Designing for Dialogue at a Distance: 
Reflections on How to Create and 

Maintain an Effective Teaching-Learning 
Relationship WithStudents 

The focus of the 1997 D E A NZ seminar at 
which a version of this paper was originally 
presented was on the independent learner. As 
Teaching Consultant at the Centre for 
University Extramural Studies at Massey 
University at the time, my major role was to 
encourage staff to prepare materials which 
would promote learning, and, as that learning 
would primarily occur at a distance, the course 
design needed to promote independent 
learning. This paper has three main sections. 
It will first define the learning needs and 
characteristics of adult students and examine 
how to promote student learning at a distance. 
Second, it will examine some selected student 
evaluations of extramural papers from Massey 
University. The features which students have 
identified as helping or hindering an effective 
teaching-learning relationship between 
teacher and learner will be discussed. These 
include knowledge of learner needs, 
assessment and feedback, and administration 
and teacher availability. Finally, the paper will 
discuss creating dialogue with students at a 
distance. It will detail an approach to distance 
teaching based on the notions of dialogue, 
scaffolding, and apprenticeship in learning, 
which may be a useful model for instructional 
design in diverse delivery modes. 

DEFINING THE LEARNING NEEDS 

AND CHARACTERISTICS OF ADULT 

STUDENTS When I began most courses on 
instructional design for distance learning or 

CLAIRE MCLACHLAN-SMITH 
FACULTY oF MEDICINE AND HEALTH SciENCE 

UNIVERSITY OF AUCKLAND 

courses on adult learning, I found it very 
useful to get participants to focus on their own 
learning and what factors had contributed to 
their own success or failure in learning a new 
task. I asked them to reflect on the following 
issues: 

• think about an ability or skill you have 
which you are good at: 
- how did you acquire that skill? 
- how and why do you know that you are 

good at that skill? 
" name one thing which you do badly: 

- why do you do it badly? 
- how do you know you do it badly? 

I would then ask staff to identify the key issues 
in terms of promoting their learning and in 
their failure to learn, and if there were any 
similarities. We would then take the line of 
thought further to consider learning at a 
distance, and think about what factors could 
help or hinder learning. When the issue of 
students with previously unsuccessful 
learning experiences was added to the 
equation, most people began to recognise the 
difficulty of meeting the needs of students 
with diverse learning needs and experiences. 
Usually we generated some ideas about the 
need for positive feedback, practice, time, 
personal interest and motivation, learning 
support, well designed materials, accessible 
tutors and so forth. In addition to recognising 
their own learning style and preferences, 
course participants would come to the 

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conclusion that knowing something about 
learners in general would also be useful. 

So why am I telling! you this? It is because 
often new lecturing staff at Massey University 
with whom I worked, were academically well 
qualified but poorly prepared for distance 
teaching, in that they either knew little about 
the needs of distance learners, or knew little 
about how to promote learning. Both 
understanding of learners' needs and the lack 
of it are clearly demonstrated in some of the 
feedback from students presented later in this 
paper. 

Merriam and Caffarella ( 1991) outline several 
characteristics of adult learners, which can be 
particularly helpful in identifying the learning 
needs of students: 

• the context of adult learners' lives shapes 
their learning; 

• adults have assumed responsibility for 
managing their own lives and add the role 
of the learner to their other responsibilities; 

• learning typically arises from the context 
of their lives, which is tied to the 
sociocultural setting in which they live; 

• learning in adulthood is characterised by 
its usefulness for immediate application to 
the duties and responsibilities inherent in 
the adult role of worker, spouse, parent, 
citizen and so forth; 

• rich life experiences differentiate one adult 
from another, and self-identity is the result 
of accumulated unique life experiences; 

• adults are themselves an important 
resource for learning and often the need to 
make sense of experiences is the incentive 
for learning activity in the first place; 

• engagement of past experiences with new 
learning is different for adults than for 
children; adults modify, transfer and 
reintegrate meanings, values, strategies 
and skills, rather than formulate and 
accumulate as they do in childhood; 

• adults may need to unlearn bad habits and 
negative views of learning; 

• the tasks of adulthood are different from 
those of the child, as in addition t o  

acquiring new knowledge and skills, the 
adult is faced with the struggle to integrate 
personal and family relationships, life 
events and transitions and personal or 
employment-related crises. For example, 
Aslanian and Brickell ( 1980, in Merriam 
and Cafarellfl, 199 1) found that 83% of 
adult learners in their study were involved 
in learning to cope with a transition. They 
concluded, "to know an adult's life 
schedule is to know their learning 
schedule" (pp. 60-6 1). The reason for 
learning may not lie in the learner 
themselves, but in the tension between the 
learner and their socio-cultural world. 

Although the basic process of learning is the 
same for children as for adults, learning is 
affected by 4:10n-cognitive factors such as 
pacing, meaningfulness and motivation. An 
adult's ability to respond slows with age, and 
time limit pressures have a negative effect on 
learning performance. Adults do better with 
material which has personal relevance or 
meaning, which is part of the reason why 
adults tend to do well in any study they 
attempt, because they concentrate their 
learning in areas of their experience and 
interest. Age and health factors, such as 
fatigue, medication, disuse of abilities, 
environmental conditions and interference 
from previous learning can all affect new 
learning. However, adults can more readily 
transform new knowledge as a result of 
their accumulation of life experiences, and 
adult thought can be defined as "problem 
finding" rather than the problem solving 
which typifies adolescent and young adult 
thought (Merriam and Caffarella, 199 1). 
Effective adult thinking is not that which 
provides immediate answers, but that 
which first discovers the important questtons 
and exposes the important problems. 

· 

Ladyshewsky ( 1995) argues that the following 
principles of adult learning need to be taken 
into account when devising any programme 
that will be effective and meet the needs of 
learners: 

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-------------------- -- --

,. adults need to feel that what they are 
learning is important and relevant to them; 

" the learner should agree with fhe goals of 
the learning' experience; 

" the supervisor should provide a safe 
learning environment; 

" the student should be actively involved in 
the learning process; 

• the learner is given responsibility for 
progressing at his/her own pace; 

" the learner must see progress towards the 
established goals; 

., the task students are being asked to 
perform should be practical and 
immediately applicable. 

DEFINING A N D  PR OM OTING A 
TEACHING-LEARNING DIALOG UE 
There is a growing body of literature about 
how to create a teaching-learning dialogue 
with students at a distance, all of which fits in 
a cognitive constructivist model of education 
(Garrison, 1993), in which the learner is seen 
to be an active constructor of knowledge and 
meanings. Lockwood ( 1992) outlines three key 
methods of instructional design, which have 
gained in acceptance with distance education 
providers around the world. These are the 
notions of tutorial in print (Rowntree, 1973), 
reflective action guide (Rowntree, 1990) and 
dialogue (Evans and Nation, 1989). 

Most people recognise these forms of 
instructional design when they see them. The 
tutorial in print simulates the experience of the 
student and a teacher in a tutorial, where the 
teacher provides resources, asks questions and 
sets exercises, and provides feedback on key 
issues. A reflective action guide provides 
guidance on knowledge and activities, but 
requires the student to do the bulk of the 
learning and the activity away from the 
materials themselves, and to gather and assess 
feedback for themselves. The notion of 
dialogue is based on the premise that adults 
are active constructors of meaning, and as such 
they should be part of the teaching-learning 
dialogue as if they were in the classroom, and 
they should be party to the thinking of the 
writer of the instructional materials. By using 

different type fonts, Evans and Nation present 
different aspects of the dialogue, which 
students are invited to join. All of the models 
have their strengths, but they all focus on the 
responsibility of the individual learner for 
their own learning, even though there is an 
implicit assumption that effective student 
support measures will go hand in hand with 
self-instructional materials. If we are to 
consider the teaching-learning relationship in 
a fuller sense of dialogue, then we need to look 
in more detail at the ways in which we can 
address the learning needs of students in the 
most effective manner. 

Vygotsky's theory ( 1978) provides a useful 
framework for consideration of how to build 
upon existing cognition and recognise the 
shaping influence of life experience and 
culture. Although much of Vygotsky' s theory 
is based upon research with children, there is 
growing evidence that the principles can be 
usefully applied to adult development and 
learning as well ( Bolton and Unwin, 1995; 
Moll, 1990). Vygotsky's claim that higher 
mental functioning in the individual is rooted 
in social life was influenced by Marxist theory, 
which basically states that in order to 
understand the individual it is necessary to 
understand the social relations in which the 
individual exists. Vygotsky's general claim 
about the social origins of higher mental 
functioning in the individual surfaces most 
clearly in connection with the "zone of 
proximal development", which Vygotsky 
examined in relation to I.Q. and for the 
organisation for instruction. 

With regard to the former, he argued 
that measuring the level of potential 
development is just as important as 
measuring the actual developmental 
level; with regard to the latter, he argued 
that instruction should be more closely 
tied to the level of potential 
development than to the level of actual 
development (Wertsch, 1991, p.28). 

Vygotsky's theory of the zone of proximal 
development suggests the social interaction 

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between the competent adult and the less 
competent young, is the means by which the 
adult lends "scaffolding" (Bruner, 1986;p.74) 
to implant a vicaridus consciousness in the 
learner. Vygotsky ( 1978) defines it as the 
"actual developmental level as determined by 
independent problem solving" and the higher 
level of" potential development as determined 
through problem solving under adult 
guidance or in collaboration with more 
capable peers" (p. 86). Vygotsky ( 1962) 
predicted that the "zone of proximal 
development" would be evident in the way 
in which teachers provide a scaffold for the 
learner within conversations between what 
they know and what they learn to know. This 
method of instruction is often referred to as 
cognitive apprenticeship, within which the 
more senior member of the relationship 
gradually withdraws support, as the learner 
becomes increasingly proficient in the task. 

Vygotksy's ( 1987) ideas that the forms of 
speaking encountered in school provide the 
framework for concept development are 
usefully expanded by Bakhtin's notion of the 
"voice" in learning, the idea that an utterance 
always expresses a point of view. Bakhtin's 
notion of voice is not reducible to an account 
of vocal-auditory signals. It applies to written 
as well as spoken communication, and it is 
concerned with the broader issue of the 
speaking subjects' perspective, conceptual 
horizon, intention and world view (Wertsch, 
199 1). Bakhtin considers that people make use 
of a social language in making an utterance 
and that the social language shapes what the 
individual can say. Bakhtin called the process 
of making unique utterances in a social 
language "ventriloquation" (Wertsch, 1991). 
As Bakhtin argues " The word of language is 
half someone else's. It becomes 'one's own' 
when the speaker populates it with his own 
intention, own accent, when he appropriates 
the word, adapting it to his own semantic and 
expressive intention" ( Bakhtin, 1981, pp. 293-
294; in Wertsch, 1991). 

Bakhtin viewed social languages and speech 
genres as the ways in which communicative 

and mental action are organised. Through 
mediation or the "voice", learners learn not 
only the words of another person, but also 
their intention and purpose, which the learner 
may then internalise to enable them to self­
instruct the next time the event occurs. The 
"voice" in dis,tance teaching materials 
permeates the choice of media, the 
instructional design methodology, readings 
and textbooks, the assessment, and the 
feedback loops between teacher and student. 

Recognition and reflection on the "voice" 
permeating materials is crucial, as it will play 
a large part in student achievement and 
progression. Peer review of materials prior to 
production can assist in identifying the extent, 
clarity and sub-text of the teaching voice in 
the materials. Gallimore and Tharp ( 1990) 
state that instructing is rarely seen as a means 
of assisting performance, which they consider 
to be to the learner's detriment. 

It is important that instructing be 
included in teaching, because the 
instructing voice of the teacher becomes 
the self-instructing voice of the learner 
in the transition from apprentice to self 
regulated performer. The non­
instructing teacher may be denying the 
learner the most valuable residue of the 
teaching interaction; that heard, 
regulating voice, that gradually 
internalised voice, which then becomes 
the pupil's self regulating "still, small" 
instructor" (p. 18 1). 

Questioning calls for active linguistic and 
cognitive response. There are two types of 
questions: assistance and assessment. 
Assessment questions are used most often, 
while assistance questions are most help�ful. 
Through cognitive structuring the teacher 
helps the learner to organise information: 
through memorization, recall or accumulating 
evidence. All of these types of questioning 
can be used to help learners develop through 
the stages of the zone of proximal 
development. 

. 
There are four stages to the 

zone of proximal development, according to 

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Gallimore and Tharp ( 1990): 

Stage 1: 

Stage 2: 
Stage 3: 

Stage 4: 

performance assisted by more 
capable others; 
performance assisted by self; 
performance is developed, 
automatized and fossilised; 
automatization of performance 
leads to recursion through the 
zone of proximal development. 

Gallimore and Tharp ( 1990) argue that adults, 
like children, also cycle through the zone of 
proximal development, when they have to do 
something they have not done for a while, 
which used to be automatic. They consider 
that with peers, assisted performance may be 
reciprocal, especially if they are engaged in 
joint activities - a reason, they argue, for 
providing a lot of small peer group activity in 
classrooms. In distance mode, it is one good 
reason for providing ways to gather students 
into study groups, either physically in the 
regions, or via e-mail, Internet or 
teleconferencing methods. 

Within an adult learning relationship, Bolton 
and Unwin ( 1995) consider that adult students 
need both instruction and inquiry as part of 
any course. Bolton and Unwin ( 1995) argue 
that the apprenticeship model, based on 
Vygotsky' s theory, is useful for 
conceptualising the relationships involved. 
Bolton and Unwin outline the following 
aspects of a cognitive apprenticeship: 

• learning occurs in relationship to personal 
role models; 

" personal links to precede learning are 
established; 

• prior learning is recognised; 
" learning is task oriented. 

The notion of apprenticeship in adult learning 
involves an understanding that learning 
occurs in relationship to personal role models, 
so that teachers need to identify their own 
learning history, to stress that learning is a 
personal affair, and to indicate to students that 
they are still learning. Establishment of a 

personal link to precede formal learning can 
be achieved by getting students to send in an 
autobiographical statement as their first 
contact with the teacher. In a Massey context, 
this was sometimes achieved by use of a "self 
profile" form, which included details about the 
student and what they hoped to get out of the 
paper, along with contact details and study 
group information (for example, see 
Mc Lachlan-Smith, 1998a; 1998b). 

In order to recognise prior knowledge and 
learning, teachers need to find out what 
students already know and can do and 
consider ways in which to support the 
apprenticeship. An easy way is to use the 
autobiographical materials to make comments 
on the first assignment feedback sheet which 
are personally meaningful, or to provide extra 
resources which may be relevant to the 
person's context. Other ways include using 
basic classroom assessment techniques 
(Angelo and Cross, 1992), such as a rating 
system of core content to be included with the 
self profile form (e.g. I know a lot about this 
topic, I know something about this topic, I 
know nothing about this topic). In this way, 
you can get a snapshot of each learner at the 
beginning of the course and then help students 
to self-rate their progress throughout the 
course. 

To make the apprenticeship task-oriented, the 
structure of the task and the role of the learner 
need to be clearly defined. Teachers should 
encourage creativity, so that if the learner can 
demonstrate the required capability they can 
move beyond the instructor (e.g. an "A" grade 
will demonstrate that the work taught the 
instructor something new). The learner can 
come to demonstrate expertise across a range 
of teaching tasks I content, so students can 
learn by teaching others (e.g. presentations, 
self and peer review). Learning should be 
guided and evaluated in early stages, but not 
necessarily assessed, and assessment 
weighting should value achievements in later 
stages of the course. Opportunities for self­
assessment need to be provided. 

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The key issue in terms of creating and 
maintaining an effective feedback loop f�r 
students is to plan for it. Wright and Herte1s 
( 1993) state that tertiary students in other 
countries identify the following features of a 
good teacher: 

• knowledge and enthusiasm for the subject 
matter and teaching; 

• good organisation of subject matter and 
course; 

• effective communication; 
• positive attitudes towards students; 
• fairness in evaluation and grading; 
• flexibility in approaches to teaching. 

Many of our students identify similar features, 
which will be discussed in the next section. 
The interesting point about this list is that all 
of these characteristics can be planned for; 
none of them are necessarily the features of a 
"natural" teacher. If a teacher has carefully 
planned a course and addressed the learning 
needs of students, then they should be rated 
highly by students on these features of 
effective teaching. Wright and Herteis's ( 1993) 
definition of an effective instructor is 
particularly relevant: this is not a popularity 
contest, but "good enough" teaching will 
make students feel they are on a joint 
educational adventure with that teacher, on 
the way to competence and independence as 
a learner. 

The next section will address some of the ways 
in which students in 1996/97 at Massey 
University considered that their learning 
needs had been met or overlooked. 

EXAMPLES OF PRACTICE WHICH 

H A S  H E LP E D  OR H IN D E R E D  

STUDE N T  LEARNING As a Teaching 
Consultant, I was probably one of the few 
people on the Massey campus who had an 
overview of both how the university was 
teaching by distance, and how effective 
students considered that teaching to be. Part 
of my role involved designing and carrying 
out evaluations of extramural papers at the 
request of paper coordinators or their Head 

of Department. Sometimes this was done 
because there was a problem which needed 
further identification and student comment, 
and sometimes because a teacher wanted 
feedback on their own performance, so that 
improvements could be made in the future. It 
needs to be stres,sed that the only evaluation I 
was involved in was done on a voluntary 
basis, and the evaluations were sent with both 
my name and the paper coordinator 's name 
on the memo, and stated that the information 
would be used for further development of the 
paper and distance teaching. 

I looked into my files of responses for 
examples of how teacher-learner relationships, 
assessment and marking procedures, and 
course administration and availability all 
affect a stud�t' s ability to complete the paper 
to a satisfactory conclusion. The examples 
come from a diverse range of disciplines and 
levels, and all references to discipline, teacher 
or level have been removed. The examples 
presented are in no way representative of the 
effectiveness of teaching at the university. It 
is important to note that I have particularly 
highlighted the examples where poor teaching 
practice has had a negative impact on student 
learning. However, I have also included 
examples of where good teaching practice has 
positively influenced student learning. The 
examples listed where poor teaching practice 
is highlighted, however, are useful 
illustrations of issues which cannot be ignored 
as papers are designed for an open, flexible or 
distance market. 

KN OWLEDGE OF LEARNER NEEDS 
Interestingly, given the previous discussion 
of the characteristics of adult learners, many 
students comment that staff have little to 
no understanding of the conditions under 
which they are studying, and what that 
should mean for the organisation of the paper. 
The following quotes indicate areas of 
concern: 

Application of concepts of adult 
learning is poor. 

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I found the attitude of two of the tutors 
very arrogant. Positive encouragement 
helps learning more than making 
adults look stupid. 

Along with not recognising the needs of the 
adult learner, there were comments which 
related to the lack of recognition of workload 
in the materials: 

As a mature person returning to study, 
the time span for study relative to 
content is too short. I have withdrawn 
from the paper because full-time 
workload and new learning in this 
paper was too heavy. 

Extramural needs more latitude with 
deadlines than internal students and 
more support. I know this because I 
have spent 5 years studying full-time 
and 5 years part-time. In my long 
experience there is a wide variety of 
support and flexibility standards 
among lecturers. Lecturers need to 
understand that work flows can vary, 
emergencies arise, staff shortages 
occur, and all these can occur at 
horribly short notice, side swiping 
weekends put aside for assignments. 
Some lecturers are very realistic and 
more than willing to accommodate 
students' individual needs plus 
provide encouragement. Extramural 
students are very appreciative of this. 

In the introductory module I do not 
think the tutors have any idea how 
much work is involved. I suggest they 
get someone with no know ledge of this 
topic in to do it and see just how time 
consuming it is. 

Students who were happier with their 
materials nearly always commented on the 
clarity of structure and recognition of 
workload and learning needs: 

Excellent, well set out and 
understandable. Review questions and 

points to ponder were helpful in 
directing my study. 

Well structured course with clear 
objectives. Good general coverage of a 
broad subject. Overall workload 
appropFiate. 

The subject - learning more about xxx, 
just makes me appreciate it and want 
to learn more about it! The paper 
coordinator was friendly, helpful and 
really knew the topic. The study guide 
was so well presented and organised. 

Other students commented on the lack of 
"teacher voice" in the materials, as they looked 
for guidance on the readings and the textbook: 

There is inadequate material from the 
course tutor in each study guide. For 
example on each of the 13 modules 
there is no more than 4-5 pages of 
guidance before a whole pile of 
readings. 

I felt absolutely bogged down by the 
number of readings. The essay topics 
were so wide that they required 
extensive reading. I found it difficult 
to collate the different threads especially 
as much of the subject is so subjective. 

On the other hand, students rated courses 
highly which had a strong theory I practice link 
and which provided choice and opportunity 
for feedback. 

The paper is well organised with an 
excellent integration of theory t o  
practical application, which kept 
interest high. 

I enjoyed the range of choice in 
the modules to be completed; the 
paper can be tailored to personal 
interests. Feedback was prompt and 
comprehensive. Excellent paper. 

I really liked being "included in the 

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text". Being permitted to draw on my 
own experiences let me reflect and gain 
greater unders tanding of various 
concepts introduced throughout the 
course by relating them to my life. Also 
helped make me feel valued as I am, as 
I could have personal input. 

One of the interesting things about asking 
questions of adult students is that they have 
very clear ideas about how to promote student 
learning. Many of them have reflected on their 
own learning and work conditions, and 
articulate very clearly what is effective. It is 
important to listen to these student messages, 
as this is a very mobile and articulate group 
of consumers, who can destroy the reputation 
of programmes and institutions in a short 
period of time. Currently, more and more 
tertiary institutions are moving into the 
p rovision of open, distance and flexible 
learning opportunities. Students have 
increased access to local providers and to 
major international institutions via the 
Internet. It is therefore imperative that the 
home grown product is tailored to suit the 
learning needs of local students and that 
opportunities for seeking feedback from 
students are created. 

ASSESSMENT AND FEEDBACK Assess­
ment procedures are one of the main ways in 
which lecturers and tutors have contact with 
students. As many students comment, this is 
often the only way in which they get personal 
feedback on their progress, and so they want 
it as comprehensive and as constructive as 
possible. It is important that staff think 
through the impact of their marking 
procedures on a student who is receiving 
comments outside of a classroom discussion 
of grades and results. Some student comments 
demonstrate the effect of marking which does 
not help to create or maintain a teaching­
learning dialogue. 

Also the marking is too tough for this 
module, destructive actually. Last year 
I gave up the paper because of the 
attitude and destructive comments of 

the markers and this year I nearly did 
the same. For the next 2 papers I got a 
B and A, 3rd not marked yet. I do not 
claim to be a clever student but I do not 
want to be rubbished at my 1st attempt. 

Apart from the (:Omment that marking could 
be destructive, students also stated that they 
wanted transparency in marking procedures, 
so that they could see where they needed to 
improve or could locate themselves in the 
overall placement in the class. 

An amazing lack of constructive and 
helpful comments, or even 
inconstructive ones, a veritable paucity 
in fact, even on the final assessment. 
Just nothing. 

I found the comments written on my 
assignment very difficult to read and 
understand. The final exam seemed to 
include work that was not covered in 
the study guide or in recommended 
reading. It would have been useful to 
get an answer sheet back with our 
assignment. 

Lack of transparent criteria for marking; 
a marking schedule and non-emotive 
comments would have been more 
helpful. I did not find the comments 
"articulate" or "careless" very 
constructive. 

Would quite like an overview of 
everyone's progress, medium/ average 
marks for assignments maybe, to let me 
know how /where I fit in overall, (a bit 
of competition, contact, for u s  
extramural isolates). 

All of my modules were late, although 
I can accept a depressed mark for this, 
what I can't accept is having put a lot 
of effort into my work to have 
somebody write totally meaningless 
comments over it. This indicates to me 
that my marker only skim-read my 
work. If I can put 50 hours into writing 

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these assignments an extra 5 minutes 
by a marker isn't a lot to ask for. 

Rather than ridicule the methods of 
other disciplines, clearly set out criteria, 
examples of expectations would be 
helpful. I thought we had moved away 
from learning as being an attempt to 
guess what was in the mind of the 
teacher. 

On the other hand, students who had positive 
assessment experiences tended to comment 
favourably on the paper as a whole. 

The comments I received were 
constructive, supportive and 
encouraging. I really felt that the 
marker cared about my success I failure 
at all stages of the course. I have now 
completed my degree and of all the 
papers I have done, this was the best 
by far in this regard. Most helpful and 
encouraging. 

Found reading back comments helpful 
and positive, even where alternatives 
were suggested. My self esteem grew 
from reading comments. My attitude 
to the course became more and more 
enthusiastic. 

Liked being sent a graph of overall 
distribution of grades for assignments 
to let students know how well they did 
compared with others. Would 
recommend this for all courses. 

The tutor always provided constructive 
and supportive feedback on all work, 
... created an environment where I felt 
"safe" as an extramural student. The 
tutor personalised the course with the 
inclusion of 'newsletter ' type updates 
of the course and encouraging words, 
which I personally appreciated. 

Found the instructions accompanying 
each assignment helpful in the extreme. 
Three cheers! 

The notion of support is strong in both the 
students who appreciated feedback from 
tutors and those who did not feel that they 
had received adequate feedback on 
assignments. As part of creating dialogue with 
students, course writers need to ensure that 
they have transparent criteria for assessment 
and that they endeavour to be as positive as 
possible in marking. This is often easier said 
than done, when time is short to turn the 
marking around and an assignment seems 
particularly inappropriate for the task set. It 
is imperative to find positive marking 
procedures, even if this means using a 
formulaic schedule, so that students can see 
at a glance where the weaknesses and 
strengths are in the assignment, and what they 
need to focus on for the next assignment. 

ADMINISTRATION AND TEACHER 
AVAIL A B IL ITY Students are most 
outspoken about issues in relation to teaching 
and administration. One of the key complaints 
extramural students have concerns the 
availability of the lecturer or tutor who will 
be marking their work or administering the 
paper. For many students this experience 
would colour their opinion of the paper as a 
whole. 

As far as help was concerned it took up 
to 3 weeks for me to receive an answer 
so maybe an 0800 number should be 
available to extramural students, as toll 
calls in prime time are not easy to 
finance for most people. 

Lecturer did not respond to e-mail or 
correspondence. 

We were not aware till end of course 
that we could phone our tutor at home, 
as they were only available one day per 
week on campus. Because of this many 
of my calls were not replied to, although 
the times I did speak to the tutor 
they were very helpful. Delays in 
communication leave extramural 
students feeling very isolated, let alone 
the expense of the toll calls. 

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19 



Other students comment on the effect of 

having a helpful lecturer or tutor and how this 

coloured their enjoyment of the course> 
I 

The teaching and learning aspects were 
always well received and helpful. My 
calls are always returned and I found 
my tutor's helpful and open approach 
was excellent, especially in my final 
year. I have enjoyed this paper and the 
personal help I have received from my 
tutor. 

Personal contact with staff who are 
always helpful and enthusiastic about 
their subject area [was great]. 

Thoroughly enjoyed this course. Would 
recommend (a n d  h a ve) to o t h e r s .  
F o u n d  course i n t e r e s t i n g  a n d  
informative. I actually looked forward 
to r e ading each study guide with 
excitement. Help and teaching were 
most valuable. 

Other students had suggestions for how the 
papers should be coordinated: 

I realise the enormous management and 
admin. Problems that o c c u r  with 
vacation/regional courses, but I have 
found them to be invaluable. They 
provide a focus, a chance to get re­
enthused. With the only contact being 
assignment and study g u i d e s ,  it 
becomes difficult throughout the year, 
to keep 'Massey work' a high priority. 

It would be useful to have the e-mail 
addresses of the tutors at the beginning 
of the year. This is a much quicker way 
of asking questions than writing. 

I would like to see the use of e-mail and 
teleconferencing for seminars. That 
vital part of study cannot be handled 
by a campus course. O ng o i n g  
instruction i s  essential. 

As these comments demonstrate, perceived 

availability and helpfulness are key attributes 
of the successful distance teacher. Juggling all 
the demands placed on teachers can be 
demanding, b u t  being available at an 
advertised time for phone calls, or promptly 
replying to letters or email are obvious ways 
in which to make students feel that they are 
part of a teaching-learning relationship. If 
teaching departments cannot pay for staff to 
make toll calls, then this should be indicated 
in the s t u d y  g u i d e ,  a n d  a l t e r n a t i v e  
arrangements made, such a s  a "helpdesk" for 
an hour or two, once a week. None of the 
problems i d e n t i f i e d  by s t u d e n t s  are 
insurmountable; they simply require some 
creative forethought and planning. 

CREATING A TEACHING-LEARNING 
DIALOGUE AT A DISTANCE As already 
stated, the comments presented are in no way 
representative of Massey University courses, 
but they do give an indication of what works 
for distance students, and what factors present 
major obstacles to their learning. As a major 
provider of tertiary distance education, 
Massey has long established minimum 
standards of presentation of materials and 
information of materials sent to students. 
However, the area which is hardest to regulate, 
is the relationship established between teacher 
and learner. This is particularly challenging 
if the materials don't have a strong teaching­
learning framework in the first place, and then 
students experience inconsistency in grading 
and lack of availability from their tutors. 

After two and a half years of intensively 
working with extramural study guides, and 
being pre s e n t e d  w i t h  numerous design 
challenges, I have developed a theory of what 
can help to create and maintain effective 
dialogue and feedback loops between teachers 
and students. The following are my personal 
suggestions for improving the chances of 
creating a teaching-learning dialogue with 
distance students and represent some of the 
advice I gave to new extramural teaching staff. 
I also think they provide some interesting and 
researchable i�?�ues for distance educators. 

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20 



Plan for dialogue in all aspects of the course 
Plan for dialogue on many levels: dialogue 
through choice of instructional design, 
dialogue through layout and design of 
materials, dialogue through f e e d b a c k  
o n  a s s e s s m e n t ,  and a commitment t o  
promoting dialogue thro ugh access a n d  
availability procedures. All o f  these forms of 
dialogue are part of a feedback loop, on 
which students should be encouraged to 
comment. Developing technologies for 
distance learning will also require the creation 
of opportunities for effective dialogue, as 
students struggle to conquer new technology 
in addition to new content or disciplines. 
Feedback needs to take many forms and it 
needs to be integral to all parts of the course. 

Know the learner 
Seek and keep profiles of learners, so that the 
c o u r s e  can be r e v i s e d  upon a s e n sible 
diagnosis of typical l e a r n e r s '  nee ds. 
Understand the basic principles of adult 
learning and use these to ground courses in 
realistic teaching and learning goals. 

Become a mentor in a cognitive 
apprenticeship with students 
Plan to actively "scaffold" students' learning. 
Introduce key concepts and techniques early 
in the course a n d  gradually transfer 
responsibility for learning to the students. 
Recognise that some students will require 
more "scaffolding" than others, and provide 
" e x t r a  for e x p e r t s "  opportunities, 
a s  w e l l  a s  tips for those who may b e  
struggling. Recognise and reward students 
appropriately when they become the expert 
in the relationship and teach the teacher 
something new. 

Recognise and develop a teaching "voice" 
Too many papers deny students an insight into 
the teacher 's thoughts and reasoning, yet this 
teaching voice can provide students with the 
framework for the construction of n e w  
knowledge and skills, a s  well a s  inspiring an 
interest in the subject. As Lockwood (1992) 
argues, there are existing models of 
instructional design and numerous examples 

to draw on, but we must consider how 
students will learn from the materials and 
plan accordingly. Design materials with a 
view to scaffolding student learning. 

Provide a good road map to navigate the 
course 
Make sure that transparent criteria and 
guidance for assessment have been included. 
Signpost avenues of support, and send all the 
information in a clearly navigable format. 
Remember that students are looking for 
enthusiasm and organisation! 

Provide multiple avenues for student 
feedback 
Simple examples of effective ways include: 
" assessment and marking schedules and 

constructive comments on feedback sheets; 
.. student self evaluations on progress sheets; 
" self review tests and exercises; 
'" activities in text; 
" reflective action guides; 
" dialogue in t e x t  from multiple 

perspectives; 
" e-mail discussion lists or Web bulletin 

boards; 
" a help desk at certain times of the day I 

week/month; 
" a commitment to answering messages 

promptly and considerately; 
"' post-course evaluation and feedback; 
'" a genuine commitment to listening to 

students' complaints; 
.. regular newsletters; 
.. overview of student performance on 

assignments; 
.. and so on ... 

CoNCLUSION This paper introduced the 
notion of creating dialogue at a distance using 
t h e  c o n c e p t s  of s c affolding a n d  simple 
classroom assessment, and a thorough 
understanding of how adult students learn. 
An examination of a small sample of student 
evaluations raised some issues regarding the 
importance of feedback on assessment and 
accessibility of teaching staff. To use this 
information, it is necessary to design courses 
that are based on sound principles of adult 

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21 



learning and focus on learners' needs. 

Several threads have been drawn together in 
this paper which are all connected by a focus 
on promoting independent and effective 
student learning at a distance. It is necessary 
to provide opportunities for students t o  
comment on course materials a n d  then to 
listen to their comments, as they are in the best 
p o s i t i o n  to c o m m e n t  on how effective 
teaching-lear ning materials are. Strong 
models of instructional design are also needed 
during the preparation of materials and 
recognition of the value and the contribution 
teachers make to building and shaping out 
students' knowledge and skills. If students 
are not given access to teachers' thought 
p r o c e s s e s ,  they are denied a w e a l t h  of 
experience and skill at thinking about the 
topic. Finally, a commitment needs to be made 
to teaching students at a distance by whatever 
means is possible. As new technologies arrive 
on the doorstep, keeping an open mind about 
how they could be used for teaching and how 
they might best suit the learning needs of 
students is imperative. Becoming increasingly 
flexible and reflective on teaching practice is 
crucial, if we are not to become the dinosaur 
that was distance education. 

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LADYSHEWSKY, R. (1995). Clinical teaching. 
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V YGOTSKY, L.S. (1987). Thinking and speech. New 
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Instructional Development and Technology. 

Claire McL achlin-Smith w or k s  at the Good­
fellowUnit, Department of General Practice, Faculty 
of Medicine and Health Science, Private Bag 9299, 
University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand. 
Email: c.mclachlansmith@auckland.ac.nz 

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