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Journal of Education, 2022
Issue 89, http://journals.ukzn.ac.za/index.php/joe doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/2520-9868/i89a03
Online ISSN 2520-9868 Print ISSN 0259-479X
Life Orientation teachers' pedagogical content knowledge
and skills in using a group investigation cooperative
teaching approach
Aloysius Claudian Seherrie
Department of Curriculum and Instructional Studies, College of Education, University of South Africa, Pretoria,
South Africa
41003276@mylife.unisa.ac.za
https://orcid.org/ 0000-0002-0029-9925
Ailwei Solomon Mawela
Department of Curriculum and Instructional Studies, College of Education, University of South Africa, Pretoria,
South Africa
mawelas@unisa.ac.za
https://orcid.org/ 0000-0002-7043-8716
(Received: 12 December 2021; accepted: 6 October 2022)
Abstract
In this qualitative phenomenological study, we explored the pedagogical content knowledge and skills needed
by Life Orientation teachers to implement a group investigation cooperative teaching approach. This study is
based on constructivist theory and employed purposive sampling. Seven teachers from selected secondary
schools in the Northern Cape province, South Africa, participated in face-to-face interviews. Data was analysed
using inductive thematic analysis; it was supported by the literature review and by constructivist theory.
Findings revealed that the participants’ lack of adequate Life Orientation content knowledge and pedagogical
content knowledge has an impact on their teaching praxis. We found that challenges such as the lack of training
in implementing group investigation prevent them from participating in such practice. It is therefore
recommended that the Department of Basic Education develop strategic plans and training sessions to promote
the use of group investigation as a school-based professional development initiative. Further research on group
investigation to benefit in-service Life Orientation teachers may pave the way towards the establishment of
professional collaboration as a sustainable practice among them.
Keywords: Life Orientation teachers, cooperative learning, group investigation, teaching approach, secondary
schools, subject content knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge
48 Journal of Education, No. 89, 2022
Introduction
We derived this article from a more comprehensive study that investigated the pedagogical
content knowledge and skills of Life Orientation (LO) teachers in the Northern Cape
Province of South Africa. The purpose of this paper is to answer the question:
• What pedagogical LO content knowledge and skills should secondary teachers have
in planning group investigation as a cooperative teaching and learning approach?
Internationally, there is a growing focus on the command of content required for successful
teaching. Noting that the literature on the subject repeatedly offers that of inexperienced
teachers we characterise an effective teacher's knowledge as being more connected and
integrated (see Krauss et al., 2008). Shulman (1986) and Kleickmann et al., (2013) have
asserted that whenever a teacher's knowledge can be identified, this will enhance successful
teaching and learning strategies and positive learning outcomes. This means that teachers
need to be equipped with various kinds of knowledge about teaching and learning.
Shulman (1986) distinguished between subject content knowledge (SCK), pedagogical
content knowledge (PCK), and general pedagogical knowledge (GPK). GPK has been
described as "those broad principals and strategies of classroom management and
organisation that appear to transcend subject matter" (Shulman, 1987:13). It is used with SCK
and PCK.
The rationale for introducing LO into the school curriculum as a fundamental subject focused
on a theory-driven and skills-oriented approach to teaching the subject, was mainly to
develop South African youth into effective and productive citizens with strong values. But the
different topics that comprise LO pose challenges to teachers since they have not been trained
in all facets of these topics. They include:
• social and environmental responsibility;
• development of the self in society;
• democracy and human rights;
• careers and career choices;
• study skills; and
• physical education (Department of Basic Education, 2011).
These topics require teachers to design authentic lessons to which learners can relate and be
enabled to acquire the relevant knowledge, skills, and values that promote responsible
behaviour (Swarts et al., 2019). Although the assumption is that everybody can teach this
subject, teachers need to be equipped with the necessary critical, analytical, problem-solving,
and technical skills to join the LO community of practice. This is of serious concern because
specialisation in the subject is needed along with the confidence to build on effective
professional subject knowledge. Teachers need to be informed and knowledgeable about the
broad spectrum of different topics covered by this subject area. Since their knowledge,
Seherrie & Mawela: Life Orientation teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge . . . 49
competencies, and skills are limited this necessarily prevents the successful implementation
of effective teaching.
In a study by Hartell et al. (2013), their findings revealed that teachers did not have sufficient
knowledge and skills to implement the LO curriculum effectively. They identified insufficient
knowledge of subject matter and inadequate skills along with uncertainty and disregard for
the subject framework principles established by the Department of Education in 2008.
Similarly, Diale (2016) indicated that although teachers were expected to teach LO as a
subject, they had not received the training. As a result, teachers experienced various
challenges, including those related to their limited understanding of how to effectively
implement the LO curriculum and their limited knowledge of the mediating tools and practice
skills needed for effective teaching.
Many teachers were expected to teach the subject without having been trained. Rooth (2005)
found that teachers were not trained sufficiently to allow them to be considered specialists in
LO since they lacked the expertise to teach a subject whose topics vary from physical and
health education to career guidance. Teachers need on-going training and professional
development to update their knowledge, competencies, and skills to deepen their expertise
and professionalism (see Krutka et al., 2017 and Whitworth et al., 2018).
LO is a multidisciplinary subject grounded in knowledge domains such as psychology,
sociology, political science, human movement, and labour studies, all of which cater to
successful integration in other subjects in the school curriculum (Geldenhuys et al., 2013).
This subject, as with all others, requires a specialist teacher well-versed in both SCK and
PCK. Teachers need to have good in-depth subject knowledge to ensure that learners can
fully conceptualise and interpret the content (Kleickmann et al., 2013); in this way effective
teaching and learning occurs in the classroom. A good understanding of the content will assist
the LO teacher in responding to learners' queries and challenges and prepare them for life in
the 21st century.
Description of the problem
Amid the turbulence of curriculum transformation in South Africa, teachers were expected to
deliver the new curriculum (see Nkambule & Amsterdam, 2018), in which LO was a new
subject. Since there were no experienced LO teachers, the alternative was to consider
teachers who had no LO subject knowledge and teaching experience. The reason behind
teachers being considered as qualified to teach LO was based on their being a teacher in one
of the former subjects of Guidance, Religious Studies, or Physical Education and they were
made responsible and accountable for the diverse demands of this multidisciplinary subject
(Stroebel et al., 2019). These new LO teachers attended a three-day HIV/AIDS course, or a
two-day LO workshop (Prinsloo, 2007) in preparation. This was regarded as a quick-fix
approach that has made it difficult for teachers as well as district officials to implement the
new curriculum, since most teachers did not acquire enough SCK to teach the subject
(Department of Basic Education, 2011; Diale, 2016). These teachers were faced with
50 Journal of Education, No. 89, 2022
tremendous challenges and, as a result, the quality of education was jeopardised (Dada et al.,
2009). Over the years, many efforts have been made by the South African education system
to improve LO teachers’ competence, professional knowledge, self-efficacy, and classroom
practice, and to skill them through in-service training (Hofmeyr, 2015), but we cannot help
but wonder to what extent the teaching of LO has been compromised.
Here we investigate the knowledge and skills needed by LO teachers when they are
implementing group investigation as a cooperative teaching and learning approach. A critical
initiative of the Department of Basic Education, as stipulated in the National Strategy for
Learner Attainment, states that teachers must adhere to the correct implementation of the
curriculum. Research indicates that teachers in South African schools are not yet fully
capacitated with PCK to teach LO effectively. This means that teachers with limited SCK of
LO (and of the other subjects they teach) find it challenging to respond effectively to learners'
concerns and to clarify any misconceptions in their understanding of the subject content.
Similarly, they are unable to deal with other cognitively challenging learning situations
(Gama, 2015). As a result, we believe that the gap between the Department's theoretical
aspirations and the teachers' role as subject experts in LO means that problems in the
classroom are difficult, if not impossible, to overcome.
Our research question is: What PCK and skills should secondary LO teachers have to enable
them to use group investigation as a cooperative teaching and learning approach?
Literature review
Conceptualising SCK and PCK for LO
Many scholars have made a distinction between and among content knowledge (CK), PCK,
and GPK in the examination of teacher knowledge (Shulman, 1986, 1987). Researchers
suggest that such knowledge should be identified since it contributes to effective teaching and
learning outcomes.
CK can be defined as the knowledge of the specific subject and the subject matter that
teachers must teach. Shulman (1987, p. 8), described GPK as "those broad principals and
strategies of classroom management and organisation that appear to transcend subject matter"
and is to be used in conjunction with SCK and PCK. PKC is described as the compulsory
knowledge needed to make the subject matter accessible to learners and serves as the
"category most likely to distinguish the understanding of the content specialist from that of a
pedagogue."
Teachers' subject content knowledge
Teachers of the 21st century must possess good in-depth subject knowledge to respond to
learners' needs and challenges. SCK is the acquired and developed knowledge that a teacher
has within their field of specialisation. Significantly so, teachers’ knowledge of the subject
matter is at the heart of professional competence (Ballet al., 2008). Shulman (1986, pp. 9–10)
Seherrie & Mawela: Life Orientation teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge . . . 51
contended that the teacher "must not only understand that something is so, but the teacher
must further understand why it is so." Teachers should have knowledge about contemporary
theories of teaching and learning as well as different evidence-based teaching practices and
their implementation in class (Abramczyk & Jurkowski, 2020). With limited SCK of the
subjects they teach, teachers will find it difficult to effectively respond to learners' concerns
and clarify any misconceptions in their understanding of the subject content and deal with
cognitively challenging learning situations (Gama, 2015; Hill et al., 2008) as mentioned
above.
The constant and marked changes in the contemporary world mean that teachers must
develop new competencies and skills to adequately respond to the ever-increasing demands
of the 21st century that relate to the tasks they must perform (Barrios, 2021). Teachers must
understand the content that needs to be taught if they are to conceptualise or interpret it
thoroughly and be in a position to implement it according to policy. Muller and Hoadley
(2019) reported that the current Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS)
represents a performance-based curriculum that is highly prescriptive regarding the subject
content to be covered, as well as the sequencing and pace of coverage. Bertram et al., (2021)
therefore suggested that such an approach results in teachers focusing on content coverage
instead of helping learners to understand the content.
Teachers play a crucial role in a changing society and this calls for their multidimensional
role to include teaching, demonstrating, guiding, facilitating, and initiating learning
communities (Zhu & Wang, 2014). This means that today's teachers should have the ability
to broaden the scope and depth of learners' understanding in constructing knowledge in a
socially constructed environment (Kleickmann et al., 2013; Krauss et al., 2008). However, as
previously indicated, subjects such as LO are allocated to teachers who have no SCK and this
allocation is based on the need to fill up the timetable (Mosia, 2011); this is of great concern.
To implement cooperative learning effectively the complex interplay of factors such as the
teacher's knowledge of its procedures, curriculum alignment, and school policy (Ghaith,
2018) needs to be taken into account.
The importance of Life Orientation teachers’ subject knowledge
Since the South African education system has changed from a teacher-oriented approach to a
learner-centred one, it has become important that teachers be capable of applying various
teaching strategies. Providing teachers with the knowledge to organise quality instruction that
helps learners to achieve their full potential and sustaining this effort is a challenge to
education systems worldwide (Neumann et al., 2019); teachers must be given the necessary
skills and competencies to fulfil this task (Slavin, 2014). However, moving teachers from one
learning area to another, to fulfil school placement needs compromises the teaching and
learning process (Stroebel et al., 2019). LO teachers need to have a well-developed PCK that
includes a broad repertoire of teaching approaches. One such innovative approach is
cooperative learning that could assist in ensuring effective teaching and learning (Van Wyk,
2012, 2019). We argue that teachers’ subject knowledge is a prerequisite because the LO
curriculum is composed of various topics drawn from other domains, but in addition to this,
52 Journal of Education, No. 89, 2022
teaching skills and competencies are vital to implement the curriculum effectively. We do not
claim that teachers are the sole source of knowledge, but they are required to assist, facilitate,
and guide learners with interaction and participation, problem-solving, and the interpretation
of information (Johnson & Johnson, 2018).
Current research on teachers’ PCK and skills has indicated that teachers lack sufficient
knowledge and skills to implement the LO curriculum in the classroom not only because of a
lack of training and a lack of subject matter knowledge but also because of uncertainty
(Diale, 2016; Hartell et al., 2013; Swarts et al., 2019). This means that little information is
available on LO teachers’ PCK and even less on their skills in using a group investigation
cooperative learning approach.
Teachers' pedagogical content knowledge
Teachers' PCK has been conceptualised in different ways. Some researchers see PCK as an
innovative process in which teachers develop new ideas and repertoires for teaching a topic
(Hashweh, 2013), while others see it as an integrative process in which teachers apply their
PCK to new situations (Aydin et al., 2015). PCK kicks in when teachers create new
knowledge in the sense of an intervention of a new instructional strategy. The teacher must
develop new insights related to the new topic to understand previously unknown student
learning difficulties and integrate their understanding of previous knowledge related to the
topic in their teaching (Chan & Yung. 2018). Furthermore, PCK is an umbrella term for
teaching strategies or methodologies, curriculum, and learning support material that the
teacher uses to deliver content to learners (Kleickmann et al., 2013). To break it down, PCK,
therefore, integrates content and pedagogy and demonstrates an understanding of how to
translate subject matter knowledge into a classroom that has learners from diverse
backgrounds and with different levels of ability (Shulman, 1987).
It is incumbent on every teacher to be equipped with PCK to teach the subject content so that
it can enable learners to develop a clear understanding of the new information. Pillay (2012)
concurred that knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes are essential attributes for a successful
LO teacher who is not only a teacher of the subject but also one who possesses the ability to
engage in several diverse roles in the school community. As alluded to earlier, PCK also
includes having and using innovative teaching strategies and approaches to accommodate
learners in a diverse teaching setting (Kleickmann et al., 2013). To sum up, teachers must be
abreast of the subject's content to be effective and proficient in curriculum delivery and
equipped to implement an innovative strategy such as a group investigation. However,
Samuels (2012) expressed the same opinion as Gama (2015) about how limited some
teachers’ knowledge is and suggested that many teachers were not sufficiently trained to
teach the LO content and that this has resulted in a less effective implementation of the LO
curriculum.
Seherrie & Mawela: Life Orientation teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge . . . 53
Implementing group investigation in general as a cooperative learning strategy
Group investigation, as a cooperative learning strategy, enables learners to become
interactive in the classroom, and leads to positive interdependence and individual
responsibility during social interaction in group work (Ahsanah, 2015). Group investigation,
as a technique, should be implemented with a set of guidelines, as illustrated in Figure 1
below.
Figure 1
Implementing group investigation
To ensure that group work is correctly and successfully implemented, teachers must
continually practise cooperative learning procedures with their learners. Group member roles
should be stipulated, evident, and assessable so that the teacher can intervene appropriately in
a helping and encouraging manner (Masoabi, 2015). However, interconnectedness can be
established only if the group members have common goals, information is shared among
them, and members of the group are rewarded jointly (Van Wyk, 2012).
The teacher's primary role is to facilitate the learners' growing awareness of what interests
them most about a topic and what they want to investigate. In Stage 1, learners form groups
to work collaboratively on the same topic. Tran (2013) asserted that optimal interaction relies
on the size of the group in which learners will cooperate in their learning tasks. During Stage
2, learners plan what they want to investigate cooperatively and develop their research
questions related to their chosen sub-topics. The teacher moves among the groups and
encourages learners to be more helpful. Moving from group to group gives the teacher a
chance to see if any members of groups are having difficulty cooperating. However, the
teacher may need to intervene to strike a balance between the heterogeneity of the group and
the interest of the learners (Sharan, 2010).
GROUP
INVESTIGATION
Step1:
Identifying the
topic and
organising
learners into
groups Step 2:
Planning the
learning task
and
assignments
Step 3:
Gathering
Information
during class
Step 4: Group
work while
analysing and
evaluating
information
Step 5:
Presenting the
final group
report
Step 6:
Assessing the
various groups’
presentations
54 Journal of Education, No. 89, 2022
At the third stage, each group carries out the plans for their assigned work, gathering the
relevant information from a variety of sources. Thereafter, at Stage 4 students apply their
skills through analysis, synthesis, and evaluation to create new knowledge and to summarise
their findings. The groups decide which of their findings to share with the class and how to
present them. The teacher then organises and coordinates the groups' plans for their
presentation (Sharan, 2010). In this way teachers integrate the teaching of content with
innovative methodology (Kahn & Nyamupangedengu, 2022).
At the fifth stage, the groups are invited to present their findings to the class with members of
other groups listening and evaluating. At the end of each presentation, the teacher leads a
short discussion and the audience comments on the presentation (Sharan, 2010). At the final
stage, the achievement of each learner and the group is assessed.
As antagonists for implementing group investigation as a cooperative approach, Baloche and
Brody (2017), highlighted issues that might be problematic in schools such as efficacy,
theoretical relevance, and policy support.
Aim and research question
In this study, we aimed to explore LO teachers’ PCK and skills when they are implementing
a group investigation cooperative learning approach. The research question is: “What
pedagogical Life Orientation content knowledge and skills should secondary teachers have in
planning group investigation as a cooperative teaching and learning approach?”
Theoretical framework
This study is underpinned by constructivist learning theory (Vygotsky, 1978, and Piaget,
1896–1980), along with a number of learning theories that contributed valuable ideas to help
inform it. Social constructivism posits that knowledge is constructed through negotiated
social interactions based on reflection, discussion, and explanation (Vygotsky, 1978); reality
and truth are subjectively constructed in a social environment (Nieuwenhuis, 2007). The
teaching and learning strategies involved in group work offer learners the possibility of
democratic participation in socio-environmental issues in their lived environment. Vygotsky
emphasised social interaction and collaboration in the classroom and stated that such a
society (in this case, a school) plays a vital part in understanding reality as happens in
cooperative learner-centred teaching. Piaget (1973), through his theory of constructivism that
covers learning theories, teaching methods, and education reform, maintained that learners
generate knowledge and skills from experiences. The emphasis for LO moves towards the
how and why instead of what is taught in the classroom (Nel, 2014).
Against this conceptual and theoretical framework, we go on to explain the research
methodology.
Seherrie & Mawela: Life Orientation teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge . . . 55
Methodology
The research design
This investigation employed a qualitative-phenomenological research design so data on the
everyday situations of the participants was collected (Maree, 2016). Our intention was to gain
an in-depth understanding of, and insight into, teachers' responses on questions related to how
they used their SCK and PCK to implement group investigation in their LO lessons.
Population and Sampling
This study focused on seven selected secondary schools in the Pixley Ka Seme District of the
Northern Cape Province, South Africa. The purposive sampling of seven secondary school
LO teachers (three male and four female) resulted in an in-depth analysis of their experience,
expertise, and knowledge as related to the central issues of our study (Nieuwenhuis, 2007).
Participants were in the age group of 24 to 50. One teacher had one year of experience, two
teachers had between seven and eight years, and four had more than eight years of teaching
experience in Grades 10 to 12.
Data Collection Procedure
We conducted in-depth, semi-structured interviews over a period of three months. Face-to-
face interviews with the seven LO teachers were conducted at the district office according to
the availability of each participant. Interviews, that ranged between 30 and 45 minutes, were
guided by an interview schedule consisting of a series of open-ended questions. Teachers
were required to motivate their answers using narratives. The questions were aimed at
establishing the LO teachers' teaching praxis, particularly which aspects of SCK and PCK
they felt they needed in a cooperative teaching and learning situation (see Marshall &
Rossman, 2006). Each interview was used to determine the teacher’s perceptions of their
SCK and their PCK and how they apply both in their classrooms; their view of their training
on cooperative learning and specifically group investigation; and the value of cooperative
learning and the challenges they experience with it in the teaching of LO. The nature of the
questions provided an opportunity for elaboration by participants on issues raised during the
interviews.
Data analysis
Following Glaser and Strauss (1967), we employed thematic analysis to analyse this
qualitative data inductively based on categories and sub-categories that emerged as the data
was being analysed. Independent researchers transcribed the interview data, then coded it
manually and condensed it into meaningful units (see Miles et al., 2014). Themes were
generated based on the objectives we sought to achieve. Dependability was assured through
having two researchers working independently and then analysing the data together, through
56 Journal of Education, No. 89, 2022
critical discussion, and arriving at consensus. We voice-recorded the interviews and
discussed these recordings with the participants to complete an audit trail.
Trustworthiness
This was ensured through our giving a complete explanation of the research to participants
along with the context of the research. Credibility was also ensured through engagement with
the research participants in the field (see Lincoln & Guba, 2000). After the data was
transcribed and analysed, it was returned to the participants for member checking so that they
could scrutinise it and elaborate on it if they felt this to be necessary. All responded that they
were satisfied with the analysed data. Any form of bias that could influence the findings of
this study was attended to.
Ethical considerations
These involved applying for and being granted ethical clearance from The University of
South Africa (UNISA) and having the Ethics Committee approve the research.
1
The Northern
Cape Department of Education granted permission to conduct the study at the selected
schools. Informed consent was obtained from the participants, and tenets of confidentiality
and anonymity were adhered to.
Findings
Our study aimed to determine the skills and PCK of seven secondary LO teachers in planning
group investigation as a cooperative teaching and learning approach. We discuss the findings
according to the themes that emerged from the analysis: teachers' SCK, PCK, and training in
implementing cooperative learning in the LO classroom.
Subject content knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge
This theme reveals the commitment of LO teachers towards their professional development
and the improvement of learner performance. The participants illustrated that their purpose in
a classroom is to implement important subject and pedagogical knowledge for the effective
teaching and learning of LO. Teachers expressed themselves as follows.
It is not just anyone who can teach the subject, although people assume that. When
you understand the method, you can teach . . . and you are on top of the content (know
the content well). (Veliwe)
Once you love teaching, it is easy to integrate pedagogical knowledge into your daily
teaching. You must understand how to apply group investigation to be successful.
(Monti)
1
Reference number: 2019/11/13/41003276/08/AM
Seherrie & Mawela: Life Orientation teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge . . . 57
I think my understanding about group investigation is broad enough to teach it
correctly. I am in a better position to help other teachers as we normally do at our
school because I am on a higher level regarding my knowledge of the subject.
(Umathi)
These statements confirm that these three teachers are aware of the need to attain an in-depth
understanding of subject knowledge. They acknowledged that they have sufficient subject
knowledge, and they are well informed about the LO content. The subject matter is of such a
nature that one teacher feels capable of helping other teachers. One can also deduce from
these extracts that teachers need to be competent and skilful with a sound understanding of
LO that incorporates SCK and PCK.
Veliwe regards content knowledge as extensive knowledge (broader and deeper knowledge)
that they obtained during their years of study and during the experience gained from teaching.
. . . teacher [content] knowledge is extensive subject knowledge, and teacher
pedagogical knowledge is the relationship between knowledge of teaching and subject
knowledge . . . teacher knowledge is the knowledge you have learned at the college or
university, experiences during practice teaching, and a real classroom environment.
The pedagogy refers to the day-to-day management of the subject content with
interaction with the learners . . . Also, how you teach and your way of instruction to
the learners.
Richi referred specifically to skills and capabilities that LO teachers should acquire and
develop.
Teacher [content] knowledge . . . can be the different skills and capabilities you as a
teacher have. Teacher pedagogical knowledge refers to the specialised knowledge you
developed during the years of study, training, workshops on how to teach in the
classroom.
Monwabi indicated that content knowledge was acquired during his studies and that over the
years he has developed this in conjunction with pedagogy. He realises the importance of
assisting learners in developing an understanding of the content so that it can be applied to
their lives. He said,
[You] demonstrate teacher knowledge when you convey information to learners. It is
the theory you learnt during your studies and the experience you have gained over the
years. Pedagogical knowledge [is] how to make information understandable to
learners, the assessment they will do, and how learners must show an understanding
about the content they learnt.
The above responses reflect the teachers' conceptual understanding of SCK and PCK. It
remains essential for teachers to have an in-depth understanding of the content knowledge in
order to teach the subject matter effectively so as to enable learners to develop a clear
understanding of the new information and be able to apply it to their lives.
58 Journal of Education, No. 89, 2022
Training in implementing group investigation as a cooperative learning approach
Umathi reported on the value of group investigation thus:
I see group investigation as a progressive teaching approach in a sense that it
stimulates learners and everyone in the group, also those who are just listening and
watching to what is presented by the different groups.
However, it is essential for teachers to be trained in this type of teaching approach. Teachers
reported that although the essence of training, especially in this case, is to up-skill teachers on
cooperative learning methods, it also aims to broaden their understanding and professional
competence and skills so that they might be an effective resource for others in the LO
classroom. Phakama said,
You must at all-time attend training sessions. Never miss out. It empowers you, keeps
you updated, and you learn new things every time.
Teachers acknowledged the importance of training and professional development in
preparing them to implement an innovative teaching method. For Veliwe,
The preparation of group investigation needs thorough planning. You have so much
confidence in yourself, and you are better prepared to work with learners . . . When I
do proper planning, learners immediately know how to do their tasks.
The above extracts indicate that teachers have positive perceptions of group investigation as a
cooperative teaching-learning approach, but it also means that training is needed in order for
this learner-centred approach to be effectively implemented. Veliwe acknowledged that
“group investigation requires thorough planning” and that this paves the way for learners to
know exactly what is expected from them.
Training to perform and execute effective teaching forms an important way of assisting
teachers to acquire the necessary skills, knowledge, and capabilities to become productive
and competent contributors to the work environment. However, some teachers had different
views about their training. Petra said,
One other thing to say, we were trained on cooperative learning but not on group
investigation, to be specific. When you hear cooperative learning, you think about
group work.
For Richi,
It is important to mention that I have never received any formal training in group
investigation so that you understand my background. I read many sources about
cooperative learning, and because of the projects, I found group investigation the most
proper to assist learners in research and assignments [and] this is how I try to keep
myself updated and make planning for myself easier.
Seherrie & Mawela: Life Orientation teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge . . . 59
It seems that even though some of the participants had not undergone training specifically on
group investigation, their experience and self-study gave them insight into cooperative
learning techniques.
Richi raised three major issues facing LO: training; group investigation (cooperative
learning); and planning. For all learners with their diverse learning styles to be catered for,
teachers have to be mindful to ensure that their teaching approaches are always learner-
centred, innovative, and focussed on not only “guiding and preparing learners to respond
appropriately to life’s responsibilities and opportunities” (Department of Basic Education,
2011, p. 8) but also ensuring that learners develop the necessary skills and competencies for
the 21st century.
Discussion of the findings
We set out to explore the PCK and skills that secondary teachers of LO should have in
planning group investigation as a cooperative teaching and learning approach.
Subject knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge of Life Orientation
teachers
This study established that subject knowledge and PCK are the acquired and developed
knowledges that a teacher possesses and that forms the cornerstones of effective teaching and
learning within their field of specialisation. Confidence in the subject content and how to
teach it was highlighted by teachers, but it was found that some teachers were not fully
conversant with the subject matter and did not have adequate PCK, so they lacked sufficient
knowledge to teach the subject effectively. This statement corroborates the assertion of
Neumann et al. (2019) that it is quite difficult for teachers to acquire and constantly develop
their knowledge in order to ensure organised quality instruction. What must be considered is
that teacher SCK is at the heart of professional competence (Hill et al., 2008) and needs
constant development. It is evident from the literature (see Mosia, 2011) that any teacher who
wants to teach LO has not only to become knowledgeable about the subject matter but must
acquire in-depth SCK. Most of the teachers in this study were confident in their knowledge of
the LO content and also in their competency and skill in the teaching methods employed,
which is in line with Shulman’s (1986, p. 7) point that the teacher "must not only understand
that something is so, but the teacher must further understand why it is so." Teachers who
have not been trained to teach LO assume that they could teach the subject at the same level
as those who have been trained. This assumption has been refuted; teachers with limited SCK
of the subjects they teach will find it challenging to respond to learners' concerns effectively
and will be unable to clarify any misconceptions in their understanding of the subject (Swarts
et al., 2019).
Another finding revealed teachers' perceptions of their understanding of teacher knowledge
that incorporates SCK and PCK. We deduced that teachers have a reasonable interpretation of
the conceptualisation of both, but the application thereof remains a challenge. We argue that
it is not enough to understand these concepts and teachers must have in-depth knowledge and
60 Journal of Education, No. 89, 2022
practical experience of the subject matter of what they teach along with PCK. This finding
aligns with that of Kleickmann et al. (2013) who asserted that every teacher must acquire and
be equipped with PCK to teach the subject matter in such a way that it enables learners to
develop a clear understanding of the new information. Johnson and Johnson (2018) supported
this assertion in stating that the importance of a teacher, not only as the source of knowledge,
but as a guide and facilitator is that they be able to assist learners to develop deeper learning.
Shulman (1986) suggested that teachers of all subjects, and in this study, LO in particular,
should be able to present the content of their subject appropriately and should be conscious of
typical misconceptions of students and regarded this as an essential precondition for the
development of PCK.
In this study, some LO teachers were unable to demonstrate well-developed pedagogical
knowledge that implies knowledge about what a task can contribute to the students’
successful construction of knowledge. Shulman (1986) contended that PCK also includes an
understanding of what makes the learning of specific topics easy or difficult. He further
postulated that students of different ages and backgrounds bring different conceptions and
preconceptions with them to the learning of those most frequently taught topics and lessons,
so teachers need to know strategies that address the understandings of learners.
Training in implementing group investigation as a cooperative learning approach
Findings revealed that four of the participating teachers had not received training in group
investigation as a teaching approach. All the teachers had undergone formal training in
cooperative learning in general, and thus had some understanding of this technique that
includes group work, but they lacked specific training in group investigation as a teaching
approach. The reviewed literature suggested that many teachers who were required to teach
LO had not been sufficiently trained to teach its content and thus had not developed
appropriate teaching methods. This resulted in a less confident teacher delivering the LO
curriculum (Samuels, 2012). This finding is congruent with that of Muller and Hoadley
(2019) who argued that not being knowledgeable about the subject matter may lead to a
superficial covering of curriculum content in relation to the prescriptive nature of CAPS.
However, to effect a good teaching and learning process and respond to the needs of the
learners, the teacher should employ a variety of teaching strategies and deliver the subject
matter in a meaningful manner (Kleickmann et al., 2013). We argue that training also
contributes to teachers' professional development, and this aligns with Rooth’s (2005),
postulation that as long as teachers are not professionally qualified in the subject, quality
teaching will never be realised. Therefore, teachers should be up skilled in their LO PCK
when they plan to use group investigation as a cooperative teaching and learning approach so
that content coverage does not supersede learner understanding of the content (see Bertram et
al., 2021).
Diale (2016) reported that many teachers were expected to teach LO as a subject without any
training and that this has resulted in a variety of challenges that includes their limited
knowledge of the mediating tools and practice skills needed for effective teaching. However,
although some teachers lacked training in cooperative learning, they were optimistic in their
Seherrie & Mawela: Life Orientation teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge . . . 61
belief that group investigation as a learner-centred teaching approach during which learners
create their own understanding and knowledge that can then be applied to their lives, is very
useful. The lack of training has not prevented them from employing innovative strategies like
this.
Conclusion and recommendations
We examined secondary teachers' SCK and PCK in planning to use group investigation as a
cooperative teaching approach in the teaching of LO. For teachers to be regarded as
competent to effectively implement the LO curriculum, they ought to have an in-depth
understanding of SCK and PCK. Results from this qualitative-phenomenological study
revealed that in LO teaching PCK was conceptualised but not operationalised in a
cooperative learning framework that could successfully employ group investigation. A result
of great significance is the fact that the PCK of a teacher, but not content knowledge per se
contributes substantially to the learning development of learners. Therefore, it is worth
investing in teacher training of LO teachers, especially with respect to PCK, based on a sound
foundation of SCK. Given these challenges, we recommend that LO teachers should be
trained to make a paradigm shift from the traditional teaching approach to a learner-centred
one that deploys different teaching and learning approaches such as cooperative learning. A
developmental training programme on group investigation as a cooperative teaching and
learning approach should the implemented for LO teachers to assist them in balancing the
different cooperative learning approaches. Equipping LO teachers with further innovative
teaching strategies will assist them in implementing a learner-participatory approach that
could enhance learners' performance in the LO classroom and ensure that the LO knowledge
and skills can be applied to their lives.
Limitations
Only a small sample of secondary teachers' praxis on the SCK and PCK in planning group
investigation as a cooperative teaching approach was examined in this study. For further
research, a participatory action research study could be employed to obtain first-hand
experience and insight into how learners experience this teaching approach in the LO
classroom.
Acknowledgments
Acknowledgment is given to the LO teachers who voluntarily participated in this research
study.
62 Journal of Education, No. 89, 2022
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