55 

Journal of Multidisciplinary Applied Natural Science Vol. 3 No. 1 (2023) 

Review Article 

Lepidopteran Insects Status and Diversity: A Review 

Ahasan Ullah Khan*, Nilufa Yasmin Poly, Shimanta Dutta, and Ferdous Alam 

Received : July 9, 2022  Revised : October 17, 2022  Accepted : October 17, 2022 Online : October 25, 2022 

Abstract
The second largest and most well-known insect order Lepidoptera includes both butterflies and moths in the world. This study was 
started based on secondary information from present literature from different countries on the flora and fauna. So far, much study 
work was completed on this subject but those workers were not existing to the extension employees, policymakers, and the public 
in an efficient way to date. In this review paper, we can give the recent data on etymology, distribution and diversity, external 
morphology, different morphological parts of caterpillar, internal morphology, digestive system, circulatory system, reproduction 
and growth, respiratory system, and growth and role of the olfactive process in larval and adult lepidopteran insects. There are over 
one hundred and eighty thousand Lepidoptera species described, divided into one hundred and twenty-six families and forty-six 
superfamilies, and the total number of living beings was labeled as about ten percent. A result found is that the species of moths is 
about one hundred sixty thousand compared to one hundred seventy thousand five hundred species of butterflies in the world. 
Butterflies are an important category of insects that can function as sensors of environmental change. Butterflies are insects from 
the order Lepidoptera's macro-lepidopteran clade Rhopalocera. The study focused on the lepidopteran insects and the diversity of 
the world. It presents the review of research imperfect data on specific knowledge in diverse agroecological zones. This study 
acknowledged investigating breaches in different countries of the world. It also provides information on lepidopterans as alternative 
food and financial source of the world. It also helps in the sustainable agricultural field.       
 
Keywords Lepidopteran insect, butterfly, moth, larvae, diversity, status, food 

1. INTRODUCTION

The insects are significant for the reason of their 

ecological role, effect on agriculture, diversity, 

social well-being, animal, and usual resources. 

Those insects are universally found on the planet 

and they are the most common faunas or organisms 

found in the world still now. The insects have been 

named more than fifteen luck classes in the 

scientific community. This number of insects is 

three times higher than the other animals. Even so, 

many researchers said that the insects that have 

been identified and given designations are only a 

small part of the insects in wildlife. Many have not 

yet been exposed even some are recorded as a pest. 

Pests are animals or plants that are damaging to 

humans or human worries. It is an unhelpful insect 

or another animal that spells crops, food, livestock, 

etc. Some pests are attacked the home garden plant 

[1][2]. some insects attract in the bean crop and pod 

 
[3]–[6], cinnamon plant and fruit [7], 

chrysanthemum crop and flower [8]; jackfruit plant 

and fruit [9][10], mango plant and fruit [11], lemon 

plant parts [12], okra plant and fruit [13][14] and so 

on [15]–[17]. The term is mostly secondhand for 

individuals that harm crops, cattle and animals, and 

forests or cause pain to people, especially in their 

town. The common insect orders are Coleoptera, 

Diptera, Lepidoptera, Hemiptera, Homoptera, 

Hymenoptera, Isoptera, Mantodean, Mecopteran, 

Neuropteran, Odonatan, Orthoptera, Phasmida, 

Plecopteran, Psocoptera, Siphonaptera, 

Thysanoptera, Thysanuran, and Trichopteran. In 

this paper, we are trying to describe the status and 

diversity of Lepidoptera insects. 

The insect order Lepidoptera is the second-

largest insect order and this insect order consists of 

moths and butterflies (each is titled lepidopterans). 

About one hundred and eighty thousand species of 

the Lepidoptera are defined, in one hundred and 

twenty-six families and forty-six superfamilies ten 

percent of the whole defined classes of dwelling 

animals [18][19].  It is one of the most prevalent 

insect orders and widely decipherable insects in the 

present global [20]. The insect of Lepidoptera 

display many disparities in the elementary body 

form that have changed to advantage benefits in life 

and circulation. The latest guesses endorse the 

insect order can also have further classes than a 

previous idea, and is many of the quatern maximum 

classes orders, together with the Hymenoptera, 

 

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Copyright: 

© 2022 by the author(s). 
Licensee Pandawa Institute, Metro, Indonesia. This article is an 
open access article distributed under the terms and conditions 
of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike (CC BY-SA) 
license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). 

https://doi.org/10.47352/jmans.2774-3047.140 

OPEN ACCESS 

 

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J. Multidiscip. Appl. Nat. Sci. 

56 

Diptera, and Coleoptera [21]. Lepidopteran insect 

types are considered by more than three consequent 

structures, a few of the greatest seeming being the 

scales masking their bodies and wings a trunk. The 

scales change, the “hair” becomes stronger and the 

moths and butterflies provide their awesome kind of 

color and design. Nearly all lepidopteran insect 

classes have a few shapes of membrane-forming 

wings, besides some which have condensed wings 

or are wingless. Lepidopteran insects of butterflies 

and moths and almost different insect species are 

holometabolous which means they go through an 

entire mutation. The adult insects are mating and 

lay eggs near or on host plants for the larvae. 

The first stage of larvae are normally referred to 

as caterpillars, and are wholly extraordinary from 

their adult butterfly or moth bureaucracy, taking a 

cylinder-shaped body with properly-evolved 

mandible mouth parts, six thoracic legs, a head, and 

from none up to ten prolegs. When they grow, these 

caterpillars trade entrance, going complete a 

sequence of ranges referred instars.  As soon as they 

mature, the first stage of the larva grows into a 

pupa. Several butterflies and plenty of moth classes 

rotation a cocoon or silk case earlier in pupating 

stage, while other insects do not, in its place of 

successful subversive. A butterfly pupa termed a 

cocoon, has solid skin and pores, generally without 

a chrysalis. As soon as the pupa has done its 

mutation, a sexually developed adult insect 

emerges. The Lepidoptera insects have over 

hundreds of thousands of centuries, progressive an 

extensive variety of flying parts of wing patterns 

and hues vacillating from drab moths akin to the 

connection in the insect order of Trichoptera to the 

glossily painted and complicated decorated 

butterflies [19]. For that reason, this is the most 

identified and widespread insect of moth and 

butterfly with human beings intricate in the study, 

remark, gathering, nurture, and business of these 

insects. Someone who studies or gathers this insect 

order is mentioned as a lepidopterist. Moths and 

butterflies play a vital function confidential in the 

herbal surroundings as food within the meals chain 

and as pollinators, equally, their larvae are 

measured very complex to foliage in the 

agricultural field, as their major supply of 

nourishment is frequently live in the plant 

substance. In many classes, the female insect can 

additionally yield from two hundred to six hundred 

eggs, while in others; the variety can also technique 

thirty thousand eggs in a single day. The young 

insect crosshatching from these offspring can 

reason harm to massive portions of vegetation. 

Many butterflies and moths classes are of financial 

concentration with the aid of their function as silk, 

pollinators, or pest classes. The objectives of this 

study are to know the about Lepidoptera order of 

insects, the life cycle of Lepidoptera insects, and the 

ecological beneficial and harmful activities of this 

Table 1. Levels of  factors in the BBD for the Regeneration of Spent MAC. 

Characters Butterfly Moth 

Antennae Smoothed sticks on the trimmings Slim or light 

Body Thin and smooth Think and fuzzy 

Active During the day During the night 

Color Colorful Dull 

Pupal stage Chrysalis Cocoon 

Wings Held vertically when resting Held flat against the body when resting 

  
  
Adult butterfly and moth 
  
  
  

  

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scale_(anatomy)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instar
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pest_(organism)


J. Multidiscip. Appl. Nat. Sci. 

57 

order.     

 

2. METHODOLOGY 

 

A research study of the presented journal 

literature, reports, blogs, newspapers, and books 

was shown to evaluate the recent level of research 

on the lepidopteran insect status and diversity. 

Keyword examinations in the web of science 

database, Google Scholar, Google, a full-text search 

of the Science Direct database, and research gate, 

were conducted. The individual announcement was 

also castoff to get data from administration actions 

and non-governmental NGO groups.  

 

3. ETYMOLOGY LEPIDOPTERA INSECTS 

 

The term Lepidoptera turned into castoff in 

1746 by Carl Linnaeus in his Wildlife 

species [22]. The term is resulting from the Greek 

word λεπίς, gen. λεπίδος ("Scale") and πτερόν 

("wing") [23]. Now and then, the 

word Rhopalocera is castoff for the clade of wholly 

of lepidopteran insect of butterfly classes, 

derivative from the momentous Greek ῥόπαλον 

(rhopalon) and κέρας (keras) [24] which means 

"club" and "horn", separately, imminent from the 

form of the feelers of lepidopteran insect of 

butterflies. 

The roots of the usually common names 

"butterfly" and "moth" are various and frequently 

unclear. The English expression butterfly is 

from the antique English language, with many 

differences in presaging. Aside from that, the 

beginning is unidentified, although it may be 

derivative from the light-yellow coloration of many 

classes of wings signifying the color of butterfly 

insects  [25]. The classes of Heterocerc are usually 

titled moths insects. The etymological backgrounds 

of the phrase "caterpillar", the initial stage larval of 

moths and butterflies are since the primary 16
th

 

century, from MiddleEnglish catirpel, catirpeller, 

likely a modification of antique French catepelose.  

  

4. DISTRIBUTION AND DIVERSITY OF 

LEPIDOPTERA INSECTS 

 

The Lepidoptera insects recorded the various 

record positive corporations of different insects. 

They are discovered on all lands, excluding the 

Antarctic continent, and occupy all worldly 

locales starting on or after wasteland to the forest, 

as of coastal plains to massif hills, but are 

practically continually linked with advanced plant 

life, expressly flowering plant (flowering plant 

life) [26]. Many of the maximum northern living 

class of moths and butterflies are the insect of 

Arctic Apollo (Parnassius arcticus), which is 

observed within the Cold Round in northeast 

Russia, at a height above sea level of 1500m [27]. 

Table 2. Variety of Lepidopteran insects in each faunal area. 

Figure 1. a) The mouth parts of the caterpillar with the face presentation; b) Different portions of an adult 

butterfly. 

b a 

Items Palearctic Nearctic Neo-tropic Afrotropic Indonesia-Australian-Malayasia 

Number of species 22,465 11,532 44,791 20,491 47,286 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterocera


J. Multidiscip. Appl. Nat. Sci. 

58 

A few lepidopteran classes showcase 

synergetic, phoretic, or sponging lifespans, 

residing our figures of creatures slightly more than 

the environs. Sloth moths called Coprophagous 

pyralid moths such as Cryptoses choloepi and 

Bradipodicola Hahnel are uncommon in that those 

insects can be solely observed occupying the fur 

of apathies, animals located in the USA [28][29]. 

Lepidopteran insect Bagworm (Tinea pellionella) 

moth insect has been noted as nursing on horny 

cells and had reared as of the buzzers from steers. 

The maggot of insect of Zenodochium 

coccivorella is an inner organism of the coccid 

kermes types. The class of lepidopteran has been 

noted as background in natural matters or trash 

which include night bird bits, bat caverns, honey 

combs, or unwell fruit [28]. 

In 2007, there has been a kind of one hundred 

and seventy-four thousand and two hundred fifty 

lepidopteran classes defined, with butterflies and 

heads valued to incorporate about seventeen 

thousand nine hundred fifty, and moths’ creation up 

the break [18]. The significant popularity of 

Lepidoptera is to be observed inside the tropics, but 

a vast variety exists on most lands. American 

countries have over seven hundred species of 

butterflies and over eleven-thousand types of moths 

[30][31], while about four hundred species of 

butterflies and fourteen-thousand kinds of moth 

insects are stated from sovereign country Australia 

[32]. The range of Lepidopteran insects in all faunal 

regions has been forecast founded partially on real 

sums from the works, in part on the valentine 

catalogs in the National Museum of Antiquity 

(Washington), and Natural History Museum 

(London) somewhat on approximations of 

Coleoptera [20].  

 

5. PERIPHERAL GEOMORPHOLOGY OF 

LEPIDOPTERA INSECTS 

 

The insect order of Lepidoptera is 

morphologically prominent from further orders 

chiefly by the incidence of scales on the exterior 

elements of the appendages and body, in particular 

the flying parts of the wing. Moths and butterflies 

are verified in different sizes from Micro-

Lepidoptera to visible animals with a wingspread 

greater than 25cm, together with the emperor Atlas 

moth and the butterfly [33]. Lepidopterans insects 

endure a tetrad period (Figure 9) reality cycle like a 

different size of the egg, visible size of caterpillar 

Figure 2. Larval Morphology Overview (A. Head, B. Thorax, C. Abdomen, 1. Prothoracic shield, 2. Spira-

cle, 3. True legs, 4. Midabdominal prolegs, 5. Anal proleg, 6. Anal plate, 7. Tentacle, a. Frontal triangle,  

b. Stemmata (ocelli), c. Antenna, d. Mandible, e. Labrum). 

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J. Multidiscip. Appl. Nat. Sci. 

59 

or larva, chrysalis or pupa, and imago, adult and 

display numerous distinctions of the basic frame 

form, that spring those faunae sanctifications for 

varied life and surroundings. 

 

5.1. Head 

The head senses the mouthpieces of any insect, 

and those insect’s aperture portions are observed. 

Similar to the adult insect, the first stage of the 

larva has a sclerotized, or hardened head tablet 

(Figure 1)  [34]. Accurate here, maximum insects 

contain the chaetosema, and two compound eyes, 

elevated color spots or groups of bodily bristles sole 

to Lepidopteran insects, ensue, though several taxa 

have misplaced one or equally of these colorful 

spots. The insects' antennae have a huge disparity in 

form amongst classes and even between diverse 

male and female insects. The antennae of butterfly 

insects are stereotypically filiform and formed like 

those of the captains are curved, clubs, at the same 

time as the ones of moths have flagellar parts 

diversely distended or divided. A few moths have 

distended antennae or ones which can be curved 

and pointed on the ends [35]. 

The extreme grease is altered and method an 

extended snout. The snout includes 1-5 segments, 

typically stored wound up beneath the cranium by 

minor muscle mass when it isn't always getting 

castoff to sucking up juice from florae or further 

waters. A few basal moth insects immobile have 

mouths or discrete shifting lips, similar to their 

descendants, and these shape the circle of the 

intimate Micropterigidae  [34]–[36]. 

The first stage of larvae, named caterpillars, 

have a hardened head pill. In the young insect, stage 

caterpillars have an absent snout and have detached 

mastication mouth  [34]. These mouthparts of 

insects, referred to as mouths, are hand-me-down to 

bite up the shrub depending on what the young 

insect eats. The inferior labium, or jaw, is liable, 

however, whitethorn additionally conveys a 

spinneret, a body part used to make silk. The skull 

is manufactured from huge side parts, and the 

apiece consumes an ellipse of up to 6 modest eyes 

[35].  

 

5.2. Different morphological parts of Caterpillar 

Maximum lepidopteran insect larvae, including 

all of the pest species treated here, are characterized 

by a grouping of the succeeding typescripts: A. 

Head, B. Thorax, C. Abdomen, 1. Prothoracic 

shield, 2. Spiracle, 3. True legs, 4. Midabdominal 

prolegs, 5. Anal proleg, 6. Anal plate, 7. Tentacle, 

a. Frontal triangle, b. Stemmata (ocelli), c. Antenna, 

d. Mandible, e. Labrum (Figure 2).  

 

5.2.1. Thorax 

The thorax is manufactured of a trio of merged 

parts, the prothorax, metathorax, and mesothorax, 

apiece with a couple of limbs. The primary part 

comprises the first couple of limbs. In a few males 

of the butterfly family Nymphalidae, the forelimbs 

are significantly decreased and are not rummage-

sale for walking or resting [35]. The six legs are 

enclosed with scales. Lepidopteran insects 

additionally have olfactory body parts on their 

bottoms, which aid the butterfly in "savoring" or 

"smelling" out its nourishment [37].  Within the 

young insect shape, there are six true limbs, with up 

to twenty-two stomach legs (generally eight) and 

crochets, termed apical hooks [26]. 

The four wings are discovered on the central 

and tertiary sections, or mesothorax and metathorax 

correspondingly. Within the latest types, the insect 

wings of the additional section are a whole lot 

greater pronounced, although a few further rude 

bureaucracies have addition-sized sections of both 

sections. The wings are protected in balances 

organized like sands, that shape a strange form of 

shades and styles. The mesothorax has 

supplementary influential muscle groups to drive 

the butterfly or moth over the airborne, with the 

wing of this section having a stouter strain erection 

[35]. The major great family, the Noctuid has its 

wings changed to behave as tympanal or attending 

Figure 3. Caterpillar prolegs on Papilio Machaon.  

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J. Multidiscip. Appl. Nat. Sci. 

60 

to organ [34]. 

The young insect has a lengthened, gentle frame 

which can have tresses like or extra prognoses, six 

authentic legs, without any to twenty-two of 

stomach legs (typically eight), and hooklets, 

entitled apical hooks [26]. The thorax generally has 

two legs in each section. The thorax is as well 

wrinkled by numerous spiracles on each 

mesothorax and metathorax, besides some marine 

types that alternatively have an arrangement of 

branches [35]. 

 

5.2.2. Abdomen 

The stomach is less sclerotized than the pectus 

and consists of ten sections with casings in among, 

taking into consideration articulated motion. The 

sternum, within the first part, is slight in a few 

households and is inattentive in others. The 

previous 2 or 3 parts form the outside parts of the 

class sex body part. The genitals of Lepidopteran 

insects are very diverse and are frequently in the 

handiest manner of distinguishing among types. 

The male genital insects consist of a valva, that's 

frequently great, as it's rummage-sale to understand 

the female insect throughout pairing. The female 

insect genitalia encompasses three separate 

segments. The female insect moths have one sex 

body part, which is rummage-sale for coitus and as 

an ovipositor or egg-laying body part. 

Approximately ninety-eight percent of moth classes 

have a discrete body part for pairing and an outside 

duct that transmits the semen from the male insect 

[35].  

The stomach of the young insect has eight 

prolegs, usually situated on the 13-16 parts of the 

stomach, and a distinct couple of prolegs by the 

anus, that have a couple of miniature catches 

referred to as hooks (Figure 3). These resources are 

fascinating and strolling, mainly in classes that 

deficiency several prolegs. In a few months, these 

prolegs can be on every part of the figure, at the 

same time as the prolegs may be vague in a 

different group that might be greater tailored to 

boring and living within the sand [35].  

 

5.2.3. Scales 

The lepidopteran insect are contain its head, 

wings, and components of the chest and stomach 

and the Lepidoptera are protected with tiny scales, a 

chin from the other order stems from its 

designation. Maximum scales are lamellar or blade-

like and involved a pedicle, even as additional 

procedures might be tresses-like or dedicated as 

subordinate lustful features (Figure 4) [34].  

The lumen or shallow gill has a compound 

edifice. The floor of the gill has a compound 

assembly. It offers paint moreover via painted 

stains it includes or through mechanical color with 

devices that contain photonic quartzes and 

spreading grills [38]. The scales are characteristic in 

thermoregulation, lining, creating pheromones 

(only in males) [39], and assisting sailplaning 

flying, however the maximum critical is the huge 

range of bright or vague styles they offer, which 

assist the animal in guarding self with the aid of 

mimicry or disguise and which performance as 

indicators to supplementary wildlife along with 

opponents and capacity friends  [34].  

 

6. INTERIOR GEOMORPHOLOGY OF 

LEPIDOPTERA INSECTS 

 

6.1. Procreant System Lepidoptera Insects  

Within the generative system of lepidopteran 

insects, the male genitals are compound and 

indistinct. In female insects, the three kinds of 

genitals are founded on the linking taxonomic 

group monocrystal, exploration, and Dionysian. 

Inside the monocrystal, the kind is an inaugural on 

the attached parts of the breastbones nine and ten, 

Figure 4. Microscopy imageries of scales of lepidopteran insect a). A patch of the wing b). Scales close up 

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J. Multidiscip. Appl. Nat. Sci. 

61 

which perform as oviposition and fertilization. The 

exospore types are two discrete spaces for 

pollination and oviposition, both stirring on the 

identical breastbones as the monocrystal kinds nine 

and ten [33]. Dionysian corporations have an inner 

duct that incorporates semen, with discrete starts for 

coitus and egg resting [20]. In maximum types, the 

genitals are edged by soft parts, although they will 

be sclerotized and particular in a few classes for 

ovipositing in the place together with gaps and 

inner plant cells [33]. Bio-chemical and the secreters 

that harvest them run the expansion of moths and 

butterflies as they feel their life sets termed the 

endocrinal scheme. The first pest chemical 

prothoracicotropic biochemical activates the type's 

lifetime diapause and series [40]. This bio-chemical 

hormone is formed with the aid of quantities allata 

and quantities cardiac, in which it is additionally 

kept. A few secretors are dedicated to making 

positive duties including making silk or saliva in the 

palpi [40]. Although the quantities cardiac harvest 

the prothoracicotropic biochemical, the quantities 

allata additionally produce juvenile biochemical, 

and the prothoracic secretors harvest molting 

biochemical. 

 

6.2. Gastric System Lepidoptera Insects 

In the gastric system of the insect, the front 

section of the foregut has been changed to shape a 

guttural lapping heart as they want it for the 

nourishment they eat, that is for the maximum 

portion of fluids (Figure 5). A gullet trails and 

mains to the subsequent of the throat and in a few 

classes shapes of crops. The midgut of the insect is 

brief and immediate, and the hindgut is lengthier 

and looped [33]. Families of lepidopteran insect 

order classes, stopping from Hymenoptera, had 

midgut caeca, though this is lost in existing 

lepidopteran insects of butterflies and moths. 

Rather, all the gastric hormones, in addition to early 

ingestion, are powerless at the superficial of the 

midgut jail cell. Young insects are discovered 

within the anterior and posterior midgut regions and 

the larvae are long-necked and stalked goblet cells.  

In lepidopteran insects, the wineglass tissues 

evacuate optimistic K ions, that are engrossed from 

greeneries consumed by the young insect. 

Maximum lepidopteran insects of butterflies and 

moths show the normal gastric cycle, however, 

classes with dissimilar diets need revisions to see 

these new strains [36]. 

 

6.3. Cardiovascular System Lepidoptera Insects  

In the cardiac system, insect blood, or, 

hemolymph, is rummage-sale to party heat in the 

shape of thermoregulation, where influence 

shrinkage harvests heat, that is relocated to the 

respite of the figure when situations are adverse 

[41]. In lepidopteran insect classes, hemolymph is 

spread finished the strains in the wings by a few 

forms of the lively body part, both through emotion 

or by way of the consumption of air into the throat 

[42]. 

 

6.4. Breathing System Lepidoptera Insects 

The air is occupied over spiracles alongside the 

Figure 5. Inner geomorphology of the adult male in the family Nymphalidae, viewing most of the chief 

body part schemes, with usually instantaneous forelegs of that family: The quantities cover the corpus 

allatum and the corpus cardiac.  



J. Multidiscip. Appl. Nat. Sci. 

62 

perimeters of the stomach and thorax offering the 

throat O2 as its energy through the lepidopteran 

insect breathing system. The insect of lepidopteran 

species contains three special tracheas that deliver 

and diffuse oxygen throughout bodies. The dorsal 

tracheae source O2 to the back muscular structure 

and containers, even as the adaxial throats stock the 

adaxial muscular structure and bravery twine, and 

the instinctual windpipes source the heart, fat 

figures, and sex gland [42]. 

 

7. LEPIDOPTERA INSECTS OF 

POLYMORPHISM 

 

Polymorphism is the arrival of bureaucracy or 

transforms, that range in paint and numeral of 

qualities inside unmarried classes (Figure 6) [42]. In 

Lepidopteran insects, polymorphism may be visible 

not most effective between entities in a populace, 

but also between the genders as sensual 

dimorphism, between biologically parted 

populations in topographical polymorphism, and 

among compeers hovering at an exclusive time of 

year.  

In a few kinds, the polymorphism is constrained 

to sexual activity, usually in lady insects. This 

regularly contains the miracle of the impression 

when copied morphs fly together with nonmimetic 

alters in a people of precise type. Polymorphism 

happens equally at a precise step with inborn 

variation within the usual structural plan of entities, 

as well as in sure particular morphologic or 

functional growths inside a lepidopteran type [43]. 

Ecofriendly polymorphism trends are not 

congenital and are frequently called polyphenism, 

that in Lepidopteran insects of moths and butterflies 

is usually realized in the formula of cyclical alters, 

particularly in relations of Nymphalidae and 

Pieridae. The insect butterfly in the glove, the 

communal grass yellow (Eurema hecabe) has a 

shadier seasonal mature alter, caused through the 

aid of an extensive daytime prodigious thirteen 

periods in length, although the briefer daylight 

dated of twelve periods or less tempts a waterier 

alter within the put up-monsoon length [43] reasons 

a divergence of a species into diverse morphs 

(Biston betularia) [44]. Terrestrial isolation details 

a departure of types into extraordinary switches. 

Indian white admiral Limenitis Procris is a good 

example, that has 5 governments, every biologically 

parted from the differing using large foothill 

periods [45].  

A good extra dramatic exhibit of topographical 

pleiomorphism is the insect of the Apollo butterfly 

(Parnassius apollo). Outstanding to the fact the P. 

apollo are aware of slight local inhabitants, 

accordingly taking no interaction with another, 

joined with their robust steno theme wildlife and 

liable relocation potential, hybridization between 

populaces of one species nearly does not befall; 

with the aid of this, they shape over six hundred 

distinctive switches, with the scale of acnes at the 

wings of which differs substantially [46]. Sexual 

dimorphism is the existence of alterations between 

females and males in the same classes. In 

Lepidopteran insects, it is extensive and significant 

and nearly full set by using hereditary dedication 

[43]. It is found in altogether relations of the 

Papilionoidea and is supplementarily unsettled in 

the Pieridae, Lycaenidae, and confident taxonomic 

categories of the Nymphalidae. Separately from the 

paint dissimilarity, that whitethorn additionally 

alters on or after moderate to wholly diverse color 

design blends, minor sensual behaviors will 

similarly be current time [45]. A diverse genetic 

constitution upheld with the aid of natural choice 

will likewise be articulated at an equal time [43].   

Polymorphous and/or imitative females happen 

in the case of a few taxonomic groups in the 

Papilionidae in most cases to achieve an equal 

guard not offered to the male insect of its types. The 

maximum different situation of erotic dimorphism 

is in mature female insects of numerous Psychidae 

types that have the handiest stunted legs, 

Figure 6. The  longwings butterflies from the 

tropics of the Western Hemisphere are the 

traditional typical Müllerian imitation. 



J. Multidiscip. Appl. Nat. Sci. 

63 

mouthparts, and wings, associated with the mature 

males who might be sturdy handbills with nicely 

established wings and fluffy antennae  [46]. 

 

8. REPRODUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT 

OF LEPIDOPTERAN INSECTS 

 

Class of Lepidoptera experience 

holometabolous "complete metamorphosis". Their 

lifetime series usually entails egg, pupa, larva, and 

adult or imago (Figure 9) [43]. The young insect of 

larvae are usually referred to as worms, and the 

cocoons of moths summarized in silk are known as 

sheaths, even as the exposed cocoons of butterflies 

are entitled chrysalides. 

 

8.1. Diapauses of lepidopterans 

Without the classes reproducing time spherical, 

lepidopteran insects of moths or butterflies may 

input diapause, a state of dormancy that allows the 

pest to live in detrimental ecological situations. 

 

8.2. Mating 

Generally, the male insects jolt elusion previous 

than the female insect and highest in facts earlier 

than female insects. In cooperation, the insect of 

males and females sexually settled by the time of 

elusion (Figure 8) [35].  Lepidopteran insects of 

moths or butterflies, generally do not assist one 

another, excluding traveling classes, and staying 

moderately antisocial. Conjugation starts with an 

adult male and female insect attracting a mate, 

usually utilizing visual spurs, mostly in daylight 

classes like maximum butterflies. Nevertheless, the 

female insects of most nighttime classes, which 

include nearly all moth kinds, habit pheromones to 

entice males, occasionally from extended 

detachments [26]. A few kinds interact in the shape 

of aural dating or appeal to pals through the use of 

thorough or shaking which include the polka spot of 

dot Syntomeida epilates and wasp moth [47]. 

Variations encompass the present process of one 

seasonal technology, two or even more, known as 

voltinism. Maximum lepidopteran insects in 

moderate weather are univoltine, even in tropical 

weather, and most have two cyclical young.  

A few other lepidopteran insects may gross gain 

of any chance they can grow, and buddy incessantly 

during the year. These cyclical versions are 

accomplished by using biochemical, and these stays 

in replica are called diapause [35].  

Numerous lepidopteran classes, after breeding 

and resting their eggs, decease rapidly afterward, 

taking most effectively survived for a few times 

after elusion. Another insect of lepidopteran can 

also silent be energetic for numerous workweeks 

after which overwinter and grow to be sexually 

energetic once more when the climate becomes 

extra promising, or diapause. The semen of the 

male insect which bred record currently with the 

female insect is greatest in all likelihood to have 

pollinated the spawns, but the semen on or after a 

previous coupling may additionally silent triumph 

[35]. 

 

9. LIFECYCLE OF LEPIDOPTERAN 

INSECTS 

 

9.1. Eggs 

Lepidoptera generally reproduces egg placing, 

though a few classes showcase breathing natal in a 

course referred to as ovoviviparity (Figure 2). A 

selection of variances in egg resting and the wide 

variety of eggs arranged to arise. A few classes 

Figure 7. a) Dry-season form; b) Wet-season form.  

a b 



J. Multidiscip. Appl. Nat. Sci. 

64 

bead their eggs in flying [48] at the same time as 

maximum amateur their spawns close to or on the 

swarm vegetable on that the grub’s food. The 

numeral of eggs rested may vary from just some to 

frequent thousand [26]. Each female moth and 

butterfly pick out the swarm shrub mechanically, 

and often, by biochemical cues [35]. The eggs are 

derivative from supplies gulped as a caterpillar and 

in a few kinds, from the spermatophores established 

from males through coupling [49].  An ovum can 

most effectively be one/thousand the physique of 

the womanlike, but it can also amateur up to listen 

mass in eggs.  

Female insect amateur minor eggs as they stage 

and the larger female insect amateur larger eggs 

(Figure 9). The egg is enclosed via a difficult ribbed 

caring outer coating of an explosive, known as the 

chorion. It is coated with a tinny covering of 

honeycomb, that averts the ovum after ventilation 

from the outer site. Every egg cell incorporates 

numerous tiny funnel-shaped, or micropyles, 

starting at one finish, the motive of that is to permit 

semen to go into and manure the ovum. Moth and 

butterfly eggs fluctuate significantly in size between 

types, nonetheless, they’re all moreover oval or 

rounded. The egg period lasts about workweeks in 

most butterflies, but eggs rested before midwinter, 

particularly in mild areas, shading and undergoing 

diapause can be not on time till spiral. Different 

butterflies can untrain their seed in the spiral and 

have them trapdoor inside the seasonal. These 

lepidopterans are normally moderate classes.  

 

9.2. Larvae 

The worms or young insects of larvae are the 

first phases within the existence series after 

marking. Young insect function polypod larvae 

with tube-shaped forms, petite thoracic legs, and 

belly prolegs (pseudopodia) [42]. 

They have a sclerotized skull pill of a frontal 

seam shaped by a median synthesis of the mouth 

parts for mastication, and a lenient cylindrical, 

sclerites, part form, which can have tresses or 

supplementary forecasts, 6 proper legs, and extra 

prolegs (up to 10) [50]. The frame of the body 

includes thirteen sections and the body contains 

three thoracic and ten stomachs (Figures 2 and 10) 

[51]. Maximum grubs are herbivores, but some are 

meat-eaters (Some eat ants or other worms) and 

harmful [50]. 

Diverse herbivorous classes have improved to 

forage on each fragment of vegetable and are 

generally taken into consideration as bothers to 

their congregation florae, a few classes were 

discovered to untrained their spawns at the berry 

and different classes untrained their spawns on 

sartorial or hair. A few classes are predatory and 

others are smoothly scrounging. Nearly lycaenid 

classes including Maculinea rebeli are common 

parasites of Myrmica ants’ cases [52]. A class of 

Geometridae from Hawaii has carnivorous 

caterpillars that vicious circle and eat flies [25]. 

Approximately pyralid young insects are marine 

[53]. 

The young insect larvae expand quickly with 

numerous cohorts in a day, however, a few classes 

might additionally absorb a few ages to expand, and 

tremendous samples like Gynaephora groenlandica 

receipts as extended as 7 years [26]. The young 

insect or first stage of the larval phase is where the 

a b 

Figure 8. a) Sexually dimorphous common bagworm moths pairing: The female is nonflying; b) Pairing 

mate of poplar sphinx moth viewing two dissimilar color alternatives.  



J. Multidiscip. Appl. Nat. Sci. 

65 

eating and developing tiers arise, and the first stage 

of larvae sometimes feel biochemical encouraged 

about ecdysis, emerging more with each larval 

stage, till they go through the last larval stage of 

pupal molt. 

The first stage of larvae of each butterfly and 

moth insect showcase imitation to discourage ability 

killers. A few young insects can inflate elements of 

their skulls to seem snake-like. Numerous have 

untrue eye color spots to enhance this effect. A few 

caterpillars have unique constructions referred to as 

osmeteria, that can be unprotected to provide stinky 

bio-chemicals secondhand protection.  

Congregation vegetation frequently has 

poisonous materials in them and young insects can 

requisition those materials and maintain them into 

the mature stage. This assistance types them 

indigestible to animals and different killers. Such 

unpalatability has promoted the exploitation of 

cheerful pink, black, red, or snowy white cautionary 

colorations. The poisonous substances in flowers 

are frequently changed exactly to save them from 

existence bothered by pests. Insects, in the crack, 

expand countermeasures or type habit of this 

pollution for their endurance. This "arms race" has 

brought about the coevolution of pests and their 

congregation florae [54]. 

 

9.3. Wing expansion 

No shape of the wing is outwardly visible in the 

young stage of the larva, but when the caterpillar is 

divided, growing wings can realize as recordings, 

that may be discovered on the next and tertiary 

thoracic sections, in residence of the spiracles that 

are seeming on stomach parts. Wing rounds 

broaden in overtone with a windpipe which innings 

alongside the bottom of the wing, and are enclosed 

via a skinny periodical sheath, that is related to the 

outer hide of the first stage larva by a small pipe. 

Wing rounds are very minor till the ultimate larval 

stage after they boom theatrically in scope, are 

attacked through branched throats from the wing 

base that lead to the creation of the wing veins, and 

begin to grow patterns related to many 

breakthroughs of the wing [55]. 

Close to pupation, the annexes are pressured out 

of doors the skin under burden from the 

hemolymph, and though they are originally fairly 

lithe and delicate, by the period the cocoon 

breakdowns free of the young stage of larval shell, 

they have been observed strongly to the external 

shield of the cocoon. In the interior periods, the 

wings form an epidermis so rigid and well linked to 

the figure that cocoons can be selected up and 

Figure 9. The quatern phases of the lepidopterous insects' life cycle. 

Figure 10. Larvae of lepidopteran insects. 



J. Multidiscip. Appl. Nat. Sci. 

66 

frozen starved of injury to the wings [55]. 

 

9.4. Pupa 

The maximum number of insects of 

lepidopteran has five to seven instars or molts, [56] 

confident hormones, like PTTH, stimulate the 

production of ecdysone, which initiates insect 

molting. Then, the caterpillar a sclerotized, 

puparium, or toughened cuticle of the ultimate 

larval stage, grows up into the cocoon. Relying on 

the classes, the cocoon may be protected in a silk 

sheath, connected to diverse kinds of substrata, 

hidden in the floor, or might not be endangered 

completely. Structures of the imago are outwardly 

familiar in the cocoon. All the additions on the 

mature skull and thorax are observed encased 

within the carapace, with the wings enfolded round, 

together with the projections of the insect (Figure 

11) [35]. The cocoons of a few classes have 

practical jawbones, and at the same time as the 

pupal jawbones are not practical in other insects 

[34]. 

While covered, a number of the inferior sections 

aren’t bonded and might pass utilizing minor 

strengths recorded in the film. Touching may 

additionally assist the cocoon, for case, seepage the 

sunshine, which would or else slaughter it. The 

cocoon of the Mexican jumping moth (Cydia 

deshaisiana) does this. The caterpillars cut a flap in 

the bean and use the bean as a lodging. The 

astonishing temperature upward pushes the cocoon 

inside tics and jolts, pulling at the cobwebs 

internally. Waggling may additionally aid in daunt 

parasitoid wasps from placing eggs on the cocoon. 

Other classes of moth insects could make clicks to 

discourage predators [35]. 

The period earlier than the pupa arises diverges 

significantly. The king butterfly can also visit in its 

cocoon for seventeen days, even as other classes 

might also want to visit for more than ten calendar 

months in diapause. The maturity arises after the 

cocoon both through the usage of stomach hangers 

or from forecasts located on the peak. The mouths 

have originated within the maximum rude moth 

families that are secondhand to leak from its 

cocoons [35][42].  

 

9.5. Adult 

The maximum lepidopteran classes do not 

conscious long afterward elusion, most effective 

wanting some days to discover a friend and then 

amateur eggs (Figure 12). Others might also endure 

dynamics for an extended duration, go over 

diapause and stagnate as king butterfly insects do, 

or else wait out ecological pressure. A few mature 

classes of Micro-Lepidoptera go over a period 

where no generative linked action befalls, 

permanent over seasonal in winter and summer, 

surveyed by pairing and oviposition in the primary 

spiral [35]. While the maximum moth and butterfly 

insects are worldly, many classes of Pyralidae are 

honestly aquatic with all stages except the grownup 

happening in the water. Many species from other 

families including Nepticulidae, Noctuidae, 

Arctiidae, Tortricidae, Olethreutidae, 

Cosmopterygidae, Sphingidae, and Cossidae are 

aquatic or semiaquatic [57].  

 

10. BEHAVIOR OF LEPIDOPTERA INSECTS 

 

10.1. Flight  

Flight is a vital issue in the survival of moths 

and butterflies, and is secondhand for evasion 

predators, looking for nourishment, and discovering 

companions directly, as lepidopteran classes do not 

live extensively afterward eclosion. It’s the key 

shape of motion in most types. In Lepidopteran 

insects, the hindwings and fore wings are 

automatically joined and lap in synchronism. Flying 

is anteromotoric, or else being strapped frequently 

with the aid of the accomplishment of the fore 

wings. Even though lepidopteran insects supposedly 

can nevertheless hover when their hind wings are 

Figure 11. Pupa of lepidopteran insects. 



J. Multidiscip. Appl. Nat. Sci. 

67 

reduced, it decreases their lined flying and spinning 

abilities [58]. 

Lepidopteran classes must be earnest, 

approximately seventy-seven to seventy-nine 

degrees in farenhide scale to hover. They are 

contingent on their body frame fever life adequately 

excessive and because they can't alter them, this is 

reliant on their setting. The insect of butterflies 

alive in chiller weather might additionally have 

their annexes to deep their forms. They will back 

inside the solar, dispersal out their wings so that 

they grow supreme promotional to the sunshine. In 

warmer weather, butterfly insects can without 

difficulty swelter, so they’re normally vigorous 

simplest at some point in the cool box parts of the 

day, early morning, early evening, or late afternoon. 

All through the warmth of the day, they break in 

color. A few greater thick-bodied moths can make 

their warmth to a constrained grade via vibrant 

wings. The heat produced by using the flying 

strengths groups takes to the thorax while the 

infection of the stomach is insignificant for flying. 

To keep away from feverishness, a few moth 

insects depend upon furry internal air sacs, scales, 

and different systems to distinguish the thorax, and 

stomach and hold the stomach calmer. A few 

classes of butterflies container attain rapid hustles, 

which include the southerly arrow, which could go 

as fast so 48.4 km/h. Sphingids are several reckless 

in the air insects, a few can coast at ended 50 km/h 

(thirty mi/h), taking a wingspread of thirty-five to 

one hundred and fifty millimeters [59]. In a few 

classes, from time to time a gliding issue with their 

flight exists. The flight takes place both as flying or 

as a furtherance or retrograde signal [34]. In moth 

and butterfly classes along with hawk moths 

(Sphingidae), soaring is vital as they are a necessity 

to keep certain constancy over plants when eating 

the juice [18]. 

 

10.2. Navigation 

Navigation is essential to the insect order of 

Lepidoptera classes, mainly for those that travel. 

Insects of butterflies, that have greater types that 

travel, were proven to cross exploitation period 

waged solar ranges. They could get separated light, 

so can position themselves even in overcast 

situations. The separated bright inside the vicinity 

near the infrared band is recommended to be 

specifically essential [60].  

The greatest traveling butterfly insects are those 

that animate in semiarid parts where upbringing 

periods are quick [61]. The lifetime antiquities of 

their host florae additionally have an impact on the 

techniques of butterfly insects [62]. Other 

researches contain the use of sceneries. The 

lepidopteran insect might also habit sea strains, 

foothills, and even infrastructures to position them. 

Above the marine, the flying path is an awful lot 

extra precise if the shore remains evident [63]. 

Numerous research has additionally proven that 

moths circumnavigate. One research confirmed that 

numerous moth insects might use the Earth's 

attractive arena to pilot, as a training of the moth's 

emotion and arrow specifies [64]. Another research, 

the traveling conduct of the grey, confirmed that 

smooth at excessive heights, the classes can 

accurate its path with varying winds, and favors 

winged with favorable gusts, signifying a fantastic 

experience of path [65][66]. Aphrissa station in 

Panama loses its navigational capacity when 

uncovered in a magnetic area, suggesting it uses the 

a b 

Figure 12. Adult lepidopteran insects a) Butterfly; b) Moth.  



J. Multidiscip. Appl. Nat. Sci. 

68 

Earth's magnetic discipline [67]. The lepidopteran 

insect moths generally tend to loop fake lighting 

fixtures time and again. This advice uses the 

practice of holy triangulation referred to as 

transverse alignment. By way of preserving an 

endless angular affiliation to cheerful celestial 

sunlit, consisting of the lunner, they canister flying 

in a straight mark.  

Celestial substances are thus far absent, that 

uniform after journeying extremely good reserves 

the craft in attitude between the moth and the bright 

basis is tiny, similarly, the lunar resolve continually 

inside the upper portion of the pictorial turf or on 

the prospect. When a moth insect meetings a mile’s 

earlier synthetic bright and uses it for steering, the 

viewpoint vicissitudes clearly after most effective a 

rapid detachment, further to being frequently under 

the prospect.  The moth impulsively efforts to exact 

by way of rotating closer to the mild, inflicting 

airborne moths to return dipping down, and at near 

variety, which outcomes in a curved flight path that 

receives nearer and nearer to the sunny basis [68]. 

Different clarifications were recommended, 

together with the concept that moths might be 

reduced through a visible pictorial alteration 

referred to as a Mach band Henry Hsiao and 

supposed that they fly near the shadiest part of the 

sky in hunt of security, and hence are willing to 

round ambient items within the Mach group area 

[69].  

 

10.3. Migration 

Lepidopteran migration is usually seasonal, as 

the insect's flow gets away during dry terms or 

different hurtful situations. Maximum lepidopteran 

insects that travel are butterflies, besides the space 

traveled differs. A few butterflies that wander 

encompass the grief coat, dyed female, red admiral, 

American lady, and the shared horse chestnut [56]. 

An exceptional class of moth that journeys long 

reserves is the Bogong moth (Agrotis infusa) [70]. 

The greatest famous relocations are those of the 

easterly populace of the monarch butterfly (Danaus 

plexippus) from the Northern part of the USA to 

Mexico and the Southern part of Canada, a 

detachment of about four thousand to four thousand 

eight hundred kilometers. Other famous traveling 

classes include the painted lady and numerous 

butterflies. Amazing and hefty gage relocations 

related to the downpours are visible in jutting India 

[40]. Migrations were studied in greater latest 

instances using wing tags and stable hydrogen 

isotopes [71]. 

Insects of moths additionally assume 

relocations, an instance actuality the uraniids. 

Urania fulgens undergo populace bangs and huge 

relocations that can be not bettered with the aid of 

some other insect in the Neotropics. In Panama and 

Costa Rica, the primary populace actions may 

additionally start in July and early August, and 

liable on the year might be very huge, current 

persistent for as extensive as five months. 

 

10.4. Communication 

Pheromones stand generally worried hip 

coupling rites amongst types, mainly moth insects, 

however, they are too bossy thing in styles of 

communique. Generally, the pheromones are 

shaped by both females and males. They noticed by 

way of the entities of the other intercourse by their 

feelers [65].  In many classes, a gland between the 

8
th

 and 9
th
 sections beneath the stomach within the 

female insect produces pheromones [26]. The 

announcements also can happen via stridulation or 

by generating noises by the impression of various 

body parts composed [66].  

Moths are regarded to interact in audio sorts of 

announcement, maximum usually as wooing, 

Figure 13. Time-lapse of hovering moths, concerned with the lighting. 



J. Multidiscip. Appl. Nat. Sci. 

69 

appealing buddies the usage of vibration or sound. 

Alike record other insects, moths prize up these 

noises exploitation tympanic films in their stomachs 

[72]. An instance is that of the polka Timelapse 

moths, drawn to the lightings Migration Monarch 

butterflies, visible in a bunch in America, where the 

cowboy movie populace migrates for the winter 

Statement Collection of Melitaea Athalia near 

Warka, Poland dot wasp moth (Syntomeida epilais), 

which products noises with an incidence upstairs 

that usually obvious by human beings. These noises 

are also purposed as tactile dialog, or statement over 

the trace, as they clitter, or shake a substratum like 

plants and their stalks [47]. 

Maximum lepidopteran insect moths have 

nonexistent cheerful colors, as many classes use 

patterns as a disguise, but most lepidopteran insect 

butterflies engross in a filmic conversation. Female 

cabbage butterflies (Pieris rapae), for sample, use 

infrared light to connect, with scales painted in this 

variety on the abaxial wing exterior. When they 

soar, a separately down stroke of the wing makes a 

transitory flash of infrared bright which the adult 

males know as the flying sign of an ability mate. 

These sparks from the wings might appeal to 

numerous adult males that interact in midair wooing 

shows [72]. 

 

11. ECOSYSTEM OF LEPIDOPTERA 

INSECTS 

 

Insects of butterflies and moths are vital in the 

normal environment. They are essential members of 

the nourishment cable, having co-evolved with 

highpoint predators, and plant lepidopteran classes 

have shaped a system of trophic relations between 

heterotrophs and autotrophs, comprised in the steps 

of Lepidoptera caterpillars, cocoons, and adults. 

Caterpillars and cocoons are related to the diets of 

birds and parasitic entomophilous pests. Grownups 

are comprised of nourishment nets by a bigger 

variety of customers [35]. 

 

11.1. Protection and Predation 

Lepidopteran classes are soft bodies, nearly 

unprotected, and brittle, while the small levels flow 

leisurely or are motionless, consequently, altogether 

steps are bare to predation. Adult insects of moths 

and butterflies are preyed upon by bats, birds, 

amphibians, lizards, spiders, and dragonflies. One 

spider class, silver Argiope (Argiope argentata), 

foods insects of moths and butterflies and shows an 

extensive bite when preying on them in place of 

covering them in the satin primary. This is 

conjectured to attend as a halt approach [73]. 

Worms and cocoons reduction target not longer best 

the animal of birds but additionally to spineless 

marauders and small animals, in addition to the 

microorganism of fungi and bacteria. Parasitic 

wasps, parasitoids, and flies might additionally 

amateur eggs in the young insect, which is 

subsequently put to death as they entrance inner the 

body parts and upset its cells. Pest-consuming birds 

are perhaps the most important marauders. 

Lepidopteran insects, particularly in the young 

steps, are an environmentally vital food to 

numerous insecticides birds, including in European 

countries. 

An "evolutionary arms race" may be seen 

between predator and prey species. The Lepidoptera 

have developed numerous techniques for defense 

and safety, along with the fruition of morphologic 

fonts and ecological changes in existence and 

actions. Those encompass parody, disguise, 

aposematism, and the growth of hazard designs and 

performances.  A few birds, consisting of the 

goatsuckers search for night lepidopterans. 

Their key killers are bats. Once more, an 

"evolutionary race" occurs, which brought about 

several evolutionary revisions of moths to break out 

from primary predators, including the potential to 

pay attention to supersonic noises, or even to 

produce noises in a few gears. Lepidopteran eggs 

are acting like prey. A few maggots, together with 
Figure 14. Pollination occurs in the flower by  

a moth. 



J. Multidiscip. Appl. Nat. Sci. 

70 

the swallowtail butterfly grubs, are cannibalistic.  

A few Lepidoptera classes are toxic to 

predators, including the sovereign butterfly in the 

Americas, Atrophaneura types in Asia, in addition 

to Papilio Antiochus, and the biggest lepidopteran 

insect of butterflies birdwings in Africa and Asia, 

respectively.  

They reap their poisonousness way of 

confiscating the chemical compounds on or after the 

florae they worry into their matters. A few insects 

of Lepidoptera manufacture their poisons. 

Marauders that devour noxious moths and 

butterflies can come to be ill and vomit violently, 

getting to know no longer to consume the one's 

class. A predator that has formerly plagued a 

noxious lepidopteran might also keep away from 

different classes with like colorations in the 

impending, as a result, exchangeable many different 

classes, as sound [74]. Poisonous butterfly insects 

and caterpillars tend to grow cheerful insignia and 

arresting designs as a pointer to predators of their 

poisonousness. This situation is referred to as 

aposematism [75]. A few young insects, specifically 

memberships of Papilionidae, include an 

osmeterium, a Y-form protrusible gland determined 

inside the prothoracic phase of the young insect. 

When endangered, the young insect produces ugly 

odors from the body part to district off the predators 

[76]. 

Concealment is likewise a vital security method, 

which includes using color or form to combo into 

the nearby atmosphere. A few lepidopteran insect 

classes mixture with their environs, manufacturing 

them tough to identify through marauders. Young 

insects showcase sun suspects of inexperienced that 

tie their congregation tree and plant. Others appear 

to be unpalatable gadgets, along with branches or 

shrubbery. As an example, the grief cloak weakens 

in the setting of trees when it crinkles its wings 

spinal. The larvae of a few classes, consisting of the 

not-unusual Mormon (Papilio polytes) and the 

western tiger swallowtail (Papilio rutulus ) look 

like bird mucks [77]. Perhaps, mature clearwing 

moths (Sesiidae) classes have a well-recognized 

appearance sufficiently just like a hornet or wasp to 

kind it possible the moth insects profit from a 

discount in predation concluded Batesian imitation. 

Ocelli are a type of ecology resistance and 

predation yellow swallowtail (Papilio machaon) 

caterpillar viewing the osmeterium, which produces 

unsightly odors to thrust back predators of 

automimicry secondhand by a few lepidopteran 

insects of moths and butterflies. In insect 

butterflies, the color spots are serene of concentrical 

round rings of scales in diverse colorations. The 

future purpose of the ocelli is to deflect the care of 

predators. Their likeness to eyes incites the hunter's 

character to assault these annex styles [78]. 

Müllerian and Batesian mimicry developments 

are normally observed in the insect order of 

Lepidoptera. Hereditary pleiomorphism and 

ordinary choice supply upward thrust to else 

comestible classes fast an existence benefit by using 

reminiscent indigestible classes. Such an 

impersonation complicated is called Batesian and it 

is most usually identified in the sample between the 

cimetidine vicereine butterfly regarding the 

indigestible danaine emperor. The vicereine is, in 

reality, supplementary poisonous than the monarch 

and this similarity ought to be measured in a 

situation of Müllerian imitation [79].  

In Müllerian imitation, inedible classes, 

normally within a taxonomical order, discover the 

high quality to resemble each different to lessen the 

sampler fee by hunters that require to find out about 

the insects' inedibility. The taxonomic group from 

Figure 15. Tobacco Carolina sphinx moth parasitized via Braconidae wasp caterpillars.  



J. Multidiscip. Appl. Nat. Sci. 

71 

the poisonous genus Heliconius shapes one of the 

maximum famous Müllerian developments [72]. 

The grownups of the diverse classes nowadays are 

similar to separate others so properly, that the 

classes can’t be prominently lacking near 

morphologic statements and, cases, partition, or 

hereditary examination.  

Insects of moths can pay attention to the variety 

produced by bats, which in impact reasons hovering 

moths to brand shifty exercises due to the fact bats 

are the principal predators of moths (Figure 13). 

Supersonic rates cause a reaction drive act in the 

noctuid moth that reason it to droplet a few edges in 

its flying to avoid the bout [80]. Tiger moths (Arctia 

caja) in protection produce clacks inside the equal 

variety of bats, which delay the rackets and frustrate 

their efforts to echolocate them [81]. 

Pollination: A day-flying hummingbird sphinx 

moth (Mesogona olivata) consuming juice from a 

class of Dianthus. Maximum classes of Lepidoptera 

insects in a few forms of entomophily, or the 

fertilization of plant life (Figure 14) [82]. Maximum 

grownup moths and butterflies provender on the 

juice of inner plants, via their snout, to attain the 

juice unseen at the improper of the flower parts. 

With this technique, the adults skirmish contrary to 

the florets' petals, on which the generative pollen is 

complete and saved. The pollen is moved on 

adjuncts of the grownups, that coast to the 

following floret for food and accidentally 

withdrawal the pollen on the disgrace of the ensuing 

floret, anywhere the pollen sprouts and pollinates 

the germs [35].  

Flowers are fertilized by using nerves incline to 

be big and showy, violet or purple, frequently 

taking a touchdown extent, and normally fragrant, 

as butterflies are usually diurnal hovering. 

Meanwhile, butterflies do now not abstract pollen 

[82].  

The flora has easy nectar courses, with the 

nectarines typically unseen in thin pipes or limbs, 

touched by using the extended "tongue" of the 

butterflies. The insect of butterflies includes skipper 

butterfly (Thymelicus flavius) drink recorded to 

involve in floret fidelity, that earnings they are 

much supplementary possible to the allocation of 

pollen to supplementary exact plants. It could use 

for the florae being fertilized, as bud loyalty averts 

the loss of pollen for the duration of exclusive trips 

and the pollinators from blockage shames with 

pollen of different floret classes [83]. 

There are more vital moth pollinator companies 

such as sphinx moths or hawk moths (M. olivata) of 

the family Sphingidae. Their performance is much 

like hummingbirds, i.e., exploitation of hasty wing 

knocks to hover opposite of florae. Record of 

sphinx moths is nighttime or crepuscular, so insects 

of moth-fertilized florae tendency to be snowy 

white, nighttime initial, huge, and impressive with 

cylindrical corollae and a stout, syrupy scent 

twisted in the nightly, or early pre-lunch. A whole 

lot of juice is shaped to gas the excessive metabolic 

prices wanted to control their flying [84]. Other 

moths fly gradually and relax on the floret. They do 

not require as per plenty liquid as the profligate 

hovering sphinx moths, and the florae have a habit 

of being slight [85]. 

 

11.2. Mutualism 

It is a shape of organic contact in which every 

specific elaborate aid in any way. Mutualism is a 

shape of an organic interface in which every person 

is worried about advantages in a few ways. A 

sample of a mutualistic association might be 

communal through yucca moths (Tegericula 

yuccasella) and their host, yucca plants. Female T. 

yuccasella moths cross the threshold of the host 

flowers, accumulate the pollen into a sphere with 

the use of particular maxilla palps, then pass to the 

top of the pistil, where pollen is placed on the 

shame, and amateur spawns into the ignoble of the 

pistil where stones will grow. The young insect 

stage of larvae increases in the vegetable and food 

on a slice of the yields. Hence, mutually plants and 

insects profit, making an enormously mutualistic 

association [35]. Every other shape of mutualism 

happens between a few insect larvae of butterflies 

and certain classes of ants. The insect species of 

larvae speak with the ants' use of feelings conveyed 

via a substratum, inclusive of the timber of a shrub 

or shoots, in addition to the usage of chemical alerts 

[86]. The ants offer a few grades of safety to these 

larvae and they in crack collect honeydew melon 

emissions  [87].  

 

11.3. Parasitism 

Individual forty-two classes of 

parasite lepidopterans are regarded as parasitism 



J. Multidiscip. Appl. Nat. Sci. 

72 

[35].
 
 The young insect larvae of the extra and 

slighter wax moths food on the honey inner 

bee cases and might turn out to be bothered, it is 

additionally stated in humblebee and wasp bubbles, 

though to a smaller quantity. In the Northern part of 

Europe, the wax moth (Galleria mellonella) is 

appeared as the most severe parasitoid of the 

bumblebee (Bombus sp) and is located handiest in 

Bombus sp bubbles. In a few regions in England, in 

more than eighty percent of cases containers be 

demolished [88]. Different sponging grubs are 

recognized to target leaf hoppers and cicadas 

(Figure 15) [89]. On the contrary, butterflies, and 

moths can be difficult for parasitic flies and wasps, 

which can lay offspring on the young insect, which 

flap and provender the interior of its form, ensuing 

in dying.  

Granting in a system of parasites termed 

idiobiont, the grownup stuns the swarm, so as no 

longer to slaughter it but for it to stay as extended as 

viable, for the sponging young insect to advantage 

the utmost. In the extra form of parasite, koinobiont, 

the classes stay off their swarms even as internal. 

These lice animate in the swarm worm all through 

its life cycle, or may additionally touch it in a while 

as a grownup. Further tips, koinobionts include 

coleopteran insects, flies, and amply of 

hymenopteran parasitoids [35]. A few types might 

be topic to a diversity of vermin, including the 

Spongy or Gypsy moth (Lymantaria dispar), which 

is argued through the sequence of thirteen classes, 

in six unique taxonomic groups of all complete its 

lifespan series [35]. In retort to a predation ovum 

cell or else grub within the worm's frame, the 

plasmatocytes, or else the swarm's cubicles can 

shape a complicated pill which finally sources the 

entozoon to smother. It is one of the caterpillar's 

most effective ways of protection in contradiction to 

parasitoids which is known as encapsulation [35].
 
  

 

12. BENEFICIAL INSECTS OF 

LEPIDOPTERAN INSECTS 

 

Unfluctuating nevertheless most moth and 

butterfly insects affect the budget system 

damagingly, a few classes are precious financial 

assets. The maximum distinguished sample is that 

of the tame giant Bombyx mori (silkworm moth), 

the grubs of that brand it sheaths out of silk. This 

could be turned into material and silk is a vital 

monetary useful supply at some stage in records. 

The species B. mori has been trained to the fact that 

it is far wholly in need of manhood for existence 

[90]. Several wild moths such as Antheraea classes 

and, Bombyx Mandarina, except others, deliver 

commercial importance of silk stains [91]. 

The choice of the young insect larvae of 

maximum lepidopteran classes to food on a single 

class or a confined variety of flora is rummage-sale 

as an apparatus for the organic manipulation of wild 

plants in the location of weedkillers. The pyralid 

cactus moth (Cactoblastis cactorum Berg) changed 

into brought from Australia to Argentina, anywhere 

it effectively repressed hundreds of thousands of 

acres of sensitive pear cactus plants.  

Every other class of the grass moth referred to 

as the gator weed stem borer (Arcola malloi), 

changed into rummage-sale to govern the marine 

herbal recognized as alligator wild plant 

(Alternanthera philoxeroides) along with the 

alligator wild plant flea beetle. In this case, the two 

insects' effort in interaction and the weed rarely 

convalesce. Refinement moths and butterflies, or 

butterfly garden/childhood, has ended up a naturally 

feasible manner of announcing types into the 

surroundings to profit it. Insect of butterfly ranching 

in Papua New Guinea (Impatiens hawkeri) 

certifications in the United States of America to 

"farm" economically treasured insect species for the 

collectors’ market in a naturally justifiable way [91]

[92]. Refinement of moths, and butterfly gardening 

or rearing, has come to be a naturally practical 

method of presenting species into the environment 

to advantage it.  

Figure 16. The larvae are used as food material in 

the human feed.  

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wasp


J. Multidiscip. Appl. Nat. Sci. 

73 

12.1. Food  

Beondegi, B. mori (silkworm) pupae miffed or 

simmered and veteran for flavor, on the market by a 

road seller in the Asian Country of South Korea 

(Figure 16). Lepidoptera features flagrantly 

in entomophagy as nutrition objects on nearly all 

mainland. Even in maximum issues, grownups, 

caterpillars, or sheaths are eaten as clips by native 

society, B. mori or bondage cocoons are plagued as 

a portion of food in Korea [93] while Maguey worm 

(Aegiale hesperiaris) is careful a delicacy in North 

American country Mexico [94]. In a few slices of 

Huasteca of Mexico, the satin bubbles of the 

Madrone butterfly (Eucheira socialis) are kept on 

the superiority of rooftops of homes for feasting 

[95]. In the European country of Italy, youngsters 

fasten and consume ingluvies of the poisonous 

Zygaena moths (Zygaena lonicerae) in the primary 

summertime.  

The ingluvies, regardless of having a completely 

low cyanogenetic contented material, serves as a 

handy, extra basis of honey to the kids that jerry can 

encompass this useful reserve as a periodic fragility 

at the lowest threat. External to this example, 

mature Lepidopteran insect is rarely disbursed by 

people, with the single exclusion of the Agrotis 

infusa [96]. 

 

12.2. Health 

A few insects of lepidopteran larvae of both 

butterflies and moths have the shape of tresses 

which has been recognized for purpose of humanoid 

healthiness troubles. Worm locks now and again 

have pollution in them and classes from about 

twelve families of butterflies or moths global 

canister inflict extreme humanoid damages [97]. 

Pores and skin strings are the maximum not rare, 

but there have been mortalities [98]. Lonomia is a 

common reason for surrounding people in the North 

American country of Brazil, with three hundred and 

fifty-four cases stated between nineteen eighty-nine 

and two thousand five. Deadliness levels up to 

twenty percent with expiry induced maximum 

frequently with the aid of intracranial drop [99]. 

This hair has been regarded as a reason for 

keratoconjunctivitis. The shrill points on the 

termination of young insect hair can grow into 

tender skins and slimy crusts such as the senses. 

When they input such cells, they may be hard to 

cutting, regularly worsening the unruly as they 

travel throughout the crust [100]. This turns into 

selected trouble in indoor putting. The hairs 

effortlessly input complete airing assemblies and 

gather in inner surroundings because of their minor 

length, which kinds it tough for them to be 

expelled. This accretion rises the danger of people's 

interaction with their inner surroundings [101]. 

 

13. CONCLUSIONS 

 

The study exposed that Lepidoptera species' 

range and abundance were more than Diptera and 

Hymenoptera but much less Coleoptera insects. It is 

the second biggest insect order.  Lepidopteran 

insects are very essential because it helps in 

pollination. The larvae of most species are 

phytophagous and plenty is a series of pests of 

cultivated vegetation together with cutworms; some 

feed on stored grain or meal. Again, the adults of 

many species are stunning and are a whole lot 

renowned by way of creditors, and many serve as 

the basis of artwork and design. For this, the 

foreigners such as the USA, UK, China, French, 

Belgium, Switzerland, Japan, etc. used it as a 

business material (Bowman). So, it is not only a 

natural enemy but also helpful to order the people. 

So, we preserve this order of insects and use it as 

the beauty of nature and also use it as commercial 

enterprise material. It is also a source of financing 

that has influenced our economic sector.    

 

AUTHOR INFORMATION 

 

Corresponding Author 

Ahasan Ullah Khan — Department of 

Entomology, Sylhet Agricultural University, 

Sylhet-3100 (Bangladesh); Department of 

Agroforestry and Environmental Science, Sylhet 

Agricultural University, Sylhet-3100 

(Bangladesh); Department of Agriculture, 

Mymensingh Commerce College, Mymensingh-

2200 (Bangladesh); 

orcid.org/0000-0002-7029-8215 

Email: ahasanullahsau@gmail.com 

 

Authors 

Nilufa Yasmin Poly — Department of 

Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Khulna 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lonomia
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7029-8215
mailto:ahasanullahsau@gmail.com


J. Multidiscip. Appl. Nat. Sci. 

74 

Agricultural University, Khulna-9100 

(Bangladesh); 

orcid.org/0000-0002-4031-0455 

Shimanta Dutta — Assistant Manager, Akij Tea 

Estate, Sylhet-3100 (Bangladesh); Department of 

Agricultural Extension Education, Sylhet 

Agricultural University, Sylhet-3100 

(Bangladesh); 

orcid.org/0000-0003-3286-974X 

Ferdous Alam — Department of Agriculture, 

Mymensingh Commerce College, Mymensingh-

2200 (Bangladesh); Department of Agroforestry, 

Bangladesh Agricultural University, 

Mymensingh-2202 (Bangladesh); 

orcid.org/0000-0001-6365-8991 

 

Author Contributions 

A. U. K. planned, wrote, structured, revised, and 

replaced the document thoroughly. N. Y. P., S. D., 

and F. A. donated to revising and improving the 

manuscript carefully. All writers studied carefully 

and permitted the concluding form of the document. 

 

Conflicts of Interest 

The author(s) declared no conflict of interest 

 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

 

This work was supported by the parents of the 

authors, colleagues, and the related field expert’s 

professors. The authors owe their sincere gratitude 

to the all helping hands that assisted during 

manuscript preparation.  

 

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