Original Article

Job Satisfaction among Ophthalmologists in Iran

Hamideh Sabbaghi1, 2, PhD; Masomeh Kalantarion3, PhD; Mehdi Yaseri4, 5, PhD; Bahareh Kheiri4, MS; Zhale
Rajavi1, 6, 7, MD; Sare Safi1, PhD

1Ophthalmic Epidemiology Research Center, Research Institute for Ophthalmology and Vision Science, Shahid Beheshti
University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

2Department of Optometry, School of Rehabilitation, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
3Department of Medical Education, Virtual School of Medical Education and Management, Shahid Beheshti University of

Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
4Ophthalmic Research Center, Research Institute for Ophthalmology and Vision Science, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical

Sciences, Tehran, Iran
5Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

6Negah Specialty Ophthalmic Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
7Department of Ophthalmology, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

ORCID:
Hamideh Sabbaghi: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2627-7222
Masomeh Kalantarion: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4778-3973

Abstract

Purpose: To estimate the level of job satisfaction among ophthalmologists in Iran and
determine the associated factors that may impact their overall job satisfaction.
Methods: In this cross-sectional study, 181 ophthalmologists (79.0% male) were
interviewed by the Warr-Cook-Wall questionnaire with 7-point-Likert scale, which
transformed responses from a 0 (most dissatisfied) to 100 (most satisfied).
Questionnaires were randomly distributed among registered ophthalmologists at
the 29𝑡ℎ Annual Congress of the Iranian Society of Ophthalmology in November 2019.
Satisfaction under each scale was considered as a score of >60% of the total score.
Results: A total of 181 ophthalmologists with a mean age of 47.8 ± 12.1 years and 16
± 12 years of practice participated in the present study. They were mostly satisfied
with their job as a whole (88.1%, mean score: 60.6 ± 20.7) and dissatisfied with their
income (55.9%, mean score: 47.6 ± 20.3). High levels of job satisfaction was found
among ophthalmologists with longer duration of practice (P < 0.001) while lower levels
of satisfaction were identified among those who worked in academic centers (P = 0.004).
Conclusion: In this study, high levels of job satisfaction were found among
ophthalmologists with longer duration of practice while low levels of satisfaction were
identified among ophthalmologists who worked in academic centers. The factors of
salary and working hours accounted for the least levels of job satisfaction.

Keywords: Associated Factors; Iran; Job Satisfaction; Ophthalmologists; Warr-Cook-Wall
Questionnaire

J Ophthalmic Vis Res 2022; 17 (4): 543–550

© 2022 Sabbaghi et al. THIS IS AN OPEN ACCESS ARTICLE DISTRIBUTED UNDER THE CREATIVE COMMONS ATTRIBUTION LICENSE | PUBLISHED BY KNOWLEDGE E 543

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Job Satisfaction in Iranian Ophthalmologists; Sabbaghi et al

INTRODUCTION

Job satisfaction refers to the level of contentment
that a person feels toward their job which is
influenced by their expectations and how
that feeling translates into their attitude
and achievements.[1–3] Job satisfaction is
entirely obtainable in cases where successful
achievements were matched with expectations,
desires, and values in the profession.[2, 3]

In general, job satisfaction which can be
influential on different aspects of an occupation[4]
is reported to have a positive relationship with
creativity and productivity, the quality of work,
the provision of higher work incentives, and
lower absenteeism rates.[5]In addition, lack of
attention to employees’ satisfaction can threaten
the financial progression of each organization
and may eventually lead to a gradual economic
decline. Job dissatisfaction may also cause anxiety,
lower productivity, absenteeism, resignation,
job abandonment, early retirement, as well as
individual physical and mental discomforts.[6–9]

Job satisfaction of healthcare providers,
especially physicians, is a substantial requirement
in the healthcare system which can have a
crucial role in improving physicians’ performance
and, ultimately, the stability of the healthcare
system,[10–12] while job dissatisfaction may lead to
reduced patient care by physicians and increased
healthcare system costs.[12, 13] A significant
association between physicians’ job satisfaction
and patients’ satisfaction was reported by some
other studies.[14, 15] Furthermore, job satisfaction is
also an influential factor affecting the mental health
of physicians and other health caregivers.[16]

Correspondence to:

Masomeh Kalantarion, MS. Department of Medical
Education, Virtual School of Medical Education and
Management, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical
Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
Email: kalantarion65@gmail.com
Received: 26-01-2021 Accepted: 26-01-2021

Access this article online

Website: https://knepublishing.com/index.php/JOVR

DOI: 10.18502/jovr.v17i4.12315

It is reported that organizational and
environmental factors impact job satisfaction
either directly or indirectly.[7] Other factors that
affect job satisfaction include salary and benefits,
job security, justice, non-discrimination among
employees, and access to work equipment.[17]

A study conducted in Norway showed that
most psychiatrists and primary care physicians
have higher levels of job satisfaction as compared
to other medical groups.[18] Furthermore, higher
levels of job satisfaction were reported among
Norwegian physicians as compared to German
physicians, which was due mainly to appropriate
working hours, adequate salary, and good control
over work affairs.[19] Conversely, some other
studies showed lower levels of job satisfaction
among physicians who work in the United States
and the United Kingdom.[16, 20]

As a consequence, identification of and
addressing the known factors affecting job
satisfaction is a fundamental step in improving
productivity and quality of the job. Although
several studies exist investigating job satisfaction
among other professions in Iran,[3, 9] none was
conducted among ophthalmologists. Therefore,
we aimed to estimate ophthalmologists’ job
satisfaction levels in Iran and determine the
associated factors that may impact it.

METHODS

The present cross-sectional study investigated
the job satisfaction levels among 181 Iranian
ophthalmologists (79.0% male) who participated in
the 29𝑡ℎ Annual Congress of the Iranian Society of
Ophthalmology in November 2019.

This study was approved by the Ethics
Committee of the Ophthalmic Research Center
affiliated to Shahid Behshti University of Medical
Sciences, Tehran, Iran via the approval code
IR.SBMU.ORC.REC.1394.04. The study details
were explained to all participants and their
information was kept confidential.

This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons
Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and
reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

How to cite this article: Sabbaghi H, Kalantarion M, Yaseri M,
Kheiri B, Rajavi Z, Safi S. Job Satisfaction among Ophthalmologists
in Iran . J Ophthalmic Vis Res 2022;17:543–550.

544 JOURNAL OF OPHTHALMIC AND VISION RESEARCH Volume 17, Issue 4, October-December 2022

https://knepublishing.com/index.php/JOVR


Job Satisfaction in Iranian Ophthalmologists; Sabbaghi et al

10-item Warr-Cook-Wall Questionnaire

Data collection was done using the 10-item Warr-
Cook-Wall questionnaire which was customized
and translated into the Persian language by
Lavasani et al.[21, 22] This questionnaire was
presented to an expert panel including five
ophthalmologists (three academic and two non-
academic ophthalmologists) to revise it so that
it would be aligned with the ophthalmology
context. The revised questionnaire was then
approved by other professors at the department of
ophthalmology.

All participants were interviewed by the10-
item Warr-Cook-Wall questionnaire consisting of 10
questions scored based on a 7-point Likert scale.
This questionnaire recorded general information
regarding the interviewees’ age, sex, location of
practice, field and duration of practice, and their
subspecialty. The job satisfaction of all participants
was also recorded according to their responsibility,
freedom to choose how to work, variety of
work, relationship with colleagues, feelings toward
the job, physical condition, opportunities, salary,
acknowledgement of good performance, and
working hours. For data analysis, the responses
under each of the 10 items were transformed into
a 0 (most dissatisfied) to 100 (most satisfied) scale.

The questionnaire was filled out by the study
participants at the time of registration for the
Congress in order to prevent duplication.[23, 24] In
order to increase the response rate, participants
were gifted a Reduced Snellen Eye chart.

Statistical Analysis

To present data, we used mean, standard
deviation, median, range, frequency, and
percentage analyses. To identify the associated
factors of job satisfaction, all items of the
questionnaire were first entered into the univariate
model. Each variable with a P-value < 0.2 was
statistically acceptable in order to enter the
multivariate analysis. All statistical analyses were
performed using the SPSS software version 25
(IBM Corp. Armonk, NY: IBM Corp.). P-values <
0.05 were considered statistically significant.

RESULTS

A total of 181 ophthalmologists with the mean
age of 47.8 ± 12.1 years participated in the

present study. Table 1 shows the demographic
characteristics, academic degrees, duration and
location of practice. The majority of them (63.5%)
were general ophthalmologists and 56.9% had a
duration of practice of >10 years. A total of 22.6%
of participants were faculty members of whom
3.3% and 19.3% were in the fields of research and
education, respectively.

Table 2 shows the mean score of the individuals’
job satisfaction in each item of the Warr-Cook-
Wall questionnaire. A high level of satisfaction
was observed in more than half of the study
subjects (63.5%). Highest job satisfaction levels
were positively related to the following factors:
freedom to choose how to work (98.3%); variety
of work (93.2%); level of responsibility (88.1%);
and feelings of satisfaction (88.1%). The lowest
levels of job satisfaction were identified in the
following categories: acknowledgement of good
performance (66.1%); working hours (61.0%); and
salary (55.9%).

Table 3 shows the level of job satisfaction in
relation to the characteristics of the participants.
We found that higher levels of job satisfaction
were observed among older ophthalmologists (P
= 0.001), who had longer duration of practice (P <
0.001) and worked in a private office (P = 0.004).
The simultaneous analysis also showed that
ophthalmologists with longer years of experience
were more satisfied as compared to those having
<10 years of experience (AOR = 5.472, 95%
CI: 2.202–13.599; P < 0.001). Furthermore,
ophthalmologists working in academic centers
had lower levels of job satisfaction than those who
worked in private offices (AOR = 0.299, 95% CI:
0.131–0.679; P = 0.004).

Figure 1 shows the frequency of job satisfaction
in different fields of ophthalmology. As seen,
the highest (40.9%) and the lowest (6.1%)
levels of satisfaction were observed among
ophthalmologists working in the fields of anterior
segment and glaucoma, respectively.

DISCUSSION

The main aim of the present study was to
determine the job satisfaction levels among
Iranian ophthalmologists. In this regard, the
Persian version of the 10-item Warr-Cook-
Wall questionnaire was filled by Iranian
ophthalmologists who participated in the 29𝑡ℎ

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Job Satisfaction in Iranian Ophthalmologists; Sabbaghi et al

Table 1. Demographic characteristics of the study subjects.

Factors Level Value

Age (yrs) Mean ± SD 47.8 ± 12.1
Median (IQR) 47 (37 to 59)

Age category (yrs) ≤35 34 (18.8%)
36–50 76 (42.0%)

51–65 60 (33.1%)

≥66 11 (6.1%)
Sex (%) Male 143 (79.0%)

Female 38 (21.0%)

Duration of practice (yrs) Mean ± SD 16 ± 12
Median (IQR) 14 (5 to 23)

≤10 78 (43.1%)
11–25 68 (37.6%)

≥26 35 (19.3%)
Last degree (%) General ophthalmologist 115 (63.5%)

Fellowship 66 (36.5%)

Field of fellowship (%) Anterior segment 27 (40.9%)

Posterior segment 23 (34.8%)

Strabismus 12 (18.2%)

Glaucoma 4 (6.1%)

Faculty (%) Research 6 (3.3%)

Educational 35 (19.3%)

Non-academic 140 (77.3%)

Status (%) Private office 124 (68.5%)

Academic staff 57 (31.5%)

IQR, inter quartile range; SD, standard deviation; yrs, years

Annual Congress of the Iranian Society of
Ophthalmology.

The present study demonstrated that more
than half of the ophthalmologists had a high
level of job satisfaction. However, the highest
and lowest levels were related to the freedom to
choose how to work and salary, respectively. The
highest levels of job satisfaction were significantly
observed among ophthalmologists who were older
and those who had longer years of practice.
Additionally, lower levels of satisfaction were
identified among ophthalmologists who worked in
academic centers.

Our literature review shows that although
most studies investigated job satisfaction among
medical professionals, especially nurses,[25–27]
few studies focused on ophthalmologists.[28, 29]

In this regard, the discoveries of a study
conducted by Nair et al to investigate the job
satisfaction among Indian ophthalmologists can
be used for comparison with the study on Iranian
ophthalmologists.[28]

Overall, the present study showed an acceptable
level of job satisfaction (63.5%) among Iranian
ophthalmologists, which is consistent with the
results reported among Indian and Nigerian
ophthalmologists with job satisfaction levels of
54.21% and 78.5%, respectively.[28, 29] Additionally,
mean levels of satisfaction were reported among
optometrists (145.9 ± 14.44) as compared to other
medical specialists.[30] Furthermore, high levels of
job satisfaction were identified among 37.5% of the
vision technicians studied by Paudel et al.[31]

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Job Satisfaction in Iranian Ophthalmologists; Sabbaghi et al

Table 2. Mean job satisfaction scores of study participants for every 10 questions of the questionnaire.

Items Satisfaction Score Satisfied

Mean ± SD Median (IQR) N (%)
Responsibility 58 ± 17.3 50 (50 to 66.7) 52(88.1%)
Freedom to choose how to work 61 ± 19.2 66.7 (50 to 66.7) 58 (98.3%)
Variety of work 61.2 ± 18.9 66.7 (50 to 66.7) 55 (93.2%)
Colleague 55.5 ± 18 50 (50 to 66.7) 47(79.7%)
Feeling of satisfaction 60.6 ± 20.7 66.7 (50 to 66.7) 52(88.1%)
Physical condition 57.6 ± 20.1 50 (50 to 66.7) 49(83.1%)
Opportunity 54.7 ± 16.9 50 (50 to 66.7) 39(67.2%)
Salary 47.6 ± 20.3 50 (33.3 to 50) 33(55.9%)
Acknowledgement of good
performance

49.2 ± 21.2 50 (33.3 to 66.7) 39(66.1%)

Working hours 52 ± 19 50 (50 to 66.7) 36(61%)

IQR, inter quartile range; SD, standard deviation

 

Figure 1. The frequency of job satisfaction in different fields of ophthalmology.

Of note, multiple style questionnaires were also
used to assess ophthalmologists’ job satisfaction
in related studies.[28, 29, 31] In this investigation, the
10-item Warr-Cook-Wall questionnaire was used,[21]
while in other studies, a questionnaire created by
a researcher was used for data collection, whose
responses were provided based on literature
review and panel experts’ consensus.[28, 29, 31]

A standard questionnaire (job satisfaction
survey scale) designed by Paul E Spector for
optometrists was applied in the study by Chen

et al.[30] This questionnaire also assesses job
satisfaction from different dimensions including
promotion, supervision, operating conditions,
relationships with coworkers, work nature, and
communication.[30]

In the present study, the highest level of job
satisfaction was related to the freedom to choose
how to work (98.3%). This can be attributed to
the fact that the majority of our study population
who were general ophthalmologists (63.5%) and
also worked in private office (68.5%) had the

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Job Satisfaction in Iranian Ophthalmologists; Sabbaghi et al

Table 3. Job satisfaction of participants based on their characteristics.

Factors Level Satisfied P-value AOR 95% CI P-value AOR
(backward)

95% CI P-value

Lower Upper Lower Upper

Age (yrs) ≤35 4 (11.8%) 0.001 R

36–50 24 (32.0%) 2.501 0.7 8.931 0.158

51–65 23 (38.3%) 1.839 0.369 9.169 0.457

≥66 8 (72.7%) 3.007 0.31 29.15 0.342

Sex (%) Male 52 (36.4%) 0.05 R R

Female 7 (18.9%) 0.421 0.16 1.109 0.08 0.425 0.164 1.103 0.079

Duration of practice
(yrs)

≤10 16 (20.5%) <0.001 R R

11–25 22 (32.8%) 1.347 0.509 3.565 0.549 1.602 0.737 3.483 0.234

≥26 21 (60.0%) 4.634 1.075 19.974 0.04 5.472 2.202 13.599 <0.001

Field of fellowship
(%)

Anterior segment 10 (37.0%) 0.807

Posterior
segment

9 (39.1%)

Strabismus 6 (50.0%)

Glaucoma 1 (25.0%)

Status (%) Private office 43 (36.8%) 0.004 R R

Academic staff 16 (25.4%) 0.322 0.139 0.746 0.008 0.299 0.131 0.679 0.004

Faculty (%) Research 1 (16.7%) 0.282

Educational 15 (42.9%)

Non- academic 43 (30.9%)

xP-value for the comparison of the level to the reference level.
*These variables remained statistically significant in the final model based on logistic regression.
R, reference category.

freedom to choose how to work. However, the
study by Paudel et al[31] reported acceptable levels
of job satisfaction with the variety of work (70.8%)
among vision technicians which is not in line with
our findings. In some other studies, it was also
reported that the highest levels of satisfaction
were observed under the categories of patients’
treatment (94.9%) and the nature of the work.[29, 30]

In the present study, the lowest level of job
satisfaction was related to salary (55.9%), since
the majority of our population had long practicing
experience and they expected to earn higher levels
of income. The highest level of job dissatisfaction

(71.2%) among Nigerian ophthalmologists was
related to work facilities.[29] The results reported by
other studies on ophthalmologists,[29] vision
technicians,[31] doctors working at teaching
hospitals,[32] and medical officers[33] indicated
the lowest levels for salary satisfaction. However,
the results of the study conducted on optometrists
in Malaysia demonstrated moderate salary
satisfaction.[30]

Various studies reported a high level of
satisfaction with colleagues, the rate of 78.7%
was reported among Nigerian ophthalmologists[29]
and 66.7% among vision technicians.[31]

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Job Satisfaction in Iranian Ophthalmologists; Sabbaghi et al

A low level of satisfaction with working hours
(61.0%) was determined in the present study, which
is consistent with the results reported on Indian
ophthalmologists.[28]

In this study, there were higher levels of job
satisfaction among ophthalmologists with older
ages (P = 0.001) and long duration of practice (P <
0.001); however, Paudel et al found no significant
relationship between job satisfaction and age and
duration of practice.[31] Although the association
between job satisfaction and all of the underlying
factors was not examined in the study on the Indian
ophthalmologists, more challenges were reported
among female ophthalmologists (P < 0.001).[28]

Meanwhile, Jain et al found that female
ophthalmologists complained about having fewer
working hours and experiencing extra obstacles
regarding job promotions and discrimination in
the workplace. However, no evaluation of the job
satisfaction was performed between genders in
the current study.[34]

Multivariate analysis shows high levels of
satisfaction among ophthalmologists with longer
experience (<0.001) and lower levels of satisfaction
among those working in academic centers (P =
0.004).

It is noticeable that the lowest levels of
job satisfaction recorded among the Iranian
ophthalmologists in this study were regarding their
salary, acknowledgement of good performance,
and working hours. It is necessary for these
concerns to be investigated fully by the
health policymakers and the Iranian Society
of Ophthalmology since high levels of job
satisfaction can have a crucial impact when
offering high-quality medical and educational
services. Extensive investigation using a
combination of qualitative and quantitative
research measures on a larger ophthalmologists’
population is recommended for future studies on
job satisfaction.

One advantage of the present study was the
usage of the Persian version of the Warr-Cook-Wall
questionnaire[22] which enhanced the efficiency
and comprehensibility of this questionnaire.
Sample selection from the ophthalmology
congress participants can be taken as a possible
limitation of the present study, since it is expected
that congress attendees are already more satisfied
in their jobs and their responses may skew the
results. Additionally, the higher male respondent

among our study participants could be considered
as another limitation of the current study as it may
not be accurately representative of the proportion
of the male versus female ophthalmologists in Iran.

In summary, high levels of job satisfaction
were found among ophthalmologists with
longer duration of practice, while low levels
of job satisfaction were identified among
ophthalmologists who worked in academic
centers. Salary and working hours were
determined to be the factors that were responsible
for the lowest levels of job satisfaction assessed in
this study.

Financial Support and Sponsorship

None.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to express their gratitude
to the Ophthalmology Research Center, Shahid
Beheshti University of Medical Sciences and all
the loved ones who cooperated with this research
project, especially ophthalmologists.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of
interest.

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