Journal of International Social Studies, v. 7, n. 2, 2017, pp. 20-59 Corresponding author: kopish@ohio.edu ©2012/2018 National Council for Social Studies International Assembly http://www.iajiss.org ISSN: 2327-3585 Page 20 Global Citizenship Education and the Development of Globally Competent Teacher Candidates Michael A. Kopish Ohio University Abstract: This manuscript presents findings from a reflective inquiry of one global educator’s attempt to develop globally competent teacher candidates in an elective general education course for teacher candidates. The course, Issues in Global Education, was offered to 23 undergraduate teacher candidates in the spring of 2016. One goal of this manuscript is to make the tacit and elusive elements of global education more explicit for practitioners. Discussed within are two frameworks, Global Citizenship Education (UNESCO, 2015) and a Globally Competent Teaching Continuum (2014), which informed the design and enactment of opportunities for teacher candidates to participate in critical inquiry and cross-cultural experiential learning. A second goal is to demonstrate the extent to which teacher candidates learned and developed global competencies as a consequence of participation in the course. Data were collected from teacher candidates’ reflective journals at five different intervals during the 15-week course and analyzed thematically. Findings from this inquiry demonstrate the efficacy of global citizenship education practices and the power of collaboration, as resources from the campus and community were leveraged to create a transformative educational experience for all involved. At a time when our classrooms and communities are more diverse and globally connected, this research contributes to a growing body of literature for preparing globally competent teacher candidates and offers several implications for global education practitioners. Key words: global citizenship education, teacher education, pre-service teachers, reflective inquiry, globally competent teachers Introduction All young people in P-12 school settings are developing civic and cultural identities; they are establishing democratic public values for civil society and preparing for multiple and evolving mailto:kopish@ohio.edu http://www.iajiss.org/ Journal of International Social Studies, v. 7, n. 2, 2017, pp. 20-59 Corresponding author: kopish@ohio.edu ©2012/2018 National Council for Social Studies International Assembly http://www.iajiss.org ISSN: 2327-3585 Page 21 forms of citizenship. In the 21st century, young people must have opportunities to become informed and engaged at local and global levels. Several national and international organizations recommend the preparation of young people for a globalized world as an imperative in education (e.g. NEA, 2010, 2013-2014; Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2011; World Savvy, 2015; UNESCO, 2015). The National Education Association, for example, advances public education as a pathway to develop global competencies in young people and recommends global education should begin in pre-K and continue throughout secondary schooling (NEA, 2010, 2013-2014). Global competence is defined as “the capacity and disposition to understand and act on issues of global significance” (Boix-Mansilla & Chua, 2016, p. 3). To facilitate the development of globally competent citizens, we need teachers who possess “a body of knowledge about world regions, cultures, and global issues, and the skills and dispositions to engage responsibly and effectively in a global environment” (Longview Foundation, 2008, p. 7). Across grades levels and subject areas, young people deserve to be in classrooms with globally competent teachers. Global competencies of teachers include: knowledge of global issues and international subject matter; pedagogical skills to teach students analytical thinking and critical awareness of worldviews that are needed to consider multiple perspectives; and a commitment to helping students become ethically and responsible citizens globally and locally (Longview Foundation, 2008). In practice, globally competent teachers connect global trends to local issues and employ a range of critical pedagogies to guide students in examining root causes of issues and facilitate opportunities for students to take action. In short, globally competent teachers “enable young people to learn about their rights and responsibilities and equip them with skills for democratic participation, at all levels, from local to global” (Ibrahim, 2005, pp. 178-179). The role of teacher educators in the preparation of future globally competent teachers is crucial (Reynolds, Ferguson-Patrick, & McCormack, 2013; Williams, 2014; Zong et al., 2008). Teacher educators must consider how teacher candidates are prepared, examine curricula, and be equipped to redesign learning experiences, when possible, to more intentionally and regularly teach for global competence in teacher education. Over the last several decades, a breadth of important research, shared examples of course design, and curricula that focus on topics to promote global knowledge, perspectives and awareness, and aid in the development of global competencies have become available (Asia Society, 2011; Committee for Economic Development, 2006; Hanvey, 1976; Longview Foundation, 2008; National Research Council, 2007; Osler & Vincent, 2002; Standish, 2012, 2014). These resources are diverse and include a range of controversial and competing perspectives, represent multiple disciplines, and promote mailto:kopish@ohio.edu http://www.iajiss.org/ Journal of International Social Studies, v. 7, n. 2, 2017, pp. 20-59 Corresponding author: kopish@ohio.edu ©2012/2018 National Council for Social Studies International Assembly http://www.iajiss.org ISSN: 2327-3585 Page 22 various curricular approaches. Navigating these competing perspectives, however, can lead to ambiguity around what constitutes global competence; teacher preparation programs may struggle with the actual dissemination and application of research and resources to support teacher candidates’ development of global competencies (Ferreira, 2013). For teacher education programs that aspire to develop global competencies with teacher candidates, there is no prescriptive path. Scholars have chronicled the long and contentious history of global education (cf. Hicks, 2003; Su et al., 2013) in approach and practice. Current literature offers global citizenship education (GCE) as a framing paradigm to conceptualize global education and as a basis for educators to determine the priorities for learning and the global competencies they want students to develop (UNESCO, 2015). It is important to acknowledge, however, that GCE is a politically and ideologically contested concept with significant tensions and competing visions among different approaches of GCE (Andreotti, 2006; Andreotti & deSousa, 2012; Dill, 2013). Scholars have identified three dominant perspectives of GCE: technical-economic agenda, social justice agenda, and an interrogative approach (DiCicco, 2016; Dill, 2013; Marshall, 2011; Parker & Camecia, 2009). The first approach to GCE, a technical-economic agenda, is the prevailing perspective of GCE as evidenced by the college and career readiness discourse that emphasizes workforce preparation and academic and professional knowledge. According to Marshall (2011), the “technical- economic instrumentalist agenda of much of the global citizenship education policy requires of students (and teachers) a pragmatic and mostly neoliberal understanding of legal structures, rights and responsibilities” (p. 417). This perspective of GCE is a market-driven approach that seeks to prepare learners for economic competition in a global, knowledge-based economy. The second GCE perspective is identified as a social justice agenda that “requires an emotional and often active commitment to, and understanding of, particular interpretations of economic, political, legal or cultural injustice” (Marshall, 2011, p. 418). From a social justice perspective, Global citizenship education moves beyond an exclusively national perspective of world affairs and seeks to avoid a social-studies approach that tends to tokenize and exoticize foreign places and people. As an ideal, the concept of global citizenship education encourages students to adopt a critical understanding of globalization, to reflect on how they and their nations are implicated in local and global problems, and to engage in intercultural perspectives. (Pashby, 2012, p. 9) mailto:kopish@ohio.edu http://www.iajiss.org/ Journal of International Social Studies, v. 7, n. 2, 2017, pp. 20-59 Corresponding author: kopish@ohio.edu ©2012/2018 National Council for Social Studies International Assembly http://www.iajiss.org ISSN: 2327-3585 Page 23 In order for young people and teacher candidates to develop global competencies, scholars advocate for a more reflective, critical, and political pedagogy - GCE from a social justice perspective (Myers, 2010; Pashby, 2012). In practice, a social justice approach to GCE offers educational opportunities for learners to investigate global issues of power and privilege from multiple perspectives, and empowers people to take action and interrupt injustices. A third perspective, an interrogative approach to GCE, seeks to address and respond to the limitations of the priorities and perspectives championed in the technical-economic and social justice approaches to GCE (Marshall, 2011). An interrogative approach to GCE critically examines the normative dimensions of GCE in theory and practice using postcolonial and poststructural theoretical frameworks (Andreotti, 2006; Rizvi, 2009). For example, interrogative approaches critically question universal notions of progress and development, models of the ideal global citizen, concepts such as human rights and freedom, and dominant global neoliberal policies that are entrenched in Western ideals. In practice, this approach seeks to help young people …examine the ways in which global processes are creating conditions of economic and cultural exchange that are transforming our identities and communities; and that, unreflexively, we may be contributing to the production and reproduction of those conditions through our uncritical acceptance of the dominant ways of thinking about global interconnectivity. (Rizvi, 2009, p. 265-266) Given the competing perspectives and visions of GCE, teacher educators may require additional incentives and training to teach courses with GCE-related ideas (Rapoport, 2015) so others can envision the possibility of enacting GCE courses as a pathway to develop global competencies in teacher candidates. This study makes a necessary contribution to the literature by examining how one teacher educator at a medium-sized rural university nestled in the Appalachians designed and enacted a course to develop globally competent teacher candidates using a GCE framework. In the spring of 2016, a course entitled Issues in Global Education was launched as part of a department initiative that encouraged teacher education faculty to explore opportunities to bring international perspectives to their curriculum. The Issues course was offered to education majors of all disciplines and grade levels with the goal of developing teacher candidates’ global competencies early in their program of study. Learning objectives derived from UNESCO’s (2015) GCE framework and were aligned to the Globally Competent Teaching Continuum’s (2014) three domains of global competencies: skills, knowledge, and dispositions. Given the course design mailto:kopish@ohio.edu http://www.iajiss.org/ Journal of International Social Studies, v. 7, n. 2, 2017, pp. 20-59 Corresponding author: kopish@ohio.edu ©2012/2018 National Council for Social Studies International Assembly http://www.iajiss.org ISSN: 2327-3585 Page 24 using a GCE framework and its stated aim to develop globally competent teacher candidates, this study addresses the following research question: To what extent did students meet the learning objectives of this course designed around a global citizenship education framework? Literature Review Global Education and Professional Standards for Teacher Candidates Teacher education programs are typically oriented toward local contexts rather than global ones (Zhao, 2010), and teacher preparation coursework is largely driven by accreditation and standards of the profession. In an already crowded curriculum driven by standards and accreditation, some teacher educators may be skeptical of adding or infusing GCE to courses or developing global competencies with teacher candidates. However, research by Kirby and Crawford (2012) demonstrates that policymakers have already begun to incorporate global competencies in various professional standards for teachers (i.e., CAEP, 2013; CCSSO, 2013; NCATE, 2008). GCE complements existing standards for developing teacher candidate content knowledge and preparing candidates to meet the needs of diverse learners. The Council for the Accreditation of Educator Preparation (CAEP, 2013), for example, requires teacher candidates to develop content knowledge, skills, and dispositions to advance the learning of all students. One of the many ways teacher candidates may demonstrate this is through InTASC Standard 5 – Application of Content: “The teacher understands how to connect concepts and use differing perspectives to engage learners in critical thinking, creativity, and collaborative problem-solving related to authentic local and global issues” (CCSSO, 2013, p. 8). The hallmarks of a GCE course for teacher education would develop candidate content knowledge by promoting deep learning of complex global issues, critical thinking, recognizing multiple perspectives, and taking action at global and local levels to address issues. Moreover, GCE complements the diversity standard from NCATE, which requires teacher candidates to “reflect multicultural and global perspectives that draw on the histories, experiences, and representations of students and families from diverse populations,” (NCATE, 2008, p. 36). Culturally relevant (Ladson-Billings, 1994) and culturally responsive pedagogy (Gay, 2010; McAllister & Irvine, 2000) are approaches to develop cultural competence and socio- political consciousness to combat inequality where it exists. In the U.S., culturally and linguistically diverse students are now the majority (NCES, 2013) with one in five students the children of immigrants (Rong & Preissle, 2009). With such a diverse student body and families whose citizenship transcends nation-state boundaries, researchers have called for globally mailto:kopish@ohio.edu http://www.iajiss.org/ Journal of International Social Studies, v. 7, n. 2, 2017, pp. 20-59 Corresponding author: kopish@ohio.edu ©2012/2018 National Council for Social Studies International Assembly http://www.iajiss.org ISSN: 2327-3585 Page 25 competent teachers who are able to use knowledge of students’ culture and community differences to create an inclusive learning environment and support all students’ development as global citizens (Apple, 2011; O’Connor & Zeichner, 2011). Taken together, these emphases on teacher candidates’ application of content and ability to reflect upon student diversity demonstrate an emerging importance of global competence education. Global Education for Teacher Preparation in the United States Teacher education programs are among the least internationalized (Longview, 2008) and offer limited opportunities for teacher candidates’ preparation in global education (Kirkwood-Tucker, 2009; Zong, 2009). Global education, when taught, is infused in courses that focus broadly on culture and diversity (Parkhouse et al., 2015; Ukpokodu, 2010). Thus, K-12 classrooms are directly affected: Teachers are not comfortable teaching courses that address global issues or engaging in global education content and practices when they have limited exposure to global content, courses, and experiences during teacher preparation (Rapoport, 2009, 2010; Steinemann et al., 2001). Teacher education programs should work to infuse global content into existing courses, create new global courses, and offer more global experiences, such as international study abroad opportunities, immersion experiences, support for learning other languages, and international exchange opportunities (Quezada & Cordeiro, 2016). Global education should be a coordinated programmatic approach that faculty integrate across disciplines (i.e., early childhood, science, social studies) and offer in multiple courses (i.e., social foundations, methods) for prospective teachers (Ferguson-Patrick, Macqueen, & Reynolds, 2014; Longview, 2008; Robbins, Francis, & Elliott, 2003). An analysis of the relevant literature on global education in teacher preparation illuminates two core practices educators should consider in the design and enactment of global education courses: 1) Engage teacher candidates in international and cross-cultural experiences (Cushner & Mahon, 2002; Merryfield & Kasai, 2010; Pence & Macgillivray, 2008; Sahin, 2008), and 2) Include diverse content and multiple perspectives including historically marginalized people to engage teacher candidates in critical inquiry (Carano, 2013; Merryfield, 2008; Merryfield & Subedi, 2003; Myers, 2010; O’Connor & Zeichner, 2011; Poole & Russell, 2015). Furthermore, given the shift from global education for global awareness to an education that is more critical and action-oriented, the literature on GCE reveals a third practice that is critical for teacher educators: Create authentic opportunities for teacher candidates to take action on issues related to global citizenship (Andreotti, 2006; DiCecco, 2016; Ibrahim, 2005; UNESCO, 2015). mailto:kopish@ohio.edu http://www.iajiss.org/ Journal of International Social Studies, v. 7, n. 2, 2017, pp. 20-59 Corresponding author: kopish@ohio.edu ©2012/2018 National Council for Social Studies International Assembly http://www.iajiss.org ISSN: 2327-3585 Page 26 International and Cross-Cultural Experiences David Hicks (2007) argues, “Global education has long recognized that any understanding of the contemporary world needs to be based on participatory and experiential ways of learning” (p. 27). Thus, any effort to develop globally competent teachers should involve international and cross-cultural experiences. International experiences such as study abroad or international student teaching programs facilitate pre-service and in-service teacher development of global competencies (Cushner & Mahon, 2002; Merryfield & Kasai, 2010; Pence & Macgillivray, 2008; Sahin, 2008). In lieu of international experiences, researchers suggest cross-cultural experiential learning as an approach for developing global knowledge and skills for collaborating and communicating with different cultures (Merryfield & Wilson, 2005). Cross-cultural experiential learning can range from intercultural interviews to an extended cultural immersion experience within an immigrant or refugee community guided by critical reflection. These authentic experiences highlight the importance of creating opportunities for cross-cultural dialogue in classroom and community settings as a way to build cross-cultural awareness, relationships, and communication skills (Braskamp & Engberg, 2011; Crose, 2011). Diverse Content, Multiple Perspectives, and Critical Inquiry Research demonstrates that American students have little knowledge about the world and global issues (Myers, 2006; Rapoport, 2009, 2010), so what educators teach matters greatly in the development of teacher candidates’ global competencies. Courses should offer diverse content and teach about countries and regions outside the Western world (Carano, 2013; Merryfield & Subedi, 2003; Poole & Russell, 2015). For example, educators should teach with the voices, experiences, and worldviews of understudied regions of the world such as Africa, Asia, Latin America, and the Middle East (Merryfield & Subedi, 2003). Being afforded such opportunities facilitates the development of perspective consciousness where teacher candidates learn that socio-cultural influences result in different perspectives and points of view (Villegas & Lucas, 2002). Recognizing multiple perspectives also encourages reflexivity (Andreotti, 2006), which can empower teacher candidates to reflect critically and investigate legacies of power and inequality (O’Connor & Zeichner, 2011). Authentic Opportunities to Take Action From the social justice perspective of GCE, there is an overt commitment to develop the capacity for responsible participation and engagement to interrupt injustices at local and global levels (Andreotti, 2006; DiCecco, 2016; Gaudelli & Wylie, 2012; Ibrahim, 2005). Developing the capacity mailto:kopish@ohio.edu http://www.iajiss.org/ Journal of International Social Studies, v. 7, n. 2, 2017, pp. 20-59 Corresponding author: kopish@ohio.edu ©2012/2018 National Council for Social Studies International Assembly http://www.iajiss.org ISSN: 2327-3585 Page 27 to take action requires teacher educators to create meaningful and productive learning opportunities within and beyond the classroom on projects related to global citizenship (Ibrahim, 2005). This requires a reflective and critical pedagogy and curriculum (Starkey, 2012) that explores global relations of power and privilege and encourages engagement with global issues (Andreotti, 2006; Pashby, 2012; Rizvi, 2009). For example, teacher educators can design learning opportunities that partner with Muslim student organizations to develop workshops to combat Islamophobia or create educational materials that reduce prejudice toward vulnerable people (e.g., immigrants and refugees) for distribution at local events. In other words, projects that provide meaningful and productive learning opportunities for teacher candidates to realize their potential as active and engaged citizens and practice the obligations that global citizenship entails. Taken together, these practices informed the design and enactment of the Issues course. Conceptual Framework To begin, it is important to acknowledge the pedagogical perspectives that guide my thinking about teacher education. In my view, preparing teacher candidates for the profession involves empowering individual and collective voices and fostering the development of enlightened and engaged citizens whose actions achieve social and political change. Therefore, in my courses I promote an education for civic responsibility by creating opportunities for civic participation (Dewey, 1924). Through negotiated networks and partnerships, I engage students in the community and structure learning environments to facilitate social interactions where democratic principles are integrated with learning activities—a process Dewey (1938) called experiential education. I also strive to create educational environments that foster the development of critical consciousness (Freire, 1973) where students are challenged by disorienting dilemmas and conflicting frames (Meizrow, 1978, 1990) and engage in critical reflection to examine assumptions, deconstruct and reconstruct personal beliefs and knowledge, and act to address issues of inequality. Global Citizenship Education as a Framing Paradigm The first framework employed in the course, Global Citizenship Education (GCE), represents a shift from global education for global awareness to an education that requires critical thinking, meaningful experiences, activism, and enabling learners to examine discourse and power structures critically. Given the aims of GCE, the following learning objectives were established for the course: mailto:kopish@ohio.edu http://www.iajiss.org/ Journal of International Social Studies, v. 7, n. 2, 2017, pp. 20-59 Corresponding author: kopish@ohio.edu ©2012/2018 National Council for Social Studies International Assembly http://www.iajiss.org ISSN: 2327-3585 Page 28 1. Students will be able to evaluate sources and use evidence to explore and communicate multiple perspectives on complex global issues. 2. Students will be able to identify and analyze causes of global issues and their relationship to local, state, and national issues and take action on issues of importance. 3. Students will be able to relate prejudice reduction, destruction of misinformation and stereotypes, and acceptance of global diversity to the development of cross-cultural communication and understanding. 4. Students will be able to engage in conversation partnerships to gain cross-cultural awareness and cross-cultural competence. These course objectives aligned with existing teacher preparation standards for content and diversity (i.e., CAEP, 2013; CCSSO, 2013; NCATE, 2008). Each class meeting focused on a topic derived from the three domains of learning in the GCE framework (UNESCO, 2015): cognitive (i.e., local/global systems, issues connecting local/global, underlying assumptions and power dynamics), socio-emotional (i.e., levels of identity, belongingness among different communities, difference and respect for diversity), and behavioral (i.e., actions that can be taken, ethically responsible behavior, engagement and action). The GCE framework guided students with a sense of purpose through inquiry processes and cross-cultural experiential learning. Table 1 – Alignment of GCE Dimensions, Teacher Preparation Standards, and Course Objectives Core conceptual dimensions of GCE Teacher Preparation Standards Course Objectives Cognitive – To acquire knowledge, understanding and critical thinking about global, regional, national and local issues and the interconnectedness and interdependency of different countries and populations (UNESCO, 2015, p. 15). CAEP Standard 1: Content and Pedagogy The provider ensures that candidates develop a deep understanding of the critical concepts and principles of their discipline and, by completion, are able to use discipline- specific practices flexibly to Objective 1: Students will be able to evaluate sources and use evidence to explore and communicate multiple perspectives on complex global issues. Objective 2: Students will be able to identify and analyze causes of global mailto:kopish@ohio.edu http://www.iajiss.org/ Journal of International Social Studies, v. 7, n. 2, 2017, pp. 20-59 Corresponding author: kopish@ohio.edu ©2012/2018 National Council for Social Studies International Assembly http://www.iajiss.org ISSN: 2327-3585 Page 29 advance the learning of all students toward attainment of college- and career-readiness standards. InTASC Standard 5 – Application of Content: “The teacher understands how to connect concepts and use differing perspectives to engage learners in critical thinking, creativity, and collaborative problem-solving related to authentic local and global issues” (CCSSO, 2013, p. 8). issues and their relationship to local, state, and national issues and take action on issues of importance. Socio-emotional – To have a sense of belonging to a common humanity, sharing values and responsibilities, empathy, solidarity and respect for differences and diversity (UNESCO, 2015, p. 15). NCATE Diversity Standard: Requires teacher candidates “reflect multicultural and global perspectives that draw on the histories, experiences, and representations of students and families from diverse populations” (NCATE, 2008, p. 36). Objective 3: Students will be able to relate prejudice reduction, destruction of misinformation and stereotypes, and acceptance of global diversity to the development of cross- cultural communication and understanding. Objective 4: Students will be able to engage in conversation partnerships to gain cross-cultural mailto:kopish@ohio.edu http://www.iajiss.org/ Journal of International Social Studies, v. 7, n. 2, 2017, pp. 20-59 Corresponding author: kopish@ohio.edu ©2012/2018 National Council for Social Studies International Assembly http://www.iajiss.org ISSN: 2327-3585 Page 30 awareness and cross- cultural competence. Behavioral – To act effectively and responsibly at local, national, and global levels for a more peaceful and sustainable world (UNESCO, 2015, p. 15). Objective 2: Students will be able to identify and analyze causes of global issues and their relationship to local, state, and national issues and take action on issues of importance. Per course objectives 1 and 2, teacher candidates were immediately guided through one of the unique features of GCE: a critical investigation of international crises, problems, issues, and global power structures. Human experiences of immigrants and refugees served as the milieu for the critical inquiry. In the course, teacher candidates conducted two critical country studies which explored push/pull factors of migration in several understudied regions of the world: Latin America, the Horn of Africa, the Middle East, and regions of Asia. In collaborative groups, teacher candidates self-selected top source countries of U.S. immigration and top source countries of refugees for the two inquiry projects. By design, these countries were selected so that students could gain access and exposure to U.S. and global perspectives on issues of human migration. The question Why do people migrate? served as the compelling question to guide inquiry. Teacher candidates were required to incorporate evidence from resources that represented multiple perspectives from governmental organizations (e.g., United Nations High Commission for Refugees), non-governmental organizations (e.g., OXFAM), non-profit groups (e.g., Community Refugee and Immigration Services), international newspapers of the countries studied, and personal, first-hand accounts of immigrant/refugee experiences. To teach the skills and dispositions required of a critical inquiry approach, modeling was provided through two case studies: a) unaccompanied minors from El Salvador and b) the ongoing refugee crisis in Syria. Public performance was essential to all student-produced work; materials developed from both critical country studies were used in class for an immigrant and refugee policy simulation, and later student work was displayed at an international medical conference on immigrant and refugee health. mailto:kopish@ohio.edu http://www.iajiss.org/ Journal of International Social Studies, v. 7, n. 2, 2017, pp. 20-59 Corresponding author: kopish@ohio.edu ©2012/2018 National Council for Social Studies International Assembly http://www.iajiss.org ISSN: 2327-3585 Page 31 Globally Competent Teachers The Longview Foundation (2008) supported the creation of the Globally Competent Teaching Continuum (2014). This framework outlines a set of twelve global competence elements in the domains of dispositions, knowledge, and skills that educators need to live and work in a global society. This framework served as a fidelity check to enhance my own global competencies and helped align course objectives 3 and 4 with cross-cultural experiential learning opportunities I developed for teacher candidates. The course demonstrated the power of collaboration as resources from across the campus and community were assembled to create a transformative educational experience for all involved. Collaborations involved various programs and departments in Global Studies, African Studies, the Center for International Studies, Counseling and Higher Education, Linguistics, and Global Health. During the development of the course, I met with colleagues in the aforementioned programs and departments to discuss readings and course topics and to explore potential overlap of interests for collaborative projects. Ultimately, four cross-cultural experiential learning opportunities for teacher candidates were co-created: a) one 90-minute intercultural communication training; b) one 3-hour cross-cultural dialogue session with international students from Africa, the Middle East, and South Asia to discuss lived experiences and perspectives on issues related to human migration; c) one 2-hour workshop on best practices for working with culturally and linguistically diverse students followed by an hour-long discussion with international students from the Middle East and Asia enrolled in an intensive English program; and d) pedagogical consulting and educational material development to disrupt myths and stereotypes for an international medical conference on immigrant and refugee health to educate health care professionals. Methodology For this research, I conducted a reflective inquiry (Adler, 1993; Tabachnick & Zeichner, 1991) to address the research question: To what extent did teacher candidates meet the learning objectives of this course designed around a global citizenship education framework? Because the course was offered for the first time, I demonstrated inquiry as stance (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999, 2009), which “positions practitioners’ knowledge, practitioners and their interactions with students and other stakeholders at the center of educational transformation” (2009, p. 123)—in this case, the preparation of globally competent teacher candidates. mailto:kopish@ohio.edu http://www.iajiss.org/ Journal of International Social Studies, v. 7, n. 2, 2017, pp. 20-59 Corresponding author: kopish@ohio.edu ©2012/2018 National Council for Social Studies International Assembly http://www.iajiss.org ISSN: 2327-3585 Page 32 Participants Study participants included 23 teacher candidates enrolled in Issues in Global Education, an elective general education course that satisfied a cross-cultural perspectives requirement. The Issues course was offered during the 15-week spring semester of the 2015-2016 academic year. The teacher candidates represented several undergraduate programs: secondary social studies (n=6), early childhood (n=5), English/language arts (n=4), secondary science (n=3), pre-early childhood (n=3), special education (n=1), and secondary math (n=1). Teacher candidates represented various levels of schooling: first year (n=1), sophomores (n=6), juniors (n=7), and seniors (n=9). In addition, participants identified as male (n=10) and female (n=13), and 8 of the 23 participants were first-generation college students. Confidentiality IRB approval for this study was obtained for the 23 teacher candidates. To avoid coercion, written consent was collected from teacher candidates on the final day of the course by a colleague and not shared with the author until after grades were due. In this manuscript, pseudonyms are used in the findings section to preserve anonymity and confidentiality of the participants. Procedures In addition to completing the critical inquiry projects and participating in the cross-cultural experiential learning opportunities, teacher candidates completed five reflective journals during the semester about the following topics: (1) initial reflections on global knowledge and experience; (2) reflections on an immigration critical country study; (3) reflections on a refugee critical country study; (4) reflections from cross-cultural experiential learning workshops; and (5) a summative reflection on the course. For each reflection, teacher candidates responded to a series of open-ended questions (see Appendix A) and were encouraged to respond with rich descriptions of their experiences with the course content and cross-cultural activities in 1000- 1500 words. Analysis Data were analyzed using procedures for thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006). First, I immersed myself with these data and completed thorough readings to create lists of initial ideas about the data. Second, I employed a semantic approach (Patton, 1990) and constructed an initial coding scheme using the three domains of globally competent teachers: skills, knowledge, and dispositions (Globally Competent Teaching Continuum, 2014). Third, I sorted codes into possible mailto:kopish@ohio.edu http://www.iajiss.org/ Journal of International Social Studies, v. 7, n. 2, 2017, pp. 20-59 Corresponding author: kopish@ohio.edu ©2012/2018 National Council for Social Studies International Assembly http://www.iajiss.org ISSN: 2327-3585 Page 33 themes of global competencies (UNESCO, 2015; Globally Competent Teaching Continuum, 2014), compared and adjusted themes based on relevant data, and considered relationships across themes. Fourth, I reviewed themes and examples within codes across the entire data set. Fifth, I created themes and definitions using clear descriptive language and selected illustrative excerpts to include in this manuscript (see Appendix B). Finally, I organized the findings to re-align with the three domains of globally competent teachers: skills, knowledge, and dispositions. Trustworthiness As a qualitative researcher, subjectivity and positionality are omnipresent; this study is informed by my years of experience and efforts as a high school social studies teacher and teacher educator with interests in the development of global competencies among my teacher candidates through cross-cultural experiential learning. Given these experiences, I draw on Lincoln and Guba’s (1985) four types of trustworthiness employed in this research: credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability. First, to establish credibility I engaged in ongoing reflexive dialogue and memo writing, analyzed over 400 pages of reflective journals, adopted Krefting’s (1991) recommendation to code and re-code data with two-week intervals between sessions, and included direct quotes from participants in this manuscript. Second, to establish transferability I engaged with global education (and GCE) literature from multiple perspectives (i.e., higher education, student affairs, teacher education, social studies education) throughout the analysis to enhance the relevance of findings (Tuckett, 2005); thus, findings from this study may inform future practices and desired outcomes for diverse audiences. Third, to establish dependability I provided transparency of methods and procedures (Attride-Stirling, 2001; Holloway & Todres, 2003) and described the procedures for data analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Finally, to establish confirmability, I consulted with global education experts throughout the research, a process Lincoln and Guba (1985) call peer debriefing, and employed a semantic approach (Patton, 1990), which allowed me to analyze themes in relation to previous research and conceptual frameworks for global education; specifically, the Globally Competent Teaching Continuum (2014), and Global Citizenship Education (UNESCO, 2015). Findings Teacher candidates enter education programs with prior global knowledge and experiences (Parkhouse, Tichnor-Wagner, Glazier, & Cain, 2015), but may differ in quality of opportunity. For candidates enrolled in the Issues course, preliminary reflective responses indicated their high school social studies experiences were focused on U.S. history, and candidates’ global knowledge mailto:kopish@ohio.edu http://www.iajiss.org/ Journal of International Social Studies, v. 7, n. 2, 2017, pp. 20-59 Corresponding author: kopish@ohio.edu ©2012/2018 National Council for Social Studies International Assembly http://www.iajiss.org ISSN: 2327-3585 Page 34 was limited to key events affecting the U.S. (e.g., immigrants coming to Ellis Island) or global events of magnitude that were represented in textbooks (e.g., genocide in Rwanda). Candidates understood global issues through fragmented facts, parochial perceptions, and a general disconnect from the global community (Kopish, 2016). In terms of global experiences, none of the students had previous international experiences like study abroad or international student teaching. Only four teacher candidates in the course had traveled outside the U.S.; France, Spain, Britain, and tourist destinations in the Caribbean and Mexico were reported. An overall lack of exposure to global education during high school and limited global experiences demonstrate where students were at the beginning of the course. The majority of students in the Issues course demonstrated a shift in their skills, knowledge, and dispositions, and the data are organized so as to discuss these three domains. Overall, 290 responses were coded. Among those, roughly 35% of the total responses indicated that what I identified as critical literacy (37), critical inquiry (30), and cross-cultural communication (34) were perceived as areas of growth in terms of skills; 42% of the total responses indicated awareness of global issues (50), interconnectedness of events in a global system (36), and global complexity (36) as areas of growth in terms of knowledge; 23% of responses indicated empathy (24), critical reflection (20), and commitment to future local/global action (23) as areas of growth in terms of dispositions. Table 2 – Frequencies of Coded Themes Domain Theme Total Coded Passages Total Number of Candidates Critical Global Skills Critical literacy and critical media literacy 37 20 Critical inquiry 30 19 Cross cultural communication 34 21 Global Knowledge Awareness of Global Issues 50 23 Interconnectedness of events in a global system 36 21 mailto:kopish@ohio.edu http://www.iajiss.org/ Journal of International Social Studies, v. 7, n. 2, 2017, pp. 20-59 Corresponding author: kopish@ohio.edu ©2012/2018 National Council for Social Studies International Assembly http://www.iajiss.org ISSN: 2327-3585 Page 35 Global complexity 36 21 Global Dispositions Empathy 24 16 Critical reflection 20 14 Commitment to future local/global action 23 15 Note. Number of candidates with one or more coded passages for each theme. Critical Global Skill Set Globally competent teachers possess analytical thinking skills, the ability to consider multiple perspectives, and a critical awareness of worldviews. Teacher candidates evaluated sources and used evidence to explore and communicate multiple perspectives on complex global issues and developed cross-cultural communication skills to facilitate their understanding. Critical literacy. Throughout the course, teacher candidates explored historical and social construction of knowledge and discourse using both critical literacy (Giroux, 2005) and critical media literacy (Kellner & Share, 2005, 2007) approaches. Critical literacy approaches helped teacher candidates move beyond uncritical or literal consumption of information to see how power and inequality are perpetuated through discourses and language. For example, Naomi, a senior in social studies education, reflected on her critical country study: You hear people talk about refugees or immigrants of certain cultures in insensitive or demeaning ways. But they have no idea how status is defined and associated with terms like migrant, refugee, immigrant, and citizen. They certainly have no idea how the history of nativism, nationalism, xenophobia and racism has led to exclusionary laws, quotas, to a new era of reform tied to national security perspectives. Through purposefully structured learning opportunities, teacher candidates evaluated and discussed attitudes, ideas, and priorities and how the milieu of political, economic, social and historical factors influences public perception and framing. These learning opportunities also included student exploration of media using a critical media literacy framework (Kellner & Share, 2005, 2007). The framework teaches young people to analyze the social construction of media representations and communication based on five core concepts: 1) All media messages are “constructed;” 2) Media messages are constructed using creative language with its own rules; 3) Different people experience the same media message differently; 4) Media have embedded mailto:kopish@ohio.edu http://www.iajiss.org/ Journal of International Social Studies, v. 7, n. 2, 2017, pp. 20-59 Corresponding author: kopish@ohio.edu ©2012/2018 National Council for Social Studies International Assembly http://www.iajiss.org ISSN: 2327-3585 Page 36 values and points of view; 5) Media are organized to gain profit and/or power. Given the prevalence of multimedia information in the lives of students, providing a critical media literacy framework was imperative in their development of global competencies. For example, according to Janice, a science education junior, the critical country study taught her to “pay closer attention to the news and the biases different sources have and for whose benefit” and demonstrated to others like Chloe, an early childhood sophomore, “how to think critically about the information being put out and to find multiple sources of news information to inform a perspective.” Critical inquiry. Critical literacy and critical media literacy skills are an important foundation for critical inquiry. In the course, teacher candidates were taught the Inquiry Arc from the Social Studies C3 Framework (NCSS, 2013). This process guides students through an approach to develop questions and plan inquiries, apply disciplinary concepts and tools, evaluate and use evidence, and communicate conclusions and take informed action. Similarly, the framework for global competence education designed by the Asia Society (2008) is grounded in the inquiry process, meaning that teaching and learning for global competence education is well aligned with the conceptual and skill development promoted by inquiry-based learning in social studies education (Harshman, 2016a). An epistemological assumption of critical inquiry is that knowledge is subjective, it is grounded in culture and experience, and it is personal. Teacher candidates were initially frustrated by the iterative nature of the inquiry process but found it to be helpful with practice. As Harrison, a math education sophomore, reflected on the critical country study and policy simulation, “I was frustrated by not having an answer, but emboldened to learn more when we were learning from other perspectives.” Learning from other perspectives and lived experiences was an incredibly valuable component of critical inquiry. As candidates explored complex issues, they yearned for a more complete picture and expressed a desire to hear voices and perspectives from beyond the United States. Janice, for example, identified whose perspectives are readily present in the media but not those that are directly impacted by refugee crises: We hear from the U.S., Russia, England, but I would like to hear more of the perspectives from those already living in the countries where a great majority of refugees from these areas are moving, too. I would like to hear more from those that live in Turkey, Kenya, Iraq and other countries who are soaking up a lot of refugees from certain areas such as Syria or for my country, Sudan. mailto:kopish@ohio.edu http://www.iajiss.org/ Journal of International Social Studies, v. 7, n. 2, 2017, pp. 20-59 Corresponding author: kopish@ohio.edu ©2012/2018 National Council for Social Studies International Assembly http://www.iajiss.org ISSN: 2327-3585 Page 37 Throughout the course, teacher candidates were involved in different opportunities to engage in experiences that required re-evaluating their own perspectives, values, and assumptions from multiple points of view, which enabled teacher candidates to deeply explore issues of power and agency related to human migration. Cross-cultural communication. In a series of three workshops focused on cross-cultural communication, teacher candidates learned and practiced active listening, critical thinking, and perspective recognition. The integrated experiences challenged prevailing assumptions and allowed teacher candidates to begin to see value in cultural and linguistic diversity. Through the experience, teacher candidates learned the significance of listening skills, nonverbal communication, and asking questions—the key attributes of effective communication. Reflecting on the workshops, Trisha, a junior in language arts education, wrote, “When the international students came to our class, I remembered the workshop on communication and was able to ask students insightful questions and learn about their lives in their home country.” Moreover, candidates learned how different types and styles of communication might be affected by culture and identity. To illustrate, Lorna, a junior pre-early childhood major, reflected, “I never really thought about how my style of communication could differ from the style of others. When I talked with international students I was definitely more aware of what style of communication I was using and my body language during those conversations.” These workshops had profound implications for teacher candidates and led to greater self- awareness, as many mentioned “stepping outside of their comfort zone” during these experiences. The series of cross-cultural experiential learning opportunities expanded teacher candidates’ perception, awareness, and ability to interact with people from around the world. Many teacher candidates initially mentioned they “never had the opportunity to talk with someone from another country;” through critical reflection, teacher candidates realized they “learned information from the perspective of others” and “challenged assumptions and misconceptions about others.” Global Knowledge Course content focused on global issues through an analysis of human migration. For many teacher candidates, it was their first exposure to a myriad of global issues and expanded their ability to conduct research and consider multiple perspectives beyond their circumscribed local surroundings. Teacher candidates demonstrated improved awareness of global issues and viewed global issues as interconnected and complex. mailto:kopish@ohio.edu http://www.iajiss.org/ Journal of International Social Studies, v. 7, n. 2, 2017, pp. 20-59 Corresponding author: kopish@ohio.edu ©2012/2018 National Council for Social Studies International Assembly http://www.iajiss.org ISSN: 2327-3585 Page 38 Awareness of global issues. In reflective journals, teacher candidates openly admitted that prior to the course, they “paid little attention” to global issues and saw them as “unimportant” to their own lives. As teacher candidates learned critical inquiry skills, some expressed “regret” or “guilt” for not being informed or aware of global issues. By engaging in disciplined inquiry, teacher candidates gained deeper awareness of two countries in great detail and additional countries through interactive presentations. Celine, a sophomore in special education, reflected that the critical country study and cross-cultural dialogue helped her “develop an understanding of historic events, current events, statistics on healthcare and education access, military conflicts, and violence as well as the effects of those events on the citizens of the countries.” Another student, Darren, a science education senior, stated, “I, of course, heard about ISIS but had no idea what was happening in Syria or Iraq until this class. I am now more aware of so many issues happening outside the U.S.” Interconnectedness of events in a global system. Throughout the course experiences, teacher candidates learned about the interconnectedness of events and the global ecological system. Initially, many teacher candidates demonstrated a penchant for facts about countries that surprised them. For example, teacher candidates were predisposed to memorize and share factual information about issues without seeing connections. Discrete information about conditions in countries like starvation in South Sudan, persecution in Eritrea, or the ostracizing of Syrian refugees in Greece was expressed as important in early journals. What developed through the critical country studies, however, was teacher candidates’ ability to employ systems thinking and critically evaluate how decisions and actions interrelate and affect people across the globe in interconnected ways. For example, Mike, a social studies education sophomore, critiqued the way “sound bites in the news offer a limited point of view that fails to address the interconnectedness of global events.” He learned how the violence in Syria is connected to new laws in the Middle East and EU which harm the most vulnerable: I hear politicians say ‘help these people’ ‘bomb them’ and miss the way decisions impact people and nations. Look at the effects of decisions throughout the multi-dimensional power struggle in Syria. The Syrian refugee crisis didn’t just happen. Assad’s forces, ISIS, and opposition groups are tearing the country apart. The violence is pushing refugees to Lebanon, Jordan, Turkey, and the EU. Now these countries are changing their laws to prevent refugees from entering the country! For this student, previously held assumptions were broken down and he started to identify complexity rather than simplicity to explain global events. As a result of the critical country mailto:kopish@ohio.edu http://www.iajiss.org/ Journal of International Social Studies, v. 7, n. 2, 2017, pp. 20-59 Corresponding author: kopish@ohio.edu ©2012/2018 National Council for Social Studies International Assembly http://www.iajiss.org ISSN: 2327-3585 Page 39 studies, teacher candidates moved beyond viewing the exotic and interesting as the most important information. Instead, they viewed immigration and refugee crises and weighed policy options by incorporating international perspectives that assessed humanitarian, economic, and security interests. Global complexity. With new knowledge about world systems, global events, and the interconnectedness of the global ecological system, teacher candidates began to acknowledge greater complexity involved in decision-making and problem solving. Teacher candidates viewed the critical country study as “a pivotal experience to learn difficult decision-making on a global scale.” For example, Sienna, a sophomore in social studies education, developed a heuristic to facilitate her thinking. She explained in a journal entry: I noticed that human migration isn’t a black and white issue, there seem to be different factors that interplay: 1) violence – either from political corruption persecution or instability; 2) resources – either too little or innovation and development doesn’t exist without investment; 3) environment – is too harsh or living conditions are poor; 4) opportunities – little or no opportunities for advancement socially, economically or politically. Engaging candidates in simulations that involved problem solving and decision-making allowed students to wrestle with the key issues and controversies facing the vulnerable, policy makers, and other leaders. Megan, an early childhood senior, mentioned grappling with complexity during the immigration policy simulation in a journal entry. She wrote, “I was able to see that it is much harder than it sounds to fix these crises as the issues immigrants face is multifaceted and every single case in unique. These crises are like an iceberg—we only see part of the issues at play and not the long histories and legacies that push or force people to migrate.” Global Dispositions Global dispositions include teacher candidates’ ability to reflect on and be aware of their own attitudes and values along with their readiness to advocate for values on a global level. Three themes emerged from analysis of teacher candidates’ reflective journals: 1) empathy, 2) critical reflection, and 3) commitment to future action. Empathy. For many teacher candidates, their journal entries expressed being reflective of their own thinking and described episodes that reinforced or developed feelings of empathy toward others. Reflections indicated that both the critical inquiry and cross-cultural experiences helped mailto:kopish@ohio.edu http://www.iajiss.org/ Journal of International Social Studies, v. 7, n. 2, 2017, pp. 20-59 Corresponding author: kopish@ohio.edu ©2012/2018 National Council for Social Studies International Assembly http://www.iajiss.org ISSN: 2327-3585 Page 40 teacher candidates become more empathetic. For example, through the critical inquiry projects, Lorna stated, “I can honestly say that over time I have developed more understanding and empathy for the lived experiences of people in so many countries.” Megan also described a change in empathy over the duration of studying the lived experiences in the critical inquiry projects. In one reflection, she stated, “Studying the different social norms has created, evolved, and grown my empathy for those oppressed.” Empathy also developed from teacher candidates’ participation in the cross-cultural experiences. Trisha, for example, met someone from another country for the first time in her life during the cross-cultural dialogue activity. From the experience, she developed empathy and refined her own views. As she stated in a reflection, “I have experienced difference of others for the first time; my empathy has grown and my own views are more cultivated.” Another student, Sienna, acknowledged that authentic conversations with international students changed her from “feeling sorry for others” to “actually feeling emotionally connected and empathetic from hearing people’s unique stories.” Experiencing and acknowledging feelings of empathy certainly appeared to correspond with emerging awareness, which for some was a necessary first step toward developing dispositional global competencies. Critical reflection. For many teacher candidates, cross-cultural awareness began with feelings of empathy while some candidates’ awareness expanded through self-reflection and personal evolution of thought. Other teacher candidates’ journal entries, however, demonstrated multi- layered levels of reflection on the intersectionality of their own culture and status. To illustrate, Chloe explored notions of privilege in one of her critical reflections: I think as an African American woman I see all of the areas in which I do not have the privilege but I realized that as an American middle-class citizen I have more privilege than many people in the world. Hearing the stories of the refugees and immigrants and their journeys forces me to reconsider my own situation. Teacher candidates began to recognize how discourses of power frame media reports and policy discussions related human migration (i.e., “I find myself thinking about how language is used during the campaigns to frame issues of immigration and refugees”). They questioned the pervasiveness of Western viewpoints and purposefully explored multiple perspectives from other countries, especially those affected by mass migration of people. Darren, for example, reflected on reading stories from international newspapers: My own experiences were present reading the way the Greek newspapers castigated refugees from Syria; how similar the language used in the paper is to how my middle-class mailto:kopish@ohio.edu http://www.iajiss.org/ Journal of International Social Studies, v. 7, n. 2, 2017, pp. 20-59 Corresponding author: kopish@ohio.edu ©2012/2018 National Council for Social Studies International Assembly http://www.iajiss.org ISSN: 2327-3585 Page 41 family members talk about the crisis yet have no idea about refugees’ experiences. I kept thinking about how privilege frames one’s perception. Teacher candidates examined historical, political, social, and economic conditions and wondered why some perspectives were silenced or not considered/presented as viable options. Commitment to future local/global action. Teacher candidates developed empathy, became more critically reflective, and spoke of plans and commitments for future action. For some, the commitment to action was personal and proximal; teacher candidates, for example, mentioned a desire for “more education and personal research” while others expressed being “more comfortable approaching and talking to an international student.” Other teacher candidates saw the course as an opportunity to correct misinformation. Janice, for example, stated, “Now I cannot ignore others’ misinformed comments and will use every opportunity to spread the stories of personal struggle from around the world.” The course experiences pushed some to want to earn a Spanish minor or an International Certificate as part of their academic experience. In addition, teacher candidates signed up to be conversational partners and support the international students they met from the intensive English program, sought to participate in events on campus, and re-taught course activities to students at school internships. Other teacher candidates pursued broader action and engagement in local and global communities. For example, candidates mentioned that the course increased their commitment to different levels of civic engagement. Harrison expressed a personal desire to be a “better informed voter” while Celine expressed a desire to engage locally and “start a chapter of MEDLIFE on campus.” As teacher candidates’ knowledge of opportunities expanded, they also expressed a desire to “work with refugee/immigrant communities in [a large urban area],” or “intern with [an educational advocacy group] to support immigrant and refugee students.” These teacher candidates demonstrate that they have the power to shape a better world by promoting peace, cross-cultural understanding, and mutual respect. Two teacher candidates, Megan and Sienna, signed up for a teach abroad/service learning summer program in Thailand while others looked into student teaching overseas and study abroad programs. Sienna also expressed a desire to work at the Zaatari refugee camp in Jordan and cited the critical case study of Syria as influential. Discussion Toward the goal of developing globally competent teacher candidates, the findings from this study demonstrate the extent to which students met the learning objectives of this course designed around a GCE framework. The results, however, are limited to the experiences of mailto:kopish@ohio.edu http://www.iajiss.org/ Journal of International Social Studies, v. 7, n. 2, 2017, pp. 20-59 Corresponding author: kopish@ohio.edu ©2012/2018 National Council for Social Studies International Assembly http://www.iajiss.org ISSN: 2327-3585 Page 42 teacher candidates in an elective course at one university. Thus, those enrolled represent a small sample of teacher candidates who were motivated to select the course and may have had initial “buy-in” to the GCE perspectives, curriculum, and pedagogies enacted. While the small sample size for this study was comparative to other qualitative studies (Kirkwood-Tucker, 2004; Harshman, 2016b; Maguth, 2014; Parkhouse, Tichnor-Wagner, Cain, & Glazier, 2016), a larger sample of teacher candidates would likely be more diverse and may reveal critical differences in perspectives, differences that may better demonstrate contrasts between candidates who exhibited minimal to little change and those who truly developed global competencies. Despite these limitations, the examples of content and pedagogical practices employed using the GCE framework provide necessary examples of how teacher educators might approach integrating GCE into extant courses and curriculum. Specifically, the findings from this study demonstrate a degree of efficacy developing teacher candidates’ global competencies by enacting the following practices: engage teacher candidates in cross-cultural experiences (Merryfield & Kasai, 2010; Pence & Macgillivray, 2008; Sahin, 2008), include diverse content, multiple perspectives, and critical inquiry (Carano, 2013; Merryfield, 2008; Merryfield & Subedi, 2003; Myers, 2010; O’Connor & Zeichner, 2011; Poole & Russell, 2015), and create authentic opportunities for teacher candidates to take action on issues related to global citizenship (Andreotti, 2006; DiCecco, 2016; Ibrahim, 2005; UNESCO, 2015). These practices are flexible in application and allow teacher educators to maintain autonomy in determining global content, cross-cultural experiences, and opportunities for action to develop global competencies and meet global citizenship and curricular goals. Reflecting on the experience as a whole, there are several recommendations to move this work forward. Recommendations for Practice First, efforts to prepare teacher candidates for globalized contexts should be a coordinated approach that is integrated across disciplines and in courses and programs for prospective teachers (Ferguson-Patrick, Macqueen, & Reynolds, 2014; Robbins, Francis, & Elliott, 2003). Integrating GCE in teacher preparation courses complements existing accreditation and professional teacher standards for content and diversity and can augment existing curriculum. This requires structures to build teacher educator capacity with GCE and related pedagogies by incentivizing teacher educators with opportunities for global travel, university exchange programs, or professional development with the practices employed in this study. Teacher preparation programs may also incentivize faculty to create new global courses and offer more global experiences for students (Quezada & Cordeiro, 2016). Any efforts, however, require mailto:kopish@ohio.edu http://www.iajiss.org/ Journal of International Social Studies, v. 7, n. 2, 2017, pp. 20-59 Corresponding author: kopish@ohio.edu ©2012/2018 National Council for Social Studies International Assembly http://www.iajiss.org ISSN: 2327-3585 Page 43 sustained commitments from teacher education programs and practitioners, such as requiring global education courses in programs of study and using global education courses as an incubator for pedagogical development. Second, teacher educators who adopt GCE as a framing paradigm in their courses must be gritty, reflective practitioners. They must be equipped to address teacher candidates’ incomplete or inaccurate information related to GCE issues under study (e.g., “all refugees from the Middle East end up in America”) and expand pedagogical repertoires to include more inclusive practices for scaffolding critical literacy and critical inquiry. In this course, teacher candidates were often frustrated by the ambiguity associated with addressing systemic issues of inequality. Many candidates initially sought the “right” or “correct” answer during inquiry-based instruction and struggled to navigate multiple viewpoints when analyzing evidence. Over time, however, most students were able to critically analyze information and multiple perspectives. There were three students, the uncritical privileged (Kopish, 2016), who, despite explicit and critical examination of structural forms of inequality, uncritically reflected upon others’ experiences in comparison with their own lives (e.g., “I have it a lot easier than I think and now after taking this class, I appreciate my life more. I almost feel guilty for not being aware of what is going on in the world”). From this experience, I recommend that teacher educators should anticipate students’ ambivalence (or resistance) to critical inquiry practices and the development of perspective consciousness. Identifying student perceptions early and scaffolding critical self-reflection throughout the course will help all candidates examine status and position, challenge relational hierarchies, and confront privilege. When classroom-based approaches seem to fall short of desired outcomes, teacher educators should seek experiential education opportunities for students to take action in local communities. This may help students understand local/global connections between oppression and inequality rather than as abstract and distant issues happening to “others.” Efforts such as engaging teacher candidates in cross-cultural service learning are potentially powerful (Boyle-Baise, 1998; Engberg & Fox, 2011; Glass, 2012) and may be necessary to affect greater change in development of teacher candidates’ global competencies. Third, teacher educators should leverage campus and community assets to support GCE efforts with an eye on sustainability. Too often we are stuck within our own disciplinary borders and rarely seek or create opportunities to collaborate. The overwhelmingly positive perspectives offered by student reflections indicate the high value and importance of the cross-cultural experiential learning opportunities. As I prepared for the course, I learned about global initiatives mailto:kopish@ohio.edu http://www.iajiss.org/ Journal of International Social Studies, v. 7, n. 2, 2017, pp. 20-59 Corresponding author: kopish@ohio.edu ©2012/2018 National Council for Social Studies International Assembly http://www.iajiss.org ISSN: 2327-3585 Page 44 on campus from colleagues in other departments and in the community. I attended events (i.e., forums, guest speakers, film series) and started networking to find allies and potential partners. Six months in advance of the course, I approached colleagues from around campus, shared visions of the course, and started conversations about how to collaborate to support global teacher education. To be sure, these efforts take time; the best-designed plans were sometimes compromised by the time constraints of a 15-week course, which limited the number of cross- cultural experiential learning opportunities candidates were offered. Negotiating schedules with colleagues and international students to develop a coherent series of workshops was difficult to manage and demanded flexibility on my part. As teacher educators consider their own contexts, they should try to establish partnerships that are mutually beneficial and sustained beyond the one semester. With the exception of the annual global health conference, which was held locally only during the semester of the course, future iterations of this course will involve colleagues and programs for improved versions of cross-cultural experiential learning and new opportunities as well. Regardless of one’s location or institution, there are potential opportunities for collaboration on global education initiatives. In closing, I sought to make the practices and pedagogy of GCE in my attempt to develop teacher candidates’ global competencies transparent. There is no prescriptive path to global education because contexts and access to resources and opportunities differ; however, my hope is that I was able to make some of the tacit and elusive elements of GCE as a framing paradigm more explicit by providing concrete examples of key practices employed in the course. As teacher educators, we are at a critical juncture in the development of globally competent teachers. We must continue to examine our own and others’ pedagogy for global education and emphatically communicate the extent to which our efforts help develop teacher candidates’ global competencies. Young people have the power to shape a world that promotes peace, mutual respect, and environmental care; education is the key. mailto:kopish@ohio.edu http://www.iajiss.org/ Journal of International Social Studies, v. 7, n. 2, 2017, pp. 20-59 Corresponding author: kopish@ohio.edu ©2012/2018 National Council for Social Studies International Assembly http://www.iajiss.org ISSN: 2327-3585 Page 45 Appendix A Reflection Questions 1) Initial Reflections on Global Knowledge and Experience 1. What were your social studies classes like in high school? 2. How were you taught about countries outside the United States? 3. How were you taught about immigration? 4. How were you taught about refugees? 2) Immigration Critical Country Study About Immigration a. How much did you know about immigration before the class activities and project? b. After completing the project and activities, what are your perspectives on immigration? c. Based on the reading and discussions in class, which approach to immigration policy do you agree with most? Why? d. As you reflect on your experience, what more do you want to know about immigration? About the Project e. What was satisfying about the project? What did you find frustrating about the project? f. If you were advising the professor, what is something about the critical country study that can be improved? g. As you look ahead to the critical country study on refugees, what is something you would like to improve for next time? 3) Immigration Critical Country Study About Refugees a. How much did you know about refugees before the class activities and project? b. After completing the project and activities, what are your perspectives on refugees? c. Based on the reading and discussions in class, which approach to refugee policy do you agree with most? Why? d. As you reflect on your experience, what more do you want to know about refugees? e. What did you find similar about your immigration and refugee projects? What did you find different? Written Policy Response: What should be the United States’ policy for resettling refugees? Your response needs to take into account the following: mailto:kopish@ohio.edu http://www.iajiss.org/ Journal of International Social Studies, v. 7, n. 2, 2017, pp. 20-59 Corresponding author: kopish@ohio.edu ©2012/2018 National Council for Social Studies International Assembly http://www.iajiss.org ISSN: 2327-3585 Page 46 a. How do you strike a balance among humanitarian, economic, and security reasons? b. How should U.S. taxpayers pay? Where should benefits go? Are there limits to benefits? c. Should the U.S. establish criteria for “Who should be allowed to resettle and who should not?” Please explain. d. Make a recommendation for where and how the U.S. should respond to refugee crises. About the Project e. What was satisfying about the project? What did you find frustrating about the project? f. If you were advising the professor, what is something about the critical country study that can be improved? 4) Cross-cultural Experiential Learning Workshops Cross Cultural Communication 1. What did you know about effective communication before the workshop? 2. What did you learn from participation in the workshop? Please provide evidence of skills, knowledge, and attitude/disposition that developed during the workshop. 3. How were you able to practice or use the skills you learned from the cross-cultural communication workshop during the conversations outside of class or with international students? 4. As you think about your professional future, how will the skills you developed or knowledge you gained from the workshop help you in the long term? 5. What would you keep from the workshop for use with future classes? How might this workshop be improved for use with future classes? Cross Cultural Dialogue 1. What did you know about the lives and experiences of international students before the workshop? 2. What did you learn from participation in the workshop? Please provide evidence of skills, knowledge, and attitude/disposition that developed during the workshop. 3. What skills or knowledge from class were you able to practice or use during the conversations with international students? 4. As you think about your professional future, how will the skills you developed or knowledge you gained from the workshop help you in the long term? 5. What would you keep from the workshop for use with future classes? How might this workshop be improved for use with future classes? mailto:kopish@ohio.edu http://www.iajiss.org/ Journal of International Social Studies, v. 7, n. 2, 2017, pp. 20-59 Corresponding author: kopish@ohio.edu ©2012/2018 National Council for Social Studies International Assembly http://www.iajiss.org ISSN: 2327-3585 Page 47 Best Practices for Working with English Language Learners 1. What did you know about working with ELL students before the workshop? 2. What did you learn from participation in the workshop? Please provide evidence of skills, knowledge, and attitude/disposition that developed during the workshop. 3. What skills or knowledge from class do you think will be most beneficial in the near term? 4. As you think about your professional future, how will the skills you developed or knowledge you gained from the workshop help you in the long term? 5. What would you keep from the workshop for use with future classes? How might this workshop be improved for use with future classes? 5) Summative Questions 1. Think about the workshops we had in class as they relate to work with immigrants or refugees. What recommendations would make to someone in your professional field (i.e., teaching, engineering, law, journalism, child and family studies) when working with immigrants or refugees? Answers should address key learning from the following workshops: a. Cross-Cultural Communication b. Cross-Cultural Mentoring c. Best Practices for Working with English Language Learners 2. One of the overarching outcomes of this course and the activities chosen is for students to develop or enhance their global perspectives. Please consider your experiences in this class to answer the following questions: a. In what ways did your awareness of and appreciation for different perspectives of the world change? b. To what extent did you develop an understanding of global issues and events and their cause-and-effect relationships. c. To what extent did you develop awareness of diversity of ideas and practices in human societies around the world? To what extent did you develop empathy and your own thinking about ideas covered in class? d. To what extent did you learn about aspects of the world, global change, and interconnectedness? e. To what extent did you develop awareness of the problems of choice confronting individuals, nations, and humans? 3. As a result of the course content and activities, to what extent did your perceptions of immigrants, refugees, and ELL students change? Please support your answer with specific examples of course content or activities that facilitated perception change. mailto:kopish@ohio.edu http://www.iajiss.org/ Journal of International Social Studies, v. 7, n. 2, 2017, pp. 20-59 Corresponding author: kopish@ohio.edu ©2012/2018 National Council for Social Studies International Assembly http://www.iajiss.org ISSN: 2327-3585 Page 48 4. What is next for you on your journey to further develop global competence and global awareness? To what extent has this course encouraged you to exhibit an ongoing willingness to actively seek out and participate in intercultural opportunities? Please provide examples of opportunities you are seeking and a rationale for your participation or reasons you are not seeking opportunities and why. Appendix B Coding Table Codes Theme Definition Quote Total Passages  Analyze language  Analyze discourse  Contested concepts  Bias  Multiple sources Critical literacy and critical media literacy Teacher candidates describe critical thinking and analytical skills incorporated during course readings. “…pay closer attention to the news and the biases different sources have and for whose benefit” 37  Research terms  Disciplinary thinking  Learn from others’ perspectives  Lived experiences of others Critical inquiry Teacher candidates describe experience with inquiry to learn from perspective of others. “We hear from the U.S., Russia, England, but I would like to hear more of the perspectives from those already living in the countries where a great majority of refugees from these areas are moving too. I would like to hear more from those that live in 30 mailto:kopish@ohio.edu http://www.iajiss.org/ Journal of International Social Studies, v. 7, n. 2, 2017, pp. 20-59 Corresponding author: kopish@ohio.edu ©2012/2018 National Council for Social Studies International Assembly http://www.iajiss.org ISSN: 2327-3585 Page 49 Turkey, Kenya, Iraq and other countries who are soaking up a lot of refugees from certain areas such as Syria or for my country, Sudan.”  Active listening  Nonverbal communication  Ask questions  Listen to stories and experiences  Awareness of own communication Cross cultural communication Teacher candidates express what was learned and/or practiced (i.e., active listening, critical thinking, and perspective recognition) as they communicated with international students. “I never really thought about how my style of communication could differ from the style of others. When I talked with international students I was definitely more aware of what style of communication I was using and my body language during those conversations.” 34  Not knowing  Negative feelings associated with lack of knowledge  Increase knowledge Awareness of global issues Teacher candidates demonstrate a change in their knowledge about issues facing countries outside the U.S. “…develop an understanding of historic events, current events, statistics on healthcare and education access, military 50 mailto:kopish@ohio.edu http://www.iajiss.org/ Journal of International Social Studies, v. 7, n. 2, 2017, pp. 20-59 Corresponding author: kopish@ohio.edu ©2012/2018 National Council for Social Studies International Assembly http://www.iajiss.org ISSN: 2327-3585 Page 50  Examples of issues in countries of study conflicts, and violence as well as the effects of those events on the citizens of the countries.”  Issues facing one or more country  Cause and effect  Direct/indirect consequences  Identify trends from events Interconnectedness of events in a global system Teacher candidates acknowledge how issues and challenges affect people across different countries rather than in isolation. “The Syrian refugee crisis didn’t just happen. Assad’s forces, ISIS, and opposition groups are tearing the country apart. The violence is pushing refugees to Lebanon, Jordan, Turkey, and the EU.” 36  Difficulties for countries across issues  Interplay among factors  Thinking in multiple domains Global complexity Teacher candidates identify global issues as multifaceted and problem- solving to address the issues as challenging. “These crises are like an iceberg – we only see part of the issues at play and not the long histories and legacies that push or force people to migrate.” 36  See refugees differently  See immigrants differently Empathy Teacher candidates mention growing awareness and “Studying the different social norms has created, evolved, and 24 mailto:kopish@ohio.edu http://www.iajiss.org/ Journal of International Social Studies, v. 7, n. 2, 2017, pp. 20-59 Corresponding author: kopish@ohio.edu ©2012/2018 National Council for Social Studies International Assembly http://www.iajiss.org ISSN: 2327-3585 Page 51  Hearing stories elicited feelings  Meeting people elicited feelings  Put self in others’ shoes learning about issues, practices, and ideas around the world and the development of empathy through learning. grown my empathy for those oppressed.”  Privilege  Self-awareness  Expanded thinking  Perceptions Critical reflection Teacher candidates express personal thoughts about their own culture and status during experiences. “Hearing the stories of the refugees and immigrants and their journeys forces me to reconsider my own situation.” 20  Take action  Engagement  Seek opportunities  Create opportunities for self Commitment to future local/global action Teacher candidates share visions of how they plan to be more involved. 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New York and London: Routledge mailto:kopish@ohio.edu http://www.iajiss.org/ Journal of International Social Studies, v. 7, n. 2, 2017, pp. 20-59 Corresponding author: kopish@ohio.edu ©2012/2018 National Council for Social Studies International Assembly http://www.iajiss.org ISSN: 2327-3585 Page 59 About the Author: Michael Kopish is an Assistant Professor of Teacher Education at Ohio University where he teaches graduate and undergraduate courses in social studies education and global education. His research interests include service learning, civic engagement, global citizenship education, and social studies education. Dr. Kopish is the author or co-author of articles that appear in Journal of Research on Adolescence, Democracy and Education, and the Journal of Social Studies Education Research. mailto:kopish@ohio.edu http://www.iajiss.org/