Journal of Language and Literature 

Vol. 20 No. 1 – April 2020                                                                                                            ISSN: 1410-5691 (print); 2580-5878 (online) 

 

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Text and Terror: How Boko-Haram Terrifies Nigerians 
Using ‘Ordinary’ Words 
 
 
Omolade Bamigboye 
douglas_e4@yahoo.com, omolade.bamigboye@eksu.edu.ng 
Department of English and Literary Studies, 
Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State, NIGERIA 
 
Abstract 
 

This paper investigates how Boko-Haram uses language to create terror in the minds of Nigerians. 
Boko-Haram, an Islamic terrorist organisation based in Nigeria and some other West African countries, 
periodically releases videos in which threats are made to the public. These videos are then transcribed 
into text by major news media all over the world. The thesis of the paper is if seemingly innocuous 
expressions are interpreted with fear as a result of who utters them. After a thorough study of possible 
theoretical approaches, the cognitive stylistics approach was deemed most suited for the present work. 
This is because the approach sees readers as ‘actively involved in the process of meaning-making’, Jeffries 
and McIntyre (2010: 127). Using the Schema Theory as conceptual framework, I argue that the readers 
of these statements interpret same with the residual knowledge they have of the world. Schema Theory 
submits that certain elements of background knowledge are superimposed on the text by the reader in 
creating a world (scenario) while reading the text. The findings reveal that the source of a text goes a 
long way in determining how it is digested by readers.  Also, readers make sense of texts based not just 
on what is read, but the surrounding information they mentally impose on it. 

 
Keywords: text, terror, Schema-theory, Boko-Haram. 

 

 
Introduction 
 

In contemporary world affairs, 
terrorism is a major topic that continues to 
dominate the news and generate actions and 
reactions from the various spectrums of 
perspectives that are directly or indirectly 
involved in its execution and on its social, 
political and religious impacts. Major news 
outlets like CNN and BBC devote much 
airtime and content to stories that border on 
terrorism because of the way it has shaped 
world politics, governmental policies and 
directions as well as the global reach of its 
practitioners’ despicable activities. In all, the 
composition of terrorist agenda (whether 
religious, nationalistic, psychological, 
linguistic) has attracted academic 
investigation that hope to expose their 
modus operandi, structural arrangement, 
social reach and linguistic idiosyncrasies 
with a view to understanding and curtailing 

their activities thereby promoting peace in 
subcontinents and the world in general, 
(Thompson, 2012; Barkindo, 2013; 
Eveslage, 2013) 

 
There are mainly two types of videos or 

press releases usually made by most 
terrorists. One type is made before any 
major or minor attack whereas the other is 
made after such an attack might have 
already taken place. That pre-attack video or 
text talks of anticipatory violence and its 
potential victims while the post-attack ones 
are usually done to take responsibility and 
gloat over the incident. Experts claim that 
most terrorist attacks are results of well 
planned and painstakingly organised efforts 
that usually leave nothing out. They plan the 
target of the attack, the soldiers who will 
execute it and the message to be sent out. 
The content and tone of this message and 
how it is understood by the reader is the 
preoccupation of this paper. 



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When terrorists use language, they 

consciously choose lexical elements, and 
linguistic structures that will most suitably 
convey their intent in the most effective 
manner. Other sociolinguistic variables like 
accent, intonation and dialect are also taken 
into consideration; this with the knowledge 
that every minute details of the video or 
statement will be analysed forensically by 
the experts in the various fields of anti-
terror endeavours. The Jama’atu Ahlus 
Sunnah Lidda Awati Wal Jihad, popularly 
known as Boko-Haram (Western education 
is sin), is one of such terrorist organisations. 
They routinely send out videos and 
statements that detail their trajectory of 
unleashing immeasurable violence on 
Nigerians, especially in the North-Eastern 
part of the country. Sometimes originally 
encoded in Hausa, a regional language in the 
north of Nigeria; the texts are now redacted 
and the video subtitled in English for proper 
dissemination to all Nigerians.  

 
Unusually, they may threaten their 

targets and members of the public with 
strong words that emit rage. However, most 
of the releases are replete with subtle and 
coded messages that often tend to project 
the terrorists as fighting a just cause. In their 
bid to stop the spread of western education, 
especially for the girl child, they tend to 
proselytise and admonish the public on what 
they believe is the position of their god on 
such issues. Abetted by bigoted local priests 
and corrupt politicians, they couch the veiled 
threats in expressions that are coloured with 
sanctimonious offerings and ‘moral’ values 
which resonate with the existential 
challenges of the natives. 

 

Methodology 
 

The data were sourced from an online 
archive of the press releases of Boko-Haram. 
This web page reads: https://www. 
researchgate.net/publication/258469765. 
The documents are dated between 2011 and 
2014. Of the total items available, three were 
purposively selected and serve as the data. 
They researcher is convinced they have the 
most relevant materials for this academic 

undertaking. Excerpts from the three were 
then subjected to analysis, using the 
aforementioned schema theory as 
conceptual framework. Particular words and 
larger grammatical constructs serve as basis 
for the analysis of reader-oriented 
interpretations of the compositions released 
by Boko-Haram.  A detailed overview of 
Schema Theory will be given presently.   

 

‘Ordinary’ Words 
 

(We are in Kano, ready to start. We are 
your friends. We are your saviours.) 

 
The excerpt above ordinarily betrays 

convivial emotion that is based on warmth 
and redemption. It shows no malevolence; at 
least at face level. This is what we refer to, in 
this context, as ‘ordinary words’. The way we 
use language, scholars of old had argued, 
says a lot about us. Apart from the individual 
sociolinguistic variables (like accent, 
intonation, diction, the pitch of voice and so 
on) that are embedded in the way a 
particular person uses language, other 
generic inferences like mutual contextual 
beliefs, shared ideologies and socio-cultural 
norms may be betrayed in an individual’s 
linguistic output. This is to say that language 
is not used in a vacuum; that is, there are 
some extra-linguistic factors that are super-
imposed on language that eventually 
accentuates the establishment of meaning, 
even beyond what has been said. In other 
words, the user of language carries with him 
a commonality of both linguistic and para-
linguistic elements that he shares with 
members of his immediate speech 
community. All these factors he 
unconsciously brings to bear on his 
meaning-making linguistic activities as the 
day goes by. 

 
In any communication event, the 

language user among other things tends to 
choose the words that will most effectively 
convey his thoughts to his audience. Indeed, 
the need to be understood by the greatest 
majority prompts many a public speaker to 
pick, use and deliberately employ words and 
expressions that bear the hallmark of 
everyday usage. A certain factor that guides 

https://www/


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user diction is the need not to be 
misunderstood or for one’s original 
linguistic intentions not to be misconstrued. 
Therefore, the average communicator 
gauges his audience and appropriately 
deploys linguistic elements from his 
vocabulary to suit his present needs.   

 
For any organisation or group that 

seeks mass appeal, the use of language is 
advisedly simple and couched with less 
elegance but more clarity, as far as content is 
concerned. Esoteric and unnecessarily 
grandiloquent words that may derail the 
communication process are avoided.   

 
Seemingly innocuous words are 

interpreted with fear as a result of who 
utters them. This is the thesis of this 
particular paper. Although the relationship 
between text and context has been 
established long ago, a new vista is however 
opened on the way they connect as far as 
terrorism is concerned. Modern religious 
terrorists, says Davieson (2014), often use 
subtle means (language) to threaten their 
targets. They avoid overtly violent adjectives 
and verbs in their attempt to portray 
themselves as moral agents/warriors of God 
fighting a just cause. Nigerians who read and 
listen to the text and broadcasts respectively 
react the way they do because they share 
both terrestrial and knowledge-based 
context with the Boko-Haram terrorists. Due 
to the carnage that has been visited on the 
people for a long time, any video or 
statement released by this terror group is 
bound to elicit grave concern and fear in the 
minds of the listeners and hearers 
respectively.  

 
The agenda of the group, that is, 

spreading fear in the minds of the populace, 
is, however, not mitigated or reduced by the 
claim to subtleties. As a matter of fact, this 
style may even lure otherwise intelligent and 
patriotic individuals into believing in their 
evil gospel. The sophisticated manner of 
language use actually betrays the 
educational level of the terrorists.   

 
 
 
 

Cognitive Stylistics 
 

Cognitive stylisticians base their thesis 
on the perceived subjective interpretation 
given to particular texts by different readers, 
(Semino and Culpeper 2002, Stockwell 2002, 
Gavins 2003). This branch of stylistics deals 
with the mental processes involved in 
meaning-making, while reading. Although a 
branch of stylistics equally involved in the 
linguistic interpretation of texts, it goes 
further to incorporate the role of the reader 
into this task. When we read, say scholars in 
this particular field, we build mental images 
and create scenarios that sort of breed life 
into words. Cognitive stylistics, in the words 
of West in (2011, p. 239): 

 
Moves beyond stylistics in its insistence 
that the linguistic phenomenal identified 
in a literary text have psychological 
reality; in other words, that they do not 
exist independently of the reader, and in 
particular of the cognitive processes ̶ for 
example, attention, expectation, memory, 
categorisation, analogical reasoning ̶  
that the reader inevitably and 
unconsciously brings into the text. 
 
The view above itemises the mental 

processes involved in getting perspectives 
on authorial outputs. These mental 
processes are done unconsciously and 
systematically, with a corresponding 
regularity that is commensurate with the 
frequency of reading. In other words, the 
more familiar we are with texts, the better 
our ability to conceptualise the images we 
find in them. This aligns with Nakane’s 
(2007) view that says language processing 
speed is also related to the linguistic capacity 
of an individual. This position is also 
strengthened by Stockwell (2009) who 
argues for the significance of ‘texture’, which 
he loosely describes as the interplay 
between words on the page and a reader’s 
cognitive mechanism.  
 

Jeffries and McIntyre (2010) also claim 
that the phenomenon of social cum 
individual prejudice or personal insights 
bearing down on textual understanding cuts 
across both the literary and non-literary 



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spectra; although, Cook (1994, p. 10) argues 
that ‘literary texts are distinguished from 
non-literary texts by their capacity to induce 
schema refreshment’. In their seminal 
dissection of the subject, Jeffries and 
McIntyre (2010, p. 126) enumerate the 
schema theory, concepts of figure and 
ground and the cognitive metaphor theory 
as ideal tools in the practical realisation of 
the subject matter in cognitive stylistics. 
While the schema theory focuses on how we 
package world knowledge and use it in the 
interpretation of texts’, figure and ground 
determine how residual information 
influence highlighting in space and the 
cognitive metaphor theory is concerned 
with using schematic knowledge to 
structure our worldviews. For the purpose 
of this paper therefore, we shall examine the 
schema theory and attempt to apply it to the 
collated texts under stylistic consideration. 
 

The Schema Theory 
 

Textual triggers are words that ignite or 
spur particular scenarios in the minds of the 
conscientious reader while engaged in the 
act of reading. In the same vein, schema 
refers to an element of background 
knowledge about a particular aspect of the 
world, Jeffries and McIntyre (2010: 127). 
Human experiences play a vital role in the 
development of a schema. For example, 
Culpeper and McIntyre (2010) use the job 
interview to illustrate what an individual’s 
schema of such a topic read from a text could 
be. A corporate job interview will most likely 
create a scenario of men in suits and 
formality in language whereas, a job 
interview for manual labourers at a 
construction site may be less formal. It is 
these scenarios that are created from the 
texts that betray a reader’s level of 
sophistication, education, exposure and so 
on. 

 
Also, Rumelhart (1980) argues that 

schemas are not static. That is as an average 
reader’s experience accrues and the 
vocabulary expands, the schemas being built 
while reading also enjoy the addition of such 
discovery and knowledge. Schank and 
Abelson (1977) propose their famous four 

headers ̶ that is the textual cues that relate to 
the schema in question ̶  which they argue 
accounts for all instances of mental scene-
building while reading. The four triggers are 
further explained by Jeffries and McIntyre 
(2010, p. 129) thus: 

 
i. Precondition headers: these account 

for a precondition that will 
necessitate the creation of a 
particular scenario. The sentence 
‘Dan was feeling ill’ is used to give a 
precondition that could trigger a 
doctor/patient scenario, for 
example.  

ii. Instrumental headers: refer to 
actions that may lead to a particular 
script being initiated. For instance, in 
‘Dan entered the doctor’s office’, the 
act of ‘entering’ may be the trigger 
for a doctor/patient encounter. 

iii. Locale headers: these are references 
to locations where the scene in 
question may be activated. If a 
sentence like ‘The doctor’s surgery 
was a cold and forbidding place’ 
starts a text, for example, we might 
expect that it could provide a locale 
for a doctor/patient interview. 

iv. Internal conceptualisation headers: 
this kind of headers is actually 
derived from the roles and actions of 
characters in the text. The given 
example here is that of the sentence 
‘The doctor asked Dan how he was 
feeling’. Here, a role (the doctor) and 
an action (asking how the patient 
feels) are likely to instantiate the 
scenario. 

 
These four headers are by no means 

compulsorily evident in all texts, as some 
compositions may reflect just about two of 
them. Also, the background knowledge of the 
world which is triggered by these headers 
may be inadequate in some readers. This 
owes to their level of exposure and the size 
of their vocabulary reservoir which may 
impede the activation and sustenance of 
particular schematic scenarios in the 
process of reading. According to Fowler 
(1986), such group of readers is 
‘underlexicalised’.  



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Results and Discussion 
 
Excerpt 1 
 

Jan 11, 2012, page 2. We would confront 
[soldiers] squarely to protect our 
brothers. We have stopped everything 
apart from saying we should stay on the 
path of truth and peace and live right in 
the sight of God. There, we will have 
peace and that is what we have been 
preaching and because of that they said 
we should be silenced. We decided to 
defend ourselves and God has said if you 
follow him, he will give you strength! 
That is why Jonathan, you should know 
that this is beyond your power. It is not 
our doing but that of God. It is beyond 
you. Anybody that says he will not follow 
God, even if he loves us, God has not said 
we should love such a person. God has 
said we should show such person the 
right path and embrace such person! You 
Christians should know that Jesus is a 
servant and prophet of God. He is not the 
son of God. This religion of Christianity 
you are practicing not a religion of God-
it is paganism. God frowns at it. What you 
are practicing is not religion. This path 
we're taking is God's path!  
(Culled from https://www.researchgate 
.net/publication/258469765, p.2)  

 
Precondition header: The word 

‘confront’ in the first sentence gives the 
precondition that a battle was imminent 
between the addressers and the addressee 
(the Boko-Haram insurgents and the 
Nigerian military). Also, ‘stopped 
everything’ and ‘follow God’ may trigger the 
spectacle of otherwise enterprising and 
gainfully employed men abandoning their 
homes and means of livelihood, to take up 
terrorism and reside in the vast and 
unforgiving Sambisa forest. 
 

Instrumental header: When the 
terrorists claim to ‘defend ourselves’, this 
triggers the schema of armed resistance 
against constituted authorities. The average 
reader familiar with the reputation of Boko-
Haram most likely will translate this to mean 
a brutal bloodbath. ‘Silenced’, in line four 

carries a deeper interpretation of a massacre 
or extra-judicial killings, a trait that indeed 
was once ascribed to some Nigerian soldiers. 
‘Love’ here transcends the care for the 
wellbeing and happiness of others but the 
strict adherence to their perverted 
interpretation of the Quran. Since ‘God’ has 
not said they should ‘love’ anyone who 
shares a contrary opinion with them, the 
implication of this is already laid in the 
imagination of the average reader as a 
complete annihilation of the person. 
 

Locale header: ‘Jonathan’, the name of 
the then Nigerian President, triggers the 
schema of Abuja, the nation’s capital and 
seat of power. The use of the name shifts the 
reader’s mind the location of both legitimate 
and pro-citizens power as opposed to the 
location of the terrorists. Again, the words 
‘Christians’ and ‘Christianity’ project the 
images of church worship as different from 
Islamic way of worship in the mosques. This 
may actually trigger an unfortunate mental 
scenario of a religious war. 
 

Internal conceptualisation headers: 
If God indeed ‘frowns’ at the act of 
‘practicing’ Christianity, then the role 
erroneously given to Him in the text comes 
to the reader’s mind as completely wrong. 
Also, ‘path’ in ‘This path we are taking is 
God’s path!’ mentally links the purported 
role of ‘God’ with the dastardly acts of the 
terrorists. Inadvertently, one can infer the 
terrorists’ duplicitously pious admonitions 
as attempts to proselytise evil.      
 
Excerpt 2 
 

In the name of Allah, the most 
beneficent and merciful. 
Jan 21, 2013. We are the ones that they 
address with the prohibited name Boko 
Haram, when our name is Jama’atu Ahlus 
Sunnah Lidda Awati Wal Jihad 
(Congregation of Followers of the 
Prophet Involved in the Call to Islam and 
Religious Struggle) This message is to the 
people of Kano. You should know that the 
security (Police) in Kano are using tricks 
in arresting our people, that is they tell 
people in different neighbourhoods that 
they are arresting thieves or armed 



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robbers – you should know that it is our 
people that they are arresting. (1: 
security police)We want peace and we do 
not have any intention of touching any 
people of this town if they do not touch us. 
Because our war is with the Government 
that is fighting Islam with the Christian 
Association of Nigeria (CAN) that are 
killing Muslims even eating their flesh 
and those who helped them to fight us 
even if they are Muslims. (1:government 
and 1: Christian Association of Nigeria) 
Anyone who is instrumental to the arrest 
of our members is assured that their own 
is coming. (2: anyone)  
(Culled from https://www.researchgate 
.net/publication/258469765, p. 3) 

 
Precondition header: In the second 

sentence, ‘We are the ones’, automatically 
makes the reader recall the residual 
information that are stored in the mental 
resources of his/her own mind, concerning 
Boko-Haram. The fact that they prefer a 
certain name to Boko-Haram preconditions 
the attitude of intransigence. Already, the 
reader of this excerpt is cognitively 
expectant of the usual things to expect from 
the organisation.  
 

Locale header: This particular 
information is for the people of Kano, a 
sprawling megalopolis in the West of 
Northern Nigeria. The reader’s mental image 
of Kano is thus triggered; as well as the 
potential havoc Boko-Haram may wreak. 
Kano is mentioned twice, a repetition 
perhaps orchestrated by the need to be 
unambiguous as to the target of their next 
nefarious activity.  
 

Instrumental header: ‘Should know’, 
‘tell people’, ‘arresting thieves and robbers’ 
all textually and mentally portray the 
gathering of violent storms. These actions, 
by the contextual premises relayed in the 
excerpt, triggers the anticipation of peculiar 
Boko-Haram violence in the city of Kano. 
 

Internal conceptualisation header: 
This is most evident in the last sentence of 
the excerpt  ‘Anyone who is instrumental to 
the arrest of our members is assured that their 

own is coming.’ Boko-Haram’s subtle threat 
in embedded in the word ‘own’--- that is, the 
killing of perceived informers who relay 
information about them to the authorities. 
Also, not ‘touching’ people who do not 
‘’touch us’ amply belies the suggested harm 
that would happen to those who engage the 
militants in any way. 

 
Excerpt 3 
 

September 30, 2014 
This short message is to traditional rulers 
who have been conspiring against us, 
that they have no hidden places for 
conspiring against our commitment and 
worship to Allah. They have entered our 
way and have no hidden places anymore, 
this they should know. Just wait and see 
what we will do. We did not even talk 
because of peace and now they have 
continued capturing our women, this 
week about seven women were captured 
and we don’t even know where they are, 
but they are being held by infidel enemies 
of Allah. In fact, they are even having sex 
with one of them. Allah, Allah, see us and 
what we are going through. It is in one 
place that they are holding seven women, 
in other places they are more than that. 
Only Allah knows the actual number of 
our women being held, women who are 
married in accordance with Islamic law. 
“Since you are now holding our women, 
(laugh) just wait and see what will 
happen to your own women. Just wait 
and see what will happen to your own 
wives according to Shariah law, (laugh) 
just wait and see if it is sweet and 
convenient for you. (3: wives of 
government officials) “SSS rubbish, 
Shekau on your neck, SSS you will see it. 
(Culled from https://www.researchgate 
.net/publication/258469765, p. 20) 

 
Precondition header: The claimed 

conspiracy of traditional rulers 
preconditions there is a conflict of interests 
between the highly revered northern Emirs 
and the Islamic insurgents. The reader is 
introduced into this charged interface by the 
use of the word ‘conspiring’, a rather 
ineffective euphemism for open denial of 



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support and hostility. The Emirs are often 
united in their condemnation of the evil that 
are routinely perpetrated by the terrorist 
sect. Any reader familiar with this 
knowledge will easily discern the image of 
the Emirs who are unfazed by imminent 
danger. 
 

Instrumental header: Some words in 
the text above conjure images of violent 
confrontations between the terrorists and 
law enforcement. ‘They’, ‘capture’, and 
‘holding’ all portray images of detention 
amidst resistance, resulting aftermaths of 
the frequent skirmishes between both 
parties. They also lead to schemata of how 
civilian detainees are maltreated in various 
detention centres across the nation, let alone 
known terrorists.  
 

Locale header: “This week”, ‘in one 
place’ and ‘other places’ initial the scenario 
of the location of arrested terrorists and 
their accomplices. The mental 
representations of Nigerian prisons are 
triggered as a result of these aforementioned 
words. The images are most likely to be 
unpleasant, which is the desired effect the 
terrorist authors wish to have on their 
listener/reader. 
 

Internal conceptualisation headers: 
The sentence ‘Just wait and see what we will 
do’ would have been interpreted differently 
and the picturesque effect on the mind 
altered had it been written by anyone else. 
However, because it is from Boko-Haram, 
the average reader will not fail to decipher 
the threat of violence embedded in it. The 
role given to Allah of ‘knowing’ the number 
of female captives and the subtle thereat in 
‘you will see it’ both attest to the reputation 
of Boko-Haram as a violent organisation that 
pretends to do God’s will. In the excerpt, 
adjectives that literally espouse or conjure 
violence are deliberately avoided. 

 
Taking a cursory look at the choice of 

words in our data, one can conclude that the 
author(s) deliberately choose words that 
will best transmit authorial intents. Verbs 
with veiled meanings and subdued violent 
impact like defend, touch and are 
consciously used instead of more graphic 

and vivid alternatives like arm, injure and 
kill respectively. Their usage is probably 
informed by a careful attempt at projecting 
themselves as faithfuls who are moderate, 
decent and fighting a just cause.  

 
The word ‘peace’ occurs four times in 

the three excerpts: excerpt one, lines 2 and 
3; excerpt 2, line7 and excerpt 3, line 4 
respectively. This is in contrast to war which 
occurs only once in line 8 of the second 
excerpt. This is highly significant because it 
belies the attempt to showcase to the world 
that they are peace-loving people. It 
reinforces the researcher’s argument that 
the insurgents deliberately couch their 
language in pacifistic mould to deceive the 
public into having sympathy for them and 
subsequently embracing their selfish and 
evil doctrinal agenda. 

 
Also, the four identified headers are 

represented by particular words, phrases 
and sentences which trigger mental 
activities of painting scenarios in the minds 
of the reader. This is a seamless traffic of 
rational progression in the business of 
textual meaning-making. The four headers 
correspond to one another to make meaning 
a wholesome and systematically organised 
cognitive experience. In each of the three 
excerpts studied, it is evident that the 
presence of these pointers helps in no small 
way in the total understanding and 
appreciation of the contents of the texts. 

 
Finally, although the Schema theory has 

been able to aptly demonstrate the intricate 
value of reader participation in meaning 
making, it is by no means the only way this 
could be established. Fellow researcher can 
investigate further, not only on the linguistic 
preferences and idiosyncrasies of the Boko-
Haram sect, but on the importance of the 
reader in the overall business of textual 
comprehension. 
 

Conclusion 
 

From the analysis above, the argument 
that Boko-Haram, although a bloodthirsty 
jihadist group that inflicts pain on innocents, 
somehow uses innocuous and common, 



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everyday expressions to create fear in the 
minds of Nigerians has been reinforced. Also, 
it should be noted that the cognitive 
advancement or otherwise of the reader 
notwithstanding, texts are read and meaning 
is made as a result of the projection of 
meaning from the text and the construction 
of same by the readers themselves. Meaning 
making is, thus, an exercise that juxtaposes 
the inferences from the text with the world 
knowledge of the reader. For example, the 
expression “You are in our minds” may 
connote a sinister motive, when read and 
understood against the heinous acts of 
terror Boko-Haram regularly propagates, 
especially in the Northern provinces of 
Nigeria. 

 
In the three excerpts studied and 

analysed in this paper, it is submitted that 
there are interplays between the individual 
texts and particular readers. This, most 
likely, occurs at any level of human 
development. Whereas the level of 
comprehension increases correspondingly 
to the level of education and world exposure, 
this process, however, takes place anytime a 
conscientious literate person picks up a 
composition to read.  The idea that 
something happens during the reading 
process that serves as the bedrock of textual 
understanding is, thus, an interesting 
submission.  

 

 
 
 
 
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