Journal of Education, 2017 Issue 67, http://joe.ukzn.ac.za Non-formal adult education for self- employment: the importance of post- training support for micro-enterprise development in South Africa Celestin Mayombe (Received 30 March 2016; accepted 22 February 2017) Abstract The concern that informed this article is that adults who face long-term unemployment due to a lack of marketable skills remain unemployed after completing adult non-formal education (NFE) programmes in South Africa. The purpose of the article is to investigate major challenges trainees of NFE programmes for self-employment encounter in starting and growing small businesses, and the types of post-training support they receive from public and private institutions in KwaZulu- Natal (KZN) province. While the structure of the South African economy is at fault, the findings reveal that weak institutional linkages result in trainees not having access to essential post-training support, community resources, public goods and services. The author concludes that centre managers did not take into consideration the importance of institutional linkages and the socio- economic background of the trainees who have faced long-term unemployment and poverty leading to social isolation, which then further reduce the likelihood of self-employment. Introduction It is widely acknowledged today that many unemployed adults are hindered from entering into labour markets due to a lack of marketable skills. Since its inception in 1960, adult non-formal education (NFE) was intended to be a tool to create opportunities for marginalised social groups in order to bridge unemployment and employment (Georgiadou, Kekkeris and Kalantzis, 2009). Kedrayate (2012, p.12) points out that NFE is perceived as a “second chance education” to those who have been “pushed out” from the formal system. According to Langer (2013) and Kyndt, Dochy and Nijs (2009), adult NFE centres in Sub-Saharan countries have been able to develop holistic and integrated approaches to contribute to unemployment reduction. The 150 Journal of Education, No. 67, 2017 significance of NFE in poor communities is that where jobs are scarce, people learn to earn a living as self-employed. Adult NFE can be seen as being related to the concepts of recurrent and lifelong learning. Scholars in the field (Kamil, 2007; Kedrayate, 2012; Jjuuko and Kwiri, 2010; Ololube and Egbzor, 2012) suggest that whereas recurrent and lifelong learnings have to do with the extension of education and learning throughout life, NFE is about acknowledging the importance of education, learning and training which takes place outside recognised educational institutions. In this article, NFE reflects a combination of the terms ‘non- formal’, ‘education’ and ‘training’ and refers to skills programmes carried out outside the framework of the established education system that involves foundational knowledge, technical and manual skills, entrepreneurial skills and competencies tailored to the specific requirements of a gainful employment or self-employment (DVV International, 2011; McKay, 2007; Erasmus, 2010). Furthermore, NFE is linked to self-employment for people who are currently not self-sufficient and who are at or below the poverty line, and to the informal sector where jobs are scarce (Rogers, 2004). Adult NFE distinguishes itself from the formal education and informal education on basis of its purpose and approach. Weyer (2009) notes that NFE is an educational system outside the recognised framework that typically provides occupational access only to the lowest-level jobs because it does not have the legitimacy to grant school-based diplomas and credentials required to gain access to white-collar and professional jobs. For the NFE programmes to achieve this purpose, great attention is taken to ensure that training is tailored to a specific requirement of employment or income-generating activities (International Labour Organisation (ILO), 2009). The programmes are provided not only in technical skills but also in business, organisational and management skills to facilitate an adult trainee to become self-employed or to run a small business, most often a micro-enterprise. In the context of South Africa, non-formal education is any education that carried on outside the formal school and higher education system and not certificated (Aitchison, 2007). Non-formal education (NFE) was an important part of the anti-apartheid struggle in South Africa. It helped prepare people for democracy, something formal education did not do. Prior to 1994 NFE was provided by religious groups, NGOs/CBOs, civic associations, workers organisations, political parties and social movements (Mckay, 2007; Aitchison, 2007). The provision of formal technical training was in the former Mayombe: Non-formal adult education for self-employment 151 White technical colleges and some schools of industries for Coloureds and mission schools for Black students (Aitchison, 2007). The adult NFE in South Africa took a new conceptualisation during the post- apartheid era. McKay (2007, p.286) points out that “after the first democratic elections in South Africa, the new government faced a number of challenges, not the least being the high number of adults who were functionally illiterate”. The poverty reduction process was challenged by the fact that there were many unemployed people whose levels of literacy were such that they were virtually unemployable due to the competition for the small number of available jobs requiring a certain level of education (grade 12 certificate) and skills training. There was a need to add the word ‘training’ in order to conceptualise adult education programmes relevant to socio-economic needs of unskilled and unemployed adults (Mckay, 2007). It is important to mention that the letter ‘T’ of training in NFE was added to refer to a wide range of skills and expertise including technical skills such as plumbing, dressmaking, beadwork, and other crafts (McKay, 2007). Previous studies attempted to explore the dynamics of the relationship between adult NFE programmes and employment. Other researchers investigated the learning conditions for non-formal education (Kyndt, et al., 2009); job-related non-formal education and training (Kaufmann, 2015); the relevance of NFET for income generation (Islam, Mia and Sorcar, 2012; Blaak, Openjuru and Zeelen, 2012); and socio-economic empowerment of poor adults (Morton and Montgomery, 2011; Akpama, Esang, Asor and Osang, 2011). Similarly, Georgiadou, et al. (2009) and Islam, et al. (2012) report practical skills acquisition by graduates but without mentioning the conducive factors. However, little is known about the effectiveness of the external factors in fostering links for skills utilisation in self-employment of graduates. Research shows that NFE graduates continue to experience challenges due to the insufficiency of enabling environments, both internal and external (Islam, et al., 2012; Blaak, et al., 2012; Georgiadou, et al., 2009). As a result, adults who face long-term unemployment due to a lack of work- related skills, remain unemployed after graduating from NFE centres. The NFE centres under investigation are run by not-for-profit organisations and provide work-related skills training programmes for unemployed adults. These NFE centres are not the same as the recently referred to Public Adult Learning Centres in the National Policy on Community Colleges (Republic of South Africa (RSA), 2015). They are private skills training programmes in 152 Journal of Education, No. 67, 2017 non-profit training centres managed by non-profit organisations; in the public Adult Education and Training (AET) centres, are also non-accredited skills training courses funded by private sectors or organisations. These are vocationally related skills programmes for income-generation activities in the form of non-formal vocational training and rural and community development in South Africa. The programmes intend to respond to the learning needs of adults who did not have access to formal education, to increase their employment opportunities, and to improve social inclusion (Aitchison, 2007). While previous studies addressed the issue of effectiveness of NFE programmes in skills acquisition by graduates, the importance of post-training support for self-employment in micro-enterprises of graduates has not been sufficiently studied. In the context of this article, the linkages of NFE centres involve a collaboration with public institutions and agencies, private sectors, NGOs, self-help associations, community leaders, local businesses, business development services, financial institutions and private enterprises. These linkages aim at fostering skills utilisation in self-employment; or assisting graduates to establish micro-enterprises and co-operatives. The purpose of the article is to investigate major challenges trainees of non- formal adult education for self-employment encounter in starting and growing small businesses, and the types of post-training support they receive from public and private institutions in KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) province. The following questions are addressed: ! What are the main sources of start-up capital for trainees’ small businesses? ! What are the main causes of trainees’ small business failure? ! What types of post-training support for small business development trainees received? In this article, self-employment is a situation in which an individual works for himself instead of working for an employer that pays a salary or a wage (Meager, Martin and Carta, 2011; Fields, 2013). Self-employed trainees are here defined as persons operating individual enterprises, plus persons operating or working in household enterprises. Enabling environments to refer to internal and external factors of the NFE centre which create conducive conditions for skills acquisition and skills utilisation in wage- or Mayombe: Non-formal adult education for self-employment 153 self-employment (King and Palmer, 2006; World Bank, 2004). The article begins with the conceptual framework guiding the study. Next, the focus is on the study’s context and methodology. The presentation of the findings is followed by discussions of the findings. Finally, conclusions and recommendations are presented. Conceptual framework of the study Adult NFE programmes for self-employment in micro-enterprise need external factors to the NFE centre which create conducive conditions for helping trainees start their own micro-enterprise in a sustained and effective manner. The existence of supportive factors will influence the skills acquired through adult NFE centres to contribute to the self-employment and poverty reduction of a given target group. This is because a conducive factor allows skills to be utilised effectively (Palmer, 2007; Palmer, Wedgwood, and Hayman, 2007). Among the critical factors external to the adult NFE centres that foster the utilisation of business skills in self-employment are the linkages they have with public and private institutions including agencies, and the social networks which provide or enhance post-training support programmes (Dunkley, 2008; White and Kenyon, 2005). Likewise, Adams (2007) argues that skills training programmes alone are unlikely to address the problems of unemployment or meeting all the needs of underprivileged adults. Without enabling factors, skills training for adults may lead to higher educational achievement that has to be valued for its own benefits and not to immediate self-employment. There are debates today around linking adult training to self-employment and poverty reduction in poor communities. Palmer (2007), in his article “Skills for work?: From skills development to decent livelihoods in Ghana’s rural informal economy”, argues that “It is acknowledged that skills training alone is not sufficient for developmental outcomes to materialise”. Palmer’s view infers that skills acquired from NFE centres are only a part of the package in the process of self-employment and poverty reduction. Likewise, King (2012) points out that skills acquisition is very different from skills utilisation in the labour market, and especially for the poorest who can only access basic education of very low quality. King’s argument also suggests that NFE requires an enabling environment for the skills to be utilised in the labour 154 Journal of Education, No. 67, 2017 market. Similarly, King (2012), Pantea (2016) and Preece (2010) note that adult NFE alone, as a strategy of poverty reduction, is not enough. It does not create employment, nor does it guarantee better living conditions or income- generating activities in micro-enterprises or co-operatives of trainees. There is no automatic connection between business skills training for adults and self- employment. The linkages with public and private institutions The linkages of the NFE centre to public and private sectors are crucial and the key to success in skills utilisation in self-employment. An adult NFE centre does not operate in a vacuum, but in a given community with social and political entities. Therefore, a quality NFE programme is aware of the resources and needs of the community in which it is located (World Bank, 2005). It establishes and maintains links with various referral sources and community agencies as well as other relevant educational programmes and organisations. It regularly reviews its community, sectoral and organisational relationships (Freedman, 2008). According to Freedman (2008), the collaboration should be between the NFE centre and the agencies at local and national levels and keen involvement of social partners. However, linkages may still not be sufficient for trainees to become self- employed if there are structural problems in the economy that perpetuate unemployment. Allais (2014) notes that the problem is not lack of skills, but insufficient demand. If the problem is bound up with the nature of economic development, the solution accordingly lies in changing the pattern and character of the growth path. Similarly, Vally and Motala (2014) argue that unemployment in South Africa is caused by skills shortage or gap and limited economic growth. The figure 1 is a conceptual framework presenting the key concepts and then how they are linked together. Mayombe: Non-formal adult education for self-employment 155 Figure 1: Conceptual framework of the study Post-training support for self-employment in micro- enterprises New entrants into micro-enterprise need support from both the NFE centre and other stakeholders in the public and private sectors. Successful entry into self-employment and establishment of a micro-enterprise requires much more than delivering skills training to adults. According to Dunkley (2008), White and Kenyon (2005), Hasanov, Biybosunova and Hasanova (2009), the post- training support for trainees who are interested in self-employment in micro- enterprise entails the service to start a small business; accessing credit, suitable premises for production purposes, equipment and tools, marketing support, support for the formation of groups or forming enterprises/co- operatives, follow-up advisory services or technical assistance; support to access business development services and financial assistance. The support will help overcome the disabling factors outside of the NFE system at macro- level (Stevenson & St-Onge, 2011). The present study was an attempt to ascertain if there were these post-training support services as result of centre institutional linkages. 156 Journal of Education, No. 67, 2017 Study context The study was conducted in communities where many people have difficulty in generating enough incomes in order to become self-sufficient and enjoy a reasonable quality of life. The study focused on assessing the effectiveness of the centre linkages with public and private institutions in fostering post- training support in self-employment of trainees in KwaZulu-Natal (KZN). The provision of educational and training opportunities for adults is rooted in social empowerment and transformation strategies. Central to the provision is ensuring that all unemployed adult citizens of KZN are either wage-employed or self-employed (KZN, 2013; KZN-DoE, 2011). The sample of the NFE centres was drawn from the education districts of Umlazi, Pinetown, ILembe and uMgungundlovu (Msunduzi) in KZN province. The NFE programmes target out-of-school and socio-economically vulnerable adults (such as street youths and domestic workers) from marginalised communities. In order to empower vulnerable and marginalised adults, both KZN government and NGO-based NFE centres provide vocational and livelihood training, and entrepreneurial skills to poor adults to enable them to take up self-employment or wage employment in urban and rural areas (KZN-DoE, 2012; KZN, 2012). All these endeavours aim at: – Creating sustainable learning opportunities that nurture adult empowerment; – Providing adults and out-of-school youths from marginalised communities with marketable livelihood/vocational skills in order to enhance their employment (formal and/or informal) opportunities, or venture into business enterprises; – Empowering poor adults to establish viable income generating projects (Aitchison, 2007; KZN-DoE, 2012). Research methodology Mixed research methods were used for the study which consisted of a combination of both qualitative and quantitative methods. In support of Weyer’s (2009) view, measuring only quantitative results of an assessment of Mayombe: Non-formal adult education for self-employment 157 the effectiveness of entrepreneurial training for self-employment can fail to provide a full picture of the programme. Therefore, this study used survey questionnaires as the primary source of quantitative data. The reason for using the survey was based on its primary purpose which is to determine cause-and- effect relationships or comparability (Creswell, 2013). The method used for qualitative data collection was semi-structured interviews. In support of Creswell’s (2009) view, the qualitative method was beneficial to the study because it helped to present the data from the perspective of the trainees, trainers and managers on the effectiveness of the centre linkages with public and private institutions in fostering post-training support in self-employment. Semi-structured interviews provided an understanding of the mechanisms which link particular variables, by looking at the explanation and account (Creswell, 2009). The researcher also used documents related to the training programmes of the centres under investigation. For the focus of this article, the documents included the monitoring and evaluation documents and annual reports. From a descriptive content analysis point of view, the researcher identified information linked to variables such as training design and implantation, and post-training support for self-employment. Then the data were compared with responses from questionnaires and interview schedules. Sampling technique and sample size The study sample was drawn from the 326 adult training centres in KZN province. Following the explanation of Nieuwenhuis (2012) on sampling methods, out of 326 centres, the researcher used a purposive sampling of a non-probability sampling method to select 21 centres. A centre was selected if it provides technical and entrepreneurial skills to enable an adult to take up wage or self-employment in the field of agriculture, industry, services and small business activities. From the selected 21 centres, the sample size consisted of 420 trainees. The sample from each of 21 centres depended on the number of trainees who enrolled on skills training programmes. The sampling method for trainees (420) in the quantitative study was purposive. A trainee was selected if he/she had completed the technical and/or entrepreneurial programme and became wage or self-employed. 158 Journal of Education, No. 67, 2017 In this paper,