Wastewater treatment by multi-stage batch adsorption and electrochemical regeneration


doi: 10.5599/jese.2012.0019 223 

J. Electrochem. Sci. Eng. 2 (2012) 223-236; doi: 10.5599/jese.2012.0019 

 
Open Access : : ISSN 1847-9286 

www.jESE-online.org  
Original scientific paper 

Wastewater treatment by multi-stage batch adsorption and 
electrochemical regeneration 
FADHIL M. MOHAMMED‡, EDWARD P. L. ROBERTS, ANDREW K. CAMPEN* and 
NIGEL W. BROWN* 

School of Chemical Engineering and Analytical Science, University of Manchester. The Mill, Oxford 
Road, Manchester M13 9PL, UK; 

‡
Current address: Ministry of Science and Technology, Baghdad, Iraq 

*Arvia Technology Ltd, Daresbury Innovation Centre, Keckwick Lane, Daresbury, Cheshire WA4 4FS, UK. 
Corresponding Author:  E-mail: edward.roberts@manchester.ac.uk;  Tel.: +44-161-306-8849;  
Fax: +44-161-306-9321 

Received: May 23, 2012; Revised: August 18, 2012; Published: November 10, 2012  
 

Abstract 
The removal and destruction of a tri-phenyl methane dye, Acid Violet 17 (AV17), from 
aqueous solution by adsorption and electrochemical regeneration was studied using a 
graphite intercalation compound (GIC) adsorbent. It was demonstrated that the adsor-
bent could be regenerated by anodic oxidation of the adsorbed dye in a simple electro-
chemical cell. The GIC adsorbent recovered its initial adsorption capacity after 40 to 
60 min of treatment at a current density of 10 mA cm−2, corresponding to a charge of 12 
to 18 C g−1 of adsorbent. The charge passed is consistent with that expected for minerali-
sation of the dye, suggesting that the dye was removed and destroyed with high charge 
efficiency. The energy cost of the regeneration was found to be around 120 J per g of 
adsorbent regenerated or 115 J per mg of the AV17 dye removed and destroyed. A 
model describing the process of wastewater treatment by multiple cycles of adsorption 
and electrochemical regeneration, based on adsorption isotherm data, has been deve-
loped and validated. It was found that relatively modest improvements in the adsorption 
capacity of the adsorbent material could significantly improve the process performance. 

Keywords  
Adsorption; electrochemical regeneration; graphite intercalation compound; tri-phenyl 
methane dye; acid violet. 

Introduction 

Dyestuff removal has been one of the most persistent problems in wastewater treatment in the 
last thirty years. Recent methods which have been investigated for dye removal include adsorp-



J. Electrochem. Sci. Eng. 2(4) (2012) 223-236 WASTEWATER TREATMENT ADSORPTION AND REGENERATION 

224  

tion, ion exchange, chemical oxidation, precipitation and biological treatment [1,2]. There are ever 
more dyes available commercially, and due to their complex structure and synthetic origin, most 
are difficult to decolorize [3]. Therefore, it is necessary to remove them from liquid wastes at least 
to a limit accepted by national and international regulatory agencies before discharge. Adsorption 
is a widely used technique for the removal of dyes from wastewater and can be effective for 
overall treatment, particularly if the sorbent is cheap, does not require a pre-treatment step 
before application and is easy to regenerate [4]. Adsorption on activated carbon is a technology 
which has been widely studied to remove dyes from wastewater but the high capital and regene-
ration cost of activated carbon has led to the search for low cost materials. In the last twenty 
years, many investigators have studied the feasibility of inexpensive, commercially available mate-
rials, that are easy to regenerate and re-utilized as many times as possible [5]. In recent years 
many inexpensive, widely available materials have been investigated as adsorbents to remove 
dyes from contaminated water. Wood, fly ash, coal, zeolite, silica, and agricultural wastes have all 
been tried with varying degrees of success [6-14]. 

The adsorption of dyes from aqueous solutions onto these inexpensive adsorbent materials 
focused on the determination of the capacity, kinetics, equilibrium isotherms and the effect of 
different parameters such as thermodynamics, pH, bonding mechanisms, and desorption [14-16]. 
However, only limited application of such data has been directed to the modelling of the batch 
adsorption / regeneration process for wastewater treatment.  

Electrochemical regeneration of activated carbon adsorbents was demonstrated by Narbaitz 
and Cen in 1994 [17] and there have been several recent studies of this process [18-20]. However, 
the process is not economic as regeneration is slow and the energy cost is high [21], due to the 
poor conductivity of the activated carbon bed. Recent work has shown the potential of graphite 
intercalation compound (GIC) adsorbent materials that can be electrochemically regenerated very 
rapidly and cheaply [21-24].  

Conventional adsorption processes are designed based on the single use of a batch of 
adsorbent. The rapid electrochemical regeneration process discussed above opens up the possibi-
lity of using a batch of adsorbent for multiple cycles of adsorption with regeneration carried out 
on-site.  In this way the adsorbent can be reused many times.  In addition, a treatment process can 
be envisaged where the water is treated by the same batch of adsorbent through several cycles of 
adsorption and regeneration.  This approach has been used to treat radioactive organic waste in 
the nuclear industry [25]. In this study we aim to carry out the first detailed study of this multi-
stage adsorption and electrochemical regeneration process.  

Experimental  

Materials 

The adsorbate used in this study was Acid Violet 17, a powdered, anionic tri-phenyl methane dye, 
which has three substituent groups and is a mono sodium salt. It was supplied by KEMTEX Educatio-
nal Supplies Ltd under the trade name Kenanthrol Violet 2B at a dye content of about 22 %. Analysis 
is by UV/Vis spectroscopy at a λmax of 542 nm, as described in our earlier paper [26]. The adsorbent 
used was a graphite intercalated compound (GIC), NyexTM 1000, supplied by Arvia Technology Ltd., 
which contains around 94 wt. % carbon and has a particle size range of 100 – 700 µm [26]. 



F. M. Mohammed et al. J. Electrochem. Sci. Eng. 2(4) (2012) 223-236 

doi: 10.5599/jese.2012.0019 225 

Adsorption/electrochemical regeneration methodology 

A laboratory scale sequential batch rig (see Fig. 1) was used for both adsorption and 
electrochemical regeneration, which were carried out at the ambient laboratory temperature of 
20°C. In each experiment 100 g of GIC adsorbent was mixed with 1 L of water in the adsorption 
zone by sparging air into the bottom of the rig.  

After adsorption, the adsorbent was allowed to settle into the anodic compartment of the 
electrochemical regeneration zone. The adsorbent bed was in contact with a graphite anode and 
was separated from the perforated stainless steel cathode (316L with open area 33%, 3 mm holes) 
by a microporous polyethylene separator (Daramic 350, Grace GmbH). The separator acts as a 
barrier to minimize the transport of electrolyte through the membrane and to ensure that the GIC 
bed does not contact the cathode, as this would short circuit the electrochemical cell. The cathode 
compartment was filled with 0.3 wt% NaCl solution to provide good conductivity, and the pH of 
this solution was adjusted to below 2 using hydrochloric acid to ensure that the membrane was 
stable. The anode, cathode and membrane of the electrochemical cell had dimensions of 10 cm by 
7 cm, and the gap between the anode current feeder and the membrane was 2.2 cm. The 100 g of 
adsorbent used formed a bed of depth 5 cm in the anode compartment. A DC power supply was 
used to apply a current of 0.5 A to the cell, corresponding to a current density (from studies by 
Brown, 2005) of 10 mA cm−2 (based on the membrane area). 

Ideally electrochemical regeneration should occur throughout the bed depth in the anode 
compartment.  Although it is difficult to measure the current distribution in the packed bed 
electrode, previous studies with GIC adsorbents have examined the effect of bed thickness [22] or 
separated and tested layers of adsorbent in the regeneration bed [24]. These studies have 
indicated that complete regeneration can be achieved with bed depths of up to around 20 mm. 

Prior to each experiment 100 g of fresh adsorbent was mixed with 1 litre of clean water for 30 
min before being allowed to settle into the electrochemical regeneration cell. The water was 
drained off and a current of 0.5 A was applied for 30 min in order to oxidise any organic impurities 
present on the surface of the adsorbent. A volume of 1 L of solution containing 120 mg L−1 of AV17 
was then added to the cell. This concentration was selected in order to saturate the adsorbent and 
to give a significant equilibrium concentration. This was necessary to ensure that the equilibrium 
concentration achieved with the regenerated adsorbent can be accurately measured. 

The adsorbent and AV17 solution were mixed by sparging air into the cell for 120 min. This 
adsorption time was found to be sufficient to ensure that equilibrium was reached at these 
conditions. Once the adsorption stage was complete, the air was switched off and the adsorbent 
particles settled into the anodic compartment of the electrochemical cell. The treated liquid was 
drained off and a sample was taken and analysed by UV/visible spectroscopy in order to 
determine the loading of AV17 dye on the adsorbent. 

The bed was regenerated for a period of between 10 and 120 min. After regeneration the 
supernatant was drained from above the bed of GIC adsorbent and the adsorption stage was 
repeated using a fresh AV17 solution (120 mg L−1) which was added to the cell. The adsorption 
stage was repeated by sparging with air for a period of 120 min. A sample of the solution obtained 
after adsorption was analysed by UV/vis spectroscopy, as described above. The performance of 
the regeneration was characterised using the ‘regeneration efficiency’, obtained by comparing the 
equilibrium adsorbent loading achieved before and after regeneration:  / %   100 (1) 



J. Electrochem. Sci. Eng. 2(4) (2012) 223-236 WASTEWATER TREATMENT ADSORPTION AND REGENERATION 

226  

where qi and qr are the equilibrium loading (qe) of AV17 on the adsorbent (mg g
−1) obtained before 

and after regeneration, respectively, calculated using Equation (2).    (2) 
where C0 and Ce are the initial and equilibrium concentration of AV17 in solution respectively 
(mg L−1), V is the volume of solution (L), and W is the mass of adsorbent used (g).  
 

 
Figure 1. Laboratory scale sequential batch rig for electrochemical regeneration of the GIC 

adsorbent: schematic diagram of the side (a) and front (b) elevation of the rig, and (c) 
schematic diagram showing a cross section of the electrochemical regeneration zone.  

(c) Electrochemical regeneration zone

Catholyte  

Adsorbent bed 

Anode 

Membrane 

Cathode 

Hydrogen 

Air in 

Regeneration Zone 

Adsorption 
Zone 

(b) Front View

10 cm 

37 cm 

30 cm 

12.3 cm 

2.2 cm 

11.5 cm 

Air  

in

(a) Side View 



F. M. Mohammed et al. J. Electrochem. Sci. Eng. 2(4) (2012) 223-236 

doi: 10.5599/jese.2012.0019 227 

A similar technique was used for multi-stage batch adsorption and electrochemical 
regeneration, but in this case the solution was not drained off after the adsorption cycle. In this 
case, the initial concentration of AV 17 was much higher, 668 mg L−1 as this solution was treated 
by a series of adsorption/regeneration cycles. For these experiments, the amount of GIC 
adsorbent was increased to 125 g, which formed a bed of 7 cm depth in the anode compartment. 
In addition, the adsorption time was reduced to 60 min and the regeneration time was 30 min. 

 

Results and Discussion 

Adsorption isotherm 

The design of a batch adsorber system requires knowledge of the equilibrium isotherm to 
understand the adsorption process behaviour and provide fundamental physiochemical data for 
evaluating the maximum capacity of the adsorbent [27]. Batch sorption studies have been perfor-
med previously to investigate the kinetic and equilibrium isotherm of the adsorption of the Acid 
violet 17 [26]. The experimental data were found to fit the Langmuir isotherm model, Equation (3). 

L e
e

e1
bk C

q
bC

=
+

 (3) 

where kL and b are the Langmuir constants related to the capacity of the adsorbent (mg g
−1) and 

the intensity of adsorption, (L mg−1), respectively. 
There is little data available in the literature on the adsorption of AV17 by activated carbon, but 

there is some data on other dyes such as methylene blue [28]. The comparison of Langmuir 
isotherm constants for adsorption of organic dye calculated in this work with those determined 
by [28] for activated carbon are shown in Table 1. The low surface area of the adsorbent leads to a 
relatively low adsorption capacity, as indicated by the relatively low value of kL.  However, if the 
adsorptive capacity (kL) is normalised with the specific surface area, it is found that the GIC  
adsorbent is able adsorb a higher mass of dye per unit area than the activated carbons studied 
(albeit for a different adsorbate). This suggests that either the GIC has more adsorption sites per 
unit area or (more likely) that some of the activated carbon surface area in the micropores and is 
not accessible to the dye molecules. 

Table 1. Comparison of Langmuir constants and surface area for adsorption of methylene blue (MB), and 
AV17 onto activated carbons [28] and the GIC adsorbent NyexTM 1000 [29], respectively, at room 

temperature (23°C) and normal pH. 

Adsorbent Adsorbate 
Langmuir constant Surface area 

(BET), m2 g−1 
Adsorptive 

capacity, mg m−2 kL / mg g
−1 b / L mg−1 

GIC (NyexTM 1000) AV17 0.987 0.31 1.0 0.987 

Activated carbon  (PAC1) MB 307 0.12 863.50 0.36 

Activated carbon (PAC2) MB 345 0.15 857.14 0.4 

Activated carbon  (F400) MB 455 0.2 1216.4 0.37 

 
The essential characteristic of the Langmuir isotherm shape on whether adsorption is 

‘favourable’ or ‘unfavourable’ can be classified in terms of dimensionless separation factor or 
equilibrium parameter, RL , Equation (4) [30].  



J. Electrochem. Sci. Eng. 2(4) (2012) 223-236 WASTEWATER TREATMENT ADSORPTION AND REGENERATION 

228  

L
mx

1
 
1

R
bC

=
+

 (4) 

where Cmx is the maximum solution concentration studied. The separation factor RL indicates the 
isotherm shape according to Table 2. 

Table 2. Effect of separation factor on isotherm shape [30]. 

Value of RL Type of isotherm 

RL>1 Unfavourable 

RL=1 Linear 

0<RL<1 Favourable 

RL=0 Irreversible 

 
The separation factor for the GIC adsorbent (b = 0.31 L mg−1) has been calculated at range of 

maximum concentrations of AV17 as shown in Figure 2. It can be observed from this figure that 
the value of RL lies between 0 and 1 at all initial dye concentrations, confirming the favorable 
uptake of the AV17 by the GIC adsorbent. 

 

Figure 2. Separation factor for Acid Violet 17 onto the GIC adsorbent NyexTM 1000 at 20°C. 

Using the Langmuir model to determine the solid phase loading qmx in equilibrium with Cmx: 

L mx
mx

mx1
bk C

q
bC

=
+

 (5) 

Thus: 

e mx

mx mx e

1
1

eq C bC
q C bC

+
=

+
 (6) 

Defining a dimensionless solid phase concentration as q = (qe/qmx), and a dimensionless liquid 
phase concentration as C = (Ce/Cmx), we obtain: 



F. M. Mohammed et al. J. Electrochem. Sci. Eng. 2(4) (2012) 223-236 

doi: 10.5599/jese.2012.0019 229 

( )L L
 

1
C

q
R R C

=
+ −

 (7) 

Measured values of q for a range of values of C are plotted in Figure 3, where the maximum 
equilibrium concentration was Cmx = 46 mg L

−1. The experimental data was fitted to Equation (7) 
by finding the value of RL that gave a minimum in the sum of the absolute error (SAE) between the 
(q, C) data and Equation (7), indicating a value of RL = 0.065. Similar results have been reported for 
separation factors for the adsorption of the dye AV17 onto activated carbon prepared from 
sunflower seed hull [16] and orange peel [14]. 

 
Figure 3. Isotherm shape for adsorption of AV17 onto the GIC adsorbent NyexTM 1000 at room 

temperature (23°C) and the curve obtained using Equation (7) with RL = 0.065. 

Adsorption and electrochemical regeneration 

The liquid phase concentration of AV17 dye after adsorption was found to be in the range 13.2 
to 15.4 mg L−1, corresponding to a loading of AV17 on the GIC adsorbent of 1.07 to 1.05 mg g−1. 
This was slightly higher than the value of kL (0.987 mg g

−1) from the Langmuir adsorption isotherm 
[29], possibly due to natural variability of the adsorbent, attrition or surface modification of the 
adsorbent during the washing procedure. 

It was found that the full adsorption capacity could be recovered after 40 min of 
electrochemical regeneration, corresponding to a charge passed of 12 C g−1 (Figure 4). Further 
increases in the regeneration time led to an increase in the adsorption capacity to a value around 
10 % higher than the original capacity. There are a number of possible reasons for this increase in 
adsorption capacity after regeneration. Previous studies [24] have suggested that the 
electrochemical regeneration can lead to a slight roughening of the adsorbent surface, and thus an 
increase in the specific surface area available for adsorption. Another possibility is the presence of 
oxidising species formed in the adsorbent bed during regeneration which may react with the 
organic dye leading to an apparent increase in adsorption capacity. 

For regeneration times less than 40 min, the full capacity of the adsorbent was not recovered. 
This suggests that some AV17 or its breakdown products remained adsorbed on the surface of the 
GIC adsorbent. When the full adsorption capacity is recovered, the AV17 dye is either fully minera-



J. Electrochem. Sci. Eng. 2(4) (2012) 223-236 WASTEWATER TREATMENT ADSORPTION AND REGENERATION 

230  

lised, or breakdown products are formed which do not adsorb on the adsorbent and are thus 
released into the water. Chemical oxygen demand (COD) analysis of treated water (unpublished 
data from Arvia Technology Ltd) have not found organic breakdown products in solution, 
suggesting that breakdown products remain adsorbed until full mineralisation is achieved.  

It is possible to estimate the charge required to fully mineralise the dye; however this will 
depend on the products formed. The maximum charge required can be estimated by assuming 
complete anodic oxidation of the AV17 to carbon dioxide, sulphate and nitrate: 

C41H44N3NaO6S2 + 93H2O → 41CO2 + 230H
+
 + Na

+
 + 2SO4

2−
 + 3NO3

−
 + 224e− (8) 

Alternatively a lower estimate of the charge required for mineralisation can be obtained by 
assuming that the products were carbon monoxide, sulphide and nitrogen: 

C41H44N3NaO6S2 + 35H2O → 41CO + 114H
+
 + Na

+
 + 2S

2−
 + 1.5N2 + 111e

− (9) 

The theoretical charge, Q, for mineralisation of the AV17 dye can be estimated from: 

e

w

q nF
Q

M
=  (10) 

where n is the number of electrons required per molecule of dye oxidised, F is Faraday’s constant 
(96487 C mol−1), and Mw is the molecular weight of the dye (761.9 g mol−1). The value of qe was 
1.05 mg g−1, and using n = 111 and 224 [based on Equations (4) and (5) respectively] the 
theoretical charge required for mineralisation of the AV17 would be between 15 and 30 C g−1. 
Comparison of these values with the data in Fig. 4 suggests that the charge efficiency for the 
anodic oxidation is high, but further work is needed to determine whether any breakdown 
products are present in the treated water.  
 

 
Figure 4. Regeneration efficiency as a function of charge passed during electrochemical 

regeneration of the GIC adsorbent NyexTM 1000 loaded with 1.06 mg g−1 of the organic dye 
AV17, using a current density of 10 mA cm−2 and a bed depth 2.2 cm. 



F. M. Mohammed et al. J. Electrochem. Sci. Eng. 2(4) (2012) 223-236 

doi: 10.5599/jese.2012.0019 231 

The cell voltage was not continuously monitored, but was observed to be relatively stable at 
around 6 V throughout regeneration. The cell voltage is dominated by ohmic losses in the 
membrane and in the water in the anode compartment. Slight variations in the cell voltage were 
observed, presumably associated with changes in the conductivity of the water in the anode 
compartment (for example due the decrease in pH caused by the electrochemical processes) or 
the formation of gas bubbles leading to a decrease in effective conductivity.  It was thus not 
possible to use the cell voltage to determine the completion of the regeneration.  Based on a cell 
voltage of 6 V, the energy cost of the regeneration was 120 J per g of adsorbent regenerated or 
115 J per mg of AV17 removed and destroyed. 

Multi-stage batch design model 

Batch adsorption and regeneration process are usually carried on small volumes of wastewater. 
However, the efficiency of dye removal can be improved by carrying out the treatment using 
multi-stage adsorption/regeneration system. An adsorption isotherm can be used to predict the 
design of a single stage batch adsorption system [31-36]. A wastewater treatment process 
consisting of a series of adsorption and regeneration stages can be considered to be a multi-stage 
equilibrium operation. The adsorption isotherm can thus be used to design a multi-stage 
adsorption / regeneration process as shown in Figure 5. 
 

Figure 5. Schematic diagram of two stages in a multi-stage batch adsorption and regeneration 
system, considered as a multi-stage equilibrium process. 

The design objective is to reduce the dye concentration in the feed (of volume V) from C0 to Cn 
(mg L−1), reusing the adsorbent (of mass W) in each adsorption stage after regeneration. The dye 
mass balance for batch adsorber system (n) in Figure 5 can be written as: 

V Ce,n−1 + W qr = V Ce,n + W qe,n  (11) 

For the electrochemical regeneration process used in this study, we can assume that the 
regeneration efficiency was 100% (based on the data shown in Figure 4), so qr = q0 = 0 , and 
Equation (11) thus becomes: 

V (Ce,n−1 − Ce,n) = W qe,n  (12) 

The experimental adsorption data were found to fit the Langmuir isotherm model (Equation 3) 
for adsorption of AV17 on the GIC adsorbent. Thus the Langmuir equation can be used to 
substitute for qe,n, giving: 

qe,n 
W 

Ce,n-1

V  

 qe,n-1  

   W 

Batch 
adsorption 

n-1 

Ce,n 

V 

 
Water 
 

Ce,n-2  
V  

qr  

W 

Electrochemical
Regeneration 

Sorbent       qr 
NyexTM1000 W 

Batch
adsorption 

n 



J. Electrochem. Sci. Eng. 2(4) (2012) 223-236 WASTEWATER TREATMENT ADSORPTION AND REGENERATION 

232  

, 1 ,

,

,

( )

1

e n e n

L e n

e n

C CW
V bk C

bC

− −=
 
 

+ 

 (13) 

Equation (13) can be rearranged to a quadratic form and solved to give: 

2

L , 1 L e ,n 1 e ,n 1

,

1 1 4

2

e n

e n

W W
bk bC bk bC bC

V V
C

b

− − −
   − − + − + +   
   =


 (14) 

For the first adsorption cycle (n = 1), Ce,n−1 in Equation (14) is replaced by the initial 
concentration C0.   

Equation (14) was used to determine the concentration after each stage of treatment for a 
given feed concentration C0 and mass of adsorbent (W) using the Langmuir isotherm constants for 
the GIC / AV17 system: b = 0.31 L mg−1 and kL = 0.987 mg g

−1. For a given feed concentration, 
number of adsorption stages and required percentage dye removal, the solution was iterated 
numerically using a forward derivative Newton’s method with a convergence limit of 10−4 in order 
to calculate the amount of adsorbent, W (g), required. 

The amount of adsorbent W was estimated for a five stage adsorption regeneration system to 
achieve AV17 dye removals ranging from 10 to 99 %, for a range of initial concentrations 
(55 - 680 mg L−1), and the results obtained are plotted in Figure 6. 

The results indicate that the amount of adsorbent required increases linearly with the 
percentage dye removal, up to removals of around 90 to 95 %. This can be explained by 
observation that the adsorbent approaches its maximum loading in each of the adsorption cycles, 
so the amount of dye removed per gram of adsorbent is approximately constant.  However, to 
achieve very high removals the dye concentration in the final adsorption stage will be low, so that 
the adsorbent used in this stage will not be fully saturated.  The amount of adsorbent required 
thus begins to increase more rapidly as the final concentration decreases towards zero. 

 
Figure 6. The adsorbent dose required as a function of the dye removal for a range of initial dye 

concentrations using a five stage batch adsorption and regeneration system. 



F. M. Mohammed et al. J. Electrochem. Sci. Eng. 2(4) (2012) 223-236 

doi: 10.5599/jese.2012.0019 233 

For validation of the model, an experimental study of a five stage adsorption – regeneration 
process was carried out for the adsorption of AV17 (with an initial concentration of 
C  = 668 mg L−1) onto the GIC adsorbent (with an adsorbent dose of 125 g L−1). The values of the 
percentage removal achieved (Rn) after each stage obtained from the model and the experiment 
(Equations 14 and 15) were compared, as shown in Figure 7.  The percentage removal of AV17 was 
observed to increase from 19 to 93 % in stages 1 to 5, and there was good agreement between the 
experimental data and the model. From the experimental data, the adsorbent loading after each 
adsorption cycle was found to be approximately 1±0.05 mg g−1, consistent with the capacity of 
adsorbent obtained from the isotherm study [24]. This confirms that for the conditions used in this 
experiment the adsorbent was approaching saturation with AV17 after each adsorption cycle. 

0 n
n

0

 0% 10/
C C

R
C
−

=  (15) 

The adsorbent material investigated in this study has a very low adsorbent capacity, and there 
is significant potential to develop new adsorbent materials suitable for electrochemical regene-
ration but with increased adsorptive capacity compared to the GIC adsorbent NyexTM 1000. Recent 
studies have shown that higher specific surface area adsorbent materials similar to the GIC used in 
this study can offer improved adsorption capacity [37,38]. In order to evaluate the benefits of in-
creased adsorptive capacity, the effect of the value of the Langmuir kL on the multi-stage adsorp-
tion-regeneration process was investigated. In this case, the number of adsorption/regeneration 
stages required to achieve 99.9 % AV17 removal (with an initial concentration of 1 g L−1) was calcu-
lated for an adsorbent dose of 125 g L−1 and for a range of values of kL (see Figure 8). As kL was in-
creased, it was found that stage number of stages of adsorption-regeneration required decreased 
such that a doubling of the adsorbent capacity leads to a reduction in the number of stages 
required from 10 to 5. A doubling of the adsorbent capacity has been demonstrated [37,38] and 
an order of magnitude increase in kL can readily be envisaged, which would reduce the number of 
stages required to only 2.  This would have a significant impact on the economics of the process. 

 
Figure 7. Performance of batch adsorption and electrochemical regeneration for removal of 

AV17 using the GIC adsorbent NyexTM 1000 with five stages adsorption and regeneration.  The 
initial AV17 concentration was 680 mg L−1 and the adsorbent dose was 125 g L−1. 



J. Electrochem. Sci. Eng. 2(4) (2012) 223-236 WASTEWATER TREATMENT ADSORPTION AND REGENERATION 

234  

 
Figure 8. Effect of adsorptive capacity (kL) on the number of stages required for 99.9% removal 

of AV17 (with an initial concentration of 1 g L−1) using multi-stage adsorption-regeneration 
with an adsorbent dose of 125 g L−1. 125 g L−1. 

Conclusions 

It has recently been shown that low capacity unexpanded GIC adsorbents can be regenerated 
rapidly and cheaply, so that they can be regenerated and reused on-site [23,25,26]. This study 
describes the first detailed study of the adsorption/regeneration characteristics of a graphite 
intercalation compound. The laboratory scale batch regeneration tests demonstrated that the GIC 
adsorbent loaded with the organic dye Acid Violet 17 could be fully regenerated with a charge of 
around 15 C g−1. This charge is of the correct order of magnitude to suggest that the dye was 
mineralised during regeneration.  The energy cost of the regeneration was found to be around 120 
J per g of adsorbent regenerated or 115 J per mg of AV17 removed and destroyed. 

The effective treatment of wastewater containing a dissolved organic contaminant by multi-
stage batch adsorption with electrochemical regeneration has been demonstrated for the first 
time. Multistage adsorption / regeneration was shown to be effective for the removal of high 
concentrations of AV17 dye using the GIC adsorbent, exploiting its rapid electrochemical 
regeneration.  Removal of 93 % of the dye from a solution containing 668 mg L−1 of AV17 was 
achieved after five cycles of treatment with 125 g L−1 of the GIC adsorbent. A design model for the 
multi-stage adsorption and electrochemical regeneration process based on the Langmuir 
equilibrium isotherm has been developed and validated for removal of a dye. This model was used 
to predict the dose of adsorbent required to achieve a range of dye removals for a given number 
of adsorption / regeneration cycles. The model was found to be in good agreement with the 
experimental results obtained for five stages of adsorption / regeneration. It was found that the 
predicted number of stages of batch adsorption / regeneration required to achieve 99.9 % AV17 
removal was halved when the adsorptive capacity of the adsorbent was doubled. This finding 
confirms that development of adsorbents which can be regenerated electrochemically with 
increased capacity compared to the GIC used in this study could significantly improve the 
economics of the process. 



F. M. Mohammed et al. J. Electrochem. Sci. Eng. 2(4) (2012) 223-236 

doi: 10.5599/jese.2012.0019 235 

Acknowledgements: The authors would like to thank the UK Engineering and Physical Sciences 
Research Council, ARVIA Technology Ltd and the Iraqi Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific 
Research for their financial support for this research. 

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    /NLD (Gebruik deze instellingen om Adobe PDF-documenten te maken die zijn geoptimaliseerd voor prepress-afdrukken van hoge kwaliteit. De gemaakte PDF-documenten kunnen worden geopend met Acrobat en Adobe Reader 5.0 en hoger.)
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    /ENU (Use these settings to create Adobe PDF documents best suited for high-quality prepress printing.  Created PDF documents can be opened with Acrobat and Adobe Reader 5.0 and later.)
  >>
  /Namespace [
    (Adobe)
    (Common)
    (1.0)
  ]
  /OtherNamespaces [
    <<
      /AsReaderSpreads false
      /CropImagesToFrames true
      /ErrorControl /WarnAndContinue
      /FlattenerIgnoreSpreadOverrides false
      /IncludeGuidesGrids false
      /IncludeNonPrinting false
      /IncludeSlug false
      /Namespace [
        (Adobe)
        (InDesign)
        (4.0)
      ]
      /OmitPlacedBitmaps false
      /OmitPlacedEPS false
      /OmitPlacedPDF false
      /SimulateOverprint /Legacy
    >>
    <<
      /AddBleedMarks false
      /AddColorBars false
      /AddCropMarks false
      /AddPageInfo false
      /AddRegMarks false
      /ConvertColors /ConvertToCMYK
      /DestinationProfileName ()
      /DestinationProfileSelector /DocumentCMYK
      /Downsample16BitImages true
      /FlattenerPreset <<
        /PresetSelector /MediumResolution
      >>
      /FormElements false
      /GenerateStructure false
      /IncludeBookmarks false
      /IncludeHyperlinks false
      /IncludeInteractive false
      /IncludeLayers false
      /IncludeProfiles false
      /MultimediaHandling /UseObjectSettings
      /Namespace [
        (Adobe)
        (CreativeSuite)
        (2.0)
      ]
      /PDFXOutputIntentProfileSelector /DocumentCMYK
      /PreserveEditing true
      /UntaggedCMYKHandling /LeaveUntagged
      /UntaggedRGBHandling /UseDocumentProfile
      /UseDocumentBleed false
    >>
  ]
>> setdistillerparams
<<
  /HWResolution [4000 4000]
  /PageSize [612.000 792.000]
>> setpagedevice