PHENOMENA Karlina Denistia & Fr. Borgias Alip 50 The Distribution of the Agentive Nominalizer of the Suffixes {-er} and {-an} Karlina Denistia & Fr. Borgias Alip English Letters Department, Sanata Dharma University Abstract This study focuses on the suffixes {–er} and {-an} because these suffixes are the most commonly used suffixes in daily life and thus really productive. There are three problems formulated for this topic: (1) What are the characteristics of stems receiving suffixes {–er} and {-an}? (2) What meanings are introduced by suffixes {–er} and {–an}? (3) What are the distributions of the allomorphs of suffixes {–er} and {-an}? The data of this study are morphemes and affixes. Hornby’s Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (year of 2000) is used. Finally, the present researcher found that the suffixes {–er} and {- an} are attached to certain verbs, adjectives, and nouns. The suffix {-an} are not attached to verbs. The suffix {-er} is mostly attached to transitive verbs to create three possibilities of meaning. There is only one meaning of the suffix {–er} when it is attached to an adjective, and eight meanings of the suffix {–er} when it is attached to certain nouns. For suffix {-an}, there are three meanings when it is attached to adjectives and five meanings when it is attached to nouns. There are two meanings of the suffix {-an} when it is attached to nouns. The allomorph of the suffix {-er} are –or, -eer /ɪər/, and –ier /ɪər/, while the allomorphs of the suffix {-an} are –ian /ʃn/, -ian /ɪən/, and –ean /ɪən/. Keywords: morpheme, derivational suffixes, an agentive nominalization, stem, allomorph Introduction English language development is growing rapidly. The most common process used by human beings for language development is affixation because most of the new words are created by using affixation. This is what Bauer also said in his book “affixation in the most frequent process to form words” (Bauer,1988:19). In this study, the present researcher focuses on the suffixes {–er}, {– ist}, and {-an} because these suffixes are the most commonly used suffixes in our daily life and are thus really productive. Quirk argued that agentive nominalizations have the status of ““full productivity”, that they have possibility to be either ‘permanent’ or ‘temporary’ agential noun” (Quirk, 1980:436). Therefore, the present researcher is interested in discussing this topic because people are familiar with these suffixes. According to the function, the suffixes {–er} and {-an} are categorized into derivational suffixes to create an agentive nominalization. Additionally, the present researcher hopes that by studying this topic, people can minimize their misuse in using these suffixes. Part of Speech of the Stem Attached to the Suffixes Verb Stem There are 95 words or 60,5 % occurrences of the suffix {-er} attached to verbs. Most verb stems of the suffix {-er} are derived from French word such abuser, advertise, attacker, bomber, browser, and challenger. Since the suffix {-er} is the most productive, many verbs coming from Old Vol. 14 No. 1 – April 2014 51 English also can be verb stems for this suffix, such as crawler, comer, cleaner, believer, and borrower. Verbs derived from Latinate words can be attached to the suffix {-er} such as in the words commuter, consumer, contender, and designer. One of the characteristics of verb stems is that they are transitive verbs such as admirer, adjudicator, editor, manager, and researcher. Thus, it is unacceptable to say *crier, *walker. However, it is not impossible for intransitive verbs to have {–er} as an indicator to have the agentive nominalization such as sleeper, dreamer, drummer, and runner as long as they refer to either ‘a person whose job is X-ing’ or ‘a person who repeats the activity X-ing’ or in a simple way, it refers to a habitual activity. Yet, there are also some exceptions that although the words belong to transitive verbs, they do not have the suffix {–er} as their agentive nominalization such as *getter, *seer, *sayer, *knower, and *meeter unless they are in form of compound noun such as in over-seer, doom-sayer, and dignitary-meeter. In addition, verbs with the suffix –ize and – ate form such as apologizer, organizer, dictator, and animator also can be attached to the suffix {-er}. Another characteristic of the verbs is that {–er} suffix is mostly attached to monosyllabic verbs. These monosyllabic verbs come from native Old English words such as swimmer, seeker, seller, drinker, writer, washer, and buyer. Adjective Stem There are 7 words or 4,5 % occurrences of the suffix {-er} attached to adjectives. Etymologically, most adjectives are derived from Old English such as westerner, easterner, southerner, and northerner. These adjectives have the same characteristic that they refer to a certain part of the world. The three other words, commoner, stranger, and foreigner, are derived from Old French. Noun Stem There are 55 words or 35 % occurrences of the suffix {-er} attached to nouns. Based on the noun classification, the present researcher found that the noun stems for this suffix fulfill all noun classes. There are four noun classes based on Quirk et al. Those are concrete nouns, abstract nouns, countable nouns, and uncountable nouns. For the concrete countable nouns, the present researcher has the words falconer, sealer, and whaler. For the concrete uncountable nouns, the present researcher has the words rancher, commissioner, and councilor. The present researcher also has abstract nouns as the stem of the suffix {-er} such as astrologer, philosopher, and astronomer. However, the present researcher found that there are only seven abstract nouns which can be noun stems for the suffix {-er}: adventurer, astrologer, astronomer, auctioneer, conventioneer, probationer, and philosopher. Therefore, it can be concluded that mostly nouns attached to the suffix {-er} are concrete nouns. Etymologically, most nouns which can be stems of the suffix {-er} are derived from the French language such as villager, trumpeter, and slaver. The other borrowed words come from Latinate words such as gondolier, costumier, and senator and Greek words such as astrologer, philosopher, and astronomer. In addition, the nouns derived from Greek are those abstract nouns which are related to some form of study. There are also some native nouns derived from Old English that can be the stem of the suffix {-er}, although not as many as the Old English verbs which are attached to the suffix {-er}. There are five words derived from Old English: adventurer, crofter, hatter, drover, and sealer. Stem Attached to the Suffix {-an} Adjective Stem There are 5 words or 6,8 % occurrences of the suffix {-er} attached to adjectives. Etymologically, 100 % adjectives with the suffix {-an} are derived from Latinate words. Three of them are directly borrowed as English words such as civilian, valedictorian, and veterinarian. One of them is borrowed by the French first before English used the word: disciplinarian. One of them is borrowed through Greek first before the English used the words such as electrician. Karlina Denistia & Fr. Borgias Alip 52 Noun Stem There are 69 words or 93,2 % occurrences of the suffix {-er} attached to nouns. The noun stems attached to the suffix {-an} only fulfill two classes from the noun classification proposed by Quirk et al. The characteristic noun stems attached to this suffix is 87% abstract nouns such as comedian, beautician, musician, and statistician. The uncountable concrete nouns can be the stems of the suffix {-an}. From the data, only 13% of the nouns are concrete uncountable nouns, most of them are related to the proper name of a country, as Peters said “this common suffix generates adjectives from proper names, both personal and geographical” (Peters, 2004: 36). This quotation explains that mostly, proper names related to geographical names can be the stems of this suffix such as Arabian, European, and Australian. There is no concrete countable noun as the stem of this suffix. This explains why there is no *bookian for ‘a person who studies books’ and *birdian a person who studies birds’ as the agent for the suffix {-an}. Etymologically, most nouns which can be stems of the suffix {-an} are derived from Latin such as seminarian, politician, custodian, and centenarian and Greek such as academician, mathematician, and phonetician. Analysis of the Meaning of the Suffixes In this part, the present researcher tries to find the general meaning of the suffix and the other meanings which are more specific. This is what Matthews said in his book, Morphology, “all morphology would be lexical” (Matthews, 1991: 43). This means that basically, all morphemes (both free and bound morphemes) have their meaning and contribution toward the lexical itself. Accordingly, the present researcher uses lexical meaning in this part. Meaning of the Suffix {-er} Verb Stem According to Quirk et al. in A University Grammar of English, the meaning of the suffix {-er} when it is attached to certain verbs is “agentive” (Quirk et al., 1980: 438). Meaning to say, this suffix can be attached to almost all verbs. The meaning of the verb + the suffix {- er} is “a person who X-s”. Table 1: General Meaning of a Verb +{-er} Stem  Noun Change of meaning Semantic Effect Vote  voter Farm  farmer To show formally by making a paper or raising your hand which person you want to win the election  a person who has the right to vote To use land for growing crops and or keeping animals  a person who manages a farm A person who X-s the object There are two alternative meanings of suffix {–er} when it is attached to certain verbs which support the general meaning which is ‘a person who X-s’ the object. Table 2: Other Meanings of a Verb +{-er} Stem  Noun Change of meaning Semantic Effect Teach  teacher Write  writer To give lessons to students in a school, college, or university  a person whose job is teaching To produce something in a written form so that people can read  a person whose job is writing A person whose job is X-ing Smoke  smoker To suck smoke from a cigarette or pipe  a person who smokes tobacco regularly A person who likes to X Vol. 14 No. 1 – April 2014 53 Dictate  dictator To tell somebody what to do  a person who behaves as if they have complete power over other people, and tell them what to do Adjective Stem Generally, the meaning of the adjective + the suffix {-er} is ‘a person who is X’ . Table 3: General Meaning of an Adjective +{-er} Stem  Noun Change of meaning Semantic effect Southern  southerner Common  commoner Connected with the southern part of the world or a country a person who comes or live in southern part of the world Typical of somebody from a common social class  a person who does not come from a noble family A person who is X There are two alternative meanings of suffix {–er} when it is attached to certain adjectives which support the general meaning which is ‘a person who is X’. Table 4: Other Meanings of an Adjective +{-er} Stem  Noun Change of meaning Semantic effect Western  westerner Eastern  easterner Connected with the western part of the world or a country  a person who comes or live in western part of the world Connected with the eastern part of the world or a country  a person who comes or live in eastern part of the world A person who comes from a/an X part of a world Foreign  foreigner Strange  stranger From a country that is not your own  a person who comes from another country Not familiar because you have not met the person before  a person that you do not know A person who has a/an X characteristic Noun Stem According to Quirk et al. in A University Grammar of English, there are two meanings of the suffix {-er} when it is attached to certain nouns. They state that the meanings are “a person engaged in an occupation or activity (engineer) and inhabitant of X (teenager, Londoner)” (Quirk et al., 1980: 437). For the present researcher, there is no generalization of the suffix {-er} + noun meaning because the occurrences of each meaning are almost the same percentage. Table 5: Meanings of a Noun +{-er} Stem  Noun Change of meaning Semantic effect Commission  commissioner Convention  conventioneer An official group of people who have been given responsibility to control something  a member of commission An official agreement between countries or leaders  a person who is attending a convention A person who is related or engaged to the activity of X Village  A very small town situated in a country  a person who A person who Karlina Denistia & Fr. Borgias Alip 54 villager Prison  prisoner lives in village A building where people are kept as a punishment for a crime they have committed  a person who is kept in prison lives in X Debt  debtor Ranch  rancher A sum of money that somebody owes  a person that owes money A large farm where cows, horses, etc are bred  a person who owns a ranch A person who owns X Geography  geographer Philosophy  philosopher the scientific study of the earth’s surface  a person who studies geography The study of nature and meaning of the universe and of human life  a person who studies or writes about philosophy A person who is the expert of X Seal  sealer Whale  whaler A sea animal that eats fish and lives around coasts  a person who hunts seals A very large animal that lives in the sea and looks like a very large fish  a person who hunts whale A person who hunts X Drove  drover Gondola  gondolier A large number of animals, often doing something as a group  a person who moves group of cows or sheep from one place to another A long boat with a flat bottom and high parts at each end  a person whose job is to move and steer a gondola in Venice A person whose job is to move X Bugle  bugler Puppet  puppeteer A musical instrument like a small trumpet  a person who plays a bugle A model of a person or an animal that can be made to move  a person who plays with puppets A person who plays X Hat  hatter Armour  armourer A covering made to fit the head  a person who makes and sells hats Military vehicles used in war  a person who makes and repairs weapons and armour A person who produces X Meaning of the Suffix {-an} Adjective Stem Generally, the meaning of the adjective + the suffix {-an} is ‘a person who is X’. Table 6: General Meaning of an Adjective +{-an} Stem  Noun Change of meaning Semantic effect Valedictory  valedictorian Connected with saying goodbye, especially at a formal occasion the student who has the highest marks or grades in a particular group of students and who gives the valedictory speech at a graduation ceremony A person who is X There are two alternative meanings of suffix {–an} when it is attached to certain adjectives although both of them basically support the general meaning which is ‘a person who is X’. Table 7: Other Meanings of an Adjective +{-an} Stem  Noun Change of meaning Semantic Effect Civil  civilian Connected with the people who live in a country  A person Vol. 14 No. 1 – April 2014 55 Barbar  barbarian a member who is not connected with the armed force Connected with the people who are uncivilized  a person who is uncivilized whose X characteristic Electric  electrician Veterinary  veterinarian Connected with electricity  a person whose job is to connect, repair, etc. electrical equipment Connected with caring for the animals  a person who has been trained in the science of animal medicine, whose job is to treat animal that are injured. A person whose job is connected with something X Noun Stem According to Quirk et al. in his book, A University Grammar of English, there is only one meaning of the suffix {-an} when it is attached to certain nouns. They mentioned that the meaning is “pertaining to X” (Quirk et al., 1980: 437). In this part, the present researcher finds other meanings introduced by this suffix when it is attached to certain nouns. Generally, the meaning of the noun + the suffix {-an} is ‘a person who studies X’. Table 8: General Meaning of a Noun +{-an} Stem  Noun Change of meaning Semantic Effect Mathematics  mathematician Tactic  tactician The sciences of number and shapes  a person who is an expert in mathematics The particular method used to achieve something  a person who is very clever at planning the best way to achieve something A person who studies a/an X There are four alternative meanings of suffix {–an} when it is attached to certain nouns although all of them are basically not supporting the general meaning which is a person who studies X. Table 9: Other Meanings of a Noun +{-an} Stem  Noun Change of meaning Semantic Effect Canada  Canadian Name of a country  person from Canada A person who is from a/ an X country Academy  academician Republic  republican A school or college for special training  a member of an academy A country that is governed by a president and politicians elected by the people  a person who supports a form of government with a president and politicians elected by the people A person who is the member of X Library  librarian A building in which collections of books, tapes, newspaper, etc are kept for people to read, study, or borrow A person who is in charge in a/an X Centenary  centenarian The 100th anniversary of something  a person who is 100 years old or more A person who has the age of a X Karlina Denistia & Fr. Borgias Alip 56 Anaylysis of the Allomorph of the Suffixes 1. Allomorph of the Suffix {-er} a. The Suffix {-or} In the agentive nominalization, the suffix -or is the allomorph of the suffix {–er}. Twenty six words of the -or occurrences are found from the data. What can be seen in this allomorph is that this is an orthographical phenomenon because they have different letters but the same phonemic transcription, /ər/. Native verbs derived from Latin such as actor, investor, and collector use –or as their nominalization. It can be noticed also that mostly verbs that end with –ate are regularly changed into –or with final /ə/ deletion. In addition, the present researcher found that the words ending with –ate are also derived from Latin such as adjudicator infiltrator, dictator, and illustrator. In addition, it can be generalized that the suffix –or occurs when the stems are derived from Latin, borrowed directly by English. This explains why dieter and deserter have the suffix {-er} as their agent although they are derived from Latinate words. It is because they are not directly borrowed by English, French borrowed it first before they came to English. Therefore, they do not have the allomorph -or as their agent. For the phonological rule, it cannot be generalized that the suffix –or occurs when the stems’ last syllable ends with /t/ as the final consonant such as conductor /kən'dʌktər/, constructor /kən'strʌktər/, contractor /kən'træktər/, and detractor /dɪ'træktər/. It can be either an orthographical or a phonological phenomena which occur in a suffix. In order to create a phonological rule, the present researcher needs to have a different phoneme between input and output, while this –or allomorph which is only an orthographical phenomenon has the same phonemic transcription as the suffix {-er} which is /ər/. b. The Suffix –eer and –ier as Pronounced /ɪər/ Basically, the suffixes –eer and -ier as the allomorph of the suffix {-er} have different letters but phonetically, they have the same phonemic transcription which is /iər/. There are nine words which have the -eer allomorph. It can be noticed that etymologically, native verbs derived from French such as charioteer and puppeteer use – eer as their nominalization. In order to extend the explanation, Peters explained that the appearance of the suffix –eer can be generated from the meaning which is formed after the process of affixation. -eer suffix serves to identify a person by whatever item they engage within their work. A number of such words have been used in connection with military personnel, and this seems to have paved the way for its use in civilian forms of contention. This in turn may have helped to attach a derogatory flavor to words with –eer (Peters, 2004: 174). From the quotation, the present researcher concludes that the suffix –eer is used when it creates four possible meanings. First, the meaning of the words refer to ‘a person who is engaged with the activity related to X’ such as puppeteer, mountaineer, and engineer. The second meaning is for ‘a person who is connected with military personnel’ such as cannoneer, charioteer, musketeer, and racketeer. The third meaning is for ‘a person who is contributive in a civilian form of contention’ such as auctioneer, electioneer, and pamphleteer. Finally, the fourth meaning is to imply a negative implication such as profiteer, racketeer, (black) marketeer, commandeer, and domineer. However, volunteer and pioneer are free from any negative flavor. There are five words with the suffix -ier: costumier, couturier, gondolier, hotelier, and bombardier. All of those words come from French. This is also what Peters said, “this suffix –ier appears in two kinds of English words: a few agent words borrowed from French and for a person associated with a particular commodity” (Peters, 2004: 266). This quotation strengthens the present researcher’s finding that the suffix –ier is attached to English words which are borrowed from French. In addition, this suffix is also related to a person who is associated with a particular commodity when it is attached to noun stems. It is proven by the Vol. 14 No. 1 – April 2014 57 existence of the word costumier, clothier, and furrier. In the case of charioteer and puppeteer, both words are nouns derived from Old French and ending with /t/. Thus, the present researcher finds that the allomorph /ɪər/ occurs under conditions when the stems are nouns derived from French, borrowed directly by English, and the stems’ last syllable ends with /t/ as the final consonant such as puppeteer, charioteer, pamphleteer, racketeer and marketeer. The present researcher creates a rule as follows: /ər/  [ɪər] / /t/ __________ The rule for the agentive suffix above is read as followed: /ər/ will change into [iər] after /t/. Trumpeter which is derived from the French noun which is trumpete is the exception in this case since there is no *trumpeteer in English. The present researcher finds that the allomorph /ɪər/ occurs under conditions when the stems are nouns derived from French and the stems’ last syllable ends with /d/ as the final consonant such as bombard /bɒm'bɑ:d/  bombardier /bɒmbə'dɪər/. The rule is written as followed: /ər/  [ɪər] / /d/ __________ The rule for the agentive suffix above is read as followed: /ər/ will change into [ɪər] after /d/. For the /t/ and /d/ phonemes, the phonological rule is written as followed: /ər/  [ɪər] / C __________ - sonorant - continuant + anterior + coronal The rule for the agentive suffix above is read as followed: /ər/ will change into [ɪər] after stop anterior coronal consonants. Convention and auction are Latinate words. English has conventioneer and auctioneer as their agent. It can be generalized that the allomorph /ɪər/ occurs under conditions when the stems are nouns derived from French, borrowed directly by English, and the stems’ last syllable ends with /n/ as the final consonant such as mountaineer, engineer, cannoneer, conventioneer, electioneer, and auctioneer. The present researcher creates a rule as followed: /ər/  [ɪər] / /n/ __________ The rule for the agentive suffix above is read as followed: /ər/ will change into [ɪər] after /n/. However, English still has domineer, volunteer, and pioneer. In each case, those words are borrowed ready-made into English. Thus, they cannot be analyzed in the same way as the English formations. The present researcher finds that the allomorph /ɪər/ occurs under condition when the stems are nouns derived from French and the stems’ last syllable ends with /m/ as the final consonant such as costume /'kɒstju:m/  costumier /kɒs'tju:mɪə/. The present researcher creates a rule as followed: /ər/  [ɪər] / /m/ __________ The rule for the agentive suffix above is read as followed: /ər/ will change into [ɪər] after /m/. For the /m/ and /n/ phonemes, the phonological rule is written as followed: /ər/  [ɪər] / C __________ + sonorant - continuant + anterior + nasal The rule for the agentive suffix above is read as followed: /ər/ will change into [ɪər] after nasal consonants. The present researcher finds that the allomorph /ɪər/ occurs under conditions when the stems are nouns derived from French and the stems’ last syllable ends with /r/ as the final consonant such as such as couture /ku'tjʊər/  couturier /ku'tjʊərɪər/ and fur /fɜ:r/  furrier /fʌrɪər/. The present researcher creates a rule as followed: Karlina Denistia & Fr. Borgias Alip 58 /ər/  [ɪər] / /r/ __________ The rule for the agentive suffix above is read as followed: /ər/ will change into [ɪər] after /r/. The present researcher finds that the allomorph /ɪər/ occurs under conditions when the stems are nouns derived from French and the stems’ last syllable ends with /l/ as the final consonant such as hotel /həʊ'tel/  hotelier /həʊ'telɪər/. The present researcher creates a rule as followed: /ər/  [ɪər] / /l/ __________ The rule for the agentive suffix above is read as followed: /ər/ will change into [ɪər] after /l/. For the /l/ and /r/ phonemes, the phonological rule is written as followed: /ər/  [ɪər] / C __________ + sonorant + continuant + anterior + coronal + approximant The rule for the agentive suffix above is read as followed: /ər/ will change into [ɪər] after either lateral or central consonants. 2. Allomorph of the Suffux {-an} a. The Suffix {-ian} as Pronounced /ʃn/ The /ʃn/ is the allomorph of /ən/ because both /ən/ and /ʃn/ occur in a different environment, as Fromkin et al. (2003) called a predictable complementary distribution. One of the determinations whether an allomorph will occur or not is based on their stem’s final consonant. There are two conditions in which this allomorph occurs. Firstly, it is when the stem is derived from either noun or adjective. Secondly, it is when the final phoneme of the stem is /k/. There are eleven nouns ending with /k/ of all nouns having this allomorph such as: magic /mædʒɪk/  magician /mə'dʒɪʃn/, mathematic /mæɵə'mætɪc/  mathematician /mæɵəmə'tɪʃn/, politic /'pɒlətɪk/  politician /pɒlə'tɪʃn /, and electric /ɪ'lektrɪk/  electrician /ɪlek'trɪʃn/. The phonological reason why the morpheme /k/ changes into /ʃ/ is to make the words easier to pronounce. Looking at the phonological environment, the suffix {-an} /ən/ has /n/ alveolar stop as its final consonant, the stem has /k/ which is velar stop as its final consonant, and the suffix –ian /ʃn/ has /ʃ/ whose features are alveolar fricative. It will be easier to have / ʃ/ which is alveolar fricative to move forward to the /n/ which is alveolar stop compared with /k/ which is velar stop to move forward to /n/ which is alveolar stop. Therefore, magician will be pronounced as /mə'dʒɪʃn/ instead of */mə'dʒɪkn/. To describe the phonological condition in which the allomorph occurs, there will be segment change from /ə/ to be /ʃ/ under conditions when the stems’ last syllable ends with the final consonant /k/. The present researcher creates a rule for the /ən/ changing into /ʃn/ allomorphy: /ən/  [ʃn] / /k/ __________ The rule for the agentive suffix above is read as followed: /ən/ will change into [ʃn] after /k/. Based on the data, the present researcher tries to generalize the phonological rule for /ʃn/ allomorph. The rule is written as followed: /ən/  [ʃn] / C __________ - anterior - coronal - voice - nasal The rule for the agentive suffix above is read as followed: /ən/ will change into [ʃn] after velar voiceless consonant. Peters also explained that “the –ian suffix also appears in many nouns referring to roles and professions” (Peters, 2004: 36). This quotation means that generally, words which are related to professions have the suffix –ian instead of the suffix {-an} for its agent. The present researcher believes that it can be Vol. 14 No. 1 – April 2014 59 generalized that nouns which refer to a certain profession have more possibility to have the suffix –ian as pronounced /ʃn/ rather than the suffix {-an} as pronounced /ən/. This explanation answers why custodian, centenarian, and civilian do not belong to this category. First, it is because they do not refer to any profession; second, although they have the suffix –ian, it is pronounced as /ɪən/ and not /ʃn/. However, there are three words which are not related to profession but have /ʃn/ as its agent: Egypt  Egyptian, Laos  Laotian, and Mauritius  Mauritian. Those words are related to a nationality. b. The Suffix –ian and –ean as Pronounced /ɪən/ As mentioned before in the first part of analysis that the stems of the suffix {-an} are commonly used for proper names (both personal and geographical), the present researcher finds that the allomorph –ian and –ean also appear in those circumstances. This is proven by the existence of the word European, Chaldean, Arabian, Bostonian, and Canadian. This is also what Peters said, “because the resulting ending is quite often – ian, the –an suffix has given birth to –ian as a suffix. It is common with proper names” (Peters, 2004: 36). This quotation means that somehow, the occurrences of the suffix –ian has a higher frequency compared with the suffix {-an}. One factor that causes this phenomenon is because people tend to make an analogy that it is more acceptable for proper names to be attached to the suffix –ian rather than the suffix {-an}. Here are some examples on how the suffix {-an} may be simply added to the end of the stems. Note that these are not the /ɪən/ allomorph since /ɪə/ is the part of the stem. There is no *Russ as the stem of Russian, *As as the stem of Asian, and *Syr as the stem of Syrian: Romanian, Asian, Persian, Victorian, Indian, Syrian, Australian, Russian, and Estonian. One other variant of the suffix {-an} is – ean. Peters said that this suffix “belonged originally to a number of classical words” (Peters, 2004: 36). From the quotation, the present researcher finds that the suffix –ean is also the allomorph of the suffix {-an}. However, because the number is limited (only for classical words), the distribution of this allomorph is not really wide-spread such as Antipodean, Herculean, Promethean, Mediterranean, Procrustean, Chaldean, and Epicurean. For the suffix –ean which refers to a geographical name, English has Chilean, Guinean, Belizean, Singaporean, Eritrean, Zimbabwean, Cape Verdean, European and Sierra Leonean. From the example, it is noticeable that a country ended either -e or - ea spelling as its final vowel will have the suffix –ean. These vowels -e or -ea are actually the part of the stem in Chile, Guinea, Belize, Singapore, Cape Verde, and Sierra Leone. It is enough only to attach the suffix {- an} directly to those stem to have the agent for each stem. Accordingly, it can be concluded that whenever there is a country having either –e or –ea as their final vowel, orthographically, the suffix –ean occur. The exceptions for this generalization are Ukraine  Ukrainian, France  French, Greece  Greek, Papua New Guinea  Papuan, and Suriname  Surinamese because although they have either –e or –ea as their final vowel, they do not have the suffix –ean as their agent. However, note that the suffix –ean in Eritrean, Zimbabwean, Chilean and Guinean are not allomorphs of the suffix {-ian} because Eritrean, Zimbabwean, Chilean, and Guinean do not fulfill the requirements to be an allomorph because it has /ɪ/ (/ɪən/ for Eritrea) as the part of their stem. Thus, there is no vowel addition in its morphophonemic process to form the /ɪən/ pronunciation. Chilean and Guinean for example, the suffix {- an} may be simply added to the end of the stems: Chile /'tʃɪlɪ/  Chilean /'tʃɪlɪən/ and Guinea /'ɡɪnɪ/  Guinean /'ɡɪnɪ/. Vowel change is the most common morphophonemic process occurring in this – ean allomorph. The present researcher finds that phonologically, the vowel change occurs in the morphophonemic processes because the final consonant –e for the stem’s spelling is kept until the end of the process. In English, all –e spelling in final position will be dropped and become unpronounced (except for Greek words). The notation is written as followed: /e/  Ø / _____ # Karlina Denistia & Fr. Borgias Alip 60 The rule above is read as followed: /e/ will be deleted when it is in the final position. The addition of the suffix {-an}, /ən/, which is attached to final spelling –e, /ɪ/, of the stems forms the spelling will be –ean, /ɪən/. It causes the –e, /ɪ/, spelling to be pronounced, combined with the spelling –a as pronounced /ə/ in the suffix –an. Thus, the spelling will be –ean as pronounced /ɪən/. Note however that several other words may be spelled either –ean or –ian, although for most of them, -ian is now the most common ending. The examples are Argentinean / Argentinian, Aristotelean / Aristotelian, Boolean / Boolian, Caesarean / Caesarian, Hermitean / Hermitian, and Shakespearean / Shakespearian. Conclusion The suffix {-er} is mostly attached to transitive verbs coming from French or Old English to create three possibilities of meanings. The suffix {-er} can be attached to some adjectives stem to create one general meaning. The suffix {-er} can also be attached to noun stems which are derived from French, Latin, Greek, and Old English. All noun categories can be attached to this suffix. There are eight meanings created by these noun stems when it is attached to the suffix {- er}. For the suffix {-an}, there is no verb stems which can be attached to this suffix. Adjectives derived from Latinate words can be stems of this suffix to create three meanings. The characteristics of noun stems for this suffix are mostly abstract nouns, proper names, and they are derived from Latin and Greek. There are five meanings when this suffix is attached to nouns. The suffix –or, -ier, and –eer are the allomorphs of the suffix {–er}. There are three allomorphs of the suffix {-an}. Those are –ian as pronounced /ʃn/, -ian as pronounced /ɪən/, and –ean as pronounced /ɪən/ which occur in certain environment. Finally, there are two items that should be examined when people want to produce certain agentive nominalizations using the suffixes {–er}, {–ist}, and {-an}. The first is to remember the characteristics of the stem if it is acceptable, and the second is to relate the word to the meaning if it makes sense. References Bauer, Laurie. Introducing Linguistic Morphology. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press Ltd, 1984. Fromkin, Victoria, Robert Rodman, and Nina Hyams. An Introduction to Language. Massachusetts: Thomson, 2003. Gleason, H. A.. An Introduction to Descriptive Linguistics. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1961. Matthews, P. H.. Morphology (second edition). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991 Peters, Pam. The Cambridge Guide to English Usage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004. Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A University Grammar of English. London: Longman, 1980. Szymanek, Bogdan. Introduction to Morphological Analysis. Warszawa: Panstwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1989.