journal of contemporary urban affairs 2017, volume 1, number 3, pages 62– 65 evaluation rainfall regime at the hydroelectric power plant toward climate change * ¹ francisco pereira, ² elison eduardo bierhals; ³ josé leandro néris, 4 matheus rippel, 5 claudinéia brazil, 6 luciane salvi, 7 nei marçal 1, 2, 5 energy engineering, state university of rio grande do sul, brazil 3,4,5,6 environmental and sanitary engineering, don bosco college of porto alegre, brazil e mail: fbp.francisco@gmail.com , e mail: eduardojb_energia@hotmail.com , 3 e mail: matheuslrippel@gmail.com 4 e mail: leandro_melgar@hotmail.com , 5 e mail: neiabrazil@yahoo.com , 6 e mail: salvi.faculdade@dombosco.net 7 email: marcaluergs@gmail.com a b s t r a c t the hydroelectric plants are first in the brazilian energy matrix, so irregularities in the rainfall regime can affect the energy generation, thus evidencing the need to know the rainfall distribution in the studied area. this work aimed to evaluate possible analysis of the impacts of climate change on the rainfall regime in the machadinho hydroelectric region. for the research development, the ipcc-ar5 pessimistic scenario was used, representing a scenario with a continuous population growth and high carbon dioxide emissions. from the historical series and organized projections, precipitation anomalies were calculated. analyzing the difference between the average of the month and the climatological normal, it was inferred that the model used presented a positive trend for precipitation in the period from 2026 2100, projecting anomalies between 25 and 200 mm per month. a greater amplitude is observed in the precipitation of 2076-2100, indicating an increase in the occurrence of extreme events of precipitation, mainly in the spring period. considering that the rains in the machadinho hydroelectric region are increasing in the scenarios analyzed, the average water level in the reservoir of the plant tends to increase. journal of contemporary urban affairs (2017) 1(3), 62-65. https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2018.3682 www.ijcua.com copyright © 2017 journal of contemporary urban affairs. all rights reserved. 1. introduction the global concern about climate change has been increasing, since the emission of gases from human activities contributes to the greenhouse effect in the atmosphere, indicating significant impacts to the planet in the coming years. the changes have been associated with the issue of energy, especially renewable energies, which are directly linked to climate variations. according to moraes (2013) in 1988, the intergovernmental panel on climate change (ipcc) was created through an initiative of the world meteorological organization (wmo) and the united nations environment program (unep). the ipcc was established with the mission of evaluating research, interpreting it, and gathering all relevant information, both technical, scientific and socioeconomic, into comprehensive, easily understood and accessible reports by all in communities, a r t i c l e i n f o: article history: received 2 august 2017 accepted 10 august 2017 available online 12 october 2017 keywords: climate change; ipcc-ar5; precipitation. *corresponding author: energy engineering, state university of rio grande do sul, brazil e-mail address: fbp.francisco@gmail.com this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution noncommercial noderivs 4.0. "cc-by-nc-nd" http://www.ijcua.com/ mailto:fbp.francisco@gmail.com mailto:eduardojb_energia@hotmail.com mailto:matheuslrippel@gmail.com mailto:leandro_melgar@hotmail.com mailto:neiabrazil@yahoo.com mailto:salvi.faculdade@dombosco.net mailto:marcaluergs@gmail.com https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2018.3682 www.ijcua.com http://www.ijcua.com/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(3), 62-65 / 2017 francisco, pereira; elison eduardo, bierhals; josé leandro, néris; matheus, rippel; claudinéia, brazil; luciane, salvi; nei, marçal 63 including decision makers (grimm , 2016; moraes, 2013). according to nimer (1989), rainfall occurred in brazil’s southern region between 1990 and 2005 can be described as well distributed, with maxima ranging from 1200 to 2100 mm / year. the hydroelectric plants are in the first position in the brazilian energy matrix, evidencing, therefore, the need to know the distribution of the pluviometric regime of the region. the main objective of this work is to present an analysis of the impacts of climate change on rainfall in the machadinho’s hydroelectric power plant region, which has an installed capacity of 1,140 mw and is located in the states of santa catarina and rio grande do sul. 2. material and methods 2.1 study area description an evaluation of precipitation projections in the region of the machadinho hydroelectric power plant, located in the uruguay river basin (figure 1). according to schork et. al. (2012), a machadinho hydroelectric power plant is located in the states of santa catarina and the rio grande do sul between latitudes 27º31 'and 27º46' south and longitudes 51º47 'and 51º11' west. the basin extends between the parallels of 27º and 34º south latitude and the meridians of 49º30 'and 58º5'w. it covers an area of approximately 384,000 km2, of which 174,494 km2 are located in brazil, equivalent to 2% of the brazilian territory. according to andreolli ,(2003) its brazilian portion is in the southern region, comprising 46,000 km2 of the state of santa catarina and 130,000 km2 in the state of rio grande do sul. it is bordered to the north and northeast by the serra geral, to the south by the border with the eastern republic of uruguay, east by the central depression riograndense and the west by argentina. figure 1. study area localization. 2.2 data description and climate model the scenarios were generated using the models used in the fifth report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change (ipcc-ar5), based on an analysis of the seasonal variability of precipitation and the consequent variation in energy production. the database used in this research is part of the phase 5 intercomparison of matching models (cmip5) and contributed to the preparation of the fifth ipcc-ar5 report. the data were extracted from access model (the australian community climate and earth system simulator). according to van vuuren et al., (2011) in ar5 the scenarios are organized according to the rcps. in this research, rcp 8.5 scenario was used which represents a scenario with a continuous population growth, resulting in high carbon dioxide emissions, with an increase up to 4 ° c. according to silveira et al, (2016), this scenario is considered to be the most pessimistic for the 21st century in terms of greenhouse gas emissions, consistent with no policy change to reduce emissions and strong reliance on fossil fuels. the climatic projections of the precipitation series were divided into three scenarios: scenario-1 (2026-2050), scenario-2 (2051-2075) and scenario-3 (2076-2100), the seasonal analysis was done for each of these scenarios. 3. methodology the monthly precipitation data were extracted from the ipcc-ar5 database, the information is provided in grid points, and grads (grid analysis and display system) software were used to extract the results. according to souza (2004) grads is a system of visualization and analysis of data in grid points, it works with binary data matrices, in which the variables can have up to four dimensions (longitude, latitude, vertical levels and time). after this stage, the historical data series and the data series with the climatic projections were organized. the projections were divided into three 25-year scenarios: scenario-1 (2026-2050), scenario-2 (2051-2075) and scenario-3 (2076-2100). in the sequence precipitation anomalies were calculated from the following equation: apre (%) = ((pmm – pmn)/ pmn)*100 (1) which: apre (%) is the precipitation anomaly in percentage; pmm is the mean precipitation of the analyzed month; http://www.ijcua.com/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(3), 62-65 / 2017 francisco, pereira; elison eduardo, bierhals; josé leandro, néris; matheus, rippel; claudinéia, brazil; luciane, salvi; nei, marçal 64 pmn is the climatological norm corresponding to the analyzed month. world meteorological organization (wmo) defines climatological normal as averages of climatological data calculated for consecutive periods of 30 years. 4. results and discussions the permanence curve is important for the study of precipitation variability, being possible to verify the probability of occurrence of the events that occur in the watershed. the figures show the permanence curves for station 1 (figure 3a) located at -26.25 ° latitude and -52.50 ° longitude and for station 2 (figure 3b) located at -27.50 ° latitude and -50.63º longitude. in both stations, the trend in the increase of monthly average rainfall for the three scenarios was observed. analyzing the third scenario of posto 1, precipitation projections indicated an increase of around 400 mm, compared to scenarios 1 and 2. in relation to the lower precipitation rates scenario 1 presented values below 200 mm in 70% of the analyzed period. for station 2, the maximum precipitation presented values ranging from 600 to 900 mm around 5% of the time. a) b) figure 3. permanence curve of precipitation projections for scenario 1 (blue line); scenario 2 (red line); scenario 3 (green line): a) post 1 and b) post 2 figure 4 shows the positive anomalies in the two stations analyzed indicating a significant increase of the precipitation, mainly for the spring period, with an increase of around 200 mm, for the third scenario. summer was the period that indicated the smallest increase in precipitation, with values around 30 mm above the climatological norm. a) b) figure 4. seasonal precipitation anomalies: a) station 01 and b) station 02 based on the average precipitation projections of the hydrographic basin where the machadinho hpp is located, it was observed that the highest values of precipitation are found in the western half of the basin, fluctuating around 200 mm for scenario 1 (figure 5a) . scenario 2 (figure 5b) presented a precipitation projection around 238 mm and an increment around 64 mm for scenario 3 (figure 5c), in relation to the first scenario analyzed, thus verifying a tendency in the increase of precipitation for the three scenarios in the hydrographic region of the machadinho hydroelectric power plant. http://www.ijcua.com/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(3), 62-65 / 2017 francisco, pereira; elison eduardo, bierhals; josé leandro, néris; matheus, rippel; claudinéia, brazil; luciane, salvi; nei, marçal 65 a) b) c) figure 5. precipitation projections: a) scenario 1 (2026 2050; b) scenario 2 (2051 2075); c) scenario 3 (2076 2100). 5. conclusion the hydroelectric plants are in the first position in the brazilian energy matrix, evidencing, therefore, the need to know the distribution of the pluviometric regime of the region. the model analyzed in this article presented a positive trend for precipitation in the period from 2026 to 2100, designing anomalies between 25 and 200 mm in each 24 year period for the precipitation variable. a greater amplitude is observed in the precipitation of 2076-2100, indicating an increase in the occurrence of major precipitation events, mainly in the spring period, considering that the rains in the machadinho hpp region are increasing in the scenarios analyzed, it is concluded that the level of the reservoir of the plant tends to increase, changing the pluviometric regime of the region. acknowledgement this research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. references ivanilto,a.(2003). previsão de vazão em tempo real no rio uruguai com base na previsão meteorológica. dissertação de mestrado. universidade federal do rio grande do sul. grimm, i. j. (2016). mudanças climáticas e turismo: estratégias de adaptação e mitigação. tese de doutorado, pósgraduação em meio ambiente e desenvolvimento da universidade federal do paraná. curitiba, 248. moraes,f.(2013). entenda como são feitos os relatórios do ipcc. disponível em: <http://www.oeco.org.br/dicionarioambiental/27621-entenda-como-sao-feitosos-relatorios-do-ipcc/>. acesso em: 06 maio 2016. nimer, e. (1989) climatologia do brasil.(2nd edition). rio de janeiro: ibge. schork, g.,hermes-silva, s., beux, l. f., zanibonifilho, e., nuñer, a. p. o. (2012). diagnóstico da pesca artesanal na usina hidrelétrica de machadinho, alto rio uruguai – brasil. bol. inst. pesca, são paulo, 38(2),97 –108. silveira,s.s., souza filho, f., martins, e. s., oliveira, j., costa, alexandre, nobrega, m., souza, s. a. (2011). climate change in the são francisco river basin: analysis of precipitation and temperature. rbrh, 21, 416 – 428. porto alegre abr. /jun. 2016. van vuuren, d. p., edmonsds, j., kainuma, m., riahi, k., thomsonm, a., hibbard, k., hurtt, g. c., kram t., krey, v., lamarque, j. f., masui, t., meinshausen, m., nakicenovic, n., smith, s. j., rose, s. k. (2011). the representative concentration pathways: an overview. climatic change, 109, 5-31. http://www.ijcua.com/ http://www.lume.ufrgs.br/browse?type=author&value=andreolli,%20ivanilto http://www.oeco.org.br/dicionario-ambiental/27621-entenda-como-sao-feitos-os-relatorios-do-ipcc/ http://www.oeco.org.br/dicionario-ambiental/27621-entenda-como-sao-feitos-os-relatorios-do-ipcc/ http://www.oeco.org.br/dicionario-ambiental/27621-entenda-como-sao-feitos-os-relatorios-do-ipcc/ http://www.oeco.org.br/dicionario-ambiental/27621-entenda-como-sao-feitos-os-relatorios-do-ipcc/ journal of contemporary urban affairs 2017, volume 1, number 2, pages 33– 37 an agenda for the management of contemporary sustainable houses dr. ifeanyi obi * department of architecture, girne american university, turkey e-mail: obiifeanyi@gau.edu.tr a b s t r a c t the evolution of sustainable design and construction management over the past ten years has produced a lot of literature on environmental sustainability and development. but despite this progress in the last ten years it is still a big challenge to designers, architects, landscape designers, etc. and all other professions that are related to the field of environmental science. . the goal of this paper is to simply create a framework for more accurate approach towards sustainable planning, design and development. the objective of this paper includes to architecturally defining energy sustainable design in our sustainable buildings; it is also to stress the concept of green building through design guidelines. this paper outlines, recommend and also create architectural design for sustainability and eliminate unsustainable elements in our building. journal of contemporary urban affairs (2017) 1(2), 33-37. https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2017.3646 www.ijcua.com copyright © 2017 journal of contemporary urban affairs. all rights reserved. 1. introduction 1.1 sustainable construction and architecture sustainable building could be defined as an environmentally designed building aimed to limit the effect on our natural environment. these could be achieved through the use of renewable resources or elements from the environment to build (construct) the building (dawson, 2006). our built environment involves many holistic approaches and this can be termed as a green approach. a green building could simply be defined as a building constructed on sustainable basic principles (guy & farmer, 2006). this system of approach, in other words “green approach” is designed to measure and control the interaction between our man-made (built environment) and the environment. therefore various elements of the building, for example, windows, floors, roofs etc can substantially increase or reduced the level of impact in our environment. in other words, the more sustainable they are, the less the negative impact on the building and the environment and vice versa (ofori, 1998).every element that are integrated together to make a building should a r t i c l e i n f o: article history: received 16 april 2017 accepted 23 may 2017 available online 25 may 2017 keywords: sustainable planning; green building; design guidelines. *corresponding author: department of architecture, girne american university, turkey e-mail address: obiifeanyi@gau.edu.tr this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution noncommercial noderivs 4.0. "cc-by-nc-nd" mailto:obiifeanyi@gau.edu.tr https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2017.3646 www.ijcua.com mailto:obiifeanyi@gau.edu.tr https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(2), 33-37 / 2017 dr. ifeanyi obi 34 always be considered in other to achieve a sustainable building (steemers, 2003). an energy efficient building lays its emphasis on the health of the environment, dwellers and the future effect on other environmental factor like the climate. this study aims to use existing building elements in william’s ecovillage to create a framework for developing and evaluating the sustainability of buildings in ecovillages in general, through research experiments on the building elements. this research involves a case study of the building elements of the community house at william’s eco village in colrain, massachusetts a start-up village; which will deliver the factors for the proposed ecological guidelines. 1.1.1 problems the evolution of sustainable design and construction over the past ten years has produced a lot of literature on environmental sustainability and development. but despite this progress in the last ten years it is still a big challenge to designers, architects, landscape designers, etc. and all other professions that are related to the field of environmental science. from my study, i have come to realize that great percentage of factors that degrade our environment come from building activities and design of men. designing of our man-made environment should as much as possible realign itself to the natural system of the environment. attempts have been made to create a system of approach for sustainable development but none has clearly been defined over the years. many authors have tried to develop a systematic approach to the environmental challenges we are facing today but not great many achievements have been made. there has been great extent of neglect on the building element, their quality and how they react to the environment. 1.1.2 design differences in design also bring about difference in sustainable approach, most times sustainable developments in buildings are defined in general, without due to consideration to the different building types (bonnette and kirsten, 2004). for example sustainable approach for a residential building type might not be sustainable for commercial building type. therefore, sustainable development should be defined individually as it affects each building design type (hill, & bowen, 1997). 1.1.3 building every building is made up of elements or building parts. these elements are integrated to form a building. each element of any building is whole and has its own distinct capability and reaction to the same environmental factor. throughout my literature review, i rarely came across literatures that dealt on the issue of building sustainability around its different element as this paper will do. insulation, thermal massing, orientation are elements considered during building design so to neglect their relationship individually to sustainable design guidelines is tantamount to failure in creating design frame work for building sustainable development(van buerenn & priemus, 2002; arenibafo, 2017; alizadehsalehi et al., 2015). the relationship between design building element and sustainable frame work will be developed in the course of this paper. 1.1.4 case study: the community building figure 1. the community building, ground floor. journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(2), 33-37 / 2017 dr. ifeanyi obi 35 nestled into the hillside will be 17 south-facing houses in two clusters. the lower cluster of 12 three-quarter-acre lots will comprise phase i along crosier lane; phase ii the upper five-lot cluster along stowe farm lane. between the two clusters is the existing house, a large redwood home built in 1972 with five guest rooms, a large party or meeting space, kitchen, library, and workshop. this building will serve, at least for the time being, as the community house. figure 2. the community building, upper floor. first (upper) floor: in the floor plan above, note that the north (top) wall has fewer windows than the south (bottom) wall, which overlooks stone mountain and the valley. note also the differences in wall thickness: the thicker walls are a foot of blown-in, dense-packed cellulose, with an r-value of 45. ceilings throughout are r-55. note the ramp from the garage into the panty and kitchen, the first floor of each house is designed using ada (americans with disabilities act) standards and approved by a consultant from independent living resources. the entrance is ramped; doorways are wide enough for wheelchairs, and there are no thresholds. the first-floor bathroom is handicapped accessible. each house has one garage space, a mudroom, a screened porch, and storage space. life at william’s : the houses insid figure 3. comunity house, lower floor. second (lower floor): the lower floor has two guest bedrooms, one of which might be used for an office, and a bath. at the rear, there is a large storage and utilities room. for those who might need it, this floor could also be used as separate living space for a caregiver. figure 4. mini house floor plan. the mini house echoes the design and planning of the essential house on a smaller scale. a garage is optional. most of the challenges faced by different ecovillages are their inability to follow the dynamic progress of sustainability in our buildings and environment in general. over the last decade, various findings have brought into existence new principles and recommendations for eco-community development, suddenly already established eco-communities (ecovillages) find themselves inadequate to http://www.ilresources.org/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(2), 33-37 / 2017 dr. ifeanyi obi 36 meet up with the recommendations and standards set out for ecovillages due to:  financial restraints,  environmental imbalances example the topography is such that cannot be altered. these factors i also found in the building at william’s ecovillage built in 1972. the community house which will be the case study for this paper due to some environmental imbalances could not be improved upon to meet the new trend or standard in sustainable planning and design. the logic behind these general problems of various ecovillages in the united states is that these ecocommunity buildings were designed on outdated sustainable principle. seasonally new materials and principles of sustainable environment are developed. experiments are done in various ecological labs to pursue better applications towards sustainability in our building and environment. most of the problems encountered in william’s ecovillage community building are mainly on the various elements of the building. these elements were designed on previously acceptable sustainable design principles. these problems are: 1. orientation: i found out that the existing living building in william’s ecovillage was not properly oriented. that is to mean a better part of the living area was located at the northern façade of the building, rather than the south façade of the building for better solar reach into the living areas. 2. roofing: i found out from the complaint of sudden loss of heat energy in the building especially at night by the building occupant that the roofing materials not only that they are old but lack sufficient insulation against heat loss. 3. wall insulation: during my various researches at william’s ecovillage building under construction, i easily noticed that the foundational walls were being constructed without an external insulation. these could easily lead to wetness of the basement wall. 4. façade: during my research case study, i found out that the angle of the building to the sun path is improperly designed in that the building could have solar access into its interior spaces only when the sun is rising and at twelve o’clock noon during summer period 5. window design and shapes: in my case study i found out that the windows on the building at william’s ecovillage were designed using sliding window which are inefficient window design for passive cooling. 6. thermal mass: in a typical william’s ecovillage building, i found out that the interior of the house are of wood which is not the best material for the kind of weather the ecovillage is situated in. extremely cold winter and moderately hot summer weather. 1.2 solutions and conclusions sustainable buildings are not perfect buildings, because none exists. sustainable building could be defined in line with the consumer culture of the occupants and also the climatic requirement of the region (gilman, 1991). all through my study and research, i came to understand that various elements in a building could be used to measure out the sustainable level of any building under study. the achievement of sustainable development on our environment should be born in mind on the initial stage of conceptualization of design techniques. various elements common in all buildings could be used as a yardstick to measure the sustainability of any building under study all over the world. these elements like: a. roof b. facade design c. thermal mass d. windows shapes and sizes e. building orientation and design. these factors mentioned above could be used as criteria of measuring sustainability in building. journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(2), 33-37 / 2017 dr. ifeanyi obi 37 these elements are common to every building, so could be universally used as a yardstick in sustainable development and design. in this paper, experiments, hypothesis, methodology and results on these elements of building, at william’s were used as litmus for testing the sustainability of the common community house on william’s eco-village colrain, massachusetts. acknowledgments this research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or non-for-profit sectors. references arenibafo, f. (2016). the transformation of aesthetics in architecture from traditional to modern architecture: a case study of the yoruba (southwestern) region of nigeria. contemporary urban affairs (jcua), 1(1), 35-44. doi: 10.25034/1761.1(1)35-44. alizadehsalehi, s., koseoglu, o., & celikag, m. (2015). integration of building information modeling (bim) and laser scanning in construction industry. aei 2015 (pp. 163-174). milwaukee, wisconsin. bonnette, r, and kirsten, s. (2004.), "one way to an ecocentric future: ecovillages and the ecovillage movement in anthropology." senior paper thesis, the department of anthropology, the colorado college, colorado springs, colorado. dawson, r. (2006), ecovillages: new frontiers for sustainability. devon, uk: green books ltd. gilman, r. (1991), the eco-village challenge, context institute publishers. (p.10) steemers, k. (2003), establishing research directions in sustainable building design. the martin centre for architectural and urban studies, university of cambridge. hill, r. c., & bowen, p. a. (1997). sustainable construction: principles and a framework for attainment. construction management & economics, 15(3), 223-239. guy, s., & farmer, g. (2001). reinterpreting sustainable architecture: the place of technology. journal of architectural education, 54(3), 140-148. ofori, g. (1998). sustainable construction: principles and a framework for attainmentcomment. construction management & economics, 16(2), 141-145. van bueren, e. m., & priemus, h. (2002). institutional barriers to sustainable construction. environment and planning b: planning and design, 29(bonnette and kirsten, 2004), 75-86. http://www.context.org/iclib/permiss.htm journal of contemporary urban affairs 2017, volume 1, number 3, pages 1– 6 solar radiation projections of cmip5 models for south of brazil * elison eduardo bierhals 1, francisco pereira 2, claudinéia brazil 3, elton rossini 4 1, 2, 3, 4 energy engineering, state university of rio grande do sul, brazil 1 e mail: bierhalseduardo@gmail.com , 2 e mail: kiko.borgesp@gmail.com , 3 e mail: neiabrazil@gmail.com a b s t r a c t the most critical factors in the acceleration of climate and environmental changes are related to the industrial development and consequently to an increase in the demand for electricity. looking for measures that minimize impacts to the environment, alternative energy sources are gaining more and more space in the brazilian energy matrix. brazil presents a great solar potential for the generation of electric energy, so the knowledge of solar radiation and its characteristics are fundamental for the study of the energy use. due to the above, this article aims to verify the climatic variability corresponding to the variations in solar radiation patterns, in the face of climate change scenarios. the database used in this research is part of the phase 5 intercomparison of matching models (cmip5). was used the rcp 8.5 that scenario is considered the most pessimistic for the 21st century and is consistent with no policy change to reduce emissions and strong dependence on fossil fuels. it is important, first of all, to determine its availability in order to enable the use of solar radiation as a source of energy in a given location and / or region. the climatic projections, based on the pessimistic scenario, in a 75-year period (20262100) showed a fall in solar radiation in all of rio grande do sul, reaching 12% in the eastern region of the state. a concern with the factors that influence the pessimistic perspectives of this scenario, as it may affect a possible production of electric energy from solar radiation. journal of contemporary urban affairs (2017) 1(3), 1-6. https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2018.36xx71 www.ijcua.com copyright © 2017 journal of contemporary urban affairs. all rights reserved. 1. introduction the acceleration of climate change is related to the industrial development and, consequently, to an increase in the demand for electricity. looking for measures that minimize environmental impacts, the brazilian energy matrix is gaining new formatting, becoming less and less dependent on non-renewable energy sources, such as oil and natural gas, while alternative sources of renewable energy increase its presence (lima, 2012). by opting for a photovoltaic solar generation, the consumer also contributes to the mitigation of climate change, which is currently considered one of the biggest environmental problems. the ipcc (intergovernmental panel on climate change) is the leading international scientific body for assessing climate change and a r t i c l e i n f o: article history: received 15 september 2017 accepted 25 october 2017 available online 3 november 2017 keywords: climate change; solar radiation; energy utilization. *corresponding author: energy engineering, state university of rio grande do sul, brazil e-mail address: bierhalseduardo@gmail.com this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution noncommercial noderivs 4.0. "cc-by-nc-nd" http://www.ijcua.com/ mailto:bierhalseduardo@gmail.com mailto:kiko.borgesp@gmail.com mailto:neiabrazil@gmail.com https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2018.36xx71 www.ijcua.com http://www.ijcua.com/ mailto:bierhalseduardo@gmail.com https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(3), 1-6 / 2017 elison eduardo bierhals, francisco pereira, claudinéia brazil, elton rossini 2 was created to provide scientific information on the current state of knowledge of climate change and its possible socioeconomic and environmental impacts (silveira et al., 2016). the results from this program have been an important tool for policies implementation as responses to climate change. the data are the results of global models simulations from several research centers, simulations of global models represent numerical and physical approximations of equations governing the movements of the atmosphere and their interaction with the earth's surface (sousa, 2010). since 1995, the ipcc reports have had an experimental framework to study the data provided by ocean-atmosphere general circulation models, the coupled model intercomparison project (cmip). the combination of several readings of atmospheric data around the world makes it possible to evaluate certain patterns, which can predict events or evaluate deficiencies or even errors in the ways of analyzing these data (le treut et al., 2007) . the use of alternative sources of energy represents a major challenge in order to meet energy demand and reduce environmental damage. faced with the need to diversify the energy matrix and try to minimize global warming, solar energy has been gaining space, being an important renewable source, even depending on the climatic conditions. compared to the european level, brazil presents a great solar potential for the generation of electric energy, having more sun hours per year. the sun is an inexhaustible source of energy, allowing you to obtain a clean energy. according to freitas (2008) quality information about the solar resource is fundamental for the sizing of solar systems, since the generation of electric energy depends on the availability of the resource. therefore, the knowledge about solar radiation and its characteristics are fundamental for the study of the energy utilization. due to the above, this article aims to verify the climatic variability corresponding to the variations in solar radiation patterns by analyzing climate change scenarios. 2. materials and methods 2.1 study area the state of rio grande do sul (figure 1) is located in brazil’s extreme south, between latitudes 27 ° and 34 ° south (s) and longitudes 50 ° and 57 ° west (w). the state maintains borders to the west with argentina, to the south with uruguay, to the north with the brazilian state of santa catarina and to the east, it is bathed by the atlantic ocean. the territorial area of rio grande do sul has 268,781,896 km²; the average population density is 38 inhabitants per km². among the states of brazil’s southern region is the one with the lowest density (gross, 2015). the predominant climate is subtropical, being that in the region of the upper plateau the climate is subtropical of altitude. figure 1. map of the study region. http://www.ijcua.com/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(3), 1-6 / 2017 elison eduardo bierhals, francisco pereira, claudinéia brazil, elton rossini 3 2.2 description of the model used the database used in this research is a part from the phase 5 intercomparison of matching models (cmip5), and contributed to the preparation of the fifth ipcc-ar5 report. the data were extracted from access (the australian community climate and earth system simulator) model. according to van vuuren, and others in ar5 the scenarios are organized according to the rcps. in this research, rcp 8.5 scenario was used which represents a scenario with a continuous population growth, resulting in high carbon dioxide emissions, with an increase up to 4 ° c. (van vuuren, et al., 2011) in terms of greenhouse gas emissions, this scenario is considered to be the most pessimistic for the 21st century and is consistent with no policy change to reduce emissions and strong dependence on fossil fuels (silveira, et al., 2016). 3. methodology the work was carried out in steps, the monthly data of solar radiation in kwh / m² were extracted from the ipcc-ar5 data base, this work stage was performed through grads software (grid analysis and display system ). grads is a data visualization and analysis systems in grid points, working with binary data matrices, in which variables can have up to four dimensions (longitude, latitude, vertical levels and time) (souza, 2004). after this stage, the historical data series and the data series with the climatic projections were organized. the projections were divided into three scenarios: scenario-1 (2026-2050), scenario-2 (2051-2075) and scenario-3 (20762100). the solar radiation anomaly was calculated from the following equation: arad (%) = ((rmm – rmn)/ rmn)*100 (equation 1) at where: arad (%) is the radiation anomaly in percentage; rmm is the average radiation of the month analyzed; nmr is the normal climatological correlation for the analyzed month. the world meteorological organization (wmo) defines climatological normal as averages of climatological data calculated for consecutive periods of 30 years 4. results and discussions it is important, first of all, to determine its availability in order to enable the use of solar radiation as a source of energy in a given location and / or region. figure 3 shows the average solar radiation based on the ipcc projections for the state of rio grande do sul from 2026 to 2100. the highest values are found in the rio grande do sul’sthe western half of the state of rio grande do sul, in the region of the uruguayan's municipality with the maximum around 5 kwh / m², agreeing with the results obtained by buriol and others that verified the availability of solar radiation from historical data. in the state’s eastern region are located the lowest values of solar radiation (buriol, et. al., 2012). figure 3. average solar radiation kwh / m² projections (2026 2100) from the historical series of solar radiation, the climatic radiation norms were calculated, which are the long period averages of 1961-1990, for all months of the year. based on http://www.ijcua.com/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(3), 1-6 / 2017 elison eduardo bierhals, francisco pereira, claudinéia brazil, elton rossini 4 this information were recorded for each period the percentage of months that the radiation was above or below normal climatological, according to figure 4, it was verified that for all the scenarios analyzed solar radiation has a tendency to decrease over the next few years, in the scenario of 2076-2100 the tendency is that the radiation is 60% of the months below the normal climatological. figure 4. graph percentage of number of events above(red) and below(blue) the normal climatological. in order to verify the mean alteration trend over time, the anomalies of solar radiation that are the extreme fluctuations related to the historical averages were analyzed. figure 5 shows the solar radiation anomaly for scenario 1 (2026-2100). in the coastal region, in addition to presenting the lowest values of solar radiation, the trend is that for this scenario there will be a fall around 5% compared to historical data, verifying the scenario 2(figure 6) and scenario 3 (figure 7), the tendency is to increase the fall of solar radiation, reaching a loss of 12% in the upper region of the east of the state of rio grande do sul. in general, negative anomalies were observed in the three scenarios, indicating a significant fall in radiation over the years, for the entire gaucho territory. figure 5. averages of solar radiation anomalies kwh / m² (%) scenario 1 (2026 2050) http://www.ijcua.com/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(3), 1-6 / 2017 elison eduardo bierhals, francisco pereira, claudinéia brazil, elton rossini 5 figure 6. averages of solar radiation anomalies kwh / m² (%) scenario 2 (2051 2075) figure 7. averages of solar radiation anomalies kwh / m² (%) scenario 2 (2076 2100) 5. conclusions renewable energies, for the most part, are dependent on weather conditions, so adequate energy planning requires climate change knowledge. the climatic projections, based on the pessimistic scenario, showed in all rio grande do sul a solar radiation fall, reaching 12% in the eastern region of the state. this data demonstrates the need for concern with the factors that influence the pessimistic perspectives of this scenario, as it will directly affect a possible production of electricity from solar radiation. in order to diversify the energy matrix and minimize future climate impacts, it is important to invest in an energy policy considering renewable energy sources. acknowledgement this research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. referenes buriol, g. a., estefanel, v., heldwein, a. b., prestes, s.d., horn, j. f. c. (2012). estimativa da radiação solar global a partir dos dados de insolação, para santa maria rs. ciência rural, 42, 1563-1567, freitas, s. s. a. (2008). dimensionamento de sistemas fotovoltaicos..bragança: estig, dissertação de mestrado em engenharia industrial. gross, j. a. (2015). índice de anomalia de chuva (iac) dos municípios do rio grande do sul afetados pelas estiagens no período de http://www.ijcua.com/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(3), 1-6 / 2017 elison eduardo bierhals, francisco pereira, claudinéia brazil, elton rossini 6 1991 a 2012. dissertação de mestrado. universidade federal de santa maria. lima, r. a. (2012) .a produção de energias renováveis e o desenvolvimento sustentável: uma análise no cenário da mudança do clima. energy law in brazil, 5 (4). le treut, h., r. somerville, u. cubasch, y. ding, c. mauritzen, a. mokssit, t. peterson and prather, m. (2007). historical overview of climate change. in: climate change 2007: the physical science basis. contribution of working group i to the fourth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change [solomon, s., d. qin, m. manning, z. chen, m. marquis, k.b. averyt, m. tignor and h.l. miller (eds.)]. cambridge, united kingdom and new york, ny, usa: cambridge university press. silveira, s. s., souza filho, f. martins, e. s., oliveira, j. costa, a., nobrega, m. souza, s. a. (2016). climate change in the são francisco river basin: analysis of precipitation and temperature. rbrh, 21 (2), 416 428 sousa, m. m. (2010). comparação entre ferramentas de modelagem unidimensional e quasi-bidimensional, permanente e nãopermanente, em planejamento e projetos de engenharia hidráulica. rio de janeiro, brazil: ufrj/coppe. souza, e. b. (2004) .grads – grid analysis and display system fundamentos e rogramação básica. universidade federal do pará. retrieved from http://www.dca.iag.usp.br/www/material/r itaynoue/aca522/referencias/apostilagrad s.pdf>. van vuuren, d. p.; edmonsds, j.; kainuma, m.; riahi, k.; thomsonm, a.; hibbard, k.; hurtt, g. c.; kram t.; krey, v.; lamarque, j. f.; masui, t.; meinshausen, m.; nakicenovic, n.; smith, s. j.; rose, s. k. (2011). the representative concentration pathways: an overview. climatic change, 109,5-31. http://www.ijcua.com/ journal of contemporary urban affairs 2017, volume 1, number 3, pages 13– 17 livable city one step towards sustainable development * dr. farzaneh sasanpour 1 1 department of geography and urban planning, kharazmi university, tehran, iran e mail: f.sasanpour@gmail.com a b s t r a c t cities are the engines of economic growth. according to the united nations, today the global urban population is expected to reach 3 billion to 5 billion (61 percent) by 2030.the industrial revolution and the resulting economic-social changes led to the transformation of residential patterns and living patterns. due to the increasing development of cities and its problems, the theory of sustainable development followed by the approach of the livable city was considered. livable city environment with good planning is an attractive and safe environment for life, work and development, including good governance, competitive economy, high quality of life and environmental sustainability. the results indicate that the social, economic and environmental aspects of livability of the city of arak are moderate and unfavorable. also, the results of the topsis model, which is a multi-criteria and decision-making model, show that in the environmental dimension of the region two with a score of 0.6859 and in the social dimension of the region of three with a score of 0.92 and in the economic dimension of the region three with a score of 1, the highest rank have won. as a result, the city of arak ranked 58th, is not livable and of the three city areas, zone 3 is closer to the surface of livable. and this process will not be in the path of sustainable development. journal of contemporary urban affairs (2017) 1(3), 13-17. https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2018.3673 www.ijcua.com copyright © 2017 journal of contemporary urban affairs. all rights reserved. 1. introduction the cities can be recognized by scientific systems based on different views and theories. among the new theories, is livable city, it is a term that describes a comfortable and sustainable environment and urban space as a place to live, work, visit for various aspects of the physical (urban facilities, infrastructure, spatial planning, etc.), as well as non-physical (relationships) social, economic activities, etc. (sasanpour et al. 2015). until recently, initiatives to enhance livability and sustainability have been largely community-based, responding to issues of local concern (miller, et al., 2013). livability and sustainability are popular concepts for urban planning and general public discourse, largely because they are representative of values, priorities, and behaviors to which many people and institutions subscribe. it is widely assumed that consumers should have a right to both livable and sustainable communities, which raises questions for planners and decision makers about how to satisfy the needs and desires of current and future residents. yet, the conceptual linkages between livability and its counterpart a r t i c l e i n f o: article history: received 2 august 2017 accepted 15 august 2017 available online 12 october 2017 keywords: livable city; sustainable development; iran; arak *corresponding author: department of geography and urban planning, kharazmi university, tehran, iran e-mail address: f.sasanpour@gmail.com this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution noncommercial noderivs 4.0. "cc-by-nc-nd" http://www.ijcua.com/ mailto:f.sasanpour@gmail.com https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2018.3673 http://www.ijcua.com/ http://www.ijcua.com/ mailto:f.sasanpour@gmail.com https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(3), 13-17 / 2017 farzaneh sasanpour 14 sustainability are not fully understood, limiting agreement on the policies to promote these ideals and their assessment (portney, 2013; van kamp et al., 2003). livability, by contrast, brings a necessary pragmatism to the philosophical visions of sustainability. livability is about now and here, focused on immediate and tangible conditions and interventions, and therefore interpreted as more achievable (ruth and franklin 2013). understanding how livability sits next to sustainability will help planners bridge the desires of residents in the present moment with longer-term needs associated with a sustainability vision. once basic needs, such as food, shelter, and security are fulfilled, individuals typically emphasize concern for matters over the short term, including livability preferences (maslow, 1998; ruth and franklin, 2013; gough, 2015). although these notable distinctions between sustainability and livability imply competing normative and evaluation principles—and different remedies for their respective inherent concerns, there is an important nexus between the two concepts that may assist in the other’s success. livability interventions represent the incremental steps that collectively increase the potential for longer-term strides toward sustainability. “livable sustainability” has been discussed elsewhere as the result of accommodating short-term, urgent needs or desires of community within a plan for larger scale, longer-term prospects of sustainability (allen, 2010; holden and scerri 2013) on the other hand, cities as the most important achievements of humans are places that, according to experts, have attracted the most studies to increase livability and achieve sustainable development. the city is a phenomenon that has evolved in history, the result of culture and spatial effects of playing the basic roles of man in the geographical environment and having various dimensions of the environmental, historical, cultural, political, economic, social, and psychological. hence, comprehensive understanding of the city is possible by knowing all its dimensions and components. livability encompasses a range of human needs ranging from food and security to beauty and cultural symbols and a sense of belonging to a community or place (badland, et al., 2014). the livability of the 1980s was due to the rapid development of urban areas relative to urban centers (in fact, at the same time as sustainable development). in the meantime, iranian cities, including the city of arak, are confronted with issues of concern. the city of arak, with an area of 5341 hectares, is located linearly along the east-west line. the city is located on the geographical coordinates of 42 and 49 longitude 5 and 34 latitudes on the central plateau of iran, with an average height of 1755 meters above free sea level. the population of arak city according to the official census of iran's statistics center in 2016 is 571933. (statistical center of iran in 2016). the expansion of arak city has caused a lot of changes, and on the other hand, due to the rapid growth and development of the city, its migration and inefficiency, despite its advantages, has many problems in the economic, social, environmental. therefore, the purpose of this article this paper is search to study the livability of the city of arak in three dimensions: economic, social, and environmental; on the other hand, it examines three urban areas and investigates the extent to which the city of arak is in terms of its livable. it is more elaborate on which dimension is it and which region it is more livable to achieve with the achievement of the level of vitality of the city of arak to achieve sustainable development of the city. the results of the research show that in general, the city of arak is in poor condition in terms of its livability. the economic dimension of the city is better than the other two dimensions of livability. of the three metropolitan areas, zone 3 is closer to the surface of livability. figure 1. situation of arak city in iran. 2. method and materials this research is exploratory of type and is descriptive-analytic of method. the statistical population of the research includes urban authorities, citizens and private sector. the scope of this study is arak city. to draw maps, arc gis software has been used. information collection http://www.ijcua.com/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(3), 13-17 / 2017 farzaneh sasanpour 15 through: (documentary method) at this stage, by referring to latin articles and persian books in the field of research, theoretical foundations are completed. (field method) this step includes objective observation, interview and also completion of the questionnaire. the sample size is used by the cochran formula. in the current research, the population of arak has 48,412 people. according to the cochran formula, the sample size required is as follows: 𝑛 = (1.96)2(0.5)(0.5) (0.05)2 1 + 1 571933 ( (1.96)2(0.8)(0.2) (0.05)2 − 1) = 383 in this research, 14 indicators have been used as the main indicator of the livability of arak city in three dimensions: social, economic and environmental. social dimension: public education, leisure, medical and health care considerations, individual and social security, affinity, and partnership, partnership and solidarity. economic dimension: consumer goods, employment and income, housing, infrastructure and infrastructure services, public transportation. environmental dimension: contamination, visual quality, green and clean. then, topsis multi-criteria model was used to assess the status of the livability rating of arak city. for each dimension, the stages of the topsis model have been calculated. but to avoid prolonging the steps, only the data matrix and then the ranking of the options are given. the steps of the topsis model 1. data matrix 2. non-scalable data 3. non-scalable scaling 4. determine the positive and negative ideals for each indicator 5. getting the distance between each option from the positive and negative ideal 6. the relative closeness of each option or the ideal solution 7ranking options 3. results the study of livability of arak city was carried out in two stages. first, using the results of the questionnaires and applying the ranking of the mercer institute (100-80 highly livable, 80-70 = durable, 60-70 = acceptable, 50-60 = poor, -50 = nonlivable). the results of the research show that arak city with a rank of 58 is poorly located and is not biodegradable. then, the research done in relation to livability of arak’s urban areas have been investigated with the topsis model in three dimensions. results in economic dimension are as follows. (table 1) table 1. economic data matrix. consumer goods employment and income housing facilities and infrastructure services public transportation 1 31.5 25.89 8.28 11 34903 2 33.1 23.73 22.5 10.77 36325 3 35.4 48.03 67.04 41.86 31272 after completing the steps of the topsis model, according to the cl values, the ranking of economic options can be made, so that the more livable is area 3 then the 2 and 1. ranking options 𝐴3 > 𝐴2 > 𝐴1 the social dimension table was formed and social dimension indicators were also examined with the topsis model (table 2) table 2. social data matrix. public education free time medical and health care individual and social security affinity and place of honor partnership and solidarity 1 1.10 14.83 0.26 0.11 60 65 2 9.25 1.93 0.10 0.05 65 70 3 4.21 9.49 1.40 3.02 50 50 after completing the steps of the topsis model, according to the cl values, the ranking of social options can be made, so that the more livable area 3 is then 1 and 2. ranking options 𝐴3 > 𝐴1 > 𝐴2 the environmental dimension indicators for calculating the livability of arak urban areas are specified in the table below (table 3). http://www.ijcua.com/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(3), 13-17 / 2017 farzaneh sasanpour 16 table 3. environmental data matrix. pollution visual quality green space 1 0.53 129.79 30.86 2 21.16 35.52 16.28 3 21.18 114.83 15.06 after calculating the environmental dimension indices in the topsis model, the results show that region 2 is more livable then 3 and 1 ranking options 𝐴2 > 𝐴3 > 𝐴1 4. discussion and conclusions as it was said, livable cities are places where social life is communicated along with relationship. these cities are concerned with the creation of architecture, the street landscape and the design of public spaces, which facilitates the presence of city residents in the public domain and in the heart of the city. such cities are committed to reducing traffic and solving safety, pollution and noise through a set of mechanisms (lenard, 1997, 3). the study of arak city’s livability in three dimensions of economic, social and environmental characteristics shows that this city has more livable environmental indicators of the economic dimension, but it is seen in the very poor environment of non-habitat. total in three dimensions in arak has a poorly-hit 58th place in the mercer ranking. these studies were also studied in three areas of the city of arak. the model used was a multi-criteria topsis model. also, the results of the topsis model, which is a multi-criteria and decision-making model, show that in the environmental dimension of the region two with a score of 0.6859 and in the social dimension of the region of three with a score of 0.92 and in the economic dimension of the region three with a score of 1, the highest ranks have won. as a result, the city of arak ranked 58th, is not livable. this study shows that the urban areas of arak are not at the appropriate level of survival, but the 3rd district in other parts of the city has a better livable status. on the other hand, livability is a way to achieve sustainable development, but the results of the research show that arak is not only livable, but is far from sustainable development. conclusions livability is a broad term consisting of four main elements: the pride of society, the desire to work, jobs and workgroups, human development and regional solutions, and empowerment of society. livability becomes reality. if citizens accept the responsibility actively, this is the key to initiating change. the study of arak city in 14 indicators and three dimensions of livability shows that this city is not only non-livable, but it has not been able to make environmentally clean, economically efficient, and occupationally urban and socially sense of belonging to location and identity to create citizens in arak. therefore, it is far from sustainable development, and it seems that to reduce this gap and increase the livability, these should be done: increasing social awareness, increasing popular participation, empowerment, reducing pollution, increasing green space, increasing employment and income. and with increasing the level of livability, a step towards sustainable development of the city of arak could be taken. acknowledgement this research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. references allen, t. f. h. (2010). “making livable sustainable systems unremarkable.” systems research and behavioral science, 27 (5), 469–79. badland, h. whitzman, c., aye, l., butterworth, h. (2014) urban liveability: emerging lesson from australian for exploring the potential for indicators to measure the social determinants of health. social science and medicine, (111), 64-73. gough, m. z. (2015). reconciling livability and sustainability: conceptual and practical implications for planning. journal of planning education and research, 35(2), 145–160. holden, m., and scerri, a. (2013). “more than this: liveable melbourne meets liveable vancouver.” cities, 31, 444–53. lennard, h. l. (1997)."principles for the livable city" in lennard, s.h., s von ungernsternberg, h.l.lennard (eds), making cities livable. international making cities livableconferences. california, usa: gondolier press. maslow, a. h. (1998). toward a psychology of being, 3rd edition. new york: john wiley. miller, h. j., witlox, f., and tribby, c. p. (2013). developing context-sensitive livability indicators for transportation planning: a measurement framework.” journal of transport geography 26, 51–64. portney, k. (2013). taking sustainable cities seriously: economic development, the http://www.ijcua.com/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(3), 13-17 / 2017 farzaneh sasanpour 17 environment, and quality of life in american cities. cambridge: mit press. ruth, m., and franklin, r. s. (2013). livability for all? conceptual limits and practical implications. applied geography 49, 18–23. sasanpour, f., simin, t., hamza, j.a. (2015), measuring and assessing urban livability in twenty-two regions of tehran metropolitan area. regional planning quarterly, 18, 42-27. statistical center of iran. (2016). arak population census. van kamp, i., leidelmeijer, k., marsman, g., and de hollander, a.(2003). urban environmental quality and human well being. landscape and urban planning, 65 (2), 5–18. http://www.ijcua.com/ journal of contemporary urban affairs 2017, volume 1, number 3, pages 38– 42 global warming and climate change: a critique on international law and policy * dr. lisa p lukose 1 1 university school of law and legal studies, guru gobind singh indraprastha university, new delhi, india e mail: drlisarobin@ipu.ac.in a b s t r a c t global warming and climate change, a multidisciplinary topic is a matter of international concern. there are some international environmental treaties related to global warming and climate change. the most significant international agreement in this area is unfccc the united nations framework convention on climate change adopted at the rio earth summit in 1992 and ratified by 195 countries. it mainly deals with greenhouse gases emissions mitigation, adaptation and finance starting in the year 2020. the kyoto protocol which extends the 1992 unfcc mandates state parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions: its two basic premises are global warming exists, and human-made co2 emissions caused global warming. the kyoto protocol came into force in 2005 and each cop has served as the ‘meeting of parties’ to kyoto protocol such as cop13 (bali, 2007), cop15 (copenhagen, 2009), cop16 (cancun, 2010), cop17 (durban, 2011), cop18 (doha, 2012), cop19 (warsaw, 2013), cop21 and (paris, 2015).there are other international legal instruments such as 1979 geneva convention on long-range trans-boundary air pollution. against this backdrop, this paper will critically examine the existing international legal regime (treaties, conventions, agreements, etc.) on global warming and climate change. journal of contemporary urban affairs (2017) 1(3), 38-42. https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2018.3677 www.ijcua.com copyright © 2017 journal of contemporary urban affairs. all rights reserved. 1. introduction global warming and climate change is no longer a problem of the future generation, though it continues to affect future generations. global warming from carbon dioxide (c02) and other greenhouse gases pose a severe threat to the international community. the earth’s atmosphere is dilapidated at an unprecedented rate. law plays a critical and important role for the effective and equitable climate change governance. there is some legal framework adopted to address the issues relating to global warming and climate change. however, global warming and climate change is not an isolated topic to address independently. it is connected to all environmental issues. this paper attempts to examine: 1. why is global warming of serious concern? 2. how does the present international legal regime respond to climate change? 3. what are the lacunae in the existing international laws? a r t i c l e i n f o: article history: received 2 august 2017 accepted 28 august 2017 available online 12 october 2017 keywords: solar collector; thermal storage; latent heat storage. *corresponding author: university school of law and legal studies, guru gobind singh indraprastha university, new delhi, india e-mail address: drlisarobin@ipu.ac.in this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution noncommercial noderivs 4.0. "cc-by-nc-nd" http://www.ijcua.com/ mailto:drlisarobin@ipu.ac.in https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2018.3677 www.ijcua.com http://www.ijcua.com/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(3), 38-42 / 2017 dr. lisa p lukose 39 4. how can climate law respond better to the diverse contemporary requirements? 2. method and material the author has adopted a doctrinal and analytical method to develop this paper. the material is drawn from both primary and secondary sources. the primary sources are the legal instruments while secondary sources are offline and online resource materials which are cited in this paper at relevant places. 3. effect of global warming the immediate effect of global warming is climate change. the impact of global warming is in fact much beyond climate change. it adversely affects human development, and it does have a long-term impact on the environment. temperature increase, extreme weather events, flood, drought, sea level rise, erratic precipitation, melting glaciers, reduced snow cover are few impacts to mention. its impact on aquaculture, biological diversity, agriculture, health, and livelihood is dangerous. it also adversely affects a broad range of other human rights (workshop in the context of the unfccc cop 20 , 2014), for example, right to food, indigenous peoples right, etc. a large section of the world population is suffering from the effects of climate change. in 2009 it was estimated that about 300000 people die annually due to the adverse effect of climate change and 325 million are further seriously affected (annan, 2009). since developing countries have less financial and technological resources, they are more vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. 4. unfccc 1992 the united nations framework convention on climate change (one among the three adopted at the rio earth summit-1992)1 is described as “first steps to a safer future” which was a global response to climate change. because the global community for the first time recognized and accepted that the climate change is a ‘problem’ despite having less scientific evidence than now. it is adopted on 9 may 1992 and came into force on 21 march 1994. it is one of the most widely accepted treaties having a near-universal membership. it 1 the other two sister rio earth summit conventions are (i) the un convention on biological diversity and (ii) the convention to neither has any binding limit on the emission of green gas for member countries nor has enforcement mechanisms. the basic aim of unfccc is to prevent dangerous human interference with the climate system. by borrowing from the montreal protocol 1987, it bounds member states to “act in the interests of human safety even in the face of scientific uncertainty.” unfccc is an international framework seeking global cooperation to combat climate change by limiting average global temperature increases and the resulting climate change and coping with impacts that were, by then, inevitable. it obliges the members to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system. it states how specific international treaties/protocols/agreements may be negotiated to accomplish unfccc objectives. 5. unfcc to kyoto by the agreements adopted in copenhagen (2009) and cancun (2010) countries promised to set a goal of maintaining temperature increases below 2 degrees celsius above pre-industrial levels. it also explored financial options for implementation of redd-plus actions. the developed countries committed to mobilizing $100 billion a year in public and private finance for developing countries by 2020. cop 17 at durban (2011) recognized that “smart government policy, smart business investment, and the demands of an informed citizenry, all motivated by an understanding of mutual selfinterest, must go hand in hand in pursuit of the common goal.” cop 18 doha (2012) resulted in an amendment to the kyoto protocol establishing a second commitment period from 2013–20. it also added more item to list of greenhouse gases. at cop 19 in warsaw (2013) the governments were encouraged to submit their intended nationally determined contributions (indcs) to the paris agreement. indcs represent member country’s self-defined mitigation goals from 2020. 190 countries accounting for 99 percent of global emissions have already submitted indcs to the unfccc. at cop 20 in lima (2014) more than combat desertification. all the three conventions aim to encourage mutual cooperation for developing synergies in their activities. now it incorporates ramsar convention on wetlands as well. http://www.ijcua.com/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(3), 38-42 / 2017 dr. lisa p lukose 40 190 countries pledged to develop new” urgency towards fast-tracking adaptation and building resilience across the developing world” (lima call for action). 6. the kyoto protocol the kyoto protocol which was developed under the unfccc's charter was adopted in 1997 subsequent to the negotiations from 1995 launched to strengthen the global response to climate change. it is a legally binding international instrument with 192 countries’ ratification. the main aim of the protocol is to provide specific emissions reduction targets to industrialized nations whose activities mainly cause global warming. it is known as global climate treaty as it extends unfccc by requiring countries to reduce greenhouse gas emissions; based on the fact that global warming exists and human-made co2 emissions have caused global warming. it is a binding instrument requiring developed nations (35 industrial nations) to reduce the emission of six major greenhouse gases to 5.2 percent below from their 1990 levels since they are historically responsible for the present levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. the first commitment period was from 2008 to 2012 and the second from 2013 to 2020 (doha amendment to the kyoto protocol; 37 countries have binding targets). countries failing to meet the protocol standards are required to pay a carbon tax. it thus helps the state parties to mitigate global warming. 7. criticism the nations are divided over the benefits of the koyoto protocol. some countries have refused to ratify the protocol as they increasingly burn fossil fuels for energy. sudan, afghanistan and united states are the examples for countries which refused to ratify though the us itself emits 35% of the total greenhouse gases in the universe. when most polluter countries are not participating, the protocol remains an idea. japan, new zealand, canada, and russia though have participated in first-round, they have not taken have not taken commitments in the second period. countries like china, brazil, and india may surpass the united states emissions within 25 to 30 years. critics opine that in order for the atmosphere to catch up with the greenhouse gases there must be 60 percent reduction of greenhouse gases whereas the treaty demands an average of 5.2 percent reductions. it is also apprehended that the targets set forth by the treaty cannot be reached by members as co2 emissions are increasing. when the protocol mandates reduction of emission most of the countries is ill-equipped to meet the situation with less access to alternative forms of energy. further, it is silent about ‘climate change-related threats to state sovereignty (badrinarayana, 2010). 8.2015 paris climate accord the 2015 paris agreement/climate accord, which is a separate instrument under the unfccc was adopted at the 21st session of the conference of the parties to unfccc (cop 21) on 12 december 2015 in paris and came into force on november 4, 2016. 195 countries have adopted this agreement. this is the latest step in the un climate change regime which charts a new course in the global effort to fight climate change measures to be taken after 2020 when the second kyoto commitment period ends. the paris agreement seeks to accelerate and intensify the actions required for a sustainable low carbon future. its main purpose is to strengthen global action plan to climate change by maintaining/limiting a global temperature rise below 2 degrees celsius. it further aims to limit the increase to 1.5°c. the agreement also aims to strengthen the ability of countries to deal with the impacts of climate change. the three main components of the paris accord are: (i) the paris agreement setting common goals, commitments and expectations, (2) the intended “nationally determined contributions” (ndcs) submitted by more than 180 countries and (3) the thousands of contributions offered by companies, states, cities and civil society organizations. the agreement envisages that successive ndc of each party will “represent a progression” than its previous ndc and also “reflect its highest possible ambition.” ndc are however not legally binding obligations. it provides for more transparency and governmental accountability by “reporting to each other and the public on how well they are doing to implement their targets.” other important aspects of the agreement are: • parties are committed t to “prepare, communicate and maintain” successive ndcs • parties have to “pursue domestic mitigation measures” to achieve ndcs; • they have to report on emissions and progress in implementing ndcs regularly. http://www.ijcua.com/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(3), 38-42 / 2017 dr. lisa p lukose 41 it has two long-term mitigation goals: (i) a peaking of emissions as soon as possible (since it will take longer for developing countries, and (ii) net greenhouse gas neutrality in the latter half of the century. countries are in the process of negotiating the detailed rules to be adopted in 2018 to implement the paris agreement. 9. suggestions and recommendations countries have to promote energy efficiency and renewable energy actively. countries like india, mexico, south africa, saudi arabia, brazil, etc. have cut fossil fuel subsidies significantly. the countries have to encourage people to use and convert their energy usage to cleaner energy such as wind power, solar power, hydropower, geothermal power, biomass, etc. law and governance improvements must be taken seriously at both national and international levels for climate change mitigation and adaptation. governments must urge for compensated reduction and compensated conservation wherein carbon can be saved by reducing deforestation and degradation and also carbon is added through conservation, sustainable management of forests and increase in forest cover – afforestation and reforestation (subramaium, 2016). polluting states must have legal and ethical (mayer, 2013), obligation to compensate – both prospective and retrospective responsibility. this will also help to address the human right issues in climate change regime (bouthillier, 2012). there must be more and more diverse interactions between public and private actors. the climate laws negations must ensure more effective participation of members. it is being criticised that out of more than 190 countries only about twenty countries control climate change negations.2 the existing climate law does not cover related environmental issues such as the impact of intellectual property rights (ipr) on the environment for instance, the impact of genetically modified organisms on the environment. the climate law’s reach must be extended to cover topics like ipr. (rimmer, 2011). global warming and climate change are two sides of the same coin. however, this is not an isolated issue. it is interlinked with all environmental issues. hence, it is a part of sustainable development. to reduce the adverse effect of climate change, the countries 2 daniel bodansky, the copenhagen climate change conference: a post-mortem have to commit themselves to stop deforestation: redd and redd plus envisages that developing countries have to reduce “emissions from deforestation and forest degradation.” they have to consider policy approaches for the “conservation, sustainable management of forests, and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries.” 9. conclusion 150 years of industrialization have rendered the future of the mother nature at stake which will drastically change the equation of coming generations. it is predicted that the average temperature of the atmosphere will raise minimum by 10 degrees in the next century. kyoto protocol has encouraged innovators and inventors to streamline their r&d for technologies that reduce greenhouse gas emissions. countries have to accelerate research in alternate forms of energy. there must be international cooperation taking into consideration the legitimate requirement of developing and least developing countries to develop without compromising their responsibility for sustainable development. then only the ultimate objective of unfcccto achieve a level “within a timeframe sufficient to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change, to ensure that food production is not threatened and to enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable manner” can be achieved. the other two sisters rio earth summit conventions are (i) the un convention on biological diversity and (ii) the convention to combat desertification. all the three conventions aim to encourage mutual cooperation for developing synergies in their activities. now it incorporates ramsar convention on wetlands as well. references annan, k. (2009). anatomy of silent crisis. global humanitarian forum. badrinarayana, d. (2010). global warming: a second coming for international law”? .washington law review, 85, 254-292. bouthillier, y (ed.). (2012). poverty alleviation and environmental law. iucn academy of environmental law series. rimmer, m.. (2011). intellectual property and climate change: inventing clean technologies. uk: edward elgar publishing ltd. http://www.ijcua.com/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(3), 38-42 / 2017 dr. lisa p lukose 42 subramaium, g. (2016). climate change and reduction of emission issues relating to deforestation and environmental degradation in india. india: indian law institute. mayer, b. (2013). climate change and international law in the grim days. ejil, 24, 947–970. workshop in the context of the unfccc cop 20. (2014). law, governance and climate change an international law and policy. lima, peru. centre for international governance innovation and the centre for international sustainable development law. http://www.ijcua.com/ journal of contemporary urban affairs 2017, volume 1, number 3, pages 7– 12 experimental analysis of a flat plate solar collector with integrated latent heat thermal storage * mauricio, carmona1, mario palacio2, arnold martínez3 1 mechanical engineering department, universidad del norte, colombia 2 faculty of mechanical and industrial engineering, universidad pontificia bolivariana, colombia 3 mechanical engineering department, universidad de córdoba, colombia 1e mail: mycarmona@uninorte.edu.co , 2e mail: mario.palaciov@upb.edu.co a b s t r a c t in the present paper, an experimental analysis of a solar water heating collector with an integrated latent heat storage unit is presented. with the purpose to determine the performance of a device on a lab scale, but with commercial features, a flat plate solar collector with phase change material (pcm) containers under the absorber plate was constructed and tested. pcm used was a commercial semi-refined light paraffin with a melting point of 60°c. tests were carried out in outdoor conditions from october 2016 to march 2017 starting at 7:00 am until the collector does not transfer heat to the water after sunset. performance variables as water inlet temperature, outlet temperature, mass flow and solar radiation were measured in order to determine a useful heat and the collector efficiency. furthermore, operating temperatures of the glass cover, air gap, absorber plate, and pcm containers are presented. other external variables as ambient temperature, humidity and wind speed were measured with a weather station located next to the collector. the developed prototype reached an average thermal efficiency of 24.11% and a maximum outlet temperature of 50°c. results indicate that the absorber plate reached the pcm melting point in few cases, this suggests that the use of a pcm with a lower melting point could be a potential strategy to increase thermal storage. a thermal analysis and conclusions of the device performance are discussed. journal of contemporary urban affairs (2017) 1(3), 7-12. https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2018.36zd72 www.ijcua.com copyright © 2017 journal of contemporary urban affairs. all rights reserved. 1. introduction solar energy is the most widely available energy source in the world. however, it presents some obstacles to its implementation such as sensitivity to climatic conditions and intermittency. therefore, it is necessary to develop technologies that allow storing solar energy for the periods in which it is not available, or its power is low. two common methods of storing solar thermal energy are sensible and latent heat storage. while sensible heat is more common in practical applications, latent heat storage provides higher storage density, with narrow temperature variation. (abhat, 1983) reported one of the earliest reviews on latent heat thermal storage. (zalba et al., 2003) reviewed thermal a r t i c l e i n f o: article history: received 2 august 2017 accepted 10 august 2017 available online 12 october 2017 keywords: solar collector; thermal storage; latent heat storage. *corresponding author: mechanical engineering department, universidad del norte, colombia e-mail address: mycarmona@uninorte.edu.co this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution noncommercial noderivs 4.0. "cc-by-nc-nd" http://www.ijcua.com/ mailto:mycarmona@uninorte.edu.co mailto:mario.palaciov@upb.edu.co https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2018.36zd72 www.ijcua.com http://www.ijcua.com/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(3), 7-12 / 2017 mauricio carmona, mario palacio, arnold martínez 8 energy storage with pcm and its heat transfer analysis and applications. (farid et al., 2004; kenisarin and mahkamov, 2007; nkwetta and haghighat, 2014; sharma et al., 2009) reviewed solar energy storage using phase change materials. (chandel and agarwal, 2017) reviewed the current state of research on energy storage, toxicity, health hazards and commercialization of phase changing materials. (pandey and chaurasiya, 2017) reviewed the analysis and development of solar flat plate collectors. although numerous works on latent heat storage, no commercial solar heaters with builtin pcm storage have been reported. however, preliminary studies in laboratory prototypes have shown considerable increases in efficiency and supply capacity. (kürklü et al., 2002) found a large difference between ambient temperature and water temperature both at day and at night. with the experimental techniques used, it was not possible to determine the phase change point at least in a general approach. no performance comparison is made against traditional devices. however they showed that its prototype has advantages in manufacturing cost and total weight for commercial devices, although it does not include an energy analysis. in countries with tropical climates, no scientific references have been found in studies of this kind of technology, in spite of the great capacity of available solar energy, quite possibly due to the lack of suitable commercial pcms for this application. (mehling et al., 2003) presented experimental results and numerical simulation of a water tank with a pcm module using an explicit finite-difference method. experiments and simulations indicated an increase in energy density of the tank of 20% to 45%. (canbazoglu et al., 2005) analyzed experimentally the time variations of the water temperatures at the midpoint of the heat storage tank of a solar heating system with sodium thiosulfate pentahydrate as pcm. it was obtained an increase in the produced hot water mass and total heat accumulated approximately 2.59– 3.45 times of the conventional solar waterheating system. (cabeza et al., 2006) constructed an experimental solar pilot plant to test the pcm behavior in real conditions. it was obtained a discharge temperature stabilization near to 54 1c for a period of time between 10 and 12 h. (mettawee and assassa, 2006) performed parametric studies of different operating conditions, concluding that as the material melts, the heat transfer by convection increases the speed of the accumulation process. (koca et al., 2008) performed an analysis of energy and exergy a latent heat storage system with phase change material (pcm) for a flat-plate solar collector. the obtained experimental data showed that exergy efficiencies of latent heat storage systems with pcm are very low. however, the area of collector surface was smaller than that of the pcm surface area. as a result of this, the cost of the latent heat storage system was high and outlet temperature obtained was low. (bouadila et al., 2014) have developed an experimental study on a solar flat plate water heater with an accumulation of thermal energy in the collector using a pcm. experimental measurements ascertain that the outlet temperature was not affected by the severe global solar radiation fluctuations. the solar collector remains a uniform useful heat around 400w during 5 h after sunset. (serale et al., 2014) present an approach to increase the performance of flat collectors based on the exploitation of the latent heat of the heat carrier fluid. the aim of this paper is to analyze experimentally the performance of a lab-scale solar collector built with commercial features and a latent heat storage unit inside it. 2. method and materials it was designed and constructed a flat plate solar collector prototype with a cavity to place macro-encapsulated pcm under the absorber plate. a schematic representation of the prototype is shown in fig. 1. further details of the collector are presented in fig. 2 and described in table 1. the pcm was microencapsulated in 4 rectangular steel containers of 4000 x 4000 x 30 mm. each container was filled with 3.35 kg of semi refined paraffin wax with a nominal melting point between 58-60 °c. figure 1. schematic representation of the solar collector. http://www.ijcua.com/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(3), 7-12 / 2017 mauricio carmona, mario palacio, arnold martínez 9 figure. 1. detailed view of the solar collector. table 1. detailed component description of the collector item description specifications a glass cover thickness: 4 mm b gasket - c air cavity case thickness: 4 mm aluminum d absorber plate thickness: 1 mm copper e inlet line pipe diameter: 25.4 mm copper f plate case thickness: 4 mm aluminum g lockers - h pcm cavity internal polyurethane insolation i outlet line diameter: 25.4 mm copper j absorber pipes diameter: 12.7 mm copper separation: 100 mm the experimental set-up is shown in error! reference source not found.. the water was supplied by an aqua pak loop 3v32-9/1115 pump with a fixed volumetric flow rate of 0.2 l/min and monitored by a rotameter dwyer of 1.2 l/min. a weather station davis vantage pro 2 plus measured ambient temperature, wind speed, humidity and global solar radiation. temperatures of the glass cover, confined air, absorber plate, water inlet, water outlet and pcm containers were measured with type-k thermocouples connected to a data acquisition unit applent at4532. 8 temperature channels were located on the absorber plate, 2 on the water inlet, 2 on the water outlet, 2 on the glass cover, 2 measured the confined air temperature, 4 on the top of the pcm containers and 4 at the bottom. the experimental tests were carried out in 3 experimental campaigns with 20 days each one. the first campaign was performed in october 2016, the second in december 2016 and the third in february 2017. all at the test took place in universidad del norte campus, in barranquilla colombia (11°1'12.17"n,74°51'5.44"o). the test started at 7:00 am monitoring all the variables every 5 minutes until the collector did not increase water temperature after sunset. figure 3. experimental bank: 1. water reservoir, 2. pump, 3. rotameter, 4. solar collector, 5. data acquisition unit, 6. water reception tank, 7. weather station. 3. results & discussion results of accumulated radiation, useful heat and efficiency during the 60 days of experimentation are presented in figure 2 and summarized in table 2. the highest efficiency of the collector was obtained in tests carried out in december while the lowest value during tests executed in october. as can be observed in table 2, while low efficiencies are found both in rainy season with low radiation and clear season http://www.ijcua.com/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(3), 7-12 / 2017 mauricio carmona, mario palacio, arnold martínez 10 with high radiation the highest efficiency values were obtained during medium radiation values. figure 2. experimental results by day. table 2. results of the tests and weather conditions. exp. campaign days in figure x weather average acc.rad [kwh/day] rad. std. dev [kwh/day] average efficiency [%] oct 01 20 rainy 4.45 1.33 20.34 dec 21 40 scattered 5.22 0.41 27.44 feb 4160 clear 6.16 0.51 24.57 total 5.27 1.10 24.11 the following graphs present the behavior of the collector on march 12, 2017. figure 3 and figure 4 shows respectively the solar radiation and wind speed measured by the weather station. this day has a high incidence of solar radiation with an accumulated radiation of 5.27 kwh. figure 5 shows that the outlet temperature did not decrease too much during the cloudiness events of 11:00 and 15:00 which shows that the thermal energy storage system provides stability to the water supply. figure 3. solar radiation figure 4. wind speed 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 e ff ic ie n cy [ % ] a cc u m u la te d e n e rg y [ k w h /d a y ] day acumulated radiation useful heat efficiency day 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 s o la r ra d ia ti o n [ w /m ^ 2 ] time [h] 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 w in d s p e e d [ m /s ] time [h] http://www.ijcua.com/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(3), 7-12 / 2017 mauricio carmona, mario palacio, arnold martínez 11 figure 5. temperatures of absorber plate, water inlet, and water outlet figure 6. pcm temperature and ambient temperature figure 7. temperature of air gap and glass cover figure 8. useful heat. it can be observed in figure 6 that the pcm containers store heat energy by sensible heat until 14:00, from where the temperature at container’s top (t.pcmu) remains at 60°c until 16:00, indicating storage by latent heat. however, it should be noted in figure 5 that the temperature of the absorber plate reaches the melting point of the pcm only for 2 hours, in many experimental tests the phase change temperature is never reached. this gives a short time to the pcm to accumulate energy by latent heat resulting in a pcm discharging process at a non-constant temperature. on the other hand, it can be seen in figure 6 an asymmetric charge/discharge process. despite the proper charging process during the morning the storage system was unable to provide thermal energy to the working fluid after 18:00 as can be seen in figure 8 this may be due to an excess of pcm in the solar collector. in fact, figure 6 shows that, although the upper part of the pcm reaches the phase change temperature, the lower part never reaches it and even its maximum temperature is reached about 2 hours later. therefore, it can be inferred that during the night the molten pcm transfers heat to the solid pcm layers instead of the working fluid. 4. conclusions in this paper, an experimental analysis was carried out to evaluate the performance of a flat plate solar collector with integrated microencapsulated pcm as latent heat storage system. the highest efficiency of the prototype was obtained at accumulated radiation of 5.22 kwh/day. values above or below this amount of radiation resulted in lower efficiency values. asymmetric pcm charge/discharge process was observed. therefore, reduce the pcm mass is recommended to avoid upper layers discharge thermal energy to lower layers instead of the absorber plate. it was obtained that the pcm modules provided stability to the outlet temperature against strong fluctuations in solar radiation. however, it was unable to supply thermal energy to the working fluid during the night. the short time the absorber plate reached the melting point of the pcm may be a cause of this. thus, experimental analysis and simulation with pcm with lower phase change temperature is recommended. acknowledgments this investigation has been partially funded by the colombian administrative department of science, technology, and innovationcolciencias, through the program “es tiempo 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 t e m p e ra tu re [ c ] time [h] t.in t.out t.plate 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 t e m p e ra tu re [ c ] time [h] t.pcmu t.pcml t.amb 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 t e m p e ra tu re [ c ] time [h] t.air t.glass 0 50 100 150 200 250 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 h e a t fl u x [ w ] time [h] http://www.ijcua.com/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(3), 7-12 / 2017 mauricio carmona, mario palacio, arnold martínez 12 de volver”. authors wish to express their acknowledgments to colciencias and its excellent program. acknowledgement this research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. references abhat, a. 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(2003). review on thermal energy storage with phase change: materials, heat transfer analysis and applications. appl. therm. eng, 23, 251–283. doi:10.1016/s13594311(02)00192-8 http://www.ijcua.com/ journal of contemporary urban affairs 2017, volume 1, number 3, pages 49– 53 membrane permeability threshold for osmotic power plant efficiency * a. berger1, a. lebrun2, s. khan3, q. masson-pilet4, a. supizet5 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ece paris school of engineering, france 1e mail: quentin.masson-pilet@edu.ece.fr a b s t r a c t in a context of ever-growing electricity consumption and need for less polluting sources of energy, salinity gradient power (sgp) based on osmosis is a promising technology. salinity difference between two solutions separated by a semi-permeable membrane leads to the pressure increase. the aim of this study is to find the critical permeability threshold of a membrane for the dimensioning an osmotic power plant. using spiegler-kedem equations, the various fluxes across the membrane have been calculated, and delivered power is explicitly derived in terms of system parameters. a necessary condition for economic viability is that its upper bound is larger than a critical threshold value below which osmotic power plant is not profitable. as it is directly proportional to membrane permeability, fixing the optimal membrane permeability value will in turn enable conceive more efficient membranes specifically made for osmotic energy production, as such membranes do not exist today. journal of contemporary urban affairs (2017) 1(3), 49-53. https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2018.3679 www.ijcua.com copyright © 2017 journal of contemporary urban affairs. all rights reserved. 1. introduction the considerable and very fast growing energy consumption consecutive to the economic development of many countries is acutely raising the question of avoiding disastrous environmental consequences which could inevitably occur if only conventional fossil sources are used. to cope with such situation, a large effort has been oriented toward other sources such as less damaging renewable ones (lewis, et al., 2011; kumar, et al., 2011). aside solar, wind, geothermal and hydraulic sources, they also include other less evident ones which may however represent interesting alternatives in specific situations. such is the osmotic power which is the process of converting the pressure differential between water with high salinity and water with lower or no salinity into hydraulic pressure (loeb, 1975; mishra, 2013; kho, 2010; the european commission, 2004; helfer, et al., 2013; skilhagen, et al., 2012; skilhagen, and aaberg, 2012). the harnessing of this energy for conversion into power can be accomplished by means of pressure retarded osmosis (pro) (kim, and elimelech, 2013; helfer, et al., 2014; wang, et al., 2012). this technique uses a semipermeable membrane to separate a less concentrated solution, or solvent, (for example, fresh water) from a more concentrated and pressurized solution (for example sea water), allowing the solvent to pass to the concentrated solution side (post, 2009). the additional volume increases the pressure on this side, which can be depressurized by a hydro-turbine to produce power and a r t i c l e i n f o: article history: received 2 august 2017 accepted 23 august 2017 available online 12 october 2017 keywords: osmotic energy, membranes, permeability, osmotic pressure. *corresponding author: ece paris school of engineering, france e-mail address: quentin.masson-pilet@edu.ece.fr this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution noncommercial noderivs 4.0. "cc-by-nc-nd" http://www.ijcua.com/ mailto:quentin.masson-pilet@edu.ece.fr https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2018.3679 www.ijcua.com http://www.ijcua.com/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(3), 49-53 / 2017 a. berger1, a. lebrun, s. khan, q. masson-pilet, a. supizet 50 electricity (kleiterp, 2012) .as seventy percent of earth surface is covered with water, 97 percent of which is saltwater, the process created by mixing seawater with freshwater generates a resulting osmotic power which could serve as both renewable and consistent electricity source. while still in early stages, best estimates of the global production potential of osmotic power exceed 1,600 terawatt-hours, the equivalent of half of europe entire energy demand. there are two primary sources for osmotic power: 1) natural occurrence where river water meets the sea water, and 2) merging two man-made water sources from processing plants both methods can be viable but in 1), seawater averages 40 grams of salt/ liter + river water, less power is provided than in than 2), where brine (from desalination) averages 60 grams of salt/ liter + treated water. the higher the salinity, the more free energy can be extracted, and the more power can be generated. today osmotic power is a promising renewable energy source (res) provided conversion factor from pressure differential can be made large enough (dinger, et al., 2012; bræin, et al., 2010; straub, et al., 2016). in the following, some elements on this question will be discussed in pro case. in particular, the threshold value for permeability coefficient which characterizes membrane efficiency for viable economic application is determined. 2. osmosis pressure representation potential osmotic pressure π, the maximum osmotic pressure in a solution separated from osmosed fluid by a selectively permeable membrane, is given by  = cirt (1) with π the potential osmotic pressure (pa), c the solute molar concentration (mol m3), r = 8,314 j. mol−1.k−1, t solution temperature (°k), and i the particle number per entity. given the solutions, d and f with respective osmotic pressures d and f, where d is draw solution (most concentrated), and f feed one (less concentrated), osmotic pressure difference df between the two solutions is typically equal to 12 bars for water fluid, ie, 12.105pa. let p = pd  pf with pd and pf the pressures of solutions d and f. with spiegler-kedem [18] model flux equations can be integrated and one gets volume and solute fluxes jv and js flowing through the membrane with pressure retarded osmosis jv = a(p) ; js = em) 1jv cdem  ci) (2) with jv , js (m.s 1) the volume and solute fluxes across the membrane,  the solute reflection coefficient, a(m.pa1 s1) the membrane fluid permeability, and em = exp (1 ) jvl 1] with  the solute permeability. similarly in the support one gets js = es) 1jv cies  cf) (3) with cd, ci and cf the solute concentration in the draw solution, at the barrier-layer/support interface, and in the feed solution respectively, and es = exp jv de 1] with  the support thickness. equality of fluxes in the barrier layer and the support gives from (1,2,3) the non-dimensional equation {(1)(1e1)1 + e(1e)1} = (1r)(1e)1  with  = 1 ci/cd,  the solute reflection coefficient, r = cf/cd, /del,  the support thickness, l the barrier layer thickness, de the effective diffusion coefficient of the solute, e = expx, x = f( <p>), f = artcdl/,  the salt stoichiometric coefficient and finally <p> = (pd  pf)/rtcd. for a given dimensionless hydrostaticpressure difference <p>, (4) is a transcendental equation in (dimensionless concentration difference across the barrier layer) which determines the operating conditions of the osmotic plant for a given set of system parameters. 3. osmotic power plant production the basic energy production system is composed of a compression unit which delivers pressurized salted water injected in a chamber with a filtering membrane across which a flux of salted water js is crossing, see figure 1. figure 1. sketch of osmotic plant balance js is salt flux across the membrane. the power produced per surface unit of installed membrane is given w = jmp with w in watts/m 2, or else in non-dimensional form <w> = w/a(rtcd) 2 = <p>(<p>) (5) http://www.ijcua.com/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(3), 49-53 / 2017 a. berger1, a. lebrun, s. khan, q. masson-pilet, a. supizet 51 <w> is maximum when <p> = 2 and is then equal to <w> = ()but this is not necessarily possible as  and <p> are also linked by (4) which imposes a constraint on system coefficients. one effectively gets for z = the transcendental equation z{(1)(1e(z)1)1 + e(z)(1e(z))1} =  (1r)(1e(z))1 2 with e(z) = expfz which relates “physical” z (concentration performance) to “technical” f (barrier quality). from this different limits can be evaluated for possible power output from the system (yip, and elimelech, 2012; yip, and elimelech, 2011; lin et al., 2014). however simple ones are directly obtained from (6) for <w>. in the case of very large  for instance, (4) takes the very simple form y =  (ln(1x))/x (7) where x = [1r((1) 1 ] and y = (1r)f/2. in definition interval x  [0,1], y is monotonically increasing from 1 to + , and normalized delivered power <w> = kx 2 , with k = [1r((1) 1 ] 2 , varies monotonically between 0 and k, showing that larger <w> corresponds to larger x. more generally parametric dependence of power output w can be obtained from (6) to get best parameter range. when returning to dimensional expression, w is upper bounded by wsup = ka(rtcd) 2 , and a necessary condition for economic efficiency is that w sup = ka(rtcd) 2 ≥ wcrit (8) where wcrit is the threshold value above which the osmotic plant is viable. wsup is larger with larger draw concentration cd, larger temperature t and larger a, which has to be determined to satisfy economic system efficiency demand, ie here a ≥ acrit = 4wcrit for usual figure of delivered power wd = 5wm 2 , and with typical = 12.10 5 pa for water, one gets, for instance, a ≥ acrit = 1.38 mpa 1s 1 . more generally the variation of acrit vs sees figure 2, indicates for  [6.10 5 ,20.10 5 ] the “efficiency” interval a  [4.910 12 ,5.410 11 ] which is still at technical limit today (straub, et al., 2016; zhang, and chung, 2013). to cope with these economic operating constraints, extension of simple osmotic barrier effect have been recently considered (chou, et al., 2013; chou, et al., 2012; yip, et al, 2010; banchik, et al., 2014; mc cutcheon, and elimelech, 2007; cath, et al., 2013; chen, et al., 2016; she,, et al., 2016 ; chou, et al., 2013; hickenbottom, et al., 2016; dechadilok, and deen, 2006). a coupled system with solar plant will be discussed elsewhere. figure 2 . permeability coefficient vs osmotic pressure difference. 4. conclusion from analysis of equations representing osmotic physical phenomenon, it is shown that in pressure retarded osmosis case, the harnessing of salinity-gradient energy taking place at the interface between waters of different salt concentration could provide an interesting and almost inexhaustible energy source if systems coefficients satisfy operating conditions which have been explicitly stated within spieglerkedem model. however, even in optimum mode operating case, satisfaction of economic viability condition expressed by fixed specific membrane power output wthres  5 wm 2 is not always met. aside theoretical research on optimizing system operating mode, this weakness is urging further study of membrane physical properties, such as porosity and tortuosity pore length, to design most efficient hydraulic permeability of the barrier layer. acknowledgments the authors are very much indebted to ece paris school of engineering for having provided the necessary setup for the development of the project, to drs. s. mouhali for advices during the research and pr. m. cotsaftis for help in the preparation of the manuscript. references banchik, l.d., sharqawy, m.h., lienhard, j.h. 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(2013). minimizing the instant and accumulative effects of salt permeability to sustain ultrahigh osmotic power density, environ. sci. technol., 47, 10085-10092. http://www.ijcua.com/ journal of contemporary urban affairs 2017, volume 1, number 2, pages 69– 75 establishment of space syntax to read urban road network; the case of sari, iran * ehsan valipour 1, samira tayyebisoudkolaei 2, abdolah mobaraki 3 1 sapienza university of rome, italy 2 i. a. university of science and research, tehran, iran 3 eastern mediterranean university, cyprus 1e mail: eh.valipour@gmail.com ,e mail: samira.tayyebisoudkolaei@mail.com , e mail: a_mobarakie@yahoo.com a b s t r a c t cities have permanent changes as a living organism, where the transformation required in designing a solution for structural and social demands achieving safe and healthy human contacts. some scholars divide city sustainable development toward two main views, as the building's set are connected by a space, on the other hand human social actions are linked by urban network interaction. the aim of this paper is to study on urban road network by the establishment of space syntax logic, this issue is divided into two main parts, as a first part, the study on already existing and the second part is bringing the new suggestions to a more qualified urban road network. sari city of iran is selected for this case study. journal of contemporary urban affairs (2017) 1(2), 69-75. https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2017.3649 www.ijcua.com copyright © 2017 journal of contemporary urban affairs. all rights reserved. 1. introduction nowadays, urbanization has found a key role in our lifetime that the understanding of urban growth could be the ability to plan the future directions this issue caused with urbanization being a variable and complex phenomenon. cities with permanent changes are living organisms that require this transformation design solution for structural and social demands to achieve safe and healthy human contacts (önder, d.e., gigi, y. , 2010). some scholars divide cities sustainable development toward two main views, as the building's set are connected by a space, on the other hand human social actions are linked by urban network interaction. urban networks as a society infrastructure have a crucial role in reaching success and sufficient access to different resources (vaughan, 2007). the issue of predicting and providing is a base of the traditional view of transportation planning a r t i c l e i n f o: article history: received 15 june 2017 accepted 30 june 2017 available online 5 july 2017 keywords: space syntax; urban road network; integration, depth; connectivity. *corresponding author: sapienza university of rome, italy e-mail address: eh.valipour@gmail.com this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution noncommercial noderivs 4.0. "cc-by-nc-nd" mailto:eh.valipour@gmail.com mailto:samira.tayyebisoudkolaei@mail.com mailto:a_mobarakie@yahoo.com https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2017.3649 www.ijcua.com mailto:eh.valipour@gmail.com https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(2), 69-75 / 2017 ehsan valipour , samira tayyebisoudkolaei , abdolah mobaraki 70 that in modern society has been discontinued. recent studies have changed their design concept to numerical and computational by the establishment of mathematical and physical science. from this view, urban spaces could have the relation of a node structure. in this regards, the edge will find the main role with the complex network that has a close similarity to the other networks. (levinson, 2006) (cardillo, a., scellato, s., latora, v., porta, s., 2006) (yuan, p.c., juan, z.c., 2013). the issue urban network analysis faces is with various issues like information, network communication and social issues but a new subject emerges as an urban road network analysis. scientific studies on this issue bring a new view that a group of network nodes have more structural dates in comparison with a single one (wagner, 2008) (tischendorf, l., fahrig, l., 2000). this subject begins from the logic of a space syntax, that urban road network are working as a body neural network where movement are employed make simple linear elements in the network that could be able to present line movement in the network system to find natural units (jiang, b., zhao, s., yin, j., 2008). space syntax emerged from the architectural view to an environment one as logic a analyze space. this fact has caused space syntax to follow both of architectural view and computational knowledge. however, this issue has theoretical base and mathematical principles in each case study (thomson, 2006) (hillier, b., hanson, j., 1997) (reveron, 2009). the aim of this paper study on urban road network by the establishment of space syntax logic is that this issue is divided into two main parts. the first part: the study on an existing one and allowing the new suggestions to achieve a more qualified urban road network. the second part: is a study by the municipality of sari city for future urban projects. this study is planned to examine the new projects by comparing them with the previous one to find the true results of the differences. in this regards, the first result is achieved by employment of depthmap software and the second result is continued by the establishment of spss for further research. 2. methodology this study has developed two methods to analyze the case study. as it mentioned, the main one is with space syntax to examine the existing conditions with the suggested one. spss was employed as a second method to reach a deeper analysis by using the numerical result of the first method. 2.1. space syntax space syntax is an analysis method that conceived and developed by bill hillier and julienne hanson in late of the 1970s. the method could be established on urban issues, such as studying urban space, reading and prediction. while this method of space syntax is functional for urban reading, it also would be helpful for an association between physical and social structure (hillier, b., hanson, j., 1997) (duan, y., lu, f., 2013). bill hillier as the leader of space syntax logic believes, mostly cities are found by general view but syntactic analysis of cities say that there are hidden physical movements and structures (stahle, a., marcus, l., karlström, a., 2005). space syntax was born based on graph theory by classifications of urban environment split into single parts to study their existing relations. in this regards, space syntax could examine different points based on space geometrical logic to reach hidden systems and structures of human environments (steadman, 1983) (peponis, j.c., wineman, j., bafna, s., 1998) (penn, 2003). this logic could be functional in studying urban contextual features which in this issue, axial lines establish the main role. the axial map in space syntax logic has the fewest set of straight lines that curve out in convex space (tianxiang, y., dong, j., shoubing, w., 2015) (hillier, 2007). in a set of the convex map the axial line brings the shortest space to coating the whole space. bill hillier in "the social logic of space" defined an axial line as a pathway to move in unblocked space (hargrove, w.w., hoffman, f.m., efroymson, r.a., journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(2), 69-75 / 2017 ehsan valipour , samira tayyebisoudkolaei , abdolah mobaraki 71 2004). this concept believes each link is an axial line and each connection with other lines could be as an intersection which shows the spatial relation between lines and nodes (tianxiang, y., dong, j., shoubing, w., 2015) (hillier, b., hanson, j., 1984). there are many axial lines in urban spaces while there are few groups of axial lines in an axial map that pass through the whole city; they could be reachable in any way on an axial map while joined with the disjoint parts just by a third axial line. the dynamic lines were born with intentions to break boundaries (jiang, b., claramunt, c., klarqvist, b., 2000) (hillier, 2007). the topological network parameters such as total depth, integration could be obtained by line connection to urban nodes with the links meeting at a junction (önder, d.e., gigi, y. , 2010) (rezayan, h., delavar, m.r., frank, a.u., mansouri, a., 2010) (hillier, b., hanson, j., 1984). 2.2. spss as is mentioned, the second method of this study is the spss. this method was employed to reach more a complete result by a numerical analysis of space syntax. this part of the study, same as the previous part is based on differences of two conditions, the existing and suggested ones. the spss method was employed based on the t-test concept ( fritz, m., berger, p., 2015) (plume, 2003) ( landau, s., everitt, brian., 2004). 3. result the case of sari city in iran has interesting issues to study on the urban road network. as is mentioned, the municipality of sari created new projects to add more accessibility to the whole of the city. they aim is to get more integration and reduce the depth of places. in this regards, the new projects are studied to apply for this aim, ring roads and some streets inside of the city that are following the main aim. this paper is plans to compare the existing condition with further projects. this study by the establishment of space syntax has mentioned some specific parameters, such as integration, total depth, and connectivity. these will be studied by comparing both the conditions past and future. in existing condition the average rate of integration on a local scale (r5) is 1.38 also the maximum and minimum, respectively is 2.63 and 0.34 which in the suggested plan, the average has growth to 1.43 with 0.05 unit increase also maximum integration is 2.64 but the minimum has not any change. on the other hand, the global scale (r10) has changed as well. in the scale of r10, the average of integration is 1.08 and the maximum is 1.54 also the minimum is 0.38 with the changes, the differences is impressive. by the new plan, the average of integration is 1.43 with 0.35 units increase and the maximum is changed to 2.64, (figure. 1), (figure. 2). a ) b ) figure 1. urban road integration of existing condition in scale r5 (a) and r10 (b) journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(2), 69-75 / 2017 ehsan valipour , samira tayyebisoudkolaei , abdolah mobaraki 72 a) b) figure 2. urban road integration of future plan scale r5 (a) and r10 (b) connectivity is another factor for study in this paper. in existing conditions, the average of connectivity is 2.63 with the minimum rate of 1 and maximum rate of 47. but with suggested plan, just the average has changed with 0.07 unit's growth to be 2.70. the total depth of the integration and connectivity has changed in both of r10 and r5. the average total depth of r5 in existing condition is 722.61 with the maximum rate of 3426 and minimum of 15. but with the new plan, it has changed and the average of total depth is increased to 817.07 with 94.46 units increase also the maximum has increased to 3511, it means 85 units growth but in both conditions the minimum total depth has no changes, (figure. 3), (figure. 4). a) b) figure 3. urban road total depth of existed condition in scale r5 (a) and r10 (b) journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(2), 69-75 / 2017 ehsan valipour , samira tayyebisoudkolaei , abdolah mobaraki 73 a) b) figure 4. urban road total depth of future plan in scale r5 (a) and r10 (b) in analyzing of the scatter plot, the r2 in condition of connectivity and r10 is 0.10163 and with r5 is 0.18168 but with the new plan, the r10 has changed to 0.11169 also r5 is changed to 0.18430. the rate of r2 in the condition of integration and r10 in the existing plan is 0.898719 and with r5 it is 0.7112 but with the suggested plan, it has changed in r10’s scale to 0.891439 with 7280 unit decrease but for r5 there is 84 unit increase and it gets to 0.7196. in the second part, the numerical results received go to the space syntax are established by spss to analyze the integration differences and total depth in local and global dimensions. the final results show the meaningful differences in how the suggested project can be useful to improve the urban accessibility condition. the spss study based on test significance from global integration shows the r10 integration average is 0.870 in the existing issue which is increased to 0.922 in the second group as a new plan means the difference is shown about -0.0517. in the same way, the r5 study, integration has positive changes like r5 integration. in the existing tissue, r5 integration has the rate of 1.389, even though in the suggested plan, it is increased to 1.437. the mean of the difference in r5 integration is 0.0476. the “t-value” index in r10 integration test is 13.508 with the free degree of 6104.432. also in r5 integration, the “t-value” is -4.735 which shows the significant difference between the average amount of r5 integration in group one and two with 6109.397 freedom degree, (figure. 5). a) b) figure 5. graph of integration for existing and future condition of r5 (a) and r10 (b) the total depth of r10 in the previous condition had the rate of 35312.89. however, by increasing the integration, it would decrease to 34424.92 in the following condition. the total r5 depth is 722.62 in the existing issue and in the suggested plan; it is changed to 811.90, (figure, 6). journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(2), 69-75 / 2017 ehsan valipour , samira tayyebisoudkolaei , abdolah mobaraki 74 a b figure 6. graph of total depth for existing and future condition of r10 (a) and r10 (b) by comparing the total depth in both conditions, the total depth in versus r10 has a positive result with a significant difference of -887.97. this index in the r5 scale has a negative growth around 89.28. it is shown, by the new plan when the whole integration has grown, the place’s depth could be grow up but in the case of total r5 depth, the result has a negative rate because of increasing the connection numbers. it can be said, the previous condition has lower depth than the suggested plan, (table 1). table 1. table of independent sample test by spss. as mentioned, “t-value” has a negative rate in both shown integrations, the suggested plan has a good result, but by means of the total depth index, just global scale is acceptable with the positive change rate of 5.807 and in r5 scale, this rate is -5.736 which shows the place’s depth is increased. 4. conclusion this study has established the space syntax and spss, to study the new projects by comparing the existing one that was defined by municipality sari city, by the new project rate of integration it is increased in global scale (r10) also in local one (r5) but in issue of total depth, there is growth it could be a negative point, because based on the logic of space syntax, in successful projects, when the integration has growth, the total depth should shrink. while the new projects numerical differences are not significant, the suggested designs could bring some changes which are a positive, because this method could be applicable to other subjects. this study attempted to examine the differences between the new projects and define some useful ways to improve urban infrastructure. acknowledgments this research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or non-for-profit sectors. references fritz, m., berger, p. 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(2013). urban road network evolution mechanism based on the ‘direction preferred connection’ and ‘degree constraint’. physica a 392 , 5186 – 5193. journal of contemporary urban affairs 2017, volume 1, number 3, pages 43– 48 exergy analysis of a flat plate solar collector with latent heat storage by phase change material for water heating applications at low temperature * angie rincon ortega1, dr. mauricio carmona2 1, 2 mechanical engineering department, universidad del norte, barranquilla, colombia 1 e mail: anggier@uninorte.edu.co , 2 e mail: mycarmona@uninorte.edu.co a b s t r a c t an exergy analysis has been performed to determine the potential for useful work in a latent heat storage system with phase change material (pcm) for a flat-plate solar collector. commercial paraffin wax is used as pcm to store and release energy in the solid-liquid transformation; this material is located in metal containers under the absorber plate on the bottom insulation of the collector. the exergy analysis is performed in outdoor conditions for days of low, medium and high radiation taken from october 2016 to march 2017 at barranquilla city (latitude: 10º 59' 16" n, longitude: 74º 47' 20" o, colombia). the system is evaluated throughout charge and discharge periods. the energy and exergy balance equations based on the first and second law of thermodynamics is formulated and solved for each element of the collector system as well as for the pcm. results obtained show the energy distribution and energetic destruction for each system component and its variation as a time function. it was observed that the average energy and energetic efficiency are 28.7 %, 13.2 % for of low radiation days. 26.9%, 20.56% for of medium radiation days, and 23.2%, 18.6% for of high radiation days, respectively. results of the analysis are shown in detail in the present paper. journal of contemporary urban affairs (2017) 1(3), 43-48. https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2018.3678 www.ijcua.com copyright © 2017 journal of contemporary urban affairs. all rights reserved 1. introduction in recent years there is a grown interest in the use of renewable energy due to the scarcity of fossil energy reserves and the environmental impact caused by their management. among renewable energy sources solar energy has been great attention due to the ease of obtaining and high potentiality in the generation of electricity and heat, the use of solar heating systems has increased on the basis of reasonable initial costs and structure relatively simple (jafarkazemi,and ahmadifard, 2013). for any application with solar thermal systems solar collectors constitute an important component, their operation is based on the capture of the radiation coming from the sun, converting it to heat and the transfer of this heat to a circulating fluid through the collector . the collected energy is carried by the fluid directly to a process requiring heat or to a thermal energy storage system and subsequently withdrawn for use (kalogirou, 2004). there are different forms of storing thermal energy, among them are the storage by sensible heat, by the a r t i c l e i n f o: article history: received 2 august 2017 accepted 27 august 2017 available online 12 october 2017 keywords: thermal energy storage; phase change material; exergy analysis; flat plate solar collector. *corresponding author: mechanical engineering department, universidad del norte, barranquilla, colombia e-mail address: anggier@uninorte.edu.co this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution noncommercial noderivs 4.0. "cc-by-nc-nd" mailto:anggier@uninorte.edu.co mailto:mycarmona@uninorte.edu.co https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2018.3678 file:///d:/my%20journal/papers/special%20issues/papers%20eee2017/final/final%20mustafa/canada%20papers/canada%20papers/www.ijcua.com http://www.ijcua.com/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(3), 43-48 / 2017 angie rincon ortega, mauricio carmona 44 thermochemical reaction and by latent heat (oliver et al., 2010). the most common forms used are by sensible heat and latent heat. energy stored in the form of sensible heat requires a large volume of the material used to store, while latent heat storage such as phase change materials (pcm) provides higher storage density and little temperature variation during phase change. techniques have been investigated to improve the thermal energy storage performance with the use of phase change materials, in addition to improving the heat transfer with the application of fins and to improve the thermal conductivity with the pcm encapsulation (nkwetta, and haghighat, 2014). thermal performance can be assessed based on the first thermodynamics law of (energy conservation) or the second thermodynamics law of (principle exergy). the work done by (li, 2015) shows the review of several techniques to improve energy and exergetic performance. in addition, it concludes that the evaluation of the energetic efficiency is not enough to evaluate the thermal behavior of storage. the weakness of thermodynamics first law analysis is it does not take into account the quality of energy degradation when the energy is converted from one form to another or is exchanged between materials and the currents along of heat transfer processes (kalogirou et al., 2016). in this context, the second thermodynamics law evaluates the quality energy, and the first law focuses on amount energy. meanwhile, the exergetic analysis uses the mass conservation and energy principles with the second thermodynamics law, for to design and to analyze energetic systems (kocca et al., 2007). in a solar system, energy inlet is solar energy, (petela, 1964) in his works exposed the formulas for to calculate the exergy of thermal radiation. and presented a discussion of the dependence of exergy of fluid and the radiation on the temperature. on the other hand, the investigations presented by (kalogirou et al., 2016) are based on basic principles of exergy analysis and show a review of the thermal analysis of solar collectors and the processes to involving collectors as an energy source. (jafarkazemi,and ahmadifard, 2013). they performed a theoretical model and experimental validation for the energetic and exergetic analysis for flat-plate solar collectors, finding the effect of different design parameters in the efficiencies for to determine the optimum working condition. the main purpose of this study is to perform an exergetic analysis for a flat-plate solar collector with thermal storage system with phase change material. it was determined the exergetic efficiency and exergy destruction for each system component and its variation as a time function for days of low, medium and high radiation. 2. method and materials in this study, experimental setup consists of a latent heat storage system with phase change material (pcm) for a flat-plate solar collector as shown in figure 1 wherein its components are listed. commercial paraffin wax is used as pcm; this material is located in metal containers under the absorber plate on the bottom insulation of the collector. measurement of collector system temperatures was with thermocouples, located in glass cover, absorber plate and inlet and outlet water in the copper pipe. the energy and exergy performance of the system was analyzed during days of low, medium and high radiation taken from october 2016 to march 2017 in barranquilla atlántico. initially, for to do energy and exergy analysis, inlet and outlet parameters to heat transfer of each component of the system was specified. figure 1 shows heat transfer terms involved in the solar collector. figure 1. heat transfer terms involved in solar collector. the notations and diagrams of the references (asbik et al., 2016) and (faramarz sarhaddi, 2016), was used. in figure 2. shown the exergy of heat associated with the radiation heat transfer, convection, and conduction in each component of the device. equations were obtained expressing the exergy destroyed in the glass cover, absorber plate, and the pcm container during charge and discharge of system associates with the heat transfer of exergy equation (moran and shapiro, 2004) (1). 𝐸𝑥𝑞 = 𝑄 (1 − 𝑇𝑎 𝑇 ) (1) http://www.ijcua.com/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(3), 43-48 / 2017 angie rincon ortega, mauricio carmona 45 exsol ol exsol ol ext,c-a ol ext,p-c ext,p-pcm ατ exsol ext,p-c ext,pcm-p ext,p-w ext,pcm-b ext,p-w ext,p-c ext,p-pcm ext,pcm-p ext,pcm-b the exergetic efficiency is given by equation (2), which relates the input solar radiation exergy and the exergy transferred to water. 𝑛𝐸𝑥 = 𝐸𝑥𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐸𝑥𝑖𝑛 (2) in figure 2. 2a shows that the glass cover absorbs a part of solar exergy and transfers to the environment by convection. 2b. it shows the absorber plate taking into account the charge and discharge processes, during charge process the plate receives solar exergy, transfers by conduction to the pcm and by convection to the water and the glass cover, and during the discharge process receives through the pcm. 2c. it shows the phase change material, during the charge it receives from the absorber plate, during discharge is transferred from the material to the absorber plate to heat the water. a. exergy balance of glass cover b. exergy balance of absorber plate (charge/discharge) c. exergy balance of pcm (charge/discharge) figure 2. exergy balance of the solar collector components. 3. results and discussion in this section, a comparison the performance of a flat plate solar collector with latent heat storage system with phase change material is carried for days of low, medium and high radiation, for that energetic and exergetic efficiency was calculated. the following figures show solar radiation, stored energy and destroyed exergy for each component and the ambient temperature, water outlet temperature, pcm1 and pcm 2 temperatures. the stored energy for different dates between 8:00 and 20:00 hours for every day is shown in figure 3. in 3a for the glass cover and 3b for the absorber plate. the results of stored energy show similar variation to the solar radiation during the day. a. stored energy on glass cover b. stored energy on absorber plate figure 3. stored energy on glass cover and absorber plate. glass cover absorber plate absorber plate pcm pcm http://www.ijcua.com/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(3), 43-48 / 2017 angie rincon ortega, mauricio carmona 46 another hand, the figures 4a, 5a, 6a show the accumulated radiation during november 28, 2016, december 16, 2016, and february 07, 2017 consecutively. given that the exergy associate with the heat transfer is depending on temperatures differences between two elements, and understanding the exergy destruction in each component it is necessary to depict the temperature as a function of time for it. a. solar radiation for low radiation day b.destroyed exergy in glass cover and absorber plate c. destroyed exergy in pcm1 and pcm 2 d. temperatures figure 4. results for november 28, 2016: a. solar radiation, b. destroyed exergy in glass cover and absorber plate,c. destroyed exergy in pcm1 and pcm 2, d. temperatures the pcm1 and pcm2 layers temperatures illustrated in figures 4d, 5d, 6d, indicate the behavior of phase change material during everything day. approximately from 7:00 hours when upsurges temperature of absorber plate, paraffin layers increases the temperature to reach the melting (t=50ºc). in solid state the pcm stores energy as sensible heat and in the liquid phase stores energy as latent heat. as seen in the figures 6d on high solar radiation day, the first and second pcm layers reach the fusion temperature at 12:00 hours when there is more radiation on day. unlike of low and medium solar radiation days (figure 4d, 5d) where pcm does not completely melt. a. solar radiation for medium radiation day b.destroyed exergy in glass cover and absorber plate 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 0 200 400 600 800 1000 time [h] s o la r ra d ia ti o n [ w /m ^ 2 ] 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 0 100 200 300 400 500 time [h] d e s tr o y e d e x e rg y [ w /m ^ 2 ] glass cover absorber plate 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 0 2 4 6 8 x 10 4 time [h] d e s tr o y e d e x e rg y [ w /m ^ 2 ] pcm 1 pcm 2 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 time [h] t e m p e ra tu re [ ºc ] ambient water oulet pcm1 pcm2 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 time [h] 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 s o la r ra d ia ti o n [ w /m ^ 2 ] 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 0 100 200 300 400 time [h] d e s tr o y e d e x e rg y [ w /m ^ 2 ] glass cover absorber plate 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 0 5 10 15 x 10 4 time [h] d e s tr o y e d e x e rg y [ w /m ^ 2 ] pcm 1 pcm 2 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 time [h] t e m p e ra tu re [ ºc ] ambient water oulet pcm 1 pcm 2 http://www.ijcua.com/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(3), 43-48 / 2017 angie rincon ortega, mauricio carmona 47 c. destroyed exergy in pcm1 and pcm 2 d. temperatures figure 5. results for december 16, 2016: a. solar radiation, b. destroyed exergy in glass cover and absorber plate,c. destroyed exergy in pcm1 and pcm 2, d. temperatures the destroyed exergy is calculated by the equation (1). as revealed in figure 6c, the exergy destroyed for the pcm is greater when the first pcm layer is in liquid state, during storage latent heat, and for rest of day, irreversibility is created during the charge of material. however at night some of the exergy is destroyed during pcm discharge, that is some of the exergy transmitted to water at night is destroyed. similarly, for low and medium solar radiation days (figure 4c, 5c) the destroyed exergy by pcm is greater when it reaches the highest radiation. aditional as shown in figures 4b, 5b, 6c the exergy destroyed in the glass cover and absorber plate is superior when there is greater solar radiation. and exergy destruction in absorber plate is greater than in the glass cover because it must transfer heat to water and the pcm during the charge. a. solar radiation for high radiation day b.destroyed exergy in glass cover and absorber plate c. destroyed exergy in pcm1 and pcm 2 d. temperatures figure 6. results for february 7, 2017: a. solar radiation, b. destroyed exergy in glass cover and absorber plate,c. destroyed exergy in pcm1 and pcm 2, d. temperatures the exergetic efficiency is related to heating of water during the night when the storage heat by paraffin is transmitted during phase change. it is calculated by the equation (2). owing to low radiation on november 28, the pcm did not reach the fusion temperature and the water outlet temperature after 17:00 hours descended approximately ambient temperature, as seen the figure 1b resulting to an exergetic efficiency of 11.78% for low radiation day. on the contrary, in figure 2d the water outlet temperature during everything day, is greater between 10:00 and 15:00 hours when the radiation is higher. but when the sun hides around at 17:00 hours, the water outlet temperature decreases, but still it remains above ambient temperature. giving an exergetic efficiency of 20.01% for medium radiation day. on the other hand on march 17 high radiation day, an exergetic efficiency of 28.17% was obtained. because to heat recovered at night by the pcm was greater, as seen to figure 3d the water outlet temperature is higher than 60ºc between at 11:00 and 15:00 hours and stays above during to night. 4. conclusions the comparison the performance of a flat plate solar collector with latent heat storage using pcm were performed during charge and discharge period on days of low, medium and high radiation. from that experimental study and calculations, some conclusions are as follows: there are more stored energy for each component when the solar radiation is higher the results show that destroyed exergy is relevant in absorber plate and pcm medium during the latent heat storage, so it should be 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 time [h] s o la r ra d ia ti o n [ w /m ^ 2 ] 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 time [h] d e s tr o y e d e x e rg y [ w /m ^ 2 ] glass cover absorber plate 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 x 10 5 time [h] d e s tr o y e d e x e rg y [ w /m ^ 2 ] pcm 1 pcm 2 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 30 40 50 60 time [h] t e m p e ra tu re [ ºc ] ambient water oulet pcm1 pcm2 http://www.ijcua.com/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(3), 43-48 / 2017 angie rincon ortega, mauricio carmona 48 minimalized to increase the performance of the system. nevertheless, during the latent heat storage, the outlet water temperature is increased. according to experimental results and calculations obtained, average exergetic efficiency for low radiation day, medium radiation day, and high radiation days was 13.2 %, 20.56%, and 18.6% respectively. that is, the higher efficiency was for medium radiation days, because the high radiation day more exergy is destroyed on each component. as a result low oulet water temperature was obtained for low radiation day, but the oulet temperature for medium and hight radiation day was higher, that is, the pcm storage more energy when the radiation is elevated and during night time,heat is transfered to the absorber plate and the water. the results show that it is necessary to improve some design parameters to reduce the exergy destruction in the pcm and absorber plate, and increase the exergetic efficiency. 5. acknowledgments this investigation has been partially funded by the colombian administrative department of science, technology and innovationcolciencias, through the program “es tiempo de volver”. authors wish to express their acknowledgments to colciencias and its excellent program. references oliver, a., neila, f. j., garcía-santos ,a.(2010). pcm choosing and classification according to their characteristics for their application for thermal energy storage systems. materiales de construccion , 62, 131-140. kocaa,a., oztop,h.f., koyun, t., varol,y. (2007). energy and exergy analysis of a latent heat storage system with phase change material for a solar collector. renewable energy ,33, 567-574. nkwetta, d.n., haghighat,f. (2014). thermal energy storage with phase change materiala state of the art review. sustainable cities and society,10, 87-100. jafarkazemi,f., ahmadifard,e. (2013). energetic and exergetic evaluation of flat plate solar. renewable energy,56, 55-63. kalogirou,s.a.(2004). solar thermal collectors and applications. progress in energy and combustion science, 30(3), 231-295. li, g. (2015). energy and exergy performance assessments for latent heat thermal energy storage systems. renewable and sustainable energy reviews,15, 926-954. asbik.m., ansari,o.,bah,a., zari,n., mimet,a.,elghetany,h.(2016). exergy analysis of solar desalination still combined with heat storage system using phase change material (pcm). desalination ,381, 26-37. moran, m. j.,shapiro, h. n.(ed.). (2004). fundamentals of engineering thermodynamics.(4th ed.) .barcelona: reverté, s.a. petela, r. (1964). exergy of heat radiation. j. heat transfer,86(2).187-192. jegadheeswaran,s., pohekar, s.d., kousksou,t.(2010). exergy-based performance evaluation of latent heat thermal storage system: a review. renewable and sustainable energy reviews ,14(9),2580-2595. kalogirou,s.a., karellas,s.,braimakis,k., stanciu,c., badescu,v. (2016). exergy analysis of solar thermal collectors and processes. progress in energy and combustion science ,56, 106-137. http://www.ijcua.com/ https://www.researchgate.net/profile/tansel_koyun https://www.researchgate.net/profile/yasin_varol http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s2210670713000383#! http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s0960148112006763#! http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s0360128504000103#! http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s0011916415301338#! http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s0011916415301338#! http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s0011916415301338#! http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s0011916415301338#! http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s0011916415301338#! http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s0011916415301338#! http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s0011916415301338#! http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s1364032110002315#! http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s1364032110002315#! journal of contemporary urban affairs 2017, volume 1, number 2, pages 76– 82 profession vs ethics * dr. hossein sadri associate professor of architecture, department of architecture at girne american university e mail: hosadri@gmail.com a b s t r a c t this article studies the process of professionalization in general and particularly in architecture and reviews the concept of professional ethics and the codes and documents related to it. the article investigates on the motivations of the conflicts between the documents of professional ethics with the ethical values by criticizing several codes of professional conducts produces by the main professional organizations in the field of architecture. the article proposes an ethical approach which can go beyond and above professions and their limited professional interests to be able to prevent the unethical professional conducts. journal of contemporary urban affairs (2017) 1(2), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2017.3650 www.ijcua.com copyright © 2017 journal of contemporary urban affairs. all rights reserved. 1. introduction harun tepe in his book of ethics and professional ethics, describes the relation between ethics and professional activities with the concept of “capability”. namely, the power and the status of deciding and performing professional activities generate the capabilities of different professions. according to tepe the question of justifying and enabling these capabilities to perform or not in certain conditions, appears as the main problem of professional ethics (tepe 2000). with the intention of finding ethical answers to this question, according to kuçuradi professional ethics is seeking for common norms to prevent unethical attitudes and conducts in various professional fields (kuçuradi 2000). the norms of professional ethics identify the ethical responsibility of the profession and professionals and for this reason it must go beyond the intraprofessional activities and contain the interprofessional and ultra-professional conducts. in other words, in addition to the conducts for professionals, these norms ought to consider the accountabilities of professions towards humanity based on ethical values. the capabilities of professions are not limited to the professional activities of persons and originate from outputs a r t i c l e i n f o: article history: received 8 july 2017 accepted 11 july 2017 available online 11 july 2017 keywords: profession; professional ethics; ethics; codes of professional conduct; architectural ethics. *corresponding author: associate professor of architecture, department of architecture at girne american university, turkey e-mail address: hosadri@gmail.com this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution noncommercial noderivs 4.0. "cc-by-nc-nd" mailto:hosadri@gmail.com https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2017.3650 www.ijcua.com mailto:hosadri@gmail.com https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(2), 76-82 / 2017 dr. hossein sadri 77 of all of the organizations and groups related to the professions including and above all states and private companies. for this reason, codes of professional ethics should cover collective responsibilities supplemental to the personal responsibilities. however studies on the codes of professional conducts indicate the fact that these documents mostly consider the minor personal responsibilities and ignore the accountability of professions and the other major actors of the related profession (sadri 2010). neglecting the collective responsibilities and the ultra and intra professional accountabilities of professions derives from the entwined interrelations and interests between professions and other major actors such as states, local governments and private companies. therefore the problem of the incomprehensiveness of the documents of professional ethics roots in the origins of professions and is their intrinsic characteristic allied to their foundation. magali larson (1979) defines the processes of professionalization of disciplines and exposes the bases of the problem of professional ethics in their essences. according to larson, professions are occupations with special autonomy and prestige. this autonomy validates their freedom of self-administrated distinctive morality and codes and regulations (larson 1979). these codes aim to protect the exclusive statuses and autonomy of professions and precluding the involvements of outsiders. larson explains the founding conditions of professions and underlines their guild-like structure which is the fundamental reason of their incompatibilities with ethical values. these conditions are foundation of professional associations, establishment of professional educations, definition of professional norms, their legislation and guarantee by states and achievement of public recognition (spector, the ethical architect: the dilemma of contemporary practice 2001). the legitimacy of professions depends on these conditions and self-organized professional ethics are the most essential conditions of their public acceptabilities. as emphasized by spector, professional ethics and the codes of conducts demonstrate the commitment of professions to noble morals and behaviors, and by the way attempt to sustain their market shares (spector, codes of ethics and coercion 2005). peter marcuse underlines the historic role of professionalization and introduces “social bargains” between societies and professions and as part of these bargains he highlights the power and prestige of professions which are interrelated to professional ethics and their selfadministrated distinctive moralities. marcuse argues that these bargains support the structure of societies and their efficient functionings and basically any challenges to these structures are against the barganis. in other words, rather than defining the limits to the power and system, professional ethics attempt to maintain the system. for this reason the self-administrated distinctive moralities of what it is called as “professional ethics”, never demands or accepts any confrontation with these structures (marcuse 1976). it is obvious from the literature that, the capabilities of professions derives from their societies based on their social bargains which are supportive to the roles of social structures. even though the norms of professional ethics which are self-administrated by professions appear to prevent unethical attitudes in the professions, however their guild-like organizations, interests, market shares and their entwined structures with the societies and their power arrangements lead these norms to control the boundaries of professions more than their unethical conducts (spector, codes of ethics and coercion 2005). professional ethics always stay more professional than ethics. they address professional values more than ethical values and even their statements on any ethical value root in the interests and images of professions and target to protect their market shares. professional ethics are limited to the boundaries of professions and journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(2), 76-82 / 2017 dr. hossein sadri 78 accordingly restricted to the structures of societies. for this reason they cannot address the unethical conducts of other actors in their professional fields and they cannot go beyond their boundaries. as it is mentioned by marcuse, any endeavour to promote ethical values such as freedom, equality, quality of life, democracy, justice and human rights is only possible if professional ethics develop interests in the subject of power and care the changes of the system (marcuse 1976). in other words, questioning their social bargains and the foundation of structures in societies predominantly their own professions, professional ethics can act more ethically. breaking their boundaries, the inter-professional and ultraprofessional matters and all collective responsibilities of various stakeholders and actors will be included in their visions. that is to say, they can act more ethically only and if they keep out their professional roles. 2. professional ethics in architecture the word architecture, in its ancient greek form of arkhitekton (ἀρχιτέκτων), implies the meaning of building skill and the mastery of construction. of course in this meaning it has a long history. however what today we call as architecture, as an arm of the system of industrial production of space has shaped during the 19th century. architecture has been industrialized, institutionalized and became a profession and a working arm of capitalist system and modern state. with the professionalization of architecture, it was isolated from building practice, the scale of life (one to one scale), nature, ground/earth and was re-identified within the boundaries of design. the professional actors who have been granted the title of architect and exclusively authorised to work in this field are carrying out the profession of architecture. this authority which renders architects responsible for spatial design, a forceful part of the process of creation and production of space, has been devolved to architects by the control mechanisms of modern society, primarily the state through different legislations and regulations. holding the ascendancy of designing spaces, architecture achieves the capability and authority in the process of creation and production of space. architecture gains it power from the accumulation of these capabilities. this power enables architecture to take role in the social and political transfğrmations and consequently increases the danger of misusing this power to non-humanitarian ends. the written documents in the professional ethics in architecture, as so in other professions, never contains the concerns of this possible misuses, however they prioritize the client-serving professional interests, encourage the guildrelated roles of architects and ignore the humanitarian and environmental issues and ethical values. it is understood from the documents of professional ethics in architecture that the protection of guild and market shares has been more considered than the collective responsibilities of architects towards humanity. by scanning these documents during the history of the profession, we can follow the guild oriented approach of the profession manifested in the list of bodies which architects have been assigned responsible towards them in these documents. regarding these responsibilities, saint refers to two historical texts; the first one, a text written by soane in 1788 and the other one written by arthur j. willis and w. n. b. george in the midtwentieth. in the both texts architects introduced as mediators. in the first one their responsibility to intermediate between the “employer” and the “mechanic” and in the second text, between the “building owner” and “contractor” is underlined (saint 2005). concisely the personal responsibilities of architects towards the other two actors in the architecture market, the one who employ and pay architects and the other one who construct buildings is mentioned in these texts. however since the architecture market in the last two centuries has been transformed from more public to more private journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(2), 76-82 / 2017 dr. hossein sadri 79 market, the term of “employer” which could be used for public administration was removed by the term “building owner” which is perceived more private. during this transformation of the market, contractors as a new private sector emerged and organized the building forces and the direct relation between architects and construction workers has been ended. for this reason even if the terminology of the two texts seems to be different, it is obvious that they carry the similar meanings. parallel to the transformation of state and capitalist system during the neo-liberal era, architecture, as all other professions, keeps losing its social mission and public intention and being privatised and distorted to a business today. the neo-liberalization of the architecture market transformed the role of architects and reorganized the list of these bodies in the documents related to the professional ethics. the major change was the unification of the roles of “contractor” and “building owner” under the role of “client” as it is mentioned in the most effective codes of professional ethics written by international union of architects – uia (international union of architects 1999), architects’ council of europe – ace (architect's council of europe 2009), and american institute of architects – aia (american institute of architects 2012). architects lost their mediation role and have become part of the “mechanic” actors in construction industry. under the impacts of the neo-liberal order and alteration of the functions of professions, professional ethics, which ought to concern human values, is devalued by overrating on the image of profession and its market share. accordingly these texts contain the responsibilities of architects towards the profession and emphasise on them coordinate to the responsibilities of architects towards the public. however even the obligations in the public interest which advises architects to act legally and avoids their inappropriate conducts, can be understood as attempts oriented to the public approval of the profession and correspondingly the interest of profession and its market share. as it is mentioned by spector, instead of defining the duties of the profession and the members of profession to fulfil them, the control of the boundaries of the profession has become the main goal of the codes of professional ethics. spector also adds the fact that even when the codes deal with the accountabilities of the members of the profession, they focus on the tasks of the members of the profession towards each other more than their responsibilities in the use of their authorities and capabilities (spector, codes of ethics and coercion 2005). accordingly, in the codes prepared by aia and uia, the obligations of architects towards their colleagues became one of the main headings, beside their responsibilities toward the client, the public and the profession. all the three documents prepared by these organizations include the heading related to the general responsibilities of architects. in the document of international union of architects these general obligations are itemized in 10 standards. in the document of architect’s council of europe these general obligations are listed in 6 headings. the 10 standards of uia and 6 headings of ace related to the general obligations of architects address the similar issues which are related to the improvement of knowledge and skill of architects, and the field of architecture, art and capability of building industry and also general recommendations to prevent disagreements and misapprehensions in architectural works (international union of architects 1999), (architect's council of europe 2009). the document of “recommended guidelines for the policy on ethics and conduct” prepared by international union of architects as part of the “uia accord on recommended international standards of professionalism in architectural practice”, the “european deontological code for providers of architectural services” prepared by architects’ council of europe and the “code of ethics and professional conduct” prepared by american journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(2), 76-82 / 2017 dr. hossein sadri 80 institute of architects start with explaining the general obligations of architects. the uia guideline introduces 5 standards related to the continual improvement of their professional knowledge, raising the excellence in architectural education and practice, contribution to the promotions of building industry, establishment of monitoring procedures and adequately supervising the employees (international union of architects 1999). in addition to these standards the ace code mentions the right of architects to resign from their unappropriated contracts and their obligation to receive full information about the projects before proposing any fee in its 6 standards of general obligations of architects (architect's council of europe 2009). distinctively in the code of american institute of architects, in addition to the similar advices such as the improvement of knowledge and skill and standards of excellence in architecture, the document stresses two ethical values which are the protection of human rights and concerning natural and cultural heritage (american institute of architects 2012). all the three documents refer to the obligation of architects towards the public as their second principle. in the uia guideline and ace code and aia code this title is expounded under 6 standards. by pointing to the ethical responsibilities of architects, the first of these standards in uia and ace texts underlines the values of the improvement of the environment and the quality of life of inhabitants and also the natural and cultural heritages. this standard is foundationally different than the other standards. in the uia guideline the sixth standard and in the aia code the e.s. 2.2 and e.s. 2.3 refer to the collective roles of architects towards public by taking the raising of the awareness of the public on architectural issues into the attention in uia guideline and the pro bono services and civic activities of architects in aia code. however aiming the better cultural capital and market share, the other standards under the title of obligations towards the public in these documents concentrate on the image of the profession in the public sphere. these standards are related to the avoiding of false communications, deceptive manners and representation as a misleading fashion and upholding laws and all jurisdictions in the countries of their projects (international union of architects 1999) (architect's council of europe 2009) (american institute of architects 2012). the third obligation in all three documents has the title of obligations to the client. the standards and rules related to this title in these documents are performing skill care and diligence, without undue delay, sharing necessary information about the progress of the project with the client and preparing a clear contract about the project (international union of architects 1999) (architect's council of europe 2009) (american institute of architects 2012). these standards all emphasize on the personal responsibilities of architects towards their client and accordingly towards the image of their profession. in this sense these standards carry the same role as the standards listed under the fourth title in these documents; “obligations to the profession”. this title in all of the three documents has the goal of promoting a better representational performance of architects towards the profession of architecture by their effort to perform the “best of their ability”, honestly, without any prejudgment and discrimination (international union of architects 1999) (architect's council of europe 2009) (american institute of architects 2012). different than the ace code, uia guideline and aia code has the fifth title on the obligations towards colleagues which indicates issues of intellectual property of architectural works, architectural competitions, rules regarding the critic of the projects of the colleagues, collaborations and rivalry and the work conditions of the employees (american institute of architects 2012) (international union of architects 1999). aia’s “code of ethics and professional conduct” includes additional heading, different than the journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(2), 76-82 / 2017 dr. hossein sadri 81 other two documents. this topic is related to the obligations of architects towards environment and highlights the importance of sustainable design (american institute of architects 2012). as it is shown in the above text, exception of citing the environmental, natural, historical heritage issues and the quality of human life in few short statements, these codes constitutes norms of conducts more than ethical values. they emerged to act as forces to control the behaviours of professional actors and consequently make profession looks “correct” and its image will be beautified and its cultural capital can be raised (sadri 2010). codes of professional conducts as the main texts and morality charters of professional ethics, which should focus on the responsibilities of the profession derived from the ethical values, are limited to the individual tasks to support the interests of the profession. for the same reasons the inter-professional and ultra-professional moral commitments, and collective responsibilities are disregarded and these codes are reduced to the intra-professional regulations and personal responsibilities of professionals. 3. conclusion the intra-professional concentration of the documents of the professional ethics and their emphasise on the personal responsibilities of architects and their ignorance on the interprofessional and ultra-professional conducts and the collective responsibilities and the obligations of the other decision makers and stake holders can be introduced as the main challenge of professional ethics. particularly neglecting the accountabilities of the profession of architecture towards humanity is not ethically acceptable. as it is discussed in the related literature written by larson, spector and marcuse, these codes have the main goals of identifying the limits of the profession, protecting its market share, upgrading its image and cultural capital and not ethical aims. for this reason they are more professional documents than ethical texts. investigating on the related literature and also the most operative documents of professional ethics in architecture, radically the guild like structure of the profession which is reflected in these documents is presented in this article. to prepare a more ethical document in architecture, avoiding the professional role of architecture, expanding the responsibilities beyond and over the profession of architecture and the human rights and value based approach can be proposed. such a document will go beyond the limits of the profession, will critically deal with the profession and will include political concerns such as democracy and human rights. this document will not be limited only to a specific activity or a certain profession, will be a general ethical document and will include the universal ethical values. acknowledgments this article is developed based on the phd research of the author which was granted by the scientific and technological research council of turkey (tübi̇tak). references american institute of architects. (2012). “2012 code of ethics & professional conduct.” website of the american institute of architects. http://www.aia.org/aiaucmp/groups/ai a/documents/pdf/aiap074122.pdf. architect's council of europe. (2009). “european deontological code for providers of architectural services.” website of architect's council of europe. http://www.acecae.eu/uploads/tx_jidocumentsview/de ontological_code_en.pdf. international union of architects. (1999). “uia accord on the recommended international standards of professionalism in architectural practice.” website of the international union of architects. http://apaw.uiaarchitectes.org/ang/compartida/webui journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(2), 76-82 / 2017 dr. hossein sadri 82 a/apaw/pdf/uiaaccordang.pdf. kuçuradi, i̇oanna. (2000). “felsefi etik ve meslek etikleri.” in etik ve meslek etikleri-tıp, çevre, i̇ş, basın, hukuk ve siyaset, by harun tepe, 17-32. ankara: türkiye felsefe kurumu. larson, magali sarfatti. (1979). the rise of professionalism: a sociological analysis. berkeley: university of california press. marcuse, peter. (1976). “professional ethics and beyond: values in planning.” aip journal 264-274. sadri, hossein. (2010). mimarlık ve i̇nsan hakları. ankara: gazi university, institute of science and technology, unpublished phd thesis. saint, andrew. (2005). “practical wisdom for architects: the uses of ethics.” in architecture and its ethical dilemmas, by nicholas ray, 7-21. new york: routledge. spector, tom. (2005). “codes of ethics and coercion.” in architecture and its ethical dilemmas, by nicholas ray, 101-112. new york: routledge. spector, t. (2001). the ethical architect: the dilemma of contemporary practice. new york: princton architectural press. tepe, harun. (2000). etik ve meslek etikleri – tıp, çevre, i̇ş, basın, hukuk ve siyaset. ankara: türkiye felsefe kurumu. journal of contemporary urban affairs 2017, volume 1, number 3, pages 31– 37 power quality improvement by using statcom control scheme in wind energy generation interface to grid * dr. sheeraz kirmani 1, brijech kumar 2 1, 2 department of electrical engineering, jamia millia islamia, new delhi, india e mail: sheerazkirmani@gmail.com , e mail: bknsea@icloud.com a b s t r a c t “electric power quality (epq) is a term that refers to maintaining the near sinusoidal waveform of power distribution bus voltages and currents at rated magnitude and frequency.” today customers are more aware of the seriousness that the power quality possesses, this prompts the utilities to assure good quality of power to their customer. the power quality is basically customer-centric. the increased focus on utilities toward to maintaining reliable power supply by employing power quality improvement tools has reduced the power outages and blackout considerably. good power quality is the characteristic of reliable power supply. low power factor, harmonic pollution, load imbalance, fast voltage variations are some common parameters which are used to define the power quality. if the power quality issues are not checked, i.e., the parameters that define power quality doesn't fall within the predefined standards than it will lead to high electricity bill, high running cost in industries, malfunctioning of equipments, challenges in connecting renewables. capacitor banks, facts devices, harmonic filters, svc’s, statcom are the solutions to achieve the power quality. the performance of wind turbine generators is affected by poor quality power, at the same time these wind power generating plant affects the power quality negatively. this paper presents the statcom system with the bess and studies the impact on the power quality in a system which consist of wind turbine generator, nonlinear load, hysteresis controller for controlling the operation of statcom and grid. the model is simulated in the matlab/simulink. this scheme mitigates the power quality issues, improves voltage profile and also reduces harmonic distortion of the waveforms. bess level out the imbalances caused by real power due to intermittent nature of wind power available due to varying wind speeds. journal of contemporary urban affairs (2017) 1(3), 31-37. https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2018.3676 www.ijcua.com copyright © 2017 journal of contemporary urban affairs. all rights reserved. i. introduction power is the very crucial input for the growth of any economy. therefore, it is considered as a core industry as it facilitates development across various sectors, such as agriculture, a r t i c l e i n f o: article history: received 2 august 2017 accepted 26 august 2017 available online 12 october 2017 keywords: power quality improvement; statcom control scheme; wind energy generation. *corresponding author: department of electrical engineering, jamia millia islamia, new delhi, india e-mail address: sheerazkirmani@gmail.com this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution noncommercial noderivs 4.0. "cc-by-nc-nd" http://www.ijcua.com/ mailto:sheerazkirmani@gmail.com mailto:bknsea@icloud.com https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2018.3676 www.ijcua.com http://www.ijcua.com/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(3), 31-37 / 2017 sheeraz kirmani, brijech kumar 32 manufacturing, railways, education, commercial, etc. to expel economic development. to meet the high gdp rates, the energy needs of the country are inevitable. renewable energy is characterized as intermittent and variability which presents various challenges in its grid integration for maintaining grid stability and security. intermittent/variable nature of re source results in wide variation in quantum and direction of power flow on the inter-state high capacity transmission corridors. this requires placement of dynamic reactive compensation in the form of dynamic reactive compensation in the form of statcom/svc at strategic locations to provide dynamic support for smooth operation and to maintain grid security. the integration wind into existing electrical power system induces power quality problems like voltage regulation, stability, harmonic distortion, voltage sag/swell and also power factor. the power quality is always customerfocused measure and is greatly affected by the operation of a distribution and transmission network. in this proposed scheme one of the flexible ac transmission system (facts) device, i.e., staticcompensator (statcom) is connected at the point of common coupling (pcc) with a battery energy storage system (bess) to mitigate power quality problems. since statcom connected to the grid provides reactive power support to wind generator and to load. the bess is integrated to sustain real power source under fluctuating wind or solar power. in the event of if there is any sudden load change or change in voltage profile like a short circuit in point of common coupling (pcc), a distribution-statcom responds fast and stabilizes the voltage and also helps in order to maintain power quality. ii. problems related to power quality a. power quality issues of grid side: at the grid side, the power quality is the responsibility of utility. the utility should make sure that the power matches the customer requirements and should not violate the limits that are specified for the parameters which define the power quality. from the customer point of view, the voltage variations and high content of harmonics in the grid power are highly undesired as they affect the performance of the end equipment. for the iip’s who have planned the wind power project, the voltage profile of evacuating substation and nearby substations is of prime concern. 1) voltage variation: intermittent nature of wind power causes several problems, and one is a variation of the voltage of buses in the region of high wind penetration. wind generators mostly employed induction generators and power electronic circuits which demand reactive power for operation. voltage sag/swell is observed where ineffective methods of reactive power management are employed. if the voltage rises beyond the controllable limit, forced tripping of lines carried out, cascaded tripping may destabilize a weak power system. generally, the power factor of evacuating substation is maintained near to unity preferably slightly lagging. 2) voltage transients: b. power quality issues of wtg side in the wind energy generating system the power quality primarily concerned with the quality of current waveform which is being drawn or generated by the wind turbine. poor power quality affects the performance of the loads connected to the grid. 1) reactive power consumption: induction generators draw reactive power to produce its working flux while generating active power at the same time. as induction generators are most widely preferred in wind turbine generators, collectively a wind farm demand a huge amount of reactive power. as the wind speed is not constant, in such a case the use of electronic power conversion devices in wind turbine generators becomes inevitable to achieve a rotor speed for maximum extraction of energy from wind. the operation of power electronic devices also requires reactive power. to avoid voltage stability problem either statcom or capacitor arrangement is used to supply this demand of reactive power. 2) current harmonics generation: capacitors are used as an essential part of the wind turbine generators for supplying reactive power demand. capacitor switching may cause large voltage transient. the frequency and amplitude of such transient are enormous, particularly when back to back switching is involved, for instance, capacitor bank switching. the overvoltages may damage the insulation, moreover, electronic equipment such as controllers are very sensitive to these transients, may produce incorrect commands. in addition, http://www.ijcua.com/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(3), 31-37 / 2017 sheeraz kirmani, brijech kumar 33 lightning strikes will cause an overvoltage in the electrical system of the wind turbine. iii. topology for power quality improvement the statcom based current control voltage source inverter injects the current into the grid in such a way that the source current is harmonic free and their phase-angle with respect to source voltage has a desired value. the injected current will cancel out the reactive part and harmonic part of the load and induction generator current, thus it improves the power factor and the power quality. to accomplish these goals, the grid voltages are sensed and are synchronized in generating the current command for the inverter. the proposed gridconnected system is implemented for power quality improvement at the point of common coupling (pcc), as shown in figure 1.the connected grid system in figure 1, consists of wind energy generation system and battery energy storage system withstatcom. b. bess-statcom the battery energy storage system (bess) is used as an energy storage element to support the wind farm during intermittencies it also supports grid during any disturbance and loss of generation. the bess will naturally maintain dc capacitor voltage constant and is best suited in statcom since it readily manages demand and supply of real power and also injects or absorbed reactive power to stabilize the grid system. it also controls the distribution and transmission system at a very fast rate. when power fluctuations occurs in the system, the bess can be used to level the power fluctuations by charging and discharging operation. the bess system is connected in parallel to the dc capacitor of statcom (salamah et al., 1992; yang et al., 2001; black, and strbac, 2007; spahic et al., 2007; mohod, and aware, 2008) statcom comes from the family of facts devices. these are basically solid-state devices which are having the capability to respond to the reactive power demand. statcom have the edge over the svc’s as the former have constant current characteristics while in the svc's the capacitive current drops linearly with the voltage. statcom can easily be interfaced with real power sources like the battery systems, fuel cells, etc. statcom effectively control the system voltage and avoid voltage collapse. statcom are solid-state shunt connected devices. statcom’s strategically placed in the power system to make the grid robust to the disturbances. statcom are finding applications in the renewable energy integration. c. system operation in the system under study, statcom is interfaced with the bess system. the statcom-bess system is then connected to the pcc in the grid where non-linear loads and induction generator based wind turbine are also interfaced.the current control strategy is adapted to control the statcom-bess system. the control strategy controls the output of station in such a manner so as to achieve power quality norms in the electrical grid.the statcom is intended here to support both reactive as well as real power demand of the other sub-systems.the main block diagram of the operational system scheme is shown in figure 2. iv control scheme a. bang-bang current controller the current control scheme is implemented using a bang-bang current controller. in this control scheme, the source current is detected by a current sensor, and these are compared with the reference current to obtain the current error for the hysteresis-based bang-bang controller. thus the on/off switching signals for igbt of statcom are derived from hysteresis controller. the switching function for phase ‘an’ is expressed as. 𝑖𝑠𝑎 < (𝑖𝑠𝑎 ∗ − 𝐻𝐵) → 𝑆𝐴 = 0 𝑖𝑠𝑎 > (𝑖𝑠𝑎 ∗ − 𝐻𝐵) → 𝑆𝐴 = 1 where hb is a current hysteresis band, similarly the switching function𝑆𝐵 ,𝑆𝐶 can be derived for phases “b” and “c” (mohod, and aware, 2008; mohod, and aware, 2006) b. gird synchronisation in three-phase balance system, the rms voltage source ampl http://www.ijcua.com/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(3), 31-37 / 2017 sheeraz kirmani, brijech kumar 34 figure 1. diagrammatic representation of operating scheme. -studies calculated at the sampling frequency of the source phase voltage (𝑉𝑠𝑎, 𝑉𝑠𝑏 , 𝑉𝑠𝑐) and is expressed as sample template 𝑉𝑠𝑚, sampled peak voltage, as in (1). 𝑉𝑠𝑚 = √ { 2 3 (𝑉𝑠𝑎 2 + 𝑉𝑠𝑏 2 + 𝑉𝑠𝑐 2 )} (1) the in-phase unit vectors are obtained from ac source-phase voltage and the rms value of unit vector 𝑢𝑠𝑎 , 𝑢𝑠𝑏 , 𝑢𝑠𝑐 as shown in (2). usa = vsa vsm , usb = vsb vsm , usc = vsc vsm (2) figure 2. hysteresis controller (matlab model). the in-phase generated reference currents are derived using in-phase unit voltage template as, in (figure 3) 𝑖𝑠𝑎 = 𝐼. 𝑢𝑠𝑎 , 𝑖𝑠𝑏 = 𝐼. 𝑢𝑠𝑏 , 𝑖𝑠𝑐 = 𝐼. 𝑢𝑠𝑐(3) where i am proportional to the magnitude of filtered source voltage for respective phases. this ensures that the source current is controlled to be sinusoidal. the unit vectors implement the important function in the grid connection for the synchronization for statcom. this method is simple, robust and favorable as compared with other methods (milands et al., 2007). figure 3. unit vector block for grid synchronisation. v. system p performance the proposed control scheme is simulated using simulink power system block set. the system parameter for given system is given table i. a. voltage source current control—inverter operation statcom in its basic structure is a voltage source inverter and is composed of igbt’s. igbt based three-phase inverter is connected to the grid at pcc through the interconnecting transformers. the statcom inject the three phase currents to level out the distortions due to nonlinear loads and wind turbine generating system in the grid power supply. the control signals with a hysteresis band of 0.08 for switching of igbts are simulated from the comparison made between reference currents and actual three-phase source currents. hysteresis band is generally kept low for better combating capabilities of statcom.the control signal of switching frequency within its operating band, as shown in figure. 4. the choice of the current band depends on the operating voltage and the interfacing transformer impedance. the compensated current for the nonlinear load and demanded reactive power is provided by the inverter. the real power transfer from the batteries is also supported by the controller of this inverter. the three-phase inverter injected current are shown in figure 5. b. statcom—performance under load variations the system is modeled in matlab to investigate the performance of statcom based bess system under dynamic loads and peak wind generation http://www.ijcua.com/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(3), 31-37 / 2017 sheeraz kirmani, brijech kumar 35 or fixed wind generation. induction generator based wind turbine generator demand reactive power. therefore when the statcom is switched on at time 0.7sec, it starts supplying this reactive power demand. additionally, it also injects current such that harmonics at the supply side current reduces considerably. to investigate the performance under varying table i. rating and parameters. figure 4. switching signal and control hysteresis band. loads the provisions are made in the matlab program to increase the load at time 1sec. for increased load statcom based system effectively compensate the increased demand for real and reactive power. the result of source current, the load current is shown in figure 6(a) and (b) respectively. while the result of injected current from statcom are shown in figure 6(c) and the generated current from wind generator at pcc are depicted in figure 6(d). the dc link voltage regulates the source current in the grid system, so the dc link voltage is maintained constant across the capacitor as shown in figure 7(a). the current through the dc link capacitor is indicating the charging and discharging operation as shown in figure 7(b) figure 5. three phase injected inverter current. figure 6. (a) source current. (b) load current. (c) inverter injected current (d) wind generator (induction generator) current. figure 7. (a) dc link voltage. (b) current through capacitor. figure 8. supply voltage and current at pcc. c. power quality improvement power quality is affected by the nonlinear loads as such loads inject harmonics in the grid. wind generators also have negative impact on power quality. thus the purity of voltage and current http://www.ijcua.com/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(3), 31-37 / 2017 sheeraz kirmani, brijech kumar 36 waveforms on grid side and wind generator side cannot be assured. the statcom output voltage and injected current are adjusted as per the power quality parameters sensed by the hysteresis controller from the grid. the high-speed operation of controller ensures reliable power quality norms at the pcc. the statcom output voltage is shown in the figure. the source side voltage and the current plot are shown in the figure; the plot clearly shows that power factor becomes near unity when the statcom is switched on. the harmonics in the source side current before and after the beginning of statcom operation is carried out. when statcom is made on significant reduction of harmonics from an initial value of 4.71 % is observed. the source current waveform when statcom is on is shown in the figure. the model not only improves the power quality but also supports the loads with its batteries. it balances the supply and demand. this scheme also has the capabilities to support the loads in case of loss of generation, in such case power from batteries can be supplied to the loads but for a limited time. figure. 9 (a) source current. (b) fft of source current. vi. conclusions the paper presents statcom based battery energy storage system. statcom is a voltage source inverter having igbt as its switches. the switching of igbt’s is controlled by the hysteresis controller. therefore the power flow from and to the bess system is controlled effectively as per the switching command generated by the controller. the entire stacom-bess system is modeled in matlab/simulink. when statcom is in operation significant improvement in power quality is observed. issues like voltage sag\ swell, harmonic distortion, power factor voltage profile are properly tackled. when statcom in operation it injects current into the power grid at pcc which nullify the harmonic part of the source current. therefore current and voltage at source side become in phase. a near unity power factor, therefore, can be maintained at the evacuating substation (pcc). by maintaining power quality norms at nearby substations of the wind generating farm forced tripping of connecting lines between pooling substation and evacuating substation can be avoided which improves the plant load factor and in terns revenues. figure 10. (a) source current. (b) fft of source current. acknowledgement this research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. references [1] hook, k. s., liu, y., and atcitty, s. (2006). mitigation of the wind generation integration related power quality issues by energy storage. epqu j., 12(2). [2] manel, j. (2006). power electronic system for grid integration of renewable energy source: a survey. ieee trans. ind. electron., 53(4), 1002–1014. [3] han, c., huang, a. q., baran, m., bhattacharya, s., and litzenberger, w. (2008). statcom impact study on the integration of a large wind farm into a weak loop power system. ieee trans. energy conv., 23(1), 226–232, [4] kinjo, t. and senjyu, t. (2006). output leveling of renewable energy by electric double layer capacitor applied for energy storage system. ieeetrans. energy conv., 21(1). [5] bhatia, r. s., jain, s. p., jain, d. k., and singh, b., battery energy storage system for power http://www.ijcua.com/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(3), 31-37 / 2017 sheeraz kirmani, brijech kumar 37 conditioning of renewable energy sources. proc. int. conf. power electron drives system, 1, 501–506. [6] zeng, j., yu, c. qi, q. and yan, z. (2004). a novel hysteresis current control for active power filter with a constant frequency. elect. power syst. res., vol. 68, pp. 75–82, 2004. [7] j. barros, de apraiz, m., and diego, r. i. (2007). measurement of subharmonics in power voltages. power tech, ieee lausanne, 1736 – 1740. [8] lei, y., mullane, a., lightbody, g., and yacamini, r. (2006). modeling of the wind turbine with a doubly fed induction generator for grid integration studies. ieee trans. energy conversion, 21(1), 257–264. [9] lu, c. f., liu, c. c., and wu, c. j. (1995). new dynamic models of lead-acid batteries. iee proc.-gener. trans. distrib., 142(4), 429–435. 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(2008). power quality issues & it’s mitigation technique in wind energy conversion. proc. of ieee int. conf.quality power & harmonic, 3. [16] milands, m. i., cadavai, e. r., and gonzalez, f. b. (2007). comparison of control strategies for shunt active power filters in three phase four wire system. ieee trans. power electron. , 22(1), 229–236. [17] zou, c., wang, b., and bao, p. (2008). application of statcom in wind farm. electric drive, 12, 1-10, 2008. http://www.ijcua.com/ journal of contemporary urban affairs 2017, volume 1, number 3, pages 54– 61 a simple heliodon system for horizontal placed models * dr. maged g., mikhael 1, mr. mostafa, metwaly ² ,2 canadian international college (cic), egypt 1e mail: maged_george@cic-cairo.com ,e mail: mostafa_metwaly@cic-cairo.com a b s t r a c t most probably, all our buildings are affected by sunlight. hence, the ignorance of the sun’s impact results in overheating, glare, and missed opportunities for the positive use of daylight, leading to wasted energy. heliodon is considered to be a powerful tool that can aid students, professionals, building developers and users to better understand the relationship between the sun’s path and its effects on the architectural model(s). most of the heliodons are relatively expensive and complex in operation. thus, the need to design and build a simple and relatively inexpensive one emerged. it was proposed to work on this heliodon as a team project in the environmental control class “fall-2016”. the authors put the design concept and introduced a mathematical calculations table to be used with the physical heliodon, while nine students participated in the manufacturing process. the design concept is based on determining the sun’s position by converting the altitude and azimuth angels to their corresponding measurements on the (x, y & z) coordinates (in relation to the observer’s location). one light source can be moved on a set of graded tubes assembled in the shape of a wire frame box (thus the x, y & z distances could be measured) to simulate the sun’s position and its lighting conditions for any latitude, at any time for any chosen day. journal of contemporary urban affairs (2017) 1(3), 54-61. https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2018.3680 www.ijcua.com copyright © 2017 journal of contemporary urban affairs. all rights reserved. 1. introduction 1. nearly, 40% of the energy produced worldwide is consumed by buildings; this is equivalent to 2500 mtoe “million ton oil equivalents” per one year (attmann, 2010). in egypt, 52% of the produced electricity is consumed only by the residential buildings, while 90% of the electric power plants depend on non-renewable energy resources to operate (url4)(www.moee.gov.eg). thus, buildings are considered to be one of the main causes of climate change. studying the sun’s impact on buildings is the first step on the long way of solar-responsive design, where the most important goals are:  the maximum harvesting of winter sun  the optimum control of summer sun  the benefits of the natural daylighting “the natural daylight that a 0.9m × 1.5m window can provide is equivalent to 100 – 60w incandescent lamps” (lechner, 2008). hence, the comprehensive understanding of solar geometry and its consequences is necessary for a successful architectural design. a r t i c l e i n f o: article history: received 2 august 2017 accepted 23 august 2017 available online 12 october 2017 keywords: heliodon; solar path tracking; sun’s position; daylight. *corresponding author: canadian international college (cic), egypt e-mail address: maged_george@cic-cairo.com this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution noncommercial noderivs 4.0. "cc-by-nc-nd" http://www.ijcua.com/ mailto:maged_george@cic-cairo.com mailto:mostafa_metwaly@cic-cairo.com https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2018.3680 http://www.ijcua.com/ http://www.moee.gov.eg/ http://www.ijcua.com/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(3), 54-61 / 2017 maged g., mikhael, mostafa, metwaly 55 starting from the very early model made by dufton-bachett in 1931, passing by that one developed by george malcolm beal in 1953 (beal, 1957), and till the most recent models of lechner 2001 and his successors, heliodons have been considered one of the most powerful tools that can aid students, professionals, building developers and users to better understand the relationship between a building and the sun (lechner, 2001). since heliodons have been developed mainly to study the effect of the sunlight on a given building(s) model, three main variables are always the dominant constraints for any heliodon design concept, these variables are:  latitude determines the relation between the sun’s path and the geographical location on the earth’s surface.  day of the year: specifies the declination of the sun on a specific day.  time of the day: determines the sun’s position between the east and the west (cheung, 2000). these three variables guide the researcher to obtain two angels that help to allocate the sun’s position (figure 1). these two angels are:  altitude (alt): measured upwards from the horizon where the observer’s location is at the center of the skydome. figure 1. converting the sun’s position parameters from the angels altitude & azimuth system to the coordinates x, y & z – system.  azimuth (azi): measured in the horizontal plane from north or south (szokolay, 2008). heliodon designs could be classified into two groups, depending on the positions of both of the light source and the building model:  tilted / moving building model while the light source (s) is either fixed or moving.  fixed (horizontal) building model while the light source is moving (cheung, 2011). a quick glance on both of the two types declares that the first type has significant disadvantages: holding the model in steep angels may result in difficulty in viewing or causing it to slide out of position. furthermore, it doesn’t simulate our everyday experience of the sun moving across the skydome. meanwhile, the fixed building model types are complicated to manufacture and operate, relatively large (for more accuracy) thus, require larger space during operation and / or storage (most of them), and to somehow more expensive (url3) (www.heliodon.org). 2. the need for this heliodon our target in the environmental control class was to encourage the students to build their own heliodon, taking into consideration that it should be easy to understand, can be constructed inside the cic campus with simple tools, requires a relatively small space during both operation and storage and relatively inexpensive. to achieve the previous goals, the fixed building model type was selected; the concept of converting both of the altitude and the azimuth angels to their corresponding (x, y & z) coordinates (figure 1) “with a moving single light source to simulate the sun’s position” was chosen. the upvc pipes and connections were proposed as a construction material for the heliodon, “relatively rigid and cheap”, while the 5cm thick rigid foam and 5mm thick white sky dome radius projection the x coordinate sky dome center (location of the observer) the y coordinate n s w e sun’s position (x, y & z) imaginary sky dome radius the z coordinate the azimuth angel the altitude angel http://www.ijcua.com/ http://www.heliodon.org/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(3), 54-61 / 2017 maged g., mikhael, mostafa, metwaly 56 cardboard were the materials for the base. design concept and calculations, supervision and the orientation of the manufacturing process were the authors’ tasks, while the construction was accomplished by a group of nine students. 3. solar position calculations the authors relied on external software “sunposition” to determine the alt & azi angels of the sun’s position for any latitude, on any day of the year and at any time of the day. also, to generate the necessary input data to build a calculations table that will be used in the design and manufacturing process of the heliodon(url5)(www.susdesign.com/sunposition ). the main function of the calculations table is to change the parameters of the sun’s position from the “alt and azi angles system” to the coordinates system through a series of equations. the “sunposition” software was chosen for two main reasons:  it is comprehensive software, but yet, with an easy interface for students’ interaction.  it is open-source software, which can be accessed online easily and freely by students. 3.1the calculations table the authors designed an excel spreadsheet linked to the “sunposition” output data file to generate the main calculations table that will help the students to determine all the needed data and measurements to construct and operate their heliodon. the table was designed with two groups of data as follows:  the input data group (table 1-a): latitude & longitude: measured in degrees and generated automatically based on the value that was entered manually by the student on the “sunposition” software to define the exact location for calculation. time zone: measured in hours and generated automatically based on the value that was entered manually by the student to the “sunposition” to define the exact location for calculation. date of the day: a unit-less pre-set data, its values represent a predefined range of days for tracking the solar path over the year with oneday interval (1st. of jan. – 31st. of dec.). time of the day: a pre-set data, measured in hours, its values represent a predefined range of 13 hours for tracking the solar path over the day with one-hour interval (06 – 18). zero azimuth direction (north or south): choosing north (n) or south (s) as the zero azimuth direction (zad) is generated automatically based on the selection that was previously entered manually by the student on the “sunposition”, and it is set to the following rule: if the north is the zero azimuth direction then its value = 1 and the south value = 0, and vice versa. original altitude & azimuth angles: can be obtained from the “sunposition” in correspondence with a pre-set time value; it is measured in degrees and entered manually by the student to the calculations table.  the output data group (table 1-b): absolute azimuth angel: measured in degrees and generated automatically based on the input value of the original azimuth angle “regardless the zero azimuth direction”. the correction factor for the azimuth angel: measured in degrees and generated automatically, its value is either (0 or 180) based on the input value of the zero azimuth direction (180 in case of the zadn=1 and 0 in case of the zads =1). corrected azimuth angle: measured in degrees and generated automatically based on the input value of the zero azimuth direction (n or s), the output value of the azimuth angle correction factor and the output value of the absolute angle. skydome radius: a pre-set data that is measured in centimeters; its value represents the maximum allowable movement distance of the light source in any direction starting from the heliodon’s origin point (observer’s point). the distances on the (z) coordinate: measured in centimeters; it is generated automatically based on the output values of the altitude angle / sine and the pre-set value of the skydome radius. the z coordinate movement direction: measured in (+) only. the distances on the (y) coordinate: measured in centimeters, and is generated automatically based on the values of skydome radius projection on the horizontal plane and the azimuth angle cosine. the y coordinate movement direction: measured either in (+) or in (-); its values are generated automatically based on the output values of y coordinate distance, the input values of zad (n or s) in addition to the output values of absolute azimuth angel. the distances on the x coordinate: measured in centimeters; it is generated automatically based on the output values of skydome radius projection in addition to the output values of the distance of y coordinate. http://www.ijcua.com/ http://www.susdesign.com/sunposition http://www.susdesign.com/sunposition journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(3), 54-61 / 2017 maged g., mikhael, mostafa, metwaly 57 the x coordinate movement direction: measured either in (+) or in (-); its values are generated automatically based on the output values of the distance on the x coordinate, the pre-set values of time, the input values of the zad (n or s) in addition to the input value of the original azimuth angle. 4.1validation of the calculations table output to validate the output data that was obtained from the calculations table “for specific latitude and a certain time of a certain day” it was important to compare it with a reference data for the same variables. the latitude of 30.04 n (cairo – egypt) was chosen and the hours from (6 – 18) for the longest and shortest days of the year (21st. of june and 21st. of december) were selected for the validation. the output data results “the measuring distances on the x, y and z coordinates” for cairo – egypt at the selected hours on the chosen days were exported to “grasshopper”software(url2)(http://www.grass hopper3d.com/) to generate the corresponding solar path diagrams. when the solar path diagrams generated by “grasshopper” were compared to those generated by reference software “sunpath projections” for the same variables the results were identical (figure 2). table 1-a. sample of the input data group (the 21st. june & the 21st. december at noon time) table 1-b. sample of the output data group (the 21st. june & the 21st. december at noon time) figure 2. output data of (sun-path projections 1 & grasshopper 2) at noon time, 21st. december for cairo – egypt 4. heliodon construction for the purpose of learning in the environmental control lab., the skydome radius was selected to be 100cm “this could be greater or smaller according to the available space, the required accuracy and the scale of the model(s) understudy”. the upvc pipes were cut and assembled “with connections” to construct a wireframe like box “a bit larger to allow the light source to move 100cm in the three coordinates” as shown (figure 3 & 7). the (pz1, pz2, pz3 & pz4) pipes were graded (0 to 100cm) “using a sticker measuring tape” to illustrate the measuring units on the z coordinate, (px1 & px2) pipes were graded from their midpoints (0 to 100cm & 0 to -100cm) to illustrate the measuring units (+ & -) on the x coordinate and finally (py) pipe was graded from its midpoint (0 to 100cm & 0 to -100cm) to illustrate the measuring units (+ & -) on the y coordinate. bolts (b1, b2, b3 and b4) can be altitude angle azimuth angle "1" = yes "1" = yes "0" = no "0" = no data type pre-set pre-set input ($) input ($) units "---" "hours" "degrees" "degrees" 21-jun 12:00 083.360 006.260 21-dec 12:00 036.490 001.9502 2 gmt gmt input (,) "hours" time zone input (,) "---" zero azimuth direction input (,) "---" originalvariables date month time input (,) south originalnorth longitude "degrees" input (,) latitude "degrees" values values 30.0444 30.0444 n 31.2357 e n 31.2357 e 0 0 1 1 rate rate rate hyp. 01 opp. 01 adj. 01 "0" / "180" hyp. 02 adj. 02 opp. 02 output (#) output (#) output (#) pre-set output (#) output (#) output (#) output (#) output (#) output (#) output (#) "degrees" "degrees" "degrees" "cm" "cm" "+" "cm" "cm" "+" / "-" "cm" "+" / "-" 006.260 0 006.260 100 099 + 012 011 001 001.950 0 001.950 100 059 + 080 080 003 azimuth angle "y" coordinate direction "z" coordinate sky dome radius projection "x" coordinate direction directionabsolute correction factor corrected sky dome radius http://www.ijcua.com/ http://www.grasshopper3d.com/ http://www.grasshopper3d.com/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(3), 54-61 / 2017 maged g., mikhael, mostafa, metwaly 58 loosened to allow (px1and px2) pipes to move freely up and down on the (pz1, pz2, pz3 and pz4) pipes or can be tightened to fix them in the required z coordinate position (figure 4). bolts (b5 and b6) can be loosened allowing the (py) pipe to move feely to the right or to the left on (px1 and px2) pipes figure 3. the proposed heliodon illustrates the effect of the sunlight on a building model . “21st. september at 10:00, cairo-egypt” figure 4. detail 1. tested 3d model 21st. september sun path – cairo imaginary sky dome 10:00 coordinates: (45cm, 44cm, 85cm) px1 b1 pz4 detail -2 pz1 b5 detail -1 b2 py detail -3 pz2 b3 b6 px2 pz3 b4 measuring tape, y (+) upvc tube py, d 3/4" upvc union, d 3/4" upvc connection tube, d 3/4" upvc reducing bush, d 1"3/4" measuring tape x (-) fixing bolt b5 upvc tee 90, d 1" upvc tube px1, d 3/4" measuring tape x (+) http://www.ijcua.com/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(3), 54-61 / 2017 maged g., mikhael, mostafa, metwaly 59 figure 5. detail -2 figure 6. detail 3. or can be tightened to fix it in the required x coordinate position (figure 5). a (100w) incandescent lamp was used as a light source to simulate the sunlight rays and it can move back and forth on the (py) pipe to reach the required y coordinate position and simulate the sun’s position (figure 6). the base was made of 5cm thick rigid foam between two layers of “100cm × 70cm × 5mm” cardboard sheets. figure 7. the students during the manufacturing and assembling of the heliodon 4.2operation of the heliodon after the installation process “previously described” the student can follow the next steps to track the solar path and study the effect of the sun light on his building model:  prepare the building model and put it in the origin point of the heliodon (the model should be oriented with respect to the four cardinal directions).  determine the latitude of the building, date of the day and the time of the selected day.  use the previous constrains as input data in the “sunposition” software (or any similar software) to generate the corresponding altitude and altitude angels.  use all the predetermined constrains and the generated angles as input data in the designed calculations table to generate the corresponding measuring distances on the x, y and z coordinates.  adjust the position of the light source according to the generated measures on  the heliodon. measuring tape, y (-) fixing bolt b electrical cord measuring tape, y (+) upvc tee 90, d 1" upvc tube, 3/4" incandescent lamp edison screw lamp holder measuring tape z (+) upvc tee 90, d 1" fixing bolt b1 upvc tube pz4, d 3/4" measuring tape x (-) upvc tube px1, d 3/4" upvc union, d 3/4" upvc connection tube, d 3/4" upvc reducing bush, d 1"3/4" http://www.ijcua.com/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(3), 54-61 / 2017 maged g., mikhael, mostafa, metwaly 60  plug in the electrical cable, turn on the lamp and observe the effect of the light on the model (figure 8).  after completing the study turn of the lamp and unplug the electrical cable.  in case of storage for long periods, disassemble the heliodon parts and store it. figure 8. using the heliodon to test the effect of sunlight on a building model 5. conclusion the main target of this work was to encourage the students in the environmental control class to participate in the design and the manufacturing of their own heliodon, hence their awareness of both of the solar geometry and the solarresponsive design could be enhanced. the concept of this heliodon is relatively simple as it depends on the determination of the relationship between the sun’s position and its corresponding x, y and z coordinates related to the observer’s location on the earth’s surface. relying on external software “sunposition” was necessary to generate both of the azimuth and altitude angels for any location on the earth’s surface and at any time for any chosen day. the designed calculations table played a vital role during both of the manufacturing and operation processes. the excel sheet that was designed to form the calculations table relied on the output data of the “sunposition” (azimuth and altitude angels) along with the assumption of the sky dome radius to generate the corresponding x, y, and z measuring distances on the heliodon. the output data of the calculations table were compared to external reference software sun-path projections and the results were identical. thus the design concept could be verified. the proposed heliodon was successfully constructed according to the assumed measurements in the calculations table, and the students could use it effectively to study the effect of the sunlight on their building model(s). this heliodon could be designed and constructed with different scales according to the required accuracy; the available space and budget, and can be disassembled and stored in small space for future use. tuning & future work we aim to reconstruct this heliodon system with more durable material (stainless steel pipes), more efficient bracing system and a led light source instead of the incandescent lamp to give more parallel light rays, thus, a more realistic sunlight simulation. also, we hope we can make a fruitful collaboration with other engineering specializations to make the system fully operated and controlled by a commuter system. acknowledgement we would like to give special thanks to our diligent students who participated in the construction process: andrew ghettany, mahmoud el-zayaty, mohamed wahba, mohamed ezz el-dein, mohamed essam, mostafa helal, omar el-shahawai, omar abd elgawad and ziad hassan. also we would like to thank those so special students of the environmental control class “cohort-2014”, a list of their names could be found on the following link: (url1)(https://drive.google.com/open?id=0bbnxteorp3vtudwvxlayldldvk). references attmann, o. (2010). green architecture: advanced technologies and materials. mcgraw-hill professional, 11-13. beal,g.m.(1957). natural light and the insideoutside heliodon, university of kansas publications. the bulletin of engineering and architecture, 38, 12-13. cheung, k.p. (2000). a multi-lamp heliodon for architectural schools, international journal of architectural science, 1(1), 46-58. cheung, k.p. (2011). a discussion on the design principles of a patented portable direct sunlight light-duty universal heliodon mounted on a camera tripod. international journal of architectural science, 8(4), 98-113. lechner, n. (2001). the sun emulator: a conceptually clear heliodon. proceedings http://www.ijcua.com/ https://drive.google.com/open?id=0b-bnxteorp3vtudwvxlayldldvk https://drive.google.com/open?id=0b-bnxteorp3vtudwvxlayldldvk journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(3), 54-61 / 2017 maged g., mikhael, mostafa, metwaly 61 of the asca “association colligate schools of architecture” technology conference, 116-118. lechner, n. (2008). heating, cooling, lighting: sustainable design methods for architects, 3rd. ed., ny, usa, john wiley & sons,.404. szokolay, s.v. (2008). introduction to architectural science: the basis of sustainable design, 2nd. ed., elsevier, usa, 2224. url1 https://drive.google.com/open?id=0bbnxteorp3vtudwvxlayldldvk url2 http://www.grasshopper3d.com/ url3 http://www.heliodon.org url4 http://www.moee.gov.eg/english_new/eehc_re p/2014-2015en.pdf (pp.18 & pp.43) url5 http://www.susdesign.com/sunposition/index.php http://www.ijcua.com/ https://drive.google.com/open?id=0b-bnxteorp3vtudwvxlayldldvk https://drive.google.com/open?id=0b-bnxteorp3vtudwvxlayldldvk http://www.grasshopper3d.com/ http://www.heliodon.org/ http://www.moee.gov.eg/english_new/eehc_rep/2014-2015en.pdf http://www.moee.gov.eg/english_new/eehc_rep/2014-2015en.pdf http://www.susdesign.com/sunposition/index.php journal of contemporary urban affairs 2017, volume 1, number 3, pages 24– 30 interrelationship between nutrients and chlorophylla in an urban stormwater lake during the icecovered period * kejian chu 1, yuntong she 2, jeff kemp 3, mark loewen 4, evan davies 5 1 college of environment, hohai university, nanjing, p. r. china 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 department of civil and environmental engineering, university of alberta, edmonton, canada 1 e mail: kejian@ualberta.ca , 2 e mail: yuntong.she@ualberta.ca a b s t r a c t urban stormwater lakes in cold regions are ice-covered for substantial parts of the winter. it has long been considered that the ice-covered period is the “dormant season,” during which ecological processes are inactive. however, little is known about this period due to the historical focus on the open-water season. recent pioneering research on ice-covered natural lakes has suggested that some critical ecological processes play out on the ice. the objective of this study was to investigate the active processes in ice-covered stormwater lakes. data collected during a twoyear field measurement program at a stormwater lake located in edmonton, alberta, canada were analyzed. the lake was covered by ice from november to mid-april of the following year. the mean value of chlorophyll-a during the ice-covered period was 22.09% of the mean value for the open-water season, suggesting that primary productivity under ice can be important. nitrogen and phosphorus were remarkably higher during the ice-covered period, while dissolved organic carbon showed little seasonal variation. under ice-covered conditions, the total phosphorus was the major nutrient controlling the ratio of total nitrogen to total phosphorus, and a significant positive correlation existed between total phosphorus and chlorophyll-a when the ratio was smaller than 10. the results provide preliminary evidence of the critical nutrient processes in the stormwater lake during the ice-covered period. journal of contemporary urban affairs (2017) 1(3), 24-30. https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2018.3675 www.ijcua.com copyright © 2017 journal contemporary urban affairs. all rights reserved. 1. introduction stormwater lakes support urban runoff management and prevent flooding and downstream erosion in urban areas. in cold regions, these lakes are ice-covered for substantial part or the entire winter. it has long been considered that the ice-covered period is the “dormant season” for lakes (hampton et al., 2015), during which ecosystems subjected to low temperatures are “on hold” and most ecological processes are inactive until the environmental conditions become more conducive to the growth of aquatic organisms (bertilsson et al., 2013). in the original plankton ecology group’s (peg) model (an influential freshwater a r t i c l e i n f o: article history: received 2 august 2017 accepted 10 october 2017 available online 12 october 2017 keywords: ice-covered; chlorophyll-a; nutrients; urban stormwater lake. *corresponding author: college of environment, hohai university, nanjing, p. r. china e-mail address: kejian@ualberta.ca this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution noncommercial noderivs 4.0. "cc-by-nc-nd" http://www.ijcua.com/ mailto:kejian@ualberta.ca mailto:yuntong.she@ualberta.ca https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2018.3675 www.ijcua.com http://www.ijcua.com/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(3), 24-30 / 2017 kejian chu, yuntong she, jeff kemp, mark loewen, evan davies 25 ecological model), the ice-covered period is described as a physical suppressor of the ecosystem and essentially a “reset” button for renewal in the following spring (sommer et al., 1986). from this perspective, most historical research had focused on the open-water period as the “growing” season, and few studies have included winter research on ice-covered lakes; thus, little is known about the physics, geochemistry, and biology under ice in these systems (hampton et al., 2017). more recently, some pioneering winter lake research has shown increasing evidence that some critical ecological processes are playing out under the ice (salonen et al. 2009, bertilsson et al., 2013). for example in lake erie, the underice phytoplankton growth and loss rates in midwinter were found to be as high as those of the summer months (twiss et al., 2014). lenard and wojciechowska (2013) compared the phytoplankton community composition of two lakes in two consecutive winters. both lakes favored the development of nanoplankton when they were ice covered in one winter, but produced microplankton when they were completely ice-free in the second winter. phytoplankton community structure was found to be strongly correlated with ice thickness (ozkundakci et al., 2016). high species diversity has been found under ice despite unfavorable conditions, including limited light availability, low water temperatures, restricted air-water gas exchange and prevention of wind-induced mixing (salonen et al., 2009, schröder, 2013). the concentration of nutrients and dissolved organic carbon may help to drive the plankton dynamics (babanazarova et al., 2013). griffiths et al. (2017) examined the shifts in diatom assemblages from ten high arctic lakes, lakes and concluded that ice cover is likely the principle driver of some of the most important ecological changes, resulting in increased diversity and the emergence of novel growth forms and epiphytic species. with respect to winter stormwater lakes, previous studies have mostly focused on the hydrodynamic, water quality, pollutant removal performances, and operational environmental risk (e.g., marsalek et al., 2000, 2003; semadenidavies, 2006; tixier et al., 2012). however, ecological processes in ice-covered stormwater lakes have not received the same level of attention as the natural lakes. the objective of this study was to investigate the active processes in an ice-covered stormwater lake. data including concentrations of nutrients, dissolved carbon, and chlorophyll-a collected during a two-year field measurement program at a stormwater lake located in edmonton, alberta, canada were analyzed. the stormwater lake was covered by ice from november to mid-april in the following year. the differences in concentrations of total nitrogen (tn), total phosphorus (tp), dissolved organic carbon (doc), dissolved inorganic carbon (dic) and chlorophyll-a (chl-a) between ice-covered and open-water seasons were explored. the correlations between these variables were analyzed using the pearson correlation test and their correlative behaviors in ice-covered and open-water periods were compared to reveal the pattern of nutrient processes occurring under ice in the study lake. 2. study lake and methodology the study stormwater lake is located in southwest edmonton and has an average depth of 1.78 m and a storage volume of 39,000 m3. the bathymetry of the lake together with the inlet and outlet locations are shown in figure 1. a total of 162 water samples were collected during a two-year field measurement program between october 2013 and october 2015. sampling locations were at the inlet and outlet locations, as well as at the corner and center of the lake. 26 samples were collected during the icecovered period by drilling holes at monthly intervals. the water samples were sent to the biogeochemical analytical service laboratory (basl) at the university of alberta for measurement of the pertinent water quality parameters, including tn, tp, doc, dic, and chla. tn and tp were analyzed by lachat quickchem qc8500 fia automated ion analyzer (american water works association, 2004, 1999), doc and dic by shimadzu toc5000a total organic carbon analyzer (epa 415.1 (modified)), and chl-a by shimadzu rf-1501 spectrofluorophotometer (welschmeyer, 1994) and varian cary 50 probe uv-visible spectrophotometer (epa 446.0 (modified)). the detection limits of the basl test results are 7 ppb for tn, 1.4 ppb for tp, 0.1 ppm for doc, 0.2 ppm for dic and 0.2 µg/l for chl-a. 3. results and discussion the sampling results for tn, tp, doc, doc, and chl-a in the stormwater lake are presented in figure 2. ice-covered periods are indicated by dashed rectangles. descriptive statistics were calculated to describe the main characteristics of the variable measurements (table 1). during the monitoring period, the concentrations of http://www.ijcua.com/ http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.13085/full#gcb13085-bib-0053 journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(3), 24-30 / 2017 kejian chu, yuntong she, jeff kemp, mark loewen, evan davies 26 doc and dic were relatively stable, with coefficients of variation of 24.41% and 31.80% respectively. daily averages for the different sampling locations (± standard deviation) ranged from 4.92 ± 3.17 mg/l to 13.58 ± 0.67 mg/l for doc and 10.89 ± 3.02 mg/l to 31.0 ± 0.93 mg/l for dic. the concentrations of chl-a, tn and tp fluctuated more, with corresponding coefficients of variation of 83.79%, 57.89%, and 65.48%, and daily averages ranging between 1.45 ± 1.09 µg/l and 300.9 ± 75.12 µg/l, 549.71 ± 16.71 µg/l and 3438.4 ± 897.19 µg/l, 89.4 ± 8.74 µg/l and 650.2 ± 321.99 µg/l respectively. figure 1. bathymetry of the study stormwater lake, arrows indicate incoming and outgoing storm sewer. a) figure 2. measured concentration of a) doc, dic; b) chl-a, tp, tn during the two-year monitoring period. table 1. descriptive statistics of the measurements during the monitoring period. variable min max mean sd cv chl-a (µg/l) 1.45 300.90 87.59 73.39 83.79% tn (µg/l) 549.71 3438.40 1518.67 879.10 57.89% tp (µg/l) 89.40 650.20 194.82 127.56 65.48% doc (mg/l) 4.92 13.58 10.55 2.57 24.41% dic (mg/l) 10.89 31.00 18.34 5.83 31.80% notes: min=minimum of daily average value of all sampling locations; max=maximum of daily average value of all sampling locations; mean=average value during monitoring period of all sampling locations; sd=standard deviation; cv=coefficient of variation. table 2 provides descriptive statistics for the measurements during the ice-covered and open-water seasons. the corresponding periods in both monitoring years were combined for this 0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0 45.0 50.0 doc dic d o c , d ic ( m g /l ) http://www.ijcua.com/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(3), 24-30 / 2017 kejian chu, yuntong she, jeff kemp, mark loewen, evan davies 27 analysis. average chl-a under ice-covered conditions (22.11 ± 17.48 µg/l) was significantly lower, but still approximately a quarter (22.09%) of the open-water average (100.1 ± 73.37 µg/l). therefore, primary productivity under ice should be considered an important part of the wholeyear productivity. tn, tp and dic were remarkably higher under ice-covered conditions (2788.31 ± 783.60 µg/l, 302.19 ± 247.79 µg/l and 28.34 ± 4.02 mg/l) compared to open-water conditions (1275.95 ± 661.92 µg/l, 174.29 ± 73.42 µg/l and 16.43 ± 3.83 mg/l), whereas doc concentrations showed little seasonal variation (11.92 ± 1.34 mg/l under ice-covered condition and 10.29 ± 2.67 mg/l under open-water condition). the higher concentrations of tn and tp under the ice likely reflect nutrient input from the municipal storm sewer network, roadway and roadside deposit, deicing and anti-skid agents (oberts et al., 2000), as well as leaf litter (bratt et al., 2017). the seasonal difference was most prominent for tn, where the ratio of the under-ice average to the open-water average reached 2.19:1. this ratio was 1.73:1 for tp, 1.72:1 for dic and 1.16:1 for doc. table 2. descriptive statistics for variable measurements under ice-covered and open-water conditions chl-a (µg/l) tn (µg/l) tp (µg/l) doc (mg/l) dic (mg/l) ice covered min 12.28 2124.00 186.60 10.50 21.06 max 32.23 3438.40 650.20 13.53 31.00 mean 22.11 2788.31 302.19 11.92 28.34 sd 17.48 783.60 247.79 1.34 4.02 cv 79.05% 28.10% 82.00% 11.23% 14.17% open water min 1.45 549.71 89.40 4.92 10.89 max 300.90 2763.33 349.67 13.58 25.05 mean 100.10 1275.95 174.29 10.29 16.43 sd 73.37 661.92 73.42 2.67 3.83 cv 73.30% 51.88% 42.12% 25.98% 23.30% the correlation coefficient values among tn, tp, doc, dic and chl-a are presented in table 3. there were significant positive relationships between tn and tp under ice-covered (0.59, p<0.01) and open-water conditions (0.42, p<0.01). this suggests that both nutrients have the same input sources and outputs to the water area. during the ice-covered period, significant negative correlations existed between doc and tn (-0.53, p<0.01), and dic and tp (-0.58, p<0.01), whereas these correlations were very weak under open-water conditions. no statistically significant correlations were found among doc, dic and chl-a under both ice-covered and open-water conditions. chl-a appeared to vary independently from dissolved carbon during the monitoring period in the study lake. a significant correlation existed between tp and chl-a (0.68, p<0.01) as well as tn and chl-a (0.50, p<0.01) during the open-water periods, while both nutrients were statistically uncorrelated to chl-a under ice (-0.26, p=0.20 for tn; -0.13, p=0.53 for tp). the interaction patterns of nutrients with chl-a differ between icecovered and open-water conditions in the study lake. under open-water conditions, tp had a stronger positive correlation with chl-a than tn, indicating that tp plays a more important role in algal growth. the relationship between tp and chl-a, shown in figure 3 on a log-log scale, demonstrates a predominantly positive trend. under ice-covered conditions, the overall weak relationships of tn and tp to chl-a suggest that the stormwater lake is not primarily nutrient limited. http://www.ijcua.com/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(3), 24-30 / 2017 kejian chu, yuntong she, jeff kemp, mark loewen, evan davies 28 table 3. pearson’s correlation among the measured variables for the study lake. tn tp doc dic chl-a ice covered tn 1 0.59** -0.53** -0.43* -0.26 tp 1 -0.38 -0.58** -0.13 doc 1 -0.06 0.34 dic 1 0.09 chl-a 1 open water tn 1.00 0.42** -0.11 0.18* 0.50** tp 1.00 -0.22* -0.04 0.68** doc 1.00 -0.06 -0.16 dic 1.00 -0.14 chl-a 1 note: * significant (two-tailed) at p≤0.05 level; ** significant (two-tailed) at p≤0.01 level. figure 3. log (tp) vs. log (chl-a) under open-water conditions. for the study lake, the value of tn/tp was calculated to range from 2.64 to 24.62 under icecovered conditions and from 2.31 to 47.08 under open-water conditions respectively. tp and tn/tp were more significantly correlated than tn and tn/tp under ice, but the opposite was found during the open-water period (figure 4). this indicates that the major nutrient controlling the tn/tp level is tp during the ice-covered period, and it shifts to tn in the open-water seasons. figure 4. log (tn/tp) vs. log (tn) and log (tp) under a) ice-covered conditions; b) open-water conditions. generally, a lake is considered nitrogenlimited when tn/tp < 10; nitrogenor phosphoruslimited or phosphorus-limited when tn/tp > 10. the relationships between tn, tp and chl-a at different tn/tp levels are presented in figure 5. significant positive correlations existed between tp and chl-a under both ice-covered conditions (0.73, p<0.05) and open-water conditions (0.73, p<0.01) when tn/tp<10. the chl-a concentration increased dramatically with respect to the tp concentration under open-water conditions, and gradually under ice. when tn/tp>10, tp was positively related to chl-a under open-water conditions (0.58, p<0.01), but the correlation was n=136, r² = 0.235 p<0.01 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.1 2.3 2.5 2.7 2.9 c h la ( in l o g s ) tp (in logs) n=26, r² = 0.172 p =0.033 n=26, r² = 0.862 p <0.01 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 tn (in logs) tp (in logs) n=136, r² = 0.461 p <0.01 n=136, r² = 0.226 p <0.011.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 tn (in logs) tp (in logs)a) b) tn/tp (in logs) tn/tp (in logs) http://www.ijcua.com/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(3), 24-30 / 2017 kejian chu, yuntong she, jeff kemp, mark loewen, evan davies 29 non-significant during the ice-covered period (0.26, p=0.30). the correlations between tn and chl-a were significantly positive in open-water season (0.55, p<0.01 when tn/tp<10; 0.56, p<0.05 when tn/tp>10); however, during the icecovered period, the situation differed strongly: when tn/tp<10, tn had a non-significant negative correlation with chl-a (-0.37, p=0.36); when tn/tp>10, the relationship was very weak (0.002, p=0.99). figure 5. relationships between tn, tp and chl-a at a) tn/tp < 10; b) tn/tp > 10 4. conclusion the nutrient processes in a study stormwater lake were investigated. data analyzed included the concentrations of tn, tp, doc, dic, and chla collected during a two-year field measurement program. the stormwater lake was covered by ice from november to mid-april in the following year for both winters, allowing a comparison between ice-covered and openwater conditions. the results indicated that the mean value of chl-a under ice-covered condition was 22.09% of the mean value under open-water conditions, suggesting the potential importance of primary productivity under ice. concentrations of tn, tp, and dic were remarkably higher under ice-covered conditions, while doc showed little seasonal variation. the correlation trends of nutrients with chl-a also varied seasonally. tp was found to be more determinative of chl-a concentrations in open-water season. during the ice-covered period, tp was the major nutrient controlling the ratio of tn to tp, and the relationships between nutrients and chl-a were remarkably different under different tn/tp. acknowledgement this work was financially supported by the natural sciences and engineering research council of canada (nserc) collaborative research and development grant, the city of edmonton, and the china scholarship council (csc). their support is gratefully acknowledged. references american water works association. (1999). tp standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater. 20th ed, 4500-p. american water works association. (2004). tn standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater. 22nd ed, 4500-n-b. babanazarova, o., sidelev, s., schischeleva, s. (2013). “the structure of winter phytoplankton in lake nero, russia, a hypertrophic lake dominated by planktothrix-like cyanobacteria”. aquatic biosystems, 9(18). doi: 10.1186/2046-9063-918. bertilsson, s., burgin a., carey c., fey s., grossart, p., grubisic, l., jones, i., kirillin, g., lennon, j., shade, a., smyth, r. (2013). “the under-ice micro biome of seasonally frozen lakes” limnol. oceanogr, 58 (6), 1998-2013. 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 0 2000 4000 6000 c h la ( μ g /l ) tn (μg/l) 系列1 系列2 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 0 500 1000 1500 c h la ( μ g /l ) tp (μg/l) ice-covered conditions op en-water conditions 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 0 2000 4000 6000 c h la ( μ g /l ) tn (μg/l) 系列1 系列2 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 0 100 200 300 400 c h la ( μ g /l ) tp (μg/l) ice-covered conditions op en-water conditions a) b) http://www.ijcua.com/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(3), 24-30 / 2017 kejian chu, yuntong she, jeff kemp, mark loewen, evan davies 30 bratt, a. r., finlay, j. c., hobbie, s. e., janke, b. d., worm, a. c., kemmitt, k. l. 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(1994). “fluorometric analysis of chlorophyll an in the presence of chlorophyll b and pheopigments.” limnol. oceanogr., 39(8), 1985-1992. http://www.ijcua.com/ journal of contemporary urban affairs 2017, volume 1, number 2, pages 11– 20 identity in changing context: factors of losing identity in new developed part of the city of famagusta, north cyprus *dr. hourakhsh ahmad nia 1, ma. yousif hussien suleiman 2 1 & 2 department of architecture, nawroz university, duhok, kurdistan region, iraq e mail: hourakhsh_ahmadnia@yahoo.com , e mail: yousif.sulaiman@nawroz.edu.krd a b s t r a c t historical cities due to its magnificent building in its context have tremendous influence on formation of city identity, which is created through the interaction of natural, social and built elements. unfortunately modernization after the industrial revolution couldn’t adapt itself to vernacular area, owe to the fact that cities began to lose their identity and sense of belonging to the environment. new technology of construction lets the cities to expand itself outside, but in this transformation, some factors which have an influence on the identity of the city have been forgotten. in this research it is aimed to analysis physical and social factors which are causing the loss of identity in the city of famagusta (gazimagusa). both qualitative and qualitative methods have been used in this research and the adopted techniques are personal observation, sketches, and comparing new development part of the city with traditional part. the research will try to answer the question of why urban sprawl could not maintain the identity of the city of gazimagusa?). this research revealed that globalization by neglecting historical housing principles is the main factor which threatening identity of the city. journal of contemporary urban affairs (2017) 1(2), 11-20. https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2017.3644 www.ijcua.com copyright © 2017 journal of contemporary urban affairs. all rights reserved. 1. introduction “city identity is a strong concept or conditions that differ cities from other locations. the city identity creates images in people's mind even that haven't seen it before. it is an essential characteristic for creating better environments” (fasli, 2010). unfortunately in the new development part of cities there is not any potential to attract people to place. these places converted to lost spaces due to lack of mixed use functionality. the new places don’t have meaning to its users. in this area the role of globalization in the new development part of the city should be considered, it seems that the globalization by changing in social and cultural structure changes meaning of identity of cities. understanding which factors have more effect a r t i c l e i n f o: article history: received 20 february 2017 accepted 7 may 2017 available online 7 may 2017 keywords: identity; changing context; globalization; urban sprawl. *corresponding author: department of architecture, nawroz university, duhok, kurdistan region, iraq e-mail address: hourakhsh_ahmadnia@yahoo.com this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution noncommercial noderivs 4.0. "cc-by-nc-nd" mailto:hourakhsh_ahmadnia@yahoo.com https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2017.3644 file:///d:/my%20journal/papers/vol%201%20issue%202/2%20hourakhsh/www.ijcua.com mailto:hourakhsh_ahmadnia@yahoo.com https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(2), 11-20 / 2017 hourakhsh ahmad nia, yousif hussien suleiman 12 on the changing identity of the city of famagusta in new development part of the city related to its traditional housing environment, will be the main issue in this research. in this study, the city identity related to its physical, socioeconomic, socio-cultural structures and historical factors will be explained. 1.1. literature review 1.1.1 globalization and its effect of urban context by considering the meaning of globalization “the act of globalizing, or extending to other or all parts of the world and worldwide integration or development” (dictionary, 2012), it's obvious that the process of globalization is against the cultural and regional identity of a city. it means that “globalization has resulted in the loss of some individual cultural identities” (kutsal, 2012). the context of urban area in these recent decades has been radically changed. similar patterns of housing construction rapidly expanded itself all around the world. unfortunately the process of globalization and similar construction ruined city's historical icons which had influence on the identity of the cities. socio cultural, social physical changes in the context of the city changes fashion and lifestyle of the peoples. it's obvious that during the past decades the world has been changed because of technological innovation and global restructuring. since the first decades of the twenty century. nowadays the processes of globalization affect all countries, thus this led to effects on social and cultural lives. “the globalization process leads the cities to be in a uniformed type; eventually, influences the living spaces, architecture and urban identity. the economic changes take place as a result of the development process of the cities, where urban image differs and changes” (kutsal, 2012). “globalization is now an unstoppable historical process led by technological change and involving the dissemination of science and new technologies” (eldemery, 2009). 1.1.2 the effect of globalization on urban sprawl because of the essence of technology, and rapidly increasing population of the city and due to dynamic of urban growth the city has to be expanded itself to outside. mass housing construction without attention to its surrounding and environmental and social identity (e.g., socio-cultural, socio-political, socio-economic) for this reason scholars called this phenomena as urban sprawl. in the literature of urban planning or urban economics, “there is a big debate on even the definition of urban sprawl itself, let alone its causes and impacts” (gordon and richardson, 1997; ewing, 1997; fischel, 1999; brueckner, 2001). generally, the definition of urban sprawl appears that, “first, it has to be an inefficient or an excessive urban expansion, which certainly involves some benchmark of ‘normal’ or efficient urban structure; second, if determined inefficient or excessive, the spatial pattern may be in leapfrog development, low density, or some other forms” (deng, 2004). this discussion revealed that global technology of construction lets the city to expand itself outside, but in this transformation, some factors which have an influence on the identity of the city have been forgotten. for this reason it’s obvious to say that globalization by neglecting icons of identity of a city in transformation period create images of unsustainable city. 2. methodology famagusta (gazimagusta) city in north cyrus has a problem of urban sprawl with two types of free standing villas and cubic form of four or five story buildings which don't have any relationship with its surroundings. in this era, understanding why urban sprawl could not maintain the identity of the city will be the main issue in this research. 2.1. case study: the city of gazimagusa gazimagusa, the second largest city of northern cyprus with a population of 35.000(url4. 2013), is situated on the eastern coast of the island of cyprus in the eastern mediterranean sea. “the city reflects a long and unique history in the form of a rich cultural, urban and architectural journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(2), 11-20 / 2017 hourakhsh ahmad nia, yousif hussien suleiman 13 heritage in its older core, the walled city, a fortified medieval city dating back to the 15th century” (oktay, 2001). medieval walled city of famagusta due to its port and magnificent historical building with human scale narrow streets (organic pattern) and its traditional context have a tremendous identity which works in global scale. as önal et al. (1999), in her paper of “the urban problems of gazimagusa (famagusta) and proposals for the future” discuses about urban growth of gazimagusa by reflecting the fact that after the industrial revolution from 1960 rapid urban growth started to expand itself in the suburb but in this rapid urban growth it seems that something have been forgotten from vernacular housing construction point of view. figure 1. location of gazimagusa in north cyprus (onal et al., 1999). figure 2. urban explosion in gazimagusa from 1960 till know (onal et al., 1999). 2.2. factors which have an influence on the identity of the city of gazimagusa (famagusta) identity of cities is acquired with their original characters. “by passing the time, some cities lost their original architecture and urban characteristics, thus the settlement fall into a confusion of identity. in the case of gazimagusa, economic structure, urban culture, reflection of climate factors to the physical structure and lifestyle of urban dwellers, construction techniques can easily readable”( kutsal, 2012). as a result, physical environment, socioeconomic conditions, cultural and historical characteristics are the main factors in identity of the city of gazimagusa. 2.3. analyzing the identity of the historical part of the city of gazimagusa with its new developed parts 2.3.1 physical structure of the city in the walled city of gazimagusa houses are usually one or two story buildings with the courtyards at the back. “horizontal lines dominant on facades as in traditional turkish houses, projections, cikma or cumba, give a unique character to the house as well as to the street long which they are located. figure 3. cumba (facade protuberance) was a notable architectural expression of the ottoman culture. (walled city, famagusta .photo by author. 9th januar 2016). unfortunately in today’s housing in gazimagusa in the outer part of walled city there is no evidence to show usage of cumba in the building. also this element of the city is from the past but it’s part of traditional turkish housing which has influence on identity and sustainability of historic urban cities. “in vernacular cypriot houses, there are a rich variety of open and semiopen spaces, such as open-to-sky courtyards, verandas at the front and sundurmas at the back, all with access to greenery. in a courtyard, avlu in turkish, and havli in local cypriot turkish, journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(2), 11-20 / 2017 hourakhsh ahmad nia, yousif hussien suleiman 14 compared to other kinds of open terrain, the sense of enclosure and small scale is easily manipulated, and given a mixture of hard and soft treatments”(oktay, 2002). figure 4. havlı as the elementary spatial cell of the urban fabric (retrieved from url1. 30th december 2016). figure 5. organic pattern, together with the presence of some historic monumental structures and a definite center, greatly contribute the image ability and identity of the walled city of famagusta. 2.3.1.2. streets and urban context medieval cities in north cyprus with its narrow streets which works in human scales. this compact form works properly with its context, streets are integrated into each other to helps the context of the city to be in a sustainable way. after modern construction in cities by entering cars in context, the meaning of cities has been changed. the street dos not mean much for attaching people to the urban environment. straight streets with its cares are threatening the city's sustainability in north cyprus. due to dynamic of urban growth the city expanded itself to the exterior part of the city. streets as vital glue, sticks all variables of context with each other. unfortunately the modern form of the streets couldn’t work properly for this reason the context of the cities are in danger of unsustainability. figure 6. street in the traditional quarter of gazimagusa (photo by author. 9th januar 2016, walled ctiy). figure 7. street in recently development part of famagusta(photo by author, 30th decebmer2016). 2.3.1.3. square “the square is the most distinct element of the urban structure, determined by the same formal factors as the street, with the difference being that the buildings should form a continuous boundary around the space” (oktay, 2006). fortunately squares in historical part of the city of gazimagusa in north cyprus are steel maintain its own characteristic. most successful squares in these parts of cities have mixed us functionality to attract a different type of people into it. such this kind of square is in the walled city of famagusta called namic kemal plaza with its monumental church and different type of functionality. on the other hand the functionality of squares in new development part of the city could not attach itself with its surround. the square has been designed just for automobiles. journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(2), 11-20 / 2017 hourakhsh ahmad nia, yousif hussien suleiman 15 figure 8. namic kemal plaza;by integrated all people and functions with each other has important characteristic on identity of the city of famagusta. (retrieved from url3. 30th december 2016). unfortunately in this era the meaning of square has been changed. the squares are just for cars, there is no any activity or functionality to invite people into it. thus here we can say that modern squares couldn’t work properly with its environment figure 9. a view from the modern city center of famagusta (photo by author 20th december, 2016). 2.3.2. social-spatial patterns 2.3.2.1. the context of neighbourhood according to jacobs (1961) in the context of the neighborhood, “urban space should be conceived as an outdoor room, somewhere to relax and enjoy from the urban experience”. “when local urban context is considered, the district or quarter (neighborhood) is the identifying symbol both for the evaluation of city and for the new urban extension, it is also essential for sustainable development” (oktay, 1998). to create a memorable place it seems that we need creative design in context of the neighborhood. mahalle is an important unit in turkish society, neighborhoods were not just a physical relation among each other; also works as a social and economic collaboration. unfortunately in new development part of famagusta (e.g. karakol neighborhood) the traditional meaning of mahalle has been changed. this place doesn’t have any place to ‘relax and enjoy’. (it doesn’t have mixes use functionality almost 90 % of the building are for residential purposes). the place doesn’t integrate properly with each other, there is no any place for social activity these factors are important which have influence in the identity of the city. 2.3.3. socioeconomic structure of the city 2.3.3.1. problems in urban identity considering financial benefits “the economic structure of the city causes changes in the physical entity of spaces. therefore changes in economic structure have an influence on the social structure and changes physical spaces. as a result these changing processes are effective in changing the urban identity” (kutsal, 2012). to make rapid production; in global scale the modal housing construction started execution without consideration of local elements in the city so, that all cities have fallen into the danger of losing their identities in the process of similarization. such this kind of similarization is everywhere in the city. by critical analysis of new development part of the city with socioeconomic point of view, it seems that the main reason in today’s mass construction came back to the idea of globalization to earn more money. unfortunately journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(2), 11-20 / 2017 hourakhsh ahmad nia, yousif hussien suleiman 16 in this proses of construction there is no any effort to highlight the historical identity of the city it seems that financial purpose are dominant for mass housing constructors. figure 10. karakol neighborhood in north cyprus. (photo by author and site plan retrieved from url3) 2.3.4. socio-cultural factors multistory apartments in the outer part of the walled city of famagusta are the yield of globalization. previously, the houses had been constructed horizontally, and later on were designed vertically due to increasing in population. therefore “the families had to live together, thus different type of culture occurred due to the residential development. lifestyle, neighborliness, identity, and the terms of belonging were provided for sharing, participation and consensus were adopted. generally, the lifestyle of the people who live in apartments changed, and this changing process provided for changing in the urban identity” (kutsal, 2012). the apartments have, also, led to weakening the concept of social relations in the city. today, one of the most important factors of losing the identity of the city is that the elimination of cultural icons; as a consequence people lost the sense of belongings to the environment. however, when the rates of consumption were increased, today the “fashions” are changing rapidly. this changing accelerated the process of changing the urban identity. living in an apartment became a new trend that comes from the west. in this process people left of their traditional houses and started to live in apartment buildings. whereas the historical towns were left to ruin or to low income migrants to the cities. it's obvious from this part that sociocultural factors in the new development of the city have been changed; globalization is the main factor in the changing of lifestyles of people with new trends and fashions. figure 11. financial benefits is the main aim in housing in global scale (photo by author, 20th december, 2016) . figure 12. strongly integration in historical part of famagusta and week integration in new development part of it. as figure 12 revealed lack of environmental integration with each other without using traditional housing principles in new development part of the city are the main factor in loosing feeling attachment with the environment and consequently these factors had an influence on loosing identity of the city. by critically analysis of new housing schemes in gazimagusa (famagusta) it’s obvious to say that new housing environment in gazimagusa follows the scheme of globalization without respect to its historical context the result of this kind of urban expansion are; journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(2), 11-20 / 2017 hourakhsh ahmad nia, yousif hussien suleiman 17 -lack of relationship between development and wider urban context there is no any cohesion whit its surround quality of public space (e.g., design, shape and scale) is in poor condition for these reasons as oktay (2002) mentions new housing construction could not achieve its goals to create a place with its own identity to attract people into it. therefore the identity of settlement and sense of place in new development part have been disappeared. in figure 13 the author tried to compare the factors which have influence in the identity of the city of gazimagusa. the method is to compare historical part of the city with new development part of famagusta (figure 13) reveals factors which reducing identity of the city, is somehow related to the globalization to earn more money. for this reason they could not use historical pattern which shows urban identity. figure 13. urban context and sense of attachment to the environment in new and historical part in city of gazimagusa (famagusta). overall, theoretical evaluations in this study, following housing principles have been developed for urban designers and architects to enhance the urban identity by enticing people into the context. -landmark to increase the imageability -each building needs to have its own identity. at the same time, the building needs to have harmony with the context. -mixed used functions needs for downtown. -walkability -civic rooms to increase sense of belonging -designing a pleasurable place -landscape of the city needs to be designed and developed by specialist in this field. -permeability needs to be consider in designing -specific events needs to be consider in design public spaces universal approaches in urban design is also needs to be consider 4. conclusion walled city of gazimagusa with its historic magnificent building, human scale narrow streets, cul de sacs and monumental buildings have its own identity which works on a global scale by its port and tourists. unfortunately after 1960 because of globalization purposes, urban explosion by expanding it to the outer part of the city could not adapt with historical patterns. it means that the factors of man-made environme in city scale, district scale, and space scale have been changed. urban fabric characteristic of the new development part of the city is different from the historical part of it. related to this research question (why urban sprawl could not maintain the identity of the city of gazimagusa?) this survey revealed that globalization by neglecting historical housing principles is the main factor which threatening identity of the city. in the era of transformation from traditional to globalization, redefinition characteristics of the walled city of famagusta which have influence on the identity of the city (e.g., avlu or havli, cumba etc.), and principles of vernacular housing, would be useful to redefinition of identity of the city. as a conclusion for housing in urban context related to city identity the best journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(2), 11-20 / 2017 hourakhsh ahmad nia, yousif hussien suleiman 18 urban expansion is those designed with a sensitive understanding of their urban context, valuing the characteristics of the place including the character of the area and by respecting to its physical context, and the local pattern of physical objects, landscape, public space and topography. the question of how it’s possible to polarize mass housing constructors to use vernacular trends in new housing schemes? proposed from author as future study. acknowledgments this research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or non-for-profit sectors. references brueckner, j.k. 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(2016). walled city. walled city, famagusta, cyprus. retrieved from;http://famagustawalledcity.org/01 journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(2), 11-20 / 2017 hourakhsh ahmad nia, yousif hussien suleiman 19 venetian-fortifications-land-gate-andravelin (used on 20th october, 2016). url2, famagusta municipality. (2016). population of famagusta in 2006 retrieved from: http://www.magusa.org/english/population. htm. on 11 january 2016. url3, google maps. (2016). walled city and its lost spaces. walled city, famagusta, cyprus. retrieved from: https://maps.google.com/maps?hl=en&q=f amagusta+gazimagusa+map&ie=utf8&hq=&hnear=0x14dfc842da4c163d:0x29db 03c5a5d3ce87,ammochostos&ei=hecquk6 wcitnswbqmohycq&ved=0cdcq8gewaa. (used on 20th october, 2016 journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(2), 11-20 / 2017 hourakhsh ahmad nia, yousif hussien suleiman 20 www.ijcua.com this page is intentionally left blank. http://www.ijcua.com/ journal of contemporary urban affairs 2017, volume 1, number 1, pages 76– 84 urban cages and domesticated humans *dr. hossein sadri department of architecture, girne american university, turkey a b s t r a c t in this article, the study assessed the domestication process of humankind within the frame of urbanization and power accumulation. within this framework, by giving various examples from chicken farms. the study express the author’s opinions on the analogy of the “liberated human beings” in cities and the “free range” chickens in farms. it has also been tried to explain how a city acts as a human farm. cities are governed by the ones holding power similar to the farms are ruled by farmers and humans during their history of civilization have lost their right of deciding on their lives and fates against this power as the domesticated animals in farms. it is necessary to give up these cities which are models of life organizations from the old and the middle ages. models of settlements which became even more inhumane as results of modernization and neoliberalization strategies. the study revealed that with the scientific and technologic improvements and the developments of in science and humanities, it is possible to easily replace the city model of communal life with a better one -the one in which people can be more free and happy and will give more life to the earth and contribute to the aliveness within it. journal of contemporary urban affairs (2017) 1(1), 76-84. https://doi.org/10.25034/1761.1(1)76-84 www.ijcua.com copyright © 2017 journal of contemporary urban affairs. all rights reserved. 1. introduction the chickens in the below picture (figure 1) demanding their rights and freedom. they want the industrial farms to be banned. they dream to derive a natural life. more precisely, this is not fully possible. because these are birds tamed by humans from various phasianidae for approximately 6000 years (clauer, 2017). they did not exist in a pure and untouched nature. instead, they came into existence with the help of humans as a result of the domestication process. they lived by accompanying human societies for many years. in my opinion, rather than going back to an untouched nature, their demands only involve freedom. perhaps, they do not remember that kind of nature. they, just like us, may not even have any ideas about that nature. the freedom they desire is to escape from the human dominance and its accumulated power. they want to have equal rights and wills with humans in sharing their habitats with them. they claim to be able to decide for their own destiny. they reject the existence for humans and request the conditions a r t i c l e i n f o: article history: received 24 march 2017 accepted 10 april 2017 available online 10 april 2017 keywords: human domestication; urbanization; power; industrialization; deurbanization; permaculture. *corresponding author: department of architecture, girne american university, turkey e-mail address: hosseinsadri@gau.edu.tr this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution noncommercial noderivs 4.0. "cc-by-nc-nd" https://doi.org/10.25034/1761.1(1)76-84 www.ijcua.com mailto:hosseinsadri@gau.edu.tr https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 76-84 / 2017 dr. hossein sadri 77 that they can exist only for life. in principal, these chickens want to have a kind of freedom which actually all of us are dreaming it; a freedom including all the “developments” we have reached today and without going back to the pure nature. figure1. freedom for chickens (united poultry concerns, 1999). 2. human domestication and chicken farms while writing the history of domestication, historians state that humans were tamed when domesticating animals (mikanowski, 2016). in fact, we are now domesticated humans, so, we are not humans of nature. just as dogs, the human species we recognize in today’s context do not exist in nature. the living being called human is a domesticated animal species, similar to the chickens above. this domestication started as a result of agriculture and moving into the settled life. accordingly, the food habit of humans changed and, their jaw structure and digestive system developed in a different way. more importantly, modes of their movements were changed and their mobility was decreased. as humans settled, their dreams, fears, the way they use their mind and socialize, shortly, everything related to them was transformed. in other words, they became domesticated. in time, within the settlements built by themselves in the nature they came from, they turned into farm animals. as the settlements expanded and the cities were formed, things got out of control and the management of the farm passed to a smaller class. autodomesticated humans were taken captured in the urban farms they have built themselves. they lost their sovereignty on their destiny and became slaves. they were exploited. however, what is worse is, despite all, they learnt to be happy for having food to eat in the farm in which they are running day and night after the interests of the farm owners while concerning about their future. as the power accumulated and technology improved, humans became less distinguishable from chickens living in the industrial farms. life difficulty of the workers arising from the industrialization in england in the 19th century came with oppositions and resistances. observing the poverty and exploitation in london and parallel to this some attempts to organize struggles against it, marx came to the point that the workers would make a revolution and this tyranny would be destroyed. in 1848, collaboratively with engels, they wrote a text andintroduced the reasons of this desperate situation and the ways to get over them. assuming that no one could tolerate these conditions, they anticipated that the workers would revolt, capture the entire farm and establish a new order in which such injustices, violence and oppressions would not exist (marx, and engels, 1848). in fact, the workers did revolts and achieved great successes in their conflicts. however they did not change the order. in accordance with the structure of their fights which was mostly in the format of the trade union movement and concentrated in a national level, they could accomplish significant results in increasing the welfare level of workers in the so called developed countries. as a result of this one and a half century old organized conflict, the shape, format and geography of the industrial production, exploitation and war was changed. thus, the poverty tragedy, started in england in the 19th century, is being experienced today in asia in the worse conditions (figure 2). journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 76-84 / 2017 dr. hossein sadri 78 figure 2. cage homes, hong kong, picture: by alex hofford (cited in: thomas, 2009). it is understandable that the battery hens living in the cages approximately equal to their size, desire a revolution (figure 3). however unfortunately, these chickens within the industrial farms could not make a distinction between being free range chickens walking freely within the cages and being free by means of escaping from the human oppressions and power. as their fight for freedom questioned their living conditions instead of existence of the farm, the farms continued to be in existence by changing their forms. figure 3. dear super market manager please take all battery eggs off your shelves and replace them with free range (activist campaigns). 3. free range chicken and urban density therefore, free range chicken movement started in terms of being able to walk within a larger area. accordingly different kinds of farms were built based on the size of these areas. the farms today are distinguished by the density of their hens in caged areas. they are ranked with dissimilar names and codes in respect to the area each chicken is living in. price of the chickens and eggs are determined accordingly. journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 76-84 / 2017 dr. hossein sadri 79 figure 4. what should be the width of the area, naming of the farms according to the living space of per chicken (barron, 2016). as shown in the above image (figure 4), while a caged chicken lives in an area of 465 square centimetre (approximately 15 to 30 centimetres), a cage free hen in 930 square centimetres (approximately 24 to 38 centimetres) and organic free range chicken in 1860 square centimetres (approximately 30 to 60 centimetres). in other words, 20 caged chickens, 10 cage free hens or 5 organic free range chickens fit into per square meter. according to this description, the maximum area per chickens raised by humans in farms is 10 square meter. this is 54 times bigger than the area of organic free range chicken. even though in compare with the free range or caged chickens, these pasture raised chickens are able to walk freely within a grass and are most probably the happiest of the chickens in farms, however they are still farm chickens. as this area expands, the chickens become more likely to get over the strict forms of human hegemony. however at least an area of 60 square metres is needed for every chicken for being able to live in a natural environment, creating a harmony with the other livings beings within that environment and providing a mutual contribution to one another (0.3 acre, meaning 1200 square metres for 20 chickens)( pesaturo, 2015). this number corresponds to an area in which 322 organic free range chickens or 1288 caged chickens live. for instance, considering that a jungle fowl naturally existing in nature lives in an area of approximately 10 thousand square metres, all these numbers above gain a greater meaning (pesaturo, 2014). when looking at the picture, it becomes more noticeable, density within a land, directly affects the quality of life. there is a major difference between the chicken in this open prison and the other caged ones. thereby, if there was a universal declaration of chicken rights, it would be stated that all chickens have the right to live as a pasture raised chicken living within the largest area. of course, it is a fact that the chicken placed in a cage equal to its own size is exposed to some kind of torture. therefore, we cannot ignore the significance of the fight for improving the living standards of all chickens. however, this is not the final goal. because all of these chickens actually subsist in a farm order that only pursue human’s, or rather, farm owners’ interests and they do not have their own free will. if the universal declaration of chicken rights did exist and if the rights of the chickens stated in it, were fully fulfilled, moreover, if even genuinely all chicken in the world could be really “happy chickens”, they would still only be a victim as a farm product and the purpose of their existence would be to provide the continuity of the farm order. according to studies, 1796 people fit into per square kilometre in adana, seyhan (nufus.mobi 2017a), meaning that there is an area of 556 for each person. this number is 54 square metres for istanbul, esenyurt (nufus.mobi, 2017b). this indicates that 10 people in istanbul-esenyurt are settled within a living space which corresponds to an area that one person live in adana, seyhan. in other saying, an area a person lives in istanbul-esenyurt is two times larger than a l-type journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 76-84 / 2017 dr. hossein sadri 80 prison (n.a., 2005). does being squeezed into a particular area means humans can be exposed to more dominance as in chickens? summarily, is the real problem the city or urbanization? 4. urbanization and human domestication my colleague, kenan güvenç shared the below sketch with me (figure 5). it contains a crucial answer to my above questions. it also includes a great example and metaphor on how the city domesticates human beings. güvenç expresses that the cities created by capitalism are devices imposing a hyper-domestication upon humans and life, and transform them to the chicks under a lamp. he claims that this operation of the daylightization of everything and everywhere destroys the spatial difference of days and nights which is the sharpest division about life and domesticates spaces, times and their inhabitants. figure 5. sketch of kenan güvenç (güvenç, 2016). this quote gives us important clues about the city and the domesticating power of all its mechanisms. it explains the direct ratio between density and living under oppression. the existence of density in cities obligated us to various contraptions. for instance, what you are seeing in the below images (figure 6) is a human type. as obvious, when necessary, he sprays something in everywhere; to the plants, to the chickens and to the humans. he can sprays depending on the situation, but, he is always the same type. this type is one of the favourites of the farm ownersof course, mentally. not only the actions in these images are similar, but also the clothes, posture and the existential philosophy of them are identical. figures 6. the one spraying to the plants (ishn, 2016), to the chickens (viral fx, nd), to the humans (bbc news, 2015). this human type exists for managing the farm in order to establish an unconditional hegemony and high level authority and, a strict domination. his role in an industrial farm is to spray herbicides, pesticides, drugs, chemical fertilizers and hormones to acquire a single product extraordinarily in a maximum level. his eyes are only focused to see the product that he wants to raise. aside from that product, he tries to kill every other living beings. he destroys the soil and microorganisms within it, all the insects and animals within the field and, all “uninvited” plants, without hesitation. as a result of this, today we are facing with carcinogenic, poisonous, tasteless, gmo, hormone and drug injected, and very harmful foods with no nutritional value which can be described as dangerous garbage. still, the “options”, such as the organic presented to us by the farms or free range chicken seen in the above examples, cannot solve the problem. the main reason of this is approaching it with journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 76-84 / 2017 dr. hossein sadri 81 farm logic and farmer perspective. they pay no attention to protecting and strengthening the microorganism structure of soil with a blindly anthropocentric and egocentric attitude. more importantly farmers do not care about the life of millions of species which their lives are strongly tied to each other and to us, basically because humans do not eat them and or we do not have any knowledge whether they are useful or not. this urbanization model and urbanized food system do not protect our nature and world. according to the report of wwf world wide fund for nature, half of the species living in earth was extinct over the past 40 years (carrington, 2014). each year tens of thousands of species becomes extinct (wwf, nd). 5. deurbanization, permaculture and return to hunting gathering in order to stop this, we have to replace the farm system with the farmers who only cares about their own powers and wallets with free ecocentric deurbanized settlements with communities who cares about each other and the world.. as a sample of this kind and alternative to the frightening “sprayer” guy, we have a nicer human figure seen in the below image (figure 9). s/he is a kind of human being protecting the earth, whole creatures, water and humans, regardless of their usefulness or benefits to human societies. this is permaculture, a science generated by david holmgren and bill molison by analysing the function of forests. these two scientists proposedan alternative way of approaching to agriculture with the information produced regarding the creation of an ecosystem similar to the ones in forests in the agricultural fields (holmgren and mollison, 1978). even though this science and philosophy highly based on the ethical values with a nonanthropocentric approach, however, it introduces a radical solution for humans’ problems. sciences as permaculture fundamentally question the tyrannies based on this egosystem and work on transformation of it. figure 9. industrial agriculture and permaculture difference (mahe, 2015). today we are watching the rolling over of our world together with us towards a cliff. we are experiencing life in the edge of disaster. the highly dependent, urbanized, polluted, controlled and poisoned world created by many of us who only think themselves with a great ego and ignore the holistic solutions. for this very reason, by demolishing this ego and the thought of being in the centre, it is necessary to form a better and more liveable world notion based on solidarity between beings for the next generations. ideas similar to permaculture, which provide us the ways we can reach to the foods from the food forests, help us to organize more independent communities. in fact, the significance of permaculture is to provide us an opportunity to leave the settled and urbanized and industrial agricultured life and once again live as hunter and getherers. these self-sufficient journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 76-84 / 2017 dr. hossein sadri 82 hunter-gatherer communities and their solidarist and communal environments can be alternatives for todays urbanized and over urbanized cities. we have to start to subtract from the cities and add more wild life to them. destruct and deconstruct all the urbanized areas and remove them with the self-controlled, democratic, non-anthropocentric and free habitats. if we want to save the life of our children, we have to start this deurbanization as soon as possible. as long as we live as a crowded population in the cities, we will be dependent upon the system in every situation. we will be in need of supermarkets, petrol, electric, water, communication networks and everything being managed from the centre and making us to have only the status of consumer. therefore, the urbanization we have established, the industrial agriculture and the forms of our approaches to technology, they pave the way for us to be domesticated and exploited by the powerful ones like the farm products and to have no control over our own lives. what is more saddening is they cause all living creatures, the nature and the whole our world to be sacrificed. with today’s sustainable and environment friendly technologies, our fund of ethical knowledge and the science accumulation created from social and ecological studies, we can and we should create a much more beautiful world. we have no other solution. 6. conclusion in this study the author has been tried to explain the domestication power of urbanization and its hegemonic structure. as it is revealed through the study, nowadays, we have different ways of coexistence suggested by several scientists like murray bookchin who approaches the ecology in tandem with the social reform. we have knowledge about community and settlement types which:  are the places of decentralized and even distributed power,  are fully governed by the locals,,  can become integrated with their environment,  protect their surrounding nature,  contribute to its existence,  can be independent in every sense,  contain high ethical values,  can improve the world and solidarity in real terms,  became a part of much bigger network by coming together with the other similar settlements and fund worldwide solidarity and peace (bookchin, 1996) . the study revealed that it is need to establish settlements that can be a sustainable habitat in real terms, provide a happy life both for people living in it and all other beings there, and a system based on their contributions to each other’s lives. we have information and technology for actualizing this; however, we do not have enough will. as a result of the comfort and lethargy arising from the foods put in front of us in our coops, many of us may still prefer to stay within the farm with the pride of having the opportunity to existing more freely in comparison with the ones in prisons or cages. ignoring that one day it will be our turn to be sacrificed, we are most of the times busy with wasting our lives with the fake happiness of still being alive and, some of us try to put off this fact with throwing the other chickens in front of the farmers, when necessary. we have to stop this, regain consciousness and re-build our world as a habitat for all of us who are free and equal and respectful to the world and its earth, water, air and fire. note: this article is developed from two public lectures of the author in 2016 and 2017: a) sadri, h. (2016) “city and the rights of domesticated humans”, in the panel entitled: “urban transformation and human rights, organized by the chamber of architects adana branch, the 9th of december 2016, adana turkey. journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 76-84 / 2017 dr. hossein sadri 83 b) sadri, h. (2017) “domesticated human beings and urban cages”, eastern mediterranean university, the 22nd of march 2017, famagusta cyprus references novak, j. (april, 2010). activist campaigns, “dear super market manager please take all battery eggs off your shelves and replace them with free range”. downloaded from: http://www.activist.co.za/ag3nt/system/campa ign_dearwoolworths_feedback.php barron, j. (2016). the problem with “cage-free” eggs. downloaded from downloaded from http://www.livestrong.com/blog/problemcage-free-organic-eggs/ bbc news. (2015). deadly burundi protests after president seeks third term. downloaded from: http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa32471667 bookchin, m. 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(1999). poultry press, sayı: 9/3, güz 1999, virginia. downloaded from: https://www.upconline.org/fall99/eu_cage_ban.html viral fx. (2016). surface, vehicles & farm equipment disinfection. downloaded from: http://www.viralfx.com.au/tech-info/all-in-onebiosecurity/surface-disinfection. wwf global. (2016). how many species are we losing?, downloaded from: http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/biodiv ersity/biodiversity/ https://www.upc-online.org/fall99/eu_cage_ban.html https://www.upc-online.org/fall99/eu_cage_ban.html https://www.upc-online.org/fall99/eu_cage_ban.html http://www.viralfx.com.au/tech-info/all-in-one-biosecurity/surface-disinfection http://www.viralfx.com.au/tech-info/all-in-one-biosecurity/surface-disinfection http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/biodiversity/biodiversity/ http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/biodiversity/biodiversity/ journal of contemporary urban affairs 2017, volume 1, number 3, pages 18– 23 feasibility of a carbon consumption tax for sustainable development – a case study of india * dr. singh kanwal deepinder pal 1 1 university school of law and legal studies, guru gobind singh indraprastha university new delhi, india e mail: kdps@ipu.ac.in a b s t r a c t global climate change is a major issue confronting policymakers worldwide, and there is widespread scientific acceptance of the reality of climate change and its adverse consequences in terms of economic analysis, greenhouse gas emissions (ghg), which cause planetary climate changes, represent both an environmental externality and the overuse of a common property resource. the paper is premised around the hypothesis that tax policy can be used to address climate concerns by making less green house gas intensive purchases and investments more financially attractive. however, in the absence of an international framework capping ghg emissions, countries adopting mitigation policies incur costs that would not exist under global cooperation such as the loss of competitiveness and emissions leakage. a consumption tax based on the carbon footprint of a product levied on all products at the point of purchase by the final end-user, regardless of where the goods are produced using a credit-method would be capable of addressing these concerns of emissions leakage and loss of competitiveness, while being wto compliant. the author intends to test the feasibility and effectiveness of such a carbon consumption tax in the indian context. the author shall test the feasibility of levy of such a consumption tax in the context of india and evaluate the effectiveness in mitigating climate change and catering to the goal of sustainable development. journal of contemporary urban affairs (2017) 1(3), 18-23. https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2018.3674 www.ijcua.com copyright © 2017 journal of contemporary urban affairs. all rights reserved. 1. introduction climate change is a major environmental issue that is affecting the policy decisions worldwide. the world is aware of this grim reality and adverse consequences of global warming (harris, et al., 2015) greenhouse gas emissions (ghg), cause climate changes, and are adversely affecting economies also. this is because of overuse of a common property resource. (harris, et al., 2015). the paper is premised around the hypothesis that tax policy can be used to address climate concerns by making less ghg intensive purchases and investments financially attractive. (moarif, and rastogi, 2012). however, in the absence of an international framework capping ghg emissions, countries adopting mitigation policies incur costs that would not exist under global cooperation such as the loss of competitiveness and emissions leakage. a consumption tax based on the carbon footprint of a product levied on all products at the point of purchase by the final end-user, regardless of where the goods are produced would be a r t i c l e i n f o: article history: received 2 august 2017 accepted 8 october 2017 available online 12 october 2017 keywords: carbon consumption tax; sustainable development; global climate change; india *corresponding author: university school of law and legal studies, guru gobind singh indraprastha university new delhi, india e-mail address: kdps@ipu.ac.in this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution noncommercial noderivs 4.0. "cc-by-nc-nd" http://www.ijcua.com/ mailto:kdps@ipu.ac.in https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2018.3674 www.ijcua.com http://www.ijcua.com/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(3), 18-23 / 2017 singh kanwal deepinder pal 19 capable of addressing these concerns of emissions leakage and loss of competitiveness, while also being wto compliant. the paper intends to test the feasibility and effectiveness of such a carbon consumption tax in the indian context. the author shall test the feasibility of levy of such a consumption tax in the context of india and evaluate the effectiveness in mitigating climate change and catering to the goal of sustainable development. a carbon tax is a levy imposed on fossil fuels and other primary products based on the amount of ghg they emit. to explain it with an example, carbon tax places a fee on coal, proportionate to the amount of carbon dioxide (co2) released when coal is burned. this tax can also be seen as a cost for emitting ghgs into the atmosphere. the environmental friendly people can also use it as a financial incentive for reducing ghg emissions. a carbon tax policy can also be designed to include tax credits for activities that reduce ghgs in the atmosphere. a carbon tax can also be seen as explicit carbon pricing because it is a tax linked to the level of carbon dioxide (co2) emissions. this can be used as an economic instrument and can contribute to an effective reduction in emissions. the carbon tax is a price on each tonne of ghg emitted, and therefore the price signal causes a response in an entire economy. the emitters feel that it would be economically beneficial to shift to less ghg method production and this feeling of profitability results in reduced emissions. carbon taxes can be introduced independently or alongside other carbon pricing instrument, like an energy tax. introduction of a direct carbon tax is a new concept, but its acceptability is coming at a fast pace. (congressional budget office policy options for reducing co2 emissions, 2012.) . a carbon tax can also be seen as an alternative or a supplement to a cap-andtrade program. a carbon tax and a cap-and-trade program are both market-based and have a concept of financial incentive to reduce ghg emissions. the main difference between the two concepts is on the establishment of price and reduction of emissions. a carbon tax imposes a direct levy called the “carbon price” on activity based on the amount of ghgs they emit. it puts no restriction on ghg emissions. on the other hand, the cap-and-trade program sets a limit, or “cap,” on emissions, but the price for emission is determined by the demand and supply. current climatic conditions force a relook on existing policy efforts related to global warming issues. the main premise of this paper is a plan that provides clean environment by the introduction of a small carbon tax or a ghg tax. the proceeds of this tax could be used to support research efforts on energy sources, energy use, and reduction of emission. the scenario prevailing in different countries is examined along with the position in india. the evidence shows that carbon taxes may be an interesting policy option and that their main negative impacts may be compensated through the design of the tax and the proper use of the generated revenues. 2. international legal scenario kyoto protocol was earlier considered to be the strongest international agreement on the topic of climate change wherein 182 nations had committed to minimizing ghgs. critics of the kyoto protocol felt that it was premised on setting national emissions targets and did not deal with the actual problem of global warming caused by emissions. it also created "common but differentiated responsibilities." it put little to no responsibility for developing nations to check emissions. unchecked growth of emissions in the developing world was having a larger impact on the environment. it was beginning to overcome the developed world, the best example being india and china. countries like canada and russia feel that it was not a way forward, and declined to take on additional obligations. dealing with these issues is expensive and inconvenient, and it carries high monetary and sociological costs. cost of environmental degradation already has a negative effect on the economy. there is a need for international coordination on environmental issues as much as international coordination is required in trade liberalization. carbon taxes are seen as a cost-effective instrument for reducing emissions. however, in practice, only a few countries have implemented taxes based on the carbon content of energy products. some countries that have imposed carbon taxes are discussed subsequently. the methodology adopted by them in discussed briefly so as to weigh it in relation to the indian scenario. in british columbia, carbon tax applies to the purchase or use of fuels. this tax is revenue neutral, and all funds generated by the tax are used to provide reductions to citizens for other taxes. denmark imposed a carbon tax in 2014 covering consumption of natural gas, oil, and coal. there are partial exemption and refund for http://www.ijcua.com/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(3), 18-23 / 2017 singh kanwal deepinder pal 20 eu coverage and certain other activities. fuels used in the production of electricity are not subject to the carbon tax. but there is a tax on production of electricity. french parliament approved consumption tax on energy products in december 2013. it is based on the content of co2 in consumption of fossil fuel. on the consumption of gas, heavy fuel oil, and coal carbon tax was imposed in 2014. in 2015 carbon tax was extended to transport fuels and heating oil. in iceland importers of gas and diesel oils, petrol, aircraft, and jet fuels are liable for the carbon tax. it is also applicable to retail use. the funds collected are deposited in the treasury in ireland the carbon tax applies to petrol, heavy oil, auto‐diesel, kerosene, liquid petroleum gas (lpg), fuel oil, natural gas, and coal since 2010. in japan, co2 emission factor is used for each sector since 2012. it has imposed a levy named japan’s tax for climate change mitigation on use of fossil fuels. in may 2013 the south african government published a policy paper for public comment on before introducing a carbon tax. the government has introduced a fuel input tax based on the carbon content of the fuel. it covered all direct ghg emissions and had been imposed from january 2016. sweden introduced a carbon tax in 1991. it was a part of energy sector reform, and tax was imposed on natural gas, gasoline, and coal, switzerland introduced carbon since 2008, and this tax is applicable on all fossil fuels. they are exempted if they are used for energy. the united .kingdom has introduced carbon price floor (cpf) tax on fossil fuels used to generate electricity since 2013. this changed the climate change levy (ccl) regime, by applying carbon price support (cps) rates of ccl to gas, solid fuels, and liquefied petroleum gas (lpg) used in electricity generation. (oecd environment policy paper, 2013). 3. utility of carbon tax and its impact world economists understand that to reduce the impact of climate change; it is necessary to tax production and use of fossil fuels. the taxation scheme should encourage efficient use of existing resources so that the negative result of such uses is reduced. a tax would lower fossil fuel consumption as they become more expensive. it will make it cost efficient and also encourage the use of alternative technologies. it leads to internalizing the costs of emissions. carbon taxes affect all industry with the capacity to pollute, but the burden falls upon the energy and transportation sectors. therefore it is advisable to levy it on all sectors as needed. 3.1 impact of carbon tax on companies companies and individuals pay higher prices for ghg-intensive energy. costs of a carbon tax are passed down to consumers. high energy prices impact the overall income of companies and individuals. this impact is dependent on the utility of tax revenues. the overall impact also depends on the use of energy, and on the ability of the company to minimize costs. this can be done by using clean fuel and by making the carbon tax “revenue neutral.” this can also be done through rebates or changes in the tax code like reducing capital gains taxes. a carbon tax policy can also make provisions to provide funding for research or transportation infrastructure (stef, and van dender, 2011). 3.2 impact on lower-income consumers impact of a carbon tax on lower-income consumers depends on the use of tax revenues. a basic carbon tax is regressive. lower-income consumers pay a higher percentage of their total income for goods and services (lin, and li, 2011). some carbon tax programs address this by “recycling” tax revenues. or allow reductions in other regressive taxes, such as state sales taxes or federal payroll taxes. 3.3 impact on international competitiveness impacts on an industry depend on the level of the tax, recycling of revenue, use of energy by the industry and competitiveness of the industry. the competitiveness varies by sector. one thought process treats it as cost penalty for doing business whereas the other line of thought feels that a carbon tax encourages innovation and efficiency. this leads to long-term competitiveness. environmental challenges, like climate change, and pollution, occur when there is a burden on the assimilative capacity of environmental resources. if a society is affected by pollution, and the polluter is not held accountable for it, then all this cost of pollution is not reflected in the final prices of the goods and services. this leads to market failure and government intervention. the government regulates it or introduces market-based instruments. these instruments influence the decision-making processes of producers and consumers. (liu , et al., 2015). the government may also regulate by formulating emissions standards, levying taxes, or allocating pollution rights and granting subsidies to contribute to cleaning the environment. marketbased instruments set a price on the pollution http://www.ijcua.com/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(3), 18-23 / 2017 singh kanwal deepinder pal 21 causing market distortion, ipcc (2013). a carbon price can drive changes in producer and consumer behavior, and can address climate change. carbon pricing encourages a shift to low-carbon and energy-efficient technologies. this requires replacement with low-carbonemitting alternatives and mitigation and adaptation strategies (burniaux et al., 2010). a carbon price also creates an environment for research, development and technology innovation. it reduces the price gap between carbon-intensive technologies and low-carbon alternatives. 4. indian scenario the government of india published its response to climate change in june 2010 which was titled “india: taking on climate change.” the government has approved the perform, achieve, and trade (pat) mechanism for energy efficiency. the first cycle of this mechanism commenced in 2014–15. this scheme works towards enhancing cost-effectiveness through tradable energy saving certificates (escerts) (cropper et al., 2012). the pat scheme covers 478 energy consumers, representing 40 percent of total industrial consumption in sectors like thermal power, steel, cement, fertilizer, pulp and paper, textile, aluminum and chlor-alkali. national action plan on climate change has been formulated which provides for generating 20 000 mw of solar power by 2022 and 2 000 mw from off-grid solar plants. india’s green initiative has been part of international solar alliance (isa) that will provide a special platform for mutual cooperation among 121 solar-resource-rich countries lying fully or partially between the tropic of cancer and tropic of capricorn. india aims to have 40 percent cumulative electric power from non-fossil fuelbased energy resources by 2030. india has cut subsidies and increased taxes on fossil fuels. this is the movement from carbon subsidy to carbon taxes. fossil fuel subsidy on diesel and petrol has been phased out, and reforms are being carried out in kerosene and lpg subsidies. the government of india has decontrolled diesel prices. excise duty on petrol and diesel has been increased periodically to match the declining global prices. since october 2014, excise duties have been imposed on diesel and petrol. also, the coal cess has been continuously increased from 50 per ton to 400 per ton. excise duties on petrol or diesel act as an implicit carbon tax. they put an effective price on emissions. for example, more fuel car burns, and the greater the emissions, the greater the tax paid. in india, the change from subsidization to the taxation of fossil fuels is related to revenue and macro-economic considerations. they also impact climate change. this is important in the context of global efforts to deal with climate change because india is the third largest emitter of ghg emission. while india has made substantial progress recently in decontrolling price of petrol and diesel and in calibrating excise duty to compensate for the declining world oil prices, there is still room for further reform of petroleum pricing policies (schipper et al., 1997). 5. translating coal cess into carbon tax to gst compensation recently, the government of india revised its coal cess from 50 per ton to 400 per ton. translating this into a carbon tax equivalent using the emission factor, the government is able to mop up a significant amount of revenue. any rationalization of coal pricing must take account of the implications for power prices and hence access to energy for the poorest in india which is and must remain a fundamental objective of policy. since modi took office in 2014, the coal cess has been raised with an idea was to dedicate the revenue to greening the economy. however, only 37% of the money collected between 2010 and 2017 was allocated to the clean energy and environment fund. the rest sat idle, creating a surplus that reached 56,700 crore rupees ($8.8 billion) at the beginning of this financial year, more than 20 times the annual budget of the environment ministry. that surplus has now been allocated to compensate states that will lose out in the gst reform. more than 1 lakh crore rupees ($15.5bn) of revenue due to being channeled into clean energy over the next five years will go the same way. about 55 ongoing clean energy projects will continue to be funded through general taxation, “but this fund, for now, is over. after five years the government can rethink if it wants to spend 50% of the cess collected again for renewable energy and environment.” gst, a big blow to clean energy financing. it was indiaʼs carbon tax; it was thought to be a source of funding clean energy projects, to combat climate change. now it is being thrown out of the window. in the last six years, the government of india has http://www.ijcua.com/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(3), 18-23 / 2017 singh kanwal deepinder pal 22 collected around rs 54,000 crore by levying a cess on every tonne of coal mined or imported. 6. conclusion international coordination is the prerequisite to deal with climate change. there should be an international regime of harmonized domestic carbon taxes. if there is a minimum amount of taxation on domestic producers, the revenue can be used for setting up of alternative means of energy production (washington dc. world bank, 2012). this shall also overcome the problem of non-participation of countries in agreements like the kyoto protocol. there are large ramifications of emitting harsh pollutants into the air. though these supplies are supplies are cheap and come from long-utilized sources these options do not have longevity (holden et al., 2016). human actions have caused too many environmental disasters. although the states would like to choose the use of resources to produce electricity their primary duty is to look after health and welfare of citizens. use of cheap power plants is holding the states from meeting their responsibilities. this reflects a monumental threat" to the prosperity of the greatest number for the longest time. reducing carbon dioxide emissions and mitigating climate change, the states can ensure best for their citizens best serve the people. to ensure the greatest good for future generations, society must take responsibility for its actions-starting now (pachauri, and. reisinger, 2007). india has turned a carbon subsidy regime into one of carbon taxation. this has increased petrol and diesel price and reduced annual harmful emissions. india has to go a long way to get the gains from reform of coal pricing and petroleum pricing policies. substantial carbon taxation and solar power program can lead to substantial contributions to climate change by india. climate policies can also influence the, but the amount of influence shall depend upon a policy of exchange rate. a fixed exchange rate is beneficial for the economy. the rapid development of the renewable energy sector is also very important for india to turn into a green economy. the costs of mitigation policies can be more if affordable renewable energy is absent. to reduce emission levels, the renewable energy sector needs to grow, and carbon mitigation policies are required. technological and financial resources are required to develop the renewable energy sector. emission trading permits can also be a source of finance. the level of emissions needs to be lower than the allowance. if emissions are higher than the allowance, the country will have to buy permits, involving the outflow of capital. therefore, the choice of mitigation strategy is important. to conclude the transition to a green economy depends crucially on the rapid development of the renewable energy sector and the design of appropriate carbon mitigation policies (basanta, and ghosh, 2013). acknowledgement this research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. references basanta k., and ghosh, p.j. 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(2012). 4˚ turn down the heat: why a 4˚ warmer world must be avoided. washington dc., usa: world bank http://www.ijcua.com/ http://www.c2es.org/docuploads/market-based-climate-mitigation-policies-emerging-economies.pdf%20last%20accessed%20on%2004.10.2016 http://www.c2es.org/docuploads/market-based-climate-mitigation-policies-emerging-economies.pdf%20last%20accessed%20on%2004.10.2016 http://www.c2es.org/docuploads/market-based-climate-mitigation-policies-emerging-economies.pdf%20last%20accessed%20on%2004.10.2016 http://www.c2es.org/docuploads/market-based-climate-mitigation-policies-emerging-economies.pdf%20last%20accessed%20on%2004.10.2016 journal of contemporary urban affairs 2017, volume 1, number 2, pages 21– 32 the inspiration of bauhaus principles on the modern housing in cyprus phd candidate mustafa aziz amen* department of architecture, cihan university, iraq e mail: mustafaamen@gmail.com a b s t r a c t modern architecture developed more than a century ago to find solutions suitable to solve the new concerns of the industrial revolution that changed the social idea of the world in all aspects. bauhaus school which established by walter gropius in 1919 adopted too many principles and ideas that were totally new to the architecture concept and theory at that time; their principles started from simplicity, angularity, abstraction, consistency, unity, organization, economy, subtlety, continuity, regularity, and sharpness. those principles affected the architectural world and found its way through many applications in different parts of the world. the unlimited space or the international space that had a significant influence on the architecture space and form as well as the introduction of the new material, the antidecorating, and platonic forms had worked to reconstruct the architecture in the world. cyprus as an island close to the sources of the movement got the influence from the modern movement. the study will concentrate on efruz housing which designed by ahmet vural, who developed the project in the 60th of the last century. the aim of the research is to find the relationship and effects of bauhaus school in cyprus through studying and analyzing some of ahmet vural works. the methodology will depend on a comparison with the traditional housing that preceded mr. vural work and how the modernism changed the main features of the housing on the island. journal of contemporary urban affairs (2017) 1(2), 21-32. https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2017.3645 www.ijcua.com copyright © 2017 journal of contemporary urban affairs. all rights reserved. 1. introduction modern architecture developed more than a century ago to find solutions suitable to solve the new concerns of the industrial revolution that changed the social idea of the world in all aspects. architecture experienced crucial shifts in that era; there were new attitudes in architecture and urban planning, and although the movement made breaks with the past and sometimes denied the whole tradition it also allowed the fundamental principles of architecture in new ways. the movement came a r t i c l e i n f o: article history: received 26 february 2017 accepted 5 may 2017 available online 5 may 2017 keywords: bauhaus; modernism; design principles; cyprus; housing layout. *corresponding author: department of architecture, cihan university, iraq e-mail address: mustafaamen@gmail.com this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution noncommercial noderivs 4.0. "cc-by-nc-nd" mailto:mustafaamen@gmail.com https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2017.3645 www.ijcua.com mailto:mustafaamen@gmail.com https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(2), 21-32 / 2017 mustafa aziz amen 22 with too many features and structures that societies were not familiar with, the new architecture carried many concepts from the industrial revolution most of them stood on the notion of the machine, new technology, and science. some of the modernism characteristics and structures becomes so internationally widespread that it works as signs of the movement everywhere in the world. one of the main institutions that established the modern movement in europe was the bauhaus school which established by walter gropius in 1919. bauhaus adopted too many principles and ideas that were totally new to the architecture concept and theory at that time; their principles started from simplicity, angularity, abstraction, consistency, unity, organization, economy, subtlety, continuity, regularity, and sharpness. those because the” physical public space is a result of struggles between different ideologies, discourses, political decisions and daily activities taking place at personal, interpersonal, local, national, supranational and global scales” (sadri, 2017). those principles affected the architectural world and found its way through many applications in different parts of the world. so it becomes difficult to think about the modern movement without taking into account those principles and social forces that formalized those principles. the unlimited space or the international space that had a significant influence on the architecture space and form as well as the introduction of the new material, the antidecorating, and platonic forms had worked to reconstruct the architecture in the world. cyprus as an island close to the sources of the movement got the influence from the modern movement; the modern architecture propagated all over the island with its neat, clean and functional forms. the paper will study the effect of the bauhaus modernism principles on changing the housing layout and architecture in the island and how the modern movement changed the traditional way of building on the island with a particular concentration on nicosia. the study will concentrate on efruz housing which designed by ahmet vural, who developed the project in the 60th of the last century. there will be a comparison with the traditional housing that preceded mr. vural work and how the modernism changed the main features of the housing on the island. 2. the historical view in this section, there will be a brief discussion about the advent of the modern movement in art and architecture. too many factors and worked together to formulate new ideas and expression in different fields of science and architecture. within this century, the concept that the greek culture has high values and should emulate in all life possibilities (ballantyne, 2004). the very point for modernism is that “the nature of what constituted beauty and the beautiful was undergoing revision, as was the idea of utility. the connection of beauty to a moral and ethical dimension was passing into a new phase, in which beauty identified, neutrally, with sensation and experience. thus, beauty was no longer a moral entity or the embodiment of a higher truth; it associated with individual taste and individual striving (karl, 1985, p. 117). there were a new taste and attitude that needed new approaches and manipulation translated and interpolated in the modern movement in art and architecture. 2.1. modernity and modern architecture the concept of modernity conveyed in the eighteenth (heynen, 1999) or the mid of the eighteen centuries by the philosophers of the enlightenment in their efforts and seventeenth century (mallgrave, 2005, p. xv)as an attempt to develop objective science, universal morality and law, and free art according to their inner logic. the words theory and modern both first came to prominence in the late seventeenth century. the analyst of architectural modernism must consider the relationship of architecture and architects to three key epistemological positions: history, theology, and politics (hvattum & hermansen, 2004, p. 44). the main goals for journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(2), 21-32 / 2017 mustafa aziz amen 23 the enlightenment philosophers were stayed to the point “to utilize this accumulation of specific culture for the enrichment of everyday life that is to say, for the rational organization of everyday social life” (heynen, 1999, p. 11). the most significant effects happened after the industrial revolutions and especially after the second industrial revolution with the beginning in the nineteenth century (benevolo, 1977). as a result, the architectural world adopted new methods and claimed new methodology for their final outputs, technical, material innovation and functions of the buildings and compatibility with the environment was one of their goals. therefore, architecture is not a spectacle but a service security fitness and convenience. 2.2. the second industrial revolution 1856 the industrial revolution, which started in england in the middle of the eighteenth century and extent across the globe by the beginning of world war ii, shaped a new world (outman & outman, 2003, p. ix). moreover, give rise to building factories and new industry. the industrial revolution had a marvelous influence on nineteenth century society “productive efficiency, immigration from the country to the city was explosive, and living conditions in industrial cities were worse than at any other time in history” (hvattum & hermansen, 2004, p. 224). cities were faced new technology, and there were intentions toward quantifications and reliable standardizations (ballantyne, 2004).changes in patterns of movement with the expansion of inexpensive mass transport in made possible the growth of cities to sizes which was not possible before (hvattum & hermansen, 2004). it was the advent of the mass community (pevsner, 1968)or the machine age that demanded a response from art and architecture (ballantyne, 2004). as a result, “architecture and design for the masses must be functional, in the sense that they must be acceptable to all and that their wellfunctioning is the primary necessity” (pevsner, 1968, p. 9). the new technology and materials increased the sense of modern and modernism which “flourished in the nineteenth century, especially in england, when the 1851 exhibition in the crystal palace was the epitome of technological genius” (karl, 1985, p. 9). the other invention in this era was the spread of bessemer process1 in the iron industry which led to replacing the cast iron with steel the iron in all-purpose (pevsner, 1968). the result was in crystal palace (figure1). later, in france there were the “triumphs of iron architecture at the exhibition of 1889 had still been the triumphs of engineers, even if the eiffel tower (figure 2). by its very height and position became at once one of the chief constituents of the architectural scene of paris. figure 1. crystal palace (pevsner, 1968). figure 2. eiffel tower (britannica, 2016). 3. the emergence of modern movement. in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, europe was replete with many schools and direction in “art and architecture cubism, futurism, expressionism, constructivism, and de stijl was fired by the belief that the creative techniques of the past had to be overturned” (ballantyne, 2004, p. 34). the modern movement journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(2), 21-32 / 2017 mustafa aziz amen 24 insisted upon the strictness of the machine aesthetic. also, insisted on the vision that was of the universal design solutions, universal standards of living, and universal aesthetic (ballantyne, 2004). historians such as siegfried giedion and nicolaus pevsner came to this conclusion that modern architecture was the outcome of mass production, world view (weltanschauung) associated with industrial technology, methodological bias in making history, focus on form and material and pay lip service to process that generates them. (lefaivre & tzonis, 2004). the modern movement “explained against a background of social, economic, technological, and artistic changes, and these must be duly acknowledged” (ballantyne, 2004, p. 34). in the first quarter of the twentieth-century schools established and started to work in europe, those schools and establishments shared similar principles united under the modern movement, bauhaus in germany and le corbusier in france, while de stijl was working on similar principles in netherlands. later, on 1928, ciam congrès internationaux d'architecture modern worked to spread the modern movement principles through working on landscape, urbanism, and industrial design. “the second c.i.a.m conference, held in frankfurt in october 1929, was hosted by may and focused exclusively on the issue of housing” (mallgrave, 2005). the era formed a “highly provocative standards and suggested the acceptable minimal housing square demands” ( lejeune & sabatino, 2010, p. 69). new attitudes toward standardization in housing and uses the module in the design to achieve and provide the units to most of the people all around the globe. housing advocates argued that low-cost construction would best be served by the normalization and the standardization of the existing production to conserve the traditional systems of production. 4. characteristics of modern movement: 1. the absence of the ornament (figure 3) (ballantyne, 2004). 2. the aesthetic values based on creating simple, straight shapes and forms, the whole compositions stand on square forms, (figure 4 ) (pevsner, 1968). 3. continuity of the space in all direction (benevolo, 1977) . 4. modern materials interpreted as steel and glass as well as concrete columns in their design and flat white colors (figure 5) (benevolo, 1977). 5. functional design, especially in the housing fields (figure, 6) (pevsner, 1968). figure 3. photograph, taken by ise gropius in 1926, became one of the most iconic images of the house gropius after the building’s destruction in 1945. (pevsner, 1968). figure 4. großsiedlung siemensstadt 1929 gropius. (pevsner, 1968). journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(2), 21-32 / 2017 mustafa aziz amen 25 figure 5 . ludwig mies van der rohe weissenhof housign project. (pevsner, 1968). figure 6. garrit rietveld, schr¨oder house, utrecht, 1924– 5. (pevsner, 1968). 5. characteristics of modern housing architecture. 1. prefabrication, there was a belief during the nineteenth century in prefabrication where the manufacture of buildings in basic form in workshops for transport to and final assembly on a remote building site developed from modest beginnings into an industry of quite substantial proportions (lane, 2007). 2. mass production spirit which was applicable through the standardization of both the technical and aesthetic sense with an ongoing search for standard types. le corbusier was a supporter of this idea as he said (lane, 2007). 3. module or prototypes for industrial production (benevolo, 1977). 4. continues space or the multiple uses of completed plans (benevolo, 1977). figure 7 . ernst may and staff, bruchfeldstrasse housing 1926, the utopian ideas implied in modernist housing can be seen even more clearly in ernst may’s siedlungen in frankfurt ,may’s emphasis on the centrality of the community facility is clearly illustrated. (lane, (2007). 6. bauhaus role in architecture. the bauhaus had a significant effect on formalizing the body of the modern movement, it is usually true to say that “the modern movement was embodied, aesthetically and pedagogically, when the bauhaus moved to its new building and syllabus at dessau in 1926. within its irregular plan, glass curtain walls and steel and reinforced concrete frame beat an interdisciplinary heart so that all the departments furniture, theater, architecture, textiles, and so on – collaborated” (ballantyne, 2004, p. 34). so in this section, we will review the main features and principles of the bauhaus school. 6.1. establishment of bauhaus in german undoubtedly no other school in germany was so closely connected to the cultural, political and socio-economic developments of the weimer republic as the bauhaus. the bauhaus established on the 1st april 1919 (siebenbrodt & schobe, 2009). “bauhaus based on the idea that the term bauhaus (literally, construction house) invokes the metaphor of a medieval guild” (mallgrave, 2005, p. 249).bauhaus object was to “renovate art and architecture in line with other similar efforts, from which it drew numerous ideas for its work” (siebenbrodt & schobe, 2009). gropius saw the bauhaus as a part of “reform ideas typical of the time and as a new kind of school, whose fundamental pedagogical https://www.google.com.cy/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=3&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahukewjeqb7czaxmahwfvswkhqp-a64qfggqmai&url=http%3a%2f%2fwww.miessociety.org%2flegacy%2fprojects%2fweissenhofsiedlung%2f&usg=afqjcneefffmaepaejbxdk1ij6wnpxmlww journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(2), 21-32 / 2017 mustafa aziz amen 26 concept based on reform ideas (siebenbrodt & schobe, 2009). bauhaus founder walter gropius affected by many people and schools in germany like ruskin, olbrich, behrens, (darmstadt artists’ colony) and others in germany and the dutch artists’ group de stijl which founded in 1917 with constructivist design principles that were propagated in weimar by painter theo van doesburg. walter gropius repeatedly emphasized that the bauhaus generate from the spirit of the deutscher werkbund. founded by hermann muthesius (1861-1927) in munich in 1907 as an association of artists, architects, businesspeople and experts. 6.2. bauhaus workshops and contributions bauhaus composed of many workshops and departments that affected the different parts of art and architecture with its principles. it was possible to enter those workshops after the successful accomplishment of the preparatory course which was “necessary for acceptance into one of the bauhaus workshops” (siebenbrodt & schobe, 2009, p. 39). there were many workshops in the school to participate in the field that it related. the main workshops in bauhaus were: 1. pottery workshop. 2. stained glass painting workshop. 3. graphic print shop. 4. typography/printing and advertising workshop. 5. mural painting workshop. 6. stone sculpting and woodcarving/plastic workshop. 7. weaving workshop. 8. carpentry/furniture workshop 9. metal workshop 10. metal workshop. 11. architecture/building studies building department. 12. photography/photo workshop. 6.3. bauhaus philosophy and principles 1. reunification of all artistic principles in the building, in combination with manual trades and workshop as educational fundamentals, were the focal point of its aims and objectives (siebenbrodt & schobe, 2009) (figure 8). 2. deny the history and create a modern architecture without concern for location or history (siebenbrodt & schobe, 2009). 3. abstract shapes stand on square and rectangles that include all items used in the field of art in architecture (siebenbrodt & schobe, 2009). 4. the module in mass production, in housing and town planning (pevsner, 1968) (figure 9). 5. new technology and material, especially the glass and steel with flat concrete planes (siebenbrodt & schobe, 2009). 6. white colors for the architecture as the main colors (craig, 1999). 7. open plan and flowing space in the plan (craig, 1999). 8. standardization of the elements used in the architecture and furniture design. these were of standard design, but with modifications from year to year, and were constructed of reinforced concrete and cinder blocks (figure 10) (lane, 2007, p. 243). figure 8. walter gropius, masters’ houses in dessau, 1925/26, condition in 2005. journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(2), 21-32 / 2017 mustafa aziz amen 27 figure 9. walter gropius and the bauhaus, massproduced houses at siedlung törten-dessau. figure 10. hannes meyer, syndicate school of the adgb in bernau, aerial view by junkers, 1928-30. 7. the case study in this section we will focus on modern movement effects on the north cyprus and in particular on the nicosia city, as a case study, we selected the efruz mass houses or müdüroğlu designed by ahmet vural behaeddin in between the 60th and 70th of the last century. 7.1. history of “the case study efruz house,(figure 11), “constructed in 1970 at kumsal quarter in nicosia by ahmet vural behaeddin, who was well known turkish cypriot architect in the island” (esentepe, 2013, p. 76). efruz project designed for “high-income households who has high-quality life standards” (esentepe, 2013, p. 76). the whole project of a housing composed of are two-story row houses with three diverse design organization, the project designed on 10000 m2 (1 hectare)2, with 34 units, the units area varies between 250 m2 to 300 m2. figure 11. efruz massing housing in nicosia source (image by author from cartodb gis system) 7.2. analysis of the projects. the efruz housing impression indicate that the modernism imprint and the bauhaus principles adopted by the architect with the urban and the stand alone units. the project is just 1450 m3 away from the old walled city, ahmet vural adopted straight and sharp line in his design to reflect the soul and insert the impression of the modern age, the straight space stand on the modernism philosophy of space as it was the main element that combined all the units around it in a direct way. most of the units directed to the north (figure 12), so it will be possible to open a large enough terrace to the south (figure 13). the terraces are an enormous function in the daily life of the cypriote people as they normally gather there to spend their evening. some units oriented to the east therefore those units dealt with in a different way. the designer used some other manipulation like a natural stone for the east and closed the west elevation keeping some small windows or shutters for ventilation. journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(2), 21-32 / 2017 mustafa aziz amen 28 figure 12. efruz mass house, orientation toward north (image by author from cartodb gis system). figure 13. terraces of efruz houses oriented to the south (esentepe, 2013). 7.3. analysis of the bauhaus principles in the project 7.3.1space ahmet vural used the continuous space in the internal design of efruz units; there is a reflection of the (open plan) adopted from bauhaus principles in the design, in his design for efruz mass house he adopted three house types. all types shared a common characteristic which was the open plan and connection between the living and dining from one side and the kitchen with the entrance from the other side. in the (figure 14, 15 and 16) we could see clearly the clear strategy plan between the different parts of the house. the compound of efruz contains more than three different design that has a direct message for the open plan and the continuous space. in macit ferdi house 1961 (figure 17), bahhadin adopted the same philosophy for the open space and accepted the same principle although the project was private and the site was accessible from all sides. apparently, there is a sharp insistence on combining some space together then connect the group of the spaces by third space so that kind of mixing will achieve the maximum flexibility. figure 14. efruz house type 1 open plan (esentepe, 2013). figure 15. efruz house type 2, open plan (drawing by author). journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(2), 21-32 / 2017 mustafa aziz amen 29 figure 16. efruz house type3, open plan (esentepe, 2013). figure 17. macit ferdi house, open plan (d.celik, without date). 7.3.2. form although efruz house built in an area that is very close to the old city of nicosia, which is rich in a unique history and full of architecture (figure18) . efruz house, designed according to the modernism philosophy of denying the history and adopted bauhaus philosophy in using simple square shapes to compose and generate the final form. the design is clean from ornament and decoration in all its features. square used for creating the ornament parts in the project as it appears in the (figure 19) figure 18. decoration in walled city of nicosia (image by author, 2016). figure 19. the clean, abstract and white surfaces for efruz housing (image by author, 2016). 7.3.4 orientation ahmet vural affected by walter gropius work of mass-produced houses at siedlung törten-dessau where all the units created with the same module and oriented to the south by gropius to create the maximum functionality and how to get the best from the sunlight. in efruz, ahmet vural went one step more when he decided to design each elevation in a different way to reflect the direction of the oriented elevation. all the units oriented toward the north, but the architect created balconies and open area in the south orientation so the family could spend their time in that part of the house and enjoy their time in the winter while avoiding the direct sunlight in summer. the journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(2), 21-32 / 2017 mustafa aziz amen 30 manipulation of the elevation is very clear in the (figure 20, 21, 22 and 23), where vural designed each elevation according to the sun direction, terraces to the west and the open windows to the east while he almost close the west elevations with white plastered walls. figure 20. north elevation of efrus house (image by author, 2016) figure 21. west elevation of efrus house (image by author, 2016). figure 22. east elevation of efrus house (image by author, 2016). figure 23. south elevation efrus house (image by author, 2016). 7.3.5. colors and materials the bauhaus principles is evident in ahmet vural work. the whole project colored in the white colors (bauhaus style) and used the concrete as the main structure for the mass units as a reflection of the modernism in the project. there were some local materials utilized by the architect in the elevation (figure 24) and (figure 25), also he used the brick tiles on the pitched roof. the same principles had adopted by ahmet vural in 1961 when he designed macit house in nicosia (figure 26) and (figure (27). figure 24. details of efrus house (image by author, 2016) journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(2), 21-32 / 2017 mustafa aziz amen 31 figure 25. efrus house (image by author, 2016) figure 26. ferdi macit house macit ferdi house, nicosia 1961 ( d.celik,without date). figure 27. ferdi macit house macit ferdi house, nicosia 1961 (d.celik,without date). 7.3.6 module, prefabrication and standardization there are four types of the housing in the project, the reason behind that stand on the idea that the project has designed for the wealthy or hi income people and not for the low income as the philosophy adopted by bauhaus school. same reason prevented the use of the prefabrication in the project, all this lead to the idea that the project was not with the main compatibility with the bauhaus principles within this point. 8. conclusion there is the influence of bauhaus principles in the ahmet vural work in efruz housing; some principles were totally adopted and followed the open plan policy and orientation with function while some like module and standardization were not accepted because of other local effects and factors. although cyprus is replete with rich heritage with the prominence of the old walled city of nicosia, ahmet vural denied the whole history of the town in his designs keeping white abstract wall instead of the wealthy and dynamic influence of the old town. vural type stand on creating two group of spaces then connect those group with third space as it is shown in the (figure 26). figure 28. ahmet vural prototype that existed in efruz housing and macit ferdi house. (developed by author). the result from table (1) shows that ahmet vural accepted the different principles of the modernism as it cited by bauhaus except the module and standardization which might behave count achieved according to some social reason. table 1. comparison between bauahus and ahmet vural work (developed by author). acknowledgments this research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or non-for-profit sectors. journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(2), 21-32 / 2017 mustafa aziz amen 32 references lejeune , j. f., & sabatino, m. (2010). modern architecture and the mediterranean. routledge: routledge. ballantyne, a. (2004). architectures modernism and after. oxford: blackwell publishing. benevolo, l. (1977). history of modern architecture. massachusetts: mit press. britanica, e. (2016, 4 22 ). bessemer process. retrieved from encyclopedia britanica: http://global.britannica.com/technology/ bessemer-process craig, m. k. (1999). the bauhaus and america: first contacts, 1919-36. mit press. d. celik, z. e. (without date). analysis of the modernist language in cyprus: a case study on a local architect. famagusta: eastern mediterranean university. esentepe, b. m. (2013). space transformation and change in mass housing in nicosia, north cyprus. gazimağusa, north cyprus: eastern mediterranean university. heynen, h. (1999). architecture and modernity. cambrdige: mit press. hvattum, m., & hermansen, c. (2004). tracing modernity: manifestations of the modern in architecture and the city. london: rutledge. james l outman & elisabeth m outman. (2003). industrial revolution: the primary source. thomson. jeffrey saletnik & robin schuldenfrei . (2009). bauhaus construct. new york: routledge. karl, f. r. (1985). modern and modernism: the sovereignty of the artist 1885-1925. new york: athenum. lane, b. m. (2007). housing and dwelling: perspectives on modern domestic architecture. london: rutledge. lefaivre, l., & tzonis, a. (2004). the emergence of modern architecture. london: routledge. mallgrave, h. f. (2005). modern architectural theory : a historical survey, 1673–1968. cambridge university press. mari hvattum and christian hermansen. (2004). tracing modernity: manifestations of the modern in architecture and the city. rutledge. outman, e. m., & outman, j. l. (2003). industrial revolurion primary source. london: thomson gale. pevsner, n. (1968). the sources of modern architecture and design. frederick a.praeger. sadri, s. z. (2017). the scale of public space: taksim square in istanbul. journal of contemporary urban affairs, 67-75. siebenbrodt, m. (2009). bauhaus: a conceptual model . berlin: hatje cantz. siebenbrodt, m., & schobe, l. (2009). bahaus 1919-1933. new york: parkston international. journal of contemporary urban affairs 2017, volume 1, number 1, pages 1– 9 sustainability in historic urban environments: effect of gentrification in the process of sustainable urban revitalization dr. rokhsaneh rahbarianyazd department of architecture, faculty of architecture, eastern mediterranean university, turkey e mail: rokhsaneh.rahbarianyazd@gmail.com a b s t r a c t considering threedimensional process of sustainability (physicaleconomical and social), the aim of conservation for making historic urban environment sustainable should be matched with these dimensions. therefore, earlier conservation policies have progressed from a simple and restrictive concern with preservation to an increased concern for revitalization and enhancement. this means a physical revitalization may be short-lived and un-sustained. within the process of revitalization, historic environments become the main locations of gentrification induced by urban revitalization which may involve social cost. accordingly, this paper develops theoretical concepts on “sustainability in historic urban environment” with a particular emphasis on social issue in terms of gentrification. also with the result derived from theoretical parts concludes that social changes through gentrification contribute to sustain the historic environments. contemporary urban affairs (2017) 1(1), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.25034/1761.1(1)1-9 www.ijcua.com copyright © 2017 journal of contemporary urban affairs. all rights reserved. 1. introduction the historic urban environment provides a tangible link with people’s past and contributes to their sense of national, local and community identity and will provide the character and uniqueness that is an important matter to a positive sense of place. additionally, it can bring additional assessment, not only as a cultural enhancement, but also as an economic stimulus, attract inner investment, play a dynamic part in a r t i c l e i n f o: article history: received 20 october 2016 received in revised form 27 december 2016 accepted 2 january 2017 available online 2 january 2017 keywords: revitalization; historic urban environments; sustainability; gentrification. *corresponding author: department of architecture, faculty of architecture, eastern mediterranean university, gazimagusa, via mersin 10, turkey e-mail address: rokhsaneh.rahbarianyazd@gmail.com this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution noncommercial noderivs 4.0. "cc-by-nc-nd" mailto:rokhsaneh.rahbarianyazd@gmail.com https://doi.org/10.25034/1761.1(1)1-9 www.ijcua.com mailto:rokhsaneh.rahbarianyazd@gmail.com https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 1-9 / 2017 dr. rokhsaneh rahbarianyazd 2 many industries such as tourist and helping communities to regenerate and support in the distribution of housing, community cohesion and education aims to support social development and “sustainable economic” of its communities (department for communities and local government, 2012; veirier, 2008; scottish government, 2008). recognizing the special needs of the historic urban environment, improvement and enabling of occasions for high-quality progress which embedded in those environments can assist to sustain the resource (scottish government, 2008). historic urban environments start with two essential qualities that implement in defining sense of belonging, social cohesion and a sense of place: a) first, the environmental capital that is meant by urban infrastructure and their buildings b) second the “socio-cultural values”. historic environments are stated in the urban grain, architecture, and the socio-economic organization of cities. historic environments contain physical and immaterial cultural heritage, environmental matters, equity within and among age group (rodwell, 2007). historic areas and their surroundings should considered as irreplaceable universal heritage and in their totality as a coherent whole which include buildings, human activities and the spatial organization within its atmospheres. (unesco, 1976). along with the cities development and changing in socio-economic, socio-politic and socio cultural conditions, these environments fall into a kind of incompatibility between the capability of buildings and users’ needs (doratli, 2005). as a result, many people and activities, move out from areas in order to be close to the contemporary amenities. these problems contribute to the decrease in livability, vitality and sustainability of the “historic urban quarters” (vehbi et al., 2009) 1 “department of culture, media and sport/department of transport local government and the regions (2001) a in the form of these threats, the idea is becoming prevalent that the solution to these tensions is the utilization and applicability of sustainability principles in historic urban environments (rodwell, 2007; strange, 1997; pendlebury, 2009; gunay et al., 2010). stubbs, m. (2010) point out ‘a force for our future’ (dcms/dtlr, 2001)1 was published in which the heritage sector was regarded as “something of a sleeping giant both in cultural and economic terms”. a notion or vision was debut that heritage was an important component of a broader sustainable agenda. thus, many historic urban quarters rather than being destroyed and redeveloped due to impacts of de-urbanization which was often the case in the 1950s and 1960s, is now being revitalized (tiesdell et al., 1996). recognizing and acting upon the full range of values inherent in historic environments is a core component of the challenge (rodwell, 2007). in this background revitalization as a part of an unified ‘conservation process’ in the historical context which includes preservation and development (veirier, 2008) is the best way to overcome various types of obsolescence and make conservation activity “sustainable” (vehbi et al., 2009). revitalization efforts need to operate within a sensitive context which acts as both a restriction and advantage. all urban areas undergo change, but these areas have to manage with change in their economic fortunes while changes in their physical landscapes is restricted and controlled in the interests of conservation (tiesdell et al., 1996). accordingly, this paper tries to define the successful approach to apply the term sustainability in historic urban environment. adopting sustainability as a code in management of historic quarters to ensure a balance among the requirement to keep the values of cultural heritage in historical environment, financial interests and sociocultural needs. secondly, this paper will focus on force for our future, london, dcms.” journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 1-9 / 2017 dr. rokhsaneh rahbarianyazd 3 the social dimension of sustainability in the process of revitalization in historic quarters, which these days are the most important issue. finally, a general conclusion will be presented to summarize all the arguments of the paper. 2. concept of sustainability and urban revitalization in historic urban environment the brundtland report provided definition of sustainable development as “a development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (world commission, 1987). while this meaning offers a comprehensive definition of sustainable development it has also been observed as being imprecise and vague (stubbs, 2010; ross et al., 1995). all the same the term “sustainable development” based on the requirement of the historic context might use in different ways (rydin, 1997). the 1999 uk approach on “sustainable development” identifies four principal goals of sustainable development which are environmental protection, social progress, cautious use of resources and keep of stable and high levels of economic performance and growth (uk government, 1999). while sustainable development has been for years appertain with the environment, after 1980s, it began to be in the schema of development procedure, inasmuch as environmental approach was short tactic to the new problems of changing political and socioeconomic conditions, sustainable development operated by social and economic issues as well. accordingly securing the sustainable future of historic environment physical, social and environmental has become one of the core agendas of time (rodwell, 2003; gunay et al., 2010). from the other hand, when historic urban environments are considered in the goals of sustainability, it reveals an obligation to carry on the involvement of “cultural heritage” to present day via sensitive methods (gunay, et al. 2010). stubbs, (2010) notes the link among historic environment and sustainability is a comparatively new method, originated from the policy work and research undertaken since the mid-1990s. there is no wonder that the draft of “london plan english heritage” made the fact that “sustainability is an integral part of the protection of the historic environment. revitalization provides the appropriate management tool for sustaining the built environment. historic buildings are a reservoir of embodied energy while construction of new buildings is resource depleting” (english heritage, 2002). the view with regard to cultural heritage issues has been changed frequently, particularly since the 1960s. the notion of "a future for the past" in 70s changed to the concept of "a past for future" in 80s and now the slogan "to make the past part of our future" has been created (habibi, 2002). therefore the concept of urban conservation/ revitalization has been changed since at least the 1960s and due to this issue, historic environments become the center of change and transformation demands which in some steps have given way to unexpected, rapid transformation process in all spheres of daily life (rodwell, 2007; gunay et al., 2010). while the roots of sustainability with urban revitalization are different, they share common ground. revitalization and sustainability have equivalent meanings and are often used to slow the need to manage the world’s properties: a) first, to secure long-term harmony between man and nature/built environment. and b) second, to achieve incessant improvement in the environment and quality of life for humans (rodwell, 2007). 2.1. urban revitalization although definition of revitalization is common in many scholars (tiesdell et al., 1996; bizzarro et al, 1996; oc et al., 2007; doratli, 2005) the appropriate one was introduced by veirier (2008) in a manual book based on the work of unesco’s urban development program: journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 1-9 / 2017 dr. rokhsaneh rahbarianyazd 4 “reaching a satisfactory balance between the laws of economic development, the needs and the rights of inhabitants and the value enhancement of the city as a public good. in the process of revitalization economic, heritage, sociocultural and environmental approaches do not clash; they are complementary and long-term success is in need of linking together of these approaches”. within the scope of social and economic revitalization in historic environment, tiesdell et al., (1996) and doratli (2005) determined three strategic approaches in order to secure its success for long-term: functional restructuring: it can arise from changes in occupation in an area by introducing new uses or activities which is replacing the former ones. functional diversification: a more limited restructuring that brings in new uses able to support the quarter's existing economic base. functional regeneration: existing uses keep on, but activate more efficiently or profitably. in this regard, a physical revitalization is also needed because it results in an absorbing, wellkept the physical public domain. doratli (2005) believes that in order to determine any type of strategic approaches in an environment an analysis of the physical, economic and social structure of the historic urban environment is needed: (i) identifying the values of the environment. (ii) the level of obsolescence. (iii) the dynamics of the place. though, regarding the process of sustainable urban revitalization, vehbi et al., (2009) state that “along with mentioned analysis, the level of sustainability2 should also be determined. it means, the type and level of obsolescence, the types of values, the level of sustainability in 2the level of sustainability was identified through indicators of sustainability which were specific for historic urban quarters. (see vehbi et al., 2009). historic urban environments, and development dynamics should be determined through analysis in the natural, built and socio-economic structures of the historic urban environment before signifying the strategic approach” (figure 1). figure 1: the most relevant strategic approach according to analysis and level of sustainability in revitalization process (doratli, 2005; oktay, 2009) much of the global debate about sustainability in historic environment has little relevance to revitalization if they are only thought of in terms of physical characteristic (rodwell, 2007; tiesdell et al., 1996) and in the long-run operations need to consider spatial, socio-cultural and financial responsibilities as key for sustainable strategies (rodwell. 2007; roald, 2000; stubbs, 2010; bizzarro and nijkamp, 1996). it means only physical revitalization might be un-sustained, if the area fails to be responsive in terms of social and economic needs. it can realize that a thoughtful of environmental capacity as a whole should deliver adequate warning to enable an appropriate management and planning framework to set in place before problems journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 1-9 / 2017 dr. rokhsaneh rahbarianyazd 5 become unmaintainable (doak and lynch, 1998). 3. sustainable urban revitalization through gentrification in this part, the study aimed to extract some social issue during the process of urban revitalization and will evaluate rather than these issues are inevitable to make the historic urban environment sustain or not? while urban revitalization has been viewed as a part of a sustainable and integrated conservation process of the cultural, architectural properties by highlighting their economic and social capacities; however, they are being pushed of their social context and turned into an expression of the economic and political interests and gained new values within the framework of personal interests. as a result of these changes, urban revitalization is pushed backwards in some cities (gulersoy et al., 2003; gunay, et al., 2010) and was often beset with social difficulties such as expulsion of vulnerable groups and obliteration of existing social networks (couch, 1990; lee, 2003) in terms of gentrification. the term “gentrification” was used for the first time by glass in the 1960s to clarify a “residential replacement” in london. “gentrification” has been developed based on two different theories: a) socially deteriorating classes or the use of some parts of the city by emergent social classes and b) some art-oriented at the expenditure of other economically (longa, 2011:36). the first theory connects alteration to the people of one specific area, such as, the working-class of the central city, transforming into middle-class commercial or residential use which have been organized with an allied alteration in the built environment through investing in “fixed capital” (zukin, 1987, p. 129; atkinson, et al., 2005). according tonkiss (2005) the second theory can be introduced based on technical concerns for the specific parts of the city by creative class strategies (such as people working in the fashion industry, artists, architects, and musicians) and make it viable and revitalized like soho in new york. this issue considers revisited and “avant-garde” form of “gentrification” which act as added cultural explanation of “gentrification” (ley 1994). the phenomenon of “gentrification” as people based movement is also shared by florida and mellander with his “creative class”. this type of revitalization process may create a new desirability to the areas and artists may progressively substitute by upper salary. the straightforward proposal is that urban creativity which is confined to a small area can alter tasks into areas which good-looking to higher income contexts (zukin, 2010). overall, both group’s intention is to prevent environmental deterioration. manzi (2010) in the book social sustainability in urban areas developed “facilitating gentrification” as a theme that has emerged from research into sustaining mixed-income communities. in his book, he also stated that it is problematic to find firm evidences that workingclass groups are being intentionally excluded from new “mixed-income” community developments. a crucial aspect of a mixed community’ agenda is the need to generate economic activity, in order that localities can become neighborhoods of choice rather than neighborhoods of last resort (manzi, 2010). overall, “economic segregation” signifies the most essential factor of whether mixed communities can work (meen et al., 2005). keep all comments in mind, “the world commission on environment and development report” (wced, 1987) and unesco (2007) recommend that “social sustainability” look for to safeguard the environment through “economic growth” and the mitigation of poverty and improves the living conditions of all urban residents. sustainable societies, although meet various needs of current and forthcoming occupants, are susceptible to their environment and chip in to a high quality of life. they are well planned, safe and comprehensive, built and run, journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 1-9 / 2017 dr. rokhsaneh rahbarianyazd 6 and offer equivalent opportunity and good amenities for all (odpm, 2006). 4. conclusion the study revealed that, parallel with the principles of sustainable development, the responses to historic environments have led to a new approach of urban conservation which involve social and economic aspects. the aims of revitalization in historic urban environments are common with sustainability, which first has focused on efforts to make the economic development able to provide the finance necessary to preserve and improve the quarter through regeneration of the traditional activities of the locality or a restructuring of the quarter's economic base and second social interaction within the area. considering the literature, historic environments are the most vulnerable parts of cities in regards to its social sustainability. although many scholars mentioned that the process of urban revitalization may undermine the social balance through displacement of the original population/ gentrification, here it may seem as a positive concern. despite gentrification seems to be a negative outcome of urban revitalization, in some cases it is an unavoidable procedure to have a sustainable historic urban environment. if people understand the causes and aims of gentrification, its consequence turns out to be favorable. because without underlying societies to economic revitalization in order to support core services, infrastructure and maintain, it is extremely doubtful such societies and environment will be sustainable. this doesn’t mean the historic environment should gentrify and be a place for high income people, rather means the creative class who are often young people, with low income are interested to be in the historic urban environment. figure 2 tries to show the historic environment as an interconnected ring with the three overlapping circles and cores of sustainability. figure 2. location of historic environment in the overlapping russian doll model (author, 2014). therefore, during the process of revitalization person who tends to be in the area should be aware of the environmental value and take the sensibility of the environment into consideration and make it sustain in terms of physical and economic through stability in incompatible/appropriate use and in the contextual situation. this can be done with all communities, whether low class, middle or high, whether artists or none and they should involve in the process of urban conservation in search of a balance between economic, environmental, cultural and social constraints and governing the concept of social justice with a strategic planning. as stubbs (2010) notes that increasing people’s confidence and self-esteem is a vigorous component of “social inclusion” in such a kind of area. the broader concern for “conservation-led regeneration” is that harnessing historic buildings needs a strong idea of the needs of “local people”. overall, the following figure reveals different terms used in the process of historic urban revitalization. journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 1-9 / 2017 dr. rokhsaneh rahbarianyazd 7 figure 3. classification of the different terms used in the process of historic urban revitalization considering with indicators of sustainability (developed by author, 2016). since unplanned urban growth problems threaten the life quality and sustaining of any environment, the need for planning approaches on total quality management is important. from the location of historic urban environments in figure 2 and classification of urban revitalization in figure 3 it can be understood planning interest in the historic urban environment covers statutory for preserving monumental and special structures in environmental part and nonstatutory designations to bring all the communities involve with its process of revitalization in social and economic parts. 5. acknowledgment this research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or non-for-profit sectors. references abdi, m. and mehdizadegan, n. 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(2010) naked city: the death and life of authentic urban places. oxford; new york: oxford university press. journal of contemporary urban affairs 2018, volume 2, number 1, pages 66– 75 aesthetics of space organization: lessons from traditional european cities *dr. hourakhsh ahmad nia1, ma. yousif hussien suleiman2 1 & 2 department of architecture, nawroz university, duhok, kurdistan region, iraq e mail: hourakhsh_ahmadnia@yahoo.com , e mail: yousif.sulaiman@nawroz.edu.krd a b s t r a c t for centuries the aesthetic significance of space organization has been one of the significant subjects of study for most artists, architects, urban designers and philosophers. cities which experience diverse stages of growth transmit dissimilar aesthetic values due to their locations, culture, history and background. this research will try to take out the aesthetic values of the traditional european cities through the literature on aesthetic of urban design. accordingly, this study reflects the term urban aesthetics in spatial organization. it tries to answer the question of how space organization can lead to the aesthetic understanding of a place. the methodology for this study developed based on grounded theory study and qualitative assessments of european cities thorough the literature review. overall, the study assessed integration, visual connectivity, vitality, spatial quality, as the main factors in shaping the aesthetic quality of the urban environment in european traditional cities. at the end, it proposed the findings to apply in contemporary urban designing. journal of contemporary urban affairs (2018) 2(1), 66-75. https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2018.3659 www.ijcua.com copyright © 2017 journal of contemporary urban affairs. all rights reserved. 1. introduction this study emphases on one of the long-standing questions in the arena of urban design: “does the urban form influence the aesthetic understanding of it?”. traditional medieval spatial organization of european cities is the example of good quality of space organization which many scholars have been studied to take out the aesthetic factors of shaping good quality of urban spaces in traditional countries (cullen, 1996; sitte, 1888; krier, 1889; zucker, 1959). as a big umbrella for this study the environmental aesthetic have been selected from the literature by focusing on the interrelation between principals of spatial configuration and human aesthetic perception. a r t i c l e i n f o: article history: received 20 july 2017 accepted 24 august 2017 available online 24 august 2017 keywords: aesthetic quality; space organization; traditional european cities; vitality; integration. *corresponding author: department of architecture, nawroz university, duhok, kurdistan region, iraq e-mail address:hourakhsh_ahmadnia@yahoo.com this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution noncommercial noderivs 4.0. "cc-by-nc-nd" mailto:hourakhsh_ahmadnia@yahoo.com mailto:yousif.sulaiman@nawroz.edu.krd https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2018.3659 www.ijcua.com https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 2(1), 66-75 / 2018 hourakhsh ahmad nia, yousif hussien suleiman 67 according to cuthbert (2006) “an aesthetically pleasing experience is one that provides pleasurable sensory experiences, a pleasing perceptual structure and pleasurable symbolic associations”. this description delivers a valuable guide as to the diverse stages of aesthetic perception that are essential to be able to judge an art object or urban spatial configuration. williams (1996) depicts three interactive elements in the cognitive processes which are representation, perception, conception. the process of cognition is characterized as the formulation of sensory information obtained from the real world. when sensory information from the world imposes us, cognitive processes at the perceptual level attempt to explicate and understand it (williams, 1996). figure 1. idealized model of cognition cognitive processing (adopted from williams, 1996). lang (1988) divided the aesthetic assessment of space configuration into formal and symbolic aesthetic. symbolic aesthetic represent meaning which has been hidden in an art object or space organization the symbolic object might also be a doorknob or even a tapering stone pillar so called “obelisk” in ancient egyptians era. symbolic aesthetic in a specific culture might have aesthetic value and in the other culture which doesn’t have historical roots might not have. formal factors representing aesthetic quality refers to the organization and spatial configuration of the elements of shaping urban spaces. the three most important formal factors affecting judgment are diversity, harmony and clarity that tends toward complexity and ambiguity (nasar 1994). table 1. grouping of aesthetic qualities. this study will assess the formal aesthetic qualities in shaping aesthetic urban environments. in this regard, gestalt psychology will helps to comprehend the distinctive human aesthetic taste to resolve visual objects into ordered patterns. coherence, unity in variety, patterns in building facades and strong compositional elements such as verandahs are but some of the formal characteristics that can enhance a sense of order in a scene. the indispensable parts of the “gestalt psychology” is connected with urban context. gestalt psychology developed a systematic basis for aesthetics (gibson, 1979) which explains the relationship between whole and the parts. according to nasar (1994), human response to the quality of the environment will generate a positive aesthetic experience until reaching a level where preference begins to reduce. in this regard, stamps (2000) states that the built environment provides stimulation of interest at three scales, which are a). conceptualized as a silhouette (complexity of the outline). b) form articulation (three dimensional modelling) and c). surface texture. personal experience is also an important factor in generating environmental stimuli. in this regard, as weber (1995) stated, cognitive processes by assigning values to the derived meanings, helps to understand the environment and affect aesthetic judgments. accordingly, understanding how this process working with each other will help us to assess the beauty of each and every context. “powerful meanings attach to the way we comprehend the environment. not only do people assess the nature of the activities they understand to take place within, they are also influenced by the degree to which they can imagine themselves able to participate in those activities”. subsequently, public buildings can have positive “associational meanings” for journal of contemporary urban affairs, 2(1), 66-75 / 2018 hourakhsh ahmad nia, yousif hussien suleiman 68 people of a society. as alcock (1993) stated standard of construction, maintenance and standard of detailing can carry messages about the status, owner or the way a building would feel to be inside. considering above mentioned literature in the field of environmental aesthetic, the following analytical framework is derived. figure 2. an analytical framework of environmental aesthetics (adopted from gjerde, 2010). according to figure 2 aesthetic experience or judgment of environmental configuration shapes based on immediate sensory and cognitive appraisal of the scene or object and alignment with schema which formed through experience and appraisal based on meanings and value. 2. the aesthetic values according to maslow’s human needs, the need for aesthetic is one of the human’s essential needs to survive. aesthetic lids to fulfil the physiological requirements to appreciate the presence. in this regard, beauty can be described as human response to the environment with enjoyment and pleasure. webster dictionary describes aesthetic as a branch of philosophy dealing with “the nature of beauty, art, and taste and with the creation and appreciation of beauty” (webster, 2016). oxford dictionary also defined the meaning of the word aesthetics as "knowledge derived from the senses ". as it comes from the definition, aesthetics are associated to perception by the “senses”. according to lang(1987) the knowledge of aesthetics is concerned with understanding and identifying the aspects that contribute to the perception of an object and understanding the nature of human ability to enjoy creating presentations that are aesthetically attractive (lang, 1987). “the aesthetic judgment is concerned with all emotions, feelings and senses in one moment, and has an association with “physical actions”. therefore, aesthetic judgments are subject to cultural condition in some areas. the decisions on aesthetic value can be related to moral, economic and political values and also in terms of relying on feelings: emotions, mental, intellectual, views, preference, behavior of nonconscious, conscious decision, training, instinct and social logic are the other aesthetic factors which human might think aesthetically by relying on the feeling (hussein, 2009). many traditional signs and symbols are considered to be creative connotations that signify the experience and originality which are based on the magnificence of the past(arenibafo, 2016; hariry, 2017). overall, it can be concluded that the aesthetic value of a specific culture might be different than the other cultures and it might be varied by considering different social political and environmental variables which have different effects on human taste. 3. the aesthetics of the city urban aesthetic is a tool for city identification; it is an indispensable element in the urban dynamics (sternberg, 1991:78). to consider a city beautiful, not only judging its architectural style, buildings, traffic and their noise effects, but also social and historical features (as part of its total sensory package) should take into account in the assessment. despite the fact that some scholars put forward that increasing the aesthetic qualities of cities affects on its appreciation, others scholars claim that “appreciation” is itself a challenging notion. because it is vague and hard to define and justify. the query of “what it means to appreciate a city” is indeed one of the difficult tasks of urban aesthetic design. journal of contemporary urban affairs, 2(1), 66-75 / 2018 hourakhsh ahmad nia, yousif hussien suleiman 69 according to jackson (1959) social economic efficiency, biological and health are the major goals in designing the city. he revealed that cities should provide for their citizens aesthetic experience. this is a responsibility of urban designer in city scale and citizen in the scale of house by design the houses in human scale. the aesthetic of the city is not a one day job to fulfil all the requirements of its citizens, it might take centuries of try and fail. that’s why as mumford (1966) stated, “cities considered as the greatest artwork of human history, which buildings can be considered as a work of art”. according to blanc (2013) “… giving the urban setting its full meaning requires aesthetic engagement which involves a visual learning experience from the natural, physical and emotional dimensions as the aesthetic experience is not related only to building environment but it also comprises the living environments” indeed, urban aesthetic reached its highest level in traditional european cities. the cities have been designed in such way that to fulfil all the human needs, considered as designing based on human scale. as rossi (1988) stated, architecture is an inseparable form of urban aesthetic to be able to live with pleasure in the context. in his documentary movie with the name of “the social life of small urban spaces” william h. whyte (1979) sums up the attributes and qualities that make a public space successful. these qualities are suitable space, street, sun, food, water, trees and triangulation (whyte, 1979, 42:34). these attributes refer not only to the physical environment and design of the space, but also to the sense of community and the everyday interactions. following william h. whyte’s perception of the attributes of public space and what makes a successful site, the non-profit organization “project for public spaces” (2012) created a tool or a kind of “protocol” that would assist in the identification and evaluation of those attributes. this “protocol” has given the main guidelines in order to form the research questions of the thesis. the place diagram has developed based on the project for public spaces (2012) which was an attempt to identify those attributes that make a place aesthetically successful-by fulfilling all human needs (project for public spaces, 2012). the criteria, the four attributes stated in the figure 3 are the four qualities of space that are used in this research. comfort, sociability (stated as sense of community and sociability in the research), access and linkages (accessibility in the thesis) and uses and activities are the four “key qualities” of place under investigation. these qualities tries to satisfy human needs in the place and consequently the responds of the users will lead to aesthetically appreciate the place. figure 3. the place diagram, developed in the project for public spaces (2012). it is revealed through this study that aesthetic experience laid down in the cities and it needs moving to explore. traditional european cities due to its specific medieval alleys have the potential to reveal one specific vista of the city and this sense of aesthetic exploration increase pleasure and satisfaction. experience of moving, dynamic vision and the sequential rhythm or serial vision is the most important aesthetic characteristics of traditional european cities. “since the establishment of the urban landscape is the art of the relationship, and the most important approach in the aesthetic design journal of contemporary urban affairs, 2(1), 66-75 / 2018 hourakhsh ahmad nia, yousif hussien suleiman 70 of the cities is the art of forming. urban designers are dealing with aesthetics as visual forming similar to the works of art and considered the essence of success which is the sense of unity associated with clarity”. (porteous, 2003) according to cullen (1961), “the buildings that are seen collectively give visual pleasure which cannot be given by each building separately. the building, which stands alone called architecture, but a set of buildings together is an art of forming”. cullen stated that “the cityscape cannot be evaluated technically, but as an art of relationships that need to be aesthetic and visual sensor” (cullen, 1961). in his book “the concise townscape”, cullen (1961) revealed some basic characteristics which have already been developed in european traditional cities which are: table 2. basic principles of aesthetic space organization. serial vision -exploring the urban aesthetic by moving. the serial vision of the urban landscape elements as a whole. the sense of place -the sense of place that determines the sense of the individual in the environment. visual permeability the urban content of the scene like color, texture, scale, style, character and uniqueness, as the aesthetic value of urban space determined by the properties of visual sources. topographic al components -linked to the aesthetic values of natural components which reflects the richness of the urban environment, and natural values of high aesthetic properties 4. aesthetic qualities of traditional european urban squares through the literature of aesthetic urban spaces, urban squares by considering the proportion of depth to width and their degree of proximity are classified into groups based on their ground form and morphology. many studies developed typologies of squares through the literature. the most important of them undertaken by sitte (1889), stubben (1924), léon and rob krier (1975), zucker (1959) and ashihara (1983). differences in the classification vary depending on the distribution of public buildings, form and proportions. figure 4. camillo sitte and the organization of public buildings around the squares. by considering sitte’s analysis of public open spaces, it’s obvious to see that urban space getting its quality based on the organization of its objective space. building organized in such a way that to crease sense of enclosure which leads to positive spaces. in this regard, alexander (1980) in his book the pattern langue state that “when assessing the quality of a square or urban space it is particularly interesting to note that certain spatial configurations have a similarly positive or negative effect on their users”. figure. 5. building integration in creation of negative space and positive outdoor space. (alexander et all 1980 p518) based on sitte’s analysis (1989), traditional european cities have been developed its knowledge of space organization. spaces have journal of contemporary urban affairs, 2(1), 66-75 / 2018 hourakhsh ahmad nia, yousif hussien suleiman 71 been designed in such a way that to increase sense of human pleasure which leads to aesthetic satisfaction. designing positive spaces by enclosures is a method of creating a pleasurable public open space. understanding this rule of space organization in designing contemporary urban spaces is the missing point which highly required to pay attention in the design process. 5. indicators of aesthetic space organization there are many indicators for the quality of an urban square organization. together they cover three different scales and all aspects of life in a square: a). at the micro scale, its spatial elements and their respective configuration and emotional impact on the user. b). at the meso scale, its vitality and communicative potential c). at the macro scale, the integration of the square into the structure of the city and the quarter, each of these three scales of analysis has four quality indicators. which are 1). integration 2). vitality. 3). spatial quality. at the macro scale the category “integration” describes in essence the context and the degree of connectivity a space has with its context. traditional european cities have been developed the level of integration in highest as it possible. from the other hand, at the meso scale vitality aimed to develop the communicative potential of urban spaces. vitality has direct relation with livability. in this regard applying all the methods of converting public spaces to livable place such as mixed use function will lead to increase vitality. finally, the category “spatial quality” at the micro scale describes those properties that affect our perception of a space and how we experience its spatial qualities. 5.1. integration the term integration derives from the latin word “integration” which means the creation of a whole. in an urban space “to be properly part of a whole, it needs to have a high degree of integration”. this means that it must be mainly firmly intertwined with its close contest. the four indicators defining this category are mobility, connectivity, access and spatial system. figure 6. space integration representing mobility, connectivity, access and spatial system. 5.2. visual connectivity the visual connectivity of a space with its environs through sight lines is what cullen (1996) describes as what constitutes a “sense of here and there” which leads to help its user to find a logical connection between space organization with the feeling of self. this helps to its user’s to grow a comprehensible “mental map”. according to cullen access is undoubtedly is the most important of the four indicators defining this category. figure 7. serial vision as a method of assessing special connectivity. (cullen, 1961) journal of contemporary urban affairs, 2(1), 66-75 / 2018 hourakhsh ahmad nia, yousif hussien suleiman 72 5.3. vitality the factors that have the biggest impact on the vitality of a square describe the elements that influence social interactions and the kind of ways in which the space is appropriated by its users. the key indicators are inward focus, dialogue, character, and security. figure 8. vitality as one of the main factors shaping special quality. the orientation of the objective elements of urban spaces is the most important factor in developing vitality in space organization. according to gehl (2010) “the dialogue between the user and the space is mediated by the orientation, design and functions contained within the buildings that surround a public space”. generally speaking, facilities and buildings that willingly permitted in the public realm to extend into their privately-owned spaces contribute to the vitality of an urban space. sense of security is another factor which leads to the vitality of urban spaces. when people of a city feel a sense of security they will participate in the daily activities of urban spaces, this kind of participation which might encompass different people from different culture and background will increase the livability and at the end the vitality of urban spaces. as it is already mentioned, positive enclosure which will leads to increase the viability of urban spaces is another factor which will lead to increase sense of security. jane jacobs in her book “the death and life of great american cities” revealed that designing a buildings in such a way to increase the number of opening from the buildings to the public spaces will increase the séance of security “… residential apartments with windows overlooking public spaces, and cafés and shops that face public spaces make it possible for see what goes on in the public space and provide a level of social control, in turn heightening the actual and perceived sense of security”. (jacobs, 1961) figure 9. corso vannucci, perugia. 5.4. spatial quality all the objective elements composing the public spaces participating in the aesthetic representation of all the spaces, and urban squares in particular, is defined to a large degree by water, trees, walls, texture, floor and any objects that may be in the space. the way which it needs to be organized the objective elements is also affected in increasing the spatial quality of spaces. even while the shadow of the building is moving through the day is also affects in spatial quality of the spaces. figure 10. objective organization of space elements affects on spatial quality. journal of contemporary urban affairs, 2(1), 66-75 / 2018 hourakhsh ahmad nia, yousif hussien suleiman 73 “these elements do not themselves describe the quality of a space, but each element, through its constitution, size and proportion, position in space and by relationship to other elements of urban spaces influence the quality of the urban space”. they make atmospheric and spatial qualities through their composition and elaboration in terms of topography, scale, access, figure, position and formation as well as their mutual interrelationships which will have a significant effect on the overall spatial and atmospheric quality of the space. according to ashihara (1983) “the boundaries that surround a space, not just the walls but also facades / floor surfacing that extends to a boundary and makes the extents of spaces legible / inside corners that define the sense of enclosure / harmony and unity, and of the buildings that surround the space / a balanced association among the height of the surrounding walls and the distance between them, constitutes an urban space with the spatial qualities” (ashihara 1983). figure 11. objective elements of the space representing spatial quality (moughtin, 1992). overall, urban spaces are deemed good quality if it by providing pleasant condition both from an objective space organization based on human scale and subjective symbolic quality of space organization. the amalgamation of objective and subjective elements of urban space organization might lead to pleasant condition. spatial qualities in urban spaces can be labelled by three indicators: 1). centrality, 2). directionality and 3). enclosure. 1. centrality in urban spaces is spatial quality which generally developed based on the organization of the objective elements of the urban spatial configuration. as zucker (1959) stated centrality is perhaps the most elementary form of european squares that defines the significance of the enclosure. figure 12. centrality representing spatial quality. example st peter’s, rome. 2. directionality is another factor in space in space quality. meaning that objective elements of urban space organization have been designed in such a way that to highlight on specific events or art object at the end of its own direction. lynch (1960) called this sense of directionality as “channel” which is one of the most important indicators of imageability in urban spaces. directionality can also be shaped by the repetition of specific shape or object in one specific axes. directionality will also increase the pleasures of exploring the spaces. in most of traditional european cities directionality in alleys leads to public space or a specific public landmark. figure 13. directionality representing spatial quality. journal of contemporary urban affairs, 2(1), 66-75 / 2018 hourakhsh ahmad nia, yousif hussien suleiman 74 3. enclosure which is the result of enclosing surfaces in public urban spaces can be applied by organization of the objective elements of urban space configuration with the aim of centrality and increasing the sense of security and quality of urban spaces. lynch (1960) describes enclosure as “as an area that is separate from others and with its own character.” 6. conclusions it has been revealed thought this study that urban spatial organization in european traditional cities have been developed throughout the history and enriched its aesthetic values by considering and fulfilling all the requirements of its users. in despite of the fact that human scale in design and designing based on human taste and requirement are the most important factor in increasing aesthetic appreciation, there are other factors such as: integration, visual quality, vitality and spatial quality. the study also revealed that aesthetic values in an urban space organization have direct relation with quality in terms of fulfilling all the basic humans’ needs of its users. the study also revealed that the experience of moving, dynamic vision and the sequential rhythm or serial vision are the most important aesthetic characteristics of traditional european cities. as it has been already mentioned maslow’s hierarchy define this human needs which have been starts from a need for food to survive till aesthetic needs. european cities through the process of the development of the cities have been fulfilled all the requirements of its users. it has also revealed that serial vision, the sense of place, visual permeability and topographical components are the basic principles of aesthetic space organization. the study of the symbolic aesthetic of urban spaces in european cities have been proposed as future study in this research. acknowledgments this research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or non-for-profit sectors. reference: abdullah, i. h. 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http://www.avbstiftung.de/fileadmin/projekte/lp_avb_wolter.pdf http://www.avbstiftung.de/fileadmin/projekte/lp_avb_wolter.pdf https://doi.org/10.1177%2f000271626032900157 journal of contemporary urban affairs 2018, volume 2, number 1, pages 22– 32 the presence of modernist architecture in government’s educational buildings at lefkoşa * ph.d. candidate maryam iranfar department of architecture, faculty of engineering, bharati vydiapeeth university, pune, maharashtraindia e mail: maryam.iranfar32@gmail.com a b s t r a c t modernist architecture movement of the buildings in any city reflects the modernity of that city. lefkoşa as a modern city faced many conflicts in the last century. the governmental buildings illustrate how modernism in architecture was defined and reflected in the buildings of the city. the aim of this paper is to explore the modernism movement in architecture influence on educational governmental buildings in lefkoşa for first half in 20th century. the paper focuses on the ideas and experiences of modernist architects in first half of 20th century to apply modernism elements, and relationship between architecture form and functionalism in governmental buildings. methodology frame work elucidated to conduct the subject. two school buildings have been selected from the first half of twentieth century in lefkoşa as case studies for modernist architecture. ‘lefkoşa türk lisesi’ designed by ‘ahmet vural bahaedden’, which was the one of famous modernist architects in cyprus and ‘şehit ertuğrul ilkokulu’. the buildings architectural elements analyzed in both schools to demonstrate relation between site, interior space, functionality and environmental response, based on using their modern material and character. the paper concluded that the educational buildings hold strong elements of the modernist architecture in lefkoşa and demonstrate how the elements of modernism were involved functionally in the design. the findings contribute useful evidence about the existence of modernism philosophy in architecture in lefkoşa in the first half of twentieth century. journal of contemporary urban affairs (2018) 2(1), 22-32. https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2018.3653 www.ijcua.com copyright © 2017 journal of contemporary urban affairs. all rights reserved. 1. introduction lefkoşa is considered as a modern city because it was affected with european architecture in first of 20th century. many modern buildings are built in lefkoşa in that time. over time modernist architecture replace with other styles in architecture and modernist elements changed or became meaningless because of another adding elements. governmental buildings were less affected with these deformations and the a r t i c l e i n f o: article history: received 20 february 2017 accepted 23 july 2017 available online 23 july 2017 keywords: modern architecture; elements of modernist architecture; modernism philosophy; government’s educational buildings; lefkoşa. *corresponding author: department of architecture, faculty of engineering, bharati vydiapeeth university, pune, maharashtraindia e-mail address: maryam.iranfar32@gmail.com this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution noncommercial noderivs 4.0. "cc-by-nc-nd" mailto:maryam.iranfar32@gmail.com https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2018.3653 www.ijcua.com mailto:maryam.iranfar32@gmail.com https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 2(1), 22-32 / 2018 maryam iranfar 23 modernist architecture appears more than another buildings. schools are crucial buildings of a society and indicator of its development. schools as a building with special character were always one of the most momentous projects for architectural thinking because of their multi functions and elements. the aim of this paper is to explore the modernism movement influence on educational governmental buildings. the paper tries to evaluate the effects of the modern elements for school buildings design on first half of 20th century. functionality will be second factor to evaluate the effects of modernism. many buildings represent modernism in lefkoşa but over time they lost their character as a modern building or they change with another style. the research assigned few questions to be answered. how much modernist architecture elements presence in modernist feature of educational buildings in lefkoşa? how much modernist elements are functional today? the paper hypothesizes that if the educational buildings from beginning of twentieth century until today have the elements of modern architecture, then that shows the presence of modernism philosophy in architecture in the city since that period. 2. literature review 2.1. modern architecture history the term ‘modern’ demonstrates combination of functionalism and aesthetic through movements in twentieth century which deny traditional and historical ruling on that period (robinson, 2003). in the first half of 19th century while, modernism applied in the art and literature, start to refuse religion and history in enlightenment period. in europe, one of the most important perspectives of modern movement was criticism of the tradition and religion. in fact, the idea of modernism finds out in renaissance, but become more popular in enlightenment era. scientific look forward for future instead of past to improve the society and their life, as a result churches lost their place in society (zabihi, 2010). the modern movement had begun in the early twentieth century by political, social, aesthetical and technological revolution in design and creates artistic and architectural movement to look ahead to future without participate historical background. the modern design focuses on functionality and interior space of the building more than decoration. in the beginning of 20th century, modern architecture continued by technical revolution which was the product of modern movement. development of engineering field, using the materials and construction techniques, open a new way for architects in the world. new material such as steel, reinforced concrete, glass and aluminum enter to the new era of design (evans and jeffery, 2005). 2.1.1 the pioneer architects of modern movement in the world modernism is the most important movement of the 20th century, in architecture related to function of building and using new materials. it has been called as international modern after philip johnson’s modernist architecture exhibition in 1932 in america. the modernism is determining by; building always introduced by cubic or cylinder shapes with flat roofs, using reinforced concrete in the facade with white or cream color without any ornamentation, as well as steel and glass sheet are used in the building with horizontal large windows and open interior plans. the two pioneer of modern movement in architecture design were walter gropius in 18831969 and le corbusier in1887-1965. (savio, 2006). le corbusier was one of the pioneers of the modern movement in 1920’s and one of the most famous architects in the history of modern movement. his effects on the architecture as well as on the art continues until today in the world. chandigarh is one of the remarkable experiences of urban planning in 20th century. it is only the one in whole urban design of le corbusier which had been built; also it is the place of many of his significant architectural design. the city of chandigarh was blooming the journal of contemporary urban affairs, 2(1), 22-32 / 2018 maryam iranfar 24 modernism architectural movement in all over the india. it became famous for its modern architecture and landscaping. most of the buildings were designed with cubical form; respect the proportion of human body with building scale and details. the city was combined with several sectors; the area of each sector was 800by 1200 meter (tungare, 2001). he designed many buildings in chandigarh with different categories. colleges and schools were important part of his design in the city. the chandigarh college of architecture located in sector 12 is one of the educational building built by le corbusier and was established in 1959 (ali, 2017; dalrymple, 2009). figure 1. in the left shows northern façade of chandigarh college of architecture and in the right shows the interıor space with opening for natural lighting. retrieved from http://corbusier.totalarch.com/chandigarhcollege walter gropius is another pioneer of modern movement and founder of bauhaus school of architecture (amen, 2017). impington village college (1938-1939) is the most remarkable work by walter gropius during his short period while he came to england with his assistant, maxwell fry to participate an architectural partnership. simultaneously, educationalist henry morris was deciding to build three village colleges in cambridge shire. in autumn 1934 gropius introduced with henry morris and they decide to build a college in ‘impington’. gropius and maxwell fry worked together to design ‘impington’ college in summer 1936. gropius’s modern design of school leads the community pay attention to the build environment. professor sir nikolaus pevsner eulogize the ‘impington’ village college as ‘one of the best buildings of its date in england, if not the best’. the importance of ‘impington’ village college became the only public building designed with gropius in england (campbell, n.d). figure 2. the outdoor view of the ‘impington’ village college designed by gropius in 1936(a plan conceived in the mind. impington village college, 2011). the crossing wall built by bricks, with steel roof trusses and steel frame conference hall. the envelope covered by rough-texture yellow bricks with dark brown brick used in plinths, chimney stacks ant bridge trusses bearing the girders which span the hall roof. the timber roofs covered with furring and asphalt. in the classrooms, steel roof trusses carried by internal walls therefore the external walls are not bearing wall and could be design with large windows. the building designed with one and two stories and simple. the plan is designed around central landscape which, normally used as the dining space. the accessibility to the building is direct from main entrance and also from side entrance from playground. the conference hall is located in the right of main entrance. the classrooms designed by two stories with two staircases and later extended lift. behind the landscape located the main classrooms with central laboratory, and corridor relating the classrooms. the accommodation buildings such as staff rooms, common rooms, lecturer rooms, committee room, and library are located in the left of entrance. the building is presence the simplicity in architectural design (walter gropius master of modern architecture, 2011). after world war ii, richmond high school for girls designed by denis clarke-hall & scorer in 1940.it journal of contemporary urban affairs, 2(1), 22-32 / 2018 maryam iranfar 25 was another modern architecture school in england which designed in the form of gropius and fry’s ‘impington’village college (hille, 2011). 2.1.2. elements of modernism in architecture the modern movement elements are: absence of ornament, decorative molding strongly simplified and buildings introduced by simplicity in design. the convergence of touching surfaces between vertical and horizontal are sharp and clear, horizontal and vertical lines create rectangular form for the plans, flat roofs, most of the plans have meandering one story. introducing new and modern material and systems such as steel column was using directly as an obvious elements to show the simplicity and functionality, concrete block is used for finishing material, truces with long span steel provide open spaces free from columns, direct solar heating system provide comfortably for occupant. also traditional materials such as wood, brick and stone are used in building in a simple way to demonstrate the simplicity in modern aesthetic. all the material is stayed with natural character to reflects the honestly of materials. the interrelation between indoor and outdoor explained the transparency of large windows allows visual connection between site with natural landscape and building. the more important element is open plan that provide a big interior space in the building. shading elements also applied in the building to increase human comfort. the modern building designed efficient (jones, 2011). 2.2. history of modern school design in modern movement period during 1930’s to1940’s, many schools were built with the same criteria and methods of design from the last periods, however the interest for the newer models of education were increasing. as much as the tendency was growing, the new model of schools was more appearance. through guidance of several people such as maria montessori in italy and john dewey in the u.s by support the educational development theories which cause form the basis of many current educational until today. in addition to this educational progressivism, several architects start to support these new ideas of schools. many significant schools were built by innovative architects of that time such as alvar aalto’s tehtaanmaki school (1937), richard neutra were built many modern school buildings during the 1930’s and impington village college (1939) by walter gropius. these schools were known as the ‘open air school’ movement, because of the importance of design were in indoor air quality, natural light, strong connection between inside and outside and proper circulation inside the school building. the best sample of this architectural movement could be the adult learning center (impington village college) built by walter gropius which the windows is the connection between ceiling and floors. this school building still in use and is the best school building in england. this model of design could easily apply in the classroom design of today (baker, 2012). 2.3. modern architecture in cyprus in the period of 1900-1965 the modern architectural movement in cyprus starts with colonization in the island. when the ottoman rent the island to britannia in 1878, british start to have full population documentation with hoping to control island. when they reach to control the tension between two communities of greeks and turks in the island, they decide to keep them separate. but the situation changed after 1914, the colony status in 1925 and increasing the population and hard economic situation in 1931 british rulers applied several new law projects and infrastructures and begins a processes for modernization and urbanization. hence, the island had introduced to the new idea of modern architecture in 1930’s, when the number of architect who educated abroad increased to start their practices in island. the architects started to reflect rational aesthetic which sometimes followed by vernacular priorities. after finishing the world war ii, the journal of contemporary urban affairs, 2(1), 22-32 / 2018 maryam iranfar 26 urbanization became more strong and it tend to aesthetic of “corporate modernism” mostly revealed in the landscape by using concrete in the apartment buildings and office blocks which cause to be separate from walled city. in 1960 which cyprus released from british colonial, modern architecture became as a tools for decolonization and modernization. they start to build new schools, markets, factories, hotels with modernism thinking and using new materials and techniques. there are several samples of modern schools building in cyprus such as lykavytos elementary school in nicosia; after the world war ii, when the urbanization process came across with modernization and intensified, the needs for school building appeared. the demetris thymopoulos’s elementary school in lykavytos is one of the first modernist school buildings in nicosia which had built between1955-1957.the architect follows the louis sullivan ideas which is “form follows function” and use local material such as sandstone in the building. school for girls in nicosia (1962) also were designed in a same architectural style where founded a new building style, which were built clearly after the island independence from british colonial (pyla and phokaides, 2009). figure 3. d. thymopoulos, lykavytos elementary school, nicosia, 195557 (pyla,phokaides, 2009). 2.3.1 north cyprus, lefkoşa nicosia or lefkoşa (trnc) is the largest city and capital of turkish republic of north cyprus. from the geographical condition is the economic, political and cultural center of the cyprus. the population of the city is about 84900 people by 2006 census. the majority of people are local cypriot and turkish people consider of people who migrates from greece part after1974.lefcosa is the only divided capital city in the world nowadays, which south of the island occupied with greece people and in the north by turkish people (nicosia north cyprus capital city,2007). trnc area is 3,355 square kilometers, with the mediterranean climate which is long dry summers and short rainy winters (the turkish republic of northern cyprus, 2014). figure 4. nicosia city. retrieved from http://www.lefkosa.com/. 2.3.2. ahmet vural bahaedden (1927-1993) during industrialization and blooming of modernist movement in the world, local architecture in island also has been affected by this architectural movement. hence, there are many good samples of modernist architecture in cyprus which were designed by cypriot architects of that period. unfortunately, this condition had left as it was without any research from that period until today in north cyprus. ahmet vural behaeddin (1923-1993) was one of the pioneers of modern movement in north cyprus which bring about special attention with his works (celik and erturk, 2007). he designed many modern buildings in north cyprus which most of them is residential buildings, also he has school building (lefkoşa türk lisesi built in 1962), which today used as high school. the author tried to investigate this building but couldn’t find journal of contemporary urban affairs, 2(1), 22-32 / 2018 maryam iranfar 27 any information source about the school, therefore, the author decides to visit the building in order to analyze the building and draw its plans. 3. methodology through literature review author illustrate some information about modernism movement and its characteristics, then tried to shows some sample of educational modern design by pioneer of modern architecture in the world. the qualitative method applied in this paper through analyzing two educational buildings design examples in the 1960’s period case studies in lefkoşa, north cyprus. the analysis criticized several elements regarding modern architecture characteristics. the author studied the form and function of the school’s architectural elements and demonstrates their success; envelope, materials, surface, structural elements, and spaces. the author analyzed the existing elements for the educational buildings in lefkoşa and compared them with the standard elements of design in modernist movement in architecture for educational buildings. the paper tried to demonstrate how modernist elements were introduced successfully in those buildings during the 1960’s until today in north cyprus. the frame work of the methodology approach was developed by author to conduct the investigation: figure 5. methodology framework. 3.1. case studies two case studies are selected in lefkoşa to be analyzed by their modern factors. the case studies selected through some similarities such as, 1. both selected case studies are educational buildings (school building) in lefkoşa. 2. both schools building had been built in the first half of twentieth century. 3. both schools have holding the character of modern architecture. 3.1.1. lefkoşa türk lisesi (1962) lefkoşa türk lisesi was designed in 1962 by ahmet vural behaeddin and located at cemal gürsel caddesi. see figure ‘10’. the building is used as a high school nowadays. journal of contemporary urban affairs, 2(1), 22-32 / 2018 maryam iranfar 28 figure 6. the location of the lefkoşa türk lisesi, source; google map. regarding the lefkoşa türk lisesi school building the author tried to find any documentation (plans, elevations, and sections) or any research about it, unfortunately the author came to know that there is no any documentation for the school until now. hence, start to attempt to set up the plan by her. through several visits with measuring and documentation could finally make the plan from scratch. the following plan is the ground, first and second floor plan of school drawn with author. the building’s site has two entrances from outside; one is from ‘gazeteci kemal assik caddesi’ street which is the main road and other one from lateral road on the west side. the building is located east-west orientation in the site and has several access ways to the buildings, see figure ‘5’. figure 7. the ground floor plan for lefkoşa türk lisesi (drawn by author). figure 8. the first and second floor plan for lefkoşa türk lisesi (drawn by author). the main building in ground floor consist offices rooms with toilet, another attached building is canteen for students and employees. the canteen slab has been designed as folded corrugated slab. there are four staircases in the building which two rooms are located between them. class rooms are located in the first and second floors. there are three buildings which located parallel from each other and provide open spaces between them. there is a small journal of contemporary urban affairs, 2(1), 22-32 / 2018 maryam iranfar 29 room in the end of the building which based on the author in-situ observation utilized for music lessons room. the building consists of three parts with three floors which located next to the administration building. the ground floor consists small rooms, toilet between staircases, in the north and south side there are classrooms. the first floor consists four classrooms and it is repeating in the second floor, see figures ‘6’and ‘7’. one of the elements in modern architecture based on jones (2011) is clearness of structural elements (beam and columns) and in lefkoşa türk lisesi school; the structural elements are designed to be clear as one of the character of modern architecture. another element in modern architecture based on jones (2011) is the sharpness and clearness of the edges between vertical and horizontal surfaces, horizontal and vertical lines create rectangular form for the plans with flat roofs. hence, these parameters are seen as modern elements in the school building. large windows in the building are applied for interrelation between inside and outside to enhance natural lighting into the classrooms and office rooms which is another factors of modern architecture based on jones (2011). louvers applied in the eastern façade as shading elements to increase occupant comfort is another modern architecture element. the material used in the façade of the building is necked concrete. the relation between outside and inside represented through interrelation between the buildings and several courtyards among them to give good example of transparency between inside and outside as one of the modernist element in architecture. the horizontal and vertical ribbon openings are other elements applied in the building as one of the characteristics of modern architecture. 3.1.2. şehit ertuğrul ilkokulu şehit ertuğrul school was designed in 1964 and located between sehit huseyin bora sokak and sipah sokak and bedrettin demirel caddesi,lefkosa. the building is used as a primary school nowadays and has the characteristic of modern architecture. the entrance to the site is from sehit huseyin bora sokak, see figure ‘25’. figure 9. the location of şehit ertuğrul ilkokulu (source: google map). figure 10. the site plan of şehit ertuğrul ilkokulu . the şehit ertuğrul school building also suffered from lack of documentation. hence, the author started to document the building from crash. the building is prolonged in northsouth direction and the school building consist three parts. the first part is cubic form with courtyard in the middle surrounded by administration and journal of contemporary urban affairs, 2(1), 22-32 / 2018 maryam iranfar 30 classrooms opened to middle courtyard. second part is linear form from north to south with two floors; the third part is closed play yard, see figure ‘9’. beams and columns are observed as clear elements in the building to show the functionality and strength of the building. the building has horizontal and vertical ribbon openings to introduce the indoor with outdoor and invite natural light inside the building. the sun breakers applied in the structure of the building from eastern façade to provide shading in the façade and enhance the occupant comfort as an element of modern architecture. the building materials used was reinforced concrete and concrete blocks for the masonry. the smooth façade with white color were applied in the façade as a symbol of simplicity based on modernist characteristic. the classrooms have large windows dropped from the slab to middle distance to the ground, invite natural light inside the building. the building has central courtyard to enhance the lighting and interrelation between outdoor and indoor. the sharpness of the edges between vertical and horizontal surfaces, horizontal and vertical lines create rectangular form for the plan with flat roof. 4. discussion theoretical analysis and critics have been applied on both buildings regarding the uses of modernist character in them. the table shows the comparison between both buildings basis on the similar elements used in the both buildings. table 1. shows the comparison of the modern architecture elements between two school building, developed by author. the findings show that both of the buildings had applied the main characteristic of modernist movement in architecture. lefkoşa türk lisesi was successful in introducing the building as part of its surrounding through extension of the buildings and penetration in surrounded outside spaces. ‘ahmet vural bahaeddin’ was aware about the elements of modernism and almost applied them in his building as a sample of 1950’s model of modern architecture. the building had some shortage regarding the orientation of the building which didn’t respect the climate of this island and generally should be prolonged by eastwest direction. in time we can see the widest façade are in the eastwest direction. şehit ertuğrul ilkokulu had been introduced the journal of contemporary urban affairs, 2(1), 22-32 / 2018 maryam iranfar 31 modernist architectural elements in the design but it took the vernacular architecture as a source of modernity as what mediterranean modernist architecture philosophy claimed (aldin, 2017). the central courtyard and opening the rooms toward the courtyard as well as the exposed stones in the façade of entrance are elements of vernacular architecture. the building was not successful partially in the orientation regarding the sun ecliptic same previous building. it has directed in the second part of the building (prolonged one) north to south which exposed the wider façade to the east west direction. the findings show the clear modernist architecture elements in educational buildings in lefkoşa in first half of twentieth century. the buildings demonstrate that there are defects in respecting the environmental factors because of wrong direction of the building orientation which affected the building thermally and visually. hence, the finding validates the hypothesis. the hypothesis supposes that if the educational buildings holds the main indicators and elements of modern architecture from beginning of twentieth century until today, then that confirm the awareness and witness of the city in that period about modernism philosophy in architecture. 5. conclusion lefkoşa as a capital of north cyprus was one of the modern cities in the beginning of twentieth century. several modern architectures had been designed by modernist architects that time. many buildings changed under the order of clients afterward. governmental buildings were less affected with these deformations and the modernist architecture were appearing in them more than other buildings. the paper conducted two questions to investigate that; how much modernist architecture elements presence in style of educational buildings in lefkoşa? how modernist elements were functionally succeeded to be introduced in the design? to evaluate the effects of the modern elements for school buildings design on first half of 20th century in lefkoşa, the paper conducted comparing method between two modern architectural schools in the city of lefkoşa. identifying the main elements of modernist movement in architecture generally and see how they introduced in the design. the findings demonstrate that there is a clear modernist architecture in educational buildings inside lefkoşa returns to the era of modernist movement in architecture for the first half of twentieth century. in the same time there are partial defects in respecting the environmental principles in those buildings which could reduce the efficiency of architectural elements in the buildings. as future study the investigation about another type of buildings (residential, commercial or even other governmental buildings) will fortify the findings of this study. acknowledgments this research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or non-for-profit sectors. references ali. a. f. 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"cc-by-nc-nd" https://doi.org/10.25034/1761.1(1)24-34 www.ijcua.com mailto:najmaldin.hussein@gmail.com https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 24-34 / 2017 najmaldin hussein 25 technological, social, architectural or scientific value” (ticcih, 2003). according to burley and loures (2008) architectural heritage and landscape heritage are the center of social, cultural, unique spiritual values. in the past, there was different understanding in each generation it also derives new stimulation from it to build a capital in social contribution through the centuries (ech, 1975). selfslagh (2002) states that it is impossible to rebuild or renew the cultural heritage. the reason for that is no way to rebuild cultural heritages which already destroyed. therefore, industrial heritage which is part of cultural heritage needs specific consideration to preserve by transforming its authenticity to our future generation. cultural heritage as part of our past history, which belongs to our ancestors should be preserved. industrial heritage which doesn't work anymore needs to preserve to get benefits from initial capital for different purpose of social and capital activities. in this regard conservation of industrial heritage will be the best method to preserve in order to give sprite to the context. 2. conservation of industrial heritage (cih) the idea of cih started from 1950th century and introduced by michael rix (1955). also the same discussion previously clarified in the 18th century with the concept of conservation on the architecture of the building production and equipment. in this regard, in britain in 1973 there were first congers of cih and also conservation of an industrial monument to evaluate and develop the historic culture and value of industrial heritage (trinder, 1992). consequently, the researchers from non-governmental organization established to focus on this subject. right after iron bridge congress (meeting) the international committee for the conservation of the industrial heritage which is known as ticcih was founded. the international associations such as unesco and icomos also established with the aim of conservation and specially by focusing of cih. icomos in his description of industrial heritage mentioned to social, cultural and technical values of industrial heritage considered as a complimentary part of collective memory for this reason it’s needed to preserve. the main aim of establishment of ticcih was also to conserve industrial heritage (ih) ticcih was recognized in 1974 for preservation of artefacts and industrial heritage and artefacts by studying its educational, historical, scientific, and cultural values. later, from 1970th the term ih have been used in eastern european countries. the term has been used in france with the title of heritage. in holland in the period of 1986 the collection center for international industrial was established. “the organizations regulations and the investigations were constituted in scandinavian countries” (şimsek, 2006). considering the definition of ih in the charter of nizhny tagil it refers to the conservation of objects and buildings as well as social services and production facilities (nizhny tagil charter for the industrial heritage, 2003). in this regard, by considering intangible and tangible values in cultural heritage how to preserve and what we should preserve are the important questions which needed to be discussed. according to the charter of venice (1964) “it is vital that the principles guiding the preservation and restoration of ancient buildings should be agreed and be laid down on an international basis, with each country being responsible for applying the plan within the framework of its own culture and traditions.” in the conservation, industrial heritage the idea isn't also referring to objective adjustment and organization of places, but it also refers to idea of contribution of conservation by enhancing the sense of place. after the introducing of the term “sustainable development” the idea of conservation of industrial heritage developed to use the social, cultural, economical benefits of a site. demolished cultural heritage might increase the rate of crime, it also creates lost space which people might lose social connection and vitality of space in that area. according to the above discussion, it seems that the conservation of industrial heritage is mandatory which is parallel with the aim and objectives of sustainable development. in this regard, reuse of industrial heritage might be parallel to the aim of conservation. following paragraph will describe journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 24-34 / 2017 najmaldin hussein 26 the term reuse as a method for conservation of industrial heritage. 3. adaptive reuse as a part of conservation of historic buildings (hb) reuse of an industrial heritage in to new function will help to reduce sprawl reduction and land conservation. turker (2013) believes that “reuse of hb will effect directly to community growth, their histories and leading to a minimal impact on the environment” (turker, 2013). according to the literature studied in this research reusing of hb can be considered as a one of the best methods in preservation and conservation of hb in each and every context. according to cascal (2007) after the process of reuse in hb, it will get the new sprit rather than demolishing or being left to decades. during the process of reuse for hb to completely new function, the process of renovation will add new layers to the history of the building. but according to bullen et al., (2006) it’s necessary mention that in the process of adding new functionality or layers to the hb the initial layers as an identity and history of the building should be preserved. it will also help to hb to keep its previous identity which belongs to certain period and time. therefore, after reusing hb the sense of historical building still needs to be filled in reused building. consequently, according to shipley (2006) reuse of hb is the most inventive and remarkable action which could be given to an old decaying hb. “the conservation process should maintain the cultural significance of a hb and interferences should be combined with the whole while, retaining its integrity and character” (hurol et al., 2015). intervention in reusing the building for the new unction will need different methods by considering the environmental context of hb. in this regard the new intervention and facilities to hb should adopt slightly juxtapose with the identity and character of hb. according to orbasli (2009) if the reused functional effect the identity of the building or completely changed the identity and character of hb we can say that the reuse is not appropriated. figure 1 which developed base on city of petersburg city code (2007) reveals that reusing industrial building are appropriate with any kind of functions without residential. since the scale of an industrial building is bigger that residential building it will create many problems in the context which completely will change the identity of hb. figure 1. chart of reuse (city of petersburg, city code, 2007). according to armesto gonzález (2006) in order to reuse hb it needs suitable assessment of its context and situation of it in order to introduce a method of conservation to plan for its exploitation and recuperation. in his research fuentes (2010) proposed a method to reuse hb. he developed his method in six successive steps. the method which he developed is universal and could be applicable to different types of hb e.g. industrial, social, and residential and etc. figure 2 illustrates the six main steps of assessing and documenting of hb. figure 2. process of documenting hb (fuentes, 2010). journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 24-34 / 2017 najmaldin hussein 27 4. a study on international documents and charters and in the meaning of adaptive reuse the origins of stabilising of awareness for international practice and codes for conservation starts from a conference in athen in 1931 which organized by international museum office. the origins of venice charter is rooted in athens charter comes from the 2nd congress of architects and technicians of historic monument which held in venice 1964. international council on monuments and sites is an association which works on technology, methodology, and theory of conservation of historic sites, historic areas and even historic buildings. the idea of venice charter taken in 1956 from international council on monuments and sites (icomos) is considered as one of the important charters of the conservation movement. it highlights the importance of context of the original context by documentation of any adjustment and by mentioning the importance of the new layer which add during the conservation process. therefore, conservation in a way that to create socially useful environment in order to increase vitality of the context is the important concept in venice charter. this charter forms the basic principles of conservation in contemporary approaches. on the official website of unesco all principals and roles in conservation regarding to venice charter have been distributed. the florence charter on historic gardens (1982) have been accepted by icomos. the idea of developing a florence charter on historic gardens (fchg) delivers the rules and principals of regeneration of historic garden and assessment of architectural building and landscape heritage. the necessity of identifying, classifying and listing the historical gardens in order to prepare a context for philosophical guidance on conservation, maintenance and reconstruction and restoration. the principals for florence charter somehow following venice charter from the rules and principals of conservation point of view.another charter chta1 (1987) reflects comprehensive 1 charter on the conservation of historic towns and areas principals for protection and planning of historic urban areas. in the 1990 there the charter for the protection and management of the archaeological heritage (cpmah) have been established. the main aim of the charter was to consider: international cooperation, presentation, re-construction maintenance and conservation, legislation, survey in archaeological site and building and even industrial building. consequently, in 1976 the charter on cultural tourism tried to assess the negative and positive of cultural tourism on historic sites and monuments. the australian icomos charter known as the burra charter (1981) developed the rules and principals of venice charter to be adoptable with local australian supplies. the burra charter contains inclusive descriptions on rules of conservation and preservation. place, maintenance, compatible use, adaptation, restoration and reconstruction. it also highlights the idea of cultural significance, the aesthetic of historical context, social and scientific values of the present, past and future generations. the burra charter is well established in australia and is frequently used by the australian government in its formal capacity. another charter which is famous to new zealand charter or charter for the conservation of places of cultural heritage value prepare an opportunity to clarify the process of conservation to prepare principals to direct the conservation of historical context and buildings in new zealand. even the new zealand charter follows in ides and rules of conservation from venice charter. the following paragraph prepares an opportunity to focus on the charters which were specially working with the idea of industrial heritage. considering the description and classification on conservation there are different charters which referring on conservation of ih.as mannon (2004) stated “as these industrial heritages are valuable and dealing specifically with buildings and artefacts of industry. there are different institutions have been emerged, working for keeping and protecting these ih.” journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 24-34 / 2017 najmaldin hussein 28 unesco, icomos, iccrom, ticcih, and aia are the institutes which are on the conservation and preservation of ih. table 1. institutions working on conservation of industrial heritage (developed by author). 5. museums and their contribution to development of cultural heritage to understand and evaluate cultural identity and knowledge of our heritage museums play a significant role. icom2 (2007) describes museums as “as a non-profitable, permanent institution which acquires, preserves, studies, exhibits and disseminates the intangible and tangible inheritance of manhood for regeneration study, regeneration purposes, education”. therefore, to find a way to transformation of values and by defining a knowledge in behind of heritage is the main aim of establishing a museum. there are lots of methods to gain the main aim and objectives of establishing museums such as communication and information technology organization of exhibition spaces, educational actions, research tools. designing a museum could be in such a way to organise either in open spaces or buildings. therefore, based on the aim and objectives of each and every museums it can be 2 the international council of museums organized and designed. consequently, industrial building or even traditional residential building could also organize in such a way to define museums. in designing a museum not only the mission of design important, but also it needs to consider to guaranty and consider the values and reservation techniques. similarly, the protection of the construction should prevail above, the use of the museum with a particular aim. in reusing a building for the museum we should also consider market value from the financial viewpoint. therefore, aggregated value of the investment previously have been done. cultural heritage as a part of history which shows the culture and values of our traditional heritage needs somehow to preserve in such a way that to transform the cultural values from the past to the present and even for the future generation. in conservation of such building's reuse is the most important method. the reason for that refers to the already designed and constructed building infrastructure. therefore, it also economically reasonable. the idea also can work in the revitalization of industrial heritage to increase the vitality and the liability of the context. 6. case study 6.1. golden horn as an important industrial region of istanbul until 1980s golden horn was vital industrial region, but after that there was some parallel process movement, such as deindustrialization and neoliberalization the property renovation concept start to effect of the organization principals and the master plan of the city. golden horn as one in the old manufacturing area was the main purpose of interfering. but nowadays the area by using new strategies, counting large and more scale private speculation. the golden horn divides the european part of istanbul into historical peninsula or the old center and beyoğlu (pera). (yerliyurt and hamamcioğlu, 2005). journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 24-34 / 2017 najmaldin hussein 29 from 1960s golden horn involved great industrial facilities and continued the process of industrialization by enticing small-scale manufactures till 1980s. “the decentralization of the industrial landscape that took place late in the 20th century, along the shores of the golden horn and the valley beyond did not come about impulsively. starting in the 1980s, industrial amenities were obligatory to abandon the golden horn and relocate to the margin of the city following new planning resolutions originating from i̇stanbul’s municipal authorities” (yerliyurt and hamamcioğlu, 2005). as it is shown in figure 3 in the golden horn district, there are lots of industrial building which is valuable and counts as industrial heritage. since basing on nowadays principals of urban development and master plan of istanbul it is forbidden to build indusial manufactures in these districts therefore it’s not possible to use these buildings with the same function. therefore, they are using some methods and techniques to revitalize the districts. one of the famous districts which have been successfully revitalized is silahtaraga power plant in the golden horn district (figure 3). the following paragraph will explain how this area revitalized. figure 3. golden horn and important industrial districts (aksoy, 2007). 6.2. santrallstanbul as a new way of interpretation of the industrial heritage at the end part of the golden horn from the north side there is the first power plant of the ottoman empire with the name of santralistanbul (silahtarağa power plant) which used to be the first power plant of the ottoman empire, which have been built in 1910 and was in operation until 1984.santralistanbul has been fully re-functioned and conserved. which is an art and cultural complex. santralistanbul is containing of an energy museum, an amphitheatre, a modern art museum, concert halls and a public library which is situated within the silahtarağa campus of bilgi university, istanbul (aksoy, 2007). the silahtarağa power plant was the first urban-scale power plant of the ottoman empire, founded in the golden horn district. it used to prepare electricity to istanbul from 1914 until 1983. the main reason for designing this area for producing electricity come be in the vicinity of the area to the other industrial manufactures which were in need of electricity (brangar, 2004). the choice of this site for the power plant was probably influenced as much by the need for proximity to other industrial facilities as by its strategic location within the city walls at the heart of the busy economic life of the golden district. figure 4. the place of silahtaraga power plant in golden horn district. consequently, in the late 1990s the board of preservation of cultural and natural heritage listed santralistanbul as a landmark of industrial archaeology in istanbul. the conservation and revitalization project for santralistanbul carry out between 2004 and 2007 by the architecture han tümertekin, nevzat sayın, and emre arolat. journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 24-34 / 2017 najmaldin hussein 30 figure 5. santralistanbul and the position of museum of energy on it. the main aim of revitalizing of santralistanbul was to convert the area for a centre for encouraging production, culture and learning purposes and also preparing an international and interdisciplinary platform for culture and art. to plan entertainment, heritage tourism, and art production. the contemporary art museum (figure 6) which was built on this site has four-story building with amenities for artists, the library and the museum of energy. figure 6. sabtristanbul and the place of contemporary art museum. 6.3. analysis of santralistanbul in order to reuse the silahtaraga power plant to energy museum in the silahtarağa power plant area the organization between site’s functional zoning which classified to the production units, storage areas, and raw material have been classified and organized with each other in a specific zoning purpose to optimize the maximum energy efficiency of the product. from the other hand, there are lots of administrative buildings around the site. figure 7 illustrates different building around the site. figure 7. silahtarağa power plant, site plan as it had evolved by 1984 (brangar, 2004) figure 8 reveals the main rooms of the factors which refers boiler rooms and groups of machine in the factory which organized in east-west horizontal axes. considering the comb-shaped” arrangement of the original 1910 plan referees the compacts and the necessity for unifying the complex in order to increase the energy efficiency of the factory. journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 24-34 / 2017 najmaldin hussein 31 figure 8. silahtarağa power plant, site plan drawn in 1910. considering a reinforced concrete design which later converts to machine hall the other building around the complex were cast-iron construction within large openings. in the case illustrated in figure 9 the arches are in the upper level. figure 9. silahtarağa power plant, view of the first machine room and administrative headquarters (adopted from (brangar, 2004) all over the place until the 1920s there were colossal industrial shed grammar omnipresent everywhere. “this grammar owed its elegance to the ability of the exterior shell to exist independently of the crude internal construction that bore the weight of the gigantic machinery housed within” (brangar, 2004) (see figure 10). figure 10. silahtarağa power plant, the main machine hall. it also should be mentioned that the shop buildings dating from the early stages of construction were small-scale examples of this same cast-iron interior structure with a thin exterior shell language. by understanding the main function and characters inside the site, it’s time to focus on the main building which recently converted to recent museum. 6.4. energy museum architectural analysis from the silahtarağa power plant site the housing units and machine halls which were in need of structural reinforcement rehabilitated to energy museum (brangar, 2004). the process of regeneration of the building start with a little intervention. in this regard the two machine hall, which are next to each other designed in such a way that to convert to energy museum. the main aim of reusing the building was absorbing impressions and observation. “nevertheless, the boiler rooms, which revealed hazardous materials. like asbestos as well as structural problems, could not be incorporated into the project’s museum programs. rather, their shells were preserved through additional structural reinforcement. while fragments of the interior were retained, and the whole structure was distorted into the new university library” (brangar, 2004). the existence of the boilers in the central space in an energy museum in the place which recently converted to library is the most astonishing idea in this renovation. thin exterior shells together with the stairways and service platforms protecting them from the elements. journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 24-34 / 2017 najmaldin hussein 32 figure 11 reveals the addition of stairway and viewing in the first and second machine hall in which converted into an energy museum. figure 11. energy museum with the addition of a stairway and a viewing. figure 12. plans of the energy museum. the building reused by little intervention in order to save the main identity of the building. there were a few additions to the building such as escalators and designing bridges in around the upper floors to have viewed from the top part to inside the museum. the additional part illustrated in figure 13. the approaches for conservation of the building was less integration and the structure are reinforced from inside and the structure is visible from inside. figure 13. less intervention and the visibility of structure from inside. figure 14. less intervention and the visibility of structure from inside. in energy museum it’s visible to observe that the structure preserved as it was previously. since the factory was made the machine was the priority for them for this reason the structure of the factory have been organized by considering the structure of the research. ‘these current mechanical equipments are transformed into an artificial landscape and the assembly lines transformed into catwalks for people. so that way he provided a new and different platform to show the existing. and another interesting part is that the building was built in the machine scale, but with the new platforms catwalkit brings human scale to machine scale” (aksoy, 2007) according to the principles for conservation in ticcih (2003), minimum intervention has been done in the original character of the building and has not been disturbed. added parts include glass material, therefore the structure is visible. there is staircase as well as the ramp inside the building for access to the different floors. not only the building has been conserved and has become the attraction centre for people, but also the urban context has been preserved according to the changes and conservation. the following table reveals the value analysis of the energy museum. it reveals the sensitivity in the contemporary conservation values which is respected to the main rules and objectives of nizhny-tagil charter (aksoy, 2007). journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 24-34 / 2017 najmaldin hussein 33 table 3. the degree of success in reusing of energy museum based on nizhny-tagil charter (aksoy, 2007). 6.5. adaptive reuse in museum of energy in santralistanbul adaptive reuse is the change of functions within an old space. “adaptive reuse of a building is the process of transforming an existing building to accommodate new uses” (brooker and stone, 2008). according to douglas (2006) there might be different cause of sustainability and conservation. the energy spent and leftover on new constructs for specific purposes could be avoided through the alteration of standing building (douglas, 2006). santralistanbul in turkey istanbul is one of the best examples of adaptive reuse illustrated in the figures below. figure 15. adaptive reuse in santralistanbul previous and new building. by looking carefully for the energy museum to the pictures before and after reuse its visible to conclude that process of reuse have been done perfectly. 7. conclusion heritage as a most significant phenomena which transforms human cultural values from the past to the future needs to reserve. industrial heritage which had a vital effect of human promotion in industrialization period needs also consider to preserve for the future generation. since the area abandoned and the buildings are going to demolish by the time passing it needs to preserve. lack of vitality and liability in such a space is the most important factor which increases, the method of rehabilitation in such a place. in the period of industrialization in golden horn lots of industrial district and buildings have been built. santralistanbul as one of this district built with the aim of producing electricity power for the factories and even for residential houses around the istanbul. the area has been rehabilitated by a group of architects with the purpose of educational and artistic activities. one of the important buildings which was the main focus of this research named as energy museum has been successful reuse from producing electricity to the energy museum. the method of the intervention was in such a way that to have less effect of the body and structure of the building. therefore, the identity of the building fully preserved. acknowledgment this research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or non-for-profit sectors. references aksoy, a. (ed). (2007) silahtarağa elektrik santrali: 1910-2004, i̇stanbul bilgi üniversity press. brangar, s.y. (2004) silahtaraga elektrik santrali'nin korunmasi ve yeniden kullanimina yönelik oneriler”. yildiz technical university. journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 24-34 / 2017 najmaldin hussein 34 brooker, b. g., & stone, s. s. (2008) basics interior architecture 02: context & environment. ava publishing; illustrated edition edition. bullen, p., & love, p. (2006) adaptive reuse of historic heritage buildings. department of construction management school of built environment curtin university, perth australia. burley, j. and loures, l. (2008) conceptual landscape design precedent: four historic sites revisited. proceedings of the 1st wseas international conference on landscape architecture, algarve, portugal, june 11-13, 2008, 11-16. choay, f. (1992). l’allégorie du patrimoine. paris: seuil. kuhl, b. (2004). questões teóricas relativas à preservação da arquitectura industrial. in: revista desígnio, 1(1):101-102. nizhny tagil charter for the industrial heritage. (2003) ticcih (the international committee for the conservation of the industrial heritage). trinder, b. (1992) the blackwell encyclopedia of industrial archaeology, oxford: blackwell publishers pp172-173. turker, o. (2013) lecture notes inar 569: sustainability in interiors. faculty of architecture, eastern mediterranean university famagusta north cyprus (via mersin 10 turkey). şimsek, e. (2006) endüstri yapılarının kültürel miras olarak degerlendirilmesi: i̇zmir liman arkası bölgesi örnegi, unpublished ms thesis submitted to the graduate school of natural and applied sciences of dokuz eylül üniversitesi, i̇zmir r. shipley, s. utz, and m. parsons. (2006) does adaptive reuse pay? a study of the business of building renovation in ontario, canada (pdf). international journal of heritage studies, 12(6), pp. 505-520. hurol, y, yuceer, h., & basarir, h. (2015) ethical guidelines for structural interventions to smallscale historic stone masonry buildings. selfslagh, b. (2002) what future for our heritage? in: heritage and sustainable development – council of europe, naturopa. belgium: bietlot – gilly. united nations scientific and cultural organisation. (1972) convention concerning the protection of the world cultural and natural heritage. adopted by the general conference at its seventeenth session paris. cascal, s. (2007) the adaptive reuses of buildings: remembrance or oblivion? argentine/ argentina. orbasli, a. (2009) re-using existing buildings towards sustainable regeneration. school of architecture: place and culture identity group working paper. city of petersburg city code. (2007) adaptive reuse of historic buildings overlay. chapter 16, land department regulation section 16.30 020. josé maría fuentes. (2010) methodological bases for documenting and reusing vernacular farm architecture, journal of cultural heritage, volume 11, issue 2, april–june, pages 119-129 the athens charter. (1931) for the restoration of historic monuments. icomos. the burra charter. (1999) the australia icomos charter for places of cultural significance. international council on monuments and sites. the venice charter. (1964) international charter for the conservation and restoration of monuments and sites. yerliyurt, b. and hamamcıoğlu, c. (2005) entertainment and culture based marketing of cities in the unifying world; golden horn culture valley project, istanbul. aesop congress vienna-2005. douglas, j. (2006) building adaptation, london: butterworth-heinemann publishing. https://uwaterloo.ca/planning/node/24 https://uwaterloo.ca/planning/sites/ca.planning/files/uploads/files/shipley_reuse_economics.pdf https://uwaterloo.ca/planning/sites/ca.planning/files/uploads/files/shipley_reuse_economics.pdf https://uwaterloo.ca/planning/sites/ca.planning/files/uploads/files/shipley_reuse_economics.pdf https://uwaterloo.ca/planning/sites/ca.planning/files/uploads/files/shipley_reuse_economics.pdf journal of contemporary urban affairs 2018, volume 2, number 1, pages 45– 54 evaluating energy consumption in terms of climatic factors: a case study of karakol residential apartments, famagusta, north cyprus *dr. rokhsaneh rahbarianyazd1, dr. layla raswol2 1 & 2 department of architecture, nawroz university, duhok, kurdistan region, iraq e mail: rokhsaneh.rahbarianyazd@gmail.com e mail: layla.raswol@uod.ac a b s t r a c t throughout the past few decades, research has demonstrated that climatic factors are some of the most important issues to be considered in respect of energy consumption in buildings. climatic factors, therefore, directly influence the economic sector. in order to study the impact of climatic factors in karakol residential buildings in terms of energy consumption, an evaluation of the studies (literature survey) effected in relevant climates, and the analysis of the existing buildings according to these studies is essential. this represents the aim of this research and the other is to present design strategies for minimizing the negative impact of climatic factors on energy demand in these buildings. to approach the research objectives, the climate of the region was initially investigated. in an attempt to evaluate some of the current housing in the karakol district of famagusta in terms of the climatic factors, three types of residential apartments were identified and evaluated through observation, interview, and also by the distribution and complication of qualitative and statistical questionnaires to and by the occupants of the apartments. in this paper, basic climatic problems, as a result of which lead to increased energy consumption in residential apartments in respect of heating and cooling were identified and reported. journal of contemporary urban affairs (2018) 2(1), 45-54. https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2018.3658 www.ijcua.com copyright © 2017 journal of contemporary urban affairs. all rights reserved. 1. introduction in most societies such as united states (eia1, 1999) and also india (indraganti, 2010) the use of energy in residential buildings for heating and cooling which provides thermal comfort, is one of the highest consuming sector. providing comfortable and adequate working conditions 1 energy information administration for occupants in buildings necessitate the need to control the climatic factors of the building. a r t i c l e i n f o: article history: received 23 july 2017 accepted 23 august 2017 available online 23 august 2017 keywords: residential apartments; energy consumption; climatic factors; famagusta. this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution noncommercial noderivs 4.0. "cc-by-nc-nd" *corresponding author: department of architecture, nawroz university, duhok, kurdistan region, iraq e-mail address: rokhsaneh.rahbarianyazd@gmail.com mailto:rokhsaneh.rahbarianyazd@gmail.com mailto:layla.raswol@uod.ac https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2018.3658 www.ijcua.com https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 2(1), 45-54 / 2018 dr. rokhsaneh rahbarianyazd, dr. layla raswol 46 for instance, the issues of temperature control, humidity, lighting and ventilation require the utilization of energy. on the other hand, successful energy conservation is achieved by aiming for the least possible energy consumption and this will be achieved through the support and awareness of both the architect and the resident (landsberg & stewart, 1980, p.3-5). as is demonstrated by the research, energy consumption can be influenced by climatic factors such as temperature, winds, moisture or precipitation and many other factors, so these factors equally and directly have influence on the economic sector and present a major problem in residential apartment buildings, which are generally chosen by people with lower incomes, who wish to have less expensive housing, but who, in fact, because of inappropriate design features and up paying out more than in necessary for energy consumption. buildings are comprised of two parts: the interior and the exterior surfaces (roof, external walls, glazing, and floor). climatic factors impact on the exterior surface of buildings and the energy transmission because of the difference temperature and also surface transmission coefficient will be done by these exterior surfaces (landsberg & stewart 1980, p.16-20). in the us between the years 1973–1984, the sudden increase in energy costs attracted the attention of architects to the issue of energy management in buildings. as a result of this awareness and focus, the energy efficiency of buildings greatly improved in respect of improving the design and functioning of windows, roof and wall insulation, and heating and cooling systems, etc. (galloway, 2004, p.182). as a result using appropriate materials in external walls and design methods for the existing climatic condition factors is essential. a literature survey on the residential buildings in the relevant climatic condition was carried out to identify typical designs developed in respect of climate. the construction of buildings as per climatic factors is an excellent case for addressing the issue of energy consumption efficiency. 2. methodology qualitative and qualitative approach methods have been used in this research and the techniques applied are those of personal observation, in depth interviews, administered qualitative and statistical questionnaires with closed-end questions, review of related literature, and internet sources. in general the most significant important factors that impact on energy consumption are: location and climate data of the building, orientation of the building, installed materials, building design and the selecting of the technical systems (leskovar, & premrov, 2011). this study attempts to survey some of these items due to literature review and as aforementioned three residential apartments have been identified in the karakol district which is shown in figure 2. analyzes have been done through interviews and questionnaire with the occupants of the karakol district. 3. climate zone survey the district of karakol in famagusta has a transition climate, which lies between a composite and a hot, humid climate, however because of proximity to the sea it is called hothumid climate (özdeniz and hançer, 2005; hançer, 2005). 4. literature survey of the relevant climate on buildings in order to evaluate the impact of climatic factors on residential buildings in karakol_ in terms of energy consumption, it is necessary to survey_ the literature review and analyze the buildings in this area. 4.1 orientation oktay’s (2002) evaluation of the vernacular housing in northern cyprus, which were adapted for the hot and humid climate, offered useful suggestions such as orienting living spaces towards the south using light colors on the external walls and roofs in order to reflect the sunshine, using a narrow plan with opposite windows in order to create cross-ventilation and thus creating and designing more sustainable conditions for new buildings. according to givoni (1994) creating cross ventilation in buildings with two openings in different walls (one of which is facing to the wind direction) for all the rooms in a hot-humid climate is very useful. providing these openings for each room in buildings especially apartment buildings, but ensuring the free flow of air between all rooms in the buildings is essential. aksugur (1996) study examined four cities in cyprus with four different climates, he and also thomas (2002, p. 156-158) in his book made some recommendations for minimizing the energy usage in buildings in a hot-humid climate. buildings in this climate would be oriented with journal of contemporary urban affairs, 2(1), 45-54 / 2018 dr. rokhsaneh rahbarianyazd, dr. layla raswol 47 the longest sides toward north and south with openings for ventilation and they would also have walls to provide shade and external opening by using wide eaves and deep verandas. the ventilation of roof space for minimizing the high solar radiation was also included in their recommendations. hot and humid climates usually require air conditioning in order to provide thermal comfort. this process requires energy. energy performance in buildings refers to the ability of a building to function with minimum energy utilization. this thermal comfort could be improved by creating sufficient microclimate strategies in the surrounding area of the buildings (zain, taib, & shah baki, 2007). acceptable air speed depends on the environment temperature and humidity. at a temperature below 33e°c, an increase in air speed will decrease the heat sensation (givoni, 1998, p.17). according to the data for famagusta’s climate (aksugur, 1996) which is shown in figure 1, the air speed process will make the residential spaces in karakol comfortable. figure 1. average minimum and maximum temperatures for famagusta over the year (retrieved from url1, 01thapril, 2015). 4.2 materials 4.2.1 roof and floor the ozdeniz & hançer (2005) study examined 14 different types of roof construction, which is used in the hot-humid climate of cyprus in terms of energy loss and gain. the sloped timber roof with ventilated attic space and inner thermal insulation materials proved to be the best choice for this climate to avoid building up heat in summer. for the hot and humid climate minimizing the conductive heat gain in the summer (aksugur , 1996) by using a ventilated double roof with aluminum foil which is attached above the ceiling is essential (eco-housing mainstreaming, 2009, p.14; dinsev & mohd, 2004). in this respect, the roofs with thermal insulation performed the most efficiently. coch’s (1998) study investigated several typologies of the vernacular dwelling depending on the climate. one such evaluation was carried out in a hot and humid climate. in this climate the roofs are broken constructed so that the hotter air is held at the top along with and an opening for circulating the air in order to avoid_ overheating. these steep slopes_ also provide useful drainage for the frequent rains. the floors are raised to better receive the breezes and are permeable to the air, so in this way the ventilation facility of the whole envelope of the house is complete. 4.2.2 windows windows and other glazed areas are weak in respect of the transfer of unwanted heat. the resistance of the glazing material, the number of glazed panels, the air spaces between, and the design and detail of the frame affect the insulation value of the glazing unit. (watson & labs, 1983, p.171). windows, as a significant part of a building’s external surface can heat spaces through the glass: the best glass_ is transparent so that the light can reflect the heat. the best reduction of glassing in solar gain is tri-pane-plate (30% reduction of solar gain) compared with plate glass, double pane-ordinary and double pane plate (landsberg & stewart, 1980, p.30-31; galloway, 2004, p.21). aksugur’s (1996) suggestion for hot climates was double-glazing with wooden frames or aluminum frames with thermal break type. the thermal quality of different types of glass varies; low e double glazing is the standard type and triple glazing is more commonly used for residential buildings. however the perfect glazing systems are those that can react flexibly to the changing incoming radiation quantities and interior conditions by using a movable louvre between the panes of the double or triple glazing units (hegger et al., 2008 p. 91-97). 4.2.3 shading the outcomes of the shading study (aksugur, 1996; galloway, 2004, p.19-25) shows that rooms with windows which are located on the south side of a building become hot in summer. in order to combat this problem a permanent awing could attached to the building for shade. journal of contemporary urban affairs, 2(1), 45-54 / 2018 dr. rokhsaneh rahbarianyazd, dr. layla raswol 48 4.2.4 external walls hot climates such as cyprus are excellent for providing passive solar heating (lapithis, 2004) but a balance is required between heating and cooling in order to prevent overheating and discomfort in summer. in order to achieve this elements of such a dwelling are doublepaned glass on the south side where the living spaces are located, the use of mass material such as concrete, brick and stone for storing up the sun’s energy as thermal mass, using windows and doors or maybe fans for convicting the heat throughout the house. (north carolina department of commerce, 1999, p.5-6; givoni, 1992). thermal mass just stores the heat and does not work as an insulating material (ecohousing mainstreaming, 2009, p.3). 4.2.5 insulation thermal insulation in buildings not only reduces the need for air-conditioning, but also reduces the annual energy cost. in all climates walls and roofs must be insulated in order to reduce the heat transmission. moisture has negative effects on the insulating efficiency of material (smith, 2005, p.69). due to the negative impact of moisture on thermal insulation over time it must be controlled in buildings with the use of ventilation or other means (al-homoud, 2005). roofs provide the main heating for living spaces as a result of radiation. in order to reduce overheating in summer the roof must be protected by the appropriate insulation to provide the desired u-value (thermal conductivity) (eco-housing mainstreaming, 2009, p.18). data collection, sample size, and analysis random sampling techniques were adopted for this study, in the form of three apartments with two, four and six division of floors (figure 2) and the occupants were interviewed to obtain their opinion about their energy usage and its cost. these apartments were analyzed in respect of their orientations, their spatial arrangements, their dimensions, surface finishes, construction materials used, and types of glazing. a statistical questionnaire survey was administered to 100 inhabitants in various apartments within the karakol district. the questionnaires were completed by the respondents within a specified period and collected. out of 100 questionnaires 80 were retrieved from the respondents. therefore, this data analysis will make use of 80 questionnaires. the data contained in the questionnaires was used to guide the researcher in his findings and to support accurate results. 5. data collection, sample size, and analysis random sampling techniques were adopted for this study, in the form of three apartments with two, four and six division of floors (figure 2) and the occupants were interviewed to obtain their opinion about their energy usage and its cost. these apartments were analyzed in respect of their orientations, their spatial arrangements, their dimensions, surface finishes, construction materials used, and types of glazing. a statistical questionnaire survey was administered to 100 inhabitants in various apartments within the karakol district. the questionnaires were completed by the respondents within a specified period and collected. out of 100 questionnaires 80 were retrieved from the respondents. therefore, this data analysis will make use of 80 questionnaires. the data contained in the questionnaires was used to guide the researcher in his findings and to support accurate results. journal of contemporary urban affairs, 2(1), 45-54 / 2018 dr. rokhsaneh rahbarianyazd, dr. layla raswol 49 5.1 evaluation of three residential apartments figure 2. position of three residential apartment in karakol area for surveying (retrieved from url 2, 13thmarch, 2016), and also plans of three sample apartments; from left to right. uzun apartment merkez, uzun apartment 10, muçize apartment (drawn by author). 5.1.1. orientation table 1 demonstrates the features of selective units in uzun apartment 10 and muçize apartments (figure 3 & 4). an analysis of the electric bills over a 4 month period (january, february, march, april) and by conducting personal interviews with the occupants of the buildings within the –same area and with the same number of occupants showed that the occupants located on the north and north-east sides of these buildings consumed more energy, than the occupants or users on the south and southeast side of the building. this means, of course, that they pay more for their energy in winter. in addition, photographs of the exteriors were also recorded, as shown in figure 3 &4. table 1. feature of selective units (area, orientation and also number in household). area m2 number in household orientation of the units position of living room in each unit block a, unit 1 150 3 north north-west block a, unit 2 150 3 south south-west block b, unit 1 60 2 north-east east block b, unit 2 60 2 south-east east block b, unit 3 80 3 north-west west block b, unit 4 80 3 south-west west journal of contemporary urban affairs, 2(1), 45-54 / 2018 dr. rokhsaneh rahbarianyazd, dr. layla raswol 50 figure 3. from right to left. north, south and east facade of the uzun apartment 10 (research’s field study, taken by author, 2016). figure 4. from left to right. west, north, south façade of the muçize apartment (research’s field study, taken by author, 2016). 5.1.2 ventilation by analyzing the selective plan of karakol buildings, it was observed that the prevailing wind in summer, which comes from the south cannot reach some of the units, therefore these buildings become overheated in summer. as is shown in figure 5 block c, unit 1 does not have opposite windows so the air cannot circulat e in the space especially in living room and during the summer the space becomes overheated and the occupants are required use the air conditioning during may and june, when it should not normally be necessary to do so. figure 5. movement of wind in block c, & block b. 5.2 evaluation of karakol residential apartments 5.2.1 glazing type from the research study as indicated in the pie chart (figure 6), it was observed that 75% of the glazed units in the karakol district are single glazing; this drastically increases the energy consumption as energy escapes from the space during heating or cooling (landsberg & stewart 1980, p.31). this factor will increase the cost and monthly energy consumption of these buildings. figure 6. the above pie chart shows the different glazing types in karakol residential buildings. 75% 15% 5% 5% glazing types single glass double glass reflective glass tinted glasses journal of contemporary urban affairs, 2(1), 45-54 / 2018 dr. rokhsaneh rahbarianyazd, dr. layla raswol 51 5.2.2 external wall material as it shown in figure 7, the research indicated that most of the external wall materials [about 45%] in these buildings are composed of brick. it was also established that there was no isolation in the walls of the building, which considerably increases the energy usage. figure 7. the above bar chart illustrates the external wall building material in the karakol residential buildings. from the perspective of embodied energy, brick provide good thermal mass, but it must be well insulated in order to avoid moisture collecting especially at the intersection point between the windows and the walls and in order to prevent heat transfer (eco-housing mainstreaming, 2009, p.3). in the research study it was also noted that the total energy consumption is primarily dependent on the conductivity value of the insulating materials in the walls. 5.2.3 wall thickness figure 8 illustrates the effect of wall thickness on the energy consumption of these buildings. it was observed from the survey that all the buildings wall thicknesses are about 25 cm (60%). it was also noted that the walls are not insulated and, therefore will not, store or retain energy in the external or internal spaces of these buildings following heating or cooling. “moisture in a building component always increases the transmission because the thermal conductivity of water is 0.6 w/mk. normally present in the air in the form of water vapor, it infiltrates the insulation and owing to the temperature difference can condense there, which reduce the insulating effect and frost damage. so insulating materials should be protecting against moisture” (hegger, et al., 2008, p.149). figure 8. the above pie chart illustrates the external wall thickness in the karakol residential buildings. this indicates that wall thickness has little impact on the annual energy consumption. this suggests that building designers should focus on alternative strategies, some of which are contained in this research study, to achieve more significant reductions in the total energy consumption. furthermore, incorporating thicker walls in the initial building design and planning stages would seem more appropriate than the saving in running cost due to the reduction in the overall energy use. 5.3 height of buildings the most significant things that the researcher observed about the buildings in the karakol district is that in some of the buildings due to their poor orientation, height and distance between them only some parts of these buildings receive direct sun at noon, whilst others receive it during the morning and/or evening. furthermore, and also as a result of dividing the building plan into four or more, only one side of the buildings gets the best wind for thermal comfort, which leads to a reduction of energy consumption in summer. 5.4 shading the researcher also observed that most of the buildings do not have any shading devices or awnings on the south façade and, consequently, the sun’s rays enter these buildings directly at certain times in summer. as a result of this the apartments become too hot for the occupants and the air conditioning is required for cooling purposes which results in an increase in the energy costs. 5.5 construction details it was also discovered that the intersection points (window-wall, ceiling-wall) were influenced by moisture, which also leads to increases in heat transmission. 2.5% 10% 60% 5% 2.5% exetrnal wall thickness less than 20 cm 20 cm 25 cm 30 cm more than 30 cm journal of contemporary urban affairs, 2(1), 45-54 / 2018 dr. rokhsaneh rahbarianyazd, dr. layla raswol 52 5.6 roof construction the researcher also noted that the flat roof construction of these buildings, which also have no attic space, more readily permits the direct entry of the sun’s rays into the building, which, in summer, creates an overheated living space, which is not at all appropriate for this hot-humid climate. 5.7 building regulation from the research carried out and as a result of an interview conducted with two professional architects who study environmental control and climatic design in famagusta, it was established that there are no specific buildings regulations, codes or guidelines in this city in respect of building controls. 6. conclusions as a result, more than half of the energy consumption in the karakol residential apartments is used for heating and cooling. it may be concluded from this research that the level of the consumption of the energy in this area is due to inappropriate design planning, such as the inordinate division of the floors in the apartments, which created the unfavorable orientation of some of the units. and also the use of improper, inappropriate building materials along with the lack of insulation, which, consequently, leads to increased energy demands and costs. therefore, it is necessary to adapt the residential buildings in this area in order to minimize the passive, negative impacts of climatic factors on energy demand for heating and cooling. from this study the research established that the planning and design process of residential apartments in a hot-humid climate, to ensure reduce energy consumptionshould include a number of important factors. they are as follows: 1in designing plans for residential apartments it is important to divide the floor in a way which permits the units to have both a north and south orientation, in order to achieve cross ventilation in summer and to have access to the sun’s rays in winter. 2if it is not possible to have cross ventilation in the apartments, the inclusion of a solar chimney is a good alternative method of circulating the air on all the floors on hot days (eco-housing mainstreaming, 2009, p.23). 3in hot climates, thermal insulation should be used in the walls. some of the suggested wall insulation types are mineral wool slabs, expanded/extruded polystyrene, or aerated concrete blocks (eco-housing mainstreaming, 2009, p.20). 4using awning on the south side of buildings in order to prevent the direct penetration of the sun’s rays in summer. 5using sloped timber roofs with attic space and also thermal insulation materials under the roofs to insulate against the direct entry of the sun’s rays, thus avoiding overheating in summer (ozdeniz & hançer, 2005). 6using double or triple glazing with wooden frames and paying attention to the junction points between the window frames and the walls in these buildings is also essential. in conclusion, therefore, if these suggested solutions are not incorporated by architects and construction companies in the design and planning of buildings in hot-humid climates in order to reduce the negative impact of such climates on buildings, it is necessary and important to introduce and establish building regulations or codes for both designers and building constructors to follow in order to produce buildings and living space 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http://maps.google.com/maps?hl=en&q=karakol+famagusta&bav=on.2,or.r_gc.r_pw.r_qf.,cf.osb&biw=1440&bih=756&um=1&ie=utf-8&sa=n&tab=wl http://maps.google.com/maps?hl=en&q=karakol+famagusta&bav=on.2,or.r_gc.r_pw.r_qf.,cf.osb&biw=1440&bih=756&um=1&ie=utf-8&sa=n&tab=wl http://maps.google.com/maps?hl=en&q=karakol+famagusta&bav=on.2,or.r_gc.r_pw.r_qf.,cf.osb&biw=1440&bih=756&um=1&ie=utf-8&sa=n&tab=wl http://maps.google.com/maps?hl=en&q=karakol+famagusta&bav=on.2,or.r_gc.r_pw.r_qf.,cf.osb&biw=1440&bih=756&um=1&ie=utf-8&sa=n&tab=wl https://www.academia.edu/14665063/bibliograf%c3%ada_y_referencias_-_confort_t%c3%a9rmico_en_bioclima_semi-fr%c3%ado_estimaci%c3%b3n_a_partir_de_los_enfoques_de_estudio_adaptativo_y_predictivo https://www.academia.edu/14665063/bibliograf%c3%ada_y_referencias_-_confort_t%c3%a9rmico_en_bioclima_semi-fr%c3%ado_estimaci%c3%b3n_a_partir_de_los_enfoques_de_estudio_adaptativo_y_predictivo 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https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2007.04.036 journal of contemporary urban affairs 2019, volume 3, number 2, pages 47– 54 empowering the urban poor through participatory planning process: a case from jhenaidah, bangladesh *dr. mahmuda alam 1 , mrs. emerald upoma baidya 2 1 & 2 community architect, platform of community action and architecture, bangladesh email: aritra.ahmed@gmail.com email: emerald.upoma@gmail.com a b s t r a c t the paper analyses a community development project based in jhenaidah, bangladesh, which evolved through broadening social capital among slum communities and formal institutions in order to bring positive socio-spatial changes in the neighborhoods. till date, nine disadvantaged communities have formed a network for city-wide community development, have started to build and manage their own funds, built better houses for themselves, and through this process have managed to draw attention and support from the local government. started by a small group of architects and a local ngo in 2015, and still broadening its scopes, this project can be regarded as a successful example of people-led development initiative, especially in a context where most development projects exercise limited participatory values and are dominated by unequal power dynamics. hence issues like scaling up and economic sustainability still concern those, who can see the community-driven development process with an unbiased attitude. the overarching goal of this article is to sketch out these issues with the help of empirical understandings from the field and theoretical findings from literature on social innovation and power in planning in order to understand how to work balance between local and institutional management of projects in order to avoid perceiving bottomup and top-down initiatives in a dualistic manner. journal of contemporary urban affairs (2019), 3(2), 47-54. https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2018.4700 www.ijcua.com copyright © 2018 journal of contemporary urban affairs. all rights reserved. 1. introduction urbanization in bangladesh is moving at a rapid pace. between 1961 to 1981, the average urban growth rate was 8%. the present average growth rate is about 4.5%. according to the population census of 2001, the share of urban population was about 23.29% and at present it is approximately 37%. the importance of urban development is emphasized in terms of its role in the national economy. more than 60% of the national gdp is derived from the non-agricultural sectors that are mainly based in urban areas. the expansion of urban economy leads to the growth of urban population and concomitant haphazard urban spatial growth without planning. (district town infrastructure development project (dtidp, 2015) the case study is from a city corporation in the western part of bangladesh, named ‘jhenaidah’. jhenaidah is a medium sized municipality of bangladesh. jhenaidah municipality stands on the bank of the noboganga river. located on 210 km west to the capital city(dhaka) bangladesh. jhenaidah municipality was established in 1958. this is a class “a” municipality. the municipality consists of 9 wards and 33 mahallas (neighborhoods). *corresponding authors: community architect, platform of community action and architecture, bangladesh e-mail address: aritra.ahmed@gmail.com a r t i c l e i n f o: article history: received 09 february 2018 accepted 15 may 2018 available online 26 september 2018 keywords: sustainable planning; communityled ; development process; socio-economic sustainability; socio-politic dynamics; this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution noncommercial noderivs 4.0. "cc-by-nc-nd" http://ijcua.com/index.php/ijcua mailto:aritra.ahmed@gmail.com mailto:emerald.upoma@gmail.com https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2018.4700 file:///c:/users/sazgar/downloads/www.ijcua.com https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0532-3709 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4448-6244 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 3(2), 47-54/ 2019 mahmuda alam, emerald upoma baidya 48 the national focus on economic development has taken bangladesh a long way, even with some complex problems (overpopulation or natural hazards). in a short period of time, bangladesh is on the verge of becoming ‘middle income country’ from ‘developing country’. the economic development of the cities is driving people to come to the city for work, and jhenaidah is no exception. so, when new people are coming to the city everyday, the need of housing is increasing. figure 1: jhinaidah, on the map of bangladesh (google map, 2016) 2. background of the community-led development project initially, five low-income communities had formed a city-wide network. currently, this network has 9 communities as members and few more as interested. the basis of creating the network was to start saving group within community. the member communities have been saving since 2015. after the communities started saving, they were eligible to apply for a seed fund from achr (asian coalition for housing rights). achr usually gives two kinds of fund for city-wide development; fund for building houses and for small infrastructure upgrading, such as waste management, drainage or community space making. citywide network at jhenaidah has received funding from achr for two consecutive years. the idea is to include this as seed fund in a revolving loan system. two beneficiary communities have developed housing with this fund and they will be repaying to city-wide network. then the next communities in pipeline will receive the fund. the network aims to expand the fund from their own savings along with the external funds. since 2015, the communities of jhenaidah have built 45 houses in total. in the first year (2015-2016), mohishakundu community built 20 houses. in the second year the same community built 8 more houses. in the second year (20116-2017), vennatola community built 18 houses. figure 2: geographical locations of communities of the citywide the city-wide network has received assistance from co-creation architects, platform of community action and architecture (pocaa) and ngo alive. the initiative also received advice from jhenaidah municipality, department of architecture of brac university, polytechnic institute of jhenaidah, jhenaidah chambers of commerce etc. figure 3: the previous and present condition of housing co-creation architects is an architectural firm, which provides services to both low-income and middleincome group of people. pocaa is a platform for group of architects who introduce themselves as ‘community architect’. pocaa began its journey with an intention to work for disadvantaged communities (though not limited) by housing and community development. alive is a local ngo, active in jhenaidah and some other cities of bangladesh. they have collaborated with pocaa for housing development project. they are responsible for mobilizing, skill developing and construction supervision in all communities. figure 4: city-wide network and support groups 3. methodology the paper has taken qualitative approach for the research. the researchers had spent several months in jhenaidah as ‘research stay’. during http://ijcua.com/index.php/ijcua journal of contemporary urban affairs, 3(2), 47-54/ 2019 mahmuda alam, emerald upoma baidya 49 the research stay, a number of activities had been carried out, starting from community visits, interviews of architects, ngo personnel and community members. focused group discussions were done with different communities, in presence of community members (mostly women) regarding specific issues or topics. during the research stay, a lot of informal discussions with the community members took place, which provided insights and observations that usually is unreachable through formal meetings or discussions. workshops can be called one of the important parts of the research stay; a vital part of understanding comes from active participation in facilitating and participating in workshops. several workshops were organized to recognize the strengths and resources available in the local context. through extensive report writing and journal keeping, the researchers made observations on how participatory processes is being carried out in this case. 4. research question there had been several attempts to address the housing need in past few decades in bangladesh. housing units funded by government often see a common scenario, the poor beneficiary rent the new house and leave for a cheaper option in a slum. then the question arises if the housing project lacks the real socioeconomic scenario of the people from whom the projects were aimed to .a pool of experts felt the need of bottom-up approach rather than design a low income housing project in a topdown manner. however, understanding the depth of participation in design and planning still a challenge for development professionals. the research question is formulated as following to address these issues. 1. what does community-led planning process mean and how to ensure participation in planning 2. what changes can be brought in community people’s lives through participation? 5. findings positive influences of the communityled process the greatest difference between community-led development and other organization-led development lies in the freedom given to the communities. in the case of jhenaidah city-wide community development project, the communities exercise freedom in designing and managing finance, decision making. they are equipped with tools to acquire information and to prepare physical planning upgradation. moreover, they are able to spread the knowledge and sense of community strength through networking. the process of achieving these is elaborated in the following section. 5.1 empowerment through group saving saving as a community build-up tool has various aspects. this is the first step towards participatory action, where the community takes responsibility to manage their saving, create a central fund from it and decide how the fund can be used in different development projects. it is not only about collecting money, it is also about collecting people together. "saving in a group and expressing opinion is related in communal power dynamics. when a group of people starts to save together, every individual becomes more aware of his/her right in decision making, as they feel their monetary input is valuable for the whole group.’’ (kabir, 2018). according to farzana, one of the key architects of the project, saving is becoming community’s strength. in her words, "many communities expressed the feeling that they never had this amount of money what they have today together! it was possible because of group savings.” (farzana, 2016). the dignified part of the process is that the lowincome communities do not need to seek aid; rather they express their ability to make change with some external support. in this case, the support was the seed fund that they received from achr. this support has accelerated the process in the beginning and people could see physical changes in a short period of time. over the time as the saving grows bigger, the community member are also being able to take small loan for emergencies or investing in small entrepreneurships. this has in two positive results: firstly, the community members are becoming independent from outsider micro-financing organizations and trier loan cycles. secondly, they can think about economic development through businesses. figure 5: women group is considering to invest their time in craft-based product making (farzana, 2016) 5.2 financial mechanism design by community http://ijcua.com/index.php/ijcua journal of contemporary urban affairs, 3(2), 47-54/ 2019 mahmuda alam, emerald upoma baidya 50 as mentioned before, after continuing saving for several months, jhenaidah communities received fund from achr for housing development. each of the participant households could receive a loan of maximum 1,00,000 taka (around 1300 usd) to invest in repair/ extend their house. in this funding mechanism, the money comes to the city-wide network as a grant, the city-wide network chooses beneficiary community savings group to provide a no-interest community loan. individual households then avail the loan. every household who receives a loan will have to return it to its own community savings committee with a certain percentage of administrative cost. the community saving groups have the freedom to decide loan repayment conditions as per their capacity. the first community to develop their housing decided the amount of administrative cost (around 2.4%) that each household agreed to pay with each instalment. they also agreed upon the duration (8 years 4 months) to repay the whole loan with weekly instalments. on the other hand, the second community felt the need to pay a small amount (bdt 100 from each household per month) to the people who would co-ordinate the construction work. this community decided to repay the loan in shorter period of time (5 years). the freedom to decision making in the financial mechanism made the loan payment easier for the community contrary to any other loan system designed by outsider organisation. usually with so many organisations working in low-income communities with microfinance, poor people get stuck in the loop of loan payment by taking loan from one organisation, to pay another organisation. when the seed fund comes back to a committee in the form of loan repayment, they can start to give loans to the next members of their own community or to the city-wide network to start the process in other communities. in this way, the fund revolves within the city. the first community has already built more houses with the repaid money. 5.3 decision making by community network the city-wide network was able to take decision about selecting beneficiary communities and the beneficiary households. to make the decision they based on few criteria. ‘community strength’ was the first criteria, measured through the saving activities. the more community members trust each other, the more and longer they save together. another criteria was to assess the vulnerability in terms of finance and situation of living condition. thus, the communities were ranked to implement housing development project. two communities has already finished their housing development while third community is being prepared with designing housing option and acquiring right to land. 5.4 participation in design, planning and construction at first, the communities prepared existing measured map of their neighborhood with the assistance from community architects. this map includes how they lived by positioning plot boundary and their owners, main houses, service structures such as kitchens, toilets, communal toilets, communal structures such as the temples, shops, infrastructure such as roads, drains, household and communal water taps etc. after mapping, community expressed their aspiration of houses through a ‘dream house’ design workshop, with the help of models. through a collaborative design process with architects, they designed several options for houses that are affordable, low maintenance, well lit and ventilated and have better spatial arrangements. based on these discussions, the architects designed two prototype houses and through repetitive consultations with the community. at construction the prototypes adapted to each household need. as a result, the houses became visually unique to each other. during a discussion, women at mohishakundu shordarpara (the first community) have expressed how the process of collaborative design has changed the perception of their own capacities, one woman said: “we feel like now we can make our houses ourselves. the other day we were discussing about the budget to build the first story of our house and my daughter suggested that she could make it with half the money! the way apa (architect farzana) has worked with us, we feel like we are architects now!” (mina, 2016). figure 6: house designed at dream house design workshop (co.creation architects) http://ijcua.com/index.php/ijcua journal of contemporary urban affairs, 3(2), 47-54/ 2019 mahmuda alam, emerald upoma baidya 51 figure 7: children designing their desired playground along with the ngo alive, the communities assigned 2/3 members as the procurement and construction management team to purchase the material and to supervise the quality of construction. ‘‘when we go as a team to source and purchase material, we explain our initiative (low-income housing) to the dealer and can negotiate a great prize for the bulk purchase’’ said one of the members of the procurement team. (shorifa, 2016) each family contributed in terms of labor to reduce the cost. at this moment, the first community is designing a community center that can also be a school for elderly people. the second community has designed and now building a community center after the housing constructions. 5.5 tools and information to the community mapping is a tool through which the people of the community (ies) visualize resources, problems, opportunities and solutions. the mapmaking process works as the first step to translate each participating households’ intangible ideas about housing into something tangible. gradually, by adding layers of information and understanding, the community collectively creates a representation of their current situation and their future aspiration. figure 8: community mapping, one community teaches another community how to map after finishing the housing project, the first community mapped existing wastewater drainage system and proposed a tertiary connection to the existing drain. this map has become a negotiating document for the community to request for that particular service from the municipality. arappur, a community of the city-wide network without land title, has been using map with community members’ information to exercise the possibility to acquire a land. all the nine communities of city-wide network have finished settlement profiling and gathered overwhelming amount of information about each communities. these profiling have helped them to see their neighborhoods beyond its physical arrangement and identify social issues (access to services, literacy, crime against women etc.) the communities are feeling powerful with the information in their hand to negotiate for ensuring rights that they deserve from different authorities. 5.6 networking and sharing knowledge moulaert, martinelli and gonzalez points out in a transversal analysis of socially innovative projects that local initiatives have “a symbolic, demonstrative effect on the broader urban scene, showing that change is possible… often the beginning of an interactive social learning process, blurring institutional and scalar boundaries” (moulaert, martinelli, & gonzalez, 2010). we have understood this better from citywide network of jhenaidah. nine communities, who live in different geographical locations of the city, have close communication with each other. the pioneer communities now acts as support group, by teaching other about mapping and saving activities. they helped to audit helped audit other communities’ savings accounts and taught bookkeeping. the first community shared their experience of house designing and construction from where the second community found improvement for their houses. it started when two community leaders from mohishakundu visited sri lanka to learn community saving mechanisms from the women’s development bank. according to masud (2016), this visit was a practical learning opportunity for both the support group and the community. during the construction phase, the support group and some participants from the community visited safe, an ngo in dinajpur to learn about cost-effective bamboo treatment. now the network grew so much that other communities from other city visit jhenaidah to learn about community action. city-wide network of dinajpur (a municipality from north of bangladesh), rural communities of jessore have visited jhenaidah and got inspired to run saving activities in their own community. leaders from jhenaidah communities visited http://ijcua.com/index.php/ijcua journal of contemporary urban affairs, 3(2), 47-54/ 2019 mahmuda alam, emerald upoma baidya 52 shatkhira (a municipality from south of bangladesh) to share experience with local communities, municipality and ngo (brac). jhenaidah leaders are preparing to attend asian hub meeting of in mumbai, arranged by achr and sdi to share their experience about settlement profiling. thus the city-wide networking is expanding to nation-wide networking and to international platforms by horizontal sharing of knowledge. figure 9: community leader from mohishakundu helping with book keeping in shoshanpara community. the connectivity with institutions have continued to grow with the support group’s attempt of involving more local academia and professionals in the process such as the students and teachers from the polytechnic institute of jhenaidah. the support group also arranged an academic design studio for housing project with brac university with one of the disadvantaged communities in jhenaidah. to involve students and young graduates is also a way to create interests for local development within academia and eventually in practice. 5.7 change in socio-politic dynamics a project/program that is designed to be people-centered can collapse even though participatory techniques are used. this happens when the notion of participatory design is ritualistic, serving only a face-value, people's participation is a just a box to tick in. involving people in every step of decision making process means when needed, there should be the flexibility to change the institutional framework or financial mechanism of the project to address the beneficiary community's life realities, and if needed the political hegemony of the context should also be questioned. in a scenario of any development initiative, just as a sense of powerlessness is common in among slum communities, a given sense of power is common among professionals or ‘experts’. according to farzana (2016b) the conducts with community was a transformative process for the support group. within the support group, professionals helped each other to bypass their professional boundaries to gain the trust of community people. how the ngo officials and architects talked to community people also made a difference; it was about carefully deciding to let go of the sense of power or pride that one gains from becoming a professional or expert. even something simple like conducting meetings in a local veranda sitting together with local people on a bamboo mat instead of at the ngo office in a formal manner mattered in this process (farzana, 2016b). understanding how life is perceived by the community means acting in a flexible manner, where the experts accept the “politics of differenceas opposed to a politics of othering” (saunders, 2002). active presence, patience, participation and trust in people-led process were important factors in the process. the effect of this project on local governance has been spreading in a slow but sure fashion. after the construction of 20 houses in mohishakundu shordarpara, the local government has offered increased assistance to the project. the mayor, along with the architect from pocaa, presented these achievements in german habitat forum held in berlin. following this, the mayor has assured the assistance to form a cdf (city development fund) for disadvantaged communities in jhenaidah. he has also offered the architects with additional technical support from the engineers of the city corporation. if seen under the light of albrechts’ (2003) understanding of power, this is a critical transformation from a scenario where powerambivalent citizens groups are not convinced of the power of informal structures and frameworks in shaping the flow of events in planning field, to a scenario where dominant relations (sociopolitical system or market favoring only the privileged) are changed by collective efforts supported by empowerment. 5.8 power and gender dynamics in the patriarchal practice of bangladesh, women are perceived as less capable then men, which was evident in the beginning when men were the main voices in any discussion and community meeting. from the case studies and researches done by achr in different countries, it is actually women group who are instrumental in saving activities and community development process. the support group attempted to shift power, role and management responsibility to the women to empower them in the process. as women of the communities were involved in reproductive role inside of their households, it was easier for them to manage time than men would be able to. they have demonstrated excellent capability in physical and social http://ijcua.com/index.php/ijcua journal of contemporary urban affairs, 3(2), 47-54/ 2019 mahmuda alam, emerald upoma baidya 53 mapping, facilitating design and construction of houses, and managing saving accounts. the process has been a successful tool in breaking the stubborn barrier of gender inequality, even if in a slow pace and at a small scale. since 2015, a great change can be noticed in behavior of the women, from being scared to speak at all in front of any male presence (then) to proudly present themselves as ‘community leaders’ to outside visitors (now). this shift was not easy as the male community leaders felt uncomfortable in transferring leadership in the beginning, as if that would mean letting go of their sense of control. when the male leader of mohishakundu was asked to transfer leadership after an instance of mishandling community savings account, he was openly skeptical about leaving responsibility to women, suggesting that women alone are not capable in managing leadership responsibilities (masud, 2016). 6. drawbacks found through the research jhenaidah city-wide community upgrading process still needs to find solutions to some complex problems. the process had been encouraging for them since there was a money flow from achr to realize their dreams. now that the network needs more time to accumulate money from the repayment of loan, will the communities be able to keep patience and accept the slow process? even after a long process of mobilizing and building (housing or infrastructure) with a community, it may fall victim of self-sabotaging patterns, sometimes fail to see the bigger picture or become too cautious out of self-interests and lose faith in cohesiveness. boonyabacha from achr says, “there is a notion going around that the poor are helpless, lazy, ignorant, and untrustworthy that they do not have resources or ideas, and that they cannot think for themselves or manage money. so it follows that they need to be helped, trained, organized, spoken for and made aware. this assumption infects the policies of a great deal of the world’s development agencies and of housing-activism, shelter-delivery, and povertyreduction programs, where solutions are conceived and carried out on the poor’s behalf by professionals, bureaucrats, activists and social organizers." (boonyabancha, 2017). the support group shares this same value. so for them, the leaders from the first few communities should come forward in the process while the support team gradually steps back. this has not fully happened yet in jhenaidah. presence of an external support group has been always needed for the communities in staying focused on collective development efforts. this issue calls for another necessary step to takesetting up a separate community fund and creating a program for capacity building. boonyabancha from achr warns in this regard that, “if a community cannot manage money, it is doomed forever to having its development process determined by someone else” (boonyabancha, cited skinner, 2014). in the case of jhenaidah, the mayor has always been supporting citizens and local organizations with logistic and legal help in their efforts in citywide upgrading of disadvantaged communities. but the upgrading process in jhenaidah needs more technical support from within the municipality. the slum development programs launched by the municipality must coincide the city-wide upgrading process. the dimension of support that jhenaidah mayor has offered to the upgrading process does not necessarily reflect the status of other municipalities in bangladesh. the readiness of local government to support disadvantaged communities is a crucial issue but if local government itself is not empowered enough through decentralization, devolution etc., it cannot do much to help the urban poor in the right scale. 7. conclusions though focused on housing development, this project or to be more accurate, this process has tapped into the potential of communities to establish institutional associations and to utilize those to bring positive changes in their lives. to answer the question of the research, participation needs to engage user group in such manner, which tells that the development organization or professionals trust in people’s capacity. despite manifold concerns felt by relevant professionals related to this process, city-wide community upgrading process in jhenaidah is a successful beginning to peoplecentred planning/ community-driven development. once the people fully realise the potential and benefits of this process, they will begin to invest more to the process, not only financially, but also their time and agency. through more decentralized proposals from the grassroots’ levels, the communities can push for participatory budgeting and come out of established institutional frameworks for a better, sustainable future. acknowledgements this research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. http://ijcua.com/index.php/ijcua journal of contemporary urban affairs, 3(2), 47-54/ 2019 mahmuda alam, emerald upoma baidya 54 conflict of interests the author declares no conflict of interest. references albrechts, l. 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(2014). bangladesh pro-poor slums development integration project: social assessment and social management framework (rep.).the world bank. retrieved march 6, 2016, from http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en /561921468211766110/bangladesh-pro-poorslums-development-integration-projectsocial-assessment-and-social-managementframework-report positions of the communities of city-wide network on google image [map]. (n.d.). in google earth. retrieved august 31, 2015, from https://www.google.se/maps/@23.5406088,89 .1790876,11305m/ data=!3m1!1e3?hl=en un-habitat. (2014). practical guide to designing, planning, and executing citywide slum upgrading programs. nairobi: united nations human settlements program. retrieved april 14, 2016, from https://unhabitat.org/books/apractical-guide-to-designing-planning-andexecuting-citywide-slum-upgradingprogrammes/ world urbanization prospects population division. (n.d.). retrieved april 14, 2015, from http://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/cd-rom/ http://ijcua.com/index.php/ijcua https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203849132 http://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/cd-rom/ http://communityarchitectsnetwork.info/upload/opensources/public/file_08092015184134.pdf http://communityarchitectsnetwork.info/upload/opensources/public/file_08092015184134.pdf http://communityarchitectsnetwork.info/upload/opensources/public/file_08092015184134.pdf mailto:google.se/maps/@23.5406088,89.1790876,11305m/data=!3m1!1e3?hl=en mailto:google.se/maps/@23.5406088,89.1790876,11305m/data=!3m1!1e3?hl=en http://www.lged.gov.bd/unitabout.aspx?unitid=10 http://www.lged.gov.bd/unitabout.aspx?unitid=10 https://unhabitat.org/books/a-practical-guide-to-designing-planning-and-executing-citywide-slum-upgrading-programmes/ https://unhabitat.org/books/a-practical-guide-to-designing-planning-and-executing-citywide-slum-upgrading-programmes/ https://unhabitat.org/books/a-practical-guide-to-designing-planning-and-executing-citywide-slum-upgrading-programmes/ https://unhabitat.org/books/a-practical-guide-to-designing-planning-and-executing-citywide-slum-upgrading-programmes/ journal of contemporary urban affairs 2017, volume 1, number 2, pages 1– 10 oeuvre vs. abstract space: appropriation of gezi park in istanbul dr. senem zeybekoglu sadri * department of architecture, girne american university, turkey e mail: senemsadri@gau.edu.tr a b s t r a c t the gezi park incidents of summer 2013 in istanbul have marked a turning point in the political life and democracy in turkey. the peaceful environmentalist protestations in central gezi park have turned into a countrywide upheaval against the neo-liberal and conservative policies of the government, pouring millions of people into streets in different cities. it was a time that turkey witnessed the formation of a new type of public sphere that encompasses a variety of counter publics, and its spatial incarnation –the gezi commune-, reclaimed, created, shaped and inhabited by the free will of people. this was the instant creation of oeuvre through appropriation of the urban space, and a spatial manifestation of reclaiming the right to the city. this article is a reflection on possibility of creation of oeuvre in contemporary society, and a new way of architectural thinking and practice that can pave the way for it. journal of contemporary urban affairs (2017) 1(2), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2017.3643 www.ijcua.com copyright © 2017 journal of contemporary urban affairs. all rights reserved. 1. introduction there is a strong relationship between city spaces, the way they are produced and social relations taking place in those spaces. spaces are adapted by people through their diverse economic, political, social and cultural activities. all personal or common lived spaces make place for these dwelling practices of people (sadri & zeybekoğlu sadri, 2012). the way that spaces are formed determines how we access to those spaces, how we use them and how we exist in them. under the domination of state, capital, and institutional knowledge, spaces are produced as commodities (sadri & zeybekoğlu sadri, 2012). accordingly they reflect the order of a ruling power, and they start to cause exclusions of certain groups of people and their diverse dwelling practices, which do not fit into the norms defined by the ruling power. henri lefebvre distinguishes between space as “oeuvre” and space as “product”. space as a r t i c l e i n f o: article history: received 29 march 2017 accepted 21 april 2017 available online 24 april 2017 keywords: gezi park; collective architecture; right to the city; oeuvre; appropriation. *corresponding author: department of architecture, girne american university, turkey e-mail address: senemsadri@gau.edu.tr this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution noncommercial noderivs 4.0. "cc-by-nc-nd" mailto:senemsadri@gau.edu.tr https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2017.3643 www.ijcua.com mailto:senemsadri@gau.edu.tr https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(2), 1-10 / 2017 dr. senem zeybekoglu sadri 2 oeuvre occurs as a result of collective creation, praxis. the french word oeuvre refers to lifetime “works” created by an artist. since space as oeuvre is an outcome of collective creation of different generations during a long period of time, it is the accumulation of all works done by inhabitants of a city during its city’s history. thus, space as oeuvre embodies peace and coexistence. however space as product is produced by forces of production such as nature, labour, division of labour, and instruments of labour. nature is commodified, labour is exploited, division of labour is organized and instruments of labour such as knowledge and technology are estranged and controlled by power. furthermore designed and produced spaces have been invaded and organized by the state, capital and institutional knowledge, particularly architecture and planning. while space as oeuvre is formed in accordance with the needs of different generations, through a collective of lives over a lot of people during a long period of time; space as product is designed and constructed within the domination of ruling power and as an outcome of collaboration between the state, capital and institutional knowledge (lefebvre, 1991). lefebvre defines designed and produced spaces as abstract things and commodities. he associates the abstract space with social hierarchical order, social norms and social factions. abstract space creates social hierarchical order through limiting the access to and use of space. abstract space also dictates social norms through homogenizing the potential uses of space by limiting those uses to particular functions inside defined architectural forms and accordingly restricting the everyday life of people. and finally, abstract space renders social factions as the systematic method for controlling daily life and its practices through fragmenting the collective and cooperative practices of people (lefebvre, 1968; purcell, 2003; lefebvre, 1991; gottdiener, 1993). against hierarchical order, social norms and social fragmentation, intrinsic to the abstract space, lefebvre celebrates the idea of «right to the city» to protect diverse dwelling practices of people and promote oppressed groups. the right to the city is the right of inhabitants of the city to dwelling, existing and co-existing within the space during the process of formation and use of space. consequently lefebvre divides the right to the city into two interdependent rights: the right to oeuvre and the right to appropriation. while the former is more related to the praxis of creation of space, the latter is more concentrated on free life and co-existence in space (lefebvre, 1968). during gezi protestations, taksim square and gezi park in istanbul were appropriated by istanbulites, and the park was transformed into a communal space through a collective praxis of protestors. with several dwelling practices that it housed, such as protection from police attacks, political discussions, artistic production, health services, eating and cleaning, the commune was the instant creation of oeuvre, which was made according to its inhabitants’ visions and desires. it was representing the free will of people co-existing inside the commune, against social hierarchical order, social norms and social factions dictated by abstract space of ruling power and capital. this article aims at unfolding the spatial history of gezi resistance as a right to the city movement, through evaluation of spaces of resistance that emerged and disappeared throughout the days of protestations and reflecting on a new way of thinking with practice that can pave the way for a new architecture of resistance. 2. production of abstract space in istanbul starting from the mid-1970s, world cities have been changing under the impacts of neo-liberal economic developments, which have been manifested in new spatial organization of production, developments in communication and transportation technologies, and the declining control of nation states over economic activities (van kempen & marcuse, 1997; sassen, 1998; giddens, 1999). world cities started to journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(2), 1-10 / 2017 dr. senem zeybekoglu sadri 3 restructure themselves and compete with each other in order to attract a highly mobilized capital which started to travel around the world in the form of high technology industries, new employment forms, new administrative institutions, international events and tourism. within this competitive environment, creating a marketable city image became a priority for city administrations. urban transformation projects which aim at creating new and marketable images for cities started to be implemented at different scales and with different contexts (harvey, 1989; goodwin, 1993; paddison, 1993; evans, 2003). istanbul is also under the effects of this marketing based production of urban space. the commencement of implementation of neoliberal economy policies in turkey dates back to the year 1980, concurrent with the military coup d’état of 12 september (öktem, 2011). from this year on, turkey’s economy started to grow on consumption, depending on production of consumer goods rather than industrial and agricultural production (sönmez, 1996). istanbul was the centre of this economic growth and its imagination as a world city paralleled to its position in the global competition of cities (keyder & öncü, 1994; robins & aksoy, 1995; keyder, 2000). this imagination transformed the urban space into a commodity, replacing the use value of urban land with its exchange value. within the last 15 years, to be able to foster urban development and economic growth at the level of other global cities, urban regeneration has been used like a magic wand by the central government and city administrators in big turkish cities (zeybekoğlu sadri, 2017). although urban regeneration is described as ideas and activities to improve the economic, physical, social and environmental conditions of an area (roberts, 2003), its application in istanbul is not following this multi-layered approach. the focal point of the projects in istanbul are mostly physical with economic priorities and are applied with several motivations such as earthquake prevention, renewal of historical neighbourhoods and creation of tourism attraction, re-functioning of former industrial or historical buildings, rehabilitation of gecekondu (squatter) districts, and last but not least economic development through huge-scale prestige projects. within the last 10 years or so, the scale and content of urban interventions have also evolved into enormous scale infrastructure, transportation, and new urban development projects such as 3rd bridge over bosphorus, 3rd airport, and kanal i̇stanbul. preparation of the urban infrastructure for a potential earthquake, development of the economic conditions of people, preservation of the historical-cultural assets of the city, and improvement of poor living conditions and declined physical environments are crucial for a more safe, liveable and resilient city. however, the urban regeneration experience of istanbul shows that, in most cases, the above mentioned motivations are only used as guise for transforming the urban land into commodity for investors and city management, and even earthquake has become a marketing tool during this process. through enforcement of new planning laws and regulations, or amendments to existing regulations, the legal framework of urban regeneration is also manipulated (günay, 2013). usually, what is being applied as regeneration is construction of high rise, high density gated communities, with residential, commercial and hospitality functions for higher income groups (yalçıntan, çalışkan, çılgın, & dündar, 2014). these projects are implemented with the decision of central or local governments and investors, without maintaining the participation of local people who are going to be affected by the projects. in most cases, the implementation of regeneration projects includes destruction of an existing poor neighbourhood and eviction of the inhabitants of that neighbourhood, followed by other problems such as unemployment, exclusion from social services and health and education facilities and loss of social networks journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(2), 1-10 / 2017 dr. senem zeybekoglu sadri 4 established in the neighbourhood (i̇slam & enlil, 2010) as a result of such market oriented transformation of the city, the abstract space is produced through hierarchical division of the urban space, enforcement of social norms and social factions. the nature is destroyed and environment is polluted in an irreversible way. public spaces are privatized and closed off to the use of the public. the urban space is fragmented into pieces through gated communities, and any encounters with differences are avoided for security reasons. consumerism is celebrated and shopping has become the new urban recreation. urban poor is marginalized and displaced. history and memory of the city is demolished while being rewritten. the decisions regarding the urban space are given by central government, city administration and contractor firms without any public consent. the projects are implemented with an ignorance of scientific research and humanitarian values, with laws and regulations manipulated in order to eliminate any legal barriers in front of the projects. 3. taksim square and gezi park taksim square and the adjacent gezi park in the center of istanbul constitute a major public space not only in istanbulites’ lives but also for the whole of turkey. the square and the park are located in beyoğlu district of istanbul on the european side of the city (figure 1). beyoğlu can be considered as one of the most central locations of the city, with a high number of cultural activities, and ease of access through over and underground systems connecting at the square. the square lies on a hilltop which overlooks the bosphorus on the east and haliç on the southwest, at the intersection of i̇stiklal, sıraselviler, cumhuriyet, i̇nönü and mete streets and tarlabaşı boulevard (figure 2). the most significant structure giving the square its characteristic is taksim republic monument completed and opened in 1928 (figure 3). other major urban elements surrounding the square are maksem building on the west, atatürk culture center (akm) on the east (figure 4), the marmara hotel on the southeast and gezi park on the northwest which lies between cumhuriyet and mete streets (figure 5). the square takes its name from the maksem building, a big water reservoir, built in 18th century as a part of a bigger water distribution network that served to beyoğlu and its surroundings (akın, 2011). as the water distribution center, taksim (an arabic word meaning distribution) took its name from this new function of distribution (kuban, 2010). figure 1. location of taksim square in istanbul, map reproduced by the authors from istanbul greater municipality’s city map (istanbul greater municipality, n.d.). figure 2. taksim square and gezi park, map reproduced by the authors from istanbul greater municipality’s city map (istanbul greater municipality, n.d.). journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(2), 1-10 / 2017 dr. senem zeybekoglu sadri 5 figure 3. taksim republic monument (authors' archive, may 2013). figure 4. atatürk cultural centre (authors' archive, may 2013). figure 5. a view from inside the park, with the marmara hotel on the background (authors' archive, october 2013). 4. appropriation of gezi park in june 2011, the prime minister of the period announced the taksim square pedestrianization project (demirkan, 2011). the project which envisioned the pedestrianization of the square by directing the traffic flow of streets surrounding taksim square towards an underground, through huge tunnels, removing bus stops from the square, and re-constructing the artillery barracks building over the location of gezi park (figure 6) was approved by the istanbul greater municipality council in september 2011, and 1/5000 and 1/1000 scale preservation master plans of beyoğlu including this the project were amended (council decisions, 2011). additionally, the non-existent artillery barracks was announced as a registered building by the decision of istanbul 2nd directorate of cultural heritage conservation district board on 09.02.2011 (taksim dayanışması güncesi, 2015). figure 6. a scene from the video of istanbul greater municipality’s directing taksim traffic underground and redesigning the square project (yapı haberleri, 2012) the project aroused several objections among civil society organizations due to its top-down application process (bayhan, 2012; özkarkal, 2012). it was seen as a neo-liberal urban intervention project imposed by the government, combining all the above mentioned aspects of urban transformation in istanbul. from destruction of nature, to loss of public space, from commodification of space to manipulation of laws and regulations, this project was a representation of what has been going on istanbul, and in other big cities in turkey for years (figure 7). journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(2), 1-10 / 2017 dr. senem zeybekoglu sadri 6 figure 7. a view from taksim square during the pedestrianization project works. gezi park remains in its place (taksim meydanı çevre düzenleme i̇nşaatı, 2015). demolition of the park, which commenced on the night of 27 may 2013, was challenged by protestations of a group of activists including architects, planners and artists. although the demolition of the park was the moment that the protests began, this environmental protest shortly evolved into huge scale unrest against the government. discontent caused by the ruling party’s political pressures and interventions in daily life over the last 10 years was cried out during the protestations. the crowds were marching with slogans as “government resign”, “shoulder to shoulder against fascism”, “everywhere taksim everywhere resistance” (her yer taksim her yer direniş, 2013). as the police interventions, paralleled with the statements of the turkish prime minister of the time regarding the government’s determination with the construction of the mall and humiliating and marginalizing the protestors continued (taksim'e cami de yapacağız..., 2013), the resistance grew, both in number of people attending and in geographical distribution. people from different political ideologies and groups, civil society organizations, football support groups, special interest groups and individuals who were not attached to any political ideology or group came together in gezi park, supporting each other (postvirtual, 2013, bulut, 2013). people who were not on the streets were supporting from their homes through home-scale protestations like banging pans and pots at their windows (post modern protesto gezi parkı olayları, 2013), or leaving food, water and medicine outside of their doors and windows for protestors. during this period, the mainstream media was ignorant to what was happening in gezi park. while many of the local tv channels were keeping their silence regarding the protests, international media organizations were broadcasting the protests live. the most reliable communication and news media turned out to be the social media and citizenship media (zileli, 2013). social media was effective in organizing and orienting protestors instantly, and calling out warnings related to upcoming police attacks too. the biggest weapon of the resistance was the critical humour that was produced and shared by millions of people on the streets and through social media. the pressure and humiliation coming from the prime minister was subverted into a satirical acceptance, and was used as a weapon of critique against repression, and police violence. caricatures, graffitis, different forms of art works, and creative ways of demonstrations were used as a way of resisting, which lifted the spirit of the protests, and created a strong solidarity among protestors and supporters (avcı, 2013). as demonstrations continued and the number of protesters increased, police was expelled from taksim square. gezi park was appropriated by protesters and a sort of commune was established in the park, with tents, temporary kitchen, library, pharmacy, garden and other amenities for people to live in (figure 8). the gezi commune, with free and voluntarily provided services, autonomous decision making system, coexistence of different people and groups and freedom of expression, was the spatial expression of the resistance and evolution of oeuvre against the forces of abstract space produced by political power, capital and security forces. journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(2), 1-10 / 2017 dr. senem zeybekoglu sadri 7 figure 8. facilities inside gezi commune, map reproduced by the authors from istanbul greater municipality’s city map (istanbul greater municipality, n.d.) and sketches in historical atlas of gezi park (2013). 5. gezi resistance as a right to the city movement the gezi resistance was a large scale uprising for the right to the city in its two aspects: right to oeuvre -a claim for democratic participation in the making of the cityand right to appropriation -a demand for peaceful co-existence in the city. first, it was a claim for right to oeuvre which was realized in the self-autonomous character of gezi commune, a voluntary, participatory, temporary habitat, where all inhabitants had a voice and contribution in the creation and recreation of the spaces of the commune. as a temporary settlement, this communal space provided diverse dwelling practices for people from sheltering to social gathering, from health services to education, from worshipping to artistic production, and all the services and maintenance was provided voluntarily on a regular basis as a part of communal living. although there was no city administration and no ruling class to ensure order and security, solidarity among people created harmony and safety inside the commune area. this was the realization of oeuvre through collective praxis of inhabitants of the city. the resistance was also a demand for right to appropriation, for peaceful co-existence in the city without exclusion and discrimination. the gezi commune provided an arena of visibility and co-existence for various groups and individuals representing different (sometimes opposing) political views, cultural/ethnic/religious identities, and social interest organizations. those differences did not become a matter of discrimination and inequality, but led to mutual respect and solidarity among different groups. rather than being a unifying and homogenizing public sphere, gezi commune became an arena of dialogue, mutual understanding and trust and a public space where all differences could peacefully co-exist, without exclusion and discrimination. in addition to gathering different groups and identities together, gezi resistance provided “a spatial and bio-political ground of existence for those groups and identities that lost their visibility in the public sphere” (türkkan, 2013). the gezi commune, described as a temporary autonomous zone with reference to hakim bey (altay, 2013), was physically short lived, but its impacts endured much longer. with the police attacks on the 11th of june 2013, the commune was ceased. after the massive protestations ended, the resistance has continued in different spatial forms and scales at different locations: painting the city staircases with different colours; gatherings in neighbourhood park forums (özlüer, 2013); occupation of an abandoned house as a neighbourhood solidarity home, and formation of umbrella organizations bringing together several urban and ecological resistance groups. throughout the protestations, two important questions were raised: first, what kind of a city we want to live in? second how we can make it? and the gezi commune was one answer to both questions. the commune was a claim for a city journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(2), 1-10 / 2017 dr. senem zeybekoglu sadri 8 of democracy, peace and co-existence and illustrated “what kind of social ties, relationship to nature, lifestyles, technologies and aesthetic values we desire” (harvey, 2008). it was claimed, instantly created, maintained, and re-created again by collective efforts of protestors and the technical knowledge of production of abstract space was replaced with the common sense of collective praxis of place making. at this point, architectural thinking and practice, and the roles of architects need to be re-considered. as çetin frames it clearly, “architecture as a professional field of practice, which serves macro-scale cities planned in a monopolistic manner, can transform into a field of knowledge which provides spatial devices of a micro-scale, organic city” (çetin, 2013; 8). this transformation is possible through a re-definition of architects as well. rather than master builders who design abstract spaces for capitalist reproduction, architects also need to transform into social agents contributing to place making through sharing their expertise on construction and building. 6. conclusion as much as taksim square and gezi park were abstract spaces with the ways they were imagined, designed, organized and produced by power and capital, they also gained an identity of oeuvre in the sense that they were owned, used, lived and appropriated by people through various dwelling practices ranging from daily life activities to massive protestations taking place in them like a gezi resistance. gezi incidents created a new language of resistance, solidarity and mutual trust among people, and it opened the discussion for possibility of new ways of making politics, and architecture as well. as much as gezi resistance was an uprising against conservative, discriminatory and oppressive policies of the government, it was also an opposition against the new spatial order dictated by the neo-liberal production of space through architecture. the gezi resistance was also a discontent with this architecture which is under the service of power and capital, dictating social hierarchy, norms and fragmentation and transforming the history, nature and culture of the city into commodity. therefore, the gezi commune was created as the spatial reflection of the common will of the protestors, who desire peace and co-existence. the creation of gezi commune could not be possible with the architecture of power, which is based on consumption, discrimination and fragmentation. the commune was a challenge against architecture as an abstract entity, defined by sharp disciplinary boundaries as a profession and under the hegemony of architects. the making of the commune as an oeuvre was only possible through collective praxis of all people participating in the resistance, and its construction was based on a collective field of knowledge on place making which was created, shared and then re-created again by protestors. rather than an architectural product, the commune was the physical manifestation of the soul of resistance. therefore, it was a resistance against the production of abstract space which is the embodiment of hegemony, hierarchy, norms and orders, and was a call for right to the city. acknowledgment this research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, neither commercial, nor not from profit sectors. conflict of interests the author declares no conflict of interest. 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(2013, june 13). why turks are good at protesting. retrieved april 05, 2017, from http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opin ion/2013/06/201361113388747184.html journal of contemporary urban affairs 2017, volume 1, number 1, pages 35– 44 the transformation of aesthetics in architecture from traditional to modern architecture: a case study of the yoruba (southwestern) region of nigeria *ma. femi emmanuel arenibafo architectural technology department, school of environmental studies, yaba college of technology, yaba, lagos, nigeria a b s t r a c t aesthetics is the philosophical study of art and natural beauty and it is indicated by the feelings of pleasure or displeasure which comes from visual and aural elements and artifacts. hence, aesthetics depends on animate or inanimate organization which can be perceived either subjectively or objectively. this aesthetic element is uniquely present in the traditional buildings and modern buildings of southwestern part of nigeria. this study is set out to evaluate and bring into lime light the aesthetic characteristics of traditional buildings and that of the modern buildings, how one style or aesthetic element gradually prevail over or transform to another, reasons and consequences of one completely predominating another in yoruba region of nigeria. moreover, this study therefore, is divided into four parts, which are: (a) overview of the history of modern and traditional architecture of yoruba land (b) aesthetic characteristics or indicators of traditional and modern architecture in yoruba land, (c) the differences between the aesthetic of both style of architecture and what is responsible for this change or transformation in their aesthetic value. the research concludes with recommendations of synchronizing both style of architecture design in getting an optimum aesthetic value, and offers a room for further research and development of a consistent and notable architectural typology for southwest nigeria. journal of contemporary urban affairs (2017) 1(1), 35-44. https://doi.org/10.25034/1761.1(1)35-44 www.ijcua.com copyright © 2017 journal of contemporary urban affairs. all rights reserved. 1. introduction architecture and indeed, the building, is referred to and thus described as an embodiment of the cultural heritage of people (rapaport, 1969; kalilu, 1997). culture is dynamic, architecture as a cultural phenomenon changes as culture does. nigeria architecture in general has been very dynamic due to the social, cultural, economic, technological advancement and political changes which has a a r t i c l e i n f o: article history: received 15 november 2016 received in revised form 15 december 2016 accepted 28 december 2017 available online 2 january 2017 keywords: aesthetic transformation; traditional architecture; modern architecture; yoruba. *corresponding author: architectural technology school of environmental , department nigeria, lagos, yaba, yaba college of technology, studies e-mail address: webfemi@yahoo.com this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution noncommercial noderivs 4.0. "cc-by-nc-nd" https://doi.org/10.25034/1761.1(1)35-44 www.ijcua.com mailto:webfemi@yahoo.com https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 35-44 / 2017 femi emmanuel arenibafo 36 significant effect on the aesthetic output of the building styles. fortunately, an inevitable transformation occurs which negate a consistent representation of the cultural heritage of southwestern nigeria. this transformation is that of the aesthetic elements in traditional buildings to aesthetic elements in modern building with little or no connection between both styles. furthermore, to be able to fully point out and understand how this aesthetic transformation came about and it effects, this study therefore, will aim at gathering in depth understanding on what both styles of architecture encompasses in the context of southwestern part nigeria, bringing to surface the aesthetic characteristics of both styles. moreover, this study will elaborate the aesthetic effect when both styles of architecture are synchronized in any architectural piece to give optimum aesthetic value. granted, aesthetic achievement has been the sole or chief end in any form of architectural style. an architectural edifice must give delight and perceived beauty continuously regardless of it age. therefore, in a significant way, the study will definitely enlighten the academic world, the design continent and the general audience on the aesthetic movement or it transformation process from traditional architecture to modern architecture as far as the southwestern region of nigeria is concern. the in-depth study will help address what is at stake in completely ghosting our historical heritages due to unmonitored proliferation of modernity through international influence. to practically and concisely achieve the aforementioned aims, this research focused on the architecture of southwestern part of nigeria. a documented comparison between the traditional architecture prior to 18th century through to modern architecture in the eve of 20th century in yoruba land. southwestern states in which the study was carried out are: lagos, ibadan, osun, ondo and ogun. this study closely examines the aesthetic characteristics of both residential and commercial buildings in this zone over the above stated period; determining the aesthetic perception of individual on some selected buildings. 2. aesthetics and architecture aesthetics as applied to architecture is a reference to a particular style or design element that makes any form of architectural edifice appealing and pleasant. moreover, aesthetic is based on taste and judgment of human sensory feelings. and speaking of judgment, aesthetic judgment is greatly influenced by what the environment represent to us. in other word, the emotional associations that develop by certain design elements, attributes and order of arrangements can be a good source of aesthetic pleasure. form, colour, materials, shape, lightings and spatial configuration all have significant meaning in aesthetic judgment. these meanings may have a historical affiliation to an individual or may represent a shared association of a cultural group. for example, a culture that uses a motif roof, wood or any other natural material through many areas of design and function can be said to appreciate or adhere to a specific aesthetic architecture in the context of aesthetic is the act of exhibiting concept of things that are possible through art and design, things whose form has a chosen purpose (functionality), and of doing so in other to achieve that aim, yet have aesthetics purposiveness (edwin, 2007). in architecture, the main concerns in connection with aesthetics as stated by vitrivius (15bc); his definition of good architecture depends on three criteria as vestas (beauty), utilitas (utility) and firmitas (firmness). recently, these aspects of architecture were interpreted as form, function and construction. in this regard, vitruvius claim that the features that indicate or makes an architectural piece to be perceived or characterized as an aesthetic design are: a) beauty (it exterior form) b) functionality/utility c) firmness/construction d) unity a) beauty beauty is studied as part of aesthetics. it is the property, the quality or state of being perceived as pleasurable, pleasing, and attractive to an individual which is subjective to one’s ways of seeing and partly depend objectively on what is journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 35-44 / 2017 femi emmanuel arenibafo 37 been seen. beauty in relation to form in an architectural context of “first” perceived experience suggests physical external outlines that unite the entire image of an architectural piece. the word often is used to relate to a well-defined structure, the manner of display and its coordination with other elements to form either part or the whole of and image in a consistent fashion that makes aesthetic sense (ching, 2007). philosopher aquinas mentioned that the beauty is not an inexperienced one; he describes beautiful as that which satisfies when human see objects and experience it. these objects satisfy the viewer when they have the elements of beauty; such as excellence, neat, rhythm, balance, proportion and brilliance or clarity (miller e. 2004). therefore, the ambiguity of beauty is understood by architects who attempt to discover a method of design with the aim of making the exterior form pleasurable and a sense of adventure into the entire piece. in this study, beauty will be predominantly explained by the exterior form or envelope of a building and the transformation from traditional architecture to modern architecture in nigeria. b) functionality (utility) the original word: “functus” means performance, occupation, role, duty, work; use, purpose, behavior, operation, activity. function in the context of architecture is the embodiment of concept, and definition of structural interfaces among objects, hence assigning physical/informational function to elements of form (objects). a building is a product of it function if it best facilitate or represent the purpose meant for – the use of the building. the most relevant type of character in architecture is that which results from the purpose of the building or the reason why it was designed or created. the utility of an element or a piece of architecture is an aesthetic in its own context; for the aesthetic(beauty) of a design cannot be limited to it size, shape and proportion but entails the practical meaning of it – function (winter 2007). c) firmness/construction this denotes how well structured, solidly in place an architectural design or idea is erected or interpreted in reality. in construction process, when walls and building elements are been built, quality workmanship plays a significant role in the resulting aesthetic value. for an architectural design not to lose it perceived beauty or aesthetic value over time, the choice of good materials, construction techniques and durability are important. d) unity all the unrelated parts of architectural features are brought into proper relation to each other so that a satisfactory composition is obtained. unity suggests that there is harmony in the entire design. if unity prevails, all the trivial parts must be kept in their places and be made simply to assist the major units in the roles, which they are to play in the development of the structure. in doing so, the following table illustrate the interrelation between aesthetic and its indicators in architecture. table 1. the direct relationship between aesthetic and architecture with aesthetic indicators. (developed by author). 3. methodology qualitative research method was used during the course of this research; here by drawing facts from academic scholarly researches and exploratory study. having selected southwestern part of nigeria as the central case study, this is aimed at understanding the process of transformation in architectural aesthetic of southwestern part of nigeria. the components of this research will be grouped in stages ranging from the collection of fact about the history of architecture in southwestern nigeria, the aesthetic indicators of architectural typologies, how these indicators shifted in relation to the change in architectural journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 35-44 / 2017 femi emmanuel arenibafo 38 style from traditional to modern and how individual judge or perceive each style of architecture. 4. case study: southwestern zone (yoruba) of nigeria the yorubas, occupies the south-western part in the tropical rain forest of nigeria (fig1). a principal tribe and densely populated part of nigeria. this land consists of plateau of yoruba land, the lower niger and the western coastal lowlands. figure 1. map of nigeria showing the south west zone (yoruba). it’s an area characterized by tropical climate with annual rainfall of about 130 to 180 cm and relatively high humidity round the year of over 6080%. the mean temperature is usually more than 25°c. the maximum temperatures are typically more than 30°c while minimum temperatures are between 21°-25°c. there is an environmental difference which reflects in the mode of life and the economy of the yorubas. an average yoruba man settles in a village or town as a farmer, a trader, an artisan or a professional. the yoruba are one of the largest cultural groups in africa. it is estimated that there over 40 million yoruba world-wide. the yoruba have been living in advanced urban kingdoms for more than 1,500 years (mullen. n 2004). the urban population represents more than 40% of the total population of the area. they predominantly live in compounds inhabited by members of the same family and lineage. thus, the yoruba compound is a physical expression of the genealogy traced from the ancestor; it is usually of rectangular construction made up of bungalow and one-storied buildings enclosing a courtyard like space. however, there are two or more storied buildings which are due to the proliferation of international style or foreign influence. they are highly industrious individual that, build dwellings that accommodate some of their indoor activities (adedokun 2014). 5. traditional architecture in the southwestern region traditional architecture in nigeria find it’s root when some towns emerged as meeting points for wandering immigrants who used any favorable locations as spiritual or cultural bases for subsequent territorial expansion. as regards the yorubas, ile ife in osun state became spiritual impetus for the establishment of widening empires. the basic house walls and perimeter walls were often made of mud, and roofs in the towns were built of mud, grass, matting or corn stalks. until the early twentieth century, most of the compounds as well as the oba's palace were roofed with thatch. (adedokun. 2013). the thatched roof was subsequently replaced by zinc and aluminum roofing sheets. in the yoruba zone, the people lived in compounds each of which had a large house set in a squareshaped space bounded by a high wall. some were more than a half-acre in size and provided living space for a large family and kinsmen. there was only a single entrance (fig 2). the interior spatial organization is usually of a divided numerous typical size rooms. the climatic condition, human physiology and geography led to the development of a high pitched or steeped thatch-roof and mud houses of the south (awotona ,1986: 55). 6. assessment of aesthetics in yoruba traditional architecture  the house form and characteristics. the house form ranges from single family house on one plot to large complexes with many apartments, housing different families. the yoruba house form is a rooming house where by definition; the building is divided into separate rooms. this house form represents the more traditional lifestyle in west africa in general and yoruba cities of nigeria in particular. the room is the unit of accommodation in a rooming house of yoruba culture and it is multi-habited by extended families. journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 35-44 / 2017 femi emmanuel arenibafo 39 it has an open plan whereby residents live in full view of one another; however, this does not mean that they do not have some privacy. several literatures on housing in the third world or developing countries have concluded that housing for the urban poor in sub-saharan africa has been made largely possible through multihabitation (amole et al., 1993). schlyter (2003) described multi-habitation as a way of coping with poverty and that by means of this concept more people benefit from urban services than was planned, and that by sharing water, toilets and roads, services become affordable for the poor in cities of developing countries. functionality yoruba’s compound, as a whole is clearly functional, evident from the various lucrative activities going on in them, and how easily they connect. the compound is purposely designed to meet the various functions, according to the needs of the people. the yoruba traditional architectural buildings are adapted to the socio-cultural characteristics. the living areas play specialized roles, with the rooms for sleeping and storage having small fenestrations, which satisfy the climatic need in allowing for lighting and keeping the place at a normal temperature. the thickness of the wall, the material mud and the ceiling, all act as thermal control regulating the thermal conditions especially during the cold harmattan season and the hot humid months. the verandah, an open-colonnaded space, allows a greater amount of light and air, which make indoor activities possible throughout most of the day and with favorable weather conditions, the courtyard is available to share part of the socializing and commercial activities (drying, weaving, carving) domestic (outdoor cooking) and recreational activities . concept wise, there is a well-defined organization of spaces, which can be said to be a hierarchy of spaces from the sizes and arrangement of the rooms. functionality in term of “spatial organization”, there was very little spatial distinction between personal, sacred, and communal 'zones'. the bedrooms are generally accessible to close friends. some goats and chickens are reared in the courtyard; pens, cages and rooms may be sometimes adjacent to the main structure. unity the corridor running through the inner part of the building is a unifying factor and is a well thought solution for the circulation and exchange of air within the compound and surrounding rooms (fig.2). the spatial flow of the corridors in relation with the rooms is very well defined and harmonious. the consistency design of the roof overhang (fig.3) above the corridors tends to reduce the rays from the sun. the hierarchical order in the spatial arrangement of the rooms in between husband, wives and children is a reinforcement of close family ties, respect for headship and represents a physical expression of genealogical order. conceptually, a sense of unity is created by the courtyard space (fig. 2) for ceremonial activities, during which time the members of the household come together as one in this courtyard. the central space of the courtyard literarily enhances the interaction and sense of unity of the people, which further strengthening the respect and cultural values they have for one another. figure 2. sense of unity in yoruba traditional design. journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 35-44 / 2017 femi emmanuel arenibafo 40 figure 3. entrance façade of a traditional building. aesthetically, in a general sense, the texture of the walls is pleasing to the eyes. the harmonics effects created by the color of the ground to the walls and the brownish thatched roof are captivating. decorative ornamentation that emphasizes the entrance to the rooms are equally gorgeous and the highly aesthetics carved motifs on doors and roof supports is the trade mark of yoruba’s traditional architecture. 7. modern architecture in nigeria the term modern architecture is often applied to modernist movements, which is brought about by an effort to level up the principles guiding and underlying architectural design with rapid technological advancement and the modernization of society. the combination of three factors makes a spontaneous transformation of the nigerian scene in the 20th century the muslim jihads and yoruba civil wars, foreign influences, and a revolution in trade nigeria. these factors prompted the modern movement such as the flat roof or clean forms became popular by the late 1930s. the first modern houses were built in ikoyi, lagos (southern state) even before the second world war (kostof, 1995). these styles of houses were of imported idea or design houses of the english countryside or prefabricated constructions with deep terrace and cantilever sometimes supported by decorative stilts. as regard the opening, they are characterized by continuous horizontal band of windows. the aesthetic in building changed mainly due to the introduction of new materials and techniques from europe; such as corrugated iron sheeting and cement have had perhaps the greatest effect. this style was able to satisfy the nigerian consumer in an important way. it was basically used as a symbol of progress, civilization and smooth transformation. the buildings with asymmetrical composition, absence of moldings and large windows often in horizontal bands became a part of the architectural landscape. the foreign influence was strong because the manpower was not sufficient in nigeria and because there were many foreign architects. the ‘oil boom’ in the late seventies had undisputable influence on developments in nigerian architecture. at that time the competition and the race for modernity was at its climax. the building industry depended a lot on imported building materials and finishes. (kostof, 1995). 7.1 aesthetic assessment of modern architecture in southwestern (yoruba) region of nigeria  shape and form: the building design exhibit rectangular forms, horizontal and vertical lines. occasionally, the houses are linked boxes depending on the size and shape of the land. high horizontal massing, flat roofs, and concrete enclosed parapet walls emphasis the southwestern nigeria buildings as a city monument and evident of modern movement. modern homes tend to be on generous sites due to availability of more vacant land space in the southwestern region. they therefore experiment with free forms and horizontal and vertical elements or shading devices in their façade (fig 5). high pitched roof is used in modern residential houses due to the region’s high amount of rainfall; for quick run off of rain water.  ornamentation and materials: traditional decorative moldings and ornamentations are nearly eliminated, paving way for a clean aesthetic where materials meet in simple, wellexecuted joints against horizontal elements for delightful effect and positive aesthetic judgment. use of materials such as wood, brick and stone are used in simplified ways to emphasis only a particular aspect of the building; reflecting a modern aesthetic. journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 35-44 / 2017 femi emmanuel arenibafo 41 traditional use of bamboos and leafs are replaced with simple vertical board claddings, steel trusses and sections are largely used. brick and stonework are unornamented, plainly used, and it is used in a well arranged planes and surface area.  firmness/construction: in modern commercial buildings in lagos, there is a celebration of modern materials and mechanized systems of construction in deep foundation of buildings (pile, raft, deep strip foundation). steel columns, long-span steel trusses and iron rod reinforcements are used in exposed and closed applications respectively, extensive use of concrete, hollow block reinforced concrete floors for long term durability, are and permit open column-free spaces.  functionality: architecture must seek its essence in it content to which the external appearance must wholly adapt to. relationship between interior spaces and sites is evident in modern architecture of the south western region of nigeria. emphasis on open, flowing interior spaces in commercial buildings while in modern residential buildings spaces are well defined with walls for privacy and security (fig 6) which is more paramount to individual. there are additional spaces such as: ante room gym, study, patio, guest bedroom and conveniences, and garage are visible in the design of modern houses in southwestern part of nigeria. these spaces tend to flow together with doors and hall ways as part of one contiguous interior space, but with obvious sand and cement block walls (fig 7). over all, live-in spaces tends to serves it purpose in respect to the users modern interest. figure 4. senate building at unilag in lagos, built in 1962. figure 5. eagle house lagos, built in 1962. figure 6. façade of modern residential building, (ekhaese, 2011). journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 35-44 / 2017 femi emmanuel arenibafo 42 figure 7. façade of modern residential building (ekhaese, 2011). 8. overview of the transformation of traditional architecture to modern architecture in southwestern nigeria and their aesthetic characteristics the documented history of traditional architecture in yoruba land dates back prior to eighteen century, a period before the arrival of the colonialist and later, the brazilian slaves. the local trend of creative craftsmanship and reliance on natural materials like mud/adobe, bamboo and wood characterized the buildings in southeastern states of nigeria. furthermore, the return of the slaves in late 80’s from brazil brought about another unique style of brazilian architecture; popularly known as “face me i face you”. it is characterized with a new form of architectural style, often bungalows or storey buildings built with mud and plastered with cement and sand, which is different from the local trend style or vernacular style. the buildings were embellished with ornamental decorations and pillars in connection with the existing local trend. moreover, the spread of islam from the north africa in the eighteen century undoubtedly have a great effect on the evolution of architecture in nigeria. the north african style applies some amateur form of geometry, evident in it dome shaped mud roof which was adopted in mosques and houses with a more elegant decorative painting in figurative patterns (ekhaese et al. 2014). all the above mention styles of architecture can be collectively characterized as traditional architecture for they were chronologically visible in prior to eighteen century to the early nineteen century. and in general, they are styles that treat materials according to their nature and with self-workmanship. furthermore, in the late 1930’s, modern movement in architecture has become popular in nigeria. the first set of modern commercial and residential buildings appeared in lagos, southwestern nigeria. those buildings were characterized by flat roofs, free plans, exposed parapets, long horizontal windows, extensive use of glass and concrete. this style was frequented by the architects of older generation trained abroad with modern design ideas. therefore it is somehow referred to as international style; for modern architecture or contemporary nigerian architecture is a dominated imported motifs and design ideas that have little links with the socio-cultural heritage of the country. the new west african style is another style of architecture that emanate during the era of modern architecture. it came into existence in 1960’s. it is more original in its approach; for it is more suitable to the climatic condition. a style characterized by deep over hang, exposed concrete roof gutter and high pitched roofs for quick run off rainwater. moreover, at the eve of 19th century into 20th cnetury, in the pick of modernism, architecture in nigeria took a modifying turn. this style is referred to as late modern style. it is in general not different from the modern movement ideas, but it was modified, for example, the large glazed and long horizontal widows was covered with a concrete shading devices to avoid breakage and the direct penetration of sun into the interior space. in summary, as discussed above, six significant styles of architecture with an attributed aesthetic design has been practiced in yoruba region of nigeria prior to 18th century through 20th century. which has been classified under traditional and modern architecture as shown below in fig 8. journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 35-44 / 2017 femi emmanuel arenibafo 43 figure 8. showing the evolution of architecture in yoruba land (developed by author). 8.1. analysis of traditional architecture and modern architecture in southwestern nigeria from aesthetic point of view in retrospect, southwestern part of nigeria has a lot of architectural heritage, but, for a complete analysis of these classified architectural styles, aesthetic design indicator of both styles is necessary. the table below shows the aesthetics characteristics and indicators of traditional and modern architecture. table 2. traditional and modern architecture and aesthetic design indicators. in retrospect, the both style of design and aesthetic elements and characteristics are practical and workable based on the epoch and available techniques. nevertheless, from the above table, the aesthetic indicators distinctly show a complete transformation of traditional architecture to modern architecture with little or no unifying or connecting factor. 9. conclusion this paper has been able to assess the aesthetic of traditional and modern architecture in yoruba land and how it transformed over time. it is therefore, obvious that factors like urbanization, colluding cultural values, survivor of the colonial experience and adoption of western education made what is imported from other cultures part of what is now transferred through generations. this explains the reason of disappearance of the indigenous design of courtyard system and other aesthetic characteristics in building development, urban centers and settlement pattern in modern yoruba land. there is very little or no nostalgic effect of the traditional style and even to the past. it may be said that the architecture is now too eager to jump into the future in the quest for modernity and neglecting the need to give consideration to the terrain, culture and climatic condition of the context and the need obviously incorporate elements that our ancestors aesthetically perfected and that worked! granted, each style of architecture has its own distinctive aesthetic design and values as shown from the above analysis; the both style can easily be synchronized so as not to completely forget city of the past which may eventually render the present city with no future too. therefore, it is necessary to emphasis the need to incorporate one into other or synchronized the both style of architecture in any architectural piece. for example, the court layout concept in traditional architecture reinforce respect for cultural values and preservation of family ties which is often destroyed completely in modern architecture design and layout system which equally lacks social interaction spaces and with its emphasis on individuality and solitude in it spatial organization; solitude destroys community spirit, encourages social disequilibrium through residential segregation. social immoralities like crime, drug abuse, sexual, misconduct are often permeates and associated with such informal life exhibited in the urban centers where traditional life has been abandoned. the use of local materials like bamboo, mud, wood and the likes are well adaptable to context and does more so since the mud used in the wall plane is a good insulator in this relatively hot region. however there are shortfalls journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 35-44 / 2017 femi emmanuel arenibafo 44 and structural limitation of these materials and traditional aesthetic designs, but this can be improved upon as professional are willing to re connect with past in modern times with their design. further research is opened on how this seemingly weak traditional aesthetic can be limitlessly used in modern architecture for optimum aesthetic value. 10. acknowledgment this research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or non-for-profit sectors. references adedokun, a (2014) incorporating traditional architecture into modern architecture: case study of yoruba traditional architecture. british journal of humanities and social sciences, 1(2), 30-45. amole, b. (2000). yoruba vernacular architecture as an open system. legacy, 2(2), 63-72. adeyemi, e. a. (1999) changing traditional culture and modern architecture. archiforum magazine, 1 (2), 3-18. akinsemoyin, k. and vaughan r, a. (1977) building lagos, a collection of sketches. f. and a services: lagos. adeokun, c. o. (2007) consonance between lifestyle and spatial patterns in yoruba domestic architecture. ph.d. thesis, university of london: uk awotona, a. (1986) aspects of nigerian architecture. nia journal, 2 (3), 55-63. rapoport, a. (1998) using culture in housing design. housing and society, 5(1), 1-20. adekeye o. f. (2013) the influence of modern architecture on ilorin traditional buildings. modern landscape architecture. master thesis. kwara state university: kwara. ching, f. (2007) form, space, & order (vol. 3). jhon wiley & sons inc: new jersey. cynthia o. adeokun. (2013) the orowa house: a typology of traditional yoruba architecture in ile-ife,nigeria , waber conference, accra: ghana. dmochowski, z.r. (1990) an introduction to nigerian traditional architecture, vols. 13, the national commission for museums and monuments: lagos. denyer, s. (1978) african traditional architecture. heineman educational books ltd:london. ogunsote, b.p. (2007) classification of nigerian architecture. journal of the association of architectural educators in nigeria (aarchesj), 1(6), 48-56. winter, e. (2007) aesthetics and architecture. british journal of aesthetics. 48(2). p235. ekhaese, e.n. (2014) causal factors in evolving housing typologies in benin traditional architecture. global journal of arts, humanities and social sciences (gjahss). 2(4). 1-14. fadipe n.a. (1991) the sociology of the yoruba. ibadan university press: ibadan. pp.160-161. ijatuyi, o and taiwo, a. a. (2012) bridging the cultural gap between traditional and modern building designs, procs .4th west africa, built environment research (waber). pp. 697-707. miller, e., & schlitt, j. (1985) interior space, design concept for personal needs. london: preager publishe. mullen, n. (2004) yoruba art and culture. berkeley: phoebe a. hearst museum of anthropology. osasona, c.o. (2002) transformations in the traditional yoruba dwelling: a casestudy of ile-ife, journal of environmental technology, 1(1). prucnal-ogunsote, b. (1993) a study of modern trends in some aspects of architecture in nigeria. department of architecture, ahmadu bello university, zaria. rikko, l. s. and d. gwatau. (2011) the nigerian architecture: the trend in housing development. journal of geography and regional planning, 4(5), 273-278. steinberger, p. j. (1993) the concept of political judgment. chicago: university of chicago press. umoru-oke, n. (2010) risawe’s palace, ilesa nigeria: traditional yoruba architecture as socio-cultural and religious symbols. an international multi-disciplinary journal, ethiopia. 4 (3a). file:///c:/users/opeyemi/downloads/amos%20rapoport%20(1998).%20using%20culture%20in%20housing%20design.%20retrieved%20from:%20%20http:/www.housingeducators.org/journals/h&s_vol_25_no_1-2_using_culture_in_housing_design.pdf journal of contemporary urban affairs 2018, volume 2, number 2, pages 24–32 residents’ social interactions in market square and its impact on community well-being *dr. oluwagbemiga paul agboola1, dr. mohd hisyam rasidi2, dr. ismail bin said3, ma.solomon dyachia zakka4, ma.abdul-wahab shuaibu5 1, 2, 3faculty of built environment, department of landscape architecture, universiti teknologi malaysia. postcode 81310, skudai, johor bahru, malaysia. 4, 5 faculty of built environment, department of urban and regional planning, universiti teknologi malaysia. postcode 81310, skudai, johor bahru, malaysia 1e mail: agbofavour41@yahoo.com , 2e mail:hisyamrasidi@gmail.com3e mail: b-ismail@utm.my 4e mail: zakkasolomon2008@yahoo.com, 5e mail: abdulwahab.shuaibu@gmail.com a b s t r a c t this study aims at ameliorating the associated challenges emanated from the ineffective planning, management and design of market square as well as appraisal of the interactions among people of diverse ethnicity. hence, the study explores users’ interactions and activities within three markets square in rural neighborhoods of south-west, nigeria. the significant relationship between resident’s interactions and the community well-being was explored. consequently, this study highlights the influence of the market square as a typical neighborhood open space on residents’ well-being. the study’s quantitative approach encircled the purposive structured survey questionnaire data obtained from yorubas, hausas, and ibos respondents (n=382); and analyzed by spss statistical package (version 22). meanwhile, the qualitative data included observation of various activity pattern among the three ethnic groups. the study’s findings revealed that an improvement in the market square quality becomes necessary in order to increase residents’ interactions and well-being. also, the study elucidates the appropriate link between the built environment, residents’ interactions, and well-being. it is concluded that residents’ well-being is a reflection of an experience manifested within the interplay of individuals and groups’ social interactions. this study of people and place relationships could better equip the professionals in the built environment on the importance of creating a sustainable open space towards improving residents’ well-being and rural community revitalization efforts. journal of contemporary urban affairs (2018) 2(2), 24-32. https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2018.3668 www.ijcua.com copyright © 2017 journal of contemporary urban affairs. all rights reserved. 1. introduction a considerable amount of literature has reinstated the economic significance of markets in rural development through exchange and distribution of commodities and services (vagale, a r t i c l e i n f o: article history: received 28september 2017 accepted 8october 2017 available online 15october 2017 keywords: social interactions; ethnic groups, market square; well-being; nigeria. *corresponding author: university of technology, malaysia e-mail address: agbofavour41@yahoo.com this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution noncommercial noderivs 4.0. "cc-by-nc-nd" mailto:agbofavour41@yahoo.com mailto:hisyamrasidi@gmail.com mailto:b-ismail@utm.my mailto:zakkasolomon2008@yahoo.com mailto:abdulwahab.shuaibu@gmail.com https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2018.3668 www.ijcua.com http://www.ijcua.com/ mailto:agbofavour41@yahoo.com https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 2(2), 24-32 / 2018 oluwagbemiga paul agboola, mohd hisyam rasidi, ismail bin said, solomon dyachia zakka, abdul-wahab shuaibu 25 1972; trager lillian, 1979; eben-saleh and alkalaf, 1999). aside from the economic significance of markets, markets also encompass human social aspects. the social significance of market is exemplified by omole, lukman, & baki, (2013) in that market acts as a gathering point for the protraction of cultural lineage obligations and responsibilities. thus, market square acts as a social arena, where social activities, like courtship, visiting friends, and exchange of ideas occur. other social activities in market square include dancing, dating, and recreational events (anthonia, 1973). recently, researchers have shown an increased interest in the exploration of varying degree of social interactions among market square's users and community residents of both developed and developing countries. however, little efforts have been initiated in exploring the social interactions among diverse ethnic groups in the market square (which is also known as oja in yoruba parlance) of such a large and multicultural nation as nigeria. a host of challenges often time associated with the use of the traditional rural market square, which has been established as an important typical rural neighborhood open space in nigeria. these challenges as reinstated by agboola, rasidi, & ismail (2016), include inadequate social interactions, contestation over the use, the need for improved facilities and amenities, security and environmental hazards amongst others. meanwhile, the interactions among diverse ethnics within the markets are often threatened by indigene and settler’s dichotomy and as such have negative impacts on the rural developments efforts. other constraints in people social interaction within the traditional rural market in nigeria are traceable to improper developmental issues and inadequate facilities. for instance, the significance of social interaction attributed to non-availability and in some cases management of adequate market’s facilities and amenities. similarly, haphazard and uncoordinated physical planning has been a cog in the wheel of market’s space utilization and management. a reflection of these could be seen from market’s physical conditions traceable to poor accessibility, sanitary conveniences, inadequate water supply, electricity, and other community facilities. the planning challenges include encroachment on the market boundary, poor landscaping, inefficient refuse disposal system, and other services utilities (uzuegbunam 2012). this study aimed at proffering solution towards ameliorating the associated social interaction challenges in the market square. establishing adequate social interactions among diverse market’s users portray identifiable benefits. for instance, a well-equipped and planned market square will impact positively on the users’ wellbeing and satisfaction. other significance includes enhancement of peoples’ togetherness and cordial relationship among the diverse ethnics. in this study’s context, well-being is synonymous with a sense of community which refers to the feelings that community residents have towards each other. this depicts belongingness, shared loyalty and neighborliness (mcmillan, david & chavis, 1986). in recent time, enhancement of human well-being remains a vital issue that required attention among professionals in built environment. in view of this, there is a desirous need for proper open spaces’ planning targeting improvement on peoples’ interactions and movement (southworth & owens, 1993). it is evident that people’s perception of social interaction has intertwined positively with residents’ sense of community (lund, 2002; wood,frank & giles-corti, 2010). for proper understanding and clarity, this research is underpinned by social interactions, cohesion and attachment concepts. these variables are paramount towards achieving the following: (i) creation of enabling an environment for passive social contact among the users (ii) appropriate space for residents’ interactions and community cohesion (fleming, baum, & singer, 1985) and lastly (iii) residents’ attachment to the market (peters, elands, & buijs, 2010). succinctly, the concepts captured the collective values of the processes and attachments that existed between people and their environment, which leads to community well-being (davidson & cotter, 1986 and nasar & julian 1995). this research work focused on the level of interactions among the diverse markets’ users and the ability to facilitate the residents’ wellbeing. past studies have established that both the social interaction, place attachment can promote well-being (maloutas & pantelidou, 2004). therefore, the creation of social interaction and well-being remain vital and should be regarded as an agent towards the enhancement of the built environment. consequently, the affective bond between people and the environment in the rural community could further enhance social relationships, community experiences, and resident’s well-being. this study’s ethnics respondents are the yoruba, hausa, and ibos who are patrons and vendors within three different markets in south-west, nigeria. holistically, the research findings appraise the http://www.ijcua.com/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 2(2), 24-32 / 2018 oluwagbemiga paul agboola, mohd hisyam rasidi, ismail bin said, solomon dyachia zakka, abdul-wahab shuaibu 26 present condition of the market environments and the socio-cultural background of its users. 2. concepts of social interaction, social cohesion, and well-being social interaction as coined as the associated communal contact between residents while involving in various daily activities (hesham, ismail & hisyam 2014). past literature affirm that social interactions among diverse ethnic’s groups promote participatory drives within the community and subsequently lead to a feeling of acceptance of each other’s live (putnam, 2000). past studies have shown in clear terms that a relationship exists between the people’s social interaction, well-being, and the physical environment. it is noteworthy to state that; the physical aspects of the environment can contribute to the improvement of social interactions leading to general community residents’ well–being as conceptualized in figure 1. a good social interaction involves adequate social network upon which social capital is rooted. while on the other hand, social capital responds to diverse interpersonal factors such as belongingness, the opportunity for social interaction, social network, norms and mutual trust among ethnic groups (peters, elands, & buijs, 2010). adequate interactions among ethnics are a panacea towards achieving social cohesion, between the individuals or groups (potapchuk, crocker & schechter, 1997; marshall & stolle, 2004). it becomes evident that the associated significance of market square as a neighbourhood opens space relies on its affordance of human social contacts among diverse ethnics of cultural backgrounds (lofland, 1998; fainstein, 2005). the significance of interactions vested solely on the provision of reliefs perlatives from human daily struggles and tensions (dines, & cattell, 2006). in addition, appropriate design and managements of open space often attract greater percentage of resident’s visitation and subjective place for human interactions (dines, & cattell, 2006; uitermark, 2003). similarly, open space such as market square could promote residents’ satisfaction, dependence, and trust (kim, 1997; carmona, 2010). the higher the residential social interaction, the higher the community social development (lalli,1992). figure 1.conceptual frame work. in another dimension, social interaction leads to neighbourliness and joint ownership prides. neighbourliness involves a high level of friendly dispositions among residents, friends, and families, while it also promotes mutual respect, acceptance of diversities among ethnics’ residents. explicitly, neighbourliness is a relationship through which residents can communicate and share common ideas together. prerequisites for social bonding in market associates with people familiarity, regular use, and available facilities(dines, & cattell, 2006). well-being according to chen, (2006) refers to the totality of all residents’ encounters, relationships, and experiences that emanated from harmonious relationships. on the other hand, community well-being could be categorized as socioeconomic, emotional, health and safety (kil, et. al., 2012). this study’s definition of well-being is the existence of the humans’ neighbourliness; interpersonal relationship and joint involvement in community programs as equally reinstated (butterworth, 2000). the author opined that the determinants of community well-being include social ties, sense of community, community cohesion and sense of place. community well-being included safe and accessible environment, as well as joint participation in community activities by ethnics’ groups. 3. methodology: quantitative and qualitative measurement of items in a view to properly comprehend the research findings, measurement items of the quantitative questionnaire were rated on a “1-5” likert scale, targeting the respondents’ responses on sharing perceptions. the “5” statement indices elicited includes (i) sharing market square with other ethnic’s groups is always good (sha1), (ii) sharing market square with other ethnic’s groups is always helpful (sha2), (iii) sharing market square with other ethnic’s groups is always cherished by me (sha3), (iv) sharing market square with other ethnic’s groups is always enjoyable (sha4), (v) http://www.ijcua.com/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 2(2), 24-32 / 2018 oluwagbemiga paul agboola, mohd hisyam rasidi, ismail bin said, solomon dyachia zakka, abdul-wahab shuaibu 27 sharing market square with other ethnic’s groups brings mutual trust and understanding and gives me satisfaction (sha5). the perception of the respondents on their well-being anytime they were in the market square was explored base on the following: (i) i am comfortable with the quality of the market anytime i found myself in the market square (qua1), (ii) i am comfortable with the amenities and facilities provided in the market square (qua2), (iii) i am comfortable with physical features of market square (qua3), (iv) i am comfortable with the markets’ security and safety (qua4). meanwhile, the “5-point” scale ranged from "strongly agree" on “5” to "strongly disagree" on “1” with "neither agree nor disagree" in the middle represented by “3”. thus, “2" stand for “disagree”, while "4" for “agree”. for the interpretation, the mean value of “3” was considered to be the midpoint. hence, the values below “3” were considered “uncomfortable” while a mean value above “3” was considered “comfortable”. for the qualitative observation, checklist used in the previous study of mack, etal., (2005) was adopted. rating of the observation was based on the 4-point scale while the observation was conducted at the market square of three different neighborhoods. the checklist reflected users’ duration of interactions, with no interaction rated on “0” scale, short interaction (less than 15 minutes) was rated on “+1” scale. medium interaction (between 15 minutes to 20 minutes) was rated on “+2” scale, and lastly, the long interaction (between 21 minutes to 30 minutes) was rated on “+3” scale. 4. case study areas as depicted in figure 2, the position occupied by the case study neighbourhoods. ijebu-jesa, ijeda, and iloko towns are located under oriade local government council, osun state. ijeda-ijesa is located at latitude 70 401 north and longitude 40 501 east while iloko is located at latitude 7º 381 north and longitude 4º 48¹ east. meanwhile, ijebu-jesa town has latitude of 70.451 and longitude 40 431 degree east. the three towns shared boundaries with efon-alaaye in ekiti state, eti-oni, ilesha, iwaraja, iwoye, and erinmo. the figure 3 and 4 shows the sectional areas within the case study market. however, the markets have been in the existence for more than ten decades, serving as a socio-economic, cultural, religious and recreational environment for the teaming users. figure 2.case study map. (source: oriade local government local authority board) figure 3.case study market showing agricultural product display section. (source: field work, 2015) figure 4.a sectional part of the case study market square showing diverse interactions among the users. (source: field work 2015) 5. results and discussion a total number of 382 respondents of three neighbourhoods of ijebu-jesa, iloko, and ijeda participated in the completion of the study’s structured survey questionnaires. they were selected through stratified random sampling taking into account their age, sex, ethnics and length of residency. a total number of 187 (49 %) were males, while 195 (51%) were females. as regards to the age distributions, 69 (18 %) of respondents’ age falls between 12-18 years, 127 (33 %) having age ranged between 19 29 years, 105 (27 %) were within the age bracket 30-59 years. lastly, 81 (21 %) were aged 60 years and above. in response to the respondents’ ethnic’s background, 231 (60.5 %) of respondents were yorubas, 96 (25 %) were igbos, and 55 (14 %) were hausas. respondents from ijebu-jesa http://www.ijcua.com/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 2(2), 24-32 / 2018 oluwagbemiga paul agboola, mohd hisyam rasidi, ismail bin said, solomon dyachia zakka, abdul-wahab shuaibu 28 totaling 180 (42 %), ijeda had 84 (31 %), and iloko with 101 (25 %). in connection to the respondents’ perception of well-being, table 1 shows mean value of 2.91 (sd 1.52) and 2.3 (sd 1.48), that signified that the respondents were not comfortable with the quality of the market’s surroundings (qua1) as well as with the amenities and facilities provided in the market square (qua2). likewise, a mean value of 2.7 (sd 1.72), and 2.62 (sd 1.73) were recorded for respondents’ perception of physical features of market square (qua3), and markets’ security and safety (qua4) respectively. the values fall below benchmark value of “3” which signaled respondents’ uncomfortable dispositions. table 1. quantitative result from the descriptive analysis responses from likert scale statistics item codes strongly agree p e rc e n ta g e agree p e rc e n ta g e neither agree nor disagree p e rc e n ta g e disagree p e rc e n ta g e strongly disagree p e rc e n ta g e total respondents average mean score sd sha1 160 41.9 124 32.5 13 3.40 43 11.30 42 11.0 382 3.80 1.36 sha2 184 48.2 110 28.8 09 2.4 44 11.50 35 9.20 382 3.90 1.33 sha3 174 45.5 119 31.1 05 1.30 61 15.90 23 6.02 382 3.52 1.48 sha4 184 48.2 110 28.8 07 1.80 39 10.20 42 11.0 382 3.90 1.37 sha5 171 44.8 82 21.5 11 2.9 10 2.60 108 28.3 382 3.50 1.70 qua1 68 17.8 93 24.3 13 3.40 79 20.70 129 33.8 382 2.91 1.52 qua2 52 13.6 64 16.8 20 5.20 94 24.60 152 39.8 382 2.30 1.48 qua3 98 25.7 70 18.3 14 3.70 34 8.90 166 43.5 382 2.70 1.72 qua4 102 26.7 51 13.4 05 1.30 53 13.90 171 44.8 382 2.62 1.73 the result from table 1 revealed that the generality of the residents unanimously agreed that a very comfortable markets’ status has not been attained. the results, therefore, suggest that improvements become necessary on the general condition and quality of the market. this becomes necessary in efforts to attain an ideal market standard that could be worthy of impacting positively on the residents’ community well-being. places that could be perceived beneficial to the residents’ well-being must equally possess the basic standard requirements that could promote a very comfortable environment for the teaming users. in response to respondents’ perception of social interaction, results indicated a mean value of 3.8 (sd 1.36) and 3.9 (sd 1.33) were exhibited for sha1 and sha2. in the same manner, the mean value of 3.52 (1.48), as well as 3.9 (sd 1.37), showcased the respondents’ perception on sha3 and sha4 accordingly. lastly was the respondents’ perception of sharing a market square with other ethnic’s groups. the result of respondents’ perception on sharing market brings mutual trust and understanding and gives satisfaction (sha5) exhibited an average mean value of 3.50 (sd 1.70). overall, the mean values exceeded the benchmark of “3”, which affirmed a positive emotional connection towards residents’ sharing the market with others. despite the challenges associated with the qualities of the market, residents still consider it worthy to interact and integrate. this result affirmed the significance of the market in the lives of its users, as corroborated by the past market study of dines, & cattell, (2006) and nasution & zahrah (2014). thus, improvements in the quality of the market surroundings could as well enhance the high level of interaction among the users. in view of this, urban designers are encouraged to achieve the strategic sustainable planning for long-term vision. this is considered as the important indicators to achieve the high level of human life and users’ satisfaction (nikoofam & mobaraki, 2016). for the quantitative analysis, a total number of 50 participants’ observations were carried out within the three markets square. the qualitative observation results in anthonia, (1973); agboola , rasidi, & ismail (2016); uzuegbunam, (2012); and http://www.ijcua.com/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 2(2), 24-32 / 2018 oluwagbemiga paul agboola, mohd hisyam rasidi, ismail bin said, solomon dyachia zakka, abdul-wahab shuaibu 29 mcmillan, david & chavis, (1986) show the diverse interactions among the yoruba, hausa, and ibo within the 3 major markets square in the area. the findings of quantitative result validate the quantitative result that established a fair sharing of the market among the ethnics. figure 5.residents’ interaction and duration in ijebu-jesa market place. a=hausa & igbo, b=hausa & yoruba, c=hausa & hausa, d=yoruba & igbo, e=yoruba & hausa, f=yoruba & yoruba, g=igbo & hausa, h=igbo & yoruba, i=igbo & igbo. ×1=less than 15 minutes (short interaction), ×2=between 15 to 20 minutes (medium interaction), ×3=between 20 to 30 minutes (long interaction) . figure 6.residents’interaction and duration in iloko township market place. a=hausa & igbo, b=hausa & yoruba, c=hausa & hausa, d=yoruba & igbo, e=yoruba & hausa, f=yoruba & yoruba, g=igbo & hausa, h=igbo & yoruba, i=igbo & igbo. ×1=less than 15 minutes (short interaction), ×2=between 15 to 20 minutes (medium interaction), ×3=between 20 to 30 minutes (long interaction) figure 7.residents’ interaction and duration in ijeda market place. a=hausa & igbo, b=hausa & yoruba, c=hausa & hausa, d=yoruba & igbo, e=yoruba & hausa, f=yoruba & yoruba, g=igbo & hausa, h=igbo & yoruba, i=igbo & igbo. ×1= less than 15 minutes (short interaction), ×2=between 15 to 20 minutes (medium interaction), ×3=between 20 to 30 minutes (long interaction) figure 8.comparison of residents’ interaction and duration in the three-neighbourhood market place. a=hausa & igbo, b=hausa & yoruba, c=hausa & hausa, d=yoruba & igbo, e=yoruba & hausa, f=yoruba & yoruba, g=igbo & hausa, h=igbo & yoruba, i=igbo & igbo. ×1=less than 15 minutes (short interaction), ×2= between 15 to 20 minutes (medium interaction), ×3=between 21 to 30 minutes (long interaction) from figure 5, it could be deduced that long interaction (20-30 minutes) was observed between yoruba and hausa, igbo and hausa in ijebu-jesa market. meanwhile, medium interaction (15-20 minutes) was established between igbo and yoruba. however, figure 6, depicted the long interaction between the three ethnics at iloko market, while short interaction (less than 15 minutes) only occurred between yoruba and igbos. the third observation in ijeda market was shown in figure 7, in which it revealed that short interaction (less than 15 minutes) existed between yoruba and hausa within the market. this was traceable to the greetings and charting as the purpose of http://www.ijcua.com/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 2(2), 24-32 / 2018 oluwagbemiga paul agboola, mohd hisyam rasidi, ismail bin said, solomon dyachia zakka, abdul-wahab shuaibu 30 interaction. meanwhile, the long interactions that existed among the ethnics were as a result of the diverse purpose of interactions such as trading, religious and cultural activities and social activities (playing games, deliberations etc). the comparison of the interaction among the ethnics in the three markets was presented in figure 8. an interaction existed among the three ethnics, while the purpose of interactions was traceable to different activities ranging from greetings, religion, and social discussion and economic. long and short interactions occurred between the three ethnics groups, which demonstrated that in spite of the various challenges and iota of conflict, engaging in some activities such as trading, social-cultural activities build social interaction among the groups. an indication that markets’ environment should be designed in a bid to facilitate various activities and joint participation. this target at meeting the needs, preferences, and intention of users(carr, 1982). similarly, peoples’ sense of empathy and understanding plays a significant role in the interactions (forouzande & motaliebi, 2012). similarly, users’ willingness to share the market with each other indicates encouragements for social interaction and sense of solidarity amongst them (perkins, et al., 1996). hence, meaningful encounters in market squares have a positive impact on the sustenance of residents’ wellbeing as supported by (dines, & cattell, 2006). also, social encounters among people create a sense of belonging, integration, and neighbourhood attachment. this was corroborated by the previous studies of mutiara & isami, 2012 and ibrahim, omar & mohamad, 2013). the finding affirmed that the affordance of opportunities for social interaction in the market square would promote human needs which are essential to the psychological development of individuals and community sustainability (berkowitz, 1996 and agboola, zango & zakka, 2015). likewise, the residents’ urge to use the market square encourages being parts of the community and helps to develop and promoting residents’ well-being, self-identity and communal activities ( bryne & wolch, 2009 and agboola, rasidi & said, 2015). 5. conclusion and recommendation this paper focused on the people-place relationship, and thus established that public open space such as market square offers an opportunity for diverse ethnic’s relationship despite the likelihood of conflict and rifts among users. this current study contributes substantially to the general understanding that the social interactions that take place among the ethnic groups in the market square. the findings would not only give sustenance to peoples’ shared values but would also influence their well-being within the community. a good neighbourhood environment comprising market square as an integral part is noted to facilitate communal contact, well-being, and environmental sustainability when properly landscaped and equipped (ahianba, dimunna & okogun, 2008 and agboola, 2011). in line with the aforementioned, this study suggests that in the quest of improving interethnic relations and understanding, appropriate machinery should be put in place towards improving the role played by the markets’ square. a well-equipped, landscaped, functional and conducive market will improve people’s positive perception and invariably contributes to peoples’ decision to remain in the specific area. also, the establishment of a well-planned market would encourage peoples’ participation in a diverse range of activities. therefore, provision of facilities, features, amenities, landscape features, and general maintenance becomes essential and every potential opportunity should be harnessed. as a result, adequate attention is needed towards improving the rural market square in nigeria. acknowledgment authors express gratitude to the research assistants that helped during the data collection and the participants’ field observation periods. appreciations to the participants in figure 4 for consented to authors’ request to include their pictures in this article. references anthonia, q.b.o. 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https://books.google.com.tr/books/about/anatomy_of_traditional_markets_in_nigeri.html?id=hg_uaaaamaaj&redir_esc=y https://books.google.com.tr/books/about/anatomy_of_traditional_markets_in_nigeri.html?id=hg_uaaaamaaj&redir_esc=y https://books.google.com.tr/books/about/anatomy_of_traditional_markets_in_nigeri.html?id=hg_uaaaamaaj&redir_esc=y https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.01.021 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.01.021 journal of contemporary urban affairs 2017, volume 1, number 1, pages 45– 55 in pursuit of sustainable strategic long-term planning throughout meta-postmodernism as new perspective of stylistic design * ph.d. candidate mojdeh nikoofam 1, ph.d. candidate abdollah mobaraki 2 1 department of architecture, faculty of architecture, eastern mediterranean university, turkey 2 department of architecture, faculty of fine arts, design and architecture, cyprus international university, turkey e mail: mojdeh.nikoofam@gmail.com , e mail: a_mobarakie@yahoo.com a b s t r a c t during the different period of architectural design, designers attempt to achieve high level of life quality for all users. architecture and urban planner want to provide a style of design which not only achieves different function for different users with respect to their ethnicity, ability, age, sex, capability, position, and life style but also improve friendly environment throughout responsive legislation based on long-term planning. although, the styles are considered some indicators, it is ignored the other important characteristics. therefore, the existing styles never achieve standard level of satisfaction of different people. the goal of the research is to introduce metapostmodern style as supplement stylistic approach. the style tries to consider all important indicators that create a strategic long-term planning for different generations. various characteristics of new style can be applied to improve the quality of human life and provide a health, livable and sustainable planning for all users. journal of contemporary urban affairs (2017) 1(1), 45-55. https://doi.org/10.25034/1761.1(1)45-55 www.ijcua.com copyright © 2017 journal of contemporary urban affairs. all rights reserved. 1 . introduction during the last decade, most of cities have created the common problems for nations and future generation. ozay (2005) mentioned cities always are the heart of civilization and vitality. designers are able to reflect civilization by considering cultural, environmental, economic, social and technological characteristics of the society. architecture is a combination of art and science for designing building and environment and it can give proper expression to the personalities and social status of people (able, 1997). however, according to heynen & henket (2002), industrial revolution invites our world to the new era that the revolution also has significant influence on the architectural trend. modern style has arrived to design and architecture. new technology and high speed access to all sciences and knowledge are the major cause to change life perception as well as architecture design. consequently, modern architecture was faced with controversial trend because this style had been ignored many characteristics which have deep effect a r t i c l e i n f o: article history: received 1 december 2016 received in revised form 30 december 2016 accepted 30 january 2017 available online 2 january 2017 keywords: meta-postmodernism; long-term planning; sustainability; quality of life. *corresponding author: department of architecture, faculty of architecture, eastern mediterranean university, gazimagusa, via mersin 10, turkey e-mail address: mojdeh.nikoofam@gmail.com this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution noncommercial noderivs 4.0. "cc-by-nc-nd" mailto:mojdeh.nikoofam@gmail.com mailto:a_mobarakie@yahoo.com https://doi.org/10.25034/1761.1(1)45-55 www.ijcua.com mailto:mojdeh.nikoofam@gmail.com https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 45-55 / 2017 mojdeh nikoofam, abdollah mobaraki 46 on quality of human life. although, there are many benefits in being adapted with the progressive modern cities and building, the trend had been provided many problems during this blind imitation. glassy high rise building and homogenized apartments was seen everywhere in the cities regardless environmental and cultural factors of the metropolitans. according to the disadvantages of the style, architecture and urban planning understand that their design should be considered all important values. so, postmodern style tried to make integration between past and present but the style caused many disadvantages like lack of diversity and consideration future people. architecture and urban design are more than science or art. they can be defined a language that can reflect spiritual, social, cultural and environmental characters, national identity of a specific region by symbolic meaning, and prestige of structures. design can have deep influence on various aspects that they contain: a) psychological, and health aspect of human; b) our natural, physical and built environment; c) social and cultural characteristic; d) cost of life; e) health and needs of future generation. therefore, in the following context of the study have been attempted to introduce a new stylistic approach which based on long term vision in order to make sustainable future cities. the cities are designed based on strategic meta-postmodernism style to support high quality of human life for present and future people. meanwhile, the style try to provide post nationality which is mean space and city not only sustain sense of place for their local people but also there are attractive and memorable for strange people. the graph is illustrated the structure of the study to consider the important indicator of design which have deep effect on improving the quality of life for all generation. fifure 1. structure of the study. journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 45-55 / 2017 mojdeh nikoofam, abdollah mobaraki 47 2 . modern style architecture and urban planning started to give up the traditional styles and start to create further form in constructions at the beginning of 20th century with respecting to distribution western modern architecture and from which underpinned many significant concerns in our world. after industrialization, the building was made more affordable and stronger by using new technology. the new technique created an opportunities for designer to construct wider spaces and taller building. also, by using new technology, mass production of materials became easier and more inexpensive. in addition, the new methods increased the speed of construction process. on the other hand, morgan (1914) stated that the introduction of modern period organized fast urbanization and construction in cities. therefore, more homogenized cities and continuity structure was appeared and the cultural, traditional and vernacular architecture was disappeared in designing. because the architecture only accepted the modern style in their design and abandon the traditional styles without any consideration. it was the time to face with many disadvantages such as designer try to construct affordable building and public areas regardless considering climatic characteristic. in consequent, people should cost more but received less profits or efficient (mokhtarshahi, 2009). also, ignoring the climatic factors will enhance environmental pollution in long term that it is able to decrease the human health and more compromising life of future generation. moreover, aesthetical characteristics are other crucial parameters in architectural design but the consideration was neglected in the built environment and constructions (schoon, 1992). it is so clear that identity plays a significant role in civic life and individuals’ culture however cities, spaces and building can’t achieve sense of belonging for the users (fig.1). figure 2. homogenized building create an ugly city and lack of sense of place for users (url 1). thus, losing sense of place leaded to decrease social participation/ communication, safety and lack of identity increased social conflict, crime and transgressions in towns. according to advantages and disadvantage of this era of architectural design has been illustrated in table1. to sum up, designer tried to make integration between past and present so postmodernism style started to overcome the objectives of the designs. distribution modern design advantage disadvantage  stronger and more affordable buildings  constructed wider and taller building  speed in construction process  continuity structure and homogenized cities  disappear cultural & traditional architecture  more cost and less proficient  polluted environment  disappear sense of belongingness  increase social problems and crime table 1. the advantage and disadvantage of modern style. 3 . postmodern style as it is mentioned in previous section, city governors and architects attempt to re-survive city identity by applying post-modern style in architecture and urban forms (harvey, 1989). architecture understood that the structure should contain cultural and social values so they attempted to make integration between past and present. cities should develop the sense of place in the built environment by applying human’s culture and traditional indicators. the idea of post-modernism was applying urban process and constructions to increase livability throughout traditional environment. the style wants to increase local sense of place by embedding culture and regional architecture (harvey, 1993). however, the style of design doesn’t have long term journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 45-55 / 2017 mojdeh nikoofam, abdollah mobaraki 48 vision so some important indicators are ignored such as future generation, the anticipated consequences like increase older population and some of the important human’s requirements. also, creativity and innovation gave up design through the postmodern style. calinescu (1987) mentioned that the style is meaningless because it uses empirical knowledge. lack of long term vision cause urban sprawl, lose wild life and agricultural ground, health communication, and social segregation in the cities. on one hand, designer focused on cultural and social activities by integrating past and present on the other hand they couldn’t overcome objectives because of lack of strategic planning. in the study will be introduced a new approach to the new style in design based on make sustainable cities with making strategic harmony between past, present and future. 4. new stylistic approach to the sustainable long-term planning sustainability is a global process to support an enduring future where environmental and social factors have a parallel process with economic dimensions (newman, 2002). on the other hand sustainability is defined by the world commission on environment and development (1987) that the present people can meet their own requirements without ignoring the needs of future population to meet their fundamental needs. the study carefully has improved all of the significant dimension in planning to define sustainable planning with increasing quality of life for future and current generation without compromising the sense of place for present people. 4.1 meta-postmodernism style the new style tries to consider the significant characteristic of planning to create long term planning and develop greenery spaces, legibility, complexity, diversity, visual quality, personalization, accessibility, coherence, attractiveness, affordability, safety, comfort, cleanliness, inclusivity, adaptability, availability, and vitality in our environment. the style planning wants to increase health contribution, user satisfaction, various activities, infrastructure necessities, rise of sense of belonging or individual identity, and aesthetical perception for current and future generations. therefore, the meta-postmodern style means after postmodernism that the new approach focuses on environmental, physical, cultural, social, economic, technological and political dimensions which are defined in the following sections. 4.1.1 environmental/natural characteristics topography is the initial survey to indicate the general shape of the city or land which to identify suitable planning for the land such as drainage design for flat land or comfortable planning for steep land. topography plan provide slope analysis to make advantages for the design (beer, higgins, 2000). the slope of land might be steep, moderate, and flat that an appropriate design can moderate hazard factors and take opportunities from this factor. topography has deep influence on receiving suitable sun radiation and wind to increase comfortable temperature in public and private spaces of the city. also, it can be exploited for achieving visual and sensory characteristics by creating aesthetical and recreational places. moreover, the character can impact on suitable access and circulation for the users by a good planning. table 2 shows the relationship between the advantage of topography and the dimensional of sustainability. topography visual and sensory (health characteristics) suitable sun radiation, wind and drainage design (comfortable space temperature) access and circulation (community) environment social economic environment social economic environment social economic √ √ √ √ √ √ table 2. integration between topography characteristics and dimension of sustainability. considering local climate is other important consideration to achieve comfortable outdoor and indoor spaces. the utilize local climate characteristics is not a contemporary innovation. consideration of the data back to much many years ago that unfortunately it is ignored these days in our designing. ignored local climate in designing has caused increase air pollution due to rise of co2 emission, urban heat island, and decrease energy journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 45-55 / 2017 mojdeh nikoofam, abdollah mobaraki 49 consumption. our designing based on local climate could provide interior and exterior comfortable space; heating protection in different seasons and using solar energy for day lighting according to suitable orientation. the most significant factors in considering local climate are human comfort not only at outdoor spaces where is limited for air controlling also at indoor spaces for decreasing energy cost. air movement, humidity and solar radiation are climatic factors to influence on human comfort (beer, higgins, 2000). figure 3. climate factors and human comfort (beer, higgins, 2000) suitable space or building orientation, receiving natural lighting, appropriate shading elements for cooling hot climate, decreasing air pollution are crucial factors which achieved by considering solar radiation. air movement is measured by considering the speed of wind and prevailing wind which are important for decreasing hot temperature and air pollution. measuring the annual rainfall can have deep effect on controlling humanity. carful considering local climate characteristics in urban and building designing have deep influence to decrease air pollution, fuel energy consumption by achieving passive solar energy and cost of energy. also, the data increase human comfort for outdoor activity and recreational spaces. local climate decrease air pollution, urban heat island achieving passive solar energy increase recreational activity in outdoor spaces decrease cost of energy and fuel energy consumption e n v iro n m e n t s o c ia l e c o n o m ic e n v iro n m e n t s o c ia l e c o n o m ic e n v iro n m e n t s o c ia l e c o n o m ic e n v iro n m e n t s o c ia l e c o n o m ic √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ table 3. integration between local climate characteristics and dimension of sustainability vegetation, relative ecological value, biodiversity and wildlife are the significant information to have deep influence on energy consumption, air quality, and provision aesthetical consideration or urban morphology (laurie, 1979). plants and greenery properties can decrease the effect of hot temperature and control solar glare as shading elements. the natural properties on one hand has influence on humidity by providing air movement on the other hand can be utilized to control the speed of wind. additionally, greenery area not only can provide the oxygen which is necessary for human life but also decrease co2 capacity in air which increases air quality and human health. moreover, vegetation and biodiversity property achieve more health communities, urban vitality and aesthetical characteristics or visual quality as decorative elements in cities. it is so clear that noise pollution have deep effect on psychological people health that the greenery belt reduce noise level in building and build environment. table 4 shows relationship between the natural indicators like plants, biodiversity, and wildlife properties with dimension of sustainability in order to increase quality of human life and their civic life. journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 45-55 / 2017 mojdeh nikoofam, abdollah mobaraki 50 vegetation, relative ecological value, biodiversity and wildlife health communities, urban vitality increase air quality and decrease sound/ air pollution energy consumption (control air movement, solar glare) visual and aesthetical consideration (urban morphology) e n v iro n m e n t s o c ia l e c o n o m ic e n v iro n m e n t s o c ia l e c o n o m ic e n v iro n m e n t s o c ia l e c o n o m ic e n v iro n m e n t s o c ia l e c o n o m ic √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ table 4. integration between plants, wildlife properties and dimension of sustainability. soil and water quality are the other significant sources to improve plants, wildlife, ecological and biodiversity values which have deep influence on the quality of individual life. the soil information defines the bearing capacity of the site to provide suitable bed for growing different vegetation, agricultural productions, and land management practices. conservation of water resources, greenery properties, natural habits, landscape characteristics, visual qualities will be provided by considering soil information (courtney, trudgill, 1984). additionally, water quality provides fertile land for growing vegetation, shaping landscape, controlling flood. moreover, water provides visual and aesthetical characteristics as well. geology (water, soil) increase agricultural land for providing food requirement growing the quality of vegetation, relative ecological value, biodiversity & wildlife increasing water and soil quality visual & aesthetical consideration (urban morphology) e n v iro n m e n t so c ia l e c o n o m ic e n v iro n m e n t so c ia l e c o n o m ic e n v iro n m e n t so c ia l e c o n o m ic e n v iro n m e n t so c ia l e c o n o m ic √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ table 5. integration between water and soil quality and dimension of sustainability. additionally, the designer should consider the items that are given below:  interconnected streets with friendly pedestrians and cyclists, to avoid cardependency for users;  suitable and enough garages and parking spaces;  providing seasonal strategy, lighting and furniture in sidewalks to encourage people for walking;  waste management and recycling bins;  use of recycling and renewable material;  utilization renewable and endless energy;  increase quality of parks and conservation of lands to define and connect neighborhoods and districts with highly sense of belonging  improve the fuel efficiency of public transportation, improved regulations due to construction environmentally friendly transportation systems. 4.1.2 physical characteristics urban and building form has impact influence on the quality of urban life that the suitable urban form will be achieved by providing strategic planning, socio-economic planning and making harmony between the built environment with local and regional environmental realities. applied suitable form in our designing has deep effect on energy consumption and co2 emission. size of city and building is other physical characteristics to journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 45-55 / 2017 mojdeh nikoofam, abdollah mobaraki 51 achieve the best balance of economies, measuring spatial accessibility, effect on intensity and scale of environmental elements (atkinson, 1993). optimum the size of building and cities influence on controlling population size, consumption level of primary resources, air pollution, decrease environmental degradation, rising human health and safety, conserving ecological factors, and urban efficiency. for example, height of building is the other elements that the feature impacts on air quality, urban heat island, and safety. controlling densification of build environment has high connected with different problems including infrastructure overload, overpopulation, congestion, air pollution, urban heat island, demand energy for cooling, health hazards, lack of public and green space and environmental degradation (hardoy et al., 1990). in addition, excessive energy use and high carbon emission rates can be decreased by changing the urban structure to achieve sustainability by the restructuring of urban mobility systems and transport planning, and harmonization between the built environment and natural environment. suitable urban structure is applied to create short journeys, easy access to environmentally and socially sustainable opportunities. also, an appropriate urban structure provide ‘concentrated decentralization’ by improving architectural design, the use of mixed land use and intensification strategies. the consideration has deep influence on achieving energy savings, urban energy efficiency, better access to nature and green space, and social and aesthetic improvements. 4.1.3 cultural characteristics according to rapoport (1997), the way of life, human value and behaviors, culture, human activities, and religious are significant values to express identity of built environment. people come from different country can be distinguished or defined by their culture because culture have deep relationship with the individuals’ lifestyle and their behavior. culture firstly sustain the identity of people which bring sense of belonging for individuals, secondly culture is the fundamental element to design a place for living because it can control their behavior, thirdly, the vital role of culture is to give meaning to a place as a framework that the place becomes memorable for people (rapoport, 1995). unfortunately, after globalization the fundamental factor was ignored because of increase immigration so lack of identity and sense of belonging was occurred and the consequences caused many problems in cities. therefore, designers understand that they should make a relationship between past with the current and future especially in historical and traditional environment where totally reflect the culture and identity of the settlements. designer should be responsible in designing the built environment towards past, current and future generations. contextual design is a major discussion between all designers to consider the visual, spatial characteristics and the local needs in designing our surrounding. contextual design try to represent the sense of belonging and identity of our environment for local people also it focus on contemporary design to consider the aesthetical characteristics for stranger and future population. the design identifies the historical and cultural values, scale, proportion, balance, rhythm, details, orientation and sitting location in streetscape and cityscape. distinctiveness, visual appropriateness, and attractiveness are created through considering cultural values by contextual design. 4.1.4 social characteristics when the city provides social cohesion for different people and mix use land for health communication, social characteristics will be achieved. social justice is a process of developing a community to provide through diversity and mixed use land where people share their values and challenges in equal opportunities. in order to create livable city with health communication, the most important characteristic is provision inclusive and accessible design. accessible/ inclusive design attempts to support individual’s requirement regardless their alibies. also, mixed use land try to provide a place for all users with respect to their capabilities like their incomes (diversity). the width of trails, quality of pavements for making comfortable travelling, regular maintenance, inclusive facilities, safe environment, access to adjacent surfaces with different levels, free-barrier routes, and measuring the slope of gradient ground are the most important indicators should be considered to provide a comfortable access for all users with respect of their abilities. moreover, social justice is the fundamental journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 45-55 / 2017 mojdeh nikoofam, abdollah mobaraki 52 consideration for social characteristics that it will be provided throughout intensification of activities and using of mix use land. mix use landing and densities of different activities provide diversity, flexibility and the level of urban vitality because the place can apply different use for various users with respect to their position, gender, race, income, ethnicity and lifestyle. meanwhile, accessible, available and adequate infrastructure like transportation, parking spaces and connectivity of roads are able to improve social sustainability in the cities. strong infrastructure promotes the level of individuals’ satisfaction for participating and more communication. moreover, settlement systems can achieve the sustainability goals throughout balanced integration of settlement systems with nature (atkinson, 1992). for instance the system can provide easy access to green environments, the conservation of rural and agricultural land, spatial equity in infrastructure and service provision and the avoidance of the spatial displacement. additionally, land use management control demand for residential units, improving rural land on the urban edge, and conserving green and open space (mathey, 2000). also density, proximity, mixed use, continuity, clustering, concentration, nuclearity, and centrality are the dimensions to manage an appropriate pattern of land use (galster et al., 2001). the defined indicators improve social communication and inclusion in different scale for people. 4.1.5 economic characteristics it is obvious that economic situation of the society has fundamental effect on designing outside and inside of built environment (lang, 1994). maclennan, and william (1990) mentioned that affordability is a controversial concern to give the standard level and quality to all persons with low/ middle incomes. affordability is not creating a place with low quality however it tries to consider long time costs and standard quality level of life for all users. architecture and urban designer have deep influence in providing affordability in different scale such as affordable housing, easy access or proximity to health center, employment, education, all services, and consideration energy cost in housing because everyone has equal right to use these necessities. additionally, land marketing has caused many objectives for especially low income people. however, land capacity can balance the cost differences between land values and individual income, and unsustainable urban land market could have a highly harmful effect on urban sustainability. also, passive solar heating system, natural cooling techniques and systems for natural lighting are three categorizes of passive solar systems to create comfortable temperature and decrease life cycle of cost (lcc). 4.1.6 technological innovation the issue of technological revolution has been a major concern in urban development because technology can bring advantages and disadvantages for the cities. by improving technology, the industrial factories, mass production of machines and cars, increase urbanization and urban immigration promoted by technology that the mentioned consequence invite air, water and noise pollution in the towns. on the other hand, designer try to use the revolution in positive way for example, producing recycling material with high speed; use of endless energy instead of fuel such as p.v. panels; green public transportation and building; safe environment and eco-friendly environment. therefore, the innovation not only provides many aesthetical considerations but also achieves all dimension of sustainability. 4.1.7 political characteristics governance and political consideration is the most important part to achieve the mentioned parameters by responsive legislation, strong management, steady supervision, economic responsibility like give fund for improving the quality of building, use of effective and relative communities, promotion of creative and nonconventional solution-making. the responsive legislation should control location, heights, scale, human’s requirements in different scales because as it is mentioned by elliott (1992), the regulation can improve or decline the quality of cities and built environment for their users. local governance, authorities and political leaders should attempt to improve visual quality, urban health and vitality by responsive and various long-term services. the following table (table 6) summarizes all characteristics of the metapostmodern style and it has been mentioned to the significant points of each of indicators. journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 45-55 / 2017 mojdeh nikoofam, abdollah mobaraki 53 in d ic a to rs o f m e ta -p o s tm o d e rn s ty le e n v ir o n m e n ta l/ n a tu ra l c h a ra c te ri s ti c s  topography; local climate; vegetation, relative ecological value, biodiversity and wildlife; geology (water, soil)  interconnected streets with friendly pedestrians and cyclists, to avoid car-dependency for users;  suitable and enough garages and parking spaces;  providing seasonal strategy, lighting and furniture in sidewalks to encourage people for walking;  waste management and recycling bins;  use of recycling and renewable material;  utilization renewable and endless energy;  increase quality of parks and conservation of lands to define and connect neighborhoods and districts with highly sense of belonging  improve the fuel efficiency of public transportation, improved regulations due to construction environmentally friendly transportation systems. p h y s ic a l c h a ra c te ri s ti c s  urban and building form has impact influence on energy consumption and co2 emission.  size of building and cities influence on controlling population size, consumption level of primary resources, air pollution, decrease environmental degradation, rising human health and safety, conserving ecological factors, and urban efficiency.  controlling densification of build environment has high connected with different problems including infrastructure overload, overpopulation, congestion, air pollution, urban heat island, demand energy for cooling, health hazards, lack of public and green space and environmental degradation  urban structure has deep influence on achieving energy savings, urban energy efficiency, better access to nature and green space, and social and aesthetic improvements. c u lt u ra l c h a ra c te ri s t ic s  conservation of historical and traditional built environment  applying contextual design to sustain sense of place/identity  distinctiveness, visual appropriateness, and attractiveness are provided for local people as well as stranger people. s o c ia l c h a ra c te ri s ti c s  accessible design for all users with respect of their abilities by considering the width of trails, quality of pavements for making comfortable travelling, regular maintenance, inclusive facilities, safe environment, access to adjacent surfaces with different levels, free-barrier routes, and measuring the slope of gradient.  social justice is provided by mix use landing and densities of different activities provide diversity, flexibility and the level of urban vitality because the place can apply different use for various users with respect to their position, gender, race, income, ethnicity and lifestyle.  strong infrastructure promotes the level of individuals’ satisfaction for participating and more communication.  settlement systems can achieve the sustainability goals throughout balanced integration of settlement systems with nature  density, proximity, mixed use, continuity, clustering, concentration, nuclearity, and centrality are the dimensions to manage an appropriate pattern of land use e c o n o m ic c h a ra c te ri s ti c s  affordable housing,  easy access or proximity to health center, employment, education, all services.  consideration energy cost in housing  land capacity can balance the cost differences between land values and individual income,  passive solar heating system, natural cooling techniques and systems for natural lighting are categorizes of passive solar systems to create comfortable temperature and decrease life cycle of cost (lcc). te c h n o lo g ic a l in n o v a ti o n  producing recycling material with high speed;  use of endless energy instead of fuel such as p.v. panels;  green public transportation and building;  safe environment and  eco-friendly devices and services  aesthetical considerations to improve urban morphology and visual quality p o li ti c a l c h a ra c te ri s ti c s  responsive legislation  strong management  steady supervision  economic responsibility like give fund for improving the quality of building  use of effective and relative communities  promotion of creative and nonconventional solution-making table 6. indicators of meta-postmodernism and the significant points of each mentioned characteristics. journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 45-55 / 2017 mojdeh nikoofam, abdollah mobaraki 54 5. conclusion modern and postmodern styles cannot achieve individuals’ satisfaction in all dimensions of human life. although, each of styles tried to create some indicators, these styles ignored the other important characteristics. homogenized city, building and lack of sense of belonging were the outcomes of modern architecture design. while, postmodernism try to survive sense of place, the style ignored future generation and diversity. it is so obvious that all building and urban designers attempt to achieve the strategic sustainable planning for long-term vision. therefore, the introduced style is considered the important indicators to achieve the high level of human life and users’ satisfaction. meta-postmodernism tries to provide a future construction with integrating past and current generations and they don’t ignore the environmental characteristics. this study aims to consider the most significant indicators of meta-postmodern style as the fundamental indicators in order to sustain identity for local and future population and make attractive and memorable places for stranger people. as a result, the style improves livable city and health communication to support different generations under the use of these indicators and their important points. the considered indicators and their points have deep impact on introduced style and their importance has been considered and described. considered indicators provide all dimensions of sustainability for different users with different characteristics. therefore, the style improves the dimension of sustainability to achieve longterm planning. the style design is considered environmental/ natural, social, physical, economic, political, cultural and technological factors to achieve sustainable design with long-term decision-support and problemsolving for various people. applying the indicators of meta-postmodernism not only, respects to various people with different race, position, gender, and ethnicity without compromising future requirements but also, it can provide visual quality or aesthetical considerations for present and future generations. thus, the style improves the standard level of human life for all. this research reveals that parameters and indicators that have direct effect on urban vitality and urban guilty life for all which are the main factors for the style. consequently, the research introduced the style and their indictors to improve awareness and reduce limitations in existing styles of design. 6. acknowledgment i would like to express my sincere thanks to assist. prof. dr. nazife özay for her helpful critics and technical coordination during the study on this research. this research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or non-for-profit sectors. references able, c. 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(2014) amman: the ugly and the beautiful, www.zigzagging.net http://www.zigzagging.net/ journal of contemporary urban affairs 2019, volume 3, number 1, pages 13– 25 evaluating staff perceptions of supportive healing environment in healthcare facilities * dr. patrick chukwuemeke uwajeh 1 , ph.d. candidate ikenna stephen ezennia 2 1 & 2 department of architecture, eastern mediterranean university, famagusta, north cyprus via mersin10, turkey 2department of architecture, nnamdi azikiwe university, awka, pmb 5025, anambra state, nigeria email: uwajehpatrick@gmail.com email: is.ezennia@unizik.edu.ng a r t i c l e i n f o: article history: received 04 january 2018 accepted 10 february 2018 available online 15 june 2018 keywords: evidence-based design; healing environment; healthcare; supportive design; wellness; health. a b s t r a c t evidence-based design strategies can improve stress-free environments in healthcare, by emphasizing strategic opportunities to influence the design of health facilities. evidence-based design (ebd) as a tool for healthcare planning is a method that began in healthcare having a general purpose of providing evidence based medicine. it involved gathering information and evidence and using this evidence to mold the environment which supports the programming stage in design problem-solving. the connection between the theories and use of findings in (ebd), have not been adequately revealed enough to be used as a tool in design. as such, several factors, or characteristics, evident in numerous studies about healing environment and (ebd), require categorization into tangible and non-tangible dimensions in order to apply them during the design process successfully. among others, four distinct variable or factors summarized from the work of two researchers – dilani (2009) and ulrich (1991) have been selected to be tested in this research; (1) enhancement of social support, (2) stimulating design features, (3) flexibility and coherence (4) connection to nature, focusing on the hierarchy of the above-mentioned attributes according to their relevance in application and outcomes. two research questions served as a foundation for the investigation of attributes in healing environments: what critical attributes can be identified by healthcare staff related to dilani and ulrich’s research findings? is a hierarchy of attributes perceived by healthcare staff? the aim of this research is to closely examine the factors of psychosocial supportive design theory by alan dilani (2001) and supportive design theory (sdt) by roger ulrich (1991) on the staff in eastern mediterranean university health centre. questioners and site visit were used for data collection. spss was used to obtain percentages from data collected. the result of the study reveals a hierarchy of factors perceived by the staff that can promote supportive healing. journal of contemporary urban affairs (2019), 3(1), 13-25. https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2018.4678 www.ijcua.com copyright © 2018 journal of contemporary urban affairs. all rights reserved. *corresponding author: department of architecture, nnamdi azikiwe university, awka, pmb 5025, anambra state, nigeria. e-mail address: is.ezennia@unizik.edu.ng this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution noncommercial noderivs 4.0. "cc-by-nc-nd" https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8254-5941 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3515-4742 mailto:uwajehpatrick@gmail.com mailto:is.ezennia@unizik.edu.ng https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2018.4678 ../../downloads/www.ijcua.com mailto:is.ezennia@unizik.edu.ng https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 3(1), 13-25 / 2019 patrick chukwuemeke uwajeh, ikenna stephen ezennia 14 1. introduction 1.1. definition of scientific terms supportive healing environment: a term which defines a physical setting and administrative culture that helps patients and families cope with the stresses caused by illness, physical therapy, the healing process, and sometimes, with the demise of family and friends in healthcare buildings. the implication of this concept is that, the physical healthcare environment can make a difference in recovery time for patients with specific critical and prolonged health conditions (molzahn, 2007). supportive design theory (sdt): a theory designed by roger ulrich (1991) that explores the various ways to utilize the built environment to minimize stress and stress causative factors, by providing a sense of control, access to social support and access to positive distractions to users in the physical surroundings (ulrich, 2000). psychosocially supportive design (psd): a theory designed by alan dilani (2009) that supports the healing environment from a standpoint of psychological manageability, and general wellbeing (dilani, 2009). salutogenesis: is a term coined by a professor of medical sociology aaron antonovsky (1996), to define an approach aiming on factors that support human health and well-being, rather than on factors that cause disease. more specifically, the "salutogenic model" is concerned with the relationship between health, stress, and coping (https://en.wikipedia.org). wellness factor: this refers to components of the built physical environment that affects the quality of human life and emotional status. they include, physical, emotional, spiritual, intellectual, occupational, and social wellness. evidence-based design (ebd): this is a design approach which involves the collection of facts and evidence based data to achieve design goals. it is prominently applied in healthcare sectors, but has gradually gained recognition in other fields and building typologies. evidence-based medicine (ebm): is an approach to medical practice intended to elevate decision-making by stressing the use of evidence from well designed and conducted research. although all medicine based on science has some degree of empirical support, ebm goes further, classifying evidence by its epistemologic strength and requiring that only the strongest types (coming from metaanalyses, systematic reviews, and randomized controlled trials) can yield strong recommendations, while weaker types (such as from case-control studies) can yield only weak recommendations (https://en.wikipedia.org). 1.2. background of study people visiting healthcare facilities general expect a suitable and supportive healing environment. hospitals have evolved from an institutional feel to a warm and welcoming environment. the makeup of such environments is, the careful integration of physical, social and psychological factors proven to have positive evidence based effects on health outcomes (molzahn, 2007). in accordance with mroczek, et al. (2005), who supports the theory, that there is a need for a continuous empirical analysis, focused on the identification of more definite and advanced factors that improves wellness in patients, family members and visitors in healthcare facilities, as proposed by ulrich, should be strengthened by the observation of evidence oriented knowledge in existing healthcare buildings, with emphasis on design solutions that improves stress and perceived health outcomes. 1.3. the value of evidence-based design (ebd) as a tool for healthcare planning designers are faced with the increasing task of integrating cultural diversity, psychological and socio-spatial considerations by the application of ebd in both interior and exterior context of buildings. the rigors of accessing valid ebd information for design purpose remain one of the main challenges, thus the development of suitable empirical methods towards achieving scientific results is a prerequisite in dealing with design challenges related to supportive healing environments. more so, recognizing and categorizing key influential factors of perceived care and wellbeing would provide ample guidance to designers in their design solutions (molzahn, 2007). according to dilani (2009), a properly designed physical environment improves health of mind and wellness, while a poorly designed environment promotes frustration and other health related problems which cumulate into illness in humans. as such, the need for these factors to be clearly defined in healthcare design is sacrosanct in order to become adoptable design tools for the therapeutic process. 1.3.1. assumptions dilani (2009) and ulrich (1991) agree that there are substantial and abstract impacts of physical https://en.wikipedia.org/ https://en.wikipedia.org/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 3(1), 13-25 / 2019 patrick chukwuemeke uwajeh, ikenna stephen ezennia 15 environments measured by different variables in certain environments in their research, which might pose a challenging to other settings, or situations. however, several assumptions frame this research inquiry. a. the insufficient understanding of the variables providing little guidance to transfer the findings to enrich the knowledge of architects and healthcare professionals. b. the need to use the variables suggested by earlier researchers, to validate base of their study, which is the (physical environment’s ability to influence people’s perceptions, behaviour, and performance). 2. literature review 2.1. supportive design theory one of the main guiding principles of supportive design theory, is the ability of the environment to promote improved health outcomes efficiently by eliminating stress causative factors in the environment, which often have negative impacts on outcomes, for example, loud noise (ulrich, 2000). the theory further explains the psychological needs of the patient’s family members, staff and visitors in healthcare facilities. it also includes features in the environment that studies reveal can calm patients, reduce stress and increase coping process (ulrich, 1991, 1997 & 1999). a number of supportive design guidelines backing up this theory, including several environmental qualities have indicated a tremendous reduction in stress and coping levels and outcome. 2.1.1. supportive design guidelines: the following design guidelines, as indicated in several studies, reveal that healthcare facilities will support, coping with stress and increase patient outcomes; • social support • sense of control and access to privacy • access to nature and other positive distraction. 1. social support: a large number of research indicates that people who receive maximum social support, experience less stress and have better health than those who are isolated socially (cohen et al,. 2000; czajkowski, & shumaker 1994 and ulrich 1991). social support can therefore be regarded as the emotional help and care rendered to a person or that which is received from others. possible examples of approaches, adopting social support for patients include, the provision of the following for the family and visitors: pleasant and comfortable waiting areas, sitting socially enhancing sitting areas, access to nature and views of nature, effective work environment that enhances staff access to social support from other staff and to patients’ as well (purves, 2002; chalfont, 2006; marcus & barnes 1999). 2. sense of control and access to privacy: carver, et al., (2000), defines control as someone’s real or perceived ability to know what they do, to control their situation, and determine the impact of other people’s actions and perception towards them. several research has shown that the results in the stress coping abilities of people who feel they have some control over their situation is far greater than that of those who feel a lack of control (lazarus, & folkman, 1984; schwarzer, 2014; evans & cohen,2000 ; ulrich, 1984). in order to reduce lack of control in healthcare facilities, which results in medical and psychological conditions such as depression, high blood pressure and reduced immune system functioning, the need to implement this key supportive design strategy to create a more controlled environment. it should be noted that an addition factor indicated by various studies, for the loss of control, is caused by architectural designs that do not enhance or provide access to privacy. for example, design of rooms that deprive a view out of the window, force bedridden patients to stare at a glaring ceiling light, or rooms that are difficult to locate without the guide of proper signage for directions (shraiky, 2011; schwartz, & solove, 2011). as such, the consideration of incorporating architectural designs that facilitate wayfinding and access to privacy, for patients and staff include; providing bedside dimmers for private control, access to television control by individual patients, easy access to nurses work station from wards through mobile services, providing adjustable workstations for staff and comfortable relaxation areas during their break periods that provides a temporal sense of escape from the stress of hospital work place (ulrich, 2000) 3. access to nature and other positive distraction: positive distractions are a sub sections of environmental-social phenomena that are well-known by their ability to promote wellness and reduce stress levels adequately and on time. they include distractions such as music, art, comedy, pet animals, and nature journal of contemporary urban affairs, 3(1), 13-25 / 2019 patrick chukwuemeke uwajeh, ikenna stephen ezennia 16 views within and outside buildings. ulrich 1999 study reveals that people suffering from anxiety or stress related illness are positively affected by certain nature scenes and recover faster. however, a limited number of research in healthcare suggests that stressed patients can experience substantial reductions in stress levels after a few minutes of viewing nature settings with greenery, flowers or aquatic bodies. nevertheless, studies related to the use of nature as a positive distraction, though small, have shown substantial results enough to validate its propositions with outcomes, one of the most important, being the recovery rate of patient from post operations. this is evident in the study of patients recovering from abdominal surgery, which established that patients had a better postoperative health status if their bedside windows afforded them a view trees or greenery instead of a mere wall (ulrich, 1984; ulrich et al,. 1991; kaplan, & kaplan, 1989). it is worth noting that a controversial type of positive distraction in healthcare settings is the use of abstract art. although designers, artists and most healthcare staff react positively to abstract images, or artworks that tend to challenge one mentally, a number of evidences in research affirm the possibility of such artworks to have negative impact on patient outcomes (ulrich, 1991, 1992, 1999), therefore, healthcare managements should carefully select artworks displayed with the intention of a positive impact, to avoid an opposite negative outcome (iyendo & alibaba, 2014; uwajeh & iyendo, 2016). 2.2. psychologically supportive design (psd) clinical practice often lays more emphasis on treating ailments while neglecting the psychological, social and in most cases, environmental concerns of the patients. psychologically supportive design engages and arouses people both socially and mentally, as well as providing an individual a high sense of coherence.the key function of psd is to trigger a mental process of a person by attracting attentions capable of reducing anxiety and promotes psychological feelings (molzahn, 2007 & dilani, 2009). furthermore, the application and practice of psd in healthcare, could be promoted and reinforced by implementing architectural designs that are salutogenic, i.e., a more biological approach from a pathogenic concept of treatment which lays emphasis on factors that increase wellbeing, rather than those that makes us ill (dilani, 2009, p. 31). according to atonovsky (1996) who proposed a salutogenic concept which focuses on the health elevation of process in healthcare facilities has become widely applied. his view further consolidates dilani’s claim that there is a rising cognizance of the need to create functionally competent facilities that are also human-centered environments aimed at initiating and enhancing health processes and outcomes. 2.3. conceptual framework of healing attributes as earlier stated, a very important feature of healing attributes is its ability to have a positive influence on patients physically, socially and psychologically. the challenge, therefore, is to measure the perception rates of these attributes by healthcare facility users, specifically from a staff perception, in order to assert their level of importance. this research is centered on four distinct variable or factors summarized from the work of two researchers – dilani (2009) and ulrich (1991), enhancement of social support, stimulating design features, flexibility and coherence and connection to nature, focusing on the hierarchy of the above mentioned attributes according to their relevance in the application and outcomes as shown in fig. 1 below. 2.3.1. enhancement of social support social support can be classified into two, in terms of healthcare setting: healing culture and environmental design. healing culture refers to the relationship among patient’s staff and visitors while environmental design either enhances or reduces the healing process in hospitals or healthcare facilities (rashid, 2010). it is made up of various areas which include the provision of emotional support, evaluation and confirmation, intimacy, easy access to information, comfort and physical affection (hale; hannum, & espelage, 2005). the interaction between recovery patients, their family members and staff is an important attribute in healthcare settings, which has not been given a lot of attention or consideration in terms of design, as it’s been noted in several research, that medical facilities and health centres usually separate patients from families (schweitzer, gilpin, & frampton, 2004). simply providing patients and family members with adequate furniture arrangement, that encourages interaction and eye contact can elevate social support. social support functions in healthcare can be summarized as see in figure 2. journal of contemporary urban affairs, 3(1), 13-25 / 2019 patrick chukwuemeke uwajeh, ikenna stephen ezennia 17 figure 1. a conceptual model of supportive healing environment with the four attributes from ulrich’s and dilani’s theories. figure 2. schematic summary of the advantages of social support. journal of contemporary urban affairs, 3(1), 13-25 / 2019 patrick chukwuemeke uwajeh, ikenna stephen ezennia 18 2.3.2. stimulating design features these are features believed to have a strong relationship between the interior environment of buildings and the human wellbeing. according to a research by dr. hettler, the executive director of the national wellness institute, in 1979, there are six wellness factors used to evaluate the effect of interior design features on human health, namely: physical, emotional, spiritual, intellectual, occupational, and social wellness (montgomery, 2004). other design factors considered to cause wellness such as: colour, lighting, acoustics, ventilation, use of space, use of art, and incorporation of nature. 2.3.3. flexibility and coherence the geometry and configuration of floor plans in healthcare design has a great impact on the coherence of spaces and way finding (molzahn, 2007). way finding is one of the guiding attributes for user’s perception about the flexibility and coherence of spaces in healthcare buildings (hölscher; brösamle, & vrachliotis, 2012). the term coherence in healthcare settings, refers to the quality of space integration, proximity and functional relationship between forms and elements within spaces, that affords users identify and locate functions within the space (evans, & mccoy, 1998). a flexible and coherent space reduces the stress on patients, family members and staff, caused by poorly designed spaces and inadequate way finding signs. another important aspect of flexibility is the sense of privacy. healthcare designs should afford patients the opportunity to personalize their space by making them personal (schweitzer, gilpin, & frampton, 2004). it is important to note, is the sense of control and safety attributes designers find difficult to harmoniously integrate properly into a coherent whole (foque, & lammineur, 1995). 2.3.4. connection to nature incorporating natural elements or features that gives a semblance of nature within healthcare facilities have been revealed to offer soothing feelings. the consideration of interpersonal differences and preference to nature elements are significant considerations in the incorporation of nature in healthcare (shepley, 2006). the studies of ulrich (1991) strongly asserts that nature views enhances wellbeing of patients. studies by anderson, et al., (2007) also documented that proper use of nature reduces stress, pain management and elevates a sense of overall well-being in patients and staff. the incorporation of indoor plants or pictures of nature themes, aquariums and fountains into the interior setting, have shown positive health outcomes (anderson, et al., 2007). a research on children suffering from attention deficit disorder (add) found that children functioned better after partaking in activities in natural environments (shumaker, & czajkowski, 1994). it also noted that the greener the play area, the less critical their symptoms were. this consolidates the fact that designing gardens adjacent to hospitals that can afford patients adequate view from their rooms, reduce stress while providing a sense of escape. case study the eastern mediterranean university health centre is the case of study. it is the campus health centre located within the university in famagusta which services emu, emc, emp, preschool and kindergarten students, university academic staff, administrative services staff, workers and their spouses and children can benefit from the health centre. (appendix a: floor plan). 3. methodology a subject method of data collection involving 20 survey questions administered to the staffs of the health centre was adopted for this study. 3.1. data analysis the target sample for this case study were staffs of the emu health centre including doctors, nurses, administrative and managerial staff. the results of the survey conducted, revealed that out of 20 respondents, (n=8) 40% were male and (n=12) 60% were female. the study also deduced that (n=10) 50% of the staff have had less than five years working experience in the health care field, (n=2) 10% have had more than 15 years of work experience, while (n=5) 25%, had 5-10, (n=3) 15% had 10-15, years of experience respectively. also, a cumulative result of (n=6), 30% and (n=4) 20%, resulting in (n=10) 50% suggests an average staff strength with working experience in previous healthcare facilities. (n=5) 25% of staff have had more than 7 years’ work experience in emu health centre, (n=2) 10% had no work experience, while (n=5) 25% had 5-6, (n=8) 40% had 1-2, years of experience respectively. this result affirms the fact that, on the average, staff in the emu health centre has worked in health facilities long enough to know the needs of patients socially, emotionally and psychologically in order to achieve improved health outcomes. a descriptive analysis of the demographic of staff working experience is given below in table 1 journal of contemporary urban affairs, 3(1), 13-25 / 2019 patrick chukwuemeke uwajeh, ikenna stephen ezennia 19 figure 3. methodology outline. table 1. demographic information of respondents. variables scale/category number/frequency percentage gender male female 8 12 40 60 years of experience in health care field less than 5 5-10 10-15 more than 15 10 5 3 2 50 25 15 10 number of previous healthcare facilities worked in 0 1-2 3-4 5-6 9 6 4 1 45 30 20 5 number of years worked in the emu health centre 0 1-2 5-6 more than 7 2 8 5 5 10 40 25 25 3.1.1. physical environment • personal work space to understand the needs of staff in the emu health centre that would facilitate their productivity and patient health outcomes, questions related to the quality and type of work environment in which staff spends more than 50% of their time in the centre, a ranking of the degree at which certain factors, equipment’s and spaces affect their performance, the psychological implications of the view from their work station, and the percentage of hours spent at their workstation. the following results were found respectively: (n=1) 5% revealed that they worked in an enclosed office, (n=2) 10% worked in areas with panels for privacy, (n=2) 10% worked at a desk in an open area, (n=11) 55% worked in areas that is not designated specifically to them, (n=4) 20% of staff totally had no designated work place. (n=16) 80% responded the need for adequate work surface, (n=10) 50% depicted the need for technology (computers), (n=8) 40% journal of contemporary urban affairs, 3(1), 13-25 / 2019 patrick chukwuemeke uwajeh, ikenna stephen ezennia 20 revealed the need for acoustic privacy and (n=7) 35%, a need for visual privacy. most of the staff responded that they would feel more comfortable and work better in spaces that afford them privacy, designated for them and are less crowded. (n=7) 35% stated that their personal work space and surface was efficient, (n=12) 60% revealed neither efficient nor inefficient for patients and guest seating, (n=1) 5% lacked seats for internal and external colleagues. the results and request from staff affirms the need for the three factors of ulrich (1991), theory of supportive design, ‘sense of control with respect to physical surrounding’ and ‘access to positive distraction in physical surroundings’ in the centre to be improved. figure 4 (n=14) 70% and (n=6) 30% show the staff response to the need for an exterior nature view from office space as a source of positive distraction. figure 4. exterior nature view from office space as a source of positive distraction. • public service space art works have therapeutic values that improve patient’s medical state and general outcomes and healthcare staff performance (barron, 1996; iyendo & alibaba, 2014; uwajeh & iyendo, 2016). to investigate the supportive design features in as regards public service space in emu health centre, the findings from staff at the health centre when asked to rank art works of flower themes (n=20) 80%, people being helped (n=15) 75%, abstract paintings (n=1) 5%, rocky mountain landscape (n=2) 10%, and nature scene (n=14) 70%, confirms the elements related to an enhanced state of well-being within healthcare environment proposed by ulrich and dilani’s theory as shown in figure 5. figure 5. rank of art work themes. responding to an open ended question, “what are the key important characteristics for a waiting area or lounge in a health centre” two predominant key words were “clean” and “comfortable”. other terms include, homely, quiet, comfortable seat, health magazines, adequate direction signs, better technology for crowd control in terms of doctor/patient visiting turns. (n=11) 55% believed that a comfortable working environment is more important for staff/patient outcome, while (n=9) 45% preferred clean and sterile work environment as more important. the attributes related to the theories of ulrich and dilani in terms of physical and socio-spacial context were also questioned. the opinion of the staff at the health centre showed (n=2) 10% for the use of artwork, (n=8) 40% on furniture layout and ease of way finding, (n=10) 50% for the type of reception people get when they visit the centre. see fig. 6 below. journal of contemporary urban affairs, 3(1), 13-25 / 2019 patrick chukwuemeke uwajeh, ikenna stephen ezennia 21 figure 6. attributes of supportive healing at emu health centre. table 2. rating of supportive healing features present in emu health centre physical elements percentage number of respondents classification of response adequate interior lighting 70 14 effective acoustic quality of spaces 60 12 effective visual privacy 30 8 neither effective nor ineffective use of colour and psychological effects (bright, dull, boring, etc.) 45 9 neither effective nor ineffective comfortable furniture 45 9 neither effective nor ineffective safety measures in the health centre 35 7 neither effective nor ineffective view to exterior 35 7 neither effective nor ineffective ease of access and way finding 65 13 effective sense of control 55 11 effective maintenance culture 60 12 effective as shown in (table 2), respondents were asked to rate their perception of the listed physical elements at the health centre as proposed by ulrich and dilani. (n=14) 70%, adequate interior lighting proved to be the most effective element, followed by (n=12) 60%, maintenance culture and acoustic quality of spaces respectively, the third rank was (n=13) 65%, ease of access and way finding and the fourth effective ranking was (n=11) 55%, sense of control. elements ranked as neither effective nor ineffective were, visual privacy (n=8) 30%, journal of contemporary urban affairs, 3(1), 13-25 / 2019 patrick chukwuemeke uwajeh, ikenna stephen ezennia 22 safety measures and view to the exterior (n=7) 35%, respectively, comfortable furniture and the use of colours (n=9) 45% respectively. 3.1.2. work-environment culture the response of staffs regarding the rate at which certain norms and values were a constant characteristic of the centre, the following results (n=13) 65%, (n=11) 55, (n=13) 65%, respectively refer to (communication with patients/clients seeking service, reassuring friends/family regarding the patients/client health conditions and socially interacting with patients/clients). the other features refers to activities that are a norm at the health centre but not always practiced. see table 3. 4. discussion and finding as shown in the conceptual model of supportive healing environment with the four attributes from ulrich’s and dilani’s theories; enhancement of social support, stimulating design features, flexibility and coherence, connection to nature. the results from the survey of this research was used to understand the hierarchy in the perception of the attributes from a staff perception in the emu health centre to enable one to have a concrete evidence, backing the theory of supportive design, as to which attribute should be given the most priority in healthcare designs. findings from the personal workspace survey indicated that the staff's response suggests a strong need in the social support with (n=11) 55% of staff, with the opinion that they will function better if they had a designated office, (n=16) 80%. this indicates a need for adequate work surface, and (n=6) 30% shows the staff response on the need for an exterior nature view from office space as a source of positive distraction. table 3. rating of norm at emu health centre norms percentage (%) number of respondents classification of response collaboration and communication among employees within same department 70 14 almost always a characteristic collaboration and communication among employees in other department 60 12 seldom a characteristic communication with patients/clients seeking service 65 13 always a characteristic communication with visitors, family and friends 50 10 almost always a characteristic going out of your way to offer a “helping hand” 50 10 almost always a characteristic directing people to service areas 45 9 almost always a characteristic reassuring friends/family regarding the patients/client health conditions 55 11 always a characteristic socially interacting with patients/clients 65 13 always a characteristic journal of contemporary urban affairs, 3(1), 13-25 / 2019 patrick chukwuemeke uwajeh, ikenna stephen ezennia 23 attention to/the presence of reading materials, tv programs and other social amenities 25 5 not a characteristic supporting the attribute of stimulating design features, as found in the public space, art works of flower was rated (n=20) 80%, people being helped was rated (n=15) 75%, and nature scene (n=14) 70%. also, results from the sound, found to support the healing attributes, located within the environmental work culture, were (n=14) 70% adequate interior lighting followed by (n=12) 60% maintenance culture and acoustic quality of spaces respectively. furthermore, the perception of staff towards supportive healing environmental norms were also found in the area of enhancing social support, with (n=13) 65%, (n=11) 55, (n=13) 65%, representing (communication with patients/clients seeking service, reassuring friends/family regarding patients/client health conditions and socially interacting with patients/clients) respectively. the open-ended questions asked in the survey generally reveals the need for comfortable furniture’s in the workspace for both staff and patients a clean and sterile environment, a noise free environment and adequate visual privacy. two research questions served as a foundation for this investigation of attributes in healing environments: what critical attributes are identified by healthcare staff related to dilani and ulrich’s research findings? is a hierarchy of attributes perceived by healthcare staff? the main attributes identified by health care staff in the emu health centre that can influence supportive healing in a hierarchical order include: 1. comfortable furniture in lounge and work space 2. social interaction with patients 3. integrating nature elements in the interior 4. visual privacy 5. adequate indoor lighting 6. sense of control acoustic quality 7. art works 8. proper signage /way finding. 9. colour 5. conclusion the theory of supportive healing environment is very broad and inter winds into both social, physical, psychological human context. based on the literature and findings in this study, it is evident that both patient’s staff and visitors in healthcare facilities would have tremendous benefits from the integration of evidence based design solution. from the survey analysis of this study, the staff of emu also consents to this construct with (n=20) 100% when asked an open ended question “should connection between patients and employees be strengthened in emu health centre”. this response validates the second top ranking attribute of social interaction with patient listed above. furthermore, studies should be carried out across a wider target/staff strength to build on this theory. acknowledgements the authors would like to thank assistant prof. dr. badiossadat hassanpour for her kind assistance during the preparation of this manuscript as part of a phd course taken under her and the insightful comments that contributed significantly to the article. this research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-forprofit sectors. conflict of interests the authors declare no conflict of interest. references anderson, j. l., adams, c. d., antman, e. m., bridges, c. r., califf, r. m., casey, d. e.,... & lincoff, a. m. 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(1991). stress recovery during exposure to natural and urban environments. journal of environmental psychology, 11 (3), 201-230. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0272-4944(05)80184-7 uwajeh, p.c & iyendo, t.o; (2016). visual art and arts therapy for healing in hospital environments. international journal of management and applied science, 2 (2), 159-165, https://bit.ly/2kgewqt appendix a: existing floor plan. https://bit.ly/2dp8bem https://www.nature.com/articles/7211584 https://issuu.com/navymedicine/docs/jhsh_vol_1_no_1 https://issuu.com/navymedicine/docs/jhsh_vol_1_no_1 https://bit.ly/2q2gvnr https://bit.ly/2a7dt2y https://www.researchgate.net/publication/254623064 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/254623064 https://doi.org/10.1016/s0272-4944(05)80184-7 https://bit.ly/2kgewqt journal of contemporary urban affairs 2018, volume 2, number 1, pages 55– 65 towards appreciating the importance of windowscapes: evaluation and suggestion for improvement of new zealand building code * dr. leila mirza 1, dr. hugh byrd 2 1 building control department, auckland council, auckland, new zealand 2 the university of lincoln, lincoln, united kingdom e mail: leila.mirza@hotmail.co.nz e mail: hbyrd@lincoln.ac.uk a b s t r a c t rapid intensification of auckland has made our visual awareness of the outdoor environment (windowscapes) more confined and restricted. the recent changes of auckland’s windowscapes have made the shortcomings of new zealand building code more apparent. this paper aims to demonstrate the importance of windowscapes in urban dwellers’ life and suggest some changes to current building code to provide healthier and liveable indoor environments. first, evidence from the literature on the impact of views on building occupants’ wellbeing will be reviewed. then, new zealand code clause (g7 natural light) and its acceptable solution will be critically analysed to identify areas that require improvement. our literature review indicates that private views are more relevant for health and wellbeing than building and planning legislation in new zealand currently considers them to be. hence, this paper suggests that windowscapes should become an essential part of future building codes and standards. this paper concludes that providing strict requirements regarding windowscapes is essential to building a healthier indoor environment. journal of contemporary urban affairs (2018) 2(1), 55-65. https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2018.3656 www.ijcua.com copyright © 2017 journal of contemporary urban affairs. all rights reserved. 1. introduction 1.1 the importance of windowscapes for urban dwellers windows have many roles: providing views, daylight, and ventilation. with the advent of buildings with large areas of glazing, increased time spent in buildings and increased awareness of the benefits of improved working environments, the importance of windows for building occupants has shifted in favour of windowscape. the provision of permanent supplementary artificial lighting and a r t i c l e i n f o: article history: received 20 august 2017 accepted 23 august 2017 available online 24 august 2017 keywords: windowscapes; building code clause and acceptable solution; health and well-being; visual awareness of the outdoor environment. *corresponding author: building control department, auckland council, auckland, new zealand e-mail address: leila.mirza@hotmail.co.nz this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution noncommercial noderivs 4.0. "cc-by-nc-nd" mailto:leila.mirza@hotmail.co.nz mailto:hbyrd@lincoln.ac.uk https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2018.3656 www.ijcua.com https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 2(1), 55-65 / 2018 dr. leila mirza , dr. hugh byrd 56 ventilation reduced the role of the window as the only source of daylight and fresh air, while the concept of transparency in architecture introduced a new type of relationship with the landscape outside. this was coincident, and possibly the result of, changes in the lifestyle of modern urban dwellers who spend the majority of their time indoors (shoemaker, 2002, p. 141). in agreement with this, mclain and rogers (1981) say that despite fresh air and natural light remaining the major functions of windows, people are more interested in window as a way of contact with the outside world. the importance of having a view for urban dwellers is confirmed in most studies on windows. wells (1965) found that 89% of surveyed office workers stressed the importance of having access to the window even when there was abundant artificial light in the interior. an analysis (nichols, 1977) of sixty questionnaires from volunteer participants working in an urban high-rise office building revealed that respondents without window views made more non job-related trips away from their workstations – presumably looking for a view to the outside – than respondents with views. nagy et al. (1995) found that respondents from an underground office rated the importance of having a view much higher than those from aboveground offices. both groups considered the view as the most important function of a window, followed by fresh air and natural light. according to the literature review by farley and veitch (2001, p. 8) “of all the benefits and psychological functions provided by windows the provision of a view appears to be most valued by building occupants.” in bodart and deneyer's (2004) survey, sunlight and visual contact with the outside were found to be the two most positive functions of windows for building users. ne’eman (1974) interviewed 647 users in four types of buildings (houses, school, offices and hospitals) and asked them how they would choose between a window providing sunlight into their interiors but with an unpleasant view and a window providing a pleasant view but without sunshine. the result revealed most would prefer a nice view through their windows to the provision of sunshine. coopermarcus (1982) argued that attractiveness of neighbourhoods mainly depended on what residents could see from their windows. these results can be explained by the theory that humans have evolved to crave visual information about their environmental surroundings (kaplan & kaplan, 1977; verderber, 1986; arenibafo, 2016). 1. literature review on preferred windowscapes 2.1 factors influencing preferences for windowscapes windowscape plays a crucial role in modern life for urban dwellers as the majority of their time is spent indoors. the visual quality of urban windowscapes can, consequently, have a great influence on the quality of life. but what factors can influence windowscape preferences and what are the most and least visually preferred features of urban windowscapes? answering these questions are important as preferences reflect how given environments support well-being (e.g. van den berg et al. (2003)). research shows that two main factors influence preferences for urban windowscapes: environmental characteristics and attributes of observers. this section only summarises key environmental factors, for more comprehensive literature review refer to mirza (2015) and lothian (2000). environmental characteristics can be divided further into concrete features of urban landscape (e.g. water, greenery, sky, buildings) and psychological landscape descriptors (e.g. complexity and mystery). buildings: since buildings are an inevitable component of urban windowscapes, two key questions for designers and developers are: how can buildings be incorporated in an urban scene to positively increase the visual quality of the views? and what characteristics of buildings are more highly valued by viewers? kfir et al. (2002) found the presence of residential buildings in the near distance were the most influential factor in negative assessments of the view. however, if the buildings were more than 500 meters away or if the window outlook included a view of the sea, buildings had no effect on view preference. tuaycharoen (2006) asked 20 students to assess how interesting they found the views of ten rooms journal of contemporary urban affairs, 2(1), 55-65 / 2018 dr. leila mirza , dr. hugh byrd 57 in different buildings; a concrete wall with little colour variation was chosen as the least interesting view. similarly, in a hospital context, rooms with large windows towards a concrete building were disliked (verderber, 1986). low preference for obscuring buildings might be related to the associated loss of occupants’ privacy. for instance, markus & gray (1973) found the satisfaction with windows in residential dwellings depends on the number of buildings visible and their infringements upon privacy. in line with these findings, mirza (2015) noted that blocking buildings were more negatively assessed in home views than office views. this result is due to different levels of visual privacy needed in these two contexts. cityscapes: 88% of the office workers (n=348) in markus’ study (1967) preferred to see the distant city and landscape from their windows. a cityscape was rated higher than views showing close natural features (tuaycharoen, 2006). landmarks: landmarks to be the most preferred built feature of urban windowscapes. in some cases even a silhouette of a landmark on the horizon has the power to positively influence the observers (mirza, 2015). roading: roading (e.g. streets, highways, and parking lots) can negatively influence assessment of a scene. parking lots and traffic were identified as two prominent disliked features of urban landscapes and windowscapes (nasar, 1998; hellinga, 2013). weber et al. (2008) found streetscapes were considered more beautiful if the street is broad and laterally bounded by trees with only a few buildings visible. sky: the ability to see the sky from the window can keep observers in touch with information such as seasonal changes, time of day and the weather (markus, 1967, p. 103) and was found to be a main reason behind a desire for windows (keighley, 1973). butler and biner's (1989) research reported a view of outside for temporal information (weather and time of day) to be the strongest predictor of window size preferences. office workers who could see the sky, were less likely to report fatigue, headache and eye strain problems (heschong mahone group, 2003). while it has been found that a view dominated by sky is more satisfying than a view without this feature (lottrup, stigsdotter, meilby, & claudi, 2013), the sky alone cannot evoke positive feelings in observers (markus, 1967). greenery: greenery was found by a significant number of researchers to be the most effective addition to a view for improving the visual quality of: commercial highway strips (lambe & smardon, 1986; smardon & goukas, 1984), residential areas (r. kaplan, 1985; hussain & byrd, 2012) and streetscapes (stamps, 1997; weber et al., 2008). however, it is not the case that all kinds of vegetation are equally preferred. lottrup et al.'s (2013) research on workplace window views found that flowers, trees and park-like environments increased the odds of being satisfied with the views, while no significant relationship was found for mowed lawns and wild self-seeded natural environment. participants in gorman's survey study (2004) identified “trees block visibility” as one of the negative attribute of street trees. results from mirza’s study (2015) adds to these findings by demonstrating that positive influence of greenery is more effective in blocked and semi-blocked views than long open views. such results are important for application: if a view to a blocking building is inevitable when designing a new building, the architect should try to minimize the negative influence of a blocked view by providing greenery. water: the positive effect of water on preferences has been consistently reported (nasar, 2000; white et al., 2010; mirza, 2014). white et al. (2010) found that the extent of aquatic features in a built environment might be less important in influencing preferences than their mere presence. complexity: complexity is a positive and influential predictor of preferences for urban window views (collins, 1975; markus, 1967; rahbarianyazd, 2017). wolf (2003) found that the increase of complexity of urban scenes by disliked features (e.g. buildings, and overhead wires) could negatively affect preferences. s. kaplan (1987) reported that natural journal of contemporary urban affairs, 2(1), 55-65 / 2018 dr. leila mirza , dr. hugh byrd 58 landscapes were preferred over urban scenes regardless of the level of complexity. mirza (2015) found that the effect of complexity on preferences depends on the context of the views. while the complexity was a significant predictor of preferences for office windowscapes, no relationship was found for home views. the researcher explained her result by suggesting that observers in their office are more likely to be mentally fatigued due to the need of staying engaged with their everyday tasks and fighting off distractions compared to when they are at home. as a complex scene can effectively contribute to restoration, the higher preferences for complex views in offices is the result of observers’ greater need to recover from mental fatigue. openness: openness is a key driver of preferences (kaplan & kaplan, 1989). openness of an urban view depends on the density and configurations of buildings (hur, nasar, & chun, 2010), as well as the storey level where the window is located (kfir et al., 2002). hellinga and hordijk, (2008) asked their respondents to choose which of six pictures they preferred most and least as a view from their offices. a wide view from a high floor was the most appreciated and a view from the ground floor to a close building was preferred the least. ozdemir (2010) found identical offices to be experienced differently, depending on their views. office workers with open expanded views perceived their rooms to be larger and lighter, and thus more satisfying, than those with closed views. 2.2 the benefits of preferred windowscapes research has shown that windowscapes can have economic value depending on their content. for instance, a pleasant view can lead to a considerable increase in house price (e.g. luttik (2000)); while an unpleasant view could be expected to lead to a decrease in the house price. factors that increase the value of a property include (in descending order of importance) view to the sea, view to urban parks, view from high-rise apartments and view to sparsely populated regions (damigos & anyfantis, 2011). full views to the ocean could increase the market price of singlefamily homes in washington by almost 60% (benson, et al. 1998). similarly, a wide water view could increase the mean sale price of residential properties in auckland as much as 44% (samarasinghe & sharp, 2008). in singapore, an unobstructed sea view from a high-rise building could add an average of 15% to the property price (yu, han, & chai, 2007). windowscapes have different beneficial values depending on their content. r. kaplan (1993) reported that employees with desk jobs with a window to natural features (i.e., trees, vegetation, plants and foliage) had fewer ailments, were less frustrated and more satisfied with their jobs. window views of green vegetation or water, rather than of other buildings or a brick wall, were found to have a positive effect on attention capacity (tennessen & cimprich, 1995). leather et al. (1998) added to this finding by demonstrating that natural features within a view can buffer the negative effect of job stress on intention to quit and a marginal positive effect on general well-being. the heschong mahone group (2003) found a significant correlation between the content of the views and reports of fatigue, headache, difficulty concentrating and influenza. the study also found office workers with interesting views performed 10% to 25% better on tests of mental function and memory recall than those with no view. shin (2007) documented positive self-rated health effects of viewing forests through a window on office workers in seoul, south korea. a cross-sectional survey on office workers in the netherlands showed that attractive window views reduced discomfort (e.g. concentration problems and headache) (aries, veitch, & newsham, 2010). a recent study by lottrup et al. (2013) showed that a view of natural elements was related to high view satisfaction, which then contributes to high work ability and high job satisfaction. research in this area shows that an attractive windowscape is more than an amenity and underpinning this preference is a fundamental issue of psychological well-being and physical comfort (tuaycharoen & tregenza, 2007). heerwagen and orians (1986) investigated whether employees who work in windowless offices use visual decoration to compensate for the lack of having access to a window. those who worked in windowless offices used more visual materials for journal of contemporary urban affairs, 2(1), 55-65 / 2018 dr. leila mirza , dr. hugh byrd 59 decoration than occupants of windowed spaces. the content of the décor in windowless offices was dominated by nature themes. bringslimark et al. (2011) reported similar results. bringslimark et al. (2011) noted that workers in windowless offices were more likely to bring plants and pictures of nature into their workspaces than workers with windows. radikovic, (2005) argued that an artificial window video would be an excellent replacement for a window in all single-person spaces with a limited view of nature, such as underground, underwater, outer space, or just strictly urban areas. however, a research conducted by kahn jr. et al. (2008) showed that a plasma window was no more restorative than a blank wall. the physiological effect of windowscape is not limited to workplaces. patients with a view to stands of trees were found to recover faster and required less pain medication than patients facing a brick wall (ulrich, 1984). prison inmates whose view consisted of adjacent farmlands had lower rates of sick call than those looking out upon the prison yard (moore, 1981). an archival study of past residents of a nursing home revealed a significant negative correlation between people view (view to parking lots, the front entrance, or a yard) and length of stay, while view of greenery had no effect on this matter (o’connor, davidson, & gifford, 1991). having natural elements in the home window views contributes substantially to residents’ satisfaction with their neighbourhood and their sense of wellbeing (r. kaplan, 2001). taylor, kuo, and sullivan (2002) found concentration and self-discipline of inner-city girls (but not boys) were positively affected by the naturalness of the view from their high-rise urban homes. the authors explained their results by suggesting that boys typically spent less time indoors. residents living in greener surroundings reported to have a lower level of fear, fewer incivilities and less aggressive and violent behaviour (kuo & sullivan, 2001). residents of a large metropolitan area in the u.s. rated the potential of trees for helping people feel calmer as one of the key benefits of this natural feature (lohr et al. 2004). having a view over gardens has been shown to have a strong contribution to neighbourhood satisfaction (r. kaplan, 2001; kearney, 2006); moreover, those whose homes had access to their own garden or to shared gardens had significantly better health (macintyre et al., 2003). surprisingly, r. kaplan (1985) noted that urban parks and large grassy open spaces played a minor role, at best, in residents' ratings of satisfaction with various aspects of the neighbourhood; while the availability of nearby trees and well-landscaped grounds were the two most important factors. although, from these studies, it can be concluded that viewing natural features through windows has positive psychological effects, it is still not clear which features have contributed most (velarde, fry, & tveit, 2007). college students living on higher floor levels with open views found their dormitory rooms less crowded and got along better with their roommates (schiffenbauer, 1979). undergraduate university students who had views to a lake and trees from their dormitory windows were better able to concentrate than those students with views to city streets, buildings or a brick wall (tennessen & cimprich, 1995). students who were asked to imagine themselves cognitively fatigued, rated settings with views of large natural murals with water more restorative than settings with window views of real, but mundane nature with built structures present (felsten, 2009). there is a series of laboratory studies that adds to our understanding of the psychological value of viewing attractive scenes. for instance, experimental research by tuaycharoen and tregenza (2007) found less discomfort to be caused by glare from a window when the window offered an interesting view than from a window of the same mean luminance but with a view of less interest. the authors previously conducted a similar study in a laboratory condition with images of scenes, which led to similar findings (tuaycharoen & tregenza, 2005). purcell et al. (2001) found nature scenes with water were rated higher in restorativeness than nature scenes without water. karmanov and hamel (2008) study added to this finding by showing urban environments with an outlook onto water could have the same stress-reducing and mood-enhancing power as a natural environment. this may suggest that water bodies can journal of contemporary urban affairs, 2(1), 55-65 / 2018 dr. leila mirza , dr. hugh byrd 60 compensate for the lack of greenery in urban environments. 2. critiques of new zealand building code g7 in light of previous finding on the importance of windowscapes on urban dwellers’ life, this section critically reviews the current new zealand building code (nzbc) g7 natural light and its acceptable solution. as a performance-based regulation, the building code sets the standards that all building work must meet to protect health and safety of building occupants. in practice, ‘performance-based’ means that any design and construction methods can be used as long as they can prove that the requirements of the building code have been met. this flexibility encourages the construction industry to develop innovative and cost-effective solutions. most clauses in the building code have acceptable solutions or verification methods describing how to meet the performance requirements of the particular clause. although acceptable solutions and verification methods are not mandatory, designs based on them must be accepted by building consent authorities. g7 natural light is aimed to ensure that there is sufficient natural light and visual awareness of the outside environment for building occupants. like other nzbc technical clauses, g7 contains three main sections: objective, functional requirement, and performance criteria. stating its objective is to “safeguard people from illness or loss of amenity due to isolation from natural light and the outside environment”, g7 appreciates the importance of windowscape on health and wellbeing of building occupants (brookers building law handbook, 2012, p. 355). the functional requirement specifies that “habitable spaces shall provide adequate openings for natural light and for visual awareness of the outside environment” (ibid. p. 355). however, g7 puts limits on this requirement making it only mandatory for ‘habitable spaces’ within ‘housing’, ‘old people’s homes’ and ‘early childhood centers’. in other words, offices or student accommodation can be built with no or limited access to the outside views. that is while our literature review showed the significance of window views on the health and productivity of office workers and students. moreover, functional requirement of g7 (g7.2) appears equivocal as there is no clear definition for ‘adequate opening’: “adequate to achieve the objectives of the building codes”. this is also the case for ‘visual awareness’, leaving it open to any interpretation. for instance, it can be easily interpreted that g7 does not require a habitable space to have a street or landscape view and as long as one can differentiate between day and night, and diverse weather conditions, the requirement of the code are met. in other words, a view to a brick wall a few meters away from an observer can comply with the building code; however, if such views can safeguard people from ‘illness or loss of amenity’ is most certainly in question. two performance criteria are used to fulfil the requirements of nzbc g7. as this research is only dealing with the visual awareness of the outside requirement (g7.3.2) of clause g7, there will be no mention of the illuminance requirements (g7.3.1) unless it is deemed required. g7.3.2 performance criteria explain that “openings to give awareness of the outside shall be transparent and provided in suitable locations” (ibid p. 355). the code does not define any criteria to determine a suitable location for a window. it can be argued that the best practice is to ensure that the visual privacy of the occupants is secured while a desirable view is achieved. however, the lack of knowledge on influence of windowscapes preferences on wellbeing made architects to become more concerned with how the building looks from the outside and hence give the location of the window from inside less priority. using the guides in acceptable solution in g7 to design new buildings can be counted as a one of the main reasons for current lack of sufficient visual awareness in most habitable spaces. the acceptable solution (g7/as1) is divided into two parts: vertical windows in external walls and awareness of the outside environment. however, the emphasis has been more put on natural lighting, while the importance of window views is overlooked. for instance, g7/as1 suggests overcoming the impact of obstruction in a view on the amount of natural light entering a building by journal of contemporary urban affairs, 2(1), 55-65 / 2018 dr. leila mirza , dr. hugh byrd 61 using high reflectance surfaces. that is while no comments have been made on the impact of obstruction on the quality of the windowscape or how to compensate this. moreover, g7/as1 allows visual awareness of the outside environment through another space making this issue even more critical. although this section only focuses on g7 but the following shortcomings in current building and planning regulations have been noted that deserves further investigations in future work: 1) the possible impact of future development on windowscapes of adjacent properties hasn’t been considered in the building act and the building code. this particularly becomes more important in mixed zoning areas, as a new office building can get constructed on the boundary and block an exterior view of an existing next-door apartment building; 2) the fact that views from a private domain are not considered important under the current resource management act (2017); 3) the openness of windowscapes hasn’t been considered important in auckland’s new planning rule book. based on the new unitary plan, a minimum net site area for the mixed housing suburban zone is 400m2 and for the mixed housing urban zone is only 300m2. only one-meter setbacks from the side and rear boundaries are required. these rules are changing auckland’s windowscapes and soon a building within a short distance becomes a common feature within all residential windows. 3. conclusions windowscape is an aspect of health and safety that is at risk of being compromised due to insufficient regulation. our literature review indicates that private views are more relevant for health and wellbeing than building and planning legislation in new zealand currently considers. hence, this paper suggests that windowscape should become an essential part of future building codes and standards. in particular, g7 needs to extend to include buildings that are occupied on a regular basis and for extended periods of time such as working environment, offices and student accommodation. moreover, it is important that g7 enforces remediation where there is an obstruction in the view. this is because our literature review shows that an attractive windowscape is more than an amenity and underpinning this preference is a fundamental issue of psychological well-being and physical comfort. for instance, if a view to a building is blocked when designing a new building, the architect should try to minimize the negative influence of a blocked view using developing technologies such as green walls. the fact that the nzbc is performance-based and not prescriptive, can make profit-driven property developers lean more towards ‘liberal interpretation’. this paper believes that providing strict requirements regarding windowscapes is essential to building a healthier indoor environment. for instance, strict requirements can make designers to consider windowscapes in their initial designs rather than adding component retrospectively to compensate the lack of such amenity. references appleton, j. 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albino et al, 2015; nia, 2017). however, other studies have indicated that co2 emissions from transport and electricity consumption per capita show little correlation with the density of urban areas (hammer et al, 2011) and there is evidence that dispersed urban forms are more energy efficient when disruptive technologies such as photovoltaics to charge electric vehicles (the more likely technologies of the future) (byrd et al 2013) are widespread and there is empirical evidence demonstrating that compact residential building forms are less energy efficient (myers et al, 2005; byrd et al 2012). however, policies on urban form tend to favour compaction but there is little evidence of what densities urban form should target to optimise resource consumption (steadman, 2015). while some studies have indicated an optimum density of about 18 dwellings per ha (gosh et al, 2006) most policies advocating increased density (sridhar, 2010) stay clear of a density target which can result in the impression that the denser; the more efficient. if that is the case, the a r t i c l e i n f o: article history: received 2 june 2017 accepted 13 june 2017 available online 16 june 2017 keywords: smart cities; energy; waste; blackouts; density; mumbai; globalization; urban sprawl. *corresponding author: school of architecture & design, university of lincoln, uk hbyrd@lincoln.ac.uk this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution noncommercial noderivs 4.0. "cc-by-nc-nd" mailto:hbyrd@lincoln.ac.uk https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2017.3648 www.ijcua.com mailto:hbyrd@lincoln.ac.uk https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(2), 57-68 / 2017 dr. anindita mandal, dr. hugh byrd 58 consequences of urban forms of very highdensity need to be understood and the implications back-casted to inform cities with policies of increased compaction. this research concerns the densest city in the world, mumbai, and the environmental impact of the proposed redevelopment proposals that are likely to increase densities from about 3,500persons per hectare to about 5,000, achieved by demolition of existing 3-5 storey height buildings and replacing them with towers averaging 40 floors. what has become known in mumbai as ‘vertical with a vengeance’ (rathod, 2012). the study investigates the environmental impact of a proposed redevelopment of a 16.5-acre site. of the many redevelopment proposals in mumbai, this is in the most advanced stage and is an exemplar for both mumbai in its ambition to become a ‘global city’ and the indian government who have identified it as a key development in their proposal to achieve 100 ‘smart’ cities (government of india, 2015). the study firstly compares the existing urban form with the proposed form. for example, numbers and heights of buildings, density of dwelling and population, parking provision, open space, landscaping and street frontages. it uses the extended urban metabolism model (newman et al, 1996) as a basis of analysis and predicts the flows of water supply (reticulated and rainwater harvesting), drainage, solid waste, electricity supply, potential for solar energy, fuel for transport, carbon dioxide production and sequestration. from the results of the 16.5-acre site, the analysis is then extrapolated to the overall impact if similar developments were to be carried out, as is proposed, across all of the island city of mumbai. the results indicate that metabolism does not increase linearly (on a per capita basis) with density but accelerates instead. the results also indicate that the compact urban form increases dependence on infrastructure security and that the increased demand of water and electricity is unlikely to be supplied in a reasonably reliable and secure manner. furthermore, the outputs (waste water, solid wastes, and carbon dioxide production) would increase disproportionately resulting in both health and accelerated climate change issues. the indian government (2015) has claimed this type of development to be sustainable, environmentally friendly and ‘smart’. this research indicates the opposite may be more likely. 2. background to the development proposals the island city of mumbai trebled in population over a period of about 50 years (1931-1981) mainly due to rural-to-urban migration (census of india, 2011). the population peaked and has subsequently experienced a marginal decline as the suburbs have grown. the migrants into the city were protected by the mumbai rent restriction act (1939) limiting returns on landlord’s investments and resulting in disrepair of the housing stock. as a result, in 1969, the “cess” tax was introduced and a levy placed on landlords by the municipal authorities who took over property repairs. regulated rent levels combined with the ‘cess’ tax made redevelopment financially unattractive. added to this were limitations on the ratio of site area to floor area of developments (fsi). in the first development plan of bombay (1964), fsi was limited to 1.66. but with few new developments and, in order to try and encourage developers, this was eased to 2 in 1984 and then 3 in 1991 and 4 in 2009. these inducements had little impact and relatively few high-rise housing was built. the ‘cessed’ property (generally 3-5 storeys) predominated (bertaud, 2013). the cessed properties did not conform with the image that the municipal authorities wanted to see of the city that was the financial capital of india. in 2011, mumbai hosted the tall building conference and announced its proposals to redevelop the city by demolition of cessed property and replacing it with towers with the intention of being perceived as a “global” city (cbtuh, 2010). further fsi incentives were again introduced in 2009 by development control rules (dcr 33(9)) provided developments were of a significant scale. this triggered new development proposals and one of the first and largest developments was proposed at behndi bazaar, ward c in the island city. a 16.5 acre site containing 247 buildings (typically 3-5 storey) are due to be demolished and replaced by 30 towers of between 40 to 60 floors (a built-up area of almost 11 times greater than the site area). 3. from global to smart city in 2015, the indian government proposed 100 “smart” cities (government of india, 2015a) and named behndi bazaar as its exemplar development that was a flagship of ‘smartness’. although the definition of a ‘smart city’ can be vague (albino et al, 2015) the government has journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(2), 57-68 / 2017 dr. anindita mandal, dr. hugh byrd 59 clearly defined their intentions (government of india, 2015b)) that are summarised below: i. adequate water supply ii. assured electricity supply iii. sanitation, including solid waste management iv. efficient urban mobility and public transport v. affordable housing, especially for the poor vi. robust it connectivity and digitalization vii. good governance, especially e-governance and citizen participation, viii. sustainable environment ix. safety and security of citizens, particularly women, children and the elderly x. health and education xi. reduce congestion, air pollution and resource depletion at least half of these criteria are environmental objectives, which can be measured and reasonably accurately predicted. because, governance, health and education policies could be implemented without redevelopment, this study focuses on all the environmental elements that are a direct result of the governments ‘smart’ proposals. 4. method of analysis in order to test the claims that the exemplar development met the ‘smart’ criteria put forward by the government, the study was undertaken in three stages: 1) analyse the physical characteristics of the new exemplar development and compare these with the existing, 2) evaluate the environmental performance of both the existing and new for comparative purposes, 3) extrapolate the results of the case study across the whole of the island city to establish the full impact of a ‘smart’ city. 5. data collection of the development data was collected from various primary and secondary sources including; physical surveys during site visits, from local government agencies, ngos, the construction industry and desk-based research. the mumbai transformation and support unit provided information and maps of cessed properties of the seven wards on mumbai city and data for the 1,135 projects approved for redevelopment, under dcr 33(7), in the island city. these data were used in extrapolating the result of the case study to the district level. the building proposals department of mumbai provided the master plans and area statement for the bhendi bazaar case study. surveyors for the bhendi bazaar project provided detailed floor plans and area statements of the existing buildings on the site and a master plan of the proposed development. this data allowed an analysis of the physical characteristics of the existing and new developments. a three-dimensional model of both the existing and proposed developments was constructed (figures 1 & 2). this was used to establish the morphological changes (building heights, street widths, parking provision, roof areas, open space, landscaping and other aspects of built form). demographic changes (population density, total population) were based on census data for the existing and the developer’s calculations for the proposed development together with an assessment of population based on space provision. figure 1. the existing site at bhendi bazaar on the island city of mumbai. figure 2. the proposed development that is claimed to be an example for ‘smart’ cities in india. understanding the magnitude of the built form and population increase of the development allowed an analysis of the additional resources journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(2), 57-68 / 2017 dr. anindita mandal, dr. hugh byrd 60 required for the new development and hence and assessment of the environmental impact. 5.1 measuring the environmental impact the method used to predict the environmental impact of the development proposals was based on the extended urban metabolism model. this provides a basis for measuring flows of resources that are both consumed by and flow from the city. the study focused on the operational flows rather than embodied resources in the materials of the buildings and infrastructure. while the latter are of importance, they are relatively small over the lifecycle of urban structures and the study does not question whether or not redevelopment should occur; only the appropriateness of the proposed built form. the flows of resources consist of water and energy as inputs and wastes and pollution as outputs. water inputs include reticulated supplies from the various dams outside the city as well as rainwater harvesting. energy includes electricity from the grid as well as potential electricity generated from roof-mounted photovoltaics. it also includes fuels required for transport as well as carbon sequestration by landscape proposals. the outputs include wastewater, solid wastes and carbon dioxide production. if the government’s claims are correct, then the compaction of built form should result in a proportionate reduction (or at least no increase) of the inflow of resources and outflow of waste products per capita due to efficiencies of scale and improved infrastructure. since the development has not been constructed, the flows for the proposed development were predicted based partly on empirical evidence from precedents and supported by calculation from first principles. the full extended urban metabolism analysis together with the calculations and resulting data can be viewed at mandal (2015). for example, the predicted electricity consumption was based on the empirical evidence of energy use in different residential built forms in sydney (myors et al, 2005), a subtropical climate. this research found that metered energy use, in a sample of over 3,500 different house units, increased with the height of residential developments due mostly to energy consumed in common areas (corridors, car parks, pumping of water and wastes). therefore, in order to calculate the energy use in the proposed development of the mumbai case study, all the energy use in the building was calculated including, for example, private and common lighting, air-conditioning, air extraction in basement car parks, pumping of water, passenger lifts. the energy use was calculated based on the energy rating and hours of operation. the carbon dioxide emissions form electricity generation are calculated based on electricity consumption and the carbon emission content of the generating fuels (mostly coal in this case). transport energy was based on the number of private vehicles (both cars and ‘twowheelers’) in the development, their travel frequency and travel distance. while frequency and distance of travel was considered to be similar for both the new and existing developments, the number of car parking spaces in the proposed development is significantly greater. the potential of renewable energy from photovoltaics (pv) was calculated based on available roof area and typical efficiencies of pv installations. similarly, water consumption was based on the number of occupants, type of appliances and duration of use and wastewater calculations are directly related to water supply. 5.1.1 environmental dynamics increased consumption of resources and production of wastes is not necessarily linear with the increase in population. the provision of new facilities induces an increased rate of consumption. anticipated resource efficiency from the technologies of the new development are unlikely to be achieved due to behavioural responses; an issue in mumbai identified by yelda (2006) concerning the dynamics of environmental problems in mumbai. for example, the provision of additional 3,000 new car parking spaces in a city that has few existing parking spaces, induces people, particularly in a developing economy, to buy a car. as a conservative estimate, this study assumed that only 80% of the new parking spaces would be filled. however, since car ownership in the city was restricted due to a lack of car parking spaces, the new provision has significant consequences on energy consumption and subsequent pollution. similarly, a significant increase in energy use is attributed to air-conditioning due to a combination of an increased size in residential units, increased cooling loads because of the loss of mutual shading from low to high-rise built form and an increasing ownership (for both status and comfort purposes) of air-conditioning units (tembhekar, 2009). this is also apparent in the journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(2), 57-68 / 2017 dr. anindita mandal, dr. hugh byrd 61 retail areas of the development where the traditionally naturally ventilated shallow-plan retail spaces along street frontages are replaced, in the new development, by deep-plan retail outlets that are necessarily dependent on air conditioning. in the case of water consumption, the increase will not be linear with the additional population since the new development offers significant additional means for water usage. while many of the existing cessed properties have communal washing facilities, the new development offers each individual unit outlets for toilets, showers and washing facilities. showers and washing machines. this results in not only an increase in the number of water-consuming appliances but also offers the opportunity of increased duration of use. in the common areas, the increased amount of container planting (used as a mechanism to comply with planning requirements for increased landscaping) demands an additional water supply, unlike trees planted in the ground. the significant increase in the number of cars also results in a proportionate increase in car washing. 5.1.2 the results; spatial and demographic characteristics. with the exception of the existing religious structures mosque and one tower block, the whole site is to be demolished and rebuilt. figure 3 compares the number of existing and proposed buildings on the site. the fine urban grain of the cessed buildings is lost to large individual buildings resulting in a tenfold reduction in the total number of buildings. figure 4 indicates the number of proposed tower blocks the highest being 62 floors. figure 3. comparison of the number of buildings for the existing and proposed development. figure 4. comparison of the number of residential towers for the existing and proposed development. these statistics explain why the development proposals have been named “vertical with a vengeance” and the increase in fsi, to almost 4.8, is indicative of the financial incentive that has been historically hampered by restrictions on the permitted fsi. related to this is the density of the development (figure 5) that has increased by over 25% to almost 1000 units per hectare. however, the population density of individual units is likely to decrease as the unit sizes have increased by an average of 20%. this potentially results in more space per person in the units but assumes that the increased space standards will be realised rather than increased numbers for each tenancy to fill them up to previous standards. figure 5. comparison of the density of residential units per hectare. the external open space of the proposed development is greater due to the site coverage slightly decreasing from 90% to 73% of the total site. however, the open space per person has reduced to 1.07 sq. m per person, from 1.27 sq. m per person which is only about 1/7th the recommendation of the world health organisation (sustainablecitiesnetwork, 2011). 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 existing proposed n u m b e r o f b u il d in g s 0 5 10 15 20 existing proposed n u m b e r o f to w e rs 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 existing proposed r e si d e n ti a l u n it s p e r h e ct a re journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(2), 57-68 / 2017 dr. anindita mandal, dr. hugh byrd 62 the large podiums have replaced the small streets and alleyways resulting in a significant reduction (63%) in the perimeter length (active frontages) of all buildings at ground level, much of which is dedicated to small commercial enterprises in the existing development. this is likely to reduce the number of small retail businesses that spread onto the pavement and result in larger units that are spread deeper under the new blocks and become dependent on airconditioning and artificial lighting. the number of trees on the site has increased by over 700 with about 40% of these being in containers on the roofs of podiums. these trees will assist with planning compliance for the development, but trees in containers on the flat roofs of the podiums will offer little beneficial cooling or carbon sequestration due to their limited size. they will also require constant watering outside the monsoon period. 5.2 environmental consequences 5.2.1 water collection and consumption water demand in the new development (figure 6) is calculated to be more than double the existing (232% increase). this is partly due to the cleaning required to the increased amount of common areas and also the amount of trees and shrubs (above ground level) that require irrigation outside the monsoon period. however, the bulk of increased water usage comes from greater use within apartments. the reduction in shared bathing/toilet facilities, increased number of private water taps (sink, basins, showers, washing machine) and the ‘take-back’ effect of potentially more efficient water control systems being offset by a change of behaviour in the use of the appliances (duration of use of bathrooms or use of washing machines). figure 6. comparison of existing and proposed water demand by different users. the reduction in site coverage and the taller, but fewer, buildings results in a decrease in overall roof area of 32% with the same decrease in rainwater harvesting potential (a mandatory requirement in mumbai) resulting in less than half (45%) the potential amount of rainwater per person (figure 7). figure 7. comparison of rainwater harvesting potential. 5.2.2 sewage and wastewater related to the additional water consumption is the sewage and wastewater generated by the new development. sewage will be proportional to the increase in population. however, there will be significantly more wastewater related to the increased appliances and change in lifestyles. the increased population on the site, with consequent increased wastewater and sewage, results in a sewage volume that has more than doubled (234% increase) and reached 4.64 million litres per day. at present the sewage treatment plant for the zone (worli) manages to treat less than 20% of the sewage, the rest is pumped directly to the sea without treatment. the increased sewage volume will result in less than 10% being treated unless there is sewage treatment on site. 5.2.3 electricity consumption residential electricity is the largest consumer on the site and almost doubles (196% increase) in the proposed development (figure 8). this is combined with two new loads incurred by the development: i) lighting and ventilation to basement and podium car parks amounting to about 6% of the total residential load and ii) electricity use for other communal facilities that include; pumping water to the towers, lifts and lighting of corridors all of which amount to about 9% of the total residential load. 0 50000 100000 150000 r a in w a te r h a rv e st in g p o te n ti a l c u .m p a . �existing �proposed journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(2), 57-68 / 2017 dr. anindita mandal, dr. hugh byrd 63 figure 8. comparison of residential electricity use. the increased residential electrical load is due to several factors. the average floor area of each unit has almost doubled which results in additional lighting, fans and air-conditioning use. dedicated water heating with larger volumes of water results in increased hot water usage especially with individual use of modern washing machines. household appliances (e.g. microwaves, home entertainment and larger television screens) are likely to become commonplace and used more frequently. however, air-conditioning is likely to become the single largest consuming item as the demand for increased comfort and status that comes with airconditioning spreads (tembhehar, 2011). electricity consumed by commercial and retail spaces will more than double (226% increase) in the new development (figure 9). this is due mainly to the configuration of the commercial areas that, although having the same overall floor area as the existing development, have an external perimeter that has decreased by 63%. this reduces both daylighting and cooling by natural ventilation resulting in increased use of fans and air-conditioning as well as artificial lighting (byrd, 2012). although the light fittings may tend to be more efficient, this is likely to be offset by the opportunity for increased display lighting in retail areas. figure 9. comparison of all electricity uses. other miscellaneous appliances include the increased use of computers, display screens, electronic retail systems and signage. all of these not only directly increase the electrical load but also increase the cooling load within the retail and commercial spaces. although refrigerators in retail areas may become more efficient, they are also likely to increase as the area will become more affluent and increase the demand for more pre-prepared food. 5.2.4 carbon emissions considering only the carbon emissions in the operation of the development, the two main contributors are the carbon due to additional electricity generation and the emissions due to the additional private vehicles that can now be housed on the site (figure 10). the carbon emissions in electricity generation in maharashtra average about 0.9 tco2/mwh reflecting the high proportion of coal-fired generation. figure 10. comparison of greenhouse gas emissions from electricity production and private vehicles. the total additional electricity use for the proposed development is 18,326 mwhrs/year that equates to16, 494 tco2 per year. however, 0 1000000 2000000 3000000 4000000 5000000 6000000 7000000 8000000 9000000 10000000 w a sh in g m a ch in e w a te r h e a ti n g k it ch e n a p p li a n ce s li g h ti n g h o m e e n te rt a in m e n t fa n s & a ir co n k w h p a existing proposed 0 500000 1000000 1500000 2000000 2500000 c o c o 2 n o x s o 2 c o c o 2 n o x s o 2 t o n s p a proposed existing electricity vehicular journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(2), 57-68 / 2017 dr. anindita mandal, dr. hugh byrd 64 only a proportion of this is directly due to the nature of the development. the operation of the car parks (extraction fans and permanent lighting), lifts, pumping, common areas, airconditioning and lighting, for non-residential, and a proportion of air-conditioning for residential are directly attributable to the nature of the development. this amounts to approximately half of the additional electricity load, making the development attributable to 8,247 tco2 per year due to the increased electricity demand. the amount of carbon emissions as a direct result of providing car parking spaces, where there were none previously, will depend on the type of vehicles and their travel patterns. the reduction in emissions due to changes of fuel (in particular cng) has been assumed to be offset due to an increase in congestion as car ownership grows rapidly. assuming 16 km/litre of fuel, the average carbon emissions per vehicle are 200gco2/km. it is assumed that 80% of the 1400 car parking spaces are occupied and used regularly and that the average travel distance is 6km per day for recreation, occasional shopping and school drop-offs. this amounts to 25 kg per day or 491 tco2 per year. 5.2.5 solid waste the per capita generation of solid wastes in mumbai has been steadily increasing and reached 0.63kg/person/day in 2004 (mahadevia, pharate, & mistry, 2005). it should be noted that in addition to the land required for dumping the waste, a considerable amount of energy is spent in sorting, transporting and processing the waste in addition to the greenhouse gases released from their decomposition. the overall increase in solid waste is anticipated to increase by 30% per capita due largely to increased affluence (figure 11). figure 11. comparison of solid waste generated. 6. extrapolating the results across the island city the results above are for the 16.5-acre site, bhendi bazaar that has been named as an exemplar development for the proposed ‘smart’ cities in india. to investigate what the impact would be if the development was replicated across a city, the analysis was extrapolated across mumbai’s island city. the development potential of the city is related to the number of ‘cessed’ properties that can be demolished and redeveloped. figure 12 indicates the increase in population in each of the city’s wards should the bhendi bazaar project be replicated. the different proportions of increased growth relate directly to the proportion of cessed properties in each ward. the case study area considered above is in ward c. figure 12. increased population across the island city if ‘cessed’ properties are demolished for the ‘smart’ development proposals. 0 50000 100000 150000 200000 250000 300000 existing proposed m e tr ic -t o n s p a existing proposed 0 200000 400000 600000 800000 1000000 1200000 a b c d e f/n f/s g/n g/s c h a n g e i n p o p u la ti o n d u e t o re d e v e lo p m e n t wards in island city increased existing 65 overall, the results indicate that the intensification policy in the island city would result in 1677 new tower blocks averaging 40 storeys high, 51,780 additional car parking, a reduction in open space per person from 1.27 to 1.15sqm, a new 100 mw power station (probably coal-fired (gosh, 2010)), a new 100 million litres per day dam to supply water, 160 million litres per day of sewage to be processed, 3570 tons per day of co2 production and many more adverse impacts. all this will be added to a city that, due to inadequate resources and difficult geography, already systematically rations electricity by blackouts (byrd & matthewman, 2014a), rations water to a few hours per day, and where 80% of sewage is untreated and washes up on the shoreline (mandal & byrd, 2013). 6.1 per capita impact in order to compare the environmental impact of the new development with the existing, it is useful to measure it in terms of change (increase or decrease) per capita or unit floor area. since the redevelopment of the site results in an increase in population of about 25% greater than the existing, the consumption per capita results in the following. water consumption as well as wastewater (including sewage) per capita is likely to increase by 155% and potential rainwater harvesting is likely to reduce to less than half (45%). residential electricity consumption per capita is predicted to increase by 30% while electricity in commercial and retail spaces will more than double per unit of floor area (226% increase) carbon dioxide emissions, due to total electricity consumption, more than double which results in co2 emissions per capita increasing by 43%. however, c02 emissions, due to transport increase by 176% per capita. solid waste increases by about 100%. 7. discussion with policies of compaction and constraints on the dispersal of cities, urban form will inevitably grow vertically. with verticality grows dependence on centralised ‘flows’ of energy, water supplies and waste disposal. dependency leads to vulnerability and insecurity and, while suburbia offers some degree of resilience by its ability to collect energy and water from individual roofs and food from individual gardens, vertical urban form offers little resilience (byrd & matthewman, 2014b). while demand is increasing for resources to ‘feed’ the metabolism of mumbai, supply from the hinterland is struggling. in the case of electricity supply, the state of maharashtra consumes almost 12% of india’s electricity, having the highest consumer base in the country, it also tops the list for more deficit compared to other states. consumption of electricity is growing faster than production capacity. the depletion of ‘easy to find’ coal combined with higher energy demands from industry and air-conditioning is leading to electricity blackouts on a regular basis (bbc news, 2002; bs reporter, 2006; rediff news, 2007). in the case of water supply, the city of mumbai is facing water shortages, with parts of the city receiving direct supply of water for only a few hours in the day and water connections to any new tower, clusters or townships being suspended till the middle vaitarna water supply project is completed (sen, 2009). in the case of solid waste, most of greater mumbai’s collected solid waste is disposed of as mere dumping and levelling at the landfill sites at deonar, mulund and gorai that have almost outlived their carrying capacity. though the government of maharashtra has allotted a disposal site in kanjur marg, it is likely to be inadequate for the projected solid waste generation (mcgm, 2005 to 2025 a). in the case of drainage, the discharge of all the storm water and treated sewage is into the arabian sea. tidal variation has a major bearing in the system of storm water drainage resulting in flooding and water logging during heavy rains and high tides (mcgm, 2005 to 2025 b). this is likely to get worse with the risk of sea level rise due to climate change. the sewage system of mumbai is inadequate, resulting in discharge of large amounts of untreated sewage into creeks, causing degradation of coastal water quality and contamination of the adjoining beaches and seafronts (kumar, subramaniam, & patil, 2000). the pursuit of cities to become ‘smart’, ‘worldclass’, ‘liveable’, ‘green’ or ‘eco’, has been promoted alongside increased population densities and urban compaction. this planning journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(2), 57-68 / 2017 dr. anindita mandal, dr. hugh byrd 66 goal must reach a point where resources are inadequate for the fully functioning metabolism of a city. while case studies such as bhendi bazaar offer an exemplar for the 100 ‘smart’ cities planned by the indian government in terms of increased density, improved image and urban regeneration, they do not offer an answer to the problems of providing an adequate infrastructure to support the metabolism of such developments if they were to be significantly replicated. 8. conclusion using the indian government’s own definition of a ‘smart city’ and the exemplar development that is put forward by them, this research has analysed the claim that the exemplar is ‘smart’. the research has not only investigated the exemplar development but has extrapolated the implications should such a type of development be implemented across the island city of mumbai or elsewhere in india. data on the redevelopment proposals has been obtained from governmental agencies, consultants for the redevelopment project and from site surveys. the environmental 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(2022). the psychological effects of park therapy components on campus landscape preferences. journal of contemporary urban affairs, 6(2), 143-155. https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2022.v6n2-3 journal of contemporary urban affairs 2022, volume 6, number 2, pages 143–155 original scientific paper the psychological effects of park therapy components on campus landscape preferences 1* assist. prof. dr. prita indah pratiwi , 2 assoc. prof. dr. bambang sulistyantara 3 saraswati sisriany , 4 samuel nanda lazuardi 1, 2 & 4 department of landscape architecture, faculty of agriculture, ipb university, indonesia 3 yayasan abirama lestari indonesia, bogor, indonesia e-mail 1: pritaindahpratiwi@apps.ipb.ac.id, e-mail 2: bambang_sulistyantara@apps.ipb.ac.id, e-mail 3: saraswatisisriany@abirama.org, e-mail 4: samlazuardi@apps.ipb.ac.id article info: article history: received: 13 march 2022 revised: 25 june 2022 accepted: 20 july 2022 available online: 12 august 2022 keywords: park therapy components; landscape preferences; mood states; anxiety level; visitor-employed photography; image tagging; psychological effects. abstract covid-19 has doubled the prevalence of mental health problems among young adults. in indonesia, it extends the vulnerability of families, increases economic uncertainty, interrupts food security, and affects psychological well-being. accordingly, this research examined the correlation between psychological effects and preferred landscape elements. experiments were conducted in a campus park, arboretum, and a road. participants captured attractive views during the walk using the visitor-employed photography method and evaluated psychological effects using the profile of mood states (poms) and the statetrait anxiety inventory (stai) pre-and post-walking. google cloud vision api was used to get the image annotation keywords. the results indicated a correlation between psychological effects and preferred landscape elements. park therapy components, including plant, flower, and sky, were negatively correlated with negative moods and anxiety levels. these findings presented scientific evidence for the psychological relaxation outcome of walking and prominent components of park therapy to support therapeutic campus greenspace planning. this article is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution 4.0 international (cc by 4.0) publisher’s note: journal of contemporary urban affairs stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. journal of contemporary urban affairs (2022), 6(2), 143-155. https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2022.v6n2-3 www.ijcua.com copyright © 2022 by prita indah pratiwi, bambang sulistyantara, saraswati sisriany and samuel nanda lazuardi. 1 . introduction the covid-19 global pandemic impacted indonesia in the early 2020s, where health and human services and agriculture growth have emerged. in contrast, information and communication, as well as utilities, had the highest growth rates (asian development bank, 2022). the mental health of youth (15-24 years) has deteriorated significantly in the past couple of years. in most countries, mental health problems have become twice as prevalent among this age group as they were in the past due to the covid-19 pandemic, such as depression and anxiety symptoms. many factors contribute to mental health deterioration, including disruptions in healthcare services, school closings, and a job market crisis that disproportionately affects young people (oecd, 2021). according to a study on family resilience during the covid-19 outbreak in indonesia, respondents were *corresponding author: department of landscape architecture, faculty of agriculture, ipb university, indonesia email address: pritaindahpratiwi@apps.ipb.ac.id https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2022.v6n2-3 mailto:pritaindahpratiwi@apps.ipb.ac.id mailto:bambang_sulistyantara@apps.ipb.ac.id mailto:saraswatisisriany@abirama.org mailto:samlazuardi@apps.ipb.ac.id https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2022.v6n2-3 http://www.ijcua.com/ http://www.ijcua.com/ http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.25034/ijcua.2022.v6n2-3&domain=pdf https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2550-7604 https://publons.com/researcher/5251356/prita-pratiwi/ https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorid=57189215969 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6374-3969 https://publons.com/researcher/5273515/bambang-sulistyantara/ https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorid=57189227248 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1365-7135 https://publons.com/researcher/3156188/saraswati-sisriany/ https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorid=57197815744 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9648-6292 https://publons.com/researcher/5268313/samuel-nanda-lazuardi/ https://youtu.be/9dtr4ksa8yw mailto:pritaindahpratiwi@apps.ipb.ac.id https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2022.v6n2-3 journal of contemporary urban affairs, 6(2), 143-155/ 2022 prita indah pratiwi, bambang sulistyantara , saraswati sisriany , samuel nanda lazuardi 144 concerned about losing/death of family members (74%), family finances (60.2%), children's futures (58.1%), and own death (56.7%) (sunarti et al., 2022). young people have the potential to influence change in the development and promotion of mental health and well-being (mhwb) programs (raviola et al., 2019). previous research has proven that mental health is closely associated with human physical health. due to the benefits of exposure to the natural environment, campus green space is a valuable resource for students' daily living routines, working, and learning. shinrin-yoku (forest bathing) is one of the most cost-effective methods of getting in touch with nature (park et al., 2007, 2010; tsunetsugu et al., 2007). research has shown that walking in forests and urban parks for 15 minutes improved mood, reduced anxiety (song et al., 2013, 2014), increased meditation and attention (hassan et al., 2018), lowered pulse rate, diastolic blood pressure, and lf/(lf+hf) components of heart rate variability (park et al., 2010) and reduced salivary cortisol levels (tsunetsugu et al., 2007). increasing access and awareness of green spaces and enhancing the quality and quantity of green spaces could be beneficial for stress reduction in university settings (holt et al., 2019; seitz et al., 2014). eckbo (1964) stated that green space is a tool in campus life. it accommodates various disciplines' learning activities, social communication, and reciprocal relationships. also, it provides a place for recreation and rest, promotes mental wellbeing, and awakens positive emotions (foellmer et al., 2021). a well-designed campus environment is important for the educational mission and users' mental well-being. therefore, physical, social, symbolic, and experienced spaces should be created to create a therapeutic landscape (völker & kistemann, 2015). the dramaga campus, ipb university, bogor, west java, indonesia, which is designated as the green campus, is expected to shape the behaviour of the academic community to be green, active, and energyefficient. while there are many parks at ipb university, there has been no active movement or health promotion to use parks to enhance the mental health and well-being of the young academic community. in this regard, it would be worthwhile to examine the health and wellbeing of students on campus (elsadek et al., 2019; foellmer et al., 2021; ghorbanzadeh, 2019; guo et al., 2020). campus planning should emphasize potential effects on disparities in students' satisfaction, well-being, and academic success (foellmer et al., 2021). forest and park therapy studies have been proven from the stimulus carried out in the laboratory (jo et al., 2019) and on-site surveys (park et al., 2010, 2011; pratiwi et al., 2020). in the era of technology disruption, the usage of virtual stimuli (benzina et al., 2019; guo et al., 2020) and cloud computing were applied for landscape planning or evaluation (richards et al., 2018; urech et al., 2020; włodarczykmarciniak et al., 2020). landscape preference is yet to be evaluated through forest and park therapy programs. human landscape preferences are believed to be associated with their moods (gao et al., 2019; li et al., 2021; pratiwi et al., 2020). furthermore, luo et al. (2022) suggest that adding elements desired by individuals to resting environments may result in a generalized healthy environment setting, such as lush greenery, water bodies, and meadows. spatial arrangement and the type of environment should be considered to improve the restorative quality of urban environments and satisfy the recreational demands of residents on a greater scale (gao et al., 2019). in the previous research, we found that walking in the campus park and arboretum resulted in lower and decreased heart rate and decreased negative emotion and anxiety status (pratiwi & sulistyantara, 2021). however, no study has declared what kind of park elements are needed to improve psychological benefits. this present study was designed to provide such evidence to be considered in guidelines of landscape planning to support an active and healthy academic community. this study examined the correlation between the psychological effects and preferred landscape elements. our study hypothesized that landscape preferences shown by the captured photographs would correlate with decreased psychological responses of negative moods and state anxiety. journal of contemporary urban affairs, 6(2), 143-155/ 2022 prita indah pratiwi, bambang sulistyantara , saraswati sisriany , samuel nanda lazuardi 145 2 . materials and methods 2.1 experiment sites the experiment was carried out from august to september 2021 in the green space of the dramaga campus of ipb university, bogor, indonesia, with the academic event plaza and arboretum as the experimental site (figure 1) and the jalan raya dramaga as the control site (figure 2). ipb university has been recognized as a biodiversity campus since 2011. among the green spaces at ipb, there was a lake, a forest, an arboretum, and a plantation. in contrast, blue spaces are characterized by lakes and three rivers throughout the campus, contributing to a high diversity of habitats. a green campus must maintain biodiversity to provide a convenient environment for the campus academic community (satria et al., 2021). academic event plaza (aep) park is one symbolic place on the ipb university campus. it becomes an axis line that connects graha widya wisuda (graduation hall) and the rectorate building as generators of axial motion and unifying elements (simonds and starke, 2013). aep serves recreation, education, and socialization place for students, lecturers, and staff, especially during big events such as graduation and student orientation. arboretum holds documented collections of plants and landscaped gardens. the managing institution creates resources for scientific research, education and outreach programs, public displays, garden specimens and technologies for biodiversity conservation, plant production and services based on plants (kuzevanov, 2013). the existence of this arboretum on the ipb university campus has a very high role as an absorber of air pollution. the arboretum as a green belt between the densely populated offcampus area and busy transportation routes with the area within the campus is supported by a high level of vegetation diversity and a site condition close to natural. the comfort created by this arboretum not only has a positive effect on the environment but can also increase the productivity of the ipb academic community. the students usually access this arboretum during practicum hours, weekend physical activity, and organizational activity. therefore, it is necessary to examine user preferences in campus landscape planning and design to improve the health benefits and aesthetic and thermal comfort. the criteria for site selection for the experiment are 1) length of 1 trip of at least 400 m; 2) flat slope; 3) well-managed circulation (pratiwi et al., 2020; song et al., 2013, 2014, 2019). the walking distance on the walking courses at aep, arboretum, and jalan raya dramaga are 815.36 m (round trip), 1.18 km (round trip), and 740.92 m (round trip), respectively. figure 1. experimental route. figure 2. control route. 2.2 participants the subjects were selected through snowball sampling through 10 key informants from various faculties. the participants were recruited in the following steps: 1) posters and google forms distribution through social media, whatsapp; 2) explanation of research procedures and delivery of experiment schedules with zoom meetings. they have been informed about what activities will be carried out, the types of questionnaires, the incentives they will receive, and the detailed research protocol. this research protocol was inspected by the doctor in charge of the research from the ipb university polyclinic. the eligibility criteria for experimental participants were: (1) ipb students aged 19-27 years, (2) students living in bogor and its surroundings, (3) not being treated for cardiovascular disease and hypertension, and (4) in a healthy condition, walk for 20 minutes or more without a problem. the consideration in the selection of participants was ipb university students because they were the primary users of the campus landscape who lived close to campus. it is consistent with the previous study that local communities play a role and participate in structuring the urban landscape (amen, 2022; amen & nia, 2018; pratiwi et al., 2014, 2020; pratiwi & furuya, 2019). a total of 32 student participants lived in the city and journal of contemporary urban affairs, 6(2), 143-155/ 2022 prita indah pratiwi, bambang sulistyantara , saraswati sisriany , samuel nanda lazuardi 146 regency of bogor. several previous studies with a sample size of 9-19 participants have demonstrated significant results (lee et al., 2009, 2015; ochiai et al., 2015; park et al., 2009; pratiwi et al., 2019, 2020; song et al., 2013, 2014, 2017; takayama et al., 2017). thus, 32 subjects were sufficient to produce significant results in the experiment. eight males and twenty-four females (mean age, 21.5 ± 2.3 years) participated in the park therapy experiment. the experimental procedures follow the regulations of the research ethics commission involving human subjects, ipb university (number: 456/it3.kepmsm-ipb/sk/2021). 2.3 experimental design thirty-two participants were divided into two groups (park and road) in one day. each group consists of 2 participants. each participant is only allowed to participate in the experiment once. before the experiment, participants were required to conduct a health check by the medical team at the polyclinic. then the participants brought their health certificates on the day of the experiment. all participants assembled in the meeting room, and then all staff conducted screening by 1) measuring body temperature (no fever at 38 ºc and 2) checking general health conditions (no cough, runny nose, or shortness of breath). then participants filled out and signed the consent form. participants received explanations and finished questionnaires to evaluate their moods and anxiety state before experimenting. each participant walked on a predetermined course during the experiment while photographing impressive landscape elements for 15 minutes. the participants later returned to the break room to finish the questionnaires. in this experiment, a washout period of at least 30 minutes was considered sufficient to negate the interventions applied in the previous research (pratiwi et al., 2019, 2020; song et al., 2013; elsadek et al., 2019). during the experiment, the health protocol to prevent the transmission of covid-19, participants were required to 1) wear a mask, 2) keep a distance, 3) not smoke, 4) not eat, and 5) not drink drinks containing caffeine, during experiments (walking and filling out the questionnaires). 2.4 research tool and materials participants were asked to complete the profile of mood states (poms) and the state-trait anxiety inventory (stai) before and after the experiment. an evaluation of the mood state was conducted using the poms, which consists of 35 questions covering six subscales: "angerhostility” (a-h), “confusion-bewilderment” (c-b), “depression-dejection" (d-d), "fatigue-inertia" (f-i), "tension-anxiety" (t-a), and "vigor-activity". (v-a). a likert scale with five points ranged from 0 (not at all) to 4 (extremely). a total mood disturbance score (tmd) was generated based on the after formulas: a-h + c-b + d-d + f-i + t-a v-a (konuma et al., 2015; lin et al., 2014). an evaluation of the current state of anxiety was conducted using the stai state-anxiety scale after exposure to greenspace consisting of 20 questions. the scale used was 4 likert scales starting from 1 (not at all) to 4 (very much so) (fernández-blázquez et al., 2015; julian, 2011). the visitor-employed photography (vep) method was utilized to collect photographs at the experimental site. vep is an effective method that quickly measures on-site and realtime responses (oku & fukamachi, 2006). the photographs were taken with an iphone with gps (geographical positioning system) function and bluetooth connection provided by researchers. next, the photographs were sent to the google cloud vision api software to get image annotation keywords (dutta et al., 2018; richards et al., 2018; shi, 2020). finally, the landscape preferences questionnaire consisted of questions regarding preferred view, landscape elements, and their reasons for each site delivered to the subjects (hadi et al., 2017, 2018). a landscape preferences questionnaire was used to evaluate the subject's most preferred scenery and landscape elements in each site and describe why they chose those scenery and landscape elements. 2.5 analysis methods the analysis method included correlation analysis between psychological responses and preferred landscape elements, as reported in previous research that physiological and psychological responses were correlated with park therapy imagery (pratiwi et al., 2020). the data analysis procedure is depicted in figure 3. 2.5.1 correlation analysis of preferred landscape elements in the three locations the first stage is to analyze the consistency of the appearance of landscape elements on the two experimental and one control sites detected with the google image api and through a manual questionnaire with correlation analysis. spearman correlation was employed to analyze the correlation between preferred landscape elements of the experimental location. journal of contemporary urban affairs, 6(2), 143-155/ 2022 prita indah pratiwi, bambang sulistyantara , saraswati sisriany , samuel nanda lazuardi 147 2.5.2. correlation analysis of psychological responses and preferred landscape elements the following analysis stage is to formulate park therapy components into a healthy and safe campus green space model based on user preferences during a pandemic. spearman correlation was employed to verify the correlation between psychological responses and preferred landscape elements. the outputs are arranged to explain the criteria for park therapy components that are appropriate and effective in reducing negative moods and anxiety levels. statistical differences were examined significant at p < 0.05 using jasp 0.15 (the university of amsterdam, amsterdam, the netherlands). figure 3. research methodology. 3 . results the practice of park therapy in the park and campus arboretum decreased negative moods and anxiety. a significant reduction was detected in 4 negative moods including "confusion-bewilderment", "depressiondejection", "fatigue-inertia", and "tensionanxiety". location factors, especially the arboretum and time (before and after walking), significantly reduce depression and tension. while an anxiety reduction was found after walking in the arboretum, followed by academic event plaza and jalan raya dramaga. data on experimental subjects' preference for park therapy components were gained by gathering 837 photographs. the most photographs were taken in the aep with 380 photographs, followed by the arboretum with 347 photographs, and jalan raya dramaga with 110 photographs. the google vision api identified 68-word terms. the top five labels for aep were plant (335), sky (181), tree (151), natural landscape (67) and cloud (58). the top five labels for the arboretum were plant (330), sky (171), tree (121), natural landscape (54), and flower (52), whereas the top five labels for jalan raya dramaga were plant (206), sky (47), flower (27), cloud (21), and road surface (4) (pratiwi & sulistyantara, 2021). the examples of photographs taken by the subjects are presented in figure 4. based on the number of photographs captured at each location, experimental participants stated that aep and arboretum had more preferred landscape elements than jalan raya dramaga. preparation: site survey and recruitment of experimental participant candidates recommendations: landscape elements of park therapy in forming therapeutic campus landscape correlation analysis of landscape elements among the three locations correlation analysis of psychological responses and preferences of landscape elements preferences of park therapy component: visitor-employed photography (vep) psychological and preference data collection: park therapy experiment psychological health: moods (profile of mood states) and anxiety level (state-trait anxiety inventory) analysis of psychological data (repeated measures anova) c data processing: image annotation, image classification (cluster analysis) b. current research a. previous research data processing: journal of contemporary urban affairs, 6(2), 143-155/ 2022 prita indah pratiwi, bambang sulistyantara , saraswati sisriany , samuel nanda lazuardi 148 figure 4. geo-tagged photographs. (a) academic event plaza; (b) arboretum; (c) jalan raya dramaga. 3.1 correlation of landscape elements from images detected by google api the correlation analysis of landscape elements detected automatically through the google vision api showed a significant correlation from each location. it exhibited that the subjects have the same consistency of preferences for landscape elements even though they moved to other locations. the two highest labels detected by the three locations were plant and sky. the analysis showed a high correlation between the landscape elements in the aep and the arboretum (r = 0.971). information can be seen in table 1. table 1. landscape elements correlation analysis collected by google vision api. location pearson r spearman rho kendal tau b aep-arboretum 0.998*** 0.971*** 0.953*** aep-jalan raya 0.883*** 0.486*** 0.428*** arboretum-jalan raya 0.907*** 0.511*** 0.452*** * p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001 3.2. correlation of landscape elements from questionnaire data preference data was also collected manually by filling out questionnaires by the subjects. the results showed 21 attractive landscape elements according to the subjects. the most chosen landscape elements by the subjects were "trees" (89), "roads" (47), "paving blocks" (40), "flowers" (38), and "bushes" (37). the correlation analysis of landscape elements collected manually by questionnaire showed that only the arboretum had a significant correlation with aep (r = 0.674) and jalan raya dramaga (r = 0.608). at the same time, there was no significant correlation between the elements selected in aep and jalan raya dramaga (table 2). it exhibited that the preference of landscape elements based on the questionnaire does not show consistency among all locations. based on the correlation analysis of the two data sources, it can be stated that the landscape elements determined automatically from the photograph analysis of the vep method using the google vision api had a better preference consistency. therefore, the formulation of park therapy components will use a list of landscape elements from photograph analysis. table 2. landscape elements correlation analysis from questionnaire data. location pearson r spearman rho kendal tau b aep-arboretum 0.829*** 0.674*** 0.551*** aep-jalan raya dramaga 0.668*** 0.349 0.254 arboretum-jalan raya dramaga 0.849*** 0.608*** 0.515*** * p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001 3.3. correlation of psychological responses and landscape elements the results of the correlation analysis show that there is a correlation between psychological responses and park therapy components. psychological response to anxiety status (stai) has a significant correlation with three landscape elements, namely "plant community" (r = -1), "plant" (r = -0.999), "flower" (r = -0.999), and "sky" (r = -0.997). the correlation (a) (b) (c) journal of contemporary urban affairs, 6(2), 143-155/ 2022 prita indah pratiwi, bambang sulistyantara , saraswati sisriany , samuel nanda lazuardi 149 between anxiety status and the three elements of the landscape shows a negative correlation (table 3). the negative correlation showed that the addition of the elements "plant community", "plant", "flower", and "sky" could reduce anxiety status after walking. figure 5 shows a heat map of the correlation of anxiety status with the three landscape elements. in addition, total mood disturbance negatively correlates with one landscape element, "plant community" (r = -0.999). the negative correlation between the two showed that adding "plant community" elements can reduce mood disturbances after walking (table 4 and figure 6). table 3. correlation analysis between stai and landscape elements. variable plant flower sky plant community stai 2 1. plant pearson's r — p-value — spearman's rho — p-value — 1. flower pearson's r 1.000* — p-value < .001* — spearman's rho 1.000* — p-value 0.333 — 2. sky pearson's r 0.999 0.999* — p-value 0.021 0.021 — spearman's rho 1.000* 1.000 — p-value 0.333 0.333 — 3. plant communi ty pearson's r 0.999* 0.999* 0.998* — p-value 0.022 0.022 0.043 — spearman's rho 0.866 0.866 0.866 — p-value 0.333 0.333 0.333 — 4. natural landsca pe pearson's r 0.988 0.988 0.993 0.983 p-value 0.097 0.097 0.076 0.119 spearman's rho 1.000 1.000 1.000 0.866 p-value 0.333 0.333 0.333 0.333 5. stai 2 pearson's r -0.999* -0.999* -0.997* -1.000* — p-value 0.027 0.048 0.048 0.005 — spearman's rho -0.500 -0.500 -0.500 -0.866 — p-value 1.000* 1.000 1.000 0.333 — figure 5. heat map of correlation between anxiety status and landscape elements of park therapy. journal of contemporary urban affairs, 6(2), 143-155/ 2022 prita indah pratiwi, bambang sulistyantara , saraswati sisriany , samuel nanda lazuardi 150 table 4. correlation analysis of poms and landscape elements. variable plant community tmd 2 tmd 1 1. plant community pearson's r — p-value — spearman's rho — p-value — 2. tmd 2 pearson's r -0.999* — p-value 0.035 — spearman's rho -0.866 — p-value 0.333 — 3. tmd 1 pearson's r -0.286 0.338 — p-value 0.815 0.780 — spearman's rho 0.000 0.500 — p-value 1.000 1.000 — * p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001 figure 6. heat map correlation of total mood disturbance and landscape elements of park therapy. 4. discussions the environment becomes the main stimulus that can give the effect of wanting to move and have an activity (refuge and prospect) or move away (escape). green space is an inseparable part of an academic landscape where students can interact, learn, observe, and research. a campus landscape with vista, spaces and appropriate design can form students' good behaviour and nature awareness of the surrounding landscape, grow a sense of pride in their university and lead to their satisfaction and academic motivation (ghorbanzadeh, 2019). the previous studies showed that the type of natural green space could affect the psychological response of students. the type of landscape affects the decrease in psychological responses, especially negative moods such as "depression-dejection" and "tension-anxiety" detected in the arboretum. it was in line with gatersleben & andrews (2013) that an arboretum might have a high prospect (clear vision) and a low refuge (place to hide) so that it becomes a restorative natural green space. walking in the campus park and arboretum affected decreased almost all negative moods, including "confusion-bewilderment", "depressiondejection", "tension-anxiety", and "fatigueinertia" as well as anxiety status. the previous studies also exhibited significant differences in moods and state anxiety after walking in urban parks (lyu et al., 2019; song et al., 2013, 2014, 2015, 2019). furthermore, parks have positive psychological effects by offering recreational aims for users with mental disorders (tok et al., 2020). 4.1 consistency of landscape elements correlation among the three locations based on the correlation analysis, it was discovered that the preference for landscape elements was consistent in the three locations. the two highest labels detected by the three locations were “plant” and “sky”. it shows that the openness of views to the sky (high prospect) and the plants along the walking course were mostly chosen by young adults. gatersleben & andrews (2013) proved that natural landscapes with high prospects and low refuge created restorative places. moreover, the aep with an journal of contemporary urban affairs, 6(2), 143-155/ 2022 prita indah pratiwi, bambang sulistyantara , saraswati sisriany , samuel nanda lazuardi 151 artificial landscape (plaza) and its feature also provide high prospects and low refuge, which establishes potential benefits of psychological restoration (subiza-pérez et al., 2020). plant and the sky are natural landscape elements providing pleasurable experiences through the human senses and significantly affect tension, confusion, and depression (wang et al., 2019). plant strongly influences human perceptions, preferences, and physiological and psychological effects because the organs of plants, from the roots to the flowers, can produce and release bvocs that humans can perceive via their five senses (loreto et al., 2014). thus, practising forest bathing in space with high prospects and low refuge by integrating stimulation of the five senses in the natural landscape leads to beneficial psychological and physiological effects (antonelli et al., 2020). 4.2 restorative park therapy components the therapeutic landscape element cannot be seen in landscape photographs while walking on the courses. the correlation between image labels and the psychological effects after walking was explored further. it was found that anxiety levels were negatively related to landscape elements. the only landscape element, plant community, was negatively correlated with total mood disturbance. while, plant community, plant, flower, and sky were correlated with a state of anxiety. the more these elements were detected by google api, the lower the mood disturbance and state of anxiety. campus green space was considered among the most preferred feature by students, showing the significance of creating alternative campus habitats for students (bostancı & akdağ, 2020). greenery and flowers, as natural stimuli, become prominent seasonal landscape elements that correlate with physiological and psychological responses, such as a reduction in diastolic blood pressure and an increase in vigor after walking in urban parks (pratiwi et al., 2020). this study proved a correlation between landscape preference in different sites. moreover, park therapy components, including plant, flower, and sky, were negatively correlated with negative moods and anxiety levels. thus, the hypothesis of this research (namely, that preferred landscape elements would correlate with decreased psychological responses of negative moods and state anxiety) was supported. 5. conclusions the prevalence of mental health problems has doubled among young adults due to the covid-19 pandemic. many studies have proved physiological and psychological of taking the atmosphere in a forest landscape, namely shinrin-yoku. still, they lack study regarding the relation between landscape preference and the psychological effects of shinrin-yoku. the eminence of image annotation using google api is effective and has potential in formulating park therapy components. park therapy components, including plant, flower, and sky, were negatively correlated with negative moods and anxiety levels. the campus green space with high visibility to the sky view, proper planting design, and fascinating landscape elements can potentially overcome psychological disturbances for the academic community. therefore, managing tree canopy management regularly, proposing a compact and mass planting design, and selecting flowering landscape plants are needed to get optimal psychological relaxation results. future research should seek to discover therapeutic campus greenspace design criteria based on academic community preference. physical, social, symbolic, and experienced spaces in the campus landscape must be integrated into campus greenspace planning to encourage thorough health restoration in the academic campus landscape. funding the research was funded by community fund, research and community service ipb university under the rector's decree of 2022 number: 68/it3/pn/2021 dated may 31 2021. conflicts of interest the author(s) declares(s) that there is no conflict of interest. data availability statement the original contributions presented in the study are included in the article, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author/s. ethics statements no potentially identifiable human images or data are presented in this study. credit author statement conceptualization: p.i.p., b.s. data curation: p.i.p., s.s., s.n.l. formal analysis: p.i.p., s.s., s.n.l. journal of contemporary urban affairs, 6(2), 143-155/ 2022 prita indah pratiwi, bambang sulistyantara , saraswati sisriany , samuel nanda lazuardi 152 funding acquisition: p.i.p., b.s. investigation: p.i.p., s.s. methodology: p.i.p. project administration: p.i.p., b.s., s.s., s.n.l. writing— original draft: p.i.p., s.s., s.n.l. writing—review and editing: p.i.p., b.s., s.s., s.n.l. all authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. references antonelli, m., donelli, d., barbieri, g., valussi, m., maggini, v., & firenzuoli, f. 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(2022). the psychological effects of park therapy components on campus landscape preferences. journal of contemporary urban affairs, 6(2), 143-155. https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2022.v6n2-3 https://doi.org/10.20965/jdr.2022.p0031 https://doi.org/10.1186/s40645-017-0129-6 https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2020.v4n1-5 https://doi.org/10.2114/jpa2.26.135 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2020.103903 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2014.10.015 https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16183263 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2020.102236 https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2022.v6n2-3 https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2022.v6n2-3 conflicts of interest data availability statement journal of contemporary urban affairs 2017, volume 1, number 1, pages 10– 23 the influence of mediterranean modernist movement of architecture in lefkoşa: the first and early second half of 20th century ph.d. candidate salar salah muhy al-din * department of architecture, faculty of engineering, bharati vydiapeeth university, pune, maharashtraindia e mail: salars.muhyaldin@yahoo.com a b s t r a c t the twentieth century modern architectures in lefkosia in north cyprus are changing especially in residential building. this change is occurs based on the client’s orders or because of the dilapidated condition of the buildings. identify the characteristics of modernist architectural movement will help in identifying these buildings and recognize the changes applied on them. the paper aims to reach the rationale understanding about the norms of modern architecture in lefkoşa in the twentieth century. the methodology is based on analyzing the residential buildings designed by local architects and “ahmet vural bahaeddin” selected as one of the famous modernist architect in the twentieth century in north cyprus. residential buildings from milan and rome in italy, as well as baecelina in spain selected for analysis. the paper tries to demonstrate the presence of vernacular elements in modern architecture in lefkoşa. two vernacular elements were studied, i) the patio (outside and inside interrelation), and ii) the façade materials (exposed stone) as vernacular elements in “mediterranean modernist architecture”. the paper delineated the influence of the “mediterranean modernist movement” on modern architecture in lefkoşa in the 20th century. the findings show that there is influence by modernist movement of architecture in other mediterranean cities in italy and espain on the modern architecture in lefkoşa. the results contribute evidence to promote our understanding regarding the modernist architecture in lefkoşa. journal of contemporary urban affairs (2017) 1(1), 10-23. https://doi.org/10.25034/1761.1(1)10-23 www.ijcua.com copyright © 2017 journal of contemporary urban affairs. all rights reserved. 1. introduction “mediterranean modernism movement” in architecture was one of the dialects between the presumed universalism of modernist architecture and the privacies of distinct places. it considered the vernacular building traditions of the mediterranean region as a source for modernism in architecture in this region. this notion crystallized after the discourses between north and south of europe about the modernism in architecture in the beginning of the last century (lejeune, and sabatino, 2010). the differences in opinions that had developed during the 1920s between the architects of the north and the south of europe toward the role of technology and tradition continued to define postwar production. “mediterranean modernist movement” in architecture came out as modernist architectural philosophy in south of europe. vernacular architecture started to be a r t i c l e i n f o: article history: received 20 october 2016 received in revised form 5 december 2016 accepted 25 december 2016 available online 2 january 2017 keywords: modern architecture; mediterranean modernist architect; vernacular architecture; cyprus. *corresponding author: department of architecture, faculty of engineering, bharati vydiapeeth university, pune, maharashtra, india e-mail address: salars.muhyaldin@yahoo.com this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution noncommercial noderivs 4.0. "cc-by-nc-nd" mailto:salars.muhyaldin@yahoo.com https://doi.org/10.25034/1761.1(1)10-23 www.ijcua.com mailto:salars.muhyaldin@yahoo.com https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 10-23 / 2017 salar salah muhy al-din 11 discussed as a source of modernism in the “mediterranean modernism philosophy”. for example james stirling’s mentioned in his essay on regionalism and modern architecture (1957) that: “the most visually stimulating chapters of kidder smith’s recent book italy builds were not those on italian modern and italian renaissance, but that on the anonymous architecture of italy”(sabatino, 2010). hence, vernacular elements considered as the primary sources of modern architecture in the southern mediterranean. the influence of this philosophy could be observed in modern residential buildings in the first and early second half of 20th century in lefkoşa, in north cyprus. the designs have been held some vernacular elements in the modern buildings specially the stone facades and in the interrelation between inside and outside of the buildings (patio). the paper tries to answer following questions; whether or not the cypriot modernist architecture was influenced by “mediterranean modernism philosophy” in first half of 20th century? whether or not, other external factors affected the modernism in the architectural design of residential buildings in that period? the paper aims to define the character of modern architecture houses between first and second half of 20th century in lefkoşa. the study tries to demonstrate the similarity between ahmet vural bahaedden’s design as north cypriot pioneer in modern architecture and other italian and spanish design in the same periods. the paper hypothesize that if the “mediterranean modernism” were influencing the architectural style in lefkoşa after the first half of 20th century, then the introduction of vernacular elements in the residential buildings designed by ‘ahmet vural bahaeddin’ is partially or totally result of that influence. 2. literature review 2.1. modernist movement of architecture with the end of nineteenth century and the beginning of twentieth century, because of modern movement in the societies of west europe, architects started to leave past styles and began to work on a new form of architecture (evans and jeffery, 2005). modernism in architecture focuses on sullivan’s saying that “form follows function”, based on functional concerns. in this study the modern movements of architecture will be delineated to the first half of twentieth century. the first decade or so after the ‘world war i’ was a crucial and innovative time for architecture. the new movement became international after world war i, where consist the development of simple geometric figures and simple facades free from ornaments released from any historical references. buildings were to be “machines for living,” reflecting the industrial revolution age (le corbusier, 1931). consequently, modernist movement in architecture had been crystallized as real movement. the best known of this movement were, between many, walter gropius, le corbusier in france, and mies van der rohe in germany. gropius was the founders of the ‘bauhaus’ (1919-1933) were established in dessau focused on philosophy of modernism in architecture (magdalena, 2002). gropius in ‘bauhaus’ wanted to show a new consideration for technique and craft in all artistic world, and asked for re-assessment for art and craft characteristic of the medieval age, before art and manufacturing had diverted away. the bauhaus was considering rationalization in design as well (evans, and jeffery, 2005). after world war ii, this movement became more present in plain facade of high rise buildings with curtain walls in large houses. 2.1.1. general characteristic of modernism in architecture le corbusier, one of modern architecture’s pioneers in 1926 pointed his five points for new architecture. one of the points was "free plan”, which focus on continuity, transparency of place. this point is one of the important points for theory of modern architecture. he pointed "free façade" as complementary to free plan and took in consideration interaction between interior and exterior, and their relation to nature as well. those two points were very crucial in new idea of architecture. the other three points of new architecture, which le corbusier described, were: the "pilotis" which means the columns in french language, where allowing the garden to creep under the building and "the horizontal window “and "the roof garden" (benton, 2007). journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 10-23 / 2017 salar salah muhy al-din 12 figure 1. the five points of le corbusier (monteaguda, 2013). generally modern architecture is characterized by some recognized elements as; refuse the past traditional and historical styles as a source for the architectural forms. modern architecture is characterized by lack of ornament unless shows the functionality in the building. it focuses on the rectangular forms and horizontal and vertical lines. a simple and smooth form in the design eliminates the excessive detail. shapes of the buildings based on boxes, or connected boxes (jones, 2011). usage the modern materials, such as steel columns, and new masonry unites, by new construction systems, and emphasizing on exposed structural elements, such as beams and columns, with flat roofs. construction of the buildings by using reinforced concrete or steel structure system. later on the facade characterized by plain glass ‘curtain walls’ and ‘honor façade’ exposed concrete texture façade with getting rid of bearing wall in the facades became the evident of international modernist style. stonework and bricks are unadorned, and used in rectilinear masses and planes (monteaguda, 2013). the relationship between inside and outside of the buildings is one of the important elements in modernist architecture. that relation achieves through usage of large expanses of glasses which brings the building’s site into the building, taking advantage of wide view to surrounded landscape. consequence, large windows from floors to ceilings introducing natural light and penetrate it deep into the interior space of the buildings. achievements of the maximum efficiency through apply a good orientation to take advantage of nature’s forces to provide passive solar heating and cooling in different seasons. hence, using the overhangs above the windows and louvers for human thermal comfort is another character for modern architecture (jones, 2011). the characteristic of modernist architecture depend on the time periods of the design, where some time emphasizes on some elements more than others. another factor is the location and climatic zones, where the advantages of climatic characteristics affect the design. 2.2. mediterranean area according to gravagnuolo, b. (2010) “when we say mediterranean we mean above all the solar stupor that generates the panic stricken myth and the metaphysical immobility.” mediterranean word has come from the latin meaning "in the middle of the land" (medius, refers to "middle" and terra, refers to "land"). it is an almost close sea between the european, african and asian continents as shown in the figure ‘2’. the total area of mediterranean area estimated by 2.5 million km2, it is connected to the atlantic with only 14 km wide through ‘strait of gibraltarnarrow’ (calcerano, and cecchini, 2014). figure 1. mediterranean basin area (calcerano and cecchini, 2014). because of the diversity in geography and its extension on large area, the architecture of the mediterranean has its own impression and own character. several cities known as mediterranean cities such as; ‘barcelona’ in spain; ‘aix en provence’ in france; ‘rome, sicily, palermo’ in italy, ‘dubrovnik’ in croatia, ‘athens and crete’ in greece, ‘istanbul and antalya’ in turkey; and ‘nicosia or lefkoşa’ in cyprus, etc. the diversity could be imagined in these cities. thereby the architectural character of these cities will be diverse through their history, culture, socio-politics, tradition and religion in one side and topography and microclimatic conditions in another side. however, the similar language of architecture could be perceived (calcerano, and cecchini, 2014). journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 10-23 / 2017 salar salah muhy al-din 13 2.2.1. cyprus and ‘lefkoşa’ cyprus historically had been returns to approximately 10000 bc. in the mediterranean sea after sicily and sardinia, cyprus is the third biggest island. cyprus is located in a northeastern corner of mediterranean sea. cyprus was divided into north part & south part in 1974. north cyprus area is around 3,355 km2, shares a maritime border with syria to the east, and turkey to the north. ‘lefkoşa’ or nicosia was started to be a capital city, since 600 ad. the walled city in lefkoşa surrounded by 8-10 meters high stone walls which were built between 1489 and 1571 by venetian to provided safety (mesda, 2012). today, lefkoşa is the government center and main business center on the island. it is the last divided capital city in the world and this division gave to it a special character 2.3. vernacular architecture in mediterranean area in the countries of mediterranean area the sun is desirable in the winter while in the summertime sun should be blocked and the cooling and ventilation are necessary. clustered agglomeration houses because of the natural environment of the mediterranean climate, is a part of the landscape. clustered settlements are defendable and climatic responded through creating shades and protection from harsh winds with green plantation cover around the buildings extended on agricultural land, (fernandes, et al., 2014). see figure ‘3’. figure 2. ‘santorini’in greece. climatic characteristics of mediterranean area allow staying outdoors during all year; affect the organization of the houses courtyards, patio, terraces and gardens as essential elements of residential units. vernacular or traditional house in the mediterranean region has a summer and winter portions the upper level used in the summer and ground floor in the winter with fireplace. kitchen is widely used in the winter, whereas the terraces and patio or outdoor spaces prepared to stay during the day in shady areas or to sleep at night (zoranic’, 2012). the use of local materials, mainly earth and stone, is one of the characters of vernacular architecture and adapted to regional climate, see figure ‘4’. a good u-value (heat transfer coefficient value) for the building materials moderate the indoor temperature ‘keep inner space cool in the morning and warm in the night’ (fernandes, et al., 2014). vernacular architecture reflects the spirit of local people and the real response to local environment, their culture and history. it identify by the regional characteristics. in general vernacular buildings may not meet, in many cases, with today standards of life style or comfort, but could give some advises about strategies to mitigate the use of non-renewable energy. figure 3. mediterranean vernacular house shows local stones in façade and patio. 2.4. mediterranean modernist architecture “mediterranean modernism of architecture” can be known as a modern architecture that adopts vernacular buildings as a resource in order to harmonize material and space with context and culture (zoranic’, 2012). during his travels through italy, 1907, turkey and greece 1911, and later spain as well as the western balkans, le corbusier showed his interest for vernacular architecture (vidal, 2008). this was the beginning of dichotomy between north europe and south europe to determine the concept of modernism in architecture and appearance of mediterranean modernist architecture. the vernacular of the southern mediterranean started to be discussed as a source of modernism. the differences in opinions that had developed during the 1920s between the architects of the north and the south toward the role of technology and tradition continued to define postwar production (lejeune and journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 10-23 / 2017 salar salah muhy al-din 14 sabatino, 2010). in addition to the diversity of the mediterranean area and its climate character and interest for classical and vernacular environment, many other events after the world war i stimulate to develop this opinion (vidal, 2008). le corbusier was more than any other modernist interested in the mediterranean classical and vernacular environment. le corbusier attribute was reaction for many events. globally because of the great economic depression in 1930s and critique of industrial capitalism in, empower the right wing in germany etc. in other hand finally the consequences of his loss at the ‘palais des nations competition’ in geneva.his tendency shifted from an arts and crafts, which was clear in the first projects in “la chauxde fonds” and his machine oriented modernism of the mid1920s (plan voisin, 1925) conveyed to a southern version. the main events were the great economic crisis and the industrial capitalism criticism in the 1930s, the rise of german rightwing parties and the rise of national socialism that let le corbusier’s in crisis, which made modernist arguments in the north difficult. consequence was his loss at the palais des nations competition in geneva. these events coincided with le corbusier’s first meeting with ‘josep lluis sert’ a spanish architect in barcelona and the other journeys to athens as part of the fourth ciam (international congresses of modern architecture) meeting at which witnessed poor attendance of german architects (lejeune and sabatino, 2010). the modernity of the north that crystallized in germany was conceptualized around ‘industriekultur’, incorporate art and industry. in southern europe like italy, spain, greece, and southern france as the mediterranean region include modernity, was shaped less strict in adherence to technology. in one hand they adopted innovation, through italian rationalists like ‘luigi figini and gino pollini, and adalberto libera’ as mediterranean modernists, in other hand tended to employ both new materials and building technologies and traditional ones. 2.5. modern residential architecture residential place is a basic need since the origin of humanity. the functions and form of primitive dwellings changed to new form and functions which in modern dwelling. human always tries to improve the quality of his dwelling and update it according to upgrading life styles standards and according his private needs. the houses ostensibly have the elements of modernist movement in architecture which includes; absence of classical architectural adornment and elongated or large-pane windows. the horizontal surfaces and strong rectilinear geometry is generally seen in the modernist houses and architectural elements precisely rendered, typically white. columns, beams and cantilevered parts (roof overhangs, louvers and balconies) often are seen in the buildings. steel or reinforced concrete used in the construction. free plan and focuses on continuity, transparency of place (fricker, j. and flicker, d., 2010). figure 5, shows ‘villa savoye’ the manifesto of modernist residential houses, which designed by ‘le corbusier’ and built (1929-1931) in ‘poissy-surseine’, france, (morrissey, 2010). figure 4. villa savoye, le corbusier (morrissey, 2010). although the concentration on the modernist architecture elements could be changed from region to other based on climate, culture and society. but generally modernist residential buildings consist of the majority of those mentioned characters. 2.5.1 mediterranean modernist residents simulates patio and local stone façade patio means "inner courtyard", that space of house which use for sitting and dining or other types of outdoor home activities (anarjani, 2013). patio is related with a garden that is depending of the culture, protected from outside view. the patio creates a comfortable environment if adapted with perfected use of water evaporation. it incorporates the external with internal to alleviates the shiny and hot outside and conveys it to shaded and pleasant interior. in warmer climates, patios are extensions of interiors that can double the living spaces, and giving to the home penetration in journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 10-23 / 2017 salar salah muhy al-din 15 the nature around the house. (anarjani, 2013). despite patio is an vernacular architectural element, but it demonstrate its functionality in modern residences, and recall the traditional mediterranean life style which used to spend part of the day in houses outdoors. many italian architects in the 1930s expressed their interest in the mediterranean patio house, which used to practice with the typology of patio house according to mediterranean tradition with new outcomes. 2.5.1.1. villa studio for an artist designed by luigi figini and gino pollini 1933 luigi figini is italian architect he born in 1903 and died in 1984. he was one of the considered italian rationalist. they were considered italian rationalist. gino pollini, (1903–1991) born in milan, in 1926 pollini joined gruppo 7, and from 1929 he worked with his partner luigi figini (blakely, 2011) figure 5. (villa studio for an artist), milan, v triennale, 1933. luigi figini and gino pollini. (lejeune, 2010) they had partnership since 1926 and they were between the founders of gruppo 7 and then members o m.i.a.r. (italian movement for rational architecture) to promote the research to renew architecture they designed and extended the olivetti factory, ivrea, where modern movement principles applied. moreover, they involved to design church of the madonna dei poveri (1952–1954), milan (a dictionary of architecture and landscape architecture). figini and pollini were designing their buildings through pure geometric forms and ideal proportions, and applying aesthetic principles of rationalism. villa studio for an artist (1933) and “environment with living room and terrace” (1936) are two works of figini & pollini during their partnership. villa studio for an artist designed by luigi figini and gino pollini for the fifth milan triennale in 1933 was one of modern architecture showing a local, italian declension. figini and pollini mixed the modern building elements and technology with traditional elements in the patio house, see figure ‘6’. ‘villa studio’ design with one-story, and flat roof, several open air courtyards applied in the building which give the opportunity to enjoy external spaces as extensions of the interiors. the design is not symmetrical, the architects gave the occupants transparency to outdoor spaces. white surfaces on the exterior elevation are incorporate with exposed brick, see figure ‘7’, (sabatino, 2010). figure 6. villa studio for an artist facades. (costanzo, 2015) after three years, the figini & pollini designed an “environment with living room and terrace” (1936), which they described dialect between the organic (vernacular) and the machine age aesthetic through the concept of the patio( evilien, 2015). see figure ‘8’. journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 10-23 / 2017 salar salah muhy al-din 16 figure 7. casa dei giornalisti milano “environment with living room and terrace” by figini & pollini. (costanzo, 2015). 2.5.1.2. adalberto libera‘s “unità orizzontale” (horizontal unit) in the tuscolano neighborhood in rome 1950-1954 adalberto libera (1903 -1963) was born in 16th of july 1903 in villa lagarina (trento). he is a great modern architect, one of the inviters to revive the architecture in italy (rovereto, 2013). he was one of the announcers to the movement for modern architecture in italy. in 1927, he joined the gruppo 7, established in 1926 in the politecnico di milano by luigi figini, gino pollini, guido frette, giuseppe terragni, sebastiano larco, carlo enrico rava, and ubaldo castagnoli. he was responsible in 1930s, for many public projects in rome, like palazzo postale all’ostiense of 1933 (with mario de renzi) and the palazzo dei ricevimenti e dei congressi of 1937. during the 2nd world war, he stopped his professional activity and starts to think about the new fundamental themes of architecture. he returned to rome in 1947 and started to collaborate with ina-casa as director of the architecture section, and started his project ‘unità di abitazione orizzontale’ (‘horizontal residential unit’) at ‘tuscolano’ in rome in 1954. in march 1963, he died suddenly (rovereto, 2013). adalberto libera‘s “unità orizzontale” (horizontal unit) in the ‘tuscolano’ neighborhood in rome is an neighborhood built in the capital of italy just after wwii. it consists of 200 houses for 800-1000 people, with three categories: the one-floor courtyard houses, the multi-storey building with accesses from balconies, and the services block. the study will concentrate on the first category which is one floor courtyard houses. the courtyard houses tissue responds to an isolation logic where the room, the patio, the house and the whole neighborhood are all inter-dependent elements through the frontage patio and the corridors or accesses ways as in vernacular architecture, but are arranged following a geometrically controlled and repetitive pattern. fig 9, illustrates that the courtyard has l-shape with interior opening system, means all the main rooms opening to the internal patios. each four houses interlocked together and arranged in groups following vernacular concepts through cluster the houses in groups to promote the safety. in the same time the houses touching the walls of each other to promote thermal comfort in different climates, emphasize on the opening of the rooms toward the courtyard. three of the houses facing the same interior lshape open space and the fourth one is opened towards outside, as shown in figure ‘10’. in this context the design formulating open space ‘patio’ to each one of the houses. each group of four houses is included between two ‘pedestrian streets’ with 2.70 m large which are irradiated from the main central open space (fabrizi, 2014). figure 8. lshape patio ‘courtyard’ sources: fabrizi, m. (2014) figure 9. opened towards outside ‘patio’ toward pedestrians streets ( fabrizi, 2014). figure ‘11’ shows using exposed stone in the façade by ‘adalberto libera’ as one of the http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/adalberto_libera http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/adalberto_libera http://socks-studio.com/author/mb0/ http://socks-studio.com/author/mb0/ http://socks-studio.com/author/mb0/ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/adalberto_libera journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 10-23 / 2017 salar salah muhy al-din 17 characters for ”mediterranean modernist architecture”. figure 10. roma, (horizontal unit) in the tuscolano neighborhood in rome 1950-1954. 2.5.1.3. jose luis sert and j. torres clave. house “weekend,” type a, costas de garraf, barcelona, 1935 josé luis sert, was a spanish architect, born in july 1, 1902, in barcelona and died march 15, 1983, barcelona (josé luis sert: american architect, 2003). he worked with le corbusier and pierre jeanneret in paris between 19291937, after his graduation from school of architecture (barcelona). the work of that period produced many projects like, weekend houses in garraf with torres clavé , apartment houses in barcelona, , and a master plan for the city of barcelona. later he had his own office in barcelona, (josé luis sert: american architect, 2003). josep torres clavé, (1906-1939) is an architect, designer and town planner. he studied architecture at barcelona graduating in 1929 from the school of architecture. he is one of the spanish avant-garde artistic and modernist names in the 30s. in 1929 he became a founding member of gatcpac (group of catalan architects and technicians for architectural progress). after one year gave rise to the establishment of the gatepac, to be on a state level. he worked with sert in many projects (josep torres clavé: barcelona, 1906 – 1939. (n.d.). the week end house in ‘garraf barcelona, 1935), was one of the manifesto style of mediterranean modernist architecture by jose’ loius sert with torres clave’. the building shows the usage of the stone in the facades, as well as presence of patio, recall the “mediterranean vernacular architecture”. see figure ’12 & 13’ figure 11. week end house in ‘garraf barcelona’. figure 12. plan of week end house garraf barcelona. 2.6. modernist architecture in cyprus with industrialization and the following modernist movement in architecture in north europe and south europe, the local architecture in cyprus has also been affected. cypriot architects in that period gave many good examples of modern architecture on the island. nicosia general hospital by polis michaelides between (1936-1939), which faced many changes in the 1950s, represents one of the examples of the international style of modernist movement in architecture and its influences on michaelides from his experience in the office of le corbusier in the years 1930-32.(kiessel, 2014). ahmed vural bahaeddin, neoptolemos michaelides, abdullah onar and ayar kashief are significant names of local cypriot modernist architecture. 3. methodology 3.1. research design this paper approaches the qualitative and descriptive method, following to the theoretical part. the theoretical analysis has been developed for assessment on case study’s examples. interview carried out with one of the pioneers in modern architecture in north cyprus http://global.britannica.com/place/barcelona journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 10-23 / 2017 salar salah muhy al-din 18 ‘ayer kashif’ who graduated from faculty of architecture in turkey after four years from his colleagues ‘bahaeddin’ regarding the subject. the analysis, which has been applied, consists of three main parts: 1. through literature review we tried to identify key information that could help in identifying the influence of cypriot modernist architecture by mediterranean modernist movement in south europe which started in the end of 20s from the last century. theoretical analysis applied through analyzing several works done for south european modern architects, like ‘luigi figini and gino pollini, and adalberto libera’ as in other to investigate the vernacular elements interference in their design; first is the naked stone walls and second is the patio (outside and inside interrelation), as characteristic of mediterranean modernist architecture. 2. the presence of patio and exposed stone walls in the modernist building design in cyprus in 50s , 60s and beginning of 70s from twentieth century, as a vernacular elements and one of the characteristic of mediterranean modernist architecture, as elucidated in literature review. this was implemented through the case study’s examples are two residential buildings for the north cypriot modernist architect ahmet vural bahaeddin. he was one of pioneers who adopted modernist architecture in his works in the north part of cyprus. he is worth of special attention to focus on his works as one of the oldest ‘modernist’ architects. bahaeddin born in 1927, he graduated from faculty of architectural engineering, istanbul technical university. he started his career between the years 1955-1993. his works were mainly private residences, except few educational buildings and office buildings, such as building of ‘turkish lyceum’ in lefkoşa, built in 1962. in his early professional life, he was a modernist who focused on importance of function. later, he tended to “organic architecture” (celik and erturk, 2007). 3. the interview with architect ‘kashif’ consist the following question; either or not he thinks that his colleague ‘bahaeddin’ was affected by mediterranean movement in architecture, which arose in south europe in the beginning of twentieth century? methodology frame work has been developed by author to reach the answer about the study questions assigned in the introduction of the study, as shown in figure ‘14’. figure 13. methodology framework (developed by author). 3.2. case studies two case studies selected in lefkoşa to be analyzed. the case studies selected based on several considerations, which are; i) selected buildings are both residential houses, ii) both buildings have been design by architect ‘ ahmet vural bahaeddin’, iii) the buildings classified as modernist architecture holding the characteristic of modern architecture in the first half of twentieth century or after that by few years. 3.2.1. efruz houses (1962-1976) efruz mass houses or müdüroğlu houses are designed between, 1962-1976 at kumsal quarther in lefkosia by ahmet vural behaeddin. these houses are considered one of the distinctive mass housing construction in lefkosia. the construction company was efruz company, one of the famous construction companies in north cyprus. the houses designed for high income householders. typology of the houses is two storey row houses. the total area of one house is 200 meter square; the plan of the houses consists of two stories. the ground floor has an entrance, family lounge or living room, kitchen, toilet, laundry, garage and back courtyard and forecourt. the first floor consists of three bedrooms (one of them master bedroom), bathroom with toilet and transition space corridor to other spaces on the first floor (esentepe, 2013). see figure ‘15’. journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 10-23 / 2017 salar salah muhy al-din 19 figure 14. plan of ground and first floor (developed by author). there are three different plans for ‘efruz’ houses but all the types have courtyards (forecourt and backyard) of houses. those backyards and forecourts can be associated to the patio in vernacular architecture, which is one of the main resources to mediterranean modernist in architecture. see figure ‘16’. figure 15. the patio in the efruz houses between two rows of building and forecourts in the frontage of each house. figure 16. facade of the buildings (esentepe, 2013). in other hand the façade of ‘efruz’ houses is covered partially by exposed local stones, see figure ’17 & 18’, which is another characteristic of the mediterranean modernist. figure 17. exposed stone facades in efrus houses. using the white color to paint the façade and envelope of the building could be also one of the vernacular characteristic in ‘bahaeddin’ designs. hence the design of these houses holds more than one character of the vernacular architecture. it approaches the “mediterranean modernist architecture” in the first half of twentieth century in south europe; these examples could be detected in spain and italy as well as other mediterranean countries. 3.2.2. sömek house and clinic (1957-1959) ‘somek house’ is another design for ‘ahmet vural bahaeddin’ the first registered architect of cyprus chamber of architects in trnc. the house was built in the years (1957-1959) in lefke (celik, 2005). lefke is a small town belongs to lefkoşa, located on the northern slopes of the ‘troodos mountains’. american company with mining company of cyprus (cmc) was quite developing that place because copper deposits were discovered in 1912. they built the town theater building which exists until today, post office, municipal building, and workers’ housing. the building stands as one of the early applications of modernist architecture. it formed according to the principles of modern architecture in a new housing concept, with the beginning form of modern life in north cyprus. sömek house, designed considering the environmental conditions, socio-cultural characteristic and the needs of modern life besides being an architectural product. the building holds (celik, 2005). journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 10-23 / 2017 salar salah muhy al-din 20 figure 18. somek house exposed stone facades, plan and façade. (celik, 2005) figure 19. details on plan and elevation (developed by author) ‘sömek’ house and clinical spaces is located in four acres of gardens, including the farms of orange and flowers garden outside the courtyard and terraces are enriched with intense green. clinical façade is covered with large pebbles collected from local area. the building is divided into two parts; one is clinic and other part is the house. see figure 19& 20. after passing through the courtyard, to the large garage, it will lead to into the house on the left. central hall facing terrace and courtyard directly and it is opposite the entrance, and lounge terrace separated by glazing door. see figure 21. the building demonstrates modernist elements, such as perpendicular horizontal and vertical surfaces with big windows provided by louvers. figure 20. relation between inside and outside. free open space and introducing inside to outside, moreover, using iron columns in the building characterize the plan of the house. it is also shows the mix with local and vernacular strategies, through transparency between inside and outside, as well as using local pebbles as exposed stone in the façade (hera, 2010). see figure ‘22’. hence once again ‘bahaeddin’ demonstrate his trends to introduce the vernacular elements in his modernist works. figure 21. using iron forks in the right and exposed stone facade in the left (hera, 2010) 3.3. interview during the meeting face to face with architect ‘ayar kashif’ based on invitation from lecture of “advance research in modern architecture” dr. valentina dona, the meeting held in girne american university on 25th of march 2016. architect “ayar kashif” who is the pioneer in establishing department of architecture in girne american university, since 1994 and he graduated from turkey was one of the earliest modernist architects in north cyprus with his colleague ‘ahmet vural bahaeddin’. the author asked him the following question; either or not he thinks that the works of his colleague ‘bahaeddin’ had something in common with the movement of architecture in other mediterranean countries which arose in south europe in the beginning of twentieth century? journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 10-23 / 2017 salar salah muhy al-din 21 his answer was that “ he cannot aver that ‘bahaeddin’ have been influenced by the mediterranean movement of architecture in that period, but as architects we were, and even ‘bahaeddin’, respecting the client’s opinion which was affecting the decision of the design deeply”. 4. discussion several samples of modern architecture (residential buildings) from south europe between 1900s-1950s have been showed in the literature review. italy and spain were the main sources of “mediterranean modernist movement” in architecture. theoretical analysis applied on four buildings, three of them were in italy designed by italian architects like figini & pollini as well as adalberto libera. the fourth building was in spain designed by jose luis sert & torres clave’. the analysis focused on the simulation or existence of two main vernacular elements ‘patio and exposed stone façade’ in modern design of the buildings which is concerned in this study. the results demonstrate that all the projects have the sources of vernacular architecture, three of them combined both elements ‘ patio & exposed stone facades’ and only one of them has only ‘patio’ elements as vernacular source in the modern design (see table 1). table 1. vernacular resources in modern architecture design in south europe (developed by author). the two case studies for the modernist cypriot architect ‘ahmet vural bahaeddin’, ‘efruz house & somek house’ have been analyzed. both considered as modernist architecture in north cyprus and had been designed later of the previous bu ildings in south europe. the findings demonstrated that both of ‘bahaeddin’ houses had the vernacular elements in their design “the patio and exposed stone facades’, as shown in table 2. table 2. shows the vernacular resources in modern architecture design of ‘bahaeddin’ buildings in lefkosia developed by author. hence, the case studies as modernist architecture in north cyprus, designed by one of the earliest modernists on the island demonstrate the similarity to mediterranean modernist architecture characteristic. moreover, architect ‘bahaeddin’ represent one of the pioneers in the modern architecture movement in north cyprus. thus, his influence to mediterranean modernist movement will influence other modernist architects to follow him. therefore based on the findings above, the study shows that the modernist architecture in north cyprus was influenced by the mediterranean movement in south europe. the opinion of ‘ayar kashif” who was one of the modernist architects in that period, clarifies one important fact. the fact is that the architects were affected by clients opinion, hence that could be one of the reasons to let architects follow the needs of the indigenous people on the island. indigenous people affected until today by the vernacular elements in their houses, which exposed stone facades and house patio are part of it. that led us to think the modernist architects and ‘ahmet vural bahaeddin’ one of them were influenced by two main factors. one of them is the “movement of mediterranean modernism” in mediterranean countries. they were aware about it, because they studied outside of the island and had a connection abroad. another one is the intendancy of local people who likes to keep the vernacular elements even in their modern houses as we see until today. those results supports hypothesis of the paper, which hypothesize that the vernacular elements in the modern residential buildings designed by ‘ahmet vural bahaeddin’ and modernist architecture generally is somehow affected by “mediterranean modernism movement” in the first half of last century. journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 10-23 / 2017 salar salah muhy al-din 22 5. conclusion many buildings have been built in lefkoşa in the first and early second half of the twentieth century holding the character of modern architecture, whereas a several vernacular elements interfered in. those buildings confuse the expert beholder to give a final judgment whether or not those buildings are holding pure modernist architecture features. the paper conducted following questions to investigate that; whether or not, the cypriot architects were influenced by “mediterranean modernist philosophy” in first and early second half of the last century? is there other external factors affected the shape of the modernism movement in the architectural design of residential buildings in that period on the island? to evaluate the influence of the “mediterranean movements in architecture” or other factors on the modernist architecture in lefkoşa, the paper proposed two main paths to study the subject: 1) investigate the effect of the vernacular elements on the mediterranean modernist movement in south europe, basis on ‘theoretical part’ 2) and evaluate the effect of the same vernacular elements on the modern architecture in lefkoşa, basis on ‘case studies & interview’. the residential buildings of ‘bahaeddin’ as pioneer modernist architect were selected as case studies to be analyzed. the results obtained based on theoretical assessment and through the interview. the main findings obtained are that there is similarity between the “mediterranean modernist architecture” in mediterranean countries such as italy or spain, and the modernist architecture in lefkoşa. there is hidden effect of indigenous inhabitant on the island through applying their opinion on the architects while designing their houses. the study concluded that there is two main factors which influenced the modernist architects to introduce vernacular elements in lefkoşa in first and second half of 20th century. first is the mediterranean modernism philosophy, which started in south europe in the beginning of twentieth century. second is the effect of the authentic dwellers of lefkoşa or cyprus who tend to involve the vernacular elements in their houses as aesthetic value and functional element. references: anarjani o. a. 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[retrieved] on 15th of may, 2016 from https://danmorrissey.files.wordpress.com/201 0/01/case-study-final.pdf rovereto, m. (2013) adalberto libera: the ideal city. [retrieved] on 13th of may, 2016 from sabatino, m. (2010) the politics of mediterraneità in italian modernist architecture. lejeune, j.f., and sabatino, m. (eds), modern architecture and the mediterranean: vernacular dialogues and contested identities new york: routledge. p. 49. vidal, m. (2008) design history in catalonia between the influence of le corbusier and mediterranean historical and vernacular sources. design discourse, 3(4). 1-11. http://socks-studio.com/author/mb0/ http://a2modern.org/2011/04/characteristics-of-modern-architecture/ http://a2modern.org/2011/04/characteristics-of-modern-architecture/ journal of contemporary urban affairs 2017, volume 1, number 1, pages 67– 75 the scale of public space: taksim square in istanbul dr. senem zeybekoglu sadri * department of architecture, girne american university, turkey a b s t r a c t this article aims at following the traces of the transformation of public sphere in turkey through its manifestations on urban public spaces with the case study of taksim square. in this attempt, the article illustrates how taksim square, as a public space, has been shaped by struggles between different ideologies, discourses, political decisions and daily activities taking place at personal, interpersonal, local, national, supranational and global scales. through this way this article also aims at understanding how these contestations at different scales are affecting people, individually and collectively, from daily life practices to political integration. the article also discusses that our daily life practices and preferences are political decisions and our participation in public sphere occurs through those daily actions of the personal spheres. therefore, the article suggests that a paradigm shift is needed in the design and production of the built environments that will facilitate the coexistence of multiple counter publics. journal of contemporary urban affairs (2017) 1(1), 67-75. https://doi.org/10.25034/1761.1(1)67-75 www.ijcua.com copyright © 2017 journal of contemporary urban affairs. all rights reserved. 1. introduction today the role of public spaces in the exchange of ideas and creation of public opinion has started to be discussed extensively. public spaces such as tahrir square in egypt, sintagma square in greece, the buffer zone in cyprus, or the azadi square in tehran have more than what they occupy as physical spaces. images reflecting those huge urban areas with millions of people inside are circulating all over the world through news agencies or social media, as the messengers of new social orders or new regimes. those images help to create and sustain a feeling of strong resistance and solidarity through the representation of the materialization of political ideas with real people and real places in them. although it is impossible to deny the importance of internet and social media in the formation of public opinion, organization of protests and demonstrations, and circulation of a r t i c l e i n f o: article history: received 17 january 2017 accepted 26 march 2017 available online 26 march 2017 keywords: public spaces; taksim square; istanbul; the national space; social changes. *corresponding author: department of architecture, girne american university, turkey e-mail address: senemsadri@gau.edu.tr this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution noncommercial noderivs 4.0. "cc-by-nc-nd" https://doi.org/10.25034/1761.1(1)67-75 www.ijcua.com mailto:senemsadri@gau.edu.tr https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 67-75 / 2017 senem zeybekoglu sadri 68 news and information, the need for the physicality of place (a public space), and the power of thousands of people interwoven together occupying that space cannot be ignored. in the end, all those images shared in digital media illustrate real people and real places (parkinson, 2012). these political activisms on urban spaces are becoming visible by the help of internet, and media at a global scale. they illustrate the collective resistance of certain people at certain locations, which might have global impacts at other localities. although they do not represent the “ideal speech condition” that habermas suggests as the rule of public sphere they are probably the utmost reflections of public opinion (habermas, lenox, & lenox, 1974). and again, in contrast with habermasian ideal of public sphere, which is related with public opinion and manifested in language, these activisms are highly visible through their existence on urban spaces (parkinson, 2012). as much as the spatiality of public spaces, the scale issue is also important because the physical public space is being shaped as a result of struggles between different ideologies, discourses, political decisions and daily activities taking place at personal, interpersonal, local, national, supranational and global scales. therefore, these contestations at different scales are blurring established definitions of normative public sphere, and defining new and alternative spheres of public expression in several forms, ranging from performing daily life activities to participating in political life in passive and active ways. these alternative spheres of public expression, formed at the intersections of different scalar relations of public life create what nancy fraser calls “subaltern counterpublic” (fraser, 1990). having the idea that public spaces constitute an indispensable part of public life, and play an important role in the formation of public opinion, this article aims at following the traces of the transformation of public sphere in turkey through its manifestations on urban public spaces with the case study of taksim square in istanbul. in this attempt, the article tries to understand the changing meanings attached to the square as a major public space, not only at urban scale but also at personal, interpersonal, national and global scales. therefore, the article looks at the ways how the square has been formed, used, transformed and appropriated by different ideologies, discourses, political decisions and daily life activities of different groups. it also looks at the ways how political and ideological pressures are materialized at urban spaces and how these materializations are being contested through different forms of public expressions ranging from collective protests to daily life activities and preferences in the use of urban space. the article aims to understand whether or not these contestations open the way for new forms of public spheres, which might be called as multiple counter-publics with reference to nancy fraser, and whether or not the physicality of the urban space in terms of inscription of meanings and transformation of those meanings through appropriation of the space, has impacts on this formation of new types of public spheres. 2. constructing the national space, defining the national public sphere in turkey 2.1 imagination of a modern nation state the foundation of the turkish republic as a new nation-state in 1923 was a break from the imperial ottoman past through a modernization project. one of the most important aspects of the nationhood was constructing a turkish citizenship within defined boundaries (secor, 2004). this modernization project was inspired by the western norms, and paralleled by secularization and homogenization of the country (kasaba, 1997). the visual representations of the period in printed publications such as journals, books and posters depicting: “[u]nveiled women working next to clean-shaven men in educational and professional settings, healthy children journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 67-75 / 2017 senem zeybekoglu sadri 69 and young people in school uniforms, the modern architecture of public buildings in republican ankara and other major cities, the spectacular performances of the national theater, symphony orchestra, opera, and ballet, and proud scenes of agriculture, railroads, factories, and dams…” (bozdoğan & kasaba, 1999; p:5) provides an understanding of how the modernist-nationalist project was determined to create a homogenous, national identity which is reflected in a variety of fields ranging from the outfit of citizens, to the newly emerging cultural practices, from women participating in the economic production to the modernist architecture and urban design of the nation state (bozdoğan, 2001; bozdoğan & kasaba, 1999). 2.2 constructing national identity through architecture as for alev çınar, one of the most important priorities of the ruling elite of the new nation state was to define a national territory, in order to materialize the power and dominance of the new regime and its national ideology and create a feeling of a “unified national territory” (çınar, 2005; p: 101). she states that “nationhood is not only about the collective imagination of a national community, but also about the imagination of national space” (çınar, 2005; p: 99). therefore, architecture and urban design became an important tool to convey those ideals on the physical space. one of the most important decisions implemented on the national space was the relocation of the capital from the former imperial capital istanbul, to a small town in central anatolia, ankara. this move was the spatial reflection of the intention of a break with the ottoman and islamic heritage of the past (bozdoğan, 2001). in order to institutionalize the reforms and make them effective in the level of everyday life, the state searched for a model that would replace istanbul’s urban and cultural heterogeneity with a modern and homogeneous urban environment (şengül, 2001). urban planning and construction works initially started in ankara, and then spread to other anatolian cities. new governmental buildings, schools, factories and housing complexes were built in accordance with modernist architectural style; new urban open spaces such as boulevards, parks, promenades and squares were opened and the reflections of the new regime were inscribed in them by erection of monuments and statues (bozdoğan, 2001; çınar, 2005). in the following years, all these urban interventions became institutionalized through the enforcement of laws and regulations such as municipality law (belediye kanunu), general sanitation law (umumi hıfzısıhha) and construction and roads laws (yapı ve yollar kanunu) all over the country (tekeli, 1999). 2.3 urban interventions in taksim according to çınar, through these interventions on the urban space, the new regime was not only constructing its power and authority in front of its constituency, but also representing itself in front of the “global gaze”, so as to gain approval and validity at global scale. (çınar, 2005). although ankara was the centre of modernization efforts of the young republic through urbanization and construction works, there was a need for inscribing the symbols of the new republic in istanbul as well, since istanbul remained its position as being focal point of the “global gaze” with its historical, cultural and economic prominence (çınar, 2005). nevertheless, istanbul was full of buildings and monuments representing the ottoman heritage in its every corner. sultanahmet square was the center of the imperial istanbul, with hagiasophia, sultanahmet mosque, and topkapı palace in its close vicinity, which are all representatives of the ottoman power. therefore, transforming istanbul’s image from the capital of ottoman empire into a modernist city was not an easy task to accomplish (çınar, 2005). in order to emphasize its break with this ottoman journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 67-75 / 2017 senem zeybekoglu sadri 70 past, the new republic decided to create a new center in the city, taksim square, far from the existing historical center and which did not carry any symbols of the ottoman power and islamic traditions (baykal, 2000; çınar, 2005). the idea was to erect a monument in this new central location, which would symbolize the power and authority of the new regime, and the national identity. taksim square constituted an appropriate location for the erection of this monument due to its geographical distance from sultanahmet square, the former ottoman center and its proximity to non-muslim neighborhoods of the city. geographically, taksim square is located on a hilltop on the european side of istanbul, and on the northern part of historical peninsula, where the sultanahmet square lies. haliç estuary (the golden horn) seperates these two land parts from each other. the northern part, beyoğlu (also called pera) was mostly populated by nonmuslims during the ottoman period. starting from the 16th century, the grand rue de pera (today’s istiklal street) started to emerge with the establishment of consulates of different europen countries and the settlement of their officers and wealthy non-muslim populations of istanbul around this street (kuruyazıcı, 1998). during the 18th century, the settlement enlarged towards the plane which was used as graveyards and where today’s taksim square is located (polvan & yönet, 2010). the maksem building, a water reservoir and one of the most important structures marking the square, was constructed in 1732 in order to distribute water to the neighborhoods in the close vicinity. this area started to be named as taksim (which means division in arabic) after the construction of this building (kuruyazıcı, 1998). another prominent building, taksim artillary barracks was built in 1780, on the north of reservoir building; and other military buildings, mecidiye barracks, and military band barracks, started to surround taksim square during the 19th century. 19th century was a period when the ottoman empire underwent reform movements in its institutional system and this was also reflected on the urban pattern of the capital city, istanbul (baykal, 2000). pera, with a concentration of non-muslim population was a model for the urban renovation projects. therefore, it developed with a more modern face and with western living style. the barracks buildings were also representative of the modernization efforts of the military system. therefore, pera was symbolizing modenization attempts of the empire. 2.4 taksim square as the national symbol of the republic one of the most important steps transforming taksim area into a national space was construction of a monument at its center. the taksim republic monument, designed by the italian sculptor pietro canonica, was erected in 1928. the base and the landscaping of the monument were designed by a levanten architect, guilio mongeri. the monument depicts atatürk and his close surrounding during the turkish war of independence on the one side, and after the establishment of republic on the other side. with these figures, it was signifying both the victory of national independence war and the foundation of the republic, which marks a break with the ottoman past (kuruyazıcı, 1998). after its establishment, the monument has been a central figure for official celebrations of the republican government, such as victory days and anniversaries. an overall planning idea for istanbul first emerged during the 1930s. in 1936 the french planner henri prost was invited by the municipality, and prost was commisioned to prepare a master plan for the city of istanbul. between the years 1936-1951, prost was in charge of planning the city (bilsel, 2007). in 1939, after the approval of henri prost’s plan for istanbul, the artillary barracks building was demolished. instead, a huge park (gezi park) “[a] classic-modernist and axial taksim esplanade … propos[ing] a disciplined urbanism overlapping with the ideology of the era with its journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 67-75 / 2017 senem zeybekoglu sadri 71 surrounding buildings and ceremonialism” replaced the barracks (yücel & hatipoğlu, 2008; 319). as a result, the square lost one of the most important elements that formed its border. in addition to that, parallel to the increase in number of streets opening to it, the square started to loose its function as a square and started to look more like a crossroad (yücel & hatipoğlu, 2008) another important building contributing to the republican imagination and construction of the space is the atatürk cultural center. after its first opening in 1969 with the name istanbul culture palace, it was destructed by a fire, and reopened in 1978 with the name atatürk cultural center (yücel & hatipoğlu, 2008). this center also attributes an ideological significance to the square, with the western culture that it represents. the building’s current situation reflects the results of year’s long discussions regarding whether the building should be demolished or renovated. in 2005, the ministry of culture proposed to demolish the building and rebuild another one, claiming that the existing building cannot meet the growing needs and requires renovation. the idea of demolition brought about reactions, and as a result building was not demolished. in 2008 it was closed for renovation, and the son of the architect of the original building was commissioned to prepare a renovation project for the building. however, this project was opposed by the culture, arts and tourism worker’s union, and it was cancelled. in 2009, a new project was prepared by the same office according revisions and the renovation works started in 2012. the opening was planned for the year 2013; however in that year the renovation works have ceased (girit, 2015; tabanlıoğlu, 2013). as of march 2017, the building still lies in a derelict condition, and the discussions about its fate still continue. 3. taksim square as the place of representation / contestation all these interventions on the urban space, the establishment of republican monument, demolishing of artillary barracks and building of a public promenade over its location, and construction of atatürk cultural center, marked the establishment of the square as a national public space, spatializing the idea of turkish nationalism, which also determined the boundaries of the public sphere of the early republican period. as much as it has been a place for official ceremonies of the state, the square has also been a place of contestation, due to high public visibility that it provides for any political activity. this national establishment of the public sphere, and its definition of the urban space, had also affected the daily life and face to face interactions at this specific urban location. 3.1 taksim square massacre on international worker’s day the most grievous occasion which taksim square had witnessed took place on the celebrations of may 1 in the year 1977. in the protests of workers and leftist groups 33 people were killed. five of them were killed by fire opened from surrounding buildings. as the panicked protesters were trying to escape from the area, panzers headed towards the crowd and another 28 people died under the panzers. the case has not been solved yet, since the people in charge of these attacks have not been determined. however, many leftist organizations claimed that illegal armed forces, which had developed against leftist organizations within nato countries and which were in preparation to the military coup d’état in 1980 in turkey, were in charge of these assaults (baykan & hatuka, 2010). after that incident, taksim became a symbol of struggle for leftist groups and union organizations, and for a period of more than 30 years, they have fought to gain control over this square against security forces, which try to prevent the celebrations of may 1 by using gas journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 67-75 / 2017 senem zeybekoglu sadri 72 bombs, batons and probations. finally, in 2010, 33 years after the taksim square massacre, the governor of istanbul allowed may 1 celebrations to take place in taksim square (baykan & hatuka, 2010). in 2013, the square was once more closed to may 1 celebrations due to ongoing construction work of taksim pedestrianization project (bianet, 2013), and from that year on the square is still close to may 1. 3.2 eternal intentness for building a mosque in taksim the muslim conservatives, who were excluded by secular policies of the republican government, constitute another group which gives power struggle for taksim square. in their point of view, istanbul is a lost city destroyed by the modernization and westernization attempts of the secular state. for almost half a century, this group has carried the desire of building a mosque in the middle of taksim square, but they were averted by the government or secular groups each time they attempted to build a mosque (büyüksaraç, 2005; şimşek, polvan, & yeşilşerit, 2006). this on-going controversy came to an end by the decision of administrative court in 2015, which opens the way for construction of a mosque in taksim square. in january 2017, the mosque project which proposes a worship space for around 1000 people, including car parks, conference and exhibition halls in the empty area just behind the maksem building has been approved by the istanbul number 2 district council of preservation of cultural heritage (gökçe, 2017). the construction work has started on 17 february 2017 with an official ceremony with the participation of mayors of istanbul greater municipality and beyoğlu municipality (bozkurt, 2017). 3.3 taksim square pedestrianization project and the gezi protests since november 2012 there has been a frantic construction work in taksim square as a part of the “pedestrianization project” of the square, which includes pedestrianization of the square through directing the traffic towards under the square with huge tunnels, removing bus stops from the square and reconstructing artillary barracks building as a shopping mall and hotel by demolishing gezi park. this project has raised a respectable amount of public debate, and even facilitated the establishment of an activist group named solidarity for taksim composed of civil society organizations, professional chambers and political organizations and also including a number of individual academics, architects, urban planners, students, activists, artists, journalists and writers. these individuals and groups objected the project due to its top-down application process, underlining the inappropriateness of the car underpasses; difficulties of reaching the square for pedestrians; the loss of the identity of the square and collective memory of the city. last but not least, destruction of gezi park, one of the few remaining green areas of taksim and rebuilding the artillery barracks building for commercial purposes constituted an important concern (mimarist). despite all these critics, the project has been approved by istanbul greater municipality and the pedestrianization of the square is on its way towards completion (i̇stanbul greater municipality). in addition to pedestrianization of the square, demolition of gezi park and reconstruction of artillary barracks building with new functions was a part of the project. during the construction works, there were protests and demonstrations against the project, especially focusing on protection of gezi park from demolition. on 27th of may 2013, the bulldozers started demolishing the trees in the park. around 50 activists including architects, planners and artists gathered to stop this demolition and they camped in the park, however, next morning they were evacuated by police forces, their tents were torn down and burnt by the police (mimarist). in the following few days, police attacks by tear gas and water cannons journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 67-75 / 2017 senem zeybekoglu sadri 73 continued. especially with the heavy-handed police attacks on the dawns of 30th and 31st of may 2013, the protests had spread to all over turkey, including millions of protestors marching on the streets (atam, 2013). as the police attacks continued, the protestors started to develop tactics to overcome those attacks. as a result of brutal violence during the last few days of may, and 1st of june, there were millions on taksim square, and the police was retreated from the park and the square. protestors, including people from different backgrounds, political groups, workers’ unions, civil society organizations, football team members or people who are not attached to any political ideology or group, started to establish barricades on the streets opening to taksim and gezi park area using pavement stones, police shields, trash cans, burned police buses, or any available material they could find, in order to prevent police cars entering the gezi park and taksim square area. meanwhile, gezi park started to turn into a big commune with tents, an infirmary, food and medicine supply zone, an open library, a children’s area. everything was free in this area, and everybody was working voluntarily for others. all materials like food, medicine, books, were supplied from supporters in istanbul, and all over the world through internet. many activities were organized in gezi during those days, such as meetings, yoga classes, dervish swirling, workshops with children, reading corners and piano recitals. this was a temporary autonomous zone, which was short lived physically, but still enduring mentally (bulut, 2013; postvirtual, 2013). such kind of big scale urban interventions not only change the physical appearance and functioning of the places in which they are being applied. they also inscribe new meanings to the urban space, through modifying the existing uses, social relations, and memories attached to the place. any kind of intervention in taksim square carries a specific meaning due to the political, historical and social significance of the square. it has been a place of representation, struggle, contestation and spectacle throughout its history, especially since the beginning of turkish republic. it has served as a place for constructing the national identity; establishing a spectacle for the global gaze; claiming unheard and unfulfilled demands and contesting over new forms of identities and representations. those political actions and claims have found their spatial reflections on the square, creating a vibrant image of the square changing from a global spectacle to a national stage of ideology and power, from an urban transportation node to a place for becoming political (akpınar & gümüş, 2012; baykan & hatuka, 2010; büyüksaraç, 2005; yücel & hatipoğlu, 2008). 4. conclusion those examples illustrate that on the one side, the city, with its public spaces, is a crucial site for seeing others and being seen by others, meeting with new perspectives, voicing claims or objections and becoming political. therefore they are sites through which public sphere, as the media, institutions, or mind sets of other people, can be accessed, and manipulated. this struggle is not only about a claim to represent different identities but a claim to existence by representation and redefinition of those identities. on the other side, the city can also become a place of exclusion and segregation with hegemonic and normative strategies that shape the physical space. however, those exclusionary practices are disrupted through several tactics and manoeuvres of daily life practices. public sphere and public space are being challenged, contested, re-imagined, de-constructed and reconstructed over and over again. these activities collectively construct and reveal an alternative logic of public life. multiple counter publics, as suggested by nancy fraser suggests already exist at different scales (fraser, 1990). a new language is needed to create a common ground that allows new modes of communication and openness to other’s journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 67-75 / 2017 senem zeybekoglu sadri 74 perspectives, so that those multiple public spheres may continue to co-exist. therefore, the idea of public sphere should not be limited with national, international, global or urban scales, but the creative opportunities of other scales such as personal spheres, inter-personal spheres, local spheres, neighborhood spheres need to be underlined in formulating new logics of public life. so here, the main question is, what could spatial disciplines suggest for the cultivation of such a language and common ground for communication? acknowledgment this research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or non-for-profit sectors. references akpınar, i̇. y., & gümüş, k. 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(2008). taksim square. in p. derviş, b. tanju, & u. tanyeli, becoming istanbul an encyclopedia (pp. 311-321). istanbul: garanti gallery. journal of contemporary urban affairs 2017, volume 1, number 1, pages 56– 66 the influence of globalization on distracting traditional aesthetic values in old town of erbil ma. zhino hariry department of architecture, faculty of architecture, design and fine arts, girne american university, kktc, north cyprus a b s t r a c t aesthetics as a discipline was originally part of philosophy and cosmology, primarily it was used to create a holistic picture of the world. throughout history, subject and tasks of aesthetics as a discipline have been changing in different historical, cultural, religious and artistic discourses, nature and the beauty of objects intentionally produced by man, but doubts in division of aesthetic experiences in comparison to these variants of beauty. one of the cities where started to rebuild in north iraq after the saddam hussein s regime was erbil. this fact has evidently started to come out as a problem of urban conservation that results in the loss of architectural and social values of the historical settings. new building in a historical settlement is an urban conservation problem that forms out a methodology of analyzing and evaluating the existing built fabric with a typological study, making an interpretation of it commenting on the legal regulations and introducing new principles that are based on the synthesis of the past and today for providing historical continuity and preserving urban identity despite the continuous change. the study revealed that by using local and traditional elements in modern architecture there is a possibility to protect historical building. journal of contemporary urban affairs (2017) 1(1), 56-66. https://doi.org/10.25034/1761.1(1)56-66 www.ijcua.com copyright © 2017 journal of contemporary urban affairs. all rights reserved. 1. introduction in the nonwestern context, there always has been a dilemma between "who we are" and "who we should be". one could say "between tradition and modernity". (puja nanda, 1995). various ideas can be given about the concept of globalization and the term globalization has been restricted to economic activities but however it is a multi-faceted concept. not only is globalization related to economic activities but also extends to incorporate other aspects such as political, sociocultural, technology, media, culture and as well as biological aspects such climate change. this therefore has poses both opportunities and adverse effect to aesthetic values. though the nature and magnitude of effects of globalization on aesthetic values vary whether negative or a r t i c l e i n f o: article history: received 1 november 2016 received in revised form 20 december 2016 accepted 28 december 2016 available online 2 january 2017 keywords: aesthetic value; globalization; architecture; old town; tradition and modern cultures. *corresponding author: department of architecture, faculty of architecture, design and fine arts, girne american university, kktc, north cyprus. e-mail address: zhino_hariri@yahoo.com this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution noncommercial noderivs 4.0. "cc-by-nc-nd" https://doi.org/10.25034/1761.1(1)56-66 www.ijcua.com mailto:zhino_hariri@yahoo.com https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 56-66 / 2017 zhino hariry 57 positive, they hinge on the prevalence or extent to which a nation has been exposed to globalization. insights provided by pohl (n.d) revealed that globalization is positively associated with modernization which has a strong potential to change cultural values. the change in cultural values is brought about by changes in taste and preferences as they shift towards international products. thus aesthetics values are likely to change in favor of international products, views and life styles. contrasting ideas were however given by villaincourt (2007) showed that deeply rooted cultures such as the chinese, arabic and islamic and their associated aesthetic values are not easily affected by globalization. this shows that there is no consensus about the impact of globalization on aesthetic values. the idea is how to explain narratives of each society through their architecture increase aesthetical value of it. this study therefore attempts to examine the influence of globalization on distracting traditional aesthetic values in relation to erbil. the theme of this research deals with the distinguishing and analyze of traditional and modern characteristics in some cultures in the whole globe then focused on the old town of erbil. the aesthetic concept and practices of any cultures yesterday is a kind of critical attitude toward creating various method of designing in future. this analysis was to evaluate negative impacts on the modern architecture in relation to the local culture, religion and environment. the case study was selected areas influenced by the development of modern buildings in erbil city, as one of the ancient cities in middle east. the research was to know how the modernity has influence on aesthetic of traditional buildings and damage their identity in there. the conceptual framework of this study is based on the diagram shown in figure 1. it can be noted that the effects of globalization on aesthetic values depends on whether globalization is or not compatible with tradition. foremost, it can be noted that globalizations is as a result of events or activities which can either be spectacular or nonspectacular. thus the adoption, implementation or importation of these spectacular activities or events results in globalization. the effects of globalization are categorized on the basis that they are compatible or not compatible with tradition. however, irrespective of the level of compatibility, there is always social understanding and interpretation that is derived from globalization. it is the resultant outcome of social understanding and interpretation of globalization that poses effects on aesthetic values. society then perception of the town is therefore influenced by the effects of globalization on aesthetic values. such effects can either bring positive or negative distractions on people’s perceptions. the difference between the left side and the right side of the diagram rests on the impact of globalization, that is, whether it is compatible or not compatible with tradition. the other main problem which globalization is that it can negatively distract the aesthetic value of traditional spaces when it is not compatible with traditions in the eye of spectacular. then as the solution it can conserve aesthetic value of traditional spaces by appropriate globalization in the same time with the traditions. figure 1. conceptual framework of globalization effects on traditional aesthetic (developed by author). the main objective of the study is to examine the influence of globalization on distracting traditional aesthetic values in relation to erbil. other objectives of the study are; 1. to analyze the nature and extent to which globalization is influencing aesthetic values in erbil. journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 56-66 / 2017 zhino hariry 58 2. to identify strategies that can be used to harness the benefits offered by globalization without compromising the aesthetic values in erbil. 3. to analyze the effect of using foreign elements or another cultural methods on losing aesthetical value of historical settlements? with regards to the above mentioned objectives the study will therefore strive to answer the following research questions; 1. what is the influence of globalization on distracting traditional aesthetic values in relation to erbil? 2. what is the nature and extent to which globalization is influencing aesthetic values in erbil? 3. what strategies can be used to harness the benefits offered by globalization without compromising the aesthetic values in erbil? 4. what is the effect of using foreign elements or another cultural methods on losing aesthetical value of historical settlements? in order to the above questions, we can argue that if various natural environments, cultural principles and moral foundations are taken into consideration in each culture then a different aesthetical value will be produced and it will give identity to each culture. aesthetic of architecture loses its value while memory originality and traditions will not consider. architecture is the carrier of culture. through architecture it's possible to measure many things about a culture, such as lifestyle, artistic sensibilities and social structure. big explosion in modernity sometime deformed the aesthetic of architecture in some cultures. to give the identity of architecture in each culture their nature and way of life especially before industrial revolution could be take into account, then aesthetical value of their architecture will appear. 2. literature review 2.1 traditional architecture traditional architecture can be defined as a building strategy that utilizes certain cultural symbols of particular people in a given place (marc antonio, 2015). traditional architecture can be decomposed into classical architecture and vernacular architecture. the value of traditional architecture lies in the fact that it is recognizable and has a greater ability to communicate substantial information especially cultural values. on the other hand, modern architecture refutes the idea of traditional architecture communicating information. modern architecture is based on the belief that emotional responses can be stimulated without using any content and that anything that is not permanent cannot learned from previous generations or be utilised in educating future generations (marc antonio, 2015). allsopp (1977) in the book (a modern theory of architecture), defined vernacular architecture as a branch of traditional architecture that promotes humble causes of the society. according to rapoport (1969) the monumentbuildings of the grand design traditionare built to impress either the populace with the power of the patron, or the peer group of designers and cognoscenti with the cleverness of the designer and good taste of the patron. the folk tradition, on the other hand, is the direct and unself-conscious translation into physical form of a culture, its needs and values – as well as the desires, dreams, and passions of a people. it is the world view writ small, the “ideal” environment of a people expressed in buildings and settlements, with no designer, artist, or architect with an axe to grind (although to what extent the designer is really a form giver is a moot point). the folk tradition is much more closely related to the culture of the majority and life as it is really lived than is the grand design tradition, which represents the culture of the elite. the folk tradition also represents the bulk of the built environment. (rapoport, 1969; 2) vernacular architecture is a generalized way of design derived from folk architecture. it may be seen as the development of the “natural‟ architecture of a region which is definable in terms of climate, culture and materials. of its own nature, however, vernacular architecture is limited to that which can properly be expressed ‘in the vernacular’. it can be used for spiritual, monumental and utility buildings but limits of propriety are set taste and judgment. scale is a crucial factor. vernacular architecture is congenial to people and sympathetic to environment. (allsopp, 1977; 8) journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 56-66 / 2017 zhino hariry 59 2.1.1 aesthetic of traditional architecture the aesthetics of traditional spaces was in their own places before industrial revolution when the size of buildings were regular, in human scale and closed to each other, the buildings were more sustainable. they constructed to compatible with environment, the local and natural materials were used. industrial revolution distracted the cities when it randomly distributed inside the big cities it damaged the identity of those cities which have rich histories and traditions then affected the aesthetic value of originality. all those have influence on theorists and scientists to rethink and redesigning new urban fabrics by refusing all old spaces and traditional objects and making new rules to control on urbanization development process that was known as modernism. this modernism had no exact solution even it damaged more the cities. 2.1.2 traditional aesthetic values in diverse cultures the local architectural identity of any particular society is an important life container which reflects among other its cultural values and meanings that evolve over time. different aesthetic values are found in varied cultures around the world that have been formed by various natural environments, cultural principles and moral foundations, in the study we are going to define traditional art in diverse cultures in the globe. in india, art and relationships between the physical and the spiritual states are manifested in many types of expression including painting, sculpture, literature, dance, architecture and music. in india, aesthetic value has evolved through interpretation and representation of spiritual and religious iconography. (puja nanda, 1995) in chinese history, aesthetics were a more intellectual continuation with thinkers like confucius dedicating himself to the study or art and human nature. as a result, classical chinese art occurs largely independently of the philosophy of aesthetics and religion. in western churches, the aspiration for heaven was often symbolized by a stretching vertical tower, and since the nearest chinese equivalent was the pagoda, the resulting form of saint joseph’s cathedral would have appeared as a logical synthesis and many of their buildings have been influenced by their old paintings. in islamic art traditions, there is a long running debate about producing representational art. those opposed to the artistic expression of natural forms argue that, since god created all things perfectly, human imitation is weak and offensive. as a result, most works of islamic art are nonrepresentational, including mosaics, mosques, and calligraphy. in contrast with islamic, in many western traditions creating imitations of gods creations was viewed as homage and warship. (paul ford, 2009) figure 2. a) famous akshardham temple in delhi, b) cathedral of the sacred heart at dali. c) nonrepresentational art in islamic culture. d) st. peter's basilica, vatican. overall, the following table reveals aesthetic characteristics of diverse cultures in a traditional architecture. it also reveals common indicators of islamic, chines and western architecture from aesthetic point of view. http://paulford.com/ journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 56-66 / 2017 zhino hariry 60 table 1. aesthetic characteristics of diverse cultures in a traditional architecture (shokrpour and fahherian, 2015; zhiping, n.d; dinstict build, n.d) 2.2 aesthetic of modern architecture continuous technical progress in science and technology and division of work introduced new dimensions to the social life and a permanent change to the customs and traditional cultures, in parallel it is resulting from political tensions and social conflicts. hence, the modernity is not the technological and scientific revolution; it is a game to include it in the scenery of life and daily social dimension (afaya, 1998). modernization theory according to habermas is an analysis and evaluation of modern forms of social life. habermas explains that modernity is more than a period. it indicates the social, political, cultural and psychological conditions that arise from certain historical procedures. modernity in this sense is related to, but distinct from, the various aesthetic works and styles that fall under the label ‘modernism’ (finlayson, 2005). on the other hand the historical analysis of habermas’s point of view indicated that, modernization directs to the release of subjects from traditional roles and values and to their expanding dependence on communication and discourse to correlate actions and formulate social order (finlayson, 2005). modernity is an era of continuous transformation that affects all characteristics of knowledge. modernity is not a concept but rather a statement classification. it’s a story that specifies historical transformation across the range of disciplines, periods and locations (simon, 2005). after industrial revolution large number of new countries had been established by major powers without considering the populations ethnical and cultural backgrounds. it was one of the most historical events that had changed the world’s history and established a new basis for transforming local architectural heritages for the earth’s nations. but since the new boarders didn’t consider the cultural and ethnical boarders of the people, the new architecture has been created by the new imposed realities. figure 3. a) modern architecture, france, le corbusier, villa, savoye. b) avant-garde in russia, nikolai ladovsky . c) lever house in new york 1951.d) louis kahn national assembly building, dhaka. e) modern commercial building in erbil. 2.2.1 aesthetic in modernity the term ‘modern architecture’ has more than one meaning. it can be understood to refer to all buildings of the modern period regardless of their ideological basis, or it can be understood more specifically as an architecture conscious of its own modernity and striving for change. it is in the latter sense that it has generally been defined in histories of contemporary architecture, and the present book follows this tradition. already in the early nineteenth century, there was wide dissatisfaction with eclecticism among architects, historians, and critics. this well documented attitude justifies a history of modern architecture concerned primarily with reformist, ‘avant-garde’ tendencies, rather than one that attempts to deal with the whole of architectural production as if it operated within a journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 56-66 / 2017 zhino hariry 61 non-ideological, neutral field. it is in the space between the idealist utopias of the historical avantgardes and the resistances, complexities, and pluralities of capitalist culture. though not attempting to be in any way encyclopedic, the narrative follows an overall chronological sequence, and tries to be, perhaps, less certain in its outcome and less triumphalist than those of most previous histories of modernism. the modern movement was both an act of resistance to social modernity and an enthusiastic acceptance of an open technological future. it longed for a world of territorial and social fixity, while at the same time embracing, incompatibly, an economy and technology in changing. it shared this belief in a mythical ‘third way’ between capitalism and communism with the fascist movements of the 1930s, and though it would be completely wrong to brand it with the crimes of fascism, it is surely no accident that the period of its greatest intensity happened together with the anti-democratic, totalitarian political movements that were such a dominant feature of the first half of the twentieth century. nowadays postmodern has attempted to bring back the traditions in old town and conserve it with modernism. 2.2.2 modern aesthetic value in diverse cultures in west modern architecture started after 1920 with using steel and concrete as material and cubic simple shapes they rejected traditional neoclassical architecture especially the ornaments became the crime in modern architecture. the diversity of artistic movements that characterized the pre-revolutionary avant-gardes in russia, the first time modern methods of skyscraper construction were implemented presenting the historian with a bewildering array of acronyms. support for the revolution came from all artistic factions, including the most conservative, each faction identifying with its aims. for those avant-garde artists and architects who joined the revolution, the utopian fantasies of the period before the first world war seemed about to become a historical reality. the revolution released an explosion of creative energy, in which the paths opened up by the pre-war european avant-gardes were redirected towards the achievement of socialism. in america the modern upheaval followed europe, the main aesthetic elements were lightness, and transparency which using glasses were became common especially in skyscrapers. the first high-rise office building by som was lever house in new york (1951). this was one of four american buildings which were the first to realize mies van der rohe’s and le corbusier’s pre-war visions of the glass skyscraper. bangladesh where secondary spaces are grouped round a central volume, as in byzantine and centralized renaissance churches. (alan colquhoun, 2002) the modernity in eastern countries reflects a direct influence by the western architecture. modernity in iraq as particular area in east was founded in 1921 after collapsing the ottoman empire. it has applied central decision making process where all town plans and development strategies had been decided by the central authorities in baghdad. all these plans had totally ignored the local architecture of kurdistan. the result of ignoring kurdish architectural heritage in education and practice is the stagnation of developing a modern style of local kurdish architecture that could support a sustainable development of the city. the following table reveals aesthetic characteristics of diverse cultures in modern architecture. it also tried to find the common indicators of modern eastern, russia and western area of the world. table 2. aesthetic characteristics of diverse cultures in modern architecture (shokrpour and fahherian, 2015; zhiping, n.d; dinstict build, n.d) journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 56-66 / 2017 zhino hariry 62 3. methodology this study is an explorative study that involves the comparisons of traditional and modern aesthetic values. thus the study will employ an inductive approach that involves the use of a combination of previous studies and secondary information such as figures and pictures to reinforce obtained arguments. theoretical and empirical gaps and findings and the developed model will therefore be used to provide answers to the research questions. based the finding from literature review on the modern architecture features, the following model will be used to analysis the influence of globalization on aesthetic values. as it is reveaed in following figure form and elements are the most important factors on shaping the identity of architecture. figure 4. modern architecture assessment model (developed by author). the above features will be used to assess the extent to which traditional erbil aesthetics values have been changed to reflect modern architectural aesthetic values, designs or architecture. thus a close reflection or resemblance of these features entail that aesthetics values in erbil have been significantly influenced by globalization. the decision criteria is based on the extent to which prevailing erbil aesthetics designs are matching the above 10 features of western aesthetic characteristics. 4. aesthetic values in case of erbil there are numerous assertions about the impacts of globalization on traditional heritages. insights provided by sumarni (2014) revealed that global changes have greatly disregarded historical or heritage and social values. thus emphasis being placed on the conservation of cultural heritages is slowly declining. meanwhile, globalization is regarded as a source of both economic growth and development but it has imposed impacts on town planning. one of the areas under which globalization is being critiqued in kurdistan is that most kurdish buildings have greatly assumed western structures and designs (bornberg, tayfor and jaimes, n.d). it can be noted that not only does globalization increase the prevalence of office buildings, shopping malls or holiday resorts but the rate and way in which cities have been evolving. most building features that are now being found in modern buildings have significant contrasting features with cultural values. despite such a change in building development, modern architectural designs and buildings are still on the verge of increasing world-wide. figure 5. erbil-tradition & globalization view (andrew l., 2014). 4.1 cultural heritage of erbil city the city of erbil is characterized by traditional courtyard houses known as the citadel which is composed of about 350 medium sized houses, 500 courtyard houses and palace like structures numbering 30 in total (novacek and karel, 2008). the construction of erbil city was mainly characterized by the usage of bricks and dominated by courtyard features. the buildings’ roofs were made using timber joists as shown below. journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 56-66 / 2017 zhino hariry 63 figure 6. wooden planked ceilings (akram and franco, 2016). in addition, the plastering of houses in erbil was also done using ‘’juss’’ but beautiful features and colors were also used to enhance the appearance of the houses. the most essential element in traditional aesthetic of erbil is that floral and bright colors were dominantly used for decorative purposes. the type of the roofs of erbil houses were designed irrespective of the number of house floors though a significant number of houses has two floors as shown below in figure 7. figure 7. traditional kurdish houses were characterized by open courtyard (akram, ismail and franco, 2016). the layout of the houses was always structured in a manner that the entrance always lead to the courtyard (akram, ismail and franco, 2016). on the other hand, differences were observed in terms of the distance between upper and lower floors from the courtyard. such differences were made so as to make a space provision for putting windows. a distance of 1-1.5 separated the courtyard from both the upper and lower floors (akram, ismail and franco, 2016) and this is exhibited in figure 8. figure 8. raised terrace as a common feature of erbil houses. traditional aesthetic values were also observed in arcaded terraces which were vast in number and were a common characteristic in most erbil houses. the traditional element was further accompanied by materials supplied from the mosul such a grey marble. moreover, the building designs followed a certain design pattern. for instance, rectangular or shaped layouts were mainly used for the layout of courtyards but the geometrical structure was based on the structure of the courtyard. traditional erbil houses were also characterized by a lot of windows. such windows were important for ventilation and allowing daylight into the house and this is shown below in fig 9. figure 9. several windows for ventilation and natural daylight. spatial planning responsibilities were thus thrusted into the hands of an ‘usta’ also known as the master designer. major limitations in traditional erbil houses was space. this was contributed to the fact that the shape of the plot on which the houses were built also played a major role in the design structure of the building. regular shaped plots were not suitable for building structures that had asymmetrical plans. the most notable feature of traditional erbil houses is that they were built with an journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 56-66 / 2017 zhino hariry 64 emphasis on privacy. doors were therefore placed in a manner that contributes to the privacy of the house. 4.2 modern aesthetics in erbil city modern kurdish houses have changed dramatically in terms of styles and designs and are designed by kurdish to suit their arabic kurds needs, tastes and preferences. thus building structures have greatly changed from simple structured plans to more diverse facades. such changes can be illustrated using figure 10. from figure 10 it can be noted that there is a significant different in modern architectural designs that are now being developed in erbil compared to the traditional architectural designs. modern building designs have grown to encompass different shapes, sizes and heights. this has also been facilitated by the type of building materials that are now being used nowadays. modern buildings are now using windows as part of the building designs compared to traditional architecture were there were used of ventilation purposes. floor plans in modern buildings are very creative and the usage of space differs with the taste of the person though space usage is now being limited due to increase in demand and costs. bold roof lines are now a common feature in modern architectural designs and this era of modern architecture can be known as the post beam architecture which is focusing mainly on the use of non-local materials. figure 10. changes from traditional building to modern building architecture. 5. discussion it can be noted that there are significant differences that can be observed between traditional and modern architecture in erbil. foremost, it can be noted that traditional architecture was mainly based on the use of local materials while modern architecture mainly uses foreign building materials. colors and painting were used to enhance the appearance and beauty of the building designs in traditional architecture while building designs and materials are used enhance the appearance and beauty of the building designs. under traditional architecture, buildings are built with a specific function in mind such as privacy while modern architecture places emphasis on beauty and attractiveness. major limitations during traditional architecture in erbil are space related while in modern architecture they are cost related. the vertical expansion technique in traditional architecture was used to save space while in modern architecture it was used to enhance the beauty of the building structure. table 4. comparison between traditional and modern architecture in erbil (developed by author). thus it can be concluded that there is a significant difference in traditional aesthetic values that has been caused by globalization in erbil city. traditional aesthetic values have greatly shifted from traditional heritage to reflect more of the modern features in terms of both designs and materials. further conclusions can be drawn that modern architectural designs place much emphasis on beauty while traditional architectural designs in erbil city placed much emphasis on function. journal of contemporary urban affairs, 1(1), 56-66 / 2017 zhino hariry 65 it can be noted that buildings in erbil are not built to reflect functions as postulated by the modern aesthetic theory but however buildings are built in relation to the environment so as to harness the benefits posed by the environment. the structuring is however mostly significantly to avoid adverse impacts posed by weather conditions such as heat waves in summer. building designs in the old town of erbil are however simple if form and design. this matches the modern theory’s view which contends that there must be simplicity in form and design. simplicity in building designs has however been a prevalent case in the old town of erbil. this entails that though this feature resembles that of modern aesthetic views, it is a strong element of traditional aesthetic designs in erbil. buildings in erbil are not developed with any emphasis to revamp outdoor space. this is because much emphasis is placed on the interior part of the building. windows are not used as part of the designing process but are there to enhance aeration into the building. the focus is relatively high when it comes to building materials. this is because more foreign building materials are now being imported from countries such as spain, turkey and italy such as glass and carbon. the floor plans in erbil buildings are not creative as they are developed to reflect cultural tastes and preferences. using this analysis it can therefore be noted aesthetics values have been greatly affected by globalization in the area of building materials but other areas of aesthetic values have remained unaffected by globalization because of the deep cultural and religious factors. 6. conclusions it can therefore be concluded that globalization has insignificantly influenced traditional aesthetics values in old town of erbil. also the nature and extent to which globalization is influencing aesthetic values in erbil has grown significantly in the area of building materials. huge amounts of building materials that are now being used in erbil are imported and these are negatively affecting aesthetic values. moreover, though globalization has negatively affected aesthetic values in terms of building materials and insignificantly affected other aesthetic values, there are numerous strategies that can be used to harness globalization initiatives in architectures. as the expected solution for our problem using the following way of design could be increase the aesthetic value of modernity within conservation of traditional aspects. the modernism could be survive and in the same time the aesthetic of traditional architecture could be protected in such ancient cities by using local and traditional elements in modern architecture. this type of designs reflected in many of famous architects for example frank lloyd wright is the most famous architect who designed houses strongly influenced by the traditional architecture, this form appeared also in some works of le corbusier and jeanneret in which the pitched roof and the masonry wall, outlawed in the 1920s. yet these houses are no mere return to vernacular models; natural materials are reinterpreted in terms of modernist aesthetics. vernacular 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