Microsoft Word - Perception of Risks in Nanotechnology_ Determining Key Aspects in Chile Perception of Risks in Nanotechnology: Determining Key Aspects in Chile J. POZO Instituto de Ciencias Básicas. Universidad Diego Portales. Ejército 441 Santiago, Chile. E-mail: julio.pozo@udp.cl www.udp.cl A. SCHMESSANE Instituto de Ciencias Básicas. Universidad Diego Portales. Ejército 441 Santiago, Chile. E-mail: ann_schme@yahoo.es www.udp.cl A. POZO Universidad Diego Portales Santiago, Chile. E-mail: alejandra_pozo@yahoo.com C. POZO Universidad Diego Portales Santiago, Chile. E-mail: caritop80@yahoo.com Abstract The purpose of this study is to provide preliminary base-line data on public perceptions about the risks associated with nanotechnology. We analyzed the current development of nanotechnology in Chile and the risks associated with the incorporation of this new technology over time, considering the particular case of Chile and its position in sci- ence and technology. A survey was applied to determine perceptions about the most prominent risks. Keywords: Science, Nanotechnology, Nanomaterials, Technology, Legislation, Risks 1. Introduction The size of nanoparticles represents one of the risks as- sociated with nanotechnology, considering that the smaller a particle is, the greater its reactivity. Thus, we can infer that a particle that is inert at the micro or mac- ro scale may be harmful at the nano scale. The possible risks associated with nanotechnology include nanoparti- cles penetrating the skin and entering the bloodstream and the interaction and effect of nanoparticles on eco- systems. Finally, there are economic effects associated with the proliferation of products in the market.1, 2 Nanoparticles in contact with living tissue can cause the appearance of free radicals and cancer. Some studies have dealt with the potentially harmful consequences of nanoparticles to living beings and their rise through the food chain.3, 4 Currently, scientific research and techno- logical problems related to nanotechnology deserve great interest from both theoretical and experimental Journal of Risk Analysis and Crisis Response, Vol. 2, No. 1 (May 2012), 34-43 Published by Atlantis Press Copyright: the authors 34 Administrateur Texte tapé à la machine Received 18 April 2011; accepted 12 March 2012 Administrateur Texte tapé à la machine Administrateur Texte tapé à la machine J. Pozo, A. Schmessane, A. Pozo, C. Pozo points of view. This is because the results that are being generated by describing their behavior try to solve many problems currently facing humanity, which to date have remained unsolved. The objective of this study is to generate preliminary base-line information on public perceptions about the risks associated with nanotechnology. 1.1 Theoretical analysis All changes in technology have associated economic changes. From the point of view of the economic im- portance of nanotechnology, NASA and the National Science Foundation have considered that the develop- ment of nanotechnology is of strategic importance. In the view of many people and institutions around the world, nanotechnology is producing a new industrial revolution. The financial and economic risks that NASA wants to avoid are evidenced by the fact it did not dis- close the results of around 150 patent applications in the field of nanotechnology.5 Some first world economies have made significant investments in research, devel- opment and innovation (R & D & I) in nanotechnology. Therefore, it is expected that nanotechnology will have strong implications in future global economic trends, which may impact on almost all activities of our society. 1.1.1 Nanotechnology, economics and global competitiveness It has been noted that in the very near future, the devel- opment of nanotechnology will revolutionize science, technology and human society. Nanotechnology has the potential to transform medicine, biotechnology, agricul- ture, manufacturing, material sciences, information technology, and telecommunications, among other fields. The world is entering an era driven by accelerated tech- nology projects and business ventures that generate sig- nificant economic value. We are in the middle of great changes in economic systems led by the rapid exponen- tial growth of new technologies. Nanotechnology should be understood in this context, as such, it is a continua- tion in the acceleration of advanced technology and per- haps most importantly, it can have the capacity to trans- form the future global economy. Ten years ago, America appeared to be the only country concerned with developing nanotechnology. Today, several countries have joined in this pursuit, such as China, India, Japan, Australia, Israel, Korea, and most recently Russia. All of them are becoming aware of the potential advantages of “betting” on this sector, while Europe seems to be more cautious.6 Significant advances in the field of nanotechnology and nanoscience have been achieved in the last two years, to the point that no one doubts that this field is set to be- come the ultimate strategic sector in the most advanced economies worldwide. The evolution and growth of technology has become a cornerstone for the promotion of competitive innova- tion, the emergence of new businesses and prospects of economic progress for systems that strive to be players in the era of globalization and knowledge. While nano- technological advances take place, economists and spe- cialists are looking ahead to identify the impacts of the evolution and development of current technology both in economics and in business. Nanotechnology is criti- cal because it can provide the necessary tools to facili- tate a reorganization of society, business and the struc- ture of our economies.5, 6 1.1.2 Nanotechnology as a strategic sector in the international arena Nanotechnology projects can be divided into three phas- es6. Nanotechnology is currently at the stage of research and the development of scientific knowledge, and is on- ly beginning to have applications. During the next five years, many applications that are in the beginning stages are expected to be further developed. In the following ten years, nanotechnology will be consolidated as an industry, and consumers will be enjoying a wide range of products using nanotechnology. 1.2 Overview The mechanical construction of molecules was first suggested by Richard Feynman, who is now considered the founder of nanotechnology. In an after-dinner speech entitled “There’s Plenty of Room at the Bottom” at the California Institute of Technology in 1959, and later published in 19607, Feynman proposed an alterna- tive approach to miniaturization that would use ma- Published by Atlantis Press Copyright: the authors 35 Perception of risks in Nanotechnology: Determining key aspects in Chile chines to build smaller machines, which could then build still smaller machines, and so forth. According to Feynman “The principle of physics, as far as I can see, do not speak against the possibility of maneuvering things atom by atoms. It is not an attempt to violate any laws; it is something, in principle, that can be done; but, in practice, it has not been done because we are too big”. The prefix nano refers to one-billionth of something, for example a longitude of 1 nanometer (1 nm= 10(-9) m). The word nanotechnology is used extensively in relation to science and technologies at the nanoscale, an ex- tremely small scale at which molecular structures and their atoms are manipulated, with the possibility of mak- ing building-materials and machinery from atomic and molecular arrays. Currently, there are super microscopes that can move individual atoms using a probe approach, such as the scanning tunneling microscopy (STM), which is capable of creating moving images using electrically conductive needles on the atoms in a conductive surface. The STM was invented by Binnig and Rohrer at the IBM laborato- ry in Switzerland in 1982. In 1986, the inventors were awarded the Nobel Prize, a clear confirmation of the importance of STM. The STM maps topography by measuring the tunnel current between an atomically sharp tip and a metallic sample. Another breakthrough came in 1986 with the invention of the atomic force microscope (AFM) by Binnig, Quate and Gerber. The AFM measures the force between a tip and a sample. In contrast to the STM, insulated samples can also be imaged. The AFM is suitable for different types of materials. The technique presented by these microscopes is very versatile and of great interest in the characterization of devices in the field of nanoscience and nanotechnology. In this context it has been possible to characterize the morphology of nonporous surfaces grown by electrodeposition, mechanical properties of metal surfaces in addition to significant magnetic prop- erties. 1.2.1 Definition of Nanotechnology Nanotechnology systematically organizes and manipu- lates properties and behaviors of matter at the atomic and molecular levels in order to create functional devic- es, materials and systems on a nanometer scale. In this context, the most frequently asked question is: What is Nanotechnology? The US National Science and Tech- nology Council defines nanotechnology as: “The es- sence of nanotechnology is the ability to work at the molecular level, atom by atom, to create large structures with fundamentally new molecular organization. The aim is to exploit these properties by gaining control of structures and devices at atomic, molecular, and supra- molecular levels and to learn to efficiently manufacture and use these devices”. 1.2.2 Nanomaterials Nanomaterials are single or multi-phase polycrystalline structures with a typical size of 1 to 100 nanometers (nm) in at least one dimension. The focus of nano- materials is a bottom-up approach to structures and functional effects so that the building blocks of materi- als are designed and assembled in a controlled manner. Some examples are nanoclays that reinforce plastics or carbon nanotubes to add conductivity to various materi- als such as zinc oxide and cerium oxide. Zinc oxide is ideal for use in cosmetics and industrial application of radiation absorbing transparent ultraviolet light (UV), and antibacterial functions. Cerium is ideal for use in catalytic engines fuel cells and transparent UV absorb- ers. In these nanomaterials, most atoms are located on the surface of the particles, augmenting or enhancing chem- ical, mechanical, optical and magnetic properties. Ap- plications of nanomaterials include the generation of computer chips, phosphors for high-definition TV, high- power magnets, high-sensitivity sensors, more durable satellites, more durable medical implants and others.8 1.2.3 Carbon Nanotubes Computer companies with large laboratories, such as IBM or HP, have research programs in nanotechnology. The interest is to obtain smaller electronic chips, so that when silicon technology reaches its limit, it will proba- bly be replaced by a new concept which is called carbon nanotubes. Nanotubes are composed entirely of carbon materials where the basic unit is a plane of graphite rolled into a cylinder, forming tubes whose diameter is on the order Published by Atlantis Press Copyright: the authors 36 J. Pozo, A. Schmessane, A. Pozo, C. Pozo of a few nanometers. These single-walled tubes have properties that are stronger than steel. 1.2.4 The Graphene This is a sheet of carbon one atom thick, which was first made in a laboratory in 2004. Graphite, which is the ma- terial commonly used in pencils, is made up of many layers of graphene. It should be noted that the conduc- tive properties of graphene are highly efficient and can be used in nanoelectronics. In the form of a long ribbon of dimensions on the order of nanometers, graphene has unique electrical properties and behaves as a metal or semiconductor. Graphene has a structure in which carbon atoms in flat sheets are joined, forming a hexagonal honeycomb, with one atom at each vertex. Graphite is obtained by placing many sheets on top of each other. Then if a portion of one of these films is wound in the form of a sphere, like a football, fullerenes are obtained (molecules of recent interest). If the structure related to the fullerenes is rolled into a cylinder, it will form a carbon nanotube. Within this field, a graphene honeycomb corresponds to a single extended two dimensional flat structure. 1.2.5 Dry Nanotechnology Dry nanotechnology deals with the manufacture of structures in carbon (carbon nanotubes), silicon, inorganic materials, metals and semiconductors, and is used in electronics, magnetism and various optical devices, in addition to being controlled by self- assembled computers. 1.2.6 Wet Nanotechnology This technology is based on biological systems in wet environments, considering genetic material, membranes, enzymes and other cellular components. In brief, we can say that wet nanotechnology is used in the context of biological cell division and DNA. 2. Frame of Reference of Nanotechnology The frame of reference of nanotechnology is understood as the context in which it develops and is implemented. This context is composed of interest groups. The interest group is understood as all those companies or people that participate in processes associated with the devel- opment of this technology. These participants can be classified into 6 groups: The state, the society, consum- ers, universities, engineers and scientists, and business- es. All these groups can express their opinions regarding this technology, besides developing it or simply being affected by the benefits or risks of nanotechnology. Par- ticularly, we should understand that this tool functions and operates in a context and the possible risks or bene- fits depend on the use that these groups give to it. The role of the interest groups in the development of nanotechnology: The State and businesses. They have the obligation to regulate and control the use of nano- technology, as well as rewarding the good use, since this encourages the adequate utilization of this technology. Engineers, scientists and universities should educate, conduct outreach, and invest in nanotechnology to de- velop awareness in the population and among students. The society and consumers are the recipients of this technology. The contribution of these groups is not only to observe the evolution of and enjoy the possible bene- fits that this technology, but also to be informed and ex- press their opinions on these themes.9, 10 2.1 Implementation process of nanotechnology The implementation of nanotechnology is composed of 3 stages: The initial phase that aims to evaluate the actual versus the expected, in order to analyze the differences be- tween what is and what is desired in nanotechnology. The second stage is to coordinate planning and the pos- sible mass evolution of this technology in several years. The development stage involves all the processes to im- plement nanotechnology. These include regulation and legislation, investment strategies. The third and final stage is related to results because it is here where we can see and measure whether the techno- logical benefits outweigh the risks. Published by Atlantis Press Copyright: the authors 37 Perception of risks in Nanotechnology: Determining key aspects in Chile Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the interest groups that make up the frame of reference for nanotechnology. 3. Responsible Nanoscience and its Meaning Some background: In 2008, The European Commission recommended a code of conduct for responsible nano- sciences and nanotechnologies research. This is one of a growing number of codes of conduct being proposed for nanotechnology. In the case of the European Union (EU), the main goals are commendable. It seeks a rela- tionship among everyone involved in academic research and industry. The UK government recently issued the Universal Ethical Code for Scientists, which considered the following general principle “ensure that your work is lawful and justified”, and one injunction to “minimize and justify any adverse effect your work may have on people, animals and the natural environment”.11 3.1 Responsible Nanotechnology (RN) Responsible Nanotechnology is a relatively new concept that refers to a responsible management of potential risks, and the promotion of the benefits on behalf of the human kind. The potential of the nanotechnology from a social point of view is immense, as are the potential risks due to irresponsible use or management. The aca- demic community that defends the concept of responsi- ble nanotechnology pursues a vision of the world in which molecular production is utilized for beneficial and productive purposes, and in which evil uses of their potential is prevented by an efficient management of the technology. In the United States, the Center for Respon- sible Nanotechnology (CRN) promotes debate related to the responsible management of nanotechnology. To of- fer complete and precise information, clear explanations and feasible proposals, CRN studies all aspects of nano- technology and its impact. This includes technological, social, military, economic, and political sides. This cen- ter presents the results of its studies to specialized pub- lic, but also to the general public, and tries to present the information in the most effective way possible. The ob- jective of CRN is to investigate the ethical, legal and social implications of molecular production and to edu- cate the people so they influence its development and applications.12 4. Some Risks Associated with Nanotechnology It is important to note that in October 2004 the UK Health and Safety Executive estimated that more than 10,000 workers dealing with nanoparticles could be ex- posed to some risks, in addition to not using effective methods of protection to avoid ingestion and inhalation of or dermal exposure to nanoparticles in the production process. In 2005, the U.S. National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health reported that significant damage was found in the DNA of the heart and arteries of mice ex- posed to carbon nanotubes. In the same year, a NASA study reported that the injection of commercially availa- ble carbon nanotubes (equivalent to 17 days of exposure for a worker) caused significant damage in the lungs of rats. Researchers at the University of Rochester reported that rabbits subjected to inhalation of carbon nano- spheres showed increased susceptibility to blood clots. At the meeting of the American Chemical Association, a report13 was presented that showed that carbon nanopar- ticles dissolve in water and that even very small concen- trations are toxic to soil bacteria. This caused alarm about possible interactions with natural ecosystems. In 2003, a study published in Nature14 showed that na- noparticles can be absorbed by earthworms and other soil organisms, with the possibility of moving up the food chain. Therefore, there is concern about the risks of nanoparticles in humans, but these risks will only be known over time. To date no real impact is known, oth- Published by Atlantis Press Copyright: the authors 38 J. Pozo, A. Schmessane, A. Pozo, C. Pozo er than several studies that suggest certain dangers. The- se risks are perhaps no greater than those of existing in- dustries15. 4.1 Risk Factors In the context of the Responsible Nanotechnology (RN) and to facilitate its comprehension as a model to mini- mize the risks associated with nanotechnology in Chile16, we developed a model that could be helpful for other countries as well. A mathematical relationship that incorporates the most prominent factors to consider is proposed in this work. This relationship takes into con- sideration the following fundamental aspects:  Legislation (L)  Funding for Research (FR)  Sanctions for Undue Use (SUU)  State Control (SC)  Good Practice Rewards (GPR) As such, the model is represented by the following equation17: ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) L SR PUU SC GPR RN L w SR w PUU w SC w GPR w = + + + + (1) Where: wL, wSR, wSUU, wSC and wGPR are their respective weights. Why do we consider these aspects and not others? The answer is simple, because investment in this field in Chile by the private sector is low. Thus, public funding of research is very important. Technology in Chile is based principally on imports, so state control is important. The question is the following: How to control the revenues for safe technologies in the country? We think the above can be obtained by differ- ential taxes and funding. 5. Nanotechnology in Chile To contextualize the situation of nanotechnology in Chile, it is important to consider current legislation or regulations as a reference framework, that is to say, a methodology that describes and discriminates between the correct and the incorrect. It would be desirable that regulation for the use of the nanotechnology is as de- tailed as possible, without leaving room for different interpretations, or in other words, that it has a clear meaning that allows for common understanding. Government funding will also be important because it will allow for the development of new topics in research and development and innovation (R&D&I) in nanotech- nology, which is lacking in Chile and is of an immediate need.18 Chile must identify nanotechnology as a strategic sector of development, and must consider a number of initia- tives in order to maximize profits, while minimizing their risk. Others studies19, 20 have shown the importance of public perceptions for the successful development and imple- mentation of new technologies. Perceptions can modify the direction, and behavior of scientific activity in many fields of research and technologic development. A rele- vant example is nuclear energy. To identify public concerns regarding nanotechnology, we conducted a survey to detect perceptions and knowledge about the risks and benefits of nanotechnol- ogy. This survey included questions about its regulation, and the possible impact and consequences of this tech- nology in Chile. Because there are no previous reports regarding Chilean public opinion on this matter, our first approximations were based on surveys directed to two discrete groups; the general public, and university students and profes- sors (academic world). The intention is to find differences between the two groups, because science and technology at the nano- scale is studied in Chile only in the academic world by research groups in few universities. The issues contemplated in the survey are the ingredi- ents for responsible nanotechnology in Chile, the pro- portion of them in the equation respond principally to the cultural framework in Chile and how Chilean socie- ty responds. Published by Atlantis Press Copyright: the authors 39 Perception of risks in Nanotechnology: Determining key aspects in Chile 5.1 Chile as a competitive country in 2020 Chileans should be aware of what is happening with new technologies to be better prepared for future chal- lenges. With regard to nanotechnology, Chile was se- lected by the World Bank as pioneer by the Millennium Science Initiative, which has been funding some pro- jects in nanotechnology. 5.2 Human Resources in Chile and S & T Policies Human resources are one of the predominant factors in the scientific and technological development of a coun- try. A poor educational policy or its delay may result in the loss of international competitiveness. 6. Opinion Survey To evaluate the status of nanotechnology in Chile, we conducted an opinion survey. Detailed information on the specific questions and the complete results can be found in21. The survey was applied to different repre- sentative sectors of Chilean society represented by 200 people divided into two groups of 100 each. The first group included the general public (private and public sector), and the second consisted of university students and professors. The survey had 15 questions, grouped as follows: 4 questions related to perceptions about nano- technology, 3 related to the respondent’s knowledge of nanotechnology, 2 about personal opinions, 3 about risks associated with nanotechnology, and the last 3 about responsibility at the country level. 6.1 Survey Results There was no difference between the two groups, which allowed us to emphasize the following aspects that are prominent21:  Perception Although the majority of respondents had heard about nanotechnology and respondents were interested in knowing more about it21, they considered that the level of development and investments made in Chile in this field are low (Fig. 2). Fig. 2. A sequence of responses that involves percentages ver- sus number of people for the two groups (general public and students/professors) in connection with the question.  Knowledge of its applications In relation to the applications of nanotechnology, close to 50% of respondents thought that the applications are in informatics, 24% in medicine, 20% in development of products and materials and 8% in foods (Fig. 3). Most of the respondents also thought that the level of knowledge about the theme depends more on motivation and personal interest than educational level and socio- economic status.21   Fig. 3. A sequence of responses that involves percentages ver- sus number of people for the two groups (general public and students/professors) in connection with the question.  Opinion Almost all respondents stated that no regulations exist in Chile (Fig. 4). 70% stated that public opinion should be Published by Atlantis Press Copyright: the authors 40 J. Pozo, A. Schmessane, A. Pozo, C. Pozo considered in developing nanotechnology in Chile (Fig. 5). Fig. 4. A sequence of responses that involves percentages ver- sus number of people for the two groups (general public and students/professors) in connection with the question. Fig. 5. A sequence of responses that involves percentages ver- sus number of people for the two groups (general public and students/professors) in connection with the question.  Associated risks Regarding potential risks, 55% thought that nanotech- nology can harm both people’s health and the environ- ment, with about 30% thinking that it can be harmful for peoples’ health and 15% concerned about environmen- tal risks (Fig. 6). Nevertheless, 90% of respondents in both sectors stated that they did not know what risks may be associated with handling nanomaterials (Fig. 7). Besides, more than 90% of respondents considered that nanotechnology may improve global competitiveness (Fig. 8). Fig. 6. A sequence of responses that involves percentages ver- sus number of people for the two groups (general public and Students/professors) in connection with the question. Fig. 7. A sequence of responses that involves percentages ver- sus number of people for the two groups (general public and Students/professors) in connection with the question. Fig. 8. A sequence of responses that involves percentages versus number of people for the two groups (general public and students/professors) in connection with the question. Published by Atlantis Press Copyright: the authors 41 Perception of risks in Nanotechnology: Determining key aspects in Chile  Responsibility at the country level On the other hand, close to 90% of respondents consid- ered that the development of nanotechnology is a pend- ing challenge for Chile (Fig. 9). Regarding who should finance research, 44% identified the private sector, 42% the State and 14% universities (Fig. 10). Fig. 9. A sequence of responses that involves percentages ver- sus number of people for the two groups (general public and students/professors) in connection with the question. Fig. 10. A sequence of responses that involves percentages versus number of people for the two groups (general public and students/professors) in connection with the question. 7. Conclusions The two groups (general public, and university students and professors) tended to give similar answers to all the questions. It is clear that the discussion in Chile on nan- otechnology is incipient and that the same level of in- formation is available to everyone. Based on this sur- vey, it should be the responsibility of the Chilean gov- ernment to propose legislation in science and related technology in the context of research and development and innovation (R&D&I) that establish the norms to regulate the development of nanotechnology in Chile. Funding for research in nanotechnology should be pro- vided by both the government and large Chilean busi- nesses. Additionally, it is necessary to emphasize that the uni- versities and institutes should be responsible to for de- veloping adequately trained engineers and scientists with the ethical disposition to face the challenges of the future in this matter.5 Based on the information and the results generated in this work, and with the help of decision tree 22, it is pos- sible to assign relative weight factors (%) to each pa- rameter in the equation (1). Given that Chile does not have legislation yet (L), and sanctions for the undue use (SUU) to start is also im- portant, both parameters are weighted with 30% fol- lowed by funding for research (RF) with 20%, State Control (SC) and Good Practice Rewards (GPR) both with 10% each. Thus, the suggested model is as follows: (30%) (20%) (30%) (10%) (10%) RN L SR PUU SC GPR = + + + + (2) This equation may be useful to acquire preliminary quantifiable baseline information. As an emerging field, the development of nanotechnol- ogy, by both the private and public sectors, should be undertaken with consideration of social responsibility. Another aspect can also be considered in our model as the self-regulation by the society and the responsibility of the private sector. Nevertheless the last aspect in our model GPR is zero, because the development of science and technology in Chile is low. We think that any further development of this technolo- gy in Chile should involve adequate legislation. We conclude that the main risks associated with nano- technology relate to the lack of legislation and/or regu- lations in Chile in the area of science and technology, Published by Atlantis Press Copyright: the authors 42 J. Pozo, A. Schmessane, A. Pozo, C. Pozo which results in a lack of leadership, and therefore a deficit in the construction of knowledgement in term of what are the determining factors in global economic dy- namics. There are few specialists in Chile to address the issue. Finally, there should be a communication strategy to educate citizens, which is of vital importance to es- tablish public policies and regulations on the subject. References 1. M. Siegrist, C. Keller, H. Kastenholz, S.Frey and A. Wiek Laypople’s and Experts’ Perception of nanotechnology Hazards, (Risk Analysis, Vol. 27, No 1, pp. 59-69, 2007). 2. Theories and Applications of Risk Analysis and Crisis Response The First International Conference on Risk Analysis and Crisis Response, (September 25- 26, 2007, Shanghai, China). http://racr.shmtu.edu.cn/en_index.asp 3. Chi-Fai Chau, Shiuan-Huei Wu and Gow-Chin Yen The development of regulations for food nanotechnology (Trends in Food Science & Tech- nology 18, 269-280, 2007). 4. K. Thomas, P. Sayre Research strategies for safety evaluation of nanomaterials, parts I: evaluating the human health implications of exposure to na- noscale materials (Toxicological Science 87 (2) pp, 316-321, 2005). 5. J. Pozo, A. Schmessane, G. Estay Los Ingenieros chilenos la Nanotecnología y las estrategias eco- nómicas a futuro (Actas CD XXIV Congreso Chi- leno de Educación en Ingeniería, SOCHEDI 2010). 6. A. Pedreño Muñoz Nanotecnología y Economía: estrategias de futuro (Instituto de Economía Inter- nacional. Universidad de Alicante. URL) http://iei.ua.es/nanotecnologia/nanotecnologia-y- economia-estrategias-de-futuro 7. R. P. Feynman, (Engineering and Sciences Vol. 23, 22-36, 1960). 8. Azom.com Nanomaterials and Their Applications (Nov. 23, 2001). http://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=106 6 9. Igor Linkov et. al. Emerging methods and tools for environmental risk assessment (Journal of Nano- particle Research 11: 513-527, 2009). 10. Management Principles for Nanotechnology (Nanoethics 2:43–60, 2008). 11. R. Jones Are you a responsible nanoscientist? (Na- ture Nanotechnology 4, 336 2009)doi:10.1038/nnano.2009.127 12. Center for Responsible Nanotechnology 2001- 2008 http://www.crnano.org/ 13. A. Johansen et al. Effects of C60 fullerene nano- particles on soil bacteria and protozoans (Article first published online: 9 DEC 2009). DOI: 10.1897/07-375.1 14. G. Brumfiel, Nanotechnology: A little knowledge (Nature, Vol. 424 pp. 246-248, 17 July 2003). 15. D. Tomanek, The Nanotube Site 23 Nov. 2005. http://www.pa.msu.edu/cmp/csc/nanotube.html 16. J. Pozo and A. Schmessane Nanomaterials, the risks and benefit for the Society and the Environ- ment (Proceedings I Latin American Congress SRA-LA 2010, page 33). 17. Parlamento Europeo, Comisión de de Industria In- vestigación y Energía. Sobre nanociencias y na- notecnologías: un plan de acción para Europa 2005-2009. http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pu bRef=-//EP//TEXT+REPORT+A6-2006- 0216+0+DOC+XML+V0//ES 18. M. C. Roco International perspective on govern- ment nanotechnology funding in 2005 (Journal of Nanoparticle Research, 7: pp. 707-712, 2005). 19. M. Cobb and J. Macoubre Public perceptions about nanotechnology: Risks, benefits and trust (Journal of Nanoparticle Research 6: 395-405, 2004). 20. S. Currall, E.King, N. Lane, J. Madera and S. Turner What drives public acceptance of nano- technology (Nature Nanothecnology Vol I Decem- ber 2006). 21. J. Pozo A. Schmessane, A. Pozo y C. Pozo. Nan- otechnology Survey Chile 2011. http://nanotecnologiasurvey.blogspot.com/ 22. H. Arsham Herramientas para el Análisis de Deci- sión: Análisis de Decisiones Riesgosas. http://home.ubalt.edu/ntsbarsh/opre640s/spanishp. htm Published by Atlantis Press Copyright: the authors 43