Settler Colonialism and First Nations e-Communities in
Northwestern Ontario
Brian Beaton 1 & Peter
Campbell2
Graduate Student, Faculty of Education, University of
New Brunswick, Canada. Email: brian.beaton@unb.ca
Executive Director, Keewaytinook Okimakanak
INTRODUCTION
Remote and rural First Nation (Indigenous) communities
are in a constant struggle to maintain their autonomy in
a settler colonial political and economic structure
attempting to force community members' migration off
their traditional lands to urban centres. This paper
describes how First Nations in Northwestern Ontario are
using social media along with locally owned and managed
information and communication technologies (ICT) to
support the creation of e-Communities. The e-Community
refers to community members actively using digital
networks and online tools and applications - everything
from the internet and social media, to videoconferencing,
telehealth, distance education, cell phones and many
other digital processes - to sustain and support the
local economy, social services and the many communication
processes required in every community (Whiteduck,
Tenasco, O'Donnell, Whiteduck & Lockhart, 2012;
Whiteduck, J., 2010; Whiteduck, Beaton, Burton &
O'Donnell 2012). We will argue that local ownership of
the digital infrastructure as well as the online tools,
social media and e-services that use it, is an important
element of First Nations' resilience.
We will reference critical theorists who write about
colonization or, more appropriately, "settler
colonialism" a theory that describes the ongoing struggle
in Canada between First Nations and the Canadian state
characterized by racist efforts to remove the original
people from their traditional territories. Before the
organization was eliminated this year by the Canadian
government, the National Aboriginal Health Organization
(NAHO) published a series of articles in 2009 entitled
"Communities in Crisis", a detailed examination of the
challenges First Nations people experience in Canada. In
the introduction to the articles, Health Canada officials
wrote: "There is an overwhelmingly consistent finding in
the research that confirms colonization contributed
significantly to the imbalance of social determinants of
health in First Nation communities evident today" (Garman
& Doull, 2009; p. 2). These government officials go
on to recognize that some First Nations are building and
sustaining healthy environments with their community
members efforts that need to be recognized and learned
about.
Social media is one of the tools that First Nations
people in northwestern Ontario are using effectively to
organize and share their decolonization efforts.
Presenting their own stories and experiences using social
media, without mainstream media censorship, is liberating
for the people and their communities (Budka, Bell &
Fiser, 2009). Other rural communities can benefit from
these First Nations' experiences and stories, as they too
struggle with their own out-migration of youth and
families.
SETTLER COLONIALISM AND ITS EFFECTS ON FIRST NATIONS IN CANADA
Some critical theorists use the term "post-colonial" to
refer to the period after Canada became a country, free
from ties with the colonial British power (Doughty,
2005). A more accurate portrayal is that the settler
population rid themselves of their British colonial
rulers, a position that worked well for the settlers who
then believed they were in a position of power over the
land. Critical First Nations theorists consider
themselves to be still in a colonial state, led by the
settler population, which now outnumbers the original
peoples of this land. These critical theorists use the
term "settler colonialism" instead of post-colonialism to
describe problems that still have to be resolved, and
several authors have documented the history of settler
colonialism and the ongoing struggles that First Nations
are engaged in today (Coulthard, 2007; Palmater, 2011;
Tuck & Yang, 2013; Wolfe, 2006).
The contemporary and historical effects of settler
colonialism need to be understood to appreciate the
ongoing struggle. The original people and their different
nations across the land that is now called Canada were
thriving long before the arrival of Europeans over 500
years ago. The First Nations had, and still have, rich,
vibrant cultures with their own languages, customs,
traditions, and teachings that provided them with a long
and successful relationship among the different nations
and to the land that supported their survival. Their oral
culture is still a strong part of their development
today. Their creation stories provide the people with the
knowledge and understanding of how they came to be on
this land and relate to everything that supported their
survival for thousands of years (Royal Commission on
Aboriginal Peoples [RCAP], 1996).
First Nations' complex governance structures, laws, and
political structures guided their internal operations and
their co-existence with other nations. They prospered
from their vast territories and careful management of the
natural resources. The strategic use of inter-tribal
trading networks supported a population that by some
estimates numbered close to 50 million people before the
arrival of the Europeans. For the first 200 to 300 years
of European contact that included the fur trade, First
Nations people outnumbered the settlers. But diseases
brought by the newcomers, starvation from the
over-exploitation of the furbearing animals, wars between
the European nations over the land, and battles to
protect their own land from encroachment decimated the
Indigenous population (RCAP, 1996).
In his presentation at the Native American and Indigenous
Studies Association conference in 2013, Peter Campbell
read from a story he had previously published (2001, p.
168), and shared the teachings he received while growing
up on the traditional lands of North Spirit Lake First
Nation in Northwestern Ontario:
In the past our people were nomadic, moving from place to
place and living off the land as they endeavoured to
provide for themselves and their families. These
activities summarized part of the culture and traditions
that had been passed down from generation to generation.
The environment they lived in trained them to be both
self-sufficient and hardy ... as soon as a child became
of age to be able to walk and follow, the training would
begin.
The land-based lifestyle and culture of First Nations has
brought them into conflict with the Canadian state and
its industry partners with their Western worldview that
sees land as property to be exploited for wealth. Much of
Canada's economy today remains based on extraction of
natural resources from First Nations' traditional lands,
which were protected by treaty for First Nations use.
Very few of the dollars generated from the resource
extraction industry ever reaches the First Nations.
Palmater (2011) refers to the rich, vibrant cultures that
existed before European contact, and how "First Nations
have gone from being the richest peoples in the world to
the most impoverished, as their lands, resources, and
ways of being were stolen from them" (p. 112).
The relations between the Canadian government and First
Nations are complex and often adversarial, due in part to
the most racist piece of legislation ever introduced in
Canada. Introduced in the late 1800s, the Indian
Act details how First Nations will be accommodated
by the federal government. It dictates how First Nations
are completely at the mercy of the people in power
regarding how the First Nations people and their
communities will be funded. The continuing
assimilationist tactics perpetuated by the Canadian
government are carefully protected in this legislation.
Recent movements to create policies that support First
Nations' self-governance have covered by the media, and
yet the Indian Act and its related policies have
not been amended to reflect these proposed changes
(Palmater, 2011).
The widespread poverty, inadequate housing, undrinkable
water and high suicide rates in many of the First Nations
across Canada continue to be clear indicators of the
struggles against settler colonialism that these
communities face. Aboriginal people make up 5% of
Canada's population, yet 40% of the female prison
population is Aboriginal. Whole communities are still
trying to recover from the devastating impacts of the
100-year legacy of the residential schools on
individuals, families, communities and the country as a
whole (RCAP, 1996).
COMMUNITY INFRASTRUCTURE AND ITS RELATIONSHIP TO COMMUNITY RESILIENCE
Canada is the second largest country in the world but has
the lowest density and the most urbanized population.
Given that approximately 80% of Canadians live in urban
areas and 20% in rural, most of the land base is sparsely
populated. Most First Nations are located in the rural
and remote regions of the country. It is very challenging
for all rural communities in Canada, and particularly for
First Nations, to have a sustainable economic base. The
most remote communities, those without any road access,
face particular challenges due to the high cost of
transporting supplies.
When population-based funding models are used to
determine who gets the dollars, populous urban areas have
an advantage over communities with small populations,
which rarely receive enough funding for infrastructure.
Broadband infrastructure development in rural areas
continues to lag behind the rest of Canada due to a lack
of a federal government broadband policy, combined with a
strong focus on developing the private sector instead of
developing the communities located in these regions. This
situation creates challenging environments that are the
everyday reality for the people living in these remote
communities.
First Nation community members are working together to
create resilient communities to resist the ongoing
government efforts to remove them from their territories.
They are collaborating to build sustainable local
environments and opportunities that support employment
and equitable access to services - including housing,
health, education, safety, and security - along with the
physical infrastructure to support these services.
Resilience, a concept well known to aboriginal people, is
demonstrated by the residential school survivors, their
communities, their families, and everyone affected both
by the institutions themselves and the federal government
policies that created and supported them. First Nations
continued existence after the efforts of assimilation on
the part of the state and the Indian Act policies is
reason enough to celebrate the resiliency of these
communities (Kenny, 2003; Kirmayer, Sehdev, Whitely,
Dandeneau & Isaac, 2009).
Community resiliency involves the different relationships
that interconnect and work together in First Nations,
between individuals, family units, the community and the
larger environment. Sharing narratives is critical to
support resiliency and assist community members,
particularly the youth, both in learning about and
understanding the colonial experience, and in creating a
positive future for themselves (Kirmayer, et al., 2009).
Molyneaux, et al. (2014) argue that social media and
community resilience are connected, because people employ
these online environments to share their stories and
experiences, as well as preserve their traditions and
culture.
Kirmayer and colleagues have identified a core dimension
of community resilience as the physical infrastructure
that exists to provide the support and services that the
community members demand. In their model, community
resilience can be measured in part by the availability of
built capital infrastructure, including housing,
transportation, water, power, and communications
(Kirmayer et al., 2009). For the e-community work, we
understand communications to encompass all elements of
telecommunications including broadband infrastructure,
networks, and applications such as social media.
Unreliable communications infrastructure undermines
community resilience. Using social media tools
effectively in these remote and rural environments
requires the same type of sustainable and reliable
broadband infrastructure that is taken for granted in
urban centres. Because commercial telecommunications
companies require a profitable business case to build and
deliver broadband services, public dollars are required
to put telecom infrastructure in place in remote
communities. When the government pays a corporation to
build the required infrastructure, there is often the
expectation that these communities will be able to pay
the corporation to deliver the broadband connections on
an ongoing basis. However, there are examples across
Canada where companies have had contracts to build the
infrastructure, but once there were no more dollars to
support ongoing operations, they simply walked away from
the project leaving the communities and region without
online services.
OCAP AND COMMUNITY-OWNED INFRASTRUCTURE IN NORTHWESTERN ONTARIO
Community ownership and control over their infrastructure
is an important requirement for First Nations. In
uncertain times and during crisis, especially for remote
communities far from other supporting organizations,
communities require First Mile access to and possession
of the capacity to maintain and protect their
infrastructure (McMahon et al., 2011). The principles of
Ownership, Control, Access and Possession (OCAP) were
originally applied to data management by the National
Aboriginal Health Organization (Schnarch, 2004) and the
Assembly of First Nations (Assembly of First Nations
[AFN], 2007). More recently, the First Nations
Information Governance Centre has employed and
trademarked the concept. We argue that OCAP is also an
important requirement related to community resilience and
First Nation owned and managed infrastructure. Working
with the principles of OCAP means that First Nations are
doing it for themselves. They are creating First Mile
opportunities and sustaining local jobs, building the
capacity to protect their communities and to deliver
services, such as access to social media, which the
people require in their efforts to counter settler
colonialism.
Keewaytinook Okimakanak (KO) is a tribal council in
Northwestern Ontario providing second level support to
its member First Nations. KO is a First Nation owned and
managed organization delivering a variety of services,
one of which is the telecommunications broadband network,
Kuhkenah Network (KO-KNET) (O'Donnell, et al., 2011).
KO`s Board of Directors are the Chiefs of six small
remote First Nations in Northwestern Ontario. Working
with these communities for nearly 20 years since 1994 as
the KO-KNET Coordinator, author Beaton was involved in
developing and supporting the broadband infrastructure in
these communities as well as several e-community
initiatives that are still operating today.
Five of these small KO First Nation communities are very
remote, meaning they are fly-in only communities. Four
have about 400 people and the fifth has about 1,000
people living there year round. The communities are
diverse in language (Cree, Oji-Cree and Ojibway),
culture, history and geography. The cost of living is
exorbitant, given the high costs of power generation and
transporting goods. The people have a strong connection
to the land, which is reinforced by their faith and the
cultural beliefs they continue to practice and celebrate
today. Their elected government consists of a Chief and
Council members who work with local service program
managers and community members to use the community
infrastructure to deliver the services required in every
community (Walmark, Gibson, Kakekaspan, O'Donnell &
Beaton, 2012). Each of these five KO First Nations
operates its own school, health centre, administration
complex, water and wastewater plants, roads, heavy
equipment, airport, and social service programs. Three
communities operate their own electrical networks. All
community services require infrastructure and they
increasingly rely on online processes, which in turn,
require adequate broadband infrastructure to operate
successfully. Social media and online activities are
important to the people in these First Nations, for
sharing their stories and experiences, especially as they
relate to the land (Beaton, O'Donnell, Fiser &
Walmark, 2009; Beaton, Kakekaspan & O'Donnell, 2012).
The five member KO First Nations are Fort Severn, Deer
Lake, Keewaywin, Poplar Hill and North Spirit Lake
(Walmark, et al., 2012). When author Beaton first visited
in 1995, North Spirit Lake First Nation had no airport,
minimal and inferior infrastructure and no electricity. A
single payphone on the outside of the police station
served the entire community. Now, less than 20 years
later, the community has a new school and health centre,
it operates its own electrical, roads, water and
wastewater systems as well as its own cellular, fiber,
coaxial cable for television and internet, and a wireless
network. Members of the North Spirit Lake community built
what they could, used their infrastructure funding to
contract the required development, and has retained
ownership over this infrastructure. When possible, they
worked with small local companies to help build local and
regional capacity.
In contrast, in the 1970s the Canadian Federal government
dictated the electrical and telecommunication
infrastructure development process in Deer Lake and Fort
Severn First Nations. The government kept the local
communities out of the development process and instead,
contracted large urban corporations to build, own and
operate the electrical and telephone infrastructure.
These corporate-owned systems were always slow to be
upgraded, with the corporations unwilling to invest in
the infrastructure unless the government provided public
funding to cover all the costs. Today these communities
are unable to build much-needed housing because there is
an inadequate supply of electricity to serve their
communities. This negative experience with corporate
owned and managed infrastructure led Deer Lake and Fort
Severn to build their own digital network infrastructure,
and now both communities operate their own mobile and
internet services. The lesson here is that while North
Spirit Lake First Nation used government funds to build
the networks, by owning the process the First Nation owns
and manages its own electrical, mobile and digital
network infrastructure. The additional benefit is that
related jobs and capacity remain in the community.
When First Nations communities own and manage their own
infrastructure and online services, it is more likely
that new opportunities for local investment, enterprise
and employment will address local needs and priorities.
The delivery of these community services is being
achieved under challenging conditions, particularly since
operating costs are much higher than in urban centres. In
addition, the infrastructure and smooth deliver of
education, health, housing, policing, administrative,
governance, transportation, water, power and
communications services depends on the availability,
skill and dedication of people within the community.
E-COMMUNITY IN FIRST NATIONS
Keewaytinook Okimakanak and its member First Nations are
currently combining nearly 20 years of experience
developing ICT initiatives into an e-Community strategy
with a social media component as a central communication
tool for sharing e-Community information. This strategy
celebrates the resilience of the First Nations and the
work done thus far, and is designed to address future
challenges faced by both the KO organization and the
individual member communities. New infrastructure
demands, upgrades, changing priorities and needs require
flexibility and changing management skills from everyone
working in these communities.
The history of the e-Community in the KO First Nations
can be traced back to the development of local community
radio systems in the 1970s, and then community cable
television in the late 1980s. In 1994, the Chiefs of KO
supported the development of a computer communication
network by the KO education department to assist their
elementary school staff and students in sharing messages
and information between the schools in the other KO First
Nations. Beaton was then hired to set up the Kuhkenah
Network (KO-KNET) and Bulletin Board System (BBS). These
early communication challenges helped pave the way for
future telecommunication infrastructure and local ICT
development, such as the Keewaytinook Internet High
School (KIHS).
KIHS began in 2000 with three KO First Nations delivering
Grade 9 and 10 courses in their local high school
classroom and over the years, it expanded to offer a full
selection of high school courses to thirteen different
First Nations. Today KIHS hosts annual graduation
ceremonies of students who have chosen to take all their
high school courses through KIHS so they can stay in
their home communities. KIHS has emerged as an important
local service for many reasons. There is at least one
additional full-time high school teacher who is now
living and working in each of the participating First
Nations. In some of the larger classrooms, local
Education Assistants are hired to work with the students
and to support the KIHS teacher. Each First Nation now
has its own local high school that parents and students
can access to obtain their high school diploma. The
communication and learning skills that students gain
through the KIHS experience are proving to be beneficial
when they decide to continue their post-secondary
education, whether they continue their studies online or
move away to a more urban setting. KIHS is an important
user of the locally owned First Nation network, and
contributes financially to the ongoing operation and
maintenance of the network infrastructure and the
e-Community framework.
Other local services supporting the First Nations'
e-Community developments and using online processes
include the KO Telemedicine (KOTM) service,
videoconferencing, cellular phone, justice, local
government administration, water and wastewater plant
remote monitoring along with personal and business
connections to the internet (O'Donnell, et al., 2011).
The e-Community concept and local enterprise development
strategy describe online initiatives as e-learning,
e-health, e-utilities, e-research, e-governance and
others. KO-KNET is also creating, adapting and making
available other new ICT applications, resources and
services to address local First Nation needs and
priorities. These include an online cable plant
management system that allows community network
coordinators to manage internet and television
connections as well as a bandwidth management system to
ensure quality of service for community telehealth
sessions. A new video booking system allows community
members to easily book videoconference resources, and
there is now a community mobile phone pay-as-go billing
system. First Nations created these systems and processes
to support healthy and sustainable environments and
services that are locally owned and controlled. These
projects also create new learning and economic
initiatives and challenges, which has resulted in new
employment and skills development opportunities (Beaton,
et al., 2009; Fiser & Clement, 2009; O'Donnell, et
al., 2011; Walmark, O'Donnell & Beaton, 2005).
Working collaboratively with other First Nations makes it
possible to leverage best prices when negotiating
agreements with strategic government and commercial
partners to purchase the broadband infrastructure and
telecommunication services. Sharing best practices, so
all communities and partners are included and supported
in the e-community development work, supports meaningful
and respectful partnership and engagement. An important
outcome of this collaborative approach was the acceptance
by the Chiefs of First Nations across the country of the
AFN e-Community Framework resolution in July 2008. The
AFN resolution provided a strong endorsement of the work
begun so many years before in these small remote First
Nations in Northwestern Ontario. More recently, the AFN
Chiefs again supported this work with the adoption of the
e-Community Strategy resolution at their assembly in
December 2011.
The KO organization is sharing their e-community story
widely. This involves getting everyone within the
organization to work together using a team approach, and
to share how their particular KO service is using the
e-community tools and framework to support KO community
members and their services. The KO e-community initiative
had a strong presence at the AFN Annual General Assembly
in July 2012, and in June 2013, KO service managers and
staff made eight presentations about their e-community
activities at the international North American Indigenous
Studies Association annual gathering in Saskatoon.
Social media is now a central element in the KO
e-community strategy. From the KO-KNET research completed
over the years, the use of social media was recognized as
almost universal in each of the First Nations for selling
products locally and sharing information (Budka, et al.,
2009; Budka, 2012; Molyneaux et al., 2014). Building on
their myKNET.org social media experience, the KO-KNET
staff recently developed a web-based interface for the
different KO e-community programs and services that
shares information with local Facebook e-community groups
owned by each KO First Nation. These social media
environments are designed and managed in a way that
respects community ownership, awareness and engagement,
to facilitate information, resource and opportunity
sharing among the online users. The next step in the KO
e-community strategy involves working with the KO First
Nations to expand the local membership of the these
social media groups, as well as encouraging and
supporting KO-KNET staff to be share updates and
information using these online tools.
CONCLUSION
The First Nations in Northwestern Ontario are using
social media and other online tools to protect and
maintain their autonomy, as well as their traditional and
contemporary First Nation territories, values and
cultures. The e-Community strategy and framework is
designed to facilitate the delivery of and access to
community services and teachings, and to enable First
Nations to share their ways and their relationship to the
land with others. The almost 500 years of colonization
experienced by First Nations has generated many acts of
resistance. First Nations are actively increasing their
autonomy in all areas of their lives, including taking
control and ownership of broadband infrastructure. First
Nations are using online tools and social media for a
wide range of purposes, from the delivery and use of
culturally appropriate services, to organizing on local,
national and international levels, as evidenced most
recently by the Idle No More movement (Philpot, O'Donnell
& Kenny, 2013).
Owning and managing their local infrastructure
contributes significantly to the community's resilience.
The struggle with settler colonialism involves opposing
ideologies, but also requires overcoming a model in which
the corporate and private sector competes with the public
community sector for limited public funds. This struggle
is a political issue, and requires fundamental changes to
the colonial model, where the central government decides
which private sector group should benefit from public
dollars. In contrast, a new funding model would place
control over public funds at the community level, so
communities are able to make the decisions that will
improve their access to infrastructure and services. This
funding model would also allow First Nations to decide
who they want to work with, and how use the public funds
in ways that will create opportunities to develop their
own e-community strategies further.
An elder and community leader who grew up during the
residential school era once told a group of researchers
that his definition of success would be to hear children
and young people playing. The e-community is making that
possible, today. Small, remote First Nations are creating
strategies based on their traditional values and
teachings to engage, empower, and support their citizens
to continue living and building strong and healthy
communities for future generations. Particular attention
is being focused on creating and providing opportunities
for youth to do the work they are interested in
developing and sustaining. The innovative ICT work of
KO-KNET with its First Nation partners continues to
produce research and policies that can only be created
and supported by working together.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This paper is a collaboration of partners and communities
involved in the First Nations Innovation (FNI) research
project (http://fn-innovation-pn.com).
The authors would like to acknowledge and thank the First
Nation communities we work with for their ideas and the
activities and development work discussed in this paper.
The FNI project is funded by the Social Sciences and
Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC), with
in-kind contributions from the project partners:
Keewaytinook Okimakanak (KO-KNET and KORI) (www.knet.ca), the First Nations
Education Council (www.cepn-fnec.com),
Atlantic Canada's First Nation Help Desk / Mi'kmaw
Kina'matnewey (www.firstnationhelp.com)
and the University of New Brunswick (www.unb.ca).The FNI project works
closely with the First Mile project (http://firstmile.ca). We
welcome feedback on this paper.
REFERENCES
Assembly of First Nations. (2007). OCAP: Ownership,
Control, Access and Possession - First Nations Inherent
Right to Govern First Nations Data. Retrieved from
http://64.26.129.156/misc/ocap.pdf
Beaton, B., Kakekaspan, C., & O'Donnell, S. (2012).
KO/K-Net Report: Survey of Connectivity in Keewaytinook
Okimakanak Communities. Online presentation from Sioux
Lookout, Ontario and Fredericton, New Brunswick, April,
2012. Retrieved from
http://meeting.knet.ca/mp19/mod/book/view.php?id=1722&chapterid=1976
Beaton, B., O'Donnell, S., Fiser, A. & Walmark, B.
(2009). The K-Net Experience: Thematic Introduction to
the Special Issue. The Journal of Community
Informatics, 5(2).
Budka, P., Bell, B. L., & Fiser, A. (2009)
MyKnet.org: How Northern Ontario's First Nation
Communities Made Themselves At Home on the World Wide
Web. Journal of Community Informatics, 5(2).
Budka, P. (2012). Report on the MyKnet.org and Facebook
Online survey. April-December 2011. Retrieved from
http://meeting.knet.ca/mp19/course/view.php?id=7
Campbell, P. (2001). An Oji-Cree Student in Two Worlds in
Northwest Ontario. Journal of Mennonite Studies,
19, 168-170.
Coulthard, G. (2007). Subjects of Empire: Indigenous
Peoples and the 'Politics of Recognition' in Canada.
Contemporary Political Theory, 6, 437-460.
Doughty, H.A. (2005). Canadian Postcolonialism:
Recovering British Roots. Seneca College Quarterly,
8(1). Retrieved from
http://www.senecac.on.ca/quarterly/2005-vol08-num01-winter/doughty_1.html
Fiser, A. & Clement, A. (2009). K-Net and Canadian
Aboriginal Communities. IEEE Technology &
Society Magazine, 28(2), 23-33.
Garman, A. & Doull, K. (2009). Embracing the healing
journey. Journal of Aboriginal Health, 5(1),
2-3.
Kenny, L. (2003). The Resiliency Workbook for
Survivors of Residential School. Sioux Lookout,
Ontario: Sunset Women's Aboriginal Circle.
Kirmayer, L., Sehdev, M., Whitley, R., Dandeneau, S.,
& Isaac, C. (2009). Community Resilience: Models,
Metaphors and Measures. Journal of Aboriginal
Health, 5(1), 62-117.
McMahon, R., O'Donnell, S., Smith, R., Walmark, B.,
Beaton, B., & Simmonds, J. (2011). Digital Divides
and the 'First Mile': Framing First Nations Broadband
Development in Canada. The International Indigenous
Policy Journal, 2(2). Retrieved from:
http://ir.lib.uwo.ca/iipj/vol2/iss2/2
Molyneaux, H., O'Donnell, S., Kakekaspan, C., Walmark,
B., Budka, P., & Gibson, K. (2014, in press). Social
Media in Remote First Nation Communities. Canadian
Journal of Communication.
O'Donnell, S., Kakekaspan, G., Beaton, B., Walmark, B.,
Mason, R., & Mak, M. (2011). A New Remote
Community-Owned Wireless Communication Service: Fort
Severn First Nation Builds Their Local Cellular System
with Keewaytinook Mobile. Canadian Journal of
Communication, 36(4), 663-673.
Palmater, P. (2011). Stretched beyond human limits: Death
by poverty in First Nations. Canadian Review of
Social Policy, 65/66, 112-127.
Philpot, D., O'Donnell, S., & Kenny, C. (2013).
Face-to-Faces Work: Audience Response to First Nations
Social Movement Videos. Canadian Communication
Association, June 5-7, University of Victoria.
Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples. (1996). The
Report of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples.
Ottawa: Minister of Supply and Services Canada. Retrieved
from
http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/webarchives/20071115053257/http://www.ainc-inac.gc.ca/ch/rcap/sg/sgmm_e.html
Schnarch, B. (2004) Ownership, Control, Access, and
Possession (OCAP) or Self-Determination Applied to
Research: A Critical Analysis of Contemporary First
Nations Research and Some Options for First Nations
Communities. Journal of Aboriginal Health,
1(1),80-95.
Tuck, E. & Yang, K. W. (2012). Decolonization is not
a metaphor. Decolonization: Indigeneity, Education
& Society, 1(1), 1-40.
Walmark, B., Gibson, K., Kakekaspan, C., O'Donnell, S.,
& Beaton, B. (2012). How First Nation Residents in
Remote and Rural Communities in Ontario's Far North are
using ICT and Online Services Supported by Keewaytinook
Okimakanak. Paper presented at the Canadian Communication
Association (CCA) Annual Conference, University of
Waterloo, Ontario, May 30.
Walmark, B., O'Donnell, S., & Beaton, B. (2005).
Research on ICT with Aboriginal Communities: Report from
RICTA 2005. Retrieved from
http://nparc.cisti-icist.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/npsi/ctrl?action=shwart&index=an&req=5765733&lang=en
Whiteduck, G., Tenasco, A., O'Donnell, S., Whiteduck, T.,
& Lockhart, E. (2012). Broadband-enabled community
services in Kitigan Zibi Anishinabeg First Nation:
Developing an e-Community approach. Paper for the 2012
International Rural Network Forum, Whyalla and Uppser
Spencer Gulf, Australia, 24-28 September.
Whiteduck, J. (2010). Building the First Nation
e-community. In J. P. White, J. Peters, D., Beavon, &
P. Dinsdale (Eds), Aboriginal policy research VI:
Learning, technology and traditions (pp. 95-103).
Toronto: Thompson Educational Publishing.
Whiteduck, T., Beaton, B., Burton, K., & O'Donnell,
S. (2012). Democratic Ideals Meet Reality: Developing
Locally Owned and Managed Broadband Networks and ICT
Services in Rural and Remote First Nations in Quebec and
Canada. Keynote paper for the Community Informatics
Research Network (CIRN) Conference, Prato, Italy,
November. Retrieved from:
http://meeting.knet.ca/mp19/file.php/16/Publications/2012-CIRN-paper.pdf
Wolfe, P. (2006). Settler colonialism and the elimination
of the native. Journal of Genocide Research,
8(4), 387-409.