Biological suppression of major mealybug species on horticultural crops in India M. Mani, A. Krishnamoorthy and C. Shivaraju Division of Entomology and Nematology Indian Institute of Horticultural Research Bangalore -560 089, India E-mail: mmani1949@yahoo.co.in ABSTRACT Mealybugs, known to be ‘hard to kill pests’, live in protected areas and most stages in their life cycle are covered in a waxy coating. Several insecticides are found ineffective against mealybugs. Fortunately, mealybugs - being sessile insects - are more amenable to biological control. The exotic parasitoid, Leptomastix dactylopii How., was found to be highly effective in suppressing citrus mealybug, Planococcus citri (Risso.) permanantly on citrus, sapota, guava, pomegranate and coffee. This is one of the recent successes in classical biological control attempts in India. However, the Australian ladybird beetle, Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Muls., often provides spectacular control of heavy infestation of P. citri on acid lime, lemon, sweet orange, pummelo, Crossandra and custard apple. Though Anagyrus dactylopii (How.), is a potential parasitoid of pink hibiscus mealybug, Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green), on grapes, releases of C. montrouzieri only help in suppression of the pink hibiscus mealybug on grapes, ber, guava, sapota, custard apple, citrus and hibiscus. The encyrtid parasitoid, Tetracnemoidea indica (Ayyar), was able to check the oriental mealybug, Planococcus lilacinus (Ckll.) on acid lime and pomegranate. The predators, C. montrouzieri and Spalgis epeus Westwood, also play a major role in suppression of P. lilacinus on guava, ber, sapota and chow-chow. The local parasitoid, A. dactylopii was seen to play a major role in suppression of spherical mealybug, Nipaecoccus viridis (Maskell) on citrus and jackfruit. Nevertheless, releases of C. montrouzieri are found highly effective in controlling N. viridis on acid lime and pummelo. Similarly release of C. montrouzieri is found to be highly effective in controlling striped mealybug, Ferrisia virgata (Ckll.), on guava, tuberose and Acalypha in 30-40 days of release. A local parasitoid, Aenasius advena Comp., also plays a major role in suppression of F. virgata on guava, mango, guava, hibiscus, fig, citrus, etc. Release of the coccinellid predator, C. montrouzieri, was found very effective in controlling the mango coccid, Rastrococcus iceryoides (Green) on mango and also on the medicinal plant Decalepis hamiltonii. The encyrtid, Praleurocerus viridis (Agarwal), was found very effective in reducing populations of R. iceryoides on guava. Spalgis epeus was found to be the predominant predator of the papaya mealybug, Paracoccus marginatus Williams and de Granara Willink, but releases of the exotic parasitoid, Acerophagus papayae (Noyes & Schauff), only provide excellent control of P. marginatus within 3-4 months of release. The second successful classical biological control attempt on mealybugs in India. The brinjal mealybug, Coccidohystrix insolita (Green), is known to attack brinjal, Coleus, Hibiscus, etc. Cryptolaemus montrouzieri effectively controlled mealybugs on these three crops in 30-40 days of release. Verticillium lecanii Zimm. (Phule bugicide @ 2g/L) is found to be effective in killing the mealybug. Other fungal pathogens, viz., Beauveria bassiana (Bals.) Vuill and Metarhizium anisopliae (Metch.), are also seen to infect mealybugs in rainy season under humid conditions. Key words: Mealybug, biocontrol, classical biocontrol, parasitoid, predator FOCUS INTRODUCTION Mealybugs (Pseudococcidie: Homoptera) are highly polyphagous and inflict direct damage to crops by sucking their sap from trunk, cordons, buds, spurs, aerial roots, leaves, shoots, nodes, flower panicles, fruits and roots. Mealybugs have become very serious pests on various crops due to elimination of natural biocontrol agents or due to the pest developing resistance to insecticides due to indiscriminate and frequent application. Mealybugs are generally called ‘hard to kill pests’. Perhaps the most important factor is their habitat. Mealybugs live in protected areas such as cracks and crevices of the bark, at the base of leaf petioles, on the underside of leaves and inside the fruit bunch, and most of the stages of this insect are covered with a waxy coating. On several occasions, insecticides do not reach J. Hortl. Sci. 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Luckily, mealybugs (being sessile insects) are more amenable to biological control in horticultural crop ecosystems. Biological suppression of eight major mealybug species attacking various horticultural crops is discussed hereunder. 1. CITRUS MEALYBUG [Planococcus citri (Risso.), (Pseudococcus citri)] Adult female mealybug has a yellow body partly visible through the dorsal median stripe, and lays about 300 amber coloured eggs. This is a major pest of citrus, grape, pomegranate, ber, custard apple, hibiscus, etc. This mealybug is probably the most cosmopolitan and generally destructive species of the family. There is little valid evidence suggestive of its origin but, by elimination, it is speculated that it may be endemic to China. The host list of P. citri is endless as it attacks any flowering crop. Eggs are laid in groups covered by ovisac wax threads and hatch in 5-8 days. Male citrus mealybugs have four nymphal stages called instars. The first nymphal stage lasts for 6-8 days; the second, 5-8 days; the third 2.5 days and the fourth, 3 days. Approximately four days into the second instar, a black tinge develops around the insect body. Two days later, the nymph starts spinning a cocoon around itself. This cocoon is continuously spun, increasing in density until the winged, adult mealybug is ready to emerge two molts later. Female mealybugs have only three nymphal stages. The first nymphal stage lasts for 6- 8days; the second, 5- 9 days and the third, 6- 9 days. Females lay 200 to 400 eggs, averaging 300 eggs, in a life-time. Life cycle is completed in 30-40 days. P. citri damage P. citri eggs Adult female Planococcus citri is mobile in the crawler stage, and colonizes in safe sites on trees, under twigs or at the bases of fruit (where navels are deformed), inside big-group fruits, between thick leaves or under leaves on thick twigs. Mealybugs invade tree-surfaces, extract plant sap and excrete honey-dew that provides a medium for growth of the sooty mould. Sooty mould and white wax grow on plants thus reducing photosynthesis, deforming fruits and thereby lowering their price. Insects also release toxins and cause drop of fruits and leaves and result in dried twigs. Nymphs and adult-females extract plant sap and this stops plant growth; leaves become yellow and drop off. Citrus (sweet orange, acid lime, lemon, pummelo) The mealybug is known to cause 38% to 65% damage on various citrus species in India. Planococcus citri was noticed to be attacked by more than 20 natural enemies in citrus orchards. Anagyrus sp., Blepyrus insularis (Cam.), Diversinervus sp., Tetrastichus sp., Microterys sp., Cryptochaetum sp., Scymnus coccivora (Ayyar), Pullus pallidiocollis Mst., Nephus sp., Chrysopa sp., Micraspas cardoni (Wse.), Pseudaspidimerus uttami Kap., Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Muls. and Spalgis epeus Westwood were recorded in Kodagu (Anon., 1980). In Assam, C. montrouzieri and Entomophthora fumosa Speare1922 were observed on P. citri (Chowdhury and Majid, 1954). Coccidoxenoides perminutus [C. peregrinus (Timberlake), Krishnamoorthy and Mani, 1989b], Mallada boninensis (Okamoto), Chrysoperla lacciperda Kimmins, Anisochrysa basalis Walker and Chrysoperla carnea (Seph.) (Krishnamoorthy and Mani, 1989a) were found to attack P. citri in citrus orchards. The encyrtid parasitoid, C. perminutus, played a dominant role in suppression of P. citri on acid lime and lemon (Mani, 1994b). The parasitoid can be multiplied on 5-10 day old laboratory-bred P. citri. Several plant products and deltamethrin were found to be safe to C. perminutus (Mani and Krishnamoorthy, 2002a). The exotic parasitoid, Leptomastix dactylopii How., was imported from West Indies into India during 1983 for trials against P. citri (Nagarkatti et al, 1992). It was multiplied on 15-20 day old P. citri and P. lilacinus reared on pumpkin fruits (Mani, 1995a). Leptomastix. dactylopii breeds very well on third instar female mealybug nymphs and on young females. Ripe pumpkins with 15-20 days old mealybugs are held in cages. One to two days old, adult-mealybug infested pumpkins are used for oviposition. The life cycle of the parasitoid is completed in about 15 days. Males develop J. Hortl. Sci. 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Applied Color Management Settings: Output Intent (Press Profile): ISOcoated_v2_eci.icc RGB Image: Profile: eciRGB.icc Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no RGB Graphic: Profile: RGB2CMYK.icc Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Device Independent RGB/Lab Image: Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Device Independent RGB/Lab Graphic: Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Device Independent CMYK/Gray Image: Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Device Independent CMYK/Gray Graphic: Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Turn R=G=B (Tolerance 0.5%) Graphic into Gray: yes Turn C=M=Y,K=0 (Tolerance 0.1%) Graphic into Gray: no CMM for overprinting CMYK graphic: yes Gray Image: Apply CMYK Profile: no Gray Graphic: Apply CMYK Profile: no Treat Calibrated RGB as Device RGB: no Treat Calibrated Gray as Device Gray: yes Remove embedded non-CMYK Profiles: no Remove embedded CMYK Profiles: yes Applied Miscellaneous Settings: Colors to knockout: no Gray to knockout: no Pure black to overprint: no Turn Overprint CMYK White to Knockout: yes Turn Overprinting Device Gray to K: yes CMYK Overprint mode: set to OPM1 if not set Create "All" from 4x100% CMYK: yes Delete "All" Colors: no Convert "All" to K: no 87 slightly faster than females. Only one parasitoid emerges per host. Parasitoids are then collected from the cage using an aspirator and fed on 50% honey solution in clean glass vials. Females are honey-yellow to brownish-yellow in colour with dark brown to blackish markings. They have a small ovipositor. Males are smaller than females and have extensive blackish m a r k i n g s (Krishnamoorthy and Singh, 1987). I n o c u l a t i v e releases of L. dactylopii in citrus orchards gave excellent control of P. citri, causing up to 100% parasitism within 3 months of release in Karnataka (Manjunath, 1985b; Krishnamoorthy and Singh, 1987; Nagarkatti et al, 1992). Leptomastix dactylopii, along with C. perminutus, reduced its population from 1342 in February to 15 in May, i.e., in 90 days of the parasitoid activity (Mani, 1994b). Dichlorvos, dicofol, several fungicides and plant products are safe to L. dactylopii (Mani et al, 1993). Leptomastix dacylopii gave good control of P. citri on citrus in California, Spain and Italy. The Australian ladybird beetle, Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Mulsant, was first introduced from Australia into India in the year 1898. It was widely used in controlling citrus mealybug. A simple method involving multiplication of the mealybug and C. montrouzieri on pumpkin fruit was standardized in India (Chacko et al, 1978). Ten beetles to be released per Coorg mandarin tree was recommended in Karnataka. By fifth week of release of the predator, mealybug population was reduced to negligible level. However, release of the predator needs to be repeated whenever the mealybug reappears (Singh, 1978). Threshold temperature for the activity of C. montrouzieri is about C. montrouzieri larva L. dactylopii adult C. perminutus adult 20oC. Mani and Krishnamoorthy (2007c) also reported that C. montrouzieri, when released @ 2000 adults /ac. against P. citri, resulted in decline in mealybug population from 126.64/plant in August, to 0.40/plant in November. Mean 99.68% reduction in mealybug population on acid lime was achieved using the predator within three months of release. Cryptolaemus montrouzieri gave partial to complete control of P. citri on citrus in Spain, Turkey, Eastern Australia and South Africa. Planococcus citri was observed on pummelo (Citrus grandis Swingle). With release of C. montrouzieri @30 larvae/plant on pummelo, the population of P. citri declined from 313.84/plant in August, to 2.63/plant in October (Mani and Krishnamoorthy, 2008a). Guava Naturally-occurring predators, S. epeus C. lacciperda and C. montrouzieri, were able to suppress the numbers from 1420 mealybugs per plant in August to 20.4/ plant in September, i.e., at 45 days from withdrawal of insecticides (Mani and Krishnamoorthy, 1990b). In another orchard, releases of the exotic parasitoid, L. dactylopii, were found to be highly effective against P. citri, reducing mealybug population from 1084/plant in May, to 4.36 in August. The local platygasterids Allotropa citri Mues. and C. perminutus also played an important role in suppression of P. citri on guava (Mani, 1994a). Grape Planococcus citri was found to cause severe damage in many vineyards resulting in up to 60% loss of fruit bunches in Karnataka and Maharashtra (Mani and Kulkarni, 2007). Cryptolaemus montrouzieri was found far superior to chemical control in suppression of mealybug on grapevine. A mean of 0.4% bunch damage was recorded in the bio- control plot compared to 38.4% bunch damage in the plot that followed farmers’ practices (Mani and Krishnamoorthy, Biological suppression of mealybugs P . citri on grapes P. citri on Hibiscus J. Hortl. Sci. Vol. 6(2):85-100, 2011 Prinect Color Editor Page is color controlled with Prinect Color Editor 4.0.70 Copyright 2008 Heidelberger Druckmaschinen AG http://www.heidelberg.com You can view actual document colors and color spaces, with the free Color Editor (Viewer), a Plug-In from the Prinect PDF Toolbox. Please request a PDF Toolbox CD from your local Heidelberg office in order to install it on your computer. 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Efficacy of C. montrouzieri in controlling P. citri has been reported in vineyards at Black Sea Coast area and in Turkey. Inoculative releases of L. dactylopii gave good control of P. citri on grape in Uzbekistan. Recovery of L. dacylopii was made from P. citri infesting table-grapes and wine-grapes in Maharashtra and Karnataka. Ber Two parasitoids, C. perminutus and Allotropa sp., and the predator C. montrouzieri, were recorded on P. citri infesting ber. These three natural-enemies, along with L. dactylopii, were able to check the mealybug very effectively from causing further damage/spread (Mani, 1993). Sapota The local parasitoid, C. perminutus, was able to reduce mealybug population from 156/shoot in January to 0.46/shoot in February, i.e., within 40 days of parasitoid activity. In another orchard, L. dactylopii was able to suppress the population from 112 in March to 2.16 in April, i.e., within 30 days of parasitoid activity on P. citri (Mani and Krishnamoorthy, 1997a). Pomegranate Mealybug is also a major pest of pomegranate (Mani and Krishnamoorthy, 1989e). Leptomastix dactylopii and C. perminutus were found to be effective in suppressing the mealybug population from 180.3/plant in June to 4.5/ plant in August within 30 days of parasitoid activity. Cacoxenus perspicax (Knab) was also recorded on P. citri (Mani and Krishnamoorthy, 2000). Custard apple Planococcus citri is known to occur on custard apple. The predators, chiefly S. epeus and C. montrouzieri, played an important role in clearing mealybug populations (Mani and Krishnamoorthy, 1989a; Mani and Krishnamoorthy, 2007d). Leptomastix dactylopii was recovered in large numbers from P. citri infesting custard apple, indicating a good scope for utilizing the parasitoid in custard apple ecosystem (Mani et al, 2007). Leptomastix dactylopii was also found to be effective against P. citri on custard apple in Queensland, Australia. Crossandra Releases of C. montrouzieri reduced mealybug population from 99.80/plant in October to 1.52/plant in February, i.e., within 90 days of release. Brumoides suturalis F. and Cheilomenes sexmaculata (F.) were also observed as feeding on P. citri although in negligible numbers (Mani and Krishnamoorthy, 2007b). Coffee Releases of C. montrouzieri were able to clear P.citri on coffee in Wynad, Kerala and Coorg, Karnataka (Chacko et al, 1978; Singh, 1978). The exotic L. dactylopii got established and gave excellent control of P. citri on coffee (Manjunath, 1985b; Nagarkatti et al, 1993; Reddy and Bhat, 1993). Hibiscus Planococcus citri is found to cause very severe damage to H. rosasinensis. Releases of C. montrouzieri were able to clear P. citri on hibiscus. 2. PINK HIBISCUS MEALYBUG [Maconellicoccus (Phenacoccus) hirsutus (Green)] Adult females are pink and sparsely covered in white wax. Eggs are orange in colour, laid in a loose, cottony, terminal ovisac. It is known to attack grapes, guava, hibiscus, ber, okra, acid lime, phalsa, sapota, pomegranate, custard apple, etc. Females die shortly after depositing eggs. Freshly- laid eggs are orange, and turn pink before hatching. Eggs are found in egg sacs. First instar nymphs (crawlers) of the pink hibiscus mealybug disperse by walking and on the wind. Male mealybugs have four nymphal instar stages while the females have three. Nymphs too can walk considerable distances to find suitable host plants. Their life cycle take about 25-30 days. The reddish-brown adult males are smaller than females and have one pair of wings. Males have two long waxy ‘tails’. The pink hibiscus mealybug has a high rate of reproduction (females can deposit upto 600 eggs) and produces upto 15 generations per year. The mealybug feeds on soft tissues of many plant species and injects a toxic saliva that causes curling of leaves. The entire plant may be stunted while shoot tips develop a bushy appearance. Buds may not flower and stems may get twisted. Fruits also may be deformed. The mealybug excretes honeydewP. citri on pummelo P. citri on custard apple Mani et al J. Hortl. Sci. Vol. 6(2):85-100, 2011 Prinect Color Editor Page is color controlled with Prinect Color Editor 4.0.70 Copyright 2008 Heidelberger Druckmaschinen AG http://www.heidelberg.com You can view actual document colors and color spaces, with the free Color Editor (Viewer), a Plug-In from the Prinect PDF Toolbox. Please request a PDF Toolbox CD from your local Heidelberg office in order to install it on your computer. 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Very high mealybug populations can kill plants. The mealybug is found on stems, leaves, buds, fruits and roots of many plants. On hibiscus, the mealybug usually infests young twigs, causing deformed terminal growth (due to shortening of internodes), deformed leaves and thickened twigs. In grapevines, the mealybug feeds on sprouts that develop after pruning; heavily infested bunches shrivel and drop. Curled leaves mimic viral damage; however, this pest is not known to vector any disease. Grapevine Mealybug has become a major pest of grapevine, particularly in peninsular India (Manjunath, 1985a; Mani and Thontadarya, 1987c). Six parasitoids, namely, Anagyrus dactylopii (How.), Allotropa sp. nr. japonica Ashm. Gyranusoidea mirzai (Agarwal), Alamella flava Agarwal, Leptopilinia sp. and Chartocerus sp. nr. walkeri Hayat, and seven predators, viz., Scymnus sp., S. coccivora, C. montrouzieri Chrysopa sp., Spalgis epeus, Cacoxenus perspicax (Knab) and Triommata coccidivora (Felt) were recorded. Among these, A. dactylopii and S. coccivora were seen to be of considerable importance. Anagyrus dactylopii caused up to 70% parasitism in nature (Mani et al, 1987). Male and female Anagyrus dactylopii completed their development in 14.75 and 22 days, respectively, and a progeny of 39.3 was produced (Mani and Thontadarya, 1988d). Third instar nymph and adult female of M. hirsutus were found suitable for breeding of A. dactylopii (Mani and Thontadarya, 1989). A maximum of 182 offspring was produced at 30oC (Mani and Krishnamoorthy, 1992). The parasitoid was found to be least affected by application of dichlorvos, diazinon, phosalone, fish oil rosin soap and commonly used fungicides (Mani and Thontadarya, 1988c). Under field conditions, a positive and significant relationship was found between populations of A. dactylopii and M. hirsutus (Mani and Thontadarya, 1987b). Allotropa japonica bred very well on 15-20 day old M. hirsutus. It completed its life cycle in 25.5 days at 25.5oC. Dicofol, copper oxychloride, mancozeb and captofol were less harmful to A. japonica (Mani and Krishnamoorthy, 1989c). M. hirsutus eggs Male mealybug Female mealybug Scymnus coccivora completed its development on M. hirsutus in about 20-23 days; adult males and females lived for 60.5 and 68.7 days, respectively. Females produced an average of 46.5 eggs each. A grub of S. coccivora consumed 308 eggs or 62 nymphs or 6.55 adult females (Mani and Thontadarya, 1987d). A single larva of M. boninensis was found to consume about 240 mealybug nymphs of M. hirsutus (Mani and Krishnamoorthy, 1989b). The coccinellid predator, C. montrouzieri, was known to feed on about 1000 eggs or 300-500 mealybug nymphs (Mani and Thontadarya, 1987a). It takes about 30 days to complete its life- cycle. The optimum temperature for development of C. montrouzieri maximum was found to be 30oC (Babu, 1986). A simple method of mass culture of C. montrouzieri on mealybug infested ripe pumpkin was standardized. The culture of mealybugs is maintained on ripe pumpkins (Cucurbita maxima D.) in a laboratory. Pumpkins with ridges and grooves are selected with a small stalk to enable easy handling. These are cleaned with water to remove dust particles. Systemic fungicides like Bavistin or Benlate @2g/litre of water are swabbed onto the fruits as a prophylactic measure against fungal fruit-rot. Open wounds, if any, are sealed with molten paraffin wax. Ovisacs of the mealybug are then placed on the pumpkin for 48h. Mealybug-infested pumpkin is then transferred to a wooden cage (30 x 30 x 30 cm) with a sliding glass-door on one side and cloth covering on all other sides. In course of time, crawlers that emerge from ovisacs settle on the surface of the pumpkin and develop into fully mature mealybugs. Details of this technique are given by Chacko et al (1978) and Singh (1978). In about 20-25 days after mealybug infestation on the pumpkin, Cryptolaemus adults are released into the cage through its sleeve. Adult beetles, besides feeding on Shoot damage Bark damage Bunch damage Biological suppression of mealybugs J. Hortl. Sci. Vol. 6(2):85-100, 2011 Prinect Color Editor Page is color controlled with Prinect Color Editor 4.0.70 Copyright 2008 Heidelberger Druckmaschinen AG http://www.heidelberg.com You can view actual document colors and color spaces, with the free Color Editor (Viewer), a Plug-In from the Prinect PDF Toolbox. Please request a PDF Toolbox CD from your local Heidelberg office in order to install it on your computer. Applied Color Management Settings: Output Intent (Press Profile): ISOcoated_v2_eci.icc RGB Image: Profile: eciRGB.icc Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no RGB Graphic: Profile: RGB2CMYK.icc Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Device Independent RGB/Lab Image: Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Device Independent RGB/Lab Graphic: Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Device Independent CMYK/Gray Image: Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Device Independent CMYK/Gray Graphic: Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Turn R=G=B (Tolerance 0.5%) Graphic into Gray: yes Turn C=M=Y,K=0 (Tolerance 0.1%) Graphic into Gray: no CMM for overprinting CMYK graphic: yes Gray Image: Apply CMYK Profile: no Gray Graphic: Apply CMYK Profile: no Treat Calibrated RGB as Device RGB: no Treat Calibrated Gray as Device Gray: yes Remove embedded non-CMYK Profiles: no Remove embedded CMYK Profiles: yes Applied Miscellaneous Settings: Colors to knockout: no Gray to knockout: no Pure black to overprint: no Turn Overprint CMYK White to Knockout: yes Turn Overprinting Device Gray to K: yes CMYK Overprint mode: set to OPM1 if not set Create "All" from 4x100% CMYK: yes Delete "All" Colors: no Convert "All" to K: no 90 mealybugs, lay eggs singly or in groups near mealybug colonies. Grubs are visible in about a week. Initially, these feed on eggs of the mealybug and on smaller nymphs; later, they feed on all stages of the mealybug. Cannibalism is observed when mealybug population is low. Full grown grubs pupate on the pumpkin, or, anywhere inside the breeding cage. The first beetle emerges in about 30 days from date of exposure of the mealybugs to beetles. Beetles continue to emerge for 5- 10 more days. The beetles are collected in glass vials using an aspirator. Each breeding cage yields about 200 beetles. These are fed with honey solution (50%) or honey-agar in the laboratory. In about 10-15 days, when the adult beetles complete their mating and pre-oviposition, these are ready for field-release. Performance of the beetle was evaluated in Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. A release rate of 2000ac (Ten-day old) adult beetles were recommended for release during the evening time to control grape mealybug. Besides the commonly-used fungicides, dichlorvos, chlorpyriphos and fish oil rosin soap may be used, along with C. montrouzieri, in integrated pest management (IPM) programme in vineyards in India (Mani and Thontadarya, 1988a, b; Babu, 1986; Manjunath, 1986). It is advisable to release C. montrouzieri preferably in June- August and, if necessary, in mid December-mid January. According to Kamal (1951), complete control of M. hirsutus could be achieved in Egypt by introducing Anagyrus kamali Moursi from Java. Introduction of A. kamali with C. montrouzieri resulted in outstanding control of M. hirsutus in the Caribbean islands (Kairo et al, 2000). Such introductions should also be tested against M. hirsutus in India. Beetles released for oviposition Cryptolaemus on mealybugs Larvae feeding on mealybugs Ber Cryptolaemus montrouzieri is useful for control of M. hirsutus on ber. Release of C. montrouzieri resulted in reduction in mealybug population from 62.50/plant to 0.85 within 30 days (Mani et al, 2007). Guava Local natural-enemy complex was very poor on M. hirsutus infesting guava. Releases of C. montrouzieri @20/ plant were found to be highly satisfactory in suppressing M. hirsutus on guava from 1348 in June, to 4.60 in August (Mani and Krishnamoorthy, 2001). Pomegranate Mealybug was also recorded as a serious pest for the first time on pomegranate in India (Mani and Krishnamoorthy, 1991b). Releases of the predator, C. montrouzieri, were found to be very effective in controlling M. hirsutus on pomegranate. Custard apple Parasitism did not exceed 5% on mealybugs in custard apple orchards. But, the predators (chiefly S. epeus and C. montrouzieri) played an important role in clearing mealybug populations (Mani and Krishnamoorthy, 1989a). Releases of C. montrouzieri were made @30 larvae/plant twice at 15-day interval. Mealybug population declined from 3507.50/ plant in July to 0.00 in September (Mani and Krishnamoorthy, 2007d). Acid lime Cryptolaemus montrouzieri @25/plant reduced mealybug population from 39.40/shoot in January to 1.30 in mid-March, i.e., within 50 days of release. Anagyrus dactylopii and T. coccidivora were recorded in negligible numbers on M. hirsutus (Mani and Krishnamoorthy, 1999). Seasonal incidence of grape mealybug Mani et al J. Hortl. Sci. Vol. 6(2):85-100, 2011 Prinect Color Editor Page is color controlled with Prinect Color Editor 4.0.70 Copyright 2008 Heidelberger Druckmaschinen AG http://www.heidelberg.com You can view actual document colors and color spaces, with the free Color Editor (Viewer), a Plug-In from the Prinect PDF Toolbox. Please request a PDF Toolbox CD from your local Heidelberg office in order to install it on your computer. Applied Color Management Settings: Output Intent (Press Profile): ISOcoated_v2_eci.icc RGB Image: Profile: eciRGB.icc Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no RGB Graphic: Profile: RGB2CMYK.icc Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Device Independent RGB/Lab Image: Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Device Independent RGB/Lab Graphic: Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Device Independent CMYK/Gray Image: Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Device Independent CMYK/Gray Graphic: Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Turn R=G=B (Tolerance 0.5%) Graphic into Gray: yes Turn C=M=Y,K=0 (Tolerance 0.1%) Graphic into Gray: no CMM for overprinting CMYK graphic: yes Gray Image: Apply CMYK Profile: no Gray Graphic: Apply CMYK Profile: no Treat Calibrated RGB as Device RGB: no Treat Calibrated Gray as Device Gray: yes Remove embedded non-CMYK Profiles: no Remove embedded CMYK Profiles: yes Applied Miscellaneous Settings: Colors to knockout: no Gray to knockout: no Pure black to overprint: no Turn Overprint CMYK White to Knockout: yes Turn Overprinting Device Gray to K: yes CMYK Overprint mode: set to OPM1 if not set Create "All" from 4x100% CMYK: yes Delete "All" Colors: no Convert "All" to K: no 91 Phalsa The pink mealybug, M. hirsutus, is known to occur on leaves, flowers and fruits. The coccinellid, C. montrouzieri, and the lycaenid, S. epeus, were known to prey on mealybugs in the field (Mani and Krishnamoorthy, 1996c). Hibiscus Maconellicoccus hirsutus appears in severe form on Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. Cryptolaemus montrouzieri, when released @20 grubs/plant, reduced mealybug population from 84.3/plant in March to 0.9/plant in May (Mani and Krishnamoorthy, 2008d). Sapota The mealybug, M. hirsutus, appeared on sapota in April. Release of C. montrouzieri @20/plant resulted in decline of mealybug population from 54.20/plant in April to 1.50/plant on June (Mani and Krishnamoorthy, 2008c). Pink mealybug on pomegranate Cryptolaemus on pomegranate mealybug Pink mealybug on ber Spalgis on mealybugs Spalgis larva Spalgis adult M. hirsutus on acid lime 3. ORIENTAL MEALYBUG [Planococcus lilacinus (Ckll.)] Adult females are grayish-pink in color. Females give birth to young ones. It is known to attack cocoa, guava, ber, citrus, black pepper, cashew, pomegranate, guava, coffee, sapota, custard apple, etc. Female insects lay 55-152 eggs in a white, cottony envelop on the stem or on leaf petioles. The eggs hatch within 24 hours. Eggs develop within the female, and females give ‘live birth’ to the crawler life- stage. The nymphal period of the pest is between 20-25 days. Younger females are maroon in colour. Body-color is visible underneath the waxy covering. In the field, adult females of P. lilacinus may be easily distinguished from P. citri by the far more globose shape of the former. The mealy wax that covers the body appears in thick, almost segmental, clumps. A central, long strip appears on its back and it has 18 lateral, wax filaments. Legs are present and well developed. Citrus group The encyrtid parasitoid, Tetracnemoidea indica, was able to check mealybug on acid lime. Due to the activity of T. indica, mealybug population reduced from 256.0/plant to 4.50/plant in 55 days on acid lime (Mani, 1995b). Five day old mealybug nymphs were found to be suitable for breeding T. indica (Mani and Krishnamoorthy, 1995). The parasitoid could be conserved by application of Fenvalerate (0.01%), neem seed kernel extract (5%) and commonly-used fungicides (Mani and Krishnamoorthy, 1996b). Guava Spalgis epeus was the predominant predator on guava, and C. montrouzieri s u p p l e m e n t e d suppression of mealybugs in six months. In addition to Female mealybug Ants tending to mealybugs Tetracnemoidea indica Biological suppression of mealybugs J. Hortl. Sci. Vol. 6(2):85-100, 2011 Prinect Color Editor Page is color controlled with Prinect Color Editor 4.0.70 Copyright 2008 Heidelberger Druckmaschinen AG http://www.heidelberg.com You can view actual document colors and color spaces, with the free Color Editor (Viewer), a Plug-In from the Prinect PDF Toolbox. Please request a PDF Toolbox CD from your local Heidelberg office in order to install it on your computer. Applied Color Management Settings: Output Intent (Press Profile): ISOcoated_v2_eci.icc RGB Image: Profile: eciRGB.icc Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no RGB Graphic: Profile: RGB2CMYK.icc Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Device Independent RGB/Lab Image: Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Device Independent RGB/Lab Graphic: Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Device Independent CMYK/Gray Image: Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Device Independent CMYK/Gray Graphic: Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Turn R=G=B (Tolerance 0.5%) Graphic into Gray: yes Turn C=M=Y,K=0 (Tolerance 0.1%) Graphic into Gray: no CMM for overprinting CMYK graphic: yes Gray Image: Apply CMYK Profile: no Gray Graphic: Apply CMYK Profile: no Treat Calibrated RGB as Device RGB: no Treat Calibrated Gray as Device Gray: yes Remove embedded non-CMYK Profiles: no Remove embedded CMYK Profiles: yes Applied Miscellaneous Settings: Colors to knockout: no Gray to knockout: no Pure black to overprint: no Turn Overprint CMYK White to Knockout: yes Turn Overprinting Device Gray to K: yes CMYK Overprint mode: set to OPM1 if not set Create "All" from 4x100% CMYK: yes Delete "All" Colors: no Convert "All" to K: no 92 these, Brumus suturalis and S. coccivora were also seen to feed on P. lilacinus in guava orchards (Mani, 1995b). Sapota Cryptolaemus montrouzieri was highly effective in checking the population of P. lilacinus (Mani, 1995b). Pomegranate This was a serious pest on pomegranate (Mani and Krishnamoorthy, 1990a). It was predated by Spalgis epeus, Hyperaspis maindronii Sic., Scymnus severini Weise., Eublemma sp., Leucopis lutecornis Malloch, and was parasitized by Anagyrus sp. (Nair, 1975). Triommata coccidivora, S. epeus, C. montrouzieri, S. coccivora and C. perspicax were reared from P. lilacinus. Withdrawal of insecticides in pomegranate resulted in large-scale appearance of both S. epeus and C. montrouzieri. These predators were responsible for bringing down the mealybug population in four months to negligible numbers (Mani, 1995b). Tetracnemoidea indica played a significant role in reducing mealybug population from 180 per plant in June to 4.50 in August, i.e., within 55 days of the parasitoid activity on pomegranate (Mani and Krishnamoorthy, 2000). Ber The parasitoid, Aprostocetus purpureus (Cam.), and predator, S. epeus, were recorded on P. lilacinus (Mani, 1995b). A steep decline in the mealybug population from 45.40 to 0.40 was observed within 30days due to predation by S. epeus (Mani and Krishnamoorthy, 1996a). Chow-chow Fruits of chow-chow were found covered with Planococcus lilacinus. Release of C. montrouzieri was found to give effective control of P. lilacinus on chow- chow (Krishnamoothy and Mani, 1998). 4. SPHERICAL MEALYBUG [Nipaecoccus viridis (Maskell)] It attacks citrus, pomegranate guava, grape, ber, jackfruit, brinjal, etc. Adult females have a purple body, P. lilacinus on pomegranate P. lilacinus on chow chow covered by a fluffy ovisac with cottony threads containing purple eggs. It has a body approximately 4mm long x 3mm wide colored black or purple to blue-green, with thick, white or pale-yellow wax. The female produces an ovisac with a wax that is sticky to touch. It lays about 500-800 eggs. Eggs hatch in about 5-10 days into dark-red or purplish nymphs. The nymphs congregate in dense colonies on tender shoots and flower-stalk bases where they acquire a waxy covering, and produce large quantities of honeydew. The sticky, stringly ovisac is well adapted to adhere to feet of birds and, probably, accounts for rapid and widerspread dispersal. Mealybugs reproduce continuously, throughout the year. In high densities, waxy secretions may appear as a continuous layer of wax which obscures individual mealybugs. The wax may turn yellow in older infestations. Specimens do turn black in 70% alcohol. Citrus group Anagyrus dactylopii was found parasitizing up to 90% on Citrus medica and C. aurantium in a field near Aligargh, Uttar Pradesh. The mealybug disappeared within a month of parasiteid activity (Subba Rao et al, 1965). Severe infestation of N. viridis on citrus was wiped out with liberation of C. montrouzieri @10 beetles per tree in Andhra Pradesh (Tirumala Rao and David, 1958). Due to release of C. montrouzieri, the population of N. viridis declined from 221.3 in March to 1.40/plant in June. The parasitoids, Anagyrus agraensis, A. dactylopii and A. mirzai, also played an important role in suppression of N. viridis on acid lime (Mani and Krishnamoorthy, 2002b). Nipaecoccus viridis is known to attack pummelo (Citrus grandis Swingle). Cryptolaemus montrouzieri was released @30 larvae/plant in August in a pummelo orchard. The population of N. viridis declined from 165.48/plant in August to 0.65/plant in October (Mani and Krishnamoorthy, 2008a). Mango Release of Cryptolaemus grubs cleared mealybug colonies on mango at Hindupur, Andhra Pradesh (Anon., 1987). Ber Eight parasitoids, Anagyrus agraensis (Saraswat), Anagyrus sp. nr. almoriensis (Shaffee et al), A. dactylopii, A. mirzai, A. flava, Gyranusoidea flava (Shaffee et al), Coccophagus sp., Mealybug on ber Mani et al J. Hortl. Sci. Vol. 6(2):85-100, 2011 Prinect Color Editor Page is color controlled with Prinect Color Editor 4.0.70 Copyright 2008 Heidelberger Druckmaschinen AG http://www.heidelberg.com You can view actual document colors and color spaces, with the free Color Editor (Viewer), a Plug-In from the Prinect PDF Toolbox. Please request a PDF Toolbox CD from your local Heidelberg office in order to install it on your computer. Applied Color Management Settings: Output Intent (Press Profile): ISOcoated_v2_eci.icc RGB Image: Profile: eciRGB.icc Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no RGB Graphic: Profile: RGB2CMYK.icc Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Device Independent RGB/Lab Image: Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Device Independent RGB/Lab Graphic: Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Device Independent CMYK/Gray Image: Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Device Independent CMYK/Gray Graphic: Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Turn R=G=B (Tolerance 0.5%) Graphic into Gray: yes Turn C=M=Y,K=0 (Tolerance 0.1%) Graphic into Gray: no CMM for overprinting CMYK graphic: yes Gray Image: Apply CMYK Profile: no Gray Graphic: Apply CMYK Profile: no Treat Calibrated RGB as Device RGB: no Treat Calibrated Gray as Device Gray: yes Remove embedded non-CMYK Profiles: no Remove embedded CMYK Profiles: yes Applied Miscellaneous Settings: Colors to knockout: no Gray to knockout: no Pure black to overprint: no Turn Overprint CMYK White to Knockout: yes Turn Overprinting Device Gray to K: yes CMYK Overprint mode: set to OPM1 if not set Create "All" from 4x100% CMYK: yes Delete "All" Colors: no Convert "All" to K: no 93 Chartocerus sp., and three predators, C. perspicax, T. coccidivora and S. epeus, were recorded on N. viridis infesting ber. Among these, Anagyrus spp. and S. epeus were seen to be widespread and were frequently collected. Releases of C. montrouzieri supplemented local natural- enemies in controlling mealybug on ber (Mani, 1993). Custard apple Nipaecoccus viridis is known to occur on custard apple. There was no parasitism on the mealybug in custard apple orchards. But the predators, chiefly S. epeus and C. montrouzieri, played an important role in clearing the mealybug population (Mani and Krishnamoorthy, 1989a). Jackfruit It is sporadic and severe on jack. The encyrtid A. dactylopii and the drosophilid predator Cacoxenus persipicax (Knab) effectively reduced the mealybug population from 2.96 to 0.10 within a month (Mani and Krishnamoorthy, 1997b). 5. STRIPED MEALYBUG [Ferrisia virgata (Ckll.)] It attacks citrus, guava, custard apple, tuberose, acalypha, jackfruit, ixora, Caesalpinia, etc. Adult females are grey, with a pair of dorsal stripes on the body and two long tails. The body is covered with long, slender glassy threads. Mealybug eggs hatch immediately after being laid. The entire life cycle takes about 40 days. The female lays 300-400 eggs which hatch in a few hours. Hatchability ranges from 96.2 to 99.1%. and the young nymphs move away quite rapidly. The nymphs are full-grown in about six weeks. The female is distinctive upto 5mm long, with a pair of conspicuous, longitudinal sub-median dark stripes; long glassy wax threads, a pronounced tail about half the length of the body, and a powdery, waxy secretion. The abdomen gently tapers to well-developed anal lobes, each with an apical seta about 280 micrometres long, and a small, elongate, sclerotized area on the ventral surface. The 8-segmented antenna is about 490-560 micrometres long. Legs are well- Silken thread from the egg-mass Anagyrus dactylopii Female mealybug developed and slender. It feeds on young shoots, berries and leaves. In dry weather, this insect may move down to below the ground and inhabit roots. This mealybug is favoured by dry weather: there are many records referring to heavy attacks following periods of prolonged drought. Guava Aenasius advena Comp. and Blepyrus insularis (Cam.), S. coccivora, M. boninensis, B. suturalis and S. epeus, C. sexmaculata were recorded on F. virgata (Mani et al, 1990; Mani, and Krishnamoorthy, 1989d). Chrysoperla lacciperda and C. carnea were observed on F. virgata in guava orchards (Krishnamoorthy and Mani, 1989a). A single larva of M. boninensis was able to prey on about 345 nymphs of F. virgata (Mani and Krishnamoorthy, 1990b). Blepyrus insularis was reaved on 5-10 old nymphs of F. virgata (Mani and Krishnamoorthy, 1991a). The key parasitoid, A. advena, could be conserved by application of diazinon, phosalone and dichlorvos (Mani, 1992). Cryptolaemus montrouzieri @10 15 adults/tree gave excellent control of F. virgata. The population of mealybugs was reduced from 145.3 to 2.8/plant within 40 days of release (Mani et al, 1990). Mango At times, fruits were found covered with F. virgata in Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. Release of C. montrouzieri was recommended for suppression of the mealybug. Pomegranate Scymnus coccivora and C. montrouzieri were able to reduce the population of F. virgata in Tamil Nadu (Karuppuchamy, 1994). Custard apple Ferrisia virgata is known to attack custard apple. Mealybug on jackfruit Mealybug on guava Aenasius advenaF. virgata Cryptolaemus clearing mealybugs Pupation of Cryptolaemus on shoots Biological suppression of mealybugs J. Hortl. Sci. Vol. 6(2):85-100, 2011 Prinect Color Editor Page is color controlled with Prinect Color Editor 4.0.70 Copyright 2008 Heidelberger Druckmaschinen AG http://www.heidelberg.com You can view actual document colors and color spaces, with the free Color Editor (Viewer), a Plug-In from the Prinect PDF Toolbox. Please request a PDF Toolbox CD from your local Heidelberg office in order to install it on your computer. Applied Color Management Settings: Output Intent (Press Profile): GrayCoated_hdm.icc RGB Image: Profile: eciRGB.icc Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no RGB Graphic: Profile: eciRGB.icc Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no CMYK Image: Profile: ISOcoated_v2_eci.icc Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Preserve Black: no CMYK Graphic: Profile: ISOcoated_v2_eci.icc Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Preserve Black: no Device Independent RGB/Lab Image: Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Device Independent RGB/Lab Graphic: Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Device Independent CMYK/Gray Image: Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Device Independent CMYK/Gray Graphic: Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Turn R=G=B (Tolerance 0.5%) Graphic into Gray: yes Turn C=M=Y,K=0 (Tolerance 0.1%) Graphic into Gray: no CMM for overprinting CMYK graphic: no Gray Image: Apply CMYK Profile: no Gray Graphic: Apply CMYK Profile: no Treat Calibrated RGB as Device RGB: no Treat Calibrated Gray as Device Gray: yes Remove embedded non-CMYK Profiles: no Remove embedded CMYK Profiles: yes Applied Miscellaneous Settings: Colors to knockout: yes Gray to knockout: yes Pure black to overprint: no Turn Overprint CMYK White to Knockout: yes Turn Overprinting Device Gray to K: no CMYK Overprint mode: set to OPM1 if not set Create "All" from 4x100% CMYK: no Delete "All" Colors: no Convert "All" to K: no 94 The predators, chiefly S. epeus and C. montrouzieri, played an important role in clearing mealybug populations (Mani and Krishnamoorthy, 1989a). Releases of Australian ladybird beetle, C. montrouzieri, were made @30 larvae/plant twice, at 15-day intervals. The mealybug population declined from 3507.50/plant in July, to 0.00 in September (Mani and Krishnamoorthy, 2007d). Pummelo Ferrisia virgata is known to attack pummelo (Citrus grandis Swingle). Release of C. montrouzieri @30 larvae/plant reduced mealybug population from 248.85/plant in August, to 7.75/plant in October (Mani and Krishnamoorthy, 2008a). Tuberose Following the release of C. montrouzieri, mealybug population declined from 190.26/ plant in July to negligible numbers in September (Mani and Krishnamoorthy, 2007a). Acalypha Release of C. montrouzieri resulted in reduced mealybug population from 247.82 in December to 11.85 in February. The plants were completely cleared of mealybugs within 40 days of release (Mani, 2008). Poinsettia The plants were completely cleared of mealybugs with release of C. montrouzieri. 6. MANGO MEALYBUG [Rastrococcus iceryoides (Green)] It attacks mango, sapota, guava, Hibiscus, fig, citrus, etc. Adult females are oval, yellowish-cream in colour and Meaybug on custard apple Crypyolaemus clearing mealybugs covered in lateral waxy processes. Nymphs are brown, but turn white later. Adult females are oviparous and eggs are honey-yellow. Females lay eggs numbering 450-585. Pre-oviposition and oviposition periods are 7-8.5 and 5.7- 7.3 days, respectively, and the egg stage lasts for an average of 6.6 days. Female and male nymphs moult 3 and 4 times, respectively. Post-embryonic development lasts for 20.4- 31.0 days in females and 18.0-26.0 days in the males. The insects are abundant during April-June. Overwintering takes place in adult females, and the coccid is active from February to October during which period 6-9 generation cycles are completed. Rastrococcus iceryoides sucks sap from leaves, tender terminal shoots, inflorescences and fruits. The pest also produces honeydew on which sooty mold develops. On heavily infested mango plants, reduced fruit-set was seen and young fruits shed. Guava The encyrtid, Praleurocerus viridis Agarwal and S. coccivora, were found very effective in reducing the population from127 mealybugs/plant to negligible numbers, within a month, due to the activity of natural enemies (Mani and Krishnamoorthy, 1998). Mango Several natural enemies were recorded on R. iceryoides in UP and Karnataka. Anagyrus pseudococci Girault, Gyranusoidea sp., Praleurocerus viridis, Allotropa sp., Microterys flavus (Howard), Dinocarsis sp., Promuscidea unfasciaventris Girault, Metastenus concinnus Walker, Tetrastichus sp., Cybocephalus sp., S. coccivora, Monomorium floricola (Jerdon), Coccophagus sp. and Proctolaelaps sp. were recorded from Malihabad. But, P. unfasciativentris and A. pseudococci were most important (Tandon and Lal, 1978). According to Narasimham and Chacko (1988), the parasitoids Anagyrus sp. nr. dactylopii (How.), Anagyrus sp., Coccophagus sp. C. sexvittatus Hayat (pseudococci Ferrisia on tuberose Ferrisia on Poinsettia Ferrisia on Acalypha Female mealybug Rastrococcus egg-mass Mani et al J. Hortl. Sci. Vol. 6(2):85-100, 2011 Prinect Color Editor Page is color controlled with Prinect Color Editor 4.0.70 Copyright 2008 Heidelberger Druckmaschinen AG http://www.heidelberg.com You can view actual document colors and color spaces, with the free Color Editor (Viewer), a Plug-In from the Prinect PDF Toolbox. Please request a PDF Toolbox CD from your local Heidelberg office in order to install it on your computer. Applied Color Management Settings: Output Intent (Press Profile): GrayCoated_hdm.icc RGB Image: Profile: eciRGB.icc Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no RGB Graphic: Profile: eciRGB.icc Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no CMYK Image: Profile: ISOcoated_v2_eci.icc Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Preserve Black: no CMYK Graphic: Profile: ISOcoated_v2_eci.icc Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Preserve Black: no Device Independent RGB/Lab Image: Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Device Independent RGB/Lab Graphic: Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Device Independent CMYK/Gray Image: Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Device Independent CMYK/Gray Graphic: Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Turn R=G=B (Tolerance 0.5%) Graphic into Gray: yes Turn C=M=Y,K=0 (Tolerance 0.1%) Graphic into Gray: no CMM for overprinting CMYK graphic: no Gray Image: Apply CMYK Profile: no Gray Graphic: Apply CMYK Profile: no Treat Calibrated RGB as Device RGB: no Treat Calibrated Gray as Device Gray: yes Remove embedded non-CMYK Profiles: no Remove embedded CMYK Profiles: yes Applied Miscellaneous Settings: Colors to knockout: yes Gray to knockout: yes Pure black to overprint: no Turn Overprint CMYK White to Knockout: yes Turn Overprinting Device Gray to K: no CMYK Overprint mode: set to OPM1 if not set Create "All" from 4x100% CMYK: no Delete "All" Colors: no Convert "All" to K: no 95 group), Allotropa sp, and predators Leucopis sp., C. perspicax, S. epeus. Predatory ants Camponotus sp., Myrmicaria brunnea Saunders and Oecophylla smaragdina (F.) were also known to attack R. iceroides. Upto 42% parasitism was observed in nature (Tandon and Lal, 1978). The parasitoid, Anagyrus pseudococci Gir., and the predator, Cacoxenus perspicax (Knab.), were important in nature. An individual C. montrouzieri consumed about 350 mealybug eggs or 500 nymphs during its larval stage of development. The coccinellid predator, C. montrouzieri, was found very effective in controlling R. iceryoides. Reduction in fruit damage from 40-50% to 0.00 was observed in different mango varieties (Mani et al, 1995). Substantial control of R. iceryoides was obtained in the Celebes with C. montrouzieri. Decalepis hamiltonii This is an important medicinal plant. Release of C. montrouzieri reduced mealybug population from 48.75/plant in January to 1.26/plant in March. 7. BRINJAL MEALYBUG [Coccidohystrix insolita (Green) (=Phenacoccus insolitus; Centrococcus insolitus)] It attacks brinjal, tomato, capsicum, croton, stored potato, etc. Adult females are light yellowish-green in color, with many long, glassy filaments. These are small, oval, soft- bodied insects measuring 3-4mm in length, covered in white, mealy wax. They have reproductive potential of laying 200- 300 eggs, majority of which are females, resulting in explosive outbreaks. Eggs incubate beneath their body cavity for about 4-5 days. There are three nymphal instars which last for 22-25 days. Their total lifespan under normal conditions from egg to adult under is 26-30 days. Both nymphs and adults suck sap from leaves and tender shoots. Heavy clustering of mealy bugs is usually seen under the surface of leaves as a thick mat, with a waxy secretion. They also excrete copious amounts of honeydew on which the sooty mould fungus grows. Affected plants appear sick and black, resulting in reduced fruiting capacity. It is also a notorious pest of stored potato tubers. Stored tubers are found to be infested during July-October, when bud-sprout occurs. Brinjal Anisochrysa bonensis (Okaomota), B. sutarilis, Hyperspis maindroni Sicard Leptomastix nigrocoxalis Compere, L.lyciae Noyes and Hayat were known to attack C. insolita. A single larva of C. montrouzieri is known to consume about 1100 nymphs. The mealybug, C. insolita, attacking brinjal crop was controlled effectively by the predator C. montrouzieri within 20 days of release (Krishnamoorthy and Mani, 1996). Hibiscus Mealybug population declined from 145.6/plant in February to 0.6/plant in April 2003. There was 99.6% reduction in the population of C. insolitus within 60 days of appearance of the lycaenid predator, S. epeus (Mani and Krishnamoorthy, 2008d). Coleus Release of C. montrouzieri reduced mealybug population within 40 days. 8. PAPAYA MEALYBUG (Paracoccus marginatus Williams and Granara de Willink.) Adult females are light yellowish-white. Eggs are greenish-yellow. Body content: when crushed on white paper, the body is yellow; when preserved in alcohol, it turns black. It attacks papaya, brinjal, tapioca, okra, Acalypha, Anona, etc. It is native to Mexico, having been first observed there in 1955 and, later, found to spread to the West Indies, Hawaii, Florida, Guam, Palau, Pouerto Rico and Sri Lanka. In India, it was first reported in Tamil Nadu in July 2008 and it spread fast to Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Kerala. It might have been introduced into India from Sri Lanka (Suresh et al, 2010). The adult female deposits about 500 eggs into her ovisac over a period of one to two weeks. Eggs hatch in ten days later and the crawlers, which are mobile, disperse. There are four instar stages in the female and five in the male. The fifth instar male is a pupa in which the nymph undergoes metamorphosis into a winged adult. Mean development time from egg to adult male and female is 28- 30 days and 24-26 days, respectively. Longevity of adultRastrococcus on mango Rastrococcus on Decalepis hamiltonii Biological suppression of mealybugs J. Hortl. Sci. Vol. 6(2):85-100, 2011 Prinect Color Editor Page is color controlled with Prinect Color Editor 4.0.70 Copyright 2008 Heidelberger Druckmaschinen AG http://www.heidelberg.com You can view actual document colors and color spaces, with the free Color Editor (Viewer), a Plug-In from the Prinect PDF Toolbox. Please request a PDF Toolbox CD from your local Heidelberg office in order to install it on your computer. Applied Color Management Settings: Output Intent (Press Profile): GrayCoated_hdm.icc RGB Image: Profile: eciRGB.icc Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no RGB Graphic: Profile: eciRGB.icc Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no CMYK Image: Profile: ISOcoated_v2_eci.icc Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Preserve Black: no CMYK Graphic: Profile: ISOcoated_v2_eci.icc Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Preserve Black: no Device Independent RGB/Lab Image: Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Device Independent RGB/Lab Graphic: Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Device Independent CMYK/Gray Image: Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Device Independent CMYK/Gray Graphic: Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Turn R=G=B (Tolerance 0.5%) Graphic into Gray: yes Turn C=M=Y,K=0 (Tolerance 0.1%) Graphic into Gray: no CMM for overprinting CMYK graphic: no Gray Image: Apply CMYK Profile: no Gray Graphic: Apply CMYK Profile: no Treat Calibrated RGB as Device RGB: no Treat Calibrated Gray as Device Gray: yes Remove embedded non-CMYK Profiles: no Remove embedded CMYK Profiles: yes Applied Miscellaneous Settings: Colors to knockout: yes Gray to knockout: yes Pure black to overprint: no Turn Overprint CMYK White to Knockout: yes Turn Overprinting Device Gray to K: no CMYK Overprint mode: set to OPM1 if not set Create "All" from 4x100% CMYK: no Delete "All" Colors: no Convert "All" to K: no 96 male and female was 2.31 and 21.15 days, respectively. Overall, 53-59% of the adult population was female. Pre- reproductive and reproductive period of the female was 6.29±0.02 and 11.16±0.02 days, respectively. Acerophagus papayae (Noyes and Schauff), Anagyrus loecki (Noyes and Menezes), and Pseudoleptomastix mexicana (Noyes and Schauff ) offered control of papaya mealybug, P. marginatus in Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic, Guam and Sri Lanka. The local predator, S. epeus, though found in larger numbers, was unable to suppress mealybugs effectively. All the above three parasitoids were imported from Puerto Rico in August 2010 and releases were made in peninsular India. Mealybugs on brinjal fruit Mealybugs on brinjal leaf Cryptolaemus clearing mealybugs on Coleus Coccidohystrix on Hibiscus Acerophagus papayae established very well and brought spectacular control of papaya mealybug in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Kerala (Rabindra, 2010; Jonanathan et al, 2011; Mundale and Nakat, 2011; Pokharkar et al., 2011; Shylesha et al, 2011; Krishnamoorthy et al, 2011; Kalyanasundaram, et al, 2011). PATHOGENS Verticillium lecanii Zimm. was isolated from whiteflies and developed as biopsticide and named ‘Phule bugicide’ at Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth (Rahuri, Maharashtra) for control of mealybugs. A rate of 20g formulated material/10 litres of water is recommended to control the mealybugs. Two to three sprays at 15-day intervals in rainy season are needed. Addition of milk powder @5g/10 litre water helps improve control of mealybugs. Foliar sprays of fungal pathogens, viz., Beauveria bassiana (Bals.) Vuill and Metarhzium anisopliae (Metch.) in rainy season under humid conditions were also found to infect mealybugs (Kulkarni et al, 2007). Liquid formulations A (VGTA50512) and B (VGTA502105) of the entomopathogenic fungus, Verticillium lecanii (Zimmermann) Viegas, at 1% concentration of liquid formulation gave highest mortality of 90.5% (Formulation A) and 92.22% (Formulation B) on M. hirsutus (Chavan and Kadam, 2010). FUTURE THRUST ● Inundative releases of indigenous enemies, where large- scale multiplication is feasible, should be attempted for control of mealybugs ● Application of conventional/ broad-spectrum insecticides interferes with activity of naturally-occurring biocontrol agents in horticultural ecosystems. To overcome this, non- conventional chemicals like botanicals, biopesticides, etc. can be applied in mealybug management programmes, without affecting the key, local natural-enemies ● Key natural-enemies can be conserved using safer pesticides. All the commonly-used pesticides should be screened for safety to key parasitoids and predators, and this information should be made available ● Biological control is the backbone of integrated pest management. Proven or promising natural-enemies should be included as a major component in IPM programmes. ● Publicity through various media on the use of biocontrol agents in suppression of mealybugs helps create awareness among farmers Leaf damage Fruit damage Acerophagus papayae- an exotic parasitoid Female mealybugSpalgis epeus - an indigenous predator Mani et al J. Hortl. Sci. Vol. 6(2):85-100, 2011 Prinect Color Editor Page is color controlled with Prinect Color Editor 4.0.70 Copyright 2008 Heidelberger Druckmaschinen AG http://www.heidelberg.com You can view actual document colors and color spaces, with the free Color Editor (Viewer), a Plug-In from the Prinect PDF Toolbox. Please request a PDF Toolbox CD from your local Heidelberg office in order to install it on your computer. Applied Color Management Settings: Output Intent (Press Profile): GrayCoated_hdm.icc RGB Image: Profile: eciRGB.icc Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no RGB Graphic: Profile: eciRGB.icc Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no CMYK Image: Profile: ISOcoated_v2_eci.icc Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Preserve Black: no CMYK Graphic: Profile: ISOcoated_v2_eci.icc Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Preserve Black: no Device Independent RGB/Lab Image: Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Device Independent RGB/Lab Graphic: Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Device Independent CMYK/Gray Image: Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Device Independent CMYK/Gray Graphic: Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Turn R=G=B (Tolerance 0.5%) Graphic into Gray: yes Turn C=M=Y,K=0 (Tolerance 0.1%) Graphic into Gray: no CMM for overprinting CMYK graphic: no Gray Image: Apply CMYK Profile: no Gray Graphic: Apply CMYK Profile: no Treat Calibrated RGB as Device RGB: no Treat Calibrated Gray as Device Gray: yes Remove embedded non-CMYK Profiles: no Remove embedded CMYK Profiles: yes Applied Miscellaneous Settings: Colors to knockout: yes Gray to knockout: yes Pure black to overprint: no Turn Overprint CMYK White to Knockout: yes Turn Overprinting Device Gray to K: no CMYK Overprint mode: set to OPM1 if not set Create "All" from 4x100% CMYK: no Delete "All" Colors: no Convert "All" to K: no 97 ● Research institutes and other government organizations are unable to supply natural enemies to farmers in large numbers due to several limitations. At present, there are very few commercial insectaries in India. Many more large-scale multiplication units need be established in all the states to ensure timely supply of proven natural- enemies to the farmer ● Stringent-quarantine issues are to be addressed at international and national level ● Importation of natural enemies is to be strengthened ● Exploitation of insect pathogens for mealybug management to be explored REFERENCES Anonymous.1980. Annual report of All India Co-ordinate Research Project on Biological Control of Crop Pests and Weeds. PDBC, Bangalore, India Anonymous. 1987. Annual report of All India Co-ordinated Research Project on Biological Control of Crop Pests and Weeds. IIHR, Bangalore, India Babu, T.R. 1986. Population density of grape mealybug Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green) and its control by a predator Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Muls. Ph.D. Thesis, APAU, Hyderabad, India Chacko, M.J., Bhat, P.K., Rao, L.V.A., Deepak Singh, M.B., Ramanarayan, E.P. and Sreedharan, K. 1978. The use of ladybird beetle, Cryptolaemus montrouzieri for the control of coffee mealybugs. J. Coffee Res., 8:14-19 Chavan, B.P. and Kadam, J.R. 2010. Evaluation of liquid formulation of entomopathogenic fungus [Verticillium lecanii (Zimmermann) Viegas] against mealybug (Maconellicoccus hirsutus Green). J. Maharashtra Agril. Univ., 35:93-95 Chowdhury, S. and Majid, S. 1954. Handbook of Plant Protection, Dept. Agri., Assam Publication. Shillong, India, 117 p Jonanthan, E.I., Suresh, S., Kalyanasundaram, M., Mhalingam, C.A. and Karuppuchamy, P. 2011. Classical biological control for the management of papaya mealybug. Global Conference of Entomology, March 5-9, 2011, Chaghai, Thailand (Abstr.) p.601 Kalyanasundaram, M., Karuppuchamy, P., Divya, S., Sakthivel, P., Rabindra, R.J. and Shylesha, A.N. 2011. Impact of release of the imported parasitoid Acerophagus papayae for the management of papaya mealybug, Paracoccus marginatus in Tamil Nadu. National Symposium on Harnessing Biodiversity for Biological Control of Crop Pests. May 25-26, 2011, Bangalore, India (Abstr.) p.102 Kamal, M. 1951. Biological Control Projects in Egypt with a list of introduced parasites and predators. Bull. Soc. Fouad Ier Entomol., 35:205 220 Karuppuchamy, P. 1994. Studies on the management of pests of pomegranate with special reference to fruit borer, Virachola isocrates Fabr. Ph.D. Thesis, TNAU, Coimbatore, India, 181 p. Krishnamoorthy, A., 1988, Host range, development and sex ratio of Leptomastix dactylopi on different stages of the citrus mealybug, Planococcus citri. J. Biol. Control. 2:8-11 Krishnamoorthy, A. and Mani, M.1989a. Records of green lacewings preying on mealybugs in India. Curr. Sci., 58:155-156 Krishnamoorthy, A. and Mani, M. 1989b. Coccidoxenoides peregrina: a new parasitoid of Planococcus citri in India. Curr. Sci., 58:466 Krishnamoorthy, A. and Mani, M. 1996. Suppression of brinjal mealybug Coccidohystrix insolita with Cryptolaemus montrouzieri. Insect Environment, 2:50 Krishnamoorthy, A. and Mani, M. 1998. Biological control of oriental mealybug, Planococcus lilacinus (Ckll.) on chow - chow. Proceedings of First National Symposium on Pest Management on Horticultural crops: Environmental Implications and its Thrust, Ed. Parvatha Reddy et al. “Advances in IPM for horticultural crops” pp. 207 -209 Krishnamoorthy , A., Mani, M., Ganga Visalakshi, P. N. and Gopalakrishna Pilllai, K. 2011. Classical biological control of papaya mealybug using exotic parasitoid, Acerophagus papayae. Paper presented in National symposium on harnessing biodiversity for biological control of crop pests, May 25-26, 2011, Bangalore (Abstr.) p.101 Krishnamoorthy, A. and Singh, S.P. 1987. Biological control of citrus mealybug with an introduced parasite, Leptomastix dactylopii, in India. Entomophaga, 32:143 148 Kulkarni, S.R., Kadam, J.R. and Chavan, A.P. 2007. Preliminary study on the efficacy of Verticillium lecanii (Z.) against mixed populations of mealybugs on pomegranate. Pest Mgt. in Hortl. Ecosystems, 13:63-64 Biological suppression of mealybugs J. Hortl. Sci. Vol. 6(2):85-100, 2011 Prinect Color Editor Page is color controlled with Prinect Color Editor 4.0.70 Copyright 2008 Heidelberger Druckmaschinen AG http://www.heidelberg.com You can view actual document colors and color spaces, with the free Color Editor (Viewer), a Plug-In from the Prinect PDF Toolbox. Please request a PDF Toolbox CD from your local Heidelberg office in order to install it on your computer. Applied Color Management Settings: Output Intent (Press Profile): GrayCoated_hdm.icc RGB Image: Profile: eciRGB.icc Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no RGB Graphic: Profile: eciRGB.icc Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no CMYK Image: Profile: ISOcoated_v2_eci.icc Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Preserve Black: no CMYK Graphic: Profile: ISOcoated_v2_eci.icc Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Preserve Black: no Device Independent RGB/Lab Image: Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Device Independent RGB/Lab Graphic: Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Device Independent CMYK/Gray Image: Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Device Independent CMYK/Gray Graphic: Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Turn R=G=B (Tolerance 0.5%) Graphic into Gray: yes Turn C=M=Y,K=0 (Tolerance 0.1%) Graphic into Gray: no CMM for overprinting CMYK graphic: no Gray Image: Apply CMYK Profile: no Gray Graphic: Apply CMYK Profile: no Treat Calibrated RGB as Device RGB: no Treat Calibrated Gray as Device Gray: yes Remove embedded non-CMYK Profiles: no Remove embedded CMYK Profiles: yes Applied Miscellaneous Settings: Colors to knockout: yes Gray to knockout: yes Pure black to overprint: no Turn Overprint CMYK White to Knockout: yes Turn Overprinting Device Gray to K: no CMYK Overprint mode: set to OPM1 if not set Create "All" from 4x100% CMYK: no Delete "All" Colors: no Convert "All" to K: no 98 Mani, M. 1992. Contact toxicity of different pesticides to the encyrtid parasitoids Aenasius advena and Blepyrus insularis of the striped mealybug Ferrisia virgata. Trop. Pest Mgt., 38:386-390 Mani, M. 1993. Studies on mealybugs and their natural enemies in ber orchards. J. Biol. Control, 7:75-80 Mani, M. 1994a. Effectiveness of the exotic encyrtid parasitoid, Leptomastix dactylopii How. in the control of mealybug, Planococcus citri (Risso) in guava orchards. J. Ent. Res., 18:351-355 Mani, M. 1994b. Recovery of the indigenous Coccidoxenoides peregrinus and the exotic Leptomastix dactylopii in lemon and acid lime orchards. Biocontrol Sci. Tech., 4:49-52 Mani, M. 1995a. Comparative development, progeny production and sex ratio of the exotic parasitoid Leptomastix dactylopii Howard (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) on Planococcus lilacinus and Planococcus citri (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae). Entomon, 20:23-26 Mani, M. 1995b. Studies on the natural enemies of oriental mealybug Planococcus lilacinus (Ckll.) (Homoptera: Pseudoccidae) in India. J. Ent. Res., 19:61-70 Mani, M. 2008. Record of mealybugs (Pseudococcidae: Homoptera) of ornamentals in India. J. Insect Sci., 21:305-306 Mani, M. and Krishnamoorthy, A.1989a. Occurrence of mealybugs and their natural enemies on custard apple around Bangalore, South India. J. Biol. Control, 3:77 Mani, M. and Krishnamoorthy, A. 1989b. Feeding potential and development of green lacewing, Mallada boninensis (Okamoto) on the grape mealybug Maconellicoccus hirsustus (Green). Entomon, 14:19-20 Mani, M. and Krishnamoorthy, A. 1989c. Life cycle, host- stage suitability and pesticide susceptibility of the grape mealybug parasitoid, Allotropa japonica sp. n. J. Biol. Control, 3:7-9 Mani, M. and Krishnamoorthy, A. 1989d. Record of Blepyrus insularis (Cam.) on Ferrisia virgata (Ckll.) in India. Curr. Sci., 58:644 Mani, M. and Krishnamoorthy, A. 1989e. Outbreak of mealybugs and record of their natural enemies on pomegranate. J. Biol. Control, 4:61-62 Mani, M. and Krishnamoorthy, A. 1990a. Predation of Mallada boninensis on Ferrisia virgata, Planococcus citri and P. lilacinus. J. Biol. Control, 4:122-123 Mani, M. and Krishnamoorthy, A. 1990b. Natural suppression of mealybugs in guava orchards. Entomon, 15: 245-247 Mani, M. and Krishnamoorthy, A.1991a. Breeding of Blepyrus insularis (Hym., Encyrtidae) on Ferrisia virgata (Hemip., Pseudococcidae). Entomon, 16:275-277 Mani, M. and Krishnamoorthy, A. 1991b. Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green) on pomegranate. Entomon, 16:103 Mani, M. and Krishnamoorthy, A. 1992. Influence of constant temperatures on the developmental rate, progeny production, sex ratio and adult longevity of the grape mealybug parasitoid, Anagyrus dactylopii (How.) (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae). Insect Sci. Applic., 13:697-703 Mani, M. and Krishnamoorthy, A. 1995. Influence of different stages of oriental mealybug, Planococcus lilacinus (Ckll.) on the development, progeny production and sex ratio of the parasitoid, Tetracnemoidea indica Ayyar. J. Insect Sci., 8: 192-193 Mani, M. and Krishnamoorthy, A. 1996a. Biological suppression of oriental mealybug Planococcus lilacinus on ber. Pest Mgt. Hortl. Ecosystems, 2:49-50 Mani, M. and Krishnamoorthy, A. 1996b. Response of the encyrtid parasitoid Tetracnemoidea indica of the oriental mealybug, Planococcus lilacinus to different pesticides. Ind. J. Pl. Prot., 24:80-85 Mani, M. and Krishnamoorthy, A. 1996c. Record of two insect pests and their natural enemies on phalsa. J. Insect Sci., 9:182 Mani, M. and Krishnamoorthy, A. 1997a. Suppression of Planococcus citri (Risso) on sapota. Pest Mgt. Hortl. Ecosystems , 3:45-47 Mani, M. and Krishnamoorthy, A. 1997b. Suppression of spherical mealybug, Nipaecoccus viridis (Newstead) (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) on jackfruit. Entomon, 22:161-163 Mani, M. and Krishnamoorthy, A. 1998. Regulation of Rastrococcus iceryoides (Green) on guava. Insect Environment, 4:71 Mani, M. and Krishnamoorthy, A. 1999. Maconellicoccus hirsutus on acid lime in India. Insect Environment , 5:73-74 Mani et al J. Hortl. Sci. Vol. 6(2):85-100, 2011 Prinect Color Editor Page is color controlled with Prinect Color Editor 4.0.70 Copyright 2008 Heidelberger Druckmaschinen AG http://www.heidelberg.com You can view actual document colors and color spaces, with the free Color Editor (Viewer), a Plug-In from the Prinect PDF Toolbox. Please request a PDF Toolbox CD from your local Heidelberg office in order to install it on your computer. Applied Color Management Settings: Output Intent (Press Profile): GrayCoated_hdm.icc RGB Image: Profile: eciRGB.icc Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no RGB Graphic: Profile: eciRGB.icc Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no CMYK Image: Profile: ISOcoated_v2_eci.icc Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Preserve Black: no CMYK Graphic: Profile: ISOcoated_v2_eci.icc Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Preserve Black: no Device Independent RGB/Lab Image: Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Device Independent RGB/Lab Graphic: Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Device Independent CMYK/Gray Image: Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Device Independent CMYK/Gray Graphic: Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Turn R=G=B (Tolerance 0.5%) Graphic into Gray: yes Turn C=M=Y,K=0 (Tolerance 0.1%) Graphic into Gray: no CMM for overprinting CMYK graphic: no Gray Image: Apply CMYK Profile: no Gray Graphic: Apply CMYK Profile: no Treat Calibrated RGB as Device RGB: no Treat Calibrated Gray as Device Gray: yes Remove embedded non-CMYK Profiles: no Remove embedded CMYK Profiles: yes Applied Miscellaneous Settings: Colors to knockout: yes Gray to knockout: yes Pure black to overprint: no Turn Overprint CMYK White to Knockout: yes Turn Overprinting Device Gray to K: no CMYK Overprint mode: set to OPM1 if not set Create "All" from 4x100% CMYK: no Delete "All" Colors: no Convert "All" to K: no 99 Mani, M. and Krishnamoorthy, A. 2000. Biological suppression of the mealybugs Planococcus citri (Risso) and Planococcus lilacinus (Ckll.) on pomegranate in India. Entomon, 28:187-189 Mani, M. and Krishnamoorthy, A 2001. Suppression of Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green) on guava. Insect Environment, 6:152 Mani, M. and Krishnamoorthy, A. 2002a. Selectivity of different pesticides to citrus mealybug parasitoid Coccidoxinoides peregrina (Timberlake) J. Insect Sci., 15:49-52 Mani, M. and Krishnamoorthy, A. 2002b. Biological suppression of spherical mealybug Nipaecoccus viridis (Newstead) (Hemiptera, Pseudococcidae) on acid lime in India. Entomon , 27:423-424 Mani, M. and Krishnamoorthy, A. 2007a. Field efficacy of Australian ladybird beetle Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Muls. in the suppression of striped mealybug Ferrisia virgata (Ckll.) on tuberose. J. Biol. Control, 21:129-131 Mani, M. and Krishnamoorthy, A. 2007b. Biological suppression of Planococcus citri (Risso) (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) on Crossandra undulifolia Salisb. in India. J. Biol. Control, 21: 283-285 Mani, M. and Krishnamoorthy, A. 2007c. Biological suppression of Planococcus citri on acid lime with Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Mulsant in India. Entomon, 32:221-24 Mani, M. and Krishnamoorthy, A. 2007d. Field efficacy of Australian ladybird beetle Cryptolaemus montrouzieri in the suppression of mealybugs on custard apple. Ind. J. Pl. Prot., 35:217-219 Mani, M. and Krishnamoorthy, A. 2008a. Biological suppression of the mealybugs Planococcus citri (Risso), Ferrisia virgata (Cockerell) and Nipaecoccus viridis (Newstead) on pummelo with Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Mulsant in India. J. Biol. Control, 22:169-172 Mani, M. and Krishnamoorthy, A. 2008b. Biological control of Planococcus citri (Risso) on grapevine with Cryptolaemus montrouzieri in India. Ind. J. Pl. Prot., 36:125-127 Mani, M. Krishnamoorthy, A. 2008c. Field efficacy of Australian ladybird beetle Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Mulsant in the suppression of Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green) on sapota. J. Biol. Control, 22:471-473 Mani, M. and Krishnamoorthy, A. 2008.d Biological suppression of the mealybugs Coccidohystrix insolitus and Maconellicoccus hirsutus on Hibiscus rosa-sinensis. Ind. J. Pl. Prot., 36:32-34 Mani, M., Krishnamoorthy, A. and Gangavisalakshi, P.N. 2007. Natural parasitisation by the exotic parasitoid, Leptomastix dactylopii Howard on Planococcus citri on custard apple. J. Biol. Control, 21:157-158 Mani, M., Krishnamoorthy, A. and Pattar, G.L. 1995. Biological control of the mango mealybug, Rastrococcus iceryoides (Green) (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae). Pest Mgt. Hortl. Ecosystems, 1:15-20 Mani, M., Krishnamoorthy, A. and Pattar, G.L. 2007. Suppression of pink mealybug, Maconellicoccus hirsutus on ber, Zizhyphus mauritiana . Ind. J. Agril. Sci., 77:135 Mani, M., Krishnamoorthy, A. and Singh, S.P. 1990. The impact of the predator Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Mulsant on pesticide resistant populations of the striped mealybug, Ferrisia virgata (Ckll.) on guava in India. Insect Sci. Applic., 11:167-170 Mani, M., Krishnamoorthy, A. and Srinivasa Rao, M. 1993. Toxicity of different pesticides to the exotic parasitoid, Leptomastix dactylopii How. Ind. J. Pl. Prot., 21:98-99 Mani, M. and Kulkarni, N.S. 2007. Citrus mealybug Planococcus citri (Risso) Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) - a major pest of grapes in India. Entomon, 32:235-236 Mani, M. and Thondarya, T.S. 1987a. Development and feeding potential of the coccinellid, Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Muls. on grape mealybug, Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green). J. Biol. Control, 1:19 22 Mani, M. and Thontadarya, T.S. 1987b. Population dynamics of the mealybug Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green) and its natural enemies in the grapevine ecosystem. J. Biol. Control, 1:93-97 Mani, M. and Thontadarya, T.S. 1987c. Record of mealybug species on grapevine in Karnataka. Curr. Sci., 56:1192 Mani, M. and Thontadaraya, T.S. 1987d. Biological studies on the grape mealybug predator Scymnus coccivora (Ayyar). J. Biol. Control, 1:89-92 Mani, M. and Thontadarya, T.S. 1988a. Response of Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Muls. (Coccinellidae, Biological suppression of mealybugs J. Hortl. Sci. Vol. 6(2):85-100, 2011 Prinect Color Editor Page is color controlled with Prinect Color Editor 4.0.70 Copyright 2008 Heidelberger Druckmaschinen AG http://www.heidelberg.com You can view actual document colors and color spaces, with the free Color Editor (Viewer), a Plug-In from the Prinect PDF Toolbox. Please request a PDF Toolbox CD from your local Heidelberg office in order to install it on your computer. Applied Color Management Settings: Output Intent (Press Profile): GrayCoated_hdm.icc RGB Image: Profile: eciRGB.icc Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no RGB Graphic: Profile: eciRGB.icc Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no CMYK Image: Profile: ISOcoated_v2_eci.icc Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Preserve Black: no CMYK Graphic: Profile: ISOcoated_v2_eci.icc Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Preserve Black: no Device Independent RGB/Lab Image: Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Device Independent RGB/Lab Graphic: Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Device Independent CMYK/Gray Image: Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Device Independent CMYK/Gray Graphic: Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Turn R=G=B (Tolerance 0.5%) Graphic into Gray: yes Turn C=M=Y,K=0 (Tolerance 0.1%) Graphic into Gray: no CMM for overprinting CMYK graphic: no Gray Image: Apply CMYK Profile: no Gray Graphic: Apply CMYK Profile: no Treat Calibrated RGB as Device RGB: no Treat Calibrated Gray as Device Gray: yes Remove embedded non-CMYK Profiles: no Remove embedded CMYK Profiles: yes Applied Miscellaneous Settings: Colors to knockout: yes Gray to knockout: yes Pure black to overprint: no Turn Overprint CMYK White to Knockout: yes Turn Overprinting Device Gray to K: no CMYK Overprint mode: set to OPM1 if not set Create "All" from 4x100% CMYK: no Delete "All" Colors: no Convert "All" to K: no 100 Coleoptera) to commonly used pesticides in vineyards. J. Biol. Control, 2:17-20 Mani, M. and Thontadarya, T.S. 1988b. Field evaluation of Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Muls. in the suppression of Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green) on grapevine. J. Biol. Control, 2:14 16 Mani, M. and Thontadarya, T.S. 1988c. Studies on the safety of different pesticides to the grape mealybug natural enemies, Anagyrus dactylopii (How.) and Scymnus coccivora Ayyar. Ind. J. Pl. Prot., 16:205-210 Mani, M. and Thontadarya, T.S. 1988d. Biology of the grape mealybug parasitoid Anagyrus dactylopii (How.) (Encyrtidae, Hymenoptera). Entomon, 13:211-214 Mani, M. and Thontadarya, T.S. 1989. Development of the Anagyrus dactylopii (How.) on the grape mealybug Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green). Entomon, 14: 49-51 Mani, M., Thondarya, T.S. and Singh, S.P. 1987. Record of natural enemies of the grape mealybug Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green). Curr. Sci., 56:624-625 Manjunath, T.M. 1985a. Maconellicoccus hirsutus on grapevine. FAO Plant Prot. Bull., 33:74 Manjunath, T.M. 1985b. Leptomastix dactylopii in India. Biocontr. News Inform., 6:297 Manjunath, T.M. 1986. Recent outbreaks of mealybugs and their biological control in ‘Resurgence of sucking pests’. Proc. Nat’l. Symp. (Ed. S. Jayaraj), TNAU, Coimbatore, pp. 249 253 Mundale , M. and Nakat, R. 2011. Successful control of papaya mealybug using Acerophagus papayae in farmers’ field. National Symposium on Harnessing Biodiversity for Biological Control of Crop Pests, May 25-26, 2011, Bangalore (Abstr.) p27 Nagarkatti, S., Singh, S.P., Jayanth, K.P. and Bhumannavar, B.S. 1992. Introduction and establishment of Leptomastix dactylopii How. against Planococcus spp. in India. Ind. J. Pl. Prot., 19:102-104 Narasimham, A.U. and Chacko, M.J. 1988. Rastrococcus spp. (Hemiptera, Pseudococcidae) and their natural enemies in India as potential biocontrol agents for R. invadens Williams. Bull. Ent. Res., 78:703 708 Nair, M.R.G.K. 1975. Insects and mites of crops in India. ICAR, New Delhi, India, 185 p. Shylesha, A.N., Sunil Joshi, Rabindra, R.J., Shekhar, M.A., Narendra Kumar, Dhanyvati, P. N. and Shivaraju, C. 2011. A successful case study of classical biological control of papaya mealybug, Paracoccus marginatus. National symposium on Harnessing Biodiversity for Biological Control of Crop Pests, May 25-26, 2011, Bangalore (Abstr.) p.99 Singh, S.P. 1978. Propagation of coccinellid beetle for the bioligical control of citrus and coffee mealybugs. Scientific Seminar CPA, 2 p. Pokharkar, D.S., Nakat, R.V., Tamboli, N.D. and Dhane, A.S. 2011. Papaya mealybug Paracoccus marginatus Willams and Granara de Willink (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) and its natural enemies in Maharashtra. National Symposium on Harnessing Biodiversity for Biological Control of Crop Pests, May 25-26, 2011, Bangalore (Abstr.) p. 29 Rabindra, R.J. 2010. NBAII pioneers’ successful classical biological control of papaya mealybug. NBAII Newsletter, 11:1 Reddy, K.B. and Bhat, P.K. 1993. Effect of seasonal augmentation of Leptomastix dactylopii How. on Planococcus citri (Risso.) population. J. Coffee Res., 23:15-18 Subba Rao, B.R., Sangwar, H.S., Abbasi, O.A., Singh, Y. and Ksheer Sagar, A.M. 1965. New records of hymenopterous parasites of Nipaecoccus vastator (Maskell) (Homoptera: Coccidae), a serious pest of citrus spp. from India. Ind. J. Ent., 27:109 110 Suresh, S., Jothimani, R., Sivasubramaniam, P., Karuppuchamy, P., Samiayyapan, R. and Jonanthan, E.R. 2010. Invasive mealybugs of Tamil Nadu and their management. Karnataka J. Agril. Sci., 23:6-9 Tandon, P.L. and LaL, B. 1978. The mango coccid, Rastrococcus iceryoides Green (Homoptera, Coccidae), and its natural enemies. Curr. Sci., 47: 46-48 Tirumala Rao, V. and David, L.A. 1958. The biological control of a coccid pest in South India by the use of beetle Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Muls. Ind. J. Agril. Sci., 28:545 552 Mani et al J. Hortl. Sci. Vol. 6(2):85-100, 2011 Prinect Color Editor Page is color controlled with Prinect Color Editor 4.0.70 Copyright 2008 Heidelberger Druckmaschinen AG http://www.heidelberg.com You can view actual document colors and color spaces, with the free Color Editor (Viewer), a Plug-In from the Prinect PDF Toolbox. Please request a PDF Toolbox CD from your local Heidelberg office in order to install it on your computer. Applied Color Management Settings: Output Intent (Press Profile): GrayCoated_hdm.icc RGB Image: Profile: eciRGB.icc Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no RGB Graphic: Profile: eciRGB.icc Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no CMYK Image: Profile: ISOcoated_v2_eci.icc Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Preserve Black: no CMYK Graphic: Profile: ISOcoated_v2_eci.icc Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Preserve Black: no Device Independent RGB/Lab Image: Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Device Independent RGB/Lab Graphic: Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Device Independent CMYK/Gray Image: Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Device Independent CMYK/Gray Graphic: Rendering Intent: Perceptual Black Point Compensation: no Turn R=G=B (Tolerance 0.5%) Graphic into Gray: yes Turn C=M=Y,K=0 (Tolerance 0.1%) Graphic into Gray: no CMM for overprinting CMYK graphic: no Gray Image: Apply CMYK Profile: no Gray Graphic: Apply CMYK Profile: no Treat Calibrated RGB as Device RGB: no Treat Calibrated Gray as Device Gray: yes Remove embedded non-CMYK Profiles: no Remove embedded CMYK Profiles: yes Applied Miscellaneous Settings: Colors to knockout: yes Gray to knockout: yes Pure black to overprint: no Turn Overprint CMYK White to Knockout: yes Turn Overprinting Device Gray to K: no CMYK Overprint mode: set to OPM1 if not set Create "All" from 4x100% CMYK: no Delete "All" Colors: no Convert "All" to K: no