Koo et al-11.1 122 Peer-Reviewed Article © Journal of International Students Volume 11, Issue 1 (2021), pp. 122-143 ISSN: 2162-3104 (Print), 2166-3750 (Online) doi: 10.32674/jis.v11i1.2063 ojed.org/jis Who Spends Too Much Time Online? Associated Factors of Internet Addiction Among International College Students in the United States Katie K. Koo Texas A&M University-Commerce, USA Gudrun Nyunt Northern Illinois University, USA Boshi Whang Northern Arizona University, USA ABSTRACT This study investigated the relation between Internet addiction and several associated factors (mental health, academic performance, socioeconomic status, self-esteem, demographic characteristics) for international students in the United States. One hundred and fifty-seven international students at a U.S. university completed five questionnaires: an Internet usage behavior questionnaire, an Internet addiction scale, a self-esteem inventory, a mental health inventory, and a demographic questionnaire. Data were analyzed using SPSS to examine the relation between Internet addiction and associated factors. The results indicated that male students who speak English as a second language and who are not religious are more likely to develop Internet addiction. Academic performance and socioeconomic status were found to be positive predictors of Internet addiction, and mental health and self-esteem were found to be negative predictors of Internet addiction. The relations between other associated factors were also examined. Keywords: academic performance, English proficiency, international students, Internet addiction, mental health Journal of International Students 123 INTRODUCTION College students in the United States spend a significant amount of their day online (Jones et al., 2009). They use the Internet more frequently than the general population and are often the first to adopt new Internet tools and applications (Jones et al., 2009). The Pew Research Center (2019) reported that in 2019, 100% of U.S. 18- to 29-year-olds used the Internet. But while the Internet has become woven into the fabric of college students’ lives, excessive use can negatively influence physical and mental health (Derbyshire et al., 2013). International students in the United States may be particularly at risk for problematic Internet use (Park et al., 2014). They often rely on the Internet to seek information needed for daily life, to stay connected to friends and family at home, to make new friends in the host country, and for entertainment and relaxation (Lee et al., 2011; Sin & Kim, 2013; Yoon & Kim, 2014). Spending a lot of time online, coupled with feeling isolated and struggling to make friends, particularly with domestic students (Girmay & Singh, 2019; Liu, 2009), could lead to problematic reliance on the Internet. Problematic use of the Internet has been referred to as Internet addiction (Cash et al., 2012). Internet addiction is defined as “non-chemical dependency on the use of the Internet” (Tikhonov & Bogoslovskii, 2015, p. 97). Individuals suffering from Internet addiction experience excessive or poorly controlled preoccupations, desires, or behaviors regarding Internet access that lead to impairment or distress (Shaw & Black, 2008). While research on international students’ Internet use is growing (e.g., Lee et al., 2011; Mikal et al., 2015; Sin & Kim, 2013; Yoon & Kim, 2013), many studies focus on how students use the Internet to help adjust to a new environment, failing to explore potential negative effects on students’ mental health. The few studies that have looked at Internet use and mental health indicate that there may be a connection between mental health issues and frequent Internet use among international students (Han et al., 2013; S. E. Kim et al., 2015; Park et al., 2014). However, there is still the paucity of studies exploring Internet addiction and its associated factors among international students in the United States. Purpose of the Study and Research Questions The purpose of this quantitative study is to examine factors associated with international students’ Internet addiction. Specifically, the study strives to answer the following three research questions: (a) How does the rate of Internet addiction among international college students vary based upon demographic factors?; (b) What are predictors of Internet addiction among international college students?; and (c) To what extent are academic performance, parents’ education, socioeconomic status (SES), self-esteem, mental health, and Internet addiction associated with one another among international college students? To answer these questions, we explored the rate of Internet addiction associated with students’ demographic factors and other factors to provide an in-depth understanding of Internet addiction among international college students. Journal of International Students 124 LITERATURE REVIEW International Students in the United States In 2018–2019, over 1 million international students attended a higher education institution in the United States (Institute of International Education [IIE], 2019). International students, defined as anyone studying at a U.S. higher education institution on a temporary visa that allows for academic coursework, now make up 5.5% of the U.S. higher education student population (IIE, 2019). International students contribute billions to the U.S. economy each year (IIE, 2019), enhance intellectual capital, contribute to innovations, and promote diverse campus climates (National Association of International Educators, 2019). Past research has documented the challenges international students face (e.g., Bastien et al., 2018; Koo & Nyunt, 2020; Liu, 2009; Li et al., 2018; Wu et al., 2015). International students, particularly those from non-English speaking countries with cultures that differ greatly from the United States, often experience language and academic barriers, homesickness, and social isolation (Liu, 2009; Koo et al., 2021; Mori, 2000; Wu et al., 2015). Individuals’ struggle to adjust to a new cultural environment, referred to as “acculturative stress” (Berry, 2006), has been linked to mental health issues (Girmay & Singh, 2019; Liu, 2009; Mori, 2000; Zhang & Goodson, 2011a). For example, Zhang and Goodson (2011a) found that international students who experienced higher levels of acculturative stress and had less social support experienced more negative psychological symptoms. Mental health issues, in general, seem to be on the rise among the college- age population (American College Health Association, 2008, 2017). International students seem to be particularly at risk of developing anxiety and other mental health issues (Forbes-Mewett & Sawyer, 2016). Researchers estimate that 15%– 20% of international students in the United States experience poor mental health (Zhang & Goodson, 2011b). Such statistics are particularly concerning as much literature documents international students’ hesitance to seek professional help (Forbes-Mewett & Sawyer, 2016). Internet Usage and Acculturation Internet use has been expanding rapidly. In 2001, 513 million users existed worldwide (Cohen-Almagor, 2011). By 2016, there were over 3.4 billion users worldwide, with China and India reporting the most, despite only 50% and 26% of their population being online, respectively (Roser et al., 2019). The amount of time individuals spend online has also increased. In 2019, about eight in 10 U.S. adults indicated that they accessed the Internet daily (Perrin & Kumar, 2019). About three in 10 (28%) indicated that they were online almost constantly; among those aged 18–29, almost half (48%) were online almost constantly (Perrin & Kumar, 2019). To our knowledge, specific statistics on the Internet usage of international students in the United States are not available. However, as international students Journal of International Students 125 fall in the 18–29 age range, they are likely to be among those using the Internet frequently. In addition, previous research indicates that the unique acculturation challenges international students face may make them turn to the Internet, which has been found to, at times, be helpful in the acculturation process (Mikal et al., 2015). Using English-language Internet sites can positively impact English proficiency, which reduces acculturative stress (Ye, 2005). International students may use the Internet to look up everyday life information such as health information (Yoon & Kim, 2014) or to build emotional and social support networks with individuals in their home or the host country (Mikal et al., 2015). This can be positive or negative as, when such networks consist primarily of co- nationals, the Internet may allow international students to limit their cultural learning and integration into the new environment (Mikal et al., 2015; Park et al., 2014). Individual differences and approaches to acculturation may shape how international students use the Internet (Wang & Sun, 2009). Chinese students in the United States who felt lonely have been found to be more likely to use the Internet for companionship and to pass time, while students who were not lonely used it for acculturation purposes (Wang & Sun, 2009). How Chinese international students in the United States approached acculturation (whether they focused on assimilating to U.S. culture, maintaining their own culture, etc.) has been found to influence whether they accessed U.S. or Chinese Websites (J. Li et al., 2018). Internet Addiction and its Associated Factors While the Internet presents many opportunities, the use of the Internet can become problematic, and turn into Internet addiction (Cash et al., 2012). Clinicians and scholars have disagreed on what exactly Internet addiction is and how to diagnose it (Yellowlees & Marks, 2007). Some argue that it should be classified as its own disease; others see the Internet as a tool used for addictive behaviors such as gambling, gaming, or pornography (Yellowlees & Marks, 2007). The American Psychiatric Association (2013) listed “Internet gaming disorder” as a mental illness but does not highlight Internet addiction as a separate disorder in the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Many scholars, however, have suggested definitions and diagnostic criteria for Internet addiction, sometimes referred to as “problematic Internet use,” “computer addiction,” “Internetomania,” or “pathological Internet use” (e.g., Griffith, 2000; Shapira et al., 2003; M. C. Shaw & Black, 2008; Tikhonov & Bogoslovskii, 2015). Shapira et al. (2003) classified Internet addiction as an impulse control disorder. Diagnostic criteria include use for longer periods than planned, preoccupation with the Internet, and/or Internet use becoming one’s most important activity (Griffith, 2000; Shapira et al., 2003). In addition, for addicted individuals, Internet use leads to significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning (Shapira et al., 2003). Journal of International Students 126 Much research has linked problematic Internet use to other mental illnesses (e.g., J. Kim et al., 2009; Şenormancı et al., 2014; Shang-Yu et al., 2019). For example, several studies indicate that problematic Internet usage such as excessive online shopping, gambling, gaming, and aimless surfing lead to higher levels of depression (Morgan & Cotton, 2003; Şenormancı et al., 2014; Shang-Yu et al., 2019; Yau et al., 2013). Others found that loneliness and/or depression can be the cause as well as the effect of problematic use (Ceyhan & Ceyhan, 2008; J. Kim et al., 2009). Connections seem to exist between low mental well-being, low self-esteem, and problematic Internet use (Akin & Isekender, 2011; H. K. Kim & Davis, 2009; Nie et al., 2017; Niemz et al., 2005; Younes et al., 2016). While most studies highlight negative impacts on mental health, some indicate that Internet use can also have positive impacts. For example, L. H. Shaw and Gant (2002) found that it can decrease loneliness and depression and increase self-esteem and social support. These studies indicate a need to further explore the connections between mental health, Internet use, and other factors. While much literature exists on associations between Internet addiction, mental well-being, and self-esteem, fewer studies address additional factors associated with Internet addiction. A study on Korean youth (Heo et al., 2004) revealed that a higher SES has an indirect, inverse association with Internet addiction, as children with higher SESs were found to have higher self-esteem, which was considered as a negative factor associated with Internet addiction in that study. In another study on Korean youth, Hur (2006) found an association between academic performance and Internet addiction with students who received poor grades in school being more likely to be addicted to the Internet. Several studies have examined the association between Internet addiction and demographic factors, though none of the studies focused on international students. Several studies found that men are at greater risk than women (Anderson, 2001; Lee et al., 2001; Şenormancı et al., 2014). Studies on Malaysian youth (Charlton et al., 2013) and Muslim university students (Nadeem et al., 2019) found that religious affiliation was associated with lower Internet usage. A study on the association between parents’ education and Internet addiction found that parental education was inversely associated with Internet addiction among boys but found no association among girls (Heo et al., 2014). Heo et al. (2014) argued that parents with a higher educational status are more likely to guide their children toward healthy and desirable Internet use, and the different results among genders might indicate Korean parents (where this study was conducted) had more concern and supervision on boys’ Internet use as they were perceived as more vulnerable to video games and sexual and violent images. Very few studies have focused on the topics of Internet addiction among international students in the United States. A few studies, however, have explored this topic among international students in other countries. For example, a study on Chinese international students in Korea by S. E. Kim et al. (2015) found that international students’ smartphone addiction, a particular form of Internet addiction, could lead to poorer physical health. This could be caused by international students spending less time on physical activities when excessively using their smartphone (S. E. Kim et al., 2015). A study on international students Journal of International Students 127 in Singapore by Dutta and Chye (2017) found that international students who felt depressed, lonely, and socially isolated reported higher levels of problematic Internet use. The authors suggested that international students may use the Internet to escape from psychological distress, which could lead to overuse and addiction. They also noted that depression may interfere with one’s ability to self- regulate. One of the few studies on international students in the United States indicated that little use of Internet could also be an indicator of poorer mental health (Han et al., 2013). Based on a mental health survey from Yale University, the study revealed that international students at Yale who spent a moderate amount of time on the Internet had better mental health than students who spent too little time using the Internet (Han et al., 2013). Spending too little time using the Internet could indicate that the students’ work or academic schedules are too rigorous, which could negatively impact students’ mental health (Han et al., 2013). In conclusion, although a wide range of studies have examined the association between various demographic factors, mental health, and Internet addiction, study participants were typically domestic residents of the country where the studies were conducted. As discussed earlier, international students’ experience of living in a foreign country is quite unique and could affect their mental health and relationship with the Internet. To our knowledge, no study has systematically explored the relation between problematic Internet use (or Internet addiction), mental health, and other associated (demographic) factors for international students in the United States. Building on previous research, this study will examine these relations among international students in the United States. METHOD Data and Procedure Data was collected through self-reported Internet surveys in Fall 2010. Upon receiving Institutional Review Board approval, the first author and three international student advisors from the Office for International Students and Scholars recruited participants via flyers, online advertisements, international student orientations, seminars and workshops for international students, and word of mouth. Only international undergraduate students enrolled in a degree program under an F-1 student visa were recruited. We gave interested participants detailed information about the purpose of the study and directed them to an online informed consent form and online survey. Out of the 200 students we initially targeted, 166 responded. Nine students did not fully complete the questionnaire; thus their data were excluded, resulting in a final sample of 157 participants. Journal of International Students 128 Table 1: Characteristics of Participants (N = 157) Category % Gender Male 46.0 Female 54.0 Year in college First 17.6 Second 25.5 Third 19.6 Fourth 25.5 Fifth+ 15.2 Major Pre-med 35.0 Biology 27.0 Nursing 15.0 Business 11.0 Engineering 5.0 Education 4.0 Grade point average 3.5–4.0 7.1 3.0–3.5 39.8 2.5–3.0 26.9 2.0–2.5 18.2 1.5–2.0 6.7 Length of stay in the US <6 mo 3.0 6 mo–1 yr 12.1 1–2 yr 24.2 2–3 yr 13.5 3–4 yr 33.8 4–5 yr 12.5 >5 yr 7.3 Socioeconomic Status High 36.0 Middle-high 54.3 Middle 8.3 Middle-low 1.1 Religion Protestant 32.3 Buddhist 28.6 Catholic 18.0 Muslim 16.9 Other 0.9 Father’s highest education High school 18.9 Journal of International Students 129 Category % College 46.2 Graduate 35.9 Mother’s highest education High school 16.2 College 36.1 Graduate 47.1 Parents’ marital status Together 67 Divorced 25.7 Separated 7.0 Deceased 2.6 Participants Participants in this study were 157 international undergraduate students from 14 different countries who were enrolled in a large private research institution located in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States. Fifty-four percent were female. Over 80% were Asian, 9% Hispanic, 7% White, and 5% African American. Regarding country of origin, 35% were from China, 31% from India, 17% from Korea, 10% from Saudi Arabia, 7% from Taiwan, 2% Turkey, and 2% from Mexico. More than half were in pre-med or biology majors. Approximately 40% had lived in the United States for less than 2 years. Thirty-six percent indicated that they came from a high SES family, while 54% reported coming from a middle-upper class and 8% from a middle SES family. Lastly, 81% spoke English as a second language. See Table 1 for demographics of participants. Instruments Based on previous studies on Internet addiction and associated factors (Şenormancı et al., 2014; Shang-Yu et al., 2019), we examined how demographic factors (gender, primary language, and religion), family factors (parents’ marital status, SES, birth order, and parents’ education), and personal characteristics (grade point average [GPA], self-esteem and mental health) were associated with Internet addiction. Instruments used to measure the various factors are described below. Internet Addiction Scale The Internet Addiction Scale (I-Scale) developed by C. T. Kim et al. (2002) was employed to measure the presence and severity of Internet addiction. The Internet Addiction Scale is a self-reported questionnaire composed of 40 questions using 4-point Likert scales (1 = never to 4 = always). Sample questions include: “Do you stay online longer than originally intended?” and “Have you jeopardized or risked the loss of a significant relationship, job, educational or career opportunity because of the Internet?” Cronbach’s alpha for the current Journal of International Students 130 study was .95. We treated Internet addiction as a continuous variable for all statistical performance in the study. Self-Esteem Inventory The Self-Esteem Inventory (SEI; Coopersmith, 1981) was applied to measure self-esteem in this study. The SEI is a self-reported questionnaire composed of 25 questions using 4-point Likert scales (1 = never to 4 = frequently) with the following sample questions: “There are lots of things about myself I’d change if I could” and “I can make up my mind without too much trouble.” Cronbach’s alpha was .85. Mental Health Inventory Mental health was measured by a brief version of the Mental Health Inventory-5 (MHI-5) by Berwick et al. (1991), which is based on the MHI developed by Veit and Ware (1983). The brief version of the MHI-5 is a self- reported questionnaire composed of five questions using 6-point Likert scales (1 = never to 6 = always). Five questions asked participants about their mental health status in the past month. Sample questions include: “How much of the time, during the last month, have you been very nervous?” and “How much of the time, during the last month, have you felt downhearted and blue?” A high score represents good mental health, and a low score indicates poor mental health. Cronbach’s alpha was .91. The aforementioned instruments were selected for the study after confirmatory factor analysis for validity testing (Johnson, 1983; C. T. Kim et al., 2002; Rivera-Riquelme et al., 2019). Demographic Questionnaire In the demographic questionnaire, participants reported information about gender, age, type of school, GPA, family background, religion, SES, religiosity, parents’ highest degree, and parents’ marital status. Data Analysis After we completed coding and data-cleaning procedures, we analyzed the data from our 157 participants using SPSS Version 22. We first analyzed our data through descriptive statistics to get a sense of who our participants were. We then conducted t tests to compare Internet addiction, which we treated as a continuous variable, by demographic factors (gender, native English speakers, religiosity— comparing religious vs. nonreligious, and parents’ marital status—comparing together vs. not together). Next, we conducted correlation analysis with Pearson Product-Moment and hierarchical multiple regression analysis to gain insights into relations between Internet addiction and other associated factors. Journal of International Students 131 RESULTS We performed a preliminary analysis to examine whether relations existed among dependent variables, independent variables, and demographic variables. With the presence of relations, we performed advanced analysis on all variables. Prior to performing regression analysis, statistics for multicollinearity were conducted. For all variables, the variance inflation factor was between 1.14 and 2.77, and the collinearity tolerance was above .9, indicating that the variables were not multicollinear. In addition, we evaluated the normality of all variables for skewness, kurtosis, and quantile-quantile plots. Because skewness and kurtosis for all of the independent variables in this study were within normal ranges (Boylan & Cho, 2012), further transformation of variables was not necessary. Lastly, for missing data, we employed pairwise deletion for data cleaning. Internet Addiction by Demographic Factors Independent t tests were conducted to examine distributions of Internet addiction by demographic factors (gender, native English speaker, religiosity, and parents’ marital status) for international students (see Table 2). Men (M = 68.22, SD = 20.296) reported significantly higher scores for Internet addiction than women (M = 60.31, SD = 16.99), t =11.697, p < .01, and international students who spoke English as their second language showed significantly higher scores (M = 63.22, SD = 18.90) than native English speakers (M = 61.49, SD = 18.90), t = 2.62, p < .01. The Internet addiction scores of religious international students were significantly lower (M = 58.33, SD = 17.71) than those of nonreligious international students (M = 61.84, SD = 19.26), t = 3.51, p < .05. There was no significant difference by parents’ marital status. Table 2: Means, Standard Deviations, and Results of the t Test Comparisons for Internet Addiction by Demographic Factors Categories n M SD t Gender Male 71 68.22 20.30 11.69** Female 86 60.31 16.99 Native English speaker Native 32 61.49 18.90 2.62** Nonnative 125 63.22 18.08 Religiosity Religious 110 58.33 17.71 3.51* Non-religious 47 61.84 19.26 Parents’ marital status Together 95 62.72 19.29 0.82 Not together 66 62.18 17.74 Note. N = 157. *p < .05, **p < .01, **p < .001 Journal of International Students 132 Correlations Among Internet Addiction and Associated Factors We conduced correlation analyses to examine how each associated factor related to Internet addiction (see Table 3). International students’ Internet addiction was positively associated with academic performance (r = .09, p < .01) and SES (r = .09, p < .01) and negatively associated with self-esteem (r = −.38, p < .01), and mental health (r = −.24, p < .01). Internet addiction tended to be positively associated with parents’ education (r = .02) and birth order (r = .03), but these results were not statistically significant. We further analyzed how other factors were correlated with one another (see Table 3). Students’ academic performance was positively associated not only with Internet addiction but also with SES (r = .16, p < .01) and birth order (r = .07, p < .01), while it was negatively associated with self-esteem (r = −.17, p < .01) and mental health (r = −.07, p < .01). SES was positively associated with Internet addiction (r = .09, p < .01), academic performance (r = .16, p < .01), and parents’ education (r = .14, p < .01), and negatively associated with self-esteem (r = −.28, p < .01). Self-esteem was positively associated with mental health (r = .56, p < .01) and negatively associated with Internet addiction (r = −.38, p < .01), academic performance (r = −.17, p < .01), and SES (r = −.28, p < .01). The last factor, mental health, was positively associated with self-esteem (r = .56, p < .01) and negatively associated with Internet addiction (r = −.24, p = <.01), academic performance (r = −.07, p < .01), and SESs (r = −.18, p < .01). Predictors of Internet Addiction Lastly, we performed a hierarchical multiple regression analysis to examine predictors of international students’ Internet addiction guided by conceptualizations of Internet addiction and associated factors (Şenormancı et al., 2014; Shang-Yu et al., 2019). As presented in Table 3, the regression model accounted for 20.5% of the variance in international students’ Internet addiction (R2 = .205). Table 3: Correlations Among Variables Note. N = 157. *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001 Table 4 illustrates a summary of the hierarchical multiple regression analysis. Each column contains the final beta (standardized regression coefficient) of each Variable M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 Internet addiction 62.45 18.54 1 2 Academic performance 3.08 1.01 .106** 1 3 Parents’ education 4.58 1.13 .02 .10 1 4 Socioeconomic status 2.87 .85 .09** .16** .14** 1 5 Self-esteem 83.12 12.58 −.38** −.17** −.01 −.28** 1 6 Birth order 2.04 1.06 .03 .07** −.01 .02 −.01 1 7 Mental health 19.73 4.80 −.24** −.07** .02 −.18** .56** .03 1 Journal of International Students 133 independent variable after all variables were entered into the regression model. Among six independent variables, four were significant predictors. SES and academic performance were positive predictors (b = .09, p < .01 and b = −.103, p < .01, respectively), meaning that affluent students and students with high GPAs were more likely to be addicted to the Internet. Self-esteem and mental health were negative predictors (b = −.120, p < .001 and b = −.130, p < .001, respectively), indicating that students with high self-esteem and those who were psychologically well were less likely to be addicted. Table 4: Predictors of Internet Addiction Variable R2 r Step 1 Step 2 Final b Step 3 Step 4 Step 5 Step 6 Birth order .008 .032 .04 .04 .05 .05 .05. .05 Parents’ education .010 .026 .03 .03 .03 .04 .04 SES .101 .098 .09* * .11** .11** .11** Self-esteem .150 −.38 0 −.120*** −.122** * −.122** * Academic performanc e .177 .106 .103** .107** Psychological well-being .205 −.24 0 −.130** * Note. N = 157. *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001 DISCUSSION While international students in the United States often benefit from using the Internet to find information, stay connected to family and friends back home, and have access to entertainment (Lee et al., 2011; Sin & Kim, 2013; Yoon & Kim, 2014), problematic use, or Internet addiction, can lead to negative outcomes (Derbyshire et al., 2013). This study explored factors associated with Internet addiction to get a better sense of who, among international students in the United States, may be particularly at risk. Our first research question asked how the rate of Internet addiction varies based on demographic factors among international students in the United States. We found that men and international students who spoke English as a second language showed significantly higher scores of Internet addiction than women and native-English speaking international students, respectively, while students who were religious had significantly lower scores in Internet addiction than nonreligious peers. Our findings support previous studies that found gender differences in Internet addiction (Anderson, 2001; Lee et al., 2011; Senormanic et al., 2014). Gender dynamics among international students in the United Sates appear to be similar to those among U.S. college students (Anderson, 2001), with men being Journal of International Students 134 at greater risk of Internet addiction. Research on U.S. college student men indicates that they spend more time videogaming and other leisure activities online, while women spend more time on communication and educational activities (Weiser, 2000). These differing activities may explain the higher risk for men of developing an addiction, as online gaming has been found to have a strong association with problematic Internet use (Van Rooij et al., 2010). Our findings further support previous studies that found that religious students are less likely to be addicted to the Internet than their nonreligious peers (Charlton et al., 2013; Nadeem et al., 2019). This difference, previously explored for Malaysian youth (Charleton et al., 2013) and Hong Kong university students (Nadeem, 2019) appears to hold true for our participants as well. This finding could be explained by the current literature (Charlton et al., 2013; Laurin et al., 2012; Rounding et al., 2012) indicating that religiosity is associated with better self-control and ability to delay gratification, which may weaken dependence on addictive behaviors such as Internet use. Our study adds to the literature by finding that international students who speak English as a second language are at a greater risk than their native English- speaking peers. Much research indicates that those who speak English as a second language face unique challenges related to adjusting to U.S. culture and academics (Liu, 2009; Mori, 2000; Wolf & Phung, 2019). Being socially isolated and struggling academically may lead those for whom English is a second language to turn to the Internet to get support from family and friends at home, find information about the host country, or access entertainment and leisure activities in their native language. Such reliance may lead to overuse, which may result in addiction. Figure 1: Relations of Internet Addiction and Associated Factors Journal of International Students 135 Our second research question asked to what extent academic performance, parents’ education, SES, self-esteem, mental health, and Internet addiction are associated with one another among international college students in the United States. Our findings indicate that SES, academic performance, self-esteem, and mental health are associated with Internet addiction as well as with each other. Our model (see Figure 1) supports and expands on existing research. Previous research on various populations has found associations between Internet addiction and academic performance (Hur, 2006), SES (Heo et al., 2014), self-esteem (Akin & Isekender, 2011; H. K. Kim & Davis, 2009; Nie et al., 2017; Niemz et al., 2005; Younes et al., 2016), and mental health (Ceyhan & Ceyhan, 2008; J. Kim et al., 2009; Morgan & Cotton, 2003; Şenormancı et al., 2014; Shang-Yu et al., 2019; Yau et al., 2013). Our study indicates that the same associations exist for international students. Our final research question explored predictors of Internet addiction among international college students in the United States. Our regression analysis found that affluent students, students with high GPAs, students with low self-esteem, and those with poor mental well-being are more likely to be addicted. Our study supports findings from previous studies and indicates that these apply to international students in the United States as well; our study also contradicts some findings from previous studies. First, unlike Heo et al. (2004) found, participants in our study who were from a higher SES were more likely to be addicted to the Internet. The difference in findings may be due to the different populations. Heo et al.’s (2004) participants were Korean youth. For our participants, international students in the United States, being more affluent may mean having access to more devices that provide Internet access, and thus more opportunities to spend time online. Previous studies indicate that the amount of time spent online is a significant predictor of addiction (Hur, 2006). Second, our study contradicted previous research that found a relation between low grades and Internet addiction (Akhter, 2003; Hur, 2006; Kubey et al., 2001) by indicating that international students with higher GPAs were more likely to be addicted to the Internet. Previous studies focused on different populations: domestic college students (Akhter, 2003; Kubey et al., 2009) and Korean youth (Hur, 2006). More research is needed to understand why this dynamic may be different for international students in the United States. Finally, our findings support previous research indicating that low levels of well-being and self-esteem are predictors of Internet addiction (Akin & Iskender, 2011; Ceyhan & Ceyhan, 2008; J. Kim et al., 2009; Nie et al., 2017). Individuals who experience high levels of stress or anxiety and those experiencing low self- esteem, loneliness, depression, or other mental health issues may turn to the Internet for distraction, comfort, and to find connections, which may increase their likelihood of becoming addicted. Considering that many international students experience loneliness, homesickness, and other mental health issues while adjusting to studying in the United States (Girmay & Singh, 2019; Koo & Nyunt, 2020; Liu, 2009; Mori, 2000; Zhang & Goodson, 2011b), the connection between these symptoms and Internet addiction is concerning and indicates a need to Journal of International Students 136 provide information and support related to healthy Internet use to international students. Limitations While this study’s results provide meaningful insights regarding Internet addiction and international students’ experiences, several limitations must be acknowledged. First, generalizability of our findings is limited since data were collected only in one institution and from only 157 students. Since international students at this institution may differ in important ways from those at other institutions, these findings cannot be generalized to the entire population of international students at U.S. higher education institutions. Our study, however, is one of the first exploring associated factors of Internet addiction for international students in the United States. As such, our study can be seen as an exploratory study indicating factors that may be associated with Internet addiction for international students in the United States. Future research should replicate this study with different international student populations in the United States. Another limitation is that all measures elicited self-reported data and thus were vulnerable to common method bias and inflated correlations because of halo rating effects. Because participants were young adults, ranging in age from 19 to 27, and researchers could not closely supervise all 157 participants, the reliability of the survey results is limited. In addition, although correlation and regression analyses provide a snapshot of predictors of a dependent variable and the predictive value of independent variables, they do not prove cause and effect relations or directional relations between dependent and independent variables. Thus, the methodology is limited in its ability to show causal relations. Finally, our data was collected in Fall 2010. Access to Internet and thus Internet usage has drastically increased in the past 10 years; new technologies have also altered the ways we access the Internet. This may raise concerns that our study results no longer hold. We, however, do not regard this as likely. Our study was not concerned with specific ways individuals access the Internet nor how much time individuals spend on the Internet; rather we were exploring the relations between various factors such as student demographics and Internet addiction. These relations are likely to stay constant over time. For example, research has consistently shown that men are more likely to be addicted to the Internet than women, a gender dynamic that was found about 20 years ago by Anderson (2001) but held true for our data, which was collected 10 years later. Implications Our study suggests several important implications for future research and practice. First, considering the vulnerability of international students in the United States to Internet addiction and the limitations of this study, future research should explore factors associated with addiction with a larger sample from multiple institutions. In addition, research should explore how unique aspects of international students’ experiences and acculturation shape their Internet use and Journal of International Students 137 thus impact addiction, such as looking at links between acculturation strategies and addiction. Other research may strive to identify types of Internet use that lead to addiction for international students in hopes of providing practitioners with insights into types (e.g., social media use, entertainment, academic use) that should be encouraged or discouraged. Our study also provides important insights for practitioners working with international students in the United States. While the Internet can provide international students with helpful information and opportunities to connect (Lee et al., 2011; Sin & Kim, 2013; Yoon & Kim, 2014), practitioners should proactively address the differences between healthy and unhealthy use. Advisors and counselors may also ask questions about international students’ Internet use, particularly for those at higher risk of becoming addicted, in hopes of recognizing problematic use and being able to intervene early on. Proactive interventions should also address various factors associated with Internet addiction, particularly those to which international students may be most vulnerable. Proactive measures may include fostering friendships between domestic and international students to reduce loneliness and homesickness and thus improve international students’ well-being. Proactive measures could also focus on providing academic support specifically geared toward international students to reduce the risk of academic stress. Finally, when working with international students who struggle with problematic Internet use, practitioners should not only address the addiction but also consider factors associated with it. Adequate support may require identifying underlying factors that may have led to problematic use, which could include academic stress, low self-esteem, or poor mental well-being, and providing assistance to address these. CONCLUSION Most importantly, practitioners and educators need to recognize that while the Internet provides many opportunities and beneficial resources to international students in the United States, excessive use may place international students at risk of addiction (Park et al., 2014). This study highlighted who, among international students in the United States, may be particularly at risk of developing an addiction and the factors associated with addiction. We hope that researchers, educators, and higher education administrators can use this information to develop proactive educational interventions to better support international students who are struggling with problematic Internet use. REFERENCES Akhter, N. (2013). 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Predictors of international students’ psychosocial adjustment to life in the United States: A systematic review. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 35, 139–162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2010.11.011 KATIE KOO, PhD, is an Assistant Professor in Higher Education at Texas A&M University-Commerce. Her research focuses on diversity issues in higher education and underrepresented students’ mental health and psychological well- being. She is interested in marginalized students’ collegiate experiences and mental health issues, and international students’ adjustment and well-being. Email: katie.koo@tamuc.edu GUDRUN NYUNT, PhD, is a Clinical Assistant Professor in Higher Education at Northern Illinois University. Her research interests revolves around educational practices that foster the development of intercultural maturity and prepare students for active engagement in a global society. In addition, she engages in research that strives to better understand the experiences of international, underrepresented minority, and women graduate students, faculty, and student affairs staff at U.S. higher education institutions. Email: gnyunt@niu.edu BOSHI WANG, MA, is a Senior Academic Advisor at Northern Arizona University, where he advises first year and major-exploratory students. Prior to this position, he worked at Center for International Education at NAU. His research interests include the mental health of international students, quantitative studies, and student development theories. Email: boshi.wang@nau.edu