Journal of Early Modern Studies, n. 8 (2019), pp. 33-67 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.13128/JEMS-2279-7149-24880 ISSN 2279-7149 (online) www.fupress.com/bsfm-jems 2019 Firenze University Press About French Vernacular Traditions: Medieval Roots of Modern Theatre Practices Darwin Smith University of Paris I Panthéon-Sorbonne / Cnrs UMR 8589 () Abstract The article gives an overview of the writing processes of theatre performances in medieval France. At the crossroads of all processes is the original (the Book, le Livre, les originaux) containing the full text, and from which all kind of copies were produced for different reading practices – entertainment, meditation, devotion, teaching, learning – identified by specific content, layout and material features. With the case study of Maistre Pierre Pathelin, a late fifteenth-century comedy, is shown how the text varies in the performance process and extemporizing practices of professional players, and finally sediments in its written circulation. Detail of the same process can be closely observed with the Mystère des Trois Doms, a great urban play of the early sixteenth century for which, exceptionally, both the Book and an account register of a unique performance have come to us. We conclude that, in the medieval history of theatre performance in France, the author is as much corporate as individual, and that extemporizing practices of professional players, from the thirteenth to the fifteenth century may well be a key in understanding the origins of the Italian commedia dell’arte which is generally presented as the beginning of modern professional theatre practices. Keywords: Codicology, Commedia dell’arte, Extemporization, Medieval theatre, Performance 1. Introduction The corpus of French medieval theatre totalizes at least 530 texts dating from the end of the twelfth century to the mid-sixteenth century.1 About 1 The canonic corpus of French medieval theatre texts includes at least 176 farces (Faivre 1993), 125 moralités (Doudet 2018), 18 sotties (Kuroiwa 2017), around 50 miracles and 160 dits, jeux, histoires and mystères. Petit de Julleville has listed 64 documented performances of mystery plays for which no texts are known (1880, vol. II, 628-632). In this essay, Figure 1 (Writing and performing processes of the medieval dramatic text in XIIIth- XVIth-century France), is the common work of Taku Kuroiwa, Xavier Leroux and Darwin darwin smith34 half of these texts are manuscripts, and the other half are books or booklets printed between the 1480s and the 1550s. With a few exceptions, all these jeux, farces, miracles, mystères, moralités and sotties, either in manuscript or in print, are known by a unique copy, with no related information about any performance. Whenever a performance is mentioned or documented in the archives, the text of the play is nearly always lacking. Nevertheless, it was taken for granted that all were ‘theatre texts’ and ‘theatre manuscripts’ that were part of a performing process. Altogether, it was believed that their content mirrored what was actually played or to be played, even though material and textual differences were great in the sources and editorial problems difficult to solve: lavishly decorated and illustrated vellum copies were mixed with scribbled texts on paper quires which looked like work in progress and, in some of the rare multi-copy works, the text tradition showed variations difficult to locate in the process between writing, performing and conserving. Only in the 1980s did scholars begin to question the evidence of ‘theatre manuscripts’, to call for codicological analysis, and to propose elements of typology for fifteenth-sixteenth-century manuscripts (Lalou and Smith 1988; Runnalls 1990). For this part of the corpus, it was pointed out that from sole codicological observations, there were no ‘theatre manuscripts’ as such but practices of copying and making books which belonged to widespread areas of activities, not theatre in particular (Smith 1998) and, for thirteenth- fourteenth-century manuscripts, the general way of identifying theatre texts on the basis of layout and didascalic apparatus was thoroughly questioned by Symes (2002). Together with material observations, formal criticism of texts observed that the earliest corpus showed no difference from other literary genres. Theatre texts were basically composed in a versified textus (weft, trame) of octosyllabic couplets (aabbccdd...), as romans, fabliaux, lais, dits, or moral poems. Behind its apparent simplicity, this textus was a universal tool. The format permitted a multimedial circulation (memorizing, performing, writing) of any content in a most rational way for its versatility when written down (one to three q 2 columns on a single page), where it also allowed transmission of text, music and image B (Cruse, Parussa and Ragnard 2004), E. To these considerable advantages were added the never-ending possibilities to extend contents ad libitum by inserting, either mentally or on the page, an interpolation, i.e. one pair or x pairs of lines to the textus without disturbing the initial structure of Smith, a revised version of Kuroiwa, Leroux and Smith 2010, 29. The author of the present article thanks Virginie Trachsler for having corrected his draft, and Robert L.A. Clark for having read, emended and criticized all aspects of the text; responsibility for mistakes and lacks of any kind remaining his own. 2 Circled numbers refer to the Manuscripts Sources at the end of the essay. medieval roots of modern theatre practices 35 the couplets: e.g. aabb–xxyyzz–ccdd … or aab–bxxyyzzb–bccdd …3 (Kuroiwa, Leroux and Smith 2010). To sum up: in the beginning, all kinds of contents were written down as textus, whether it was to be performed as ‘theatre’ or not. Only little by little, in the thirteenth century, a didascalic apparatus of speaker headings (noms de rôle) begins to distinguish, in the writing, a ‘theatre text’ from other kinds of text. Still, in the fourteenth century, the textus of dramatic works in the origin could be written down without any speaker headings, such as Courtois d’Arras c, and adapted for recitation, as Rousse has demonstrated in an exemplary manner (1978). Up to that time, theatre texts appear only in miscellanies offering variegated but exclusively versified contents 8d- written down to preserve narrative and teaching models through entertaining, learned, religious or moral works (Hasenohr 1999, 46-49). These miscellanies are necessarily linked to persons or communities who are in the institutional position to collect texts and who possess the financial means to have them reproduced in the luxury conservative form of a book. This is why, whenever it is possible to do the anamnesis of a miscellany, it goes back ultimately to prominent persons and/or institutions: e.g. the goldsmiths’ confraternity of Paris for the two volumes of the 40 Miracles de Notre-Dame par personnages YZ; the count of Artois, Gui de Dampierre, and the Hangest family, whose associated coats of arms frame the margins (an undelible mark of property) of the famous ms Paris BnF fr. 25566 x, containing all major poetical works, music and plays ( Jeu de la Feuillée, Jeu de Robin et Marion) of Adam de la Halle; King Charles the VI’s court for the phenomenal codex containing 1498 texts of Eustache Deschamps 9, which includes the remarkable Dit des quatre offices de l’ostel du roy à jouer par personnaiges (Doudet 2012a); the Collège de Navarre in Paris, where was performed a moralité (Bossuat 1955) on January 17, 1427, preserved as such in a compendium of schoolworks w. The expanding ‘literacy of the laity’ (Parkes 1973), thanks to schooling and to the production of paper which improved technically and reduced its costs constantly for our whole period (Bozzolo and Ornato 1980), transformed the relation between orality and the written word, both media functioning then more as a dual channel than one replacing the other. With the autonomization of theatre texts in self-contained units, as Griseldis g, 3 ‘Interpolations’ are to be distinguished from changes which don’t alter the structure of the weft. The technique symbolized in the second example, where the interpolation is added by copying at its extremities the color of the existing rhyme where inserted, thus producing four identical rhymes (aab–bxxyyzzb–bccdd...), has been called the ‘quadruple rime chevauchante’ a technique discovered and analyzed by Raymond Lebègue (1960). But it is often impossible to distinguish what is added from what has been cut and, moreover, an interpolation can also be a final integration of what was already intended to be performed but not written out in advance. darwin smith36 the new distinct genre qualifications of moralité4 and farce appear,5 this latter term referring to entertaining contents (not exclusively comical as it is usually believed). In mid-fifteenth century, a structural change modifies the relation between the production of a text (any text) and its circulation: with the invention of the printing press, hundreds of copies of the same work were produced to be sold to unknown readers for unknown purposes whereas, before then, a single manuscript was always prepared for a known person or an identified community for a specific need or potential uses. Contemporarily, writing seems to invade the complex process to performance through rehearsals and vice-versa: players’ parts, books of prologues, conductor’s books, sermons, panels for characters and locations onstage, reference books, lists of secrets (special effects), of players and characters – of which only a few exist today. They were recycled after the performance, particularly in book bindings, as was done for many technical documents of the time that had become useless !". Finally, from the 1480s on, many theatre texts are printed in Lyon, Paris, Angers and Rouen, some directly linked with a precise public performance, many others, the short ones, with texts often showing grammatical and lexical features of a distant and ancient language. Still, these printed plays, whether long or short, could be copied in manuscripts ;5. In the long story of the written theatre text, from the most ancient one, copied around 1250, the Ordo representacionis Ade, or Jeu d’Adam ), to the mysteries of the mid-sixteenth century, whenever we can compare two or more manuscript versions of the same work,6 as well as printed versions 4 The most ancient mention of the term moralité qualifying a play comes from the testament’s execution account register of Jean Hays, great vicar of Paris, deceased in the cloister of Notre-Dame, on March 24, 1421: ‘Item, le jeu dé .v. esglises en françois, avec plusieurs aultres moralitez, commençant ou second fueillet et sont seiles et ou penultieme que luy jeux d’amours, prisé 8 l.’ (Paris, Archives nationales, S 851 B, n. 7, 21; ‘Item, the play of the five churches, in French, with a few other moralités, beginning at the second folio et son seiles et on the penultimate one que luy jeux d’amours, valuated 8 l.’). Unless otherwise stated, translations are mine. 5 The most ancient example of the word farce for a play is a didascalic note (‘cy est interposee une farsse’) to an entertaining interval in the Vie de saint Fiacre from the MS 1131 of the Bibliothèque Sainte Geneviève in Paris, the manuscript dating from the 1420s-1440s, but the text dated between 1380-1400 (Dictionnaire du Moyen Français, , ‘farce2’, accessed 10 January 2019). 6 Jeu de Robin et Marion (3 mss), Courtois d’Arras (4 mss), Maistre Pierre Pathelin (3 mss and many prints), Mystère de la Passion d’Arnoul Gréban (9 mss), Jeu de la Destruction de Troie la Grant (12 mss and many prints), Mystère de saint Quentin (2 mss), Jeu du Cœur et des Cinq Sens (4 mss). A few farces are known in different versions from the British Museum and the Florence recueils: L’obstination des femmes (Lewicka 1970, iii) and La mauvaistié des femmes (Koopmans 2011, xlviii); Mahuet, badin natif de Bagnolet (Lewicka 1970, xxviii) and Mahuet (Koopmans 2011, xxxix); Sottie des trompeurs (Lewicka 1970, xxxix) and Sottie des sotz triumphans (Droz 1966, x); Colin fils de Thevot (Lewicka 1970, xlvii) and Thevot qui medieval roots of modern theatre practices 37 of a known play given as ‘newly performed’ on their frontispiece, we always face important modifications to the text. This is not particular to theatre but to medieval literature as a whole, and has been called, for forty years, the ‘mouvance du texte’ (Zumthor 1984). The Jeu de Robin et Marion is the first to display it, with short and lengthy interpolations added to the textus, thus condensing in the written text what had to be developed through extemporization in performance (Kuroiwa, Leroux and Smith 2010, 29-33). Two centuries later, the textual tradition of Maistre Pierre Pathelin shows a complicate sedimentation caused by the same process in a definite context of professional players associated in companies (see section 3. Performed Layers: the Textual tradition of Maistre Pierre Pathelin). During these three centuries, public performances had not only developed in genre ( farce, moralité, sotties), from the generic ludus, jeu and dit, but also in their dimensions towards monumentality, up to the extreme case of the Mystère des Actes des Apôtres, sixty thousand lines long (Smith, Parussa, Kanaoka, Mansfield 2009). This extreme case also shows the same type of mouvance, though not in the capillarity and substantiality of plays of the professional sphere ( farces) where it concerns at least one sixth of the text (Robin et Marion, Maistre Pierre Pathelin). Evolution towards monumentality was made possible by the ever-growing place of the written word in the dual writing-orality channel. The written production was, on its side, ever more structured by scholarly models – glossa (‘commentary’), lectio (‘teaching’ and ‘interpreting’) – under the hand of clerics, of learned lay men and women (Christine de Pizan), who used these scholarly models in the vernacular following the basic principles of oppositio and varietas (Smith 2017). It helped develop the technicity of the relation between the performed and the written word from the jugglers’ tradition in the thirteenth century, as illustrated by Adam de la Halle, to the same kind of professional author/player/writers at the other end of our period, some very famous, as Pierre Gringore p, but also many others who, in the sphere of the ‘amateur’ production of the great urban mysteries and moralities, display considerable know-how in handling and accompanying the text, between its written state to the final performance, as with canon Pra in Romans (see Section 4. Writing and perfoming process of the Mystère des Trois Doms). The chart of the Writing and performing processes (Figure 1, p. 38) is an attempt at giving a global synchronic and diachronic synopsis of the circulation of theatre text from its creation as a textus – an (intellectual) formatting process – to the end of the (material) formalizing process of its diversified written forms. It is accompanied by a glossary-commentary which seemed the best way to describe the phases of the processes while giving references in a condensed manner. revient de Naples (Koopmans 2011, v); Débat de la nourrice et de la chamberière (Lewicka 1970, xlix) and Les Chambrières (Koopmans 2011, li); Le Savetier Audin (Lewicka 1970, xxxii) and Martin de Cambray (Koopmans 2011, xli). darwin smith38 Figure 1 – Writing and performing processes of the medieval dramatic text in XIIIth-XVIth-century France (cf. Kuroiwa, Leroux and Smith 2010, 23) 2. Theatre Writing and Performing Processes: Glossary-Commentary After the entry, when necessary, the corresponding Middle French and Latin terms are given in brackets. Book of prologues (Livre des prologues) — In the case of a multi-day play, the book containing together all the prologues beginning and ending (prologue final ) each day. The only surviving Livre des prologues comes from the Passion of Mons S, containing the twenty-six prologues of the eight- day performance. The common practice to have prologues together as the part of the Prologueur, Prêcheur, Messager, Portitor libri or whatever status he has or character he impersonates (Ridder and Smith 2017, 144-145), is attested indirectly by their absence in stage originals, and conversely by their integration at their right place in fair HXmn or luxury copies VW. medieval roots of modern theatre practices 39 Sometimes they remain partly grouped in fair copies I and conservatory originals :, thus keeping an organization particular to their source material, i.e. the Livre des prologues (Smith 1998, 6-7). Conductor’s book (Abrégé, protocole, protocollum) — Register giving cue lines (first and last) of each speech, speaker headings and names of players, detailed stage directions for entries, movements and props (Cohen 1925; Smith 1998). As for the Book of prologues, the Abrégé of Mons is the only surviving manuscript of the type R, composed originally of eight self-contained units of in-folio quires, one for the morning (matinée) and one for the afternoon (aprés- dîner) of each day of performance, in two twin copies. The simple but very clear and efficient layout designed for directing a complex staging makes clear that this Abrégé is but the sole witness of an elaborate tradition (Smith 2001). From the end of the fifteenth century, tenir la direction du jeu (‘to hold the direction of the play’) was given to men called meneur du jeu CQ$, maître du jeu J, conducteur hs. Some sources indicate they worked in pairs, each one having his role and register, ‘the Book’ (le Livre, les originaux) to control the text on one hand and the protocollum or Conductor’s book, on the other. In the case of Mons, the twin series of the Abrégé might have been required by a separate direction of Hell and Paradise, the two most distant locations onstage where there were very many mechanical devices to monitor.7 Devotion see Meditation. Didascalic apparatus — Speech headings (noms de rôle), marginal or in- terlinear texts or notes, signs (Figure 2, p. 40), music, images, drawings, added to the textus for reading, memorizing or performing purposes. Marginal and interlinear notes vary considerably according to the status of the copy, i.e. the needs to be fulfilled: reading, meditating, teaching, rehearsing, etc. Stage direc- tions are rare before the second half of the fifteenth century. They are written at the table in the author’s draft and originals. At that stage of the work, they are not very detailed, being only intended to give basic information for directing rehearsals and, in some case, for choosing what had to be done onstage – this explains the ad libitum type of notes such as, in the Mystère de saint Vincent, j f. 93r, ‘Si c’est en chaffault, montent le Chrestien et Cruquart ...’ (‘If in scaffold, the Christian and Cruquart climb ...’), or in the Jeu saint Loÿs, r 7 In Mons, two conducteurs des secrets (literally a ‘conductor of the secrets’, a man acting a hidden machine or a technical device producing a special effect onstage) had been hired to prepare the technical devices (Cohen 1925, lxxiii), and 18 persons were paid to monitor these devices during the eight days’ performance (Cohen 1925, lx). Other documented references of the kind are available for the sixteenth century, mentioning up to ‘24 ou 25 hommes et plus’ (Couturier and Runnalls 1991, 165, 236rv) solely for monitoring the devices of Hell. Gordon Kipling (2006) has argued that the permanent directing function of the meneur de jeu (literally a ‘play leader’ acting as a stage director) is but a creation of Gustave Cohen and does not correspond to reality, but his analysis does not take into account the status of his sources for their interpretation, nor the variety of names and contexts of this necessary function. darwin smith40 f. 11v, ‘S’il [l’Evesque de Paris] veut aller à la mule, le secretaire dist ceste ligne’ (‘If he [the Bishop of Paris] wants to go with the mule, the Secretary says the following line’). In texts written ‘par personnages’, as both a literary and performative genre, marginal notes can be long and written in a descrip- tive style, as narrative complement to the dialogues, such as in the Ystoire de la Destruction de Troye la Grand t or in the Mystère du Siège d’Orléans, – and not condensed as in originals or practical and focused on staging issues as in a Conductor’s book. Figure 2 – Jeu saint Loÿs (ca 1470), f. 43r, a rare (clean) author’s draft presenting the constitutive features of an original. On the right side of the text, a big cursive –r with a curled suspension line, abbreviating the word ‘redictes’ (‘repetition’), has been added over a ‘crotchet’ (): this composite sign indicates that the corresponding speech is a textus furnishing themes and verbal material for extemporization (Smith 1987, 265-279; 1998) medieval roots of modern theatre practices 41 Extemporizing ( jouer à plaisance) — To produce a link between the stage and the public with relevant playing on the basis of a memorized textus, voiced with dialogical developments, rythmic, syllabic and metric echoes that could be inserted at any moment thanks to a peculiar look, an exclamation, a repetition, slapsticks and jokes, singing and farting. Some roles, like Devils, Fools or Sots, have a specific extemporizing character. In the second half of the fifteenth century, the textus for the Fool begins to be written down on leaflets in ‘stage originals’, or as memoranda in companies’ registers (Smith, Parussa, Halévy 2014, 107, 343-345). Most of the time, it is only indicated ‘Cy parle le Foul’ (‘Here the Fool speaks’) as in f f. 37r, or ‘... et Stultus loquitur’ (‘... and the Fool speaks’), 7 13r, without any speech written out. Devils can be mentioned in lists of acting characters, and not appear in the text nor in the didascalic apparatus, meaning they have a nontextualized role: e.g. r 107r (Lucifer, Pluton, Penthagruel, Titynilluz). Learning see Teaching. Lists — For organizational purposes, lists are drawn up for the performance, such as the booklet of roles and secrets of the 1536 performance of the Actes des Apôtres in Bourges F (Smith, Parussa, Halévy 2014, 102). Lists of characters, grouping (compagnie, train, societas) those belonging to the same location (‘Le train de Babilonne’, ‘La Synagogue de Jérusalem’, ‘Enfer’, ‘Paradis’), or category (‘Les Juifs’, ‘Femmes à qui on tue les enfans’) can be included in author’s (clean) autograph, as in r 52rv and 106v-107r, in originals, as in < 1v, # 240r-241v (with players’ names), i 80v (with the number of lines of each character), s 255r-259v (by matin and aprés-le- disner of the three days of the performance), and fair copies: H 1r-2v, t 6r-7v. Meditation and Devotion — Meditation is the act of reflecting on personal and moral issues through mental images by hearing or reading a text, looking at its paintings, to improve body and soul through emotions. A clerical and learned practice in the twelfth century, it entered religious practices of the laity in fourteen-fifteenth centuries to become central in spiritual exercises of the sixteenth-seventeen centuries (Smith 2002, 60-61 and notes). Though meditation is distinct from devotion for it can be experienced with any kind of text or daily life event, it nevertheless leads to it as a step in the scale of praying. The life of Christ being the object of many treatises of meditation, it is likely that this practice is potentially involved in devotional readings of any Passion play and not only in copies prepared for Xe-o. Devotional reading is clearly expressed in a liminary text to the Mystère de la Conception J 1r: ‘Et est fait et compilé à l’onneur de Dieu et sa glorieuze mere, he à la singuliere devotion de treshaulte et puissante dame, madame la contesse de Monpansier’ (‘And this was done et compiled in honor of God and his glorious Mother, and for the particular devotion of the very high and powerful Lady, our mistress the countess of Montpansier’). Miscellany — A group of autonomous texts assembled together or copied as a whole in a single manuscript (self-contained unit). Strictly speaking: darwin smith42 a ‘multitext book’ (Gumbert 1999, 27-28).8 All ‘theatre’ texts before the end of the fourteenth century are part of miscellanies (see section 1. Introduction). Many plays, before that period, certainly had an autonomous circulation in independent self-contained units before being collected in such books. Theatre- oriented miscellanies were generally produced by communities involved in regularly producing plays for their feast, such as the aforementioned rich Parisian confraternity of goldsmiths who gathered forty years (1340-1382) of their annual miracle plays in honor of the Virgin in two volumes YZ (Clark 1994; Maddox and Sturm-Maddox 2008), the companies competing for the Procession de Lille behind the performances and writing of 72 mysteries . (Knight 2001), or the confraternity of Notre-Dame de Liesse y. Such also are some saints’ mystery plays which are a succession miracle plays, such as Gringore’s Mystère de Saint Louis p for the Carpenters of the Grande Cognée, or the Mystère de saint Crépin for the Shoemakers of Rouen and Paris L4. Nondramatic activities — All activities where the textus is copied, transmitted or performed for a different purpose than theatrical performance. Nonwritten sources — Any event or cultural fact transmitted through a visual, aural or performative medium – image, song, tale, mime, dance, play. An imaginary debate and battle between the four services of the King’s household (Kitchen, Sauce, Bread, Wine) 9 is inspired by King Charles VI’s court environment. Major historical events lead to composition of plays: the Council of Basel D, the peace treaties of Arras + and Péronne O, the delivery of Orléans by Jeanne d’Arc ,. Many moralities and plays present deep contextual references to the time of the performance, but political content could be hidden behind an apparently religious subject. The Jeu saint Loÿs, apparently a hagiographical mystery play, is in fact a chronicle play (the Grandes Chroniques de France are its source) written as a propaganda instrument for Louis XI after the disastrous treaty of Péronne with the Duke of Burgundy (Smith 1987, 90-103). Original (le Livre, originalia, les originaux) — The full text used as a reference book in a definite place and time, usually produced from an author’s draft (Figure 2, p. 40) or a conservatory original from a former performance in the same place, as in Troyes where they played a revised version of the same Passion for more than twenty years *, or borrowed from some other town. Different originaux can be produced in the course of a single performance (Figure 7, p. 52). The most ancient ones date from the 1450s-1470s =r and their basic features remain the same in the sixteenth century . Bibliography refers to editions. Manuscript Sources Bibliothèque Méjanes, Aix-en-Provence B MS 166**, one text from a miscellany (130 illus.) 141/4, Jeu de Robin et Marion (Adam de la Halle) MS A, , accessed 10 January 2019. Bibliothèque municipale, Arras C MS 625*, miscellany, fair/luxury copy (2 theatre texts) 153/3, La Passion (Eustache Marcadé), Richard 1893, La Vengance Nostre Seigneur (Marcadé), Cornay 1957, Kail 1955, , accessed 10 January 2019. Burgerbibliothek, Berne D MS 205, miscellany (99 textsJonas) 152/4, Moralité du concile de Bâle (Georges Chastellain), Beck 1979. Bibliothèque municipale, Besançon E MS 579**  illus., miscellany (2 texts) 142/4 (Jonas), Le Jour du Jugement, Perrot and Nonot 2000, Le Testament de Jean de Meung, , accessed 10 January 2019. Bibliothèque municipale, Bourges F MS 328, booklet, 1536, lists of characters and secrets for the Mystère des Actes des Apôtres, Seres 2005. Bibliothèque royale de Belgique, Bruxelles G MS 15.589-623, Hulthem manuscript, miscellany of 238 texts (theatre texts: 4 Abele spelen and 6 sotternien) fair copy, between 1399 and 1410, Brinkman and Schenkel 1999. Musée Condé, Chantilly H MS 614, fair copy, 153/4, Passion 1st, 2d and 3d days (Arnoul Gréban) MS E, Jodogne 1965-1983. I MS 615, fair copy, 153/4, Mystère de la Résurrection MS A, Servet 1993. J MS 616**decor., fair copy, 155/5, Mystère de la Conception, Leroux 2003, , accessed 10 January 2019. K MS 617, miscellany (5 theatre texts), original, holster in-4°, 155/5, Nativité, Nativité (fragment), Jeu des sept péchés et des sept vertus, Hindley 2012a; L’Alliance de Foy et de Loyauté, Hindley 2012b; Jeu de pélerinage de vie humaine, Doudet 2012c; MS as a whole, Cohen 1953. L MS 619**, luxury copy dated 1443, Mystère de saint Crépin et saint Crépinien, Lalou 1980; see also n° 4, , accessed 10 January 2019. Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, Florence M Ashburnham 115, stage original and miscellany (various fragments) holster in-4°, ca 1470, Moralité monseigneur saint Nicolas à 12 personnages, Aebischer 1929. N Ashburnham 116, stage original and miscellany (various fragments) holster in-4°, ca 1470, Jeu d’Argent (Jazme Oliou), Aebischer 1929. O Mediceo Palatino 120, miscellany (25 worksJonas of Georges Chastellain) copied between the 2.5.1473 and the 5.1.1477 (Jonas), La Mort du duc Philippe, Kervyn de Lettenhove 1865; La mort du roi Charles VII, Kervyn de Lettenhove 1864; La Paix de Péronne. Bibliothèque municipale, Le Mans P MS 6, original, between 1455 and 1473, Mystère de la Passion (Arnoul Gréban) MS G, Jodogne 1965-1983, , accessed 10 January 2019. Menthon-Saint-Bernard (private property) Q Original 152/2, Mystère de saint Bernard de Menthon, Lecoy de la Marche 1888. Bibliothèque de l’Université de Mons, Mons R MS 1086, conductor’s book (2 series of 8 registers, 3 missing) 1501, Abrégé, Cohen 1925. S MS 1087, book of prologues (26 prologues in 2 quires, in-folio8/8+6/6) 1501, Livre des prologues, Cohen 1957. medieval roots of modern theatre practices 57 T MS 1088, stage original (Morning of the 3d day) 1501, Passion, Cohen 1957. Yale University Library, New Haven U MS 841, miscellany (8 theatre texts) between 1390 an 1420 (Ramello), Ludi sancti Nicholai, Ramello 2011. Bibliothèque de l’Arsenal, Paris V MS 6431, luxury copy, between 1452 and ca 1460, Passion (Arnoul Gréban) MS C, Jodogne 1965-1983, , accessed 10 January 2019. Bibliothèque nationale de France, Département des Manuscrits, Paris, Fonds français W fr. 815**, luxury copy dated 7.1.1458 a.s., Création et Passion (Arnoul Gréban) MS B, Jodogne 1965-1983, , accessed 10 January 2019. X fr. 816*, fair copy dated 22.2.1472 a.s., Création et Passion (Arnoul Gréban) MS A, Jodogne 1965-1983, , accessed 10 January 2019. Y fr. 819*, miscellany (22 theatre texts) luxury copy, between 1382 and ca 1400, Miracles de Notre-Dame par personnages, Paris and Robert 1877-1888, , accessed 10 January 2019. Z fr. 820*, miscellany (18 theatre texts) luxury copy, between 1382 and ca 1400, Miracles de Notre-Dame par personnages, Paris and Robert 1877-1888, , accessed 10 January 2019. 8 fr. 837*, miscellany (223 texts Jonas), end 13 (Jonas), Courtois d’Arras MS B, Hanser 1993; Jeu de Pierre de la Brosse, Bouhaïk-Gironès and Doudet 2012, Jeu de la Feuillée (Adam de la Halle), MS P2 (excerpt), Badel 1995b; Miracle de Théophile (Rutebeuf ) MS A, Faral and Bastin 1977, , accessed 10 January 2019. 9 fr. 840**, miscellany (1498 works of Eustache Deschamps) between 1407 and 1414 (Jonas), Dit des quatre offices de l’ostel du roy, Doudet 2012a, , accessed 10 January 2019. : fr. 904*, conservatory original (2 theatre texts) dated 18.5.1488, Passion de Semur, Roy 1903; Moralité de la Croix saint Aubin, , accessed 10 January 2019. ; fr. 971**, copy of a 1490 Verard print, end 15, Mystère de la Passion (Jean Michel), Jodogne 1959, , accessed 10 January 2019. < fr. 1041*, stage original (1st and 6th day) 161/5, Mystère de saint Denis, , accessed 10 January 2019. = fr. 1042*, emended stage original (2 copists) by author, 1455, Mystère du Roy Advenir (Jean du Prier), Meiller 1970, , accessed 10 January 2019. darwin smith58 a fr. 1528**, fair copy (1st day), between 1527 and 1538 (Lebègue), Mystère des Actes des Apôtres (Simon Gréban), Smith, Parussa, Kanaoka and Mansfield 2009, , accessed 10 January 2019. b fr. 1529**, fair copy (5th day) between 1527 and 1538 (Lebègue) — Mystère des Actes des Apôtres (Simon Gréban), Smith, Parussa, Kanaoka and Mansfield 2009, , accessed 10 January 2019. c fr. 1553**, miscellany (50 textsJonas) ‘achieved in Feb. 1284’, Courtois d’Arras 498r-501v, MS A, Hanser 1993, , accessed 10 January 2019. d fr. 1635**, miscellany (53 textsJonas) 133/3, Le Miracle de Théophile (Rutebeuf ) MS C, Faral and Bastin 1977, , accessed 10 January 2019. e fr. 1707 + fr. 15080*, miscellany (17 textsJonas), fair copy, quires gatheredca 1475- 1477 (Smith 2002). f fr. 1774*, current copy dated ‘1478’ a.s., Pacience de Job 7095 l., Meiller 1971, , accessed 10 January 2019. g fr. 2203*, fair copy dated ‘1395’, Estoire de Griseldis (Philippe de Mézières), Roques 1957, , accessed 10 January 2019. h fr. 12536, luxury copy, ca 1550 (Weigert), Passion de Valenciennes (1547), , accessed 10 January 2019. i fr. 12537, stage original, ca 1490 (Jonas), Mystère de saint Genis (Jean Oudin), Mostert and Stengel 1895, , accessed 10 January 2019. j fr. 12538*, original dated 1476, Mystère de saint Vincent (Leroux 2011), , accessed 10 January 2019. k fr. 12601, luxury copy (fragment) 153/4, Ystoire de la destruction de Troye la Grand (Jacques Milet) MS P4, , accessed 10 January 2019. l fr. 15063*, stage original, 1580, Passion de Modane, , accessed 10 January 2019. m fr. 15064**, fair copy, ‘frater Aubertus scripsit’, 1469 a.s., Création et Passion 1st day (Arnoul Gréban) MS F, Jodogne 1965-1983, , accessed 10 January 2019. n fr. 15065**, fair copy dated 1469, Passion 2d day (Arnoul Gréban), MS F, Jodogne 1965- 1983, , accessed 10 January 2019. o fr. 15080** fragment detached from the miscellany fr. 1707 gathered ca 1475-1477, this self-contained unit (fair copy) being written at the same time, Maistre Pierre medieval roots of modern theatre practices 59 Pathelin, Smith 2002, , accessed 10 January 2019. p fr. 17511*, conservatory original on velum, 161/5, Mystère de saint Louis (Pierre Gringore), Montaiglon and Rothschild 1877, , accessed 10 January 2019. q fr. 19152*, miscellany (58 textsJonas, 3 cols.) 133/3, Courtois d’Arras MS C, Hanser 1999, , accessed 10 January 2019. r fr. 24331**, (3 days) author’s draft and emended original by author and reviser, ex-libris 6.3.1472 a.s., Jeu saint Loÿs (Denis de Sous-le-Four/Triboulet), Smith 1987, , accessed 10 January 2019. s fr. 24332*, theatre texts miscellany (3 textsJonas) works of André de la Vigne, conservatory original, ca 1496, Mystère de saint Martin, Duplat 1979; L’Aveugle et le Boiteux, Tissier 1997; Farce du Meunier, Tissier 1989, , accessed 10 January 2019. t fr. 24333*, fair copy achieved (one copist) the 28.9.1459; Ystoire de la destruction de Troye la Grand (Jaques Milet) MS P5, , accessed 10 January 2019. u fr. 24341*, Grand Recueil La Vallière, miscellany (74 theatre textsJonas) ca 1570, , accessed 10 January 2019. v fr. 25467, Petit Recueil La Vallière, miscellany (4 theatre textsJonas) current copy, ca 1476-1477, Moralité à 5 personnages, Blanchard 1988; Pathelin, Tissier 1993; Moralité à 6 personnages, Blanchard 2008; La Pipée, Tissier 1998. w fr. 25547*, miscellany (19 textsJonas), copy achieved in 1433, Jeu du cœur et des cinq sens (Jean Gerson), Doudet 2012b; Moralité du Jour saint Anthoine, Bossuat 1955, , accessed 10 January 2019. x fr. 25566**, miscellany (41 textsJonas) around 1300 (Stone), Jeu du Pélerin (Adam de Givenchy); Jeu de Robin et Marion (Adam de la Halle) MS P1, Badel 1995a, 206- 285; Jeu de la Feuillée (Adam de la Halle) Badel 1995b, 286-375; Jeu de saint Nicolas (Jean Bodel), Henry 1965, , accessed 10 January 2019. Fonds des Nouvelles acquisitions françaises y n.a.f. 481, miscellany (12 theatre texts) ca 1430-1440, Mystères de Notre-Dame de Liesse (Jean Louvet). z n.a.f. 1051, stage original, holster in-4°, 152/2, Mystère de saint Sébastien, Mills 1965. 4 n.a.f. 2100, original/fair copy, 152/3, Mystère de saint Crépin et saint Crépinien, Lalou 1980. See also n° L. 5 n.a.f. 4723, copy of an incunabula, 155/5, Maistre Pierre Pathelin (Triboulet). 6 n.a.f. 6252, original, holster in-4°, 153/4, Mystères provençaux, Jeanroy and Teulié 1893. darwin smith60 7 n.a.f. 6514**, player’s part, 152/2, holster in-4°, Moralité de l’Homme pécheur: Homo, , accessed 10 January 2019. ! n.a.f. 10660, fragments found in bindings (6 textsJonas) 152/2, Regard, Venus, Harmonie, Musique, Rethorique, Ruid Entendement — Te Deum (with players’ cast), Th omas 1909. n.a.f. 12908+14043, two fragments of the same original found in bindings, 152/2, Passion (Arnoul Gréban) MS J and I, Jodogne 1965-1983. # n.a.f. 18995, stage original, 1509, Mystère des Trois Doms (canon Pra, Claude Chevalet), Sauwala 2016. Fonds Rothschild $ Roth. 1077*, author’s conservatory original (autograph), dated 1547 a.s., Mystère de saint Etienne (Nicolas Loupvent), , accessed 10 January 2019. % Roth. 3010**, luxury copy, 1577, Mystère de la Passion de Valenciennes en 25 journées de 1547, , accessed 10 January 2019. Bibliothèque Sainte-Geneviève, Paris & MS 1131**decor., miscellany (13 textsJonas), ca 1420-1440, Passion, Runnalls 1974; Mystères de sainte Geneviève. Le Cycle de Mystères des Premiers Martyrs. Runnalls 1976, , accessed 10 January 2019. Bibliothèque municipale, Rodez MS 57**, miscellany (12 textsJonas) fair copy, copied in 1452-1453, Mystère de l’Ascension, , accessed 10 January 2019. Accademia dei Lincei, Rome ( Corsini col. 44 A 7, author’s conservatory original (but not his hand), between 1473 and 1485, Passion (Arnoul Gréban) MS D, Jodogne 1965-1983. Bibliothèque municipale, Tours ) MS 927, miscellany (11 textsJonas) ca 1250 (Maréchal), Jeu d’Adam, Hasenohr 2017, , accessed 10 January 2019. Bibliothèque municipale, Troyes * MS 2282, stage original (3 volumes, one text), repeated uses between 1482 and 1507, Passion (Pierre Desrey), Bibolet 1987. Bibliothèque municipale, Valenciennes + MS 776., miscellany (11 textsJonas), Moralité de la Paix d’Arras (Michault Taillevent). Bibliothèque municipale, Rodez medieval roots of modern theatre practices 61 Biblioteca apostolica Vaticana, Vaticano , Reg. lat. 1022**, original, 152/2, Mystère du Siège d’Orléans, Gros 2002, Hamblin 2002, , accessed 10 January 2019. - Reg. lat. 1490**, miscellany (11 textsJonas) 132/2, Jeu de la Feuillée, MS V, Badel 1995b, 286-375, , accessed 10 January 2019. Herzogaugust Bibliotek, Wolfenbüttel . MS Blankenburg 9**, miscellany (72 texts), fair/luxury copy, between 1485 and 1490 (Sheingorn), Mystères de la Procession de Lille. Knight 2001-2011, , accessed 10 January 2019. Printed Sources Adam de la Halle (1995a), Le Jeu de Robin et Marion, in Id., Œuvres complètes, ed., trans. and preface by P.-Y. Badel, Paris, Livre de Poche, 206-285. Adam de la Halle (1995b), Le Jeu de la Feuillée, in Id., Œuvres complètes, 286-375. Aebischer Paul (1929), ‘Moralité et farce des manuscrits Laurenziana-Ashburnham n°115 et 116’, Archivum Romanicum 13, 448-518. Beck Jonathan (1979), Le Concil de Basle (1434). Les origines du théâtre réformiste et partisan en France, Leiden, Brill. Beck Jonathan (2014), La Moralité de Bien Avisé Mal Avisé, in J. Beck, E. Doudet and A. Hindley, eds, Recueil général de moralités d’expression française, vol. III, Paris, Classiques Garnier. Beck Jonathan, Estelle Doudet and Alan Hindley, eds (2012), Recueil général de moralités d’expression française, vol. I, Paris, Classiques Garnier. Bibolet J.-C. (1987), Le ‘Mystère de la Passion’ de Troyes, Genève, Droz. Blanchard Joël (1988), Moralité à cinq personnages du manuscrit B.N. fr. 25467, Genève, Droz. Blanchard Joël (2008), Moralité à six personnages, BnF ms. fr. 25467, Genève, Droz. Bossuat André and Robert (1955), Deux moralités inédites composées et représentées en 1427 et 1428 au Collège de Navarre, Paris, Librairie d’Argences. Bouhaïk-Gironès Marie and Katell Lavéant (2011), ‘S’associer pour jouer. Actes notariés et pratiques théâtrales (XVe-XVIe siècles)’, in M. Bouhaïk- Gironès, D. Huë and J. Koopmans, eds, 301-318, , accessed 10 January 2019. Bouhaïk-Gironès Marie, Denis Huë and Jelle Koopmans, eds (2011), Le Jeu et l’accessoire. Mélanges en l’honneur du professeur Michel Rousse, Paris, Classiques Garnier. Bouhaïk-Gironès Marie, Estelle Doudet and Alan Hindley, eds (2012), Recueil général de moralités d’expression française, vol. I, Paris, Classiques Garnier. Bouhaïk-Gironès Marie and Estelle Doudet (2012), ‘Le jeu de Pierre de la Broce’, in J. Beck, E. Doudet and A. Hindley, eds, 31-95. darwin smith62 Bozzolo Carla and Ezio Ornato (1980), Pour une histoire du livre manuscrit au Moyen Âge: trois essais de codicologie quantitative, vol. I, La production du livre manuscrit en France du Nord, vol. II, La constitution des cahiers dans les manuscrits en papier d’origine française et le problème de l’imposition, vol. III, Les dimensions des feuillets dans les manuscrits français du Moyen Âge, Paris, Éditions du CNRS, 3 vols. Brinkman Herman and Janny Schenkel (1999), Het handschrift Van Hulthem, Hs. Brussel, Koninklijke Bibliotheek van België 15.589-623. Diplomatische editie, Hilversum, Verloren, 2 vols. Chartier Roger and Henri-Jean Martin (1989 [1982]), Histoire de l’édition française. Le livre conquérant. Du Moyen Âge au milieu du XVIIe siècle, Paris, Fayard. Clark Robert L.A. (1994), The ‘Miracles de Nostre Dame par personnages’ of the Cangé manuscript and the sociocultural function of confraternity drama, PhD Dissertation, Indiana University, , accessed 10 January 2019. 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