


















































Journal of Green Learning


Journal of Green Learning, e-ISSN 2807-890X 

Vol. 2, No. 1, 2022, pp. 68-77.  
DOI: 10.53889/jgl.v2i1.107 

-------------------------------------------------------- 

 

Confucian conception of critical thinking in teaching English as a 

foreign language in Myanmar 
 

Soe Darli Wai
1
 

1 Department of English, Myitkyina University, Myitkyina, Myanmar 

 

Article Info  ABSTRACT 
Article history: 

Received September 21, 2021 

Revised   February 18, 2022 

Accepted March 29, 2022 

 

 The Confucian-Western dichotomy often interprets as Eastern and Western 
learning. In the framework of lifelong learning, the Confucian philosophy 

hypothesizes learning as a lifelong progression through which learners of any 

age learn to become an honorable person and to lead a morally outstanding life. 

This research has been done to find out whether the Confucian conception of 

critical thinking possesses is like harmonizing mechanisms to those of the 

Western conception of critical thinking. This research discovers the comparison 

of Confucian conception of critical thinking and the Western conception of 

critical thinking through literature review and text analysis. Reflection on 

interview survey, questionnaire survey and classroom observation show that 

Confucian “enlightening approach” works efficiently in today‟s effort in critical 

thinking cultivation in English teaching. The study suggests detailed research in 

building the theoretical framework for the Confucian conception of critical 

thinking, examination of other approaches to develop critical thinking abilities 

in addition the “enlightening approach,” and in-depth studies of present 

practical research on critical thinking in TEFL in Myanmar to see how they can 

be useful in materializing Confucian conception of critical thinking. 

 

Keywords: 

Bloom‟s Taxonomy  

Confucian conception 

critical thinking 

TEFL 

western conception 

This is an open access article under the CC BY-SA license. 

 
Corresponding Author: 

Soe Darli Wai 

Department of English 

Myitkyina University 

Myitkyina  

Myanmar  

Email: soedarliwai89@gmail.com 

 

1. INTRODUCTION 

Myanmar English teachers and scholars, in their effort to develop critical thinking skills among EFL 

students, have looked more to Western conception and practice of critical thinking rather than the native 

Confucian conception of critical thinking. Myanmar EFL teachers‟ views on Confucian education thought and its 

conception of critical thinking and its compatibility and comparison with Western conception of critical thinking, 

a case study, and a field observation are explored in this study. 

1.1 Confucian conception of critical thinking 

According to House et.al. (2004), East Asian countries including Myanmar, China, and South Korea 

have been acutely influenced by Confucian educational philosophies. Kee (2007) also suggested “Confucian 

pedagogic cultures” concluding that, “Despite variations among them, these cultures share the following primary 

pedagogic patterns: a premium placed on education, high social status of, and respect for, the teacher, student 

attention and discipline in class, mastery of foundational knowledge, and repeated practice”. Besides, Marginson 

(2011) observed the dynamic educational system operated in Asia as the “Confucian Model” which serves as an 

edge for Asian universities to compete with Western universities and offers a unique model for the universities in 

the world. Meanwhile, in Asia, increasing research in incorporating Confucian educational thought into present 

teaching has been done.  

Wei‟s (2016) exploration of Confucian conception of critical thinking in today‟s English teaching 

seemed outnumbered by the many studies on “critical thinking and English teaching.” Till today, however, there 

is no clear theory and operation system in developing critical skills in Myanmar‟s current foreign language 

teaching. Ma (2019) found that “content-based teaching mode, classroom questioning, argumentative discourse 

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


69 

 

analysis, critical thinking assessment, the application of information technology” were listed as the five aspects 

of the hot issues. So far, Berthal (2017) pointed out, besides making connections between knowledge and 

practice, Confucius also encouraged his students to embrace people from different backgrounds. Sigurðsson 

(2017) devised the term of “transformative self-critical attitude” found in Confucian critical thinking as 

something neglected in the contemporary West.  

Wu (2018) concluded that ultimately, the purpose of Confucian education is to foster a student to 

become a junzi, the exemplary person depicted in Confucian classics (gentleman; literally, “ruler's son” or 

“noble son”). A junzi should always be 1) open to new knowledge and good at making connections between old 

and new information; 2) self-aware, self-reflective, and empathetic; 3) able to conduct analysis and recognize 

truth from false information; 4) able to consider information from multiple sources; 5) dare to doubt authority 

and draw accurate conclusions; and 6) good at doing evaluations to correct mistakes. Consequently, an ideal 

person in Confucianism is really a critical thinker who can “identify its strengths and weakness and change it in 

improved form”. According to Xueli (2010), “Critical thinking, interpreted broadly as skillful, reflective and 

responsible thinking that facilitates judgement, is an integral component of Confucian education. The improves 

of students‟ critical thinking capacities through approaches such as asking and responding to questions, engaging 

in reflective discussions, and forming one‟s own conclusions.  

Students are usually discouraged to stand out, to question and to challenge, in Myanmar teacher-student 

relationship. Students in following Western based education think that when measured across the cultural scopes 

of power distance and uncertainty avoidance, lectures developed as the most perceived effective technique 

preferred (self-reported by students). In summary, East Asian students who are in a traditional Confucian 

framework are more possible to be hardworking yet respectful and lacking critical thinking. Teachers seem to 

have suffered too. Confucian traditions of self-discipline and respect for authority might constrain learners‟ 

independence, innovative thinking and free expression in the classroom which can bound creativity and scientific 

development”. Confucian education thought, and its conception of critical thinking seems to appear as a 

kaleidoscope from which different people see (choose to see) different things under the push and pull of different 

features.  

1.2 Western conception of critical thinking 

Today, critical thinking is viewed as a vital skill for talents of the 21
st
 century. According to Chaffee 

(2014), the original meaning of the word “critical” means to notice the essence of things and analyze it. Ennis 

(1962) expanded critical thinking as “reasonable, reflective thinking that is focused on deciding what to believe 

or do.” John Dewey (1923) defined critical thinking as “reflective thinking” and proposed a model developing 

from “suggestion, problem definition, hypothesis generation, reasoning, and hypothesis testing”. Ryan & Louie 

(2007) thought that critical thinking is regarded as the Western or Euro-American thinking with a history of 

2,500 years. As the father and model of critical thinking, Socrates passed on a critical attitude that people should 

never take things for granted; instead, they should seek truth through evidence collection and reasoning.  

The 1930s perceived a growth of research interest in critical thinking in America. The cultivation of 

critical thinking skills has become the center of American educational reform during the 1980s. Thus far, 

innovative teaching methods including experimental education, team projects, jigsaw projects, case studies have 

facilitated the development of critical thinking skills among students. Since the 1990s, researchers around the 

world have continued to conduct thorough study in critical thinking. Scriven observed that under the influence of 

postmodernism, critical thinking took on the factor of “questioning and challenging the existing knowledge and 

social habitudes” as essential. Paul & Elder (2019) summarized critical thinking as “the art of thinking in such a 

way to: 1) identify its (the objective‟s) strengths and weaknesses, and 2) recast it in improved form (where 

necessary)” (Wu & Yin, 2018).  

Critical thinking abilities are highly valued as the higher levels of Bloom‟s taxonomy. “Western 

teachers are encouraged to emphasize the higher levels of Bloom‟s taxonomy. They have a good command of 

the lower levels of this taxonomy if students can analyze, synthesize, and evaluate freely what they have learned. 

Moreover, the higher levels of this taxonomy are supposed to lead to greater autonomy in thinking (Luo, 2021). 

In other words, critical thinking skills are far more significant than just mastery of knowledge. Western teachers 

frown upon those who teach only the lower levels of Bloom‟s taxonomy” (Victor & Storey, 2015). According to 

Bloom and his associates, the taxonomy comprised six levels, from lower levels to higher levels: “knowledge, 

comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. The first three levels are considered lower 

levels, and the other three levels are seen as higher levels of this taxonomy. 

 

2. RESEARCH OBJECTIVE 

Learning in Confucian terms is understood and practiced as learning for the sake of learning itself, as 

opposed to learning for the sake of a helpful purpose. Learning is considered characteristic of the competition-

oriented conception of critical thinking in the contemporary West in the context of globalization. The aim of this 

study is threefold. First, it will discover conception of critical thinking from the Confucian philosophy. Second, 



70 

 

we will investigate language teachers‟ understanding of teaching and learning across the conception of critical 

thinking in western learning culture. 

  

3.  METHOD  

Teaching English as a foreign language in Myanmar perceives the meeting of two thinking patterns, 

including Confucian critical thinking and Western critical thinking. Therefore, it would be of great value to 

compare two critical thinking patterns in the process of TEFL to see how they interrelate for a better learning 

result. So far very few experimental studies have directly focused on how to apply Confucian educational 

principles to improve critical thinking skills, particularly in English teaching. An examination into a classroom 

observation, interview survey and questionnaire study were directed to explore the probable application of 

Confucian conception of critical thinking to TEFL in Myanmar.  

The interview survey and the questionnaire were adapted from Paul & Elder (2019). Data for this 

research were collected from postgraduate students and academics at selected universities. Purposive sampling 

technique was used which allowed the researchers to collect data from key informants. A mixed methods 

approach was adopted in this study. A questionnaire with predominantly closed ended questions was used to 

collect quantitative data. Qualitative data were collected by conducting follow-up interviews with some 

academic staff. The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) was used to analyze quantitative data 

from both students and academics. Some frequencies and percentages generated using SPSS were exported to 

MS Excel to produce charts and MS Word to produce tables. Interviews were recorded using recording 

applications on iPhone X smartphones.  

The recorded interviews were then transcribed using the Transcribe© software into MS word. 

Qualitative data were analyzed thematically. The strength of this study is the use of a mixed methods approach 

which allowed the researchers to triangulate the results. In this context, data collected using questionnaires from 

students and academic staff were used to confirm each other, and we drew the conclusions of the study based on 

the findings that were supported most by data sources. To ensure that the questionnaire was free from errors, its 

content was subjected to pretesting in two ways. First, the researcher asked experts in research in higher 

education to comment on the questionnaire focusing on clarity, question wording, validity and order of the 

questions. Second, the researcher piloted the questionnaire with 10 postgraduate students and 2 lecturers at the 

University.  

Postgraduate students and lecturers were used in the pilot study because they were similar to the target 

population of our study. Feedback from education experts and the pilot study was used to make corrections on 

the questionnaire. Ethical issues were addressed in two ways in this study. First, the researcher sought and were 

granted permission by the Rectors of selected universities. Permission to conduct this study through the 

university research ethics committee was sought. Second, before taking part in the study, participants were 

informed through a consent letter that they were taking part in the study voluntarily. The consent letter further 

informed participants that even if they had accepted to participate in the study, they were at liberty to withdraw 

at any stage of the study without giving reasons. The participants signed the consent letter to show that they had 

read the content and that they were taking part in the study voluntarily. 

3.1 Case study of critical thinking development at the selected universities in Myanmar 

In January 2020, to incorporate elements of critical thinking in the classes of English to help foster 

critical thinking abilities among students has been made. The English department developed a three-step 

approach of “slowing down” “verification” and “awakening” to facilitate critical thinking among students as the 

article reported. “Slowing down” allows in-depth thinking for students to ask questions and to search for 

answers. Until finally they are roused to a new idea or conclusion, they test and verify their ideas or thoughts. 

The teacher in the process directed the students along the quest with questions and guidance, a very similar 

process Confucius enlightened his students. In the “enlightening approach” in Confucian tradition, Confucius 

said, “I do not enlighten (a person who is) not striving (to understand); I do not provide (the words to a person 

who is) not already struggling to speak. (Analects 7:8). According to Tan (2017), Confucius modeled how he as 

a teacher “fosters reflection and inferential thinking by providing the initial point of learning and expecting the 

student to make their own deductions and judgements”. 

3.2 Classroom observation on critical thinking  

In January 2020, 50 students (17-20 years old) in the class were observed for a very cooperative English 

learning environment. In this classroom, 50 students were divided into 5 groups following a routine of role 

playing, watching video, group discussion and presentation. Each day the camp started with a game or craft to 

help the students break ice and warm up. Then they watched a TEDS talk and discussed about what they heard 

from the lectures. Then two groups formed one side to take on the other side formed by another two groups, 

debating on the topic. They started to work within their groups on the final project in the afternoon.  

For the final project, each group was asked to discuss their dream life, divide it into different life stages, 

talk about different challenges they might face and how to overcome the problems. Finally, each group was 



71 

 

going to present their dream life with the combination of PPT, videos and stage play. The students discussed 

with their partners, shared their ideas with group members, and worked together. These are my observations: 

i. The students enjoyed the hands-on experience with crafts and games that helped them get a handle 
of critical thinking. The students enjoyed the fun process and each member in the group contributed 

ideas and efforts. After that, each group reflected on what they had done right or wrong in the course 

and shared them with other groups. All the components of critical thinking; thinking, discussion, 

testing, creation, and reflection were covered. 

ii. However, the students did not feel contented in challenging their friends and teachers in projects like 

debating, in spite of they had good ideas and could express them well. They naturally drew back and 

let their teammates to speak for them after they shared their ideas in the group. 

iii. Besides being reluctant to challenge, students seem to be able to accommodate paradoxical thinking 

well. In face of one problem, they thought hard, thought long, and came up with very detailed 

solutions. 

 

4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION 

The research in and practice of cultivating Confucian conception of critical thinking skills can provide 

students with the chance to understand and take charge of their learning. Students are able to fill in the six levels 

of Bloom‟s taxonomy of knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation after 

modeling and training. Their comprehension and application of their knowledge gave their groups to compete 

with other groups. They also have critical thinking naturally. It can be seen that the characters of group thinking 

attitude behind the “contextual critique.” According to a classroom observation, interview survey and 

questionnaire study, critical thinking skills are regarded as one of the major components of all examinations 

across subjects in teaching English as a Foreign Language in Myanmar. Therefore, foreign language learning 

comprises not only the mastering of language knowledge but also the cultivation of critical thinking skills. 

4.1 Reflection on the Interview Survey 

To investigate Myanmar language teachers‟ understanding of teaching and learning across the 

Confucian conception of critical thinking, interview survey was made. The following presents the reflection on 

the interview survey of teachers. 

 

Table 1 Teachers‟ interview responses  

SN Theme Discussion 

1 Asking and 

responding to 

questions 

Interviewee 1 

We put more emphasis on fostering students‟ ability to question and think, to cultivate 

a serious scientific attitude.  

Interviewee 2 

An ideal learner is also keenly aware of lifelong learning and daily improvement. 

Interviewee 3 

The man who asks a question is a fool for a minute, the man who does not ask is a fool 

for life. (Mark Twain) 

2 Engaging in 

reflective 

discussions 

Interviewee 4 

The students adjusted to each other‟s critique thinking approaches and worked well 

together, which gave an encouraging hope for Confucian critical thinking and Western 

critical thinking to complement each other.  

Interviewee 5 

An ideal learner should also be brave to admit mistakes and correct them. 

Interviewee 6 

My Practice: How to engage quiet students in the classroom break away from whole 

group discussions. Whole-group activities remain a common method of instruction. 

Offer alternatives for discussions and presentations.  Use roles to change the group 

work dynamic. Have private one-on-one conversations with students. 

3 Forming 

one‟s own 

conclusions 

Interviewee 7 

Confucian‟s enlightenment approach still works very well in facilitating questions and 

thinking for students. 

Interviewee 8 

An ideal learner should be self-reflective and empathetic in study, interpersonal 

relationship, and business. Each day I reflect on myself upon three points. In 

transacting business for others, whether I have been faithful or not? In intercourse with 

friends, whether I have been sincere or not? And whether I have mastered and 



72 

 

practiced the instructions of my teacher or not? 

Interviewee 9 

I believe that discussions can be an excellent strategy for enhancing student 

motivation, fostering intellectual agility, and encouraging democratic habits. They 

create opportunities for students to practice and sharpen several skills, including the 

ability to articulate and defend positions, consider different points of view, and enlist 

and evaluate evidence. 

 

In the interviews, how the teachers tried to create an active atmosphere in the class to encourage 

students to speak up, a favorable environment for critical thinking to blossom has been discussed. According to 

interviewees (1, 2 & 3), they agree with theme 1 as they emphasize on asking and responding to questions. 

Therefore, they have potential impact on it. According to interview data, an ideal learner is also keenly aware of 

lifelong learning and daily improvement, as Confucius said that if students can improve themselves in a day, do 

so each day, forever building on improvement.  

Moreover, they also suggest that an ideal learner should be self-reflective and empathetic in study, 

interpersonal relationship, and business. According to them, an ideal learner should also be brave to admit 

mistakes and correct them, as Confucius said that having made a mistake and not correcting it, is another mistake 

itself. An ideal learner can embrace new knowledge openly, nonjudgmentally yet carefully before he puts it into 

practice and develop wisdom from it. He raises energetic questions and problems, expressing them clearly and 

exactly. So, the teachers have potential impact on engaging in reflective discussions.  

According to interviewees (7, 8 & 9), teachers accept that students to gather and assess relevant 

information and come to well-reasoned conclusions and solutions, testing them against appropriate norms and 

standards. Critical thinking is self-directed, self-disciplined, self-monitored, and self-corrective thinking. It 

involves effective communication and problem-solving abilities and a commitment to overcome our native self-

interest and sociocentrism. Thus, the teachers agree with forming one‟s own conclusions. 

4.2 Reflection on the questionnaire survey 

The following table indicates the reflection on the questionnaire survey of students‟ views on the 

purpose of Confucian education (Table 2). 

 

Table 2 Students‟ views on the purpose of Confucian education (n=113) 

SN Statements 

Responses Calculation 

Decision Strongly 

disagree 

Dis-

agree 

Some-

times 
Agree 

Strongly 

agree 
Mean SD 

1 

A junzi should always 

be open to new 

knowledge and good 

at making connections 

between old and new 

information. 

1% 7% 23% 28% 41% 4.01 1.00 
Very 

important  

2 

A junzi should always 

be self-aware, self-

reflective, and 

empathetic. 

5% 7% 33% 44% 11% 3.49 0.95 

Very 

important  

3 

A junzi should always 

be able to conduct 

analysis and recognize 

truth from false 

information. 

5% 13% 35% 26% 21% 3.45 1.11 

Very 

important  

4 

A junzi should always 

be able to consider 

information from 

multiple sources. 

3% 4% 22% 34% 37% 3.98 1.01 

Very 

important  

5 

A junzi should always 

be dared to doubt 

authority and draw 

accurate conclusions. 

3% 8% 14% 37% 38% 3.99 1.05 

Very 

important  

6 
A junzi should always 

be good at doing 
2% 6% 23% 34% 35% 3.94 1.00 

Very 

important  



73 

 

evaluations to correct 

mistakes. 

Average 3% 8% 25% 34% 31% 3.81 1.05 
Very 

important 

Note: 

1.00-1.80=Considered as not important 

1.81-2.60=Considered as somewhat important  

2.61-3.40=Considered as important 

3.41-4.20=Considered as very important  

4.21-5.00=Considered as extremely important 

 

According to the data, students‟ views on the purpose of Confucian education has been considered as 

very important. Students considered as very important in item 1 that they should always be open to new 

knowledge and good at making connections between old and new information. Critical thinking skills are 

regarded as one of the major components across subjects. Students‟ ability to analyze, suggest, define problems, 

reason, test hypotheses, interpret, explain, solve problems, and innovate is assessed. Consequently, how to foster 

students‟ growth as critical thinkers has become a matter of importance for Myanmar educators across the 

educational spectrum. It has been also found that they should always be dared to doubt authority and draw 

accurate conclusions. The Means of the data have different in numbers, they are considered as very important 

according to the limitation 3.41-4.20, that means considered as very important. 

Berthel (2017) found the component of critical thinking implanted in Confucianism the same way it is 

in liberal ideals for education. Central to the Myanmar education mission is the concept that genuinely valuable 

learning is not categorized by the memorization of a body of information but slightly necessarily requires an 

ability to respond instinctively and appropriately to numerous situations, engage meaningfully with those around 

us, and cultivate the wherewithal to relate peacefully and effectively with all. It has been found the following 

traits of an ideal learner in the Confucian education tradition that resemble those of a critical thinker through 

classroom observation analysis. An ideal learner is all ears and eyes for new information and is perceptive about 

them, as Confucius says, “I use my ears widely and follow what is good in what I have heard; I use my eyes 

widely and retain what I have seen in my mind. Knowledge will follow if we consistently do it” (Analects 7:27).  

Table 3 shows the teacher participant‟s views on the practice of Confucian conception of critical thinking. 

 

Table 3 Teacher participants‟ views on the practice of Confucian conception of critical thinking (n=69) 

SN Statements 

Responses Calculation 

Decision 
Never Seldom 

Some-

times 
Often 

Alwa

ys 
Mean SD 

1 Besides making 

connections between 

knowledge and practice, 

we encouraged our 

students to accept people 

from different 

backgrounds. 

11% 27% 22% 18% 22% 3.13 1.32 Important 

2 Our students are trained to 

have an ability to respond 

naturally and appropriately 

to numerous situations, 

engage meaningfully with 

those around us, and 

cultivate the ability to 

interact peacefully and 

efficiently with all. 

5% 17% 30% 24% 24% 3.45 1.17 
Very 

important 

3 We train our students to be 

keenly aware of lifelong 

learning and daily 

improvement. 

15% 19% 25% 21% 20% 3.12 1.34 Important 

4 We train our students to be 

brave to admit mistakes 

and correct them. 

13% 14% 22% 24% 27% 3.38 1.35 Important 

Average 11% 19% 25% 22% 23% 3.27 1.31 Important 



74 

 

Note: 

1.00-1.80=Considered as not important,  

1.81-2.60=Considered as somewhat important  

2.61-3.40=Considered as important  

3.41-4.20=Considered as very important  

4.21-5.00=Considered as extremely important 

 

According to Table 3, the teachers suggest that Confucian thoughts encourage people to learn by 

thinking analytically and critically. These thoughts are consistent with that, a critical thinker should be good at 

conducting analysis, drawing accurate conclusions, and articulating thoughts. Myanmar students are trained to 

have an ability to respond naturally and appropriately to numerous situations, engage meaningfully with those 

around them, and cultivate the ability to interact peacefully and efficiently with all. Table 4 expresses the teacher 

participant‟s views on the practice of Western conception of critical thinking. 

 

Table 4 Teacher participants‟ views on practice of western conception of critical thinking (n=69) 

SN Statements 

Responses Calculation 

Decision 
Never Seldom 

Some-

times 
Often Always Mean SD 

1 

Students are encouraged 

to emphasize the higher 

levels of Bloom‟s 

taxonomy. 

5% 21% 30% 33% 11%  3.24 1.06 Important 

2 

Students are trained to 

analyze, synthesize, and 

evaluate freely what they 

have learned to have a 

good command of the 

higher levels of 

taxonomy. 

4% 13% 31% 30% 22% 3.53 1.09 
Very 

important 

3 

The higher levels of 

taxonomy are believed to 

lead to greater autonomy 

in thinking.  

6% 15% 33% 28% 18% 3.37 1.12 Important 

4 

Critical thinking skills 

are far more important 

than just mastery of 

knowledge. 

1% 18% 31% 33% 17% 3.47 1.00 
Very 

important 

5 

Myanmar teachers teach 

only the higher levels of 

Bloom‟s taxonomy. 

14% 14% 22% 34% 16% 3.24 1.27 

Important 

Average 6% 16% 29% 32% 17% 3.37 1.12 Important 

Note: 

1.00-1.80=Considered as not important,  

1.81-2.60=Considered as somewhat important  

2.61-3.40=Considered as important 

3.41-4.20=Considered as very important  

4.21-5.00=Considered as extremely important 

 

According to Table 4, the teachers suggest that students need to be trained Western conception of 

critical thinking. These thoughts are similar that students are encouraged to emphasize the higher levels of 

Bloom‟s taxonomy and critical thinking skills are far more important than just mastery of knowledge. 

Meanwhile, Myanmar students are trained to analyze, synthesize, and evaluate freely what they have learned to 

have a good command of the higher levels of taxonomy.  

The following table points out the comparison of teacher participants‟ views between practice of 

Confucian conception of critical thinking and Western conception of critical thinking. 

 

 

 



75 

 

Table 5 Comparison of teacher participants‟ views between practice of Confucian conception of critical thinking 

and Western conception of critical thinking (n=69) 

SN Statements 

Responses Calculation 

Decision 
Never Seldom 

Some-

times 
Often Always Mean SD 

1 

Teacher participants‟ 

views on the practice of 

Confucian conception of 

critical thinking 

11% 19% 25% 22% 23% 3.27 1.31 Important 

2 

Teacher participants‟ 

views on practice of 

western conception of 

critical thinking 

6% 16% 29% 32% 17% 3.37 1.12 Important 

Average 8.5% 17.5% 27.0% 27.0% 20.0% 3.33 1.22 Important 

Note: 

1.00-1.80=Considered as not important,  

1.81-2.60=Considered as somewhat important  

2.61-3.40=Considered as important 

3.41-4.20=Considered as very important  

4.21-5.00=Considered as extremely important 

 

Confucian conception of critical thinking is expected to be on an equal footing with the Western 

conception of critical thinking, which makes their meeting and combination possible. Thus, it can be decided that 

Confucian critical thinking is comparable with Bloom‟s taxonomy of educational objective, very correlated with 

the skills of critical thinking. Wu (2018) claimed about “the urgent necessity to explore how to properly apply 

the Confucian view of critical thinking to benefit students‟ development in both East Asian and Western 

countries”. In contrast, critical thinking cannot be divided from basic skills. Higher-ordered thinking activities 

are constructed on mastering fundamental knowledge. Having outstanding elementary knowledge and skills is an 

advantage of the students (El Islami et.al., 2018). 

There is great value in understanding and applying Confucian conception of critical thinking in 

developing critical thinking skills among Myanmar students; and its theoretical framework and empirical work 

needs other study. The next consequence is that Confucian conception of critical thinking is well-suited with 

Western conception of critical thinking with the identical components of analysis, synthesis and evaluation, and 

its exclusive background, solution-based orientation could complement the Western conception of critical 

thinking. The third implication is that, reliving approaches and methods in Confucian education tradition for the 

cultivation of critical thinking skills is of importance, incorporation of other research findings in critical thinking 

and TEFL is necessary as well, especially in reaching the full capacity of the six levels of Bloom‟s Taxonomy. 

Finally, cultural factors are to be considered in contextualizing and participating Western conception of critical 

thinking into Confucian conception of critical thinking to produce good results.   

 

 
 

Figure 1 Students‟ views on the purpose of Confucian education (n=113) 

 

Mean=4.01 
Mean=[VALUE] Mean=[VALUE] 

Mean=[VALUE] Mean=[VALUE] Mean=[VALUE] 

0,00
0,50
1,00
1,50
2,00
2,50
3,00
3,50
4,00
4,50
5,00

Making

connections
between old

and new

information

Being self-

aware, self-
reflective, and

empathetic

Recognizing

truth from false
information

Considering

information
from multiple

sources

Drawing

accurate
conclusions

Doing

evaluations to
correct

mistakes

Students' views on the purpose of Confucian education 



76 

 

According to the figure (1), students‟ views on the purpose of Confucian education has been considered 

as very important. Students consider that they should always open to new knowledge and good at making 

connections between old and new information. They also think that they need to draw accurate conclusions. 

Then, they discuss that considering information from multiple sources is very important. In conclusion, it is 

shown that Myanmar teachers agree with Confucian conception of critical thinking and highly accept it as very 

important in education. Nevertheless, culture is watery, not stiff, exclusively in the age of globalization. In a 

study, Kaur & Noman (2015) shared a finding indicated that, “collectivist teachers will accept individualistic 

practices of teaching which are similar to their own cultural beliefs”. Therefore, the East is meeting the West 

with unlimited opportunities. The suggestion is that critical thinking is both a skill, and an important component 

of humankind. Confucian education thought, with “to be fully human” as its main concern, could spread rich 

findings in this area worthy of future research. 

 

5. RECOMMENDATION 

Re-experiencing the value of Confucian conception of critical thinking and discovering its application 

in today‟s English teaching is assumed in today‟s world by many researchers from home and abroad that finally 

stands on its own for its implication. This study has tried to explore the Confucian conception of critical 

thinking, its compatibility with the Western conception of critical thinking, and its implication for TEFL in 

Myanmar. This research hopes to point to the diverse instructions for more research in the future including 

empirical research into the application of Confucian critical thinking in actual classroom teaching in general, and 

in TEFL in particular, and if the two could complement each other; exploration of the situation and outcome of 

the integration of Western critical thinking and Confucian critical thinking; how Confucian critical thinking 

plays out in Myanmar, Asia, and the world. The above research could be completed through comparative study, 

field research, interview, practical study, and additional qualitative research method. 

 

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