Product Attribute Evaluation The evaluation of product attributes is equivalent to the evaluation of (a set of) shopping centre attributes Oppewal (1995) described as part of the shopping decision-making process. That the perception and evaluation of shopping centre at- tributes by consumers differs cross-culturally seems evident, however it has not been researched extensively. In 1966, Hall argued that human perceptions of space such as privacy, personal distance, involvement, and boundaries differ across cultures. Kliment (2004) pointed out differences in ethnic preferences with regard to colour brightness, lighting levels and product presentation in stores. In a field study, Che- bat and Morrin (2007) found differences in product quality perception, in relation to mall colour décor, between French- and Anglo-Canadians. Brunsø and Grünert (1998) compared the importance of aspects of ways of shopping for food among Danish, British, French, and German consumers, discovering differences in the im- portance of product information, attitudes to advertising, enjoyment from shopping, specialty stores, price criteria, and shopping lists. With regard to price criteria, Ack- erman and Tellis (2001) suggested that cultural value differences are an explanation for remarkable price differences between Chinese and American supermarkets in the USA, indicating towards how deeply rooted cultural influences might be. Expatriates As mentioned, expatriates form the focus of this study since they are an un- der-analysed but interesting consumer segment. When applying the value-attitude- behaviour model, in relation to expat’s shopping behaviour, we can formulate the following research questions: 1. What are the (cultural) values and shopping values of expatriates? 2. How do expatriates perceive and evaluate shopping centre attributes? 3. What is the shopping behaviour of expatriates? 4. How can shopping centre attributes be adapted to culture-related shopping behaviour of expatriates? Volume 29, Number 2 131 In this section we discuss the value-attitude-behaviour model in relation to expats’ shopping behaviour based on a literature review. Values Information on the lifestyles of expatriates is available through the interna- tional surveys commissioned by HSBC (Farquhar, 2008; HSBC, 2008) and some academic research on cosmopolitanism (Thompson & Thambyah, 1999; Cannon & Yaprak, 2002; Caldwell et al., 2006) as this is often linked to “being an expatriate” (Hannerz, 1990). The HSBC study shows that the biggest benefits of being an expat are financial benefits, cultural opportunities, and the increased quality of life- mainly in terms of lifestyle, freedom, and adventure. Cosmopolitanism is not without reason commonly associated with an elite and worldly attitude, sophistication, and self- enhancement through travelling (Thompson & Thampyah, 1999). On the downside of the expat life are social aspects such as missing relatives, language and commu- nication barriers, difficulty making new friends, adapting to the local culture, and facing identity issues (Black & Stephens, 1989; Caldwell et al., 2006; HSBC, 2008; Andreason, 2008). Consequently, there is an ambiguous tension between being a world-citizen, adapting to local culture and staying close to one’s cultural back- ground. Hence, the value orientation and consumer behaviour of expatriates seems under influence of ethnicity as well as lifestyle, displaying both local and global components. Shopping Behaviour and Evaluation of the Shopping Environment From literature on expatriate consumer behaviour follows that food, ideas about health care, hygiene, and beauty play a role in the expatriate consumer experi- ence and behaviour (Gilly, 1995; Usunier, 1999; Koubaa, 2011). Gilly (1995) specif- ically explored expatriates consumer learning and the meaning of possessions. She found that unfamiliarity with consumer customs frustrates them and that they were keen on obtaining certain products (especially food) from their country-of-origin that symbolize home. They used their networks to obtain those products. Usunier (1999) confirmed the importance of food. Koubaa (2011) studied the influence of country-of-origin values versus host country values on the consumer attitude regard- ing buying skin care products. Further detailed information on shopping behaviour of expats is basically unavailable. Regarding shopping and leisure, expats generally assess the Netherlands relatively low in terms of quality of food, entertainment, and clothing (HSBC, 2008). In the regional Dutch context of Amstelveen, expats indi- 132 Journal of Business Strategies cated they missed restaurants, cafes, clubs, cultural facilities, and stores with longer opening hours at night and on weekends (Amstelveen Municipality, 2008). To learn more about shopping behaviour and perception of shopping centre attributes from a cultural perspective, we will discuss some examples of cultural market segmenta- tion from the retailing practice and the cultural reference frame of consumers in the next section. Retailing Industry In practice there are several examples (mainly in the US) of how shopping centres are successfully marketed to attract a cultural target group. Examples are the Legaspi Group centres (His panic community), the Mitsuwa Marketplace chain (Jap- anese community), the South DeKalb Mall in Atlanta, GA (Afro-American com- munity) and the Diamond Jambo ree mall in Irvine, CA (Asian community), and the Japan Centre in London. Extreme examples like this are non-existent in the Nether- lands, but there is ethnic retailing on a smaller scale by individual retailers in district shopping streets in ethnic neighbourhoods or in shopping venues such as the Bazar in the Hague, the Shoperade on Osdorpplein in Amsterdam, and the Shopperhal in Amsterdamse Poort, also in Amsterdam. From these examples, we can learn about the shopping centre attributes that are significant from a cultural perspective (Lavin, 1996; Hazel, 2005; Shearin, 2006; ICSC, 2009; “Segregation and shopping,” 2009). Most importantly are retail mix, brand mix, and the product assortment. The formulas are often international or contain large amounts of imported products or brands. Typical product categories are foods, books, CD’s, DVD’s, clothing, home ware, cosmetics, health products, and gift items. The food assortment can differ in proportions of fresh, instantly prepared, semi-pre- pared, canned, and dried foods ac cording to the customary food culture. Also, aspects like ripeness of fruits and vegetables can vary. Regarding fashion, the colours, fabrics, and sizes can be different. In terms of leisure and gastronomy there can be an enhanced focus on entertainment for children, the size and type of food court or on specific concepts such as a tea bar, karaoke bar, or photo sticker store. Services on offer often require intensive communication or are subject to cultural customs and societal norms. Bilingual staff as well as bilingual signage and information is very important in such mall and stores. The atmosphere, design, sizes of isles (to cater to large families), lay- out, and lighting level of the centre may be adjusted as well to match certain cultural preferences. Volume 29, Number 2 133 Consumers’ Reference Frame Culture influences behaviour through its manifestations, namely values, heroes, rituals, and symbols (Hofstede, 2001). Those are intangible, as well as material expres- sions of culture linked by communication systems (Craig & Douglas, 2006) that are commonly accepted in a society and form a consumer’s reference frame for approach- ing the world. With regard to shopping behaviour, those can be norms or standards con- cerning cuisine, beauty ideal, fashion style, health care, hygiene, gift-giving, and din- ing-out. For example Kacen and Lee (2002) stressed the importance of societal norms such as the accepted level of showing emotions and achievement of instant gratification for impulse buying behaviour. Apart from being directly related to consumption be- haviour, values also indirectly influence shopping behaviour through family or group relations, (male-female) role patterns, school, work, politics, and religion (Hofstede, 2001). Besides material manifestations such as food culture, also standards regarding housing and transportation can be perceived as a cultural phenomenon influencing shopping behaviour. An example is the small size of houses in Japan, and consequently the limited storage space that people have available. Another example is the common use of the car as a transportation mode in many countries, resulting in a habit of buying a lot in one time, as opposed to the Netherlands where many people also utilize their bicycle for shopping (Gilly, 1995; Kooijman, 1999; Krafft & Mantrala, 2006). Dif- ferences in opening hours and shopping centre locations (e.g., in-town versus out-of- town) can also lead to differences in shopping behaviour and assessment of attributes. Data collection To gain further insight into the value orientation and shopping behaviour of expatriates, data was collected using in-depth interviews, online surveys, and then the outcomes were compared to existing data of Dutch consumers. In-depth Interviews Prior to the main data collection, through an online survey, a total of 12 in-depth interviews were held with Japanese, British and American expatriates. The outcomes provided insights into the shopping behaviour of expats. Due to difficulties in reach- ing the expat community and obtaining information on their addresses the snow- ball technique was used to find respondents. The snowball technique is a sampling method where respondents are asked to recruit new respondents within their social network. It is typically used among ‘hidden populations’ such as expatriates. Start- ing point were expat associations, social media, and the researchers’ own network. 134 Journal of Business Strategies First, respondents were asked about their shopping behaviour in the Nether- lands as compared to their home-country. The main finding from the interviews was that all respondents noticed alterations in their shopping pattern and shopping moti- vations after they moved to the Netherlands. This corresponds with Gilly’s findings (1995). The most important reasons for this were opening hours and decreased car mobility. The British and American respondents mentioned that they shopped more often for daily products in the Netherlands, but less often (as a leisure activity) for non-daily products. The Japanese respondents also no ticed shopping less during lei- sure time. One Japanese respondent noted that: “I have become more cautious about quality and less about price, since I have less opportunity to shop here,” illustrating that a changed shopping pattern can even influence shopping attitude. Second, respondents were asked about their attitude towards shopping and the shopping environment in the Netherlands in comparison to their home-country. The biggest issues mentioned are the restricted opening hours of stores and restau- rants at nights and on weekends, and the service level of personnel. The wide-spread knowledge of English among store personnel is perceived as positive. Another main issue are products from home that are missed such as food, personal care products, and clothing due to differences in size and style. Expats therefore shop in expat stores, their home-country, elsewhere abroad or online. Other items that were men- tioned as being different were retail mix, store size and lay out, personal space, level of lighting, pricing, product range, offer of gastronomy, and modes of transportation. Three additional interviews with experts on expats’ consumer behaviour confirmed these findings. Online Survey To enhance insight into the values, shopping behaviour and perception of the shopping environment of expatriates, data was collected with a structured and self-administered online survey in both English and Japanese. To cope with issues of linguistic and conceptual equivalence (De Mooij, 2004), the English version was checked by three native speakers, after which it was translated into Japanese and reviewed by four other native speakers. Some minor adaptations were incorporated into the survey based on the outcome of the in-depth interviews. In the Japanese version some translations of concepts were adjusted. The scope of the study is lim- ited to American, British, and Japanese expats that live in Amstelveen and Amster- dam. Because no sample frame is available, people were notified about the survey via international schools, expat associations, expat networks, expat websites, and a Volume 29, Number 2 135 number of expat stores. The survey was online from April to June 2010. Note that it was not the objective of this study to test specific scales. Therefore, we have made a pragmatic decision to use scales that have been used in a variety of studies, and have proven to be reliable, in measuring the various aspects of interest. Measurements To measure values, the List Of Values (Homer & Kahle, 1988) was uti- lized since it offers the best prospects in terms of high reliability versus ease of use (Grünert & Scherhorn, 1990; Shim & Eastlick, 1998; de Mooij, 2004). The nine items of the LOV are displayed in Table 3. Respondents were asked to indicate which three values are most important to them in their personal life. Shopping values are operationalised by using a recently developed extended classification of shopping values by Seo and Lee (2008) with which they investi- gated differences in perceived shopping value across social class. Apart from the utilitarian shopping dimension (efficiency), they distinguished multiple hedonic shopping motives, namely experiential, diversional, reliable, and self-expressive shopping value. Efficiency shopping value is related to time-awareness and time-ef- ficiency, experiential shopping value to enjoyment of the shopping experience itself, diversional shopping value to feelings of escapism and problem diversion, reliable shopping value to the perception of product and brand reliability, and self-expressive shopping to self-conscious ness and identification with the shopping environment. The ten statements as defined by Seo and Lee (2008) are slightly adapted so they reflect a general shopping attitude. See Table 4 for an overview of these statements. Respondents were asked to indicate to what extent they agree with those statements using a 5-point Likert-type scale. Shopping behaviour is explored by measuring choices of respondents, i.e. the shopping patronage, favourite brands, main points of purchase for different product categories, and products that are unavailable in regular Dutch stores. The perception of the shopping environment was measured by asking respondents to indicate the importance of and satisfaction with 14 shopping centres attributes using a 5-point Likert-type scale. The list of attributes is displayed in Table 6. It is based on exist- ing lists by Oppewal (1995), Shim and Eastlick (1998), and Dennis (2005), and the outcomes of the literature review and in-depth interviews. The overall satisfaction regarding the centre is measured using a 10-point scale. The questions on shopping value and perception of shopping centre attrib- utes each consist of a set of statements; therefore factor analysis was conducted to 136 Journal of Business Strategies determine any underlying dimensions (factors). For each factor analysis, the Kaiser- Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure has to be higher than .5 and Bartlett’s test of spheric- ity should be significantly small, indicating that the sample size is adequate and the correlations between the variables are large enough to perform this type of analysis. The factors with an eigenvalue of >1 are extracted, and they are rotated orthogonally by VARIMAX. To test for significant differences in mean factor scores between the cultural groups, ANOVA and a standard F-test was used. In addition, expats were requested to provide some general information re- garding their gender, age, nationality, household structure, occupation, level of edu- cation, income, zip code, time of residence in the region, and level of cultural identifi- cation (Shim & Eastlick, 1998). The latter was examined by asking respondents how strongly they relate to their cultural background using a 5-point Likert-type scale. Comparison In order to gain insight into the Dutch context a comparison was made be- tween the collected data and existing data on Dutch consumers with a similar age profile in the same area, which was obtained from market research specialist Strabo (2008a; 2008b; 2009; 2010).1 Results Using the research questions that were posed in the introduction, the cultural values of expatriates will be discussed in this paragraph, followed by the findings re- garding their shopping behaviour and perception, and evaluation of shopping centre attributes. First however, a description of the sample is given. Sample A total of 133 expats completed the questionnaire, of which 24 were American, 27 British, 32 Japanese and 50 were distributed among 21 other nationalities (see Table 1). The sample consisted of 87% females and 13% males. 71% of the sample was between the age of 35 and 54. As expected, almost all respondents (96%) were high-educated and the majority (59%) has an above average income. Note that a quarter did not want to in- dicate their level of income. Around 71% indicated to have been living less than 5 years in the area, which corresponds with the HSBC survey (2008) in which 68% indicated to have been staying 5 years or less in the host-country. Due to the distribution of question- naires via schools the number of women and households with children is overrepresented in the sample. Approximately 57% of the respondents were employed and 34% indicated Volume 29, Number 2 137 they were housewives. Table 2 and Figure 2 display the level of cultural identification among expatriates. On average expats maintain a moderate to strong connection with their cultural background. Interestingly, there is no correlation between the level of cultural identification and the time of residence in the area. Based on an F-test though, British expats held a significantly weaker connection to their cultural background than the Ameri- cans and Japanese (F = 7.282, p = 0.001). Table 1 Sample Descriptive Total (n = 133) American British Japanese Variable # % # # # Ethnicity American 24 18% British 27 20% Japanese 32 24% other nationalities 50 38% Gender male 17 13% 1 7 2 female 116 87% 23 20 30 Age < 35 years 36 27% 5 2 10 35-54 years 94 71% 18 25 22 > 55 years 3 2% 1 0 0 Household one person 18 14% 4 5 5 type two person 32 24% 4 7 9 family with kids 74 56% 16 15 13 other 6 5% 0 0 2 Education secondary education 4 3% 0 3 0 professional education 16 12% 1 4 2 university education or higher 111 83% 23 20 30 do not want to say 2 2% 0 0 0 Occupation full time job 41 31% 6 12 3 part time job 23 17% 5 6 3 autonomous / freelance 12 9% 1 3 3 house wife / man 45 34% 9 3 20 other 12 9% 3 3 3 Income < €2.600 a month 20 15% 5 3 7 > €2.600 a month 79 59% 13 16 17 do not want to say 34 26% 6 8 8 138 Journal of Business Strategies Table 2 Level of Cultural Identification Mean Total American British Japanese F p Cultural identification level 3.56 3.83 3.07 3.84 7.282 < .001 Figure 2 Cultural Identification Across Cultures Personal Values Expats were asked to indicate which three values out of the nine-item List Of Values were most important to them in their personal lives (see Table 3). The find- ings indicate that expats clearly regard fun and enjoyment in life (23%) and warm relationships with others (23%) most frequently as one of their top-3 values in life. Other frequently named values are sense of accomplishment (12%) and security (12%). Being well-respected, excitement, and a sense of belonging have a rather low total score. Although the scores of Americans, British and Japanese expats are rather comparable, as is shown in Figure 3, some significant differences were still identified with Chi-square tests (see Table 3). Fun and enjoyment in life appears to be a much less important value for the Americans compared to the British and the Japanese. Security was more important for the Japanese than it was for the British. If compared to the outcomes of Rose and Shoham (2000) who explored the personal Volume 29, Number 2 139 values of US and Japanese mothers, the relatively high score for the Americans on self-respect and the Japanese on security and fun and enjoyment is not surprising. Table 3 Personal Values Frequency with which Value was Mentioned in Top-3 American British Japanese List of Values # % # # # c2 p Sense of belonging 20 5% 7% 11% 0% Excitement 14 4% 3% 1% 9% Fun and enjoyment in life 90 23% 18% 28% 28% 7.3961/5.8883 p < .01/p < .05 Warm relationship with others 91 23% 24% 26% 27% Self-fulfilment 33 8% 11% 6% 6% Being well-respected 12 3% 1% 0% 0% Sense of accomplishment 49 12% 14% 12% 10% Security 48 12% 14% 7% 18% 5.2952 p < .05 Self-respect 32 8% 8% 7% 1% Total 389 97% 100% 100% 100% 1 Significant differences exist between American and Japanese expats 2 Significant differences exist between British and Japanese expats 3 Significant differences exist between American and British expats 140 Journal of Business Strategies Sense of belonging Self-respect Security Sense of accomplishment Being well- respected Self-fulfillment Warm relationships with others Fun and enjoyment in life Excitement 30% 25% 20% 15% 10% 5% 0% American British Japanese Figure 3 Personal Values Across Cultures Shopping Value To learn about the domain-specific values of expats regarding shopping, they were asked about their general attitude towards shopping, i.e. shopping value (see Table 4). Explanatory factor analysis was conducted on the variables describing shopping value. The KMO measure was 0.771 and the Bartlett’s test of spheric- ity was significant, indicating adequacy of the sample and data for factor analysis. Specifically, two factors were extracted as shown in Table 4. Subsequently, standard F-tests were carried out to determine differences between groups. The first factor seems to be associated with (1) hedonic shopping motives and leisure, since it com- prehends experiential and diversional shopping values on the positive scale and a negative factor loading for “a store visit is good when it is over very quickly.” Factor 2 covers values related to efficiency, self-expression and brand-reliability, pointing towards a (2) utilitarian dimension. Product-reliability takes a distinct position, since it is not associated with any other components but receives a high score in general from the entire group of expats. These results correspond with general findings on shopping value dimensions, but contrast with the findings by Seo and Lee (2008). According to them the utilitar- ian dimension comprehends solely efficiency shopping values. In our findings, this Volume 29, Number 2 141 dimension includes values regarding efficiency, self-expression, and brand-reliabili- ty. The relation of efficiency and reliability might be a manifestation of functionality and saving time. The link with self-expressive shopping values could be explained by a kind of (uncomfortable) self-awareness that is associated with shopping for a purpose and not with shopping as a leisure activity. Table 4 Shopping Attitude Mean Total Total Group 1. 2. of Expatriates Hedonic Utilitarian The time required for shopping has a big influence on my shopping experience 3.86 .542 A store visit is good when it is over very quickly 3.04 -.620 .503 Shopping trips are truly a joy 3.04 .841 I enjoy shopping trips for its own sake, not just for the items I may purchase 3.10 .864 Shopping trips truly feel like an escape 2.56 .762 While shopping, I am able to forget my problems 2.39 .683 .402 I prefer to visit stores that have high reliability for product 4.11 A store is good because it has many well-known brands 2.98 .682 While shopping I feel self-conscious 2.29 .710 I identify myself with the store that I am shopping in 2.45 .656 Eigenvalues 3.22 2.45 % of variance 32.22 56.70 American -.233 .331 Mean British -.357 -.147 Japanese .641 -.554 F 13.391 6.600 p .000 .002 The standard F-test used to test for differences in mean factor scores, between cultural groups, lead to some interesting results. They indicate that on the hedonic di- mension the Japanese score highly positive whereas the American and British score negative, resulting in a significant difference between the Japanese on the one hand 142 Journal of Business Strategies and the American and British on the other. The hedonic value of shopping is very important for the Japanese compared to both the British and American respondents. Almost the opposite applies to the utilitarian dimension. Here, the Americans score positive, the Japanese score highly negative, and the British score slightly negative. For the American group, the utilitarian shopping value is very important, while this is not the case for the other cultural groups — specifically for the Japanese. It was also tested whether the shopping attitudes differ significantly per age, gender, and occupation. Whether people work or not and gender showed no differ- ences for shopping attitude. However, for various age groups a significant effect was found (F = 4.266, p = 0.017); the younger the respondents the more important the hedonic shopping value. Shopping Behaviour Shopping Patronage The main indicator that was used to define shopping behaviour was the fre- quency of visits. On average, expatriates make more shopping trips than Dutch con- sumers (see Table 5), namely 3.3 per week for daily goods (such as food and person- al care products) and 1.5 per week for non-daily goods (e.g. apparel), compared to a total of only 3.0 per week for Dutch consumers. Regarding other aspects of shopping behaviour such as the patronage of other shopping venues in the area, moment of visit, and customer motivations, there were no clear differences between expats and Dutch consumers. The visit frequency of expats does not vary significantly across cultures either. Whether shopping frequency differ for various age groups, gender, and occupation was tested and no significant differences were found. Table 5 Visit Frequency Per Week Mean Total American British Japanese Dutch* F(p) number of shopping trips for daily goods per week 3.30 3.27 3.70 2.99 1.553 (.218) number of shopping trips for non-daily goods per week 1.52 1.74 1.44 1.44 .198 (.821) Total 4.82 5.01 5.14 4.43 3.06 * based on Strabo Purchase Flow survey 2008 Volume 29, Number 2 143 Missed Products and Brand Preferences Expats were asked about products from their home-country that were una- vailable in regular Dutch stores (see Figure 4). The majority indicated that there are indeed specific products that they miss: mainly foods, clothing, books and me- dia, and personal care products. Likewise, Gilly (1995) and Usunier (1999) already stressed the importance of foods from home for expats. In the case of food (29%), personal care (47%) and clothing (45%) those are from specific brands. In general, expats have a greater preference for well-known international brands, while Dutch consumers are more oriented on national chains. Expats also miss stores with petite or larger clothing sizes, underwear, and designer clothes. Those items are related to cultural norms regarding body proportions, beauty ideal, style, and quality percep- tion. Some of these products could also symbolize home, just as Gilly (1995) found. The results do not indicate that there are differences between cultures regarding this topic or that people with a stronger cultural identification miss more products. Figure 4 Missed Products From Home-Country Figure 5 shows where expats eventually bought the products that they missed. Buying online (32%), in expat/ethnic specialty stores (26%) or bringing products from ‘home’ themselves or via family or friends (29%) are popular ways of attain- ing these products. Some expats bought products elsewhere abroad (6%). Food was mainly bought in expat stores or brought from their home-country. Books and media were generally bought online. Clothing and personal care products were brought from their home-country but were also ordered online. Japanese expats visited expat stores in order to obtain specific ingredients needed in Japanese cuisine. Shopping centres with such Japanese stores exert a real pull factor on Japanese expats since 144 Journal of Business Strategies those are visited more often by them than one would expect based on their place of residence. Figure 5 Points of Attainment For Missed Products Evaluation of Shopping Centre Attributes The evaluation of shopping centre attributes was investigated as part of the value-attitude-behaviour hierarchy. Expats were asked to indicate the importance of shopping centre attributes in their decision on where to shop (see Table 6), as well as their satisfaction with those attributes in the main shopping venue of Amstelveen, Stadshart Amstelveen (see Table 7). In comparison to Dutch consumers, expatriates found location and accessi- bility, opening hours, a fashionable and trend sensitive (international) brand mix, choice in clothing sizes, and the possibility of covered shopping relatively impor- tant. Expatriates with kids attach importance to stores, facilities and services for children. The service level is evaluated as low in general. Factor analysis was conducted on the variables describing the importance of the shopping centre attributes and resulted in four factors (see Table 6). The KMO measure was 0.725 and Bartlett’s test of sphericity was significant. The four factors are labelled shopping centre functionality, shopping centre identity, essentials, and parking. Subsequently, mean scores were generated per respondent for each of the factors and tested whether they significantly differ per cultural group. The results show a significant difference for the factor ‘parking’ for the Japanese group, who have a higher mean score on this dimension in contrast to both the Americans and the British (p < .001), and find the parking aspect of a shopping centre more impor- tant than the other cultural groups. Volume 29, Number 2 145 Table 6 Evaluation of Importance of Shopping Centre Attributes Mean Total Total 1. 2. 3. 4. Group Shopping Shopping of Centre Centre Expatriates Functionality Identity Essentials Parking Location/accessibility of the centre 4.59 .575 Parking facilities 3.28 .895 Retail mix 4.14 .658 Opening hours of store 3.98 .562 .482 Catering facilities 2.36 .584 Facilities and services 2.67 .601 .440 Attributes Service by personnel 3.29 .428 .483 Fashion and trend sensitivity 3.14 .638 Promotions and events 2.64 .770 Atmosphere of the centre 3.62 .747 Design of the centre and public space 3.15 .728 Covered shopping 3.33 .663 Personal space and privacy 2.80 .782 Orientation and way-finding 3.02 .653 Eigenvalues 4.03 1.61 1.22 1.12 % of variance 28.77 11.51 8.68 7.96 American -.153 .029 .056 -.311 Mean British -.052 .199 .109 -.342 Japanese -.194 -.293 -.127 .593 F .182 1.788 .406 10.240 p .834 .174 .668 .000 It was also tested whether other socio-demographic variables show signifi- cant differences for the importance of shopping centre attributes. Women (F = 8.705, p = 0.004), and respondents without a job (F = 5.417, p = 0.022) find parking more important than men and respondents with a job. Because the group of Japanese is significantly overrepresented by females and housewives these results should be in- terpreted with care. 146 Journal of Business Strategies Table 7 Evaluation of Satisfaction with Shopping Centre Attributes Mean Total Total 1. 2. 3. 4. Group Shopping Shopping of Centre Space Centre Expatriates Identity Perception Functionality Essentials Location/accessibility of the centre 4.18 .775 Parking facilities 3.50 .668 Retail mix 3.36 .466 .405 .506 Opening hours of store 3.13 .738 Catering facilities 3.00 .766 Facilities and services 2.86 .420 .676 Attributes Service by personnel 2.87 .425 .412 442 Fashion and trend sensitivity 3.15 .770 Promotions and events 3.17 .635 Atmosphere of the centre 3.58 .803 Design of the centre and public space 3.50 .612 .444 Covered shopping 3.87 .804 Personal space and privacy 3.26 .438 .612 Orientation and way-finding 3.42 .655 Eigenvalues 5.81 1.38 1.12 1.01 % of variance 41.50 9.88 7.98 7.21 American .081 -.509 -.160 -.122 Mean British -.398 .097 .473 .308 Japanese -.203 .171 -.240 -.228 F 1.360 2.676 3.108 1.754 p .264 .077 .052 .182 Exploratory factor analysis was also conducted on variables describing the satisfaction with shopping centre attributes in the main shopping venue in Am- stelveen (see Table 7). The KMO measure was 0.868 and Bartlett’s test of sphericity was significant. Four factors were found: shopping centre identity, space perception, shopping centre functionality, and essentials. A clear difference was found with the factor analysis of importance. The at- tributes related to space percep tion form a separate factor with regard to satisfaction, while they are associated with functional attributes when it concerns importance. Volume 29, Number 2 147 The mean factor sores of the cultural groups were compared by a one-way ANOVA. Significant differences were found for the factors space perception and shopping centre functionality. The means show that Japanese are most satisfied with space perception, including orientation, way finding, and covered shopping. The British group was slightly positive while the Americans were quite negative with regard to this factor. Shopping centre functionality, including availability of facilities, servic- es, and opening hours, was positively evaluated by the British. The other two groups were slightly negative with respect to this factor. Also tested was whether different age groups, gender, and occupation show significant different means for the factors. The only significant finding was that peo- ple with a job (F = 4.308, p = 0.042) are in general more satisfied with the shopping centre functionality factor. Conclusion and Discussion This study aimed at examining how shopping centre attributes can be adapted to culture-related shopping behaviour of expatriates. The guiding research questions handled cultural and shopping values, shopping behaviour, and perception and eval- uation of shopping centre attributes by expats. The answers were established through a literature review, in-depth interviews, an online survey among expats living in the Amstelveen/Amsterdam area in the Netherlands, and a comparison of the results with existing data on Dutch shoppers. The results of this study lead towards a somewhat mixed image on the shop- ping behaviour of expats. Although expatriates seem to hold a rather comparable value framework as a group, there are still clear significant differences between cul- tures regarding personal values and shopping value. Japanese expats for example perceive shopping more often as a joyful activity, while Americans expats perceive it as more related to time and efficiency. British expats’ shopping values cannot be characterized as typically hedonic, neither as typically utilitarian. This corresponds with earlier findings of Rubio-Sanchez (2007), who also found that cultural dimen- sions influence shopping values. Shopping values could not be explained by socio- demographic variables like gender and occupations. However, shopping values dif- fer for various age groups. For younger respondents the hedonic shopping values are more important. The actual shopping behaviour, such as visit frequency, does not differ so much between cultures. However, compared to Dutch consumers, expatriates make more shopping trips per week. 148 Journal of Business Strategies The evaluation of importance of shopping centre attributes by expatriates turned out to be rather similar across cultures. Based on factor analysis four factors could be identified, labelled shopping centre functionality, shopping centre identity, essentials, and parking. Only one significant cross-cultural difference exists regard- ing the ‘parking’ factor for the Japanese group. Since Japanese expats showed strong hedonic shopping values, and parking can be regarded as a factor representing utili- tarian attributes, this finding is rather unexpected. An explanation could be the fact that females that do not have a job are over-represented in the Japanese sample. A larger and more balanced sample size would have allowed us to be more specific about this issue. Variables describing the satisfaction with shopping centre attributes in the shopping venue in Amstelveen could be grouped in two (out of four) significant factors: space perception and shopping centre functionality. American expats were quite negative with regard to the factor “space perception” including the attributes “facilities and services” and “services by personnel.” This finding could be related to differences in societal norms regarding service levels between the American and Dutch culture. British expatriates were the only group that was positive with regard to “shopping centre functionality” including attributes like “opening hours,” “facili- ties” and “retail mix.” This could be explained by similarities between the Dutch and British culture; they share the same European shopping values. Overall, facili- ties and services (by personnel) received the lowest evaluation by the total group of expats while the location, accessibility and the fact that a shopping centre is covered received the highest evaluation scores. On one hand the results consequently reflect a universal lifestyle among expats, while at the same time they also emphasize cultural differences. Cultural sensitivity is therefore definitely important in the marketing of a shopping centre towards a heterogenic group like expats, but should not be exaggerated either since expatriates have some clear common grounds in their value orientation, shopping behaviour and perception of the shopping environment. A certain cognitive proxim- ity among expatriates could be an explanation for these common grounds. From a broader perspective one could say that the adjustment of a shopping centre to a cul- tural consumer segment can take place on the level of the shopping centre, store and product assortment, and demands a marketing strategy incorporating both lifestyle and ethnicity. Insight in the cultural component and potential of such consumers in a catchment area is therefore important, but adjustments should take place with- out jeopardising the other (Dutch) consumers. Apart from extended opening hours, which are a continuous subject of debate in the Netherlands, the most effective solu- Volume 29, Number 2 149 tions for shopping centre developers, management, and retailers are therefore in the retail and brand mix, product assortment, (bilingual) service, signing and promotion. As was concluded in the literature review, only a very limited number of stud- ies has explored the consumption and shopping behaviour of expatriates. Therefore, further research is needed, preferably based on actual buying behaviour of expats and including data on exact expenditure and share of turnover. The limited sample sizes of the cultural groups in this study also make the results hard to generalise. Fu- ture studies should therefore be conducted among expatriates from and on different continents in order to improve general applicability and to offer insight into the in- fluence of lifestyle, ethnicity, ethnic identification, and other characteristics. Native consumers should also be included in the study too to increase validity. In addition, it might be of interest to apply more advanced modelling techniques, such as struc- tural equation models, to examine more complex relations between the variables and constructs included in the study. We hope to report on these results in the near future. The relation between shopping value and culture and the corresponding measure- ment scales might be interesting to examine more thoroughly as well. Finally, due to the nature of cross-cultural research it would be preferable to have command over a culturally diverse research team and sufficient resources to allow translation/back- translation of a survey. Nevertheless, this study provides further important insights into the relation between consumers’ values, shopping behaviour and the physical shopping environment while emphasizing the complexity of this theme in relation to culture and ethnicity. Acknowledgements The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of the market research spe- cialist Strabo. End Notes 1. 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Tourism Management, 28, 58-69. Zhang, Y., Winterich, K. P, & Mittal, V. (2010). Power distance belief and impulsive buying. Journal of Marketing Research, 47(5), 945-954 Biographical Sketch of Authors Geri Wijnen is a development manager at Wereldhave, a listed internationally operating investment company with a focus on retail. Here she is responsible for redevelopment of two shopping centers in the Netherlands. She holds an academic master in Real Estate Management and Development and an academic bachelor in Architecture Building and Planning from the Eindhoven University of Technology. Her master thesis focused on the shopping behavior of expatriates. 156 Journal of Business Strategies Astrid Kemperman is an assistant professor of urban planning at the Eind- hoven University of Technology. Her research focuses on the impacts of urban en- vironments on human behavior. She has specific interest in the areas of physical activity and health, leisure activities of different groups in society (e.g., the elderly), and shopping behavior. She also has investigated dynamics of tourist choice behav- ior, including modeling variety seeking, seasonality and diversification to support planning decision making. Ingrid Janssen is associate professor at Tias Nimbas Business School and lec- turer at the Real Estate Management Group at Eindhoven University of Technology. Her research focuses on retail real estate, real estate asset and property management and decision making in real estate. Her Ph.D. involved decision-making politics in retail property development. A Cross-Cultural Comparison of Expatriates’ Shopping Behaviour