Scanned Document KEEGAN, D. (2000). Distan ce training: ,,' Taking stock at a time of change. Routledge Falmer Studies in Distance Education. London: Routledge Falmer (pp. xiv, 152). The growth of virtual and distance learning was recently summed up by Sir Jolm Daniel of the U.K. Open University: Not long ago we all wished that the world would take more interest in what we did and show more appreciation of the virtues of distance learning. Today we must often wish we could be released from the close embrace of Wall Street, the technology companies and the media. (1999, p. 34) With increasing interest in the development of distance learning by educational institutions, the media, technology companies, corporations, and people wishing to improve their education or qualifications, this volume, written by a well-known figure in the field, is very welcome. Keegan will be known to many distance educators as the author of the Foundations of Distance Education (Routledge, 1996, 3rd ed.) and as the founder of the journal Distance Education. In this volume, aptly subtitled Taking Stock at a Time of Change, Keegan has provided a brisk and concise overview of the state of the field of training at a distance at the turn of the twenty-first century. The purpose in writing this book, in the words of the author, is to address: Reviews the tensions and interfaces in the evolution from d-Learning to e-Learning to m-Learning. d-Iearning is distance learning, e-Learning is electronic learning and m-Learning is mobile learning based on the wireless teclmologies of the 21st century. A great deal of attention in this VOIUlll!' has been given to the provision pi careful definitions and the drawin" of boundaries. Keegan makes the usd l: i distinction, for example, betwPl'n distance training that is group-based and for full-time students and that which i., for part-time students. It is this attenliPI1 to the demarcation of boundaries in l hI' field that provides the reader with a good understanding of the current domains pi distance training. I found this book prOvided uspfui insights into ways in which the fip id is changing and developing. I found Keegan's position on the shift from dLearning to eLearning to mLearn in l', particularly interesting because I uSP L1w term "mLearning" in Canada to llH'dll something else-moderating onIinl' learning. The idea of learning bpin)" mobile, though, is something that thosl' in the fields of telelearning, distant l' learning, and open learning ha VI ' possibly not considered until now. 111 what Keegan terms the "mobilp revolution," interesting statistics an' prOvided on the growth in ownership of mobile phones (e.g., in late 1999 there were approximately 500,000 mobile phones in the world and by 2004 there will be one billion). These figures give Journal of Distance Learning, Vol 7, No 1, 2003 © Distance Education Association of New Zealand 68 anyone involved in the electronic delivery of education reason to reflect on where we are going and what this sort of development portends. For example, this growth of personal mobile phones will make it possible to teach face-to-face at a distance and, as Keegan notes, "to restore eye-to-eye contact electronically." Keegan's chapter on the Internet is rich in boundary demarcation and the provision of definitions . McGreal's database is highlighted (1999) in which seventeen levels of training online are outlined. Keegan proposes a simpler set of five classifications which distance trainers will likely find interesting. The author's notion of "kernels" intrigued me . Keegan explains kernels (pp . 102-103) in the following way : Institutions fa ced with the decision to transfer some or all of their face-to-face and/ or distance training provision to the Web, face further choices on the shell or kernel to run their Web-based training system. These decisions have far-reaching implications for the didactic strategies of the institution, and for the continuing costs of the training system. There are three options: rent a kernel from one of the leading providers; adapt an existing kernel for use in one's own system, or develop one's own system. Distance Training: Taking Stock at a Time of Change is a brisk, authoritative introduction to the field of distance training and an excellent reference for anyone seeking for clarification of terms that are often used interchangeably. I anticipate Keegan will be widely quoted from this volume in future. REFERENCES Daniel, J. (1 999) . Speech es of the Vice- Chancellor of the Open University . Retrieved from http: // www .open.ac. uk/ OU/News/ VC. html(1 / 12.1999) Keegan, D. (1996). Foundations of dista1lce education (3rd ed.). London: Routled ge. McGreal, R. (1999) . TeleEducation database of online courses. Retrieved from httF / / cuda. teleeducation.nb .ca/ (1 .12.1999) Ken Stevens Memorial Univ ersitlj of Newfoundland Newfoundland, Canada LOCKWOOD, F., & GOOLEY, A. (Eds.) . (2001). Innovation in open and distance learning: Successful development of online and Web-based learning. London: Kogan Page (pp. 224). In the foreword of this book, Fred Lockwood discusses student-centred learning approaches and constructivism. He sees ICT as a means of achieving these : academics questioning the very basis of learning and, consequently, how they teach. Essentially this is the thrust of the book. This book, a cooperative venture between Australia and England with a smattering of international contributions, has authors already known to many in the field (Bernadette Robinson, Bruce King, AIU1e Gooley), but equally includes new blood, and in particular a broad range of Australian contributors brought by Gooley. It also features a chapter by New Zealand's Cathy GUlU1 and Claire McLachlan-Smith. Journal of Distance Learning, Vol 7, No 1, 2003 © Distance Education Association of New Zealand 69 Chapters include umovation Ul distributed learnulg, the uUluence of teacher beliefs, developulg low-cost enviromnents, generic structures, ultegrated environments, flexible tool- boxes, lifelong learnillg, student recruitment and retention, n etworking tools, mentorulg, onlille assessment, and professional development. There are also specifics on pictorial materials, video, and Lotus LearnmgSpace. There is good coverage with a mixture of research and case studies. It is good to see student support, m entoring, and change management addressed Ul a broad-based approach, as well as the specifics of online and Web-based learnulg. Although you may need to look for them, several themes appear woven through this book: distributed learnul~ funds and resources, orgcll1isational issues, human resources, and appropriate media . Each of these brulgs its own challenges and issues. But Ul general the book is heartenulg. It reports a range of uutiatives, some high profile, others low cos t, but all that either describe success or identify how problems that have been faced may be addressed by others new to onlille and Web-based learnulg. Several of the chapters deserve greater attention. McLaclllan-Smith and CUlm's "Promotulg hmovation and 01ange Ul a ' Traditional' Uluversity Settmg" will clUll many New Zealanders. After describulg two illitiatives with varyulg degrees of success, they state: In conclusion, these flexible courses have been successful essentially agaulSt the odds: due Ul part because they met the needs of their niche market and Ul part to the time and d edication of the "early adopters" who coordillated them. (p . 50) They go on to say that the Uluversity of Auckland should look to far greater resourcmg and support for uutiatives if ,,' future success is to be guaranteed. It was the champions and their enthusiasm that led to the successes described. But tlus is Ul contrast to what seems to be happenulg elsewhere - other contributors to tlus book report an ulstitution-wide conunitment to funds to support OlUllle and Web-based learnulg. Bruce King will b e known to many through Ius keynote address at the 1995 DEANZ conference Ul Auckland. Killg's "Makillg a Virtue of Necessity: A Low- Cost, ComprehenSive OlUllle Tead1illg and Lean1illg Environment" describes and reflects upon the development of UniSAnet, an Olume environment for teachillg and learnillg. What the University of South Australia wanted is familiar-a common front-end, consistent use of authorulg and communication tools, and acadenuc, tecluucat and student support-all designed to readily allow acadenucs and others to readily and easily place materials Olume. Although largely descriptive and short on reportillg results, Killg'S chapter does ulclude a useful brief evaluation of the project by an uldependent expert. Chris Morgan and Andre Snut Ul "Mentorulg Ul Open and Distance Learnillg" focus on "the somewhat neglected area of mentorulg Ul open and distance learlUng contexts where opportunities can be created to ellllance student ulteractiollS, learnillg and well-beulg" (p. 160). They use Soot's three-dunensional mentormg model to evaluate specific opportunities for distance learners: creatillg multiple Journal afDistance Learning, Vol 7, No 1, 2003 © Dis tance Education Association of New Zealand 70 discourses; helping overcome isolation; enabling the development of work- based competencies; providing higher levels of flexibility; creating dialogue between theory and practice . Case studies are used to explore types of mentoring relationships among distance learners and they in turn are evaluated in terms of the model. This is a well- written, informati ve chapter with practical application. In "Professional Development in Distance Education: A Successful Experiment and Future Direction," Ulrich Bernath and Eugene Rubin present data and experiences and provide some general evaluation of three virtual seminars on professional development. Each of the seminars contained modules that were hosted by an expert in their field and involved one to two weeks on a designated topic, where an introduction was drafted contailung pre-prepared contributions from the leaders and an outline of the structure for the folloWing discussion. Typically, individuals would make conmlents, and leaders would respond with a summary that was posted at the end of each week. Thought was given to the smooth transition from one module to another. Modules covered included the foundations of dis tance education, institutional models, theory, orgcmisational trends, applications, teclUlology, support, and instructional design. The last two seminars included standardised modules. A goal was cross-cultural sharing of experiences, ideas, and opinions. The broad base of opinion led to a more comprehensive analysis and understand- ing of critical issues, particularly with reference to low tech and high tech teclUlology. Otto Peters observed that "knowledge building conmmnities" had been established where public as well as private knowledge structures flourished. Helmut Fritsch reported "witness learners ." He described how analysis showed that many of those enrolled did not actively partiCipate, but instead wih1essed the interactions of others. When contacted many had actually witnessed on a daily basis and had learned from the conmlents, statements, and questions of others. Mind you, $US580 is a high price to pay to be a silent witness! Although few New Zealanders took part in these seminars, those that did reported favourably. However, numbers partici- pating globally have remained constant in the low forties. The contributors to tills book are realistic. Not all initiatives and projects gave positive results, but whether they did or not, each has something worthwhile to say and of interest to New Zealanders in the ODL community. This is a useful book worthy of buying and a useful contribution to Kogan Page's Open and Dis tance Learning series. Jay Reid Auckland Universih) of TechnologJ) Auckland, New Zealand NICHOLS, M., & UCOL (2001). Teaching for learning: Designing resource-based learning courses for the Internet age. Palmers ton North, NZ: Trainlnc.co.nz (P. O. Box 872, Palmers ton North, NZ) . How long is it since a New Zealander working in the field of flexible learning has produced a text/resource on best practice for local and international use? Mark Nicl10ls from UCOL stUlUled those at the 2001 ODLAA conference by setting up a stand in the corner of Journal of Distance Leaming, Vol 7, No 1, 2003 © Distance Education Association of New Zealand 71 a large meeting hall and promoting this CD-ROM. At first sight it is interesting and easy to navigate. There is both a Word and Acrobat version with plug-ins to download if you don't have the ability a' to view the CD-ROM from existing software. You can also email the author or go to the "book's" Website. The outline is familiar. There is an introductory section (pretty much what you would find in any book). Then part one deals with principles of teaching and learning (the need for effective teaching and learning; universal principles of teaching and learning; resource-based learning as a term; and V ARIES - an introduction to this acronym for the approach to course design that Nichols advocates), so often missing from many texts on flexible learning. Part two is in greater depth, and devotes six chapters to clarifying and extending the V ARIES concept (variety, access, reflection, inter- activity, explicit, and support). Part three is on developing the course of the future (integrating the principles; the role of education managers). Nichols uses anecdotes and case studies frequently to make his points. In part one he gives particular attention to deep learning and the tl1eories of Ramsden, principles of adult learning (and Knowles in particular), learning styles (with an emphasis on Honey and Mumford), and motivation. He does this well. In this section I would have liked to have seen a more explicit analysis of the role of constructivism in resource-based learning, and even here it would have been worthwhile to have mentioned the use of technology in supporting this. Where, too, is the analysis of the social basis of learning and how this mode of learning may simulate that of the classroom's interaction? He makes li11ks with lifelong learning and devotes considerable space to flexibility, prompting us to ask "Flexible for whom? For whose ends?" He acknowledges institutional and other constraints and spends time on eLearning as a subset of resource-based learning. Finally, this first section looks critically at assessment. Much is written about summative assessment, though there is less on diagnostic, ipsative, or formative assessment. In part two, the concept of V ARIES is expanded greatly. Although each of the elements introduced is explored in a different chapter, there is a conscious effort to integrate each of them. It would, however, be useful if each section here included its own references and bibliography. In the section on variety, many examples of variety are given, covering delivery, assessment, and presentation. Face-to- face teaching is included. Attention is given to synchronous and asynchronous interaction. Listservers are addressed . . A table that addresses the merits of various teclU1ologies is introduced so that decisions regarding media to use are made easier. The section on access is realistic and critical in its view of access. Delivery teclU1ologies are assessed in terms of access and emphasis is given to mediating teclU1ologies. The section on reflection is carefully written. It makes clear cOlU1ections with interactivity, revisits surface and deep learning, and li11ks with earlier work written about the nature of learning Journal of Distance Learning, Vol 7, No 1, 2003 © Distance Education Association of New Zealand 72 styles and adult learnin g. Kolb's experiential learnin g cycle is introduced, and there is a separate section on preparing students for reflection. A disappointing feature of the section on interactivity is that there appears to be little acknowledgement of the social nature of learning and maybe the need to simulate the normal classroom interactions that students have with each other. Interactivity is defined as "a process of being changed as a result of one's actions," really an inadequate explanation. There are, though, passages on a range of interactive teclmologies and special attention paid to hyperlinks and self-assessment. Explicit(ness) is the name given to the section that deals with what has traditionally been called course design. This section is detailed, with a sound introduction that discusses being explicit in deSign , expectations, and instructions . A distinction is made between core elements and core documents and all the important aspects that we would expect to see are addressed. The last section, support, is written well. The roles and responsibilities of tutors and learners are addressed, attention is given to the expensive nature of quality support, and there is agreement that support is additional to many expected workloads . There is considerable emphasis on support and the role of technology in its deliver y. The customisation of support is an interes ting topiC discussed. Part three of the CD-ROM revisits V ARIES in terms of a systems approach to the design process, describing how the mix of the elements of V ARIES is determined by internal and ex ternal factors that affect the design process itself. A complete section is devo ted to policy, bes t practice, strategic and financial implications, and the roles and deployment of staff. The final paragraphs are on institutional commitment. There is strength in Nichols's work, in his enthusiasm and energy, his commit- m ent to resource-based learning, and the con cept of VARIES which he introduces and expands well. He clearly unders tands a rational model of the design process, technology, and its applications in resource-based learning. I would have liked to have seen a greater acknowledgement of the social nature of mos t learning, greater attention to copyright issues, and a more visual presentation throughout (clearly a CD- ROM lends itself to this) that breaks up tex t and tables. This is an interes ting publica tion and as New Zealanders we should support it. It is a us eful guide to course design and resource-based learning. Jay Reid Auckland Universihj of TeclmologJj Auckland, New Zealand PICCIANO, A. G. (2001). Distan ce learning: Making connections across virtual space and time. Columbus, OH: Merrill Prentice-Hall (pp. xviii, 253). This is an excellent text for providing teachers and educational institutions considering distance learning with an introduction to the current sta te of the field. Anthony Picciano's writing is direct, easily understood, current, and grounded in the research literature. Each chapter concludes with a summary of Journal oj Distance Learning, Vol 7, No 1, 2003 © Dis tance Education Association of New Zealand 73 the content that has been covered, followed by a case study or two, which effectively illustrate the issues raised in the preceding pages. The teclmology of distance learning is summarized in ways that enable the reader to make comparisons (e.g., print, audio, video, ,,> computer-digital) and there is a dis cussion about blending teclmologies for teaching and learning. This leads to what for me is the most interesting part of the book, in which Picciano introduces some challenging views about pedagogy and distance learning. In his chapter on instructional design for distance learning, he notes "A general pedagogical theory for distance leanung does not exist now and will not likely exist in the near future ." A variety of debates about the nature of distance education are briefly reviewed (Keegan, 1993, 1996; Wedemeyer, 1977; Moore, 1994; Peters, 1988). Picciano poses the question (p. 66), "In searching for or developing a pedagogical theory for distance learning, a major question to be addressed is whether or not it is a distinct form of education. " He notes that Shale (1988) considers that the process of education and learning is the same regardless of whether teacll er and student are face-to-face or at a distance. This debate is introduced but not discussed in any detail by the author. Picciano takes the position that "major societal forces such as the demand for greater educational opportUluty and lifelong learning, and rapidly evolVing teclmological advances are changing the nature of distance learning." The result is that distance learning is becoming more decentralized and more student-centered and is "routinely being offered in conjUl1Ction with traditional academic programs." A new form of education is emerging: It is quite possible that distance learning is, in fact, becoming more traditional wIllie traditional learning is using techniques formally associated with distance. Virtual sys tems may be the velucles whereby traditional learning and distance education begin to merge and form a new paradigm for education. (p. 67) Unfortunately, Picciano does not spend a lot of time on this promising llile of thou ght which is likely to be of interest to distance educators. This book, nevertheless, is a first-rate guide to the preparation of courses at a distance, the use of Web pages for instruction, the place of instructional development, synchronous and asynchronous commun- ication, and various types of interaction between students and teachers . This is a book that is intended for the distance learning practitioner, although the author prOvides some challenging scholarly inSights into the direction of the field. It should find wide acceptance and use by those wh o are preparing to consider the "new paradigm." REFERENCES Keegan. D. (1993). TIleoretical principles of distance education. London: Routledge. Keegan, D. (1996). Foundations of distance education (3rd ed.). London: Routledge. Moore, M. (1994). Autonomy and interd ependence. TIle Ame1'ican Journal of Distance Education, 8(2), pp. 1-5. Peters, O. (1988) . Distance teaching and industrial production: A comparative interpretation in outline. In D. Sew art, D. Keegan, & B. Holmberg (Eds.), Distance education: International perspectives (pp. 95-113). New York: Ro utledge. Shale, D. (1988). Toward a reconceptual- ization of distance education. The JOZlrnal of Distance Learning, Vol 7, No 1, 2003 © Distance Education Association of New Zealand 74 American Journal of Distance Education, 2(3), pp. 25-35. Wedemeyer, C. (1977). Indep endent study. In: A. S. Knowles (Ed.), T11.e international encyclopaedia of higher education (pp. 2114- 2132). Boston: CIHED. Ken Stevens Memorial University of Newfoundland Newfoundland, Canada Journal of Distance Learning, Vol 7, No 1, 2003 © Distance Education Association of New Zealand 75