http://www.smallbusinessinstitute.biz w w w. j s b s . o rg A B S T R A C T Keywords: Journal of Small Business Strategy 2020, Vol. 30, No. 03, 86-101 ISSN: 1081-8510 (Print) 2380-1751 (Online) ©Copyright 2020 Small Business Institute® Introduction Concordia University Wisconsin, 12800 North Lake Shore Drive, Mequon, WI 53097, USA, tiffany.strom@cuw.edu Authentic leadership and relational power increasing employee performance: A systematic review of “leadership and power” as a positive dyadic relationship Authentic leadership, Leadership, Power, Relational power, Employee performance, Employee engagement APA Citation Information: Strom, DBA, T. (2020). Authentic leadership and relational power increasing employee performance: A systemat- ic review of “leadership and power” as a positive dyadic relationship. Journal of Small Business Strategy, 30(3), 86-101. In the practitioner space, a relationship exists between leaders and managers in a small firm that can be described as non-verbal trust with directional support and synergy—a relationship that is simply informal and respectful (Kelli- her & Reinl, 2009; Mayer et al., 1995). Therefore, when a manager delegates tasks, the execution of the delegation is not seen as a negative but as a positive and empowers the employee to accomplish the task (Haugh & McKee, 2004). Tasks are completed efficiently and effectively without re- sistance in the small firm (Ebben & Johnson, 2005), versus in a large firm where bureaucratic processes slow task com- pletion (Adler & Borys, 1996; Caloghirou et al., 2004). To examine the positive leader-to-manager-to-employee rela- tionship in a small firm, leadership and power with respect to employee performance is reviewed. Evidence is provid- ed that positive leadership and power as a relationship is a tenable concept. In the literature, leadership as a concept is seen as complex and is investigated frequently through consequen- tial leader behavior (Avolio & Gardner, 2005; Meindl & Eh- rlich, 1987). Hoogervorst et al. (2012) presented the idea that more research is required in leadership with leadership as an antecedent condition in which the leader behaves in a certain tense to establish an enhanced outcome in employee behavior. The intention of this present study was to view leadership as an antecedent condition and consider leader- ship in conjunction with power to apprise the practitioner relationship between the leader and manager in a small firm. The leader and the manager often work together as equals in a small firm to create a balance of organization- al goals and personal goals, thus creating a “power-with” relationship (Barnard, 1939). The unspoken power within the dyadic relationship allows the manager to have positive power to not only empower the employees but to execute daily goals and functions within the organization. This type of power creates an organizational perception of fairness (Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002) or one of procedural jus- tice and organizational commitment (Chiaburu et al., 2013), both of which can affect employee performance (Van De Voorde et al., 2012). Given the problem of employee performance in small The objective of this study was to explore the relationship of positive leadership and positive power on increasing employee performance in the context of small firms using authentic leadership and relational power as theoretical lenses. An evidence-informed review was provided to examine the proposed objective and a systematic literature review was conducted to determine the priori model, and to present an emergent model after a synthesis of the findings. The qualitative and quantitative studies revealed four thematic topics to represent the relationship: (1) employee engagement relies on perception and trust; (2) positive characteristics of a leader need to exist in order to enhance the positive use of power; (3) positive leadership and power relationship exists in the short term through empowerment; and (4) positive leadership and power together increase the long-term outcomes of organizational identification, organizational commitment, and firm performance. This research was intended to investigate and synthesize a small firm relationship with the leader, manager, and employees as described herein, and to provide a new lens for authentic leadership and relational power by adding positivity as a part of the moral framework. Tiffany Strom, DBA http://www.smallbusinessinstitute.biz http://www.jsbs.org 87 T. Strom, DBA Journal of Small Business Strategy / Vol. 30, No. 3 (2020) / 86-101 organizations (Blomme et al., 2015; Caloghirou et al., 2004; Williams et al., 2018), and in particular the problem of long- term engagement of employees (Brown, 2011), there is a need to assess the relationship between the leader and the manager in order to enhance outcomes. The relationship is unique. The leader empowers the manager, and the manager uses the relationship to empower employees (Aragón-Cor- rea et al., 2008). This study reports findings of the litera- ture by examining the link between positive leadership and power, and employee performance. This study presents the relationship as inseparable, and therefore the research ques- tion reviews the concepts of leadership and power as insep- arable; as being one concept. This synonymous relationship that exists in practice has not been previously examined. A comprehensive study to explore the gap was completed through a configurative systematic review. The following research question, based on the leader manager relationship, was postulated for this systematic re- view: What are the positive factors of leadership and power that affect employee performance in a small firm? This pa- per begins with an overview of the theoretical framework of authentic leadership and relational power, followed by conceptual model development. Next, a summary of the methodology explaining the search criteria, analysis, and quality assessment of reviewed studies is provided. Finally, the paper presents themes and synthesis of findings, along with implications for practice and research, limitations, and future studies. Theoretical Framework Defining Positive Leadership Positive leadership theories were considered when conducting the review of the proposed relationship. The visionary theories of transactional and transformational leadership were closely related to the objective of the study (Matzler et al., 2008; Rafferty & Griffin, 2004; Stone et al., 2004), more so than the emotional leadership, trait / behav- ioral, or cultural theories (Turner & Muller, 2005). How- ever, these theories did not represent the positive relation- ship between the leader and the manager and organizational performance. The two theories that support the proposed unique relationship are leader-member exchange and au- thentic leadership. Leader-member exchange (LMX) focuses on the rela- tionship between the leader and followers, but not the influ- ence of the manager. Leader-member exchange measures only the quality of the relationship. The manager is not considered different than an employee; the manager is con- sidered a follower as well (Gerstner & Day, 1997; Hooper & Martin, 2008). In addition, Schriesheim et al. (1999) in- vestigated 137 studies and summarized that there are theory, measurement, and analytic inconsistencies with LMX the- ory. Gerstner and Day (1997, p. 827) also noted that “there is unresolved ambiguity about the nature of the construct, its measurements, and relationship with other variables.” Therefore, in this study the proposed lens of authentic lead- ership is used versus LMX theory. Barnard’s (1939) study of the responsibility of leader- ship introduces the notion of the relationship between the op- eration of the business (duties of the small business manag- er and leader) while remaining thoughtful in their pursuit of individual excellence (behaving and growing as leaders and empowering others). This is the concept of power-with—a form of collaboration within the organization and empower- ment of the individual. The relationship of equality Barnard presents at the conceptual level provides a definition for the relationship between the leader and manager that needs to exist for the organization to function. In addition to the power-with relationship, an organization needs a leader who can promote-self and self-regulate (Novicevic et al., 2006) and a leader that is confident and knowledgeable has the ability to create a performance organization with less conflict (Zigarmi et al., 2015). In this study, the focus is on the balance of leadership from the leader and power of the manager as a positive relationship to increase employee performance. Gardner’s et al. (2005, p. 6) framework de- picts an organizational climate with the authentic leader and the authentic follower with positivity. Authentic leadership represents the first part of the theoretical frame and devel- ops the positivity of the proposed relationship. Authentic Leadership Review Authentic leadership is defined as having a leader who builds credibility through honest relationships with follow- ers who value their ideas, guidance, and astute ethics. Au- thentic leaders are positive individuals with a deep sense of self who develop openness in the organization (Jones & Crompton, 2009). The authentic leadership theory consists of five components that influence how the leader behaves to enhance outcomes of the organization: “self-awareness, moral perspective, balanced processing, transparency, au- thentic behavior” (Avolio & Gardner, 2005, p. 323). The literature represents not only the characteristics of the au- thentic leader (Sparrowe, 2005; Walumba et al., 2008), but also the increased positive environment of the organization through employee perception (Gardner et al., 2011). Salovaara and Bathurst (2018) stated the components of authentic leadership increase the probability of employee engagement. Authentic leadership is a link to empower- 88 T. Strom, DBA Journal of Small Business Strategy / Vol. 30, No. 3 (2020) / 86-101 ment, power represented in a relationship, and the ability to guide others to accomplish tasks without coercion (Avolio & Gardner, 2005). Therefore, this study defines authentic leadership as using one’s moral compass to make ethical choices while supporting self and organizational responsi- bility (Gardner et al., 2011). Authentic leaders put positive ethics and positive psychological capacity first, which fos- ters a positive self-image and positive outcomes. Authentic leadership is the first antecedent condition to the positive relationship between the authentic leader and the manager, which is a dyadic relationship. The positivity of the authentic leadership translates to the non-verbal em- powerment of the manager as well. The relationship allows the manager to use positive power to execute operations (Chong et al., 2013) and empower employees. The positivity of power of the manager is represented by relational power in this study. Positive power is the sec- ond antecedent condition to increasing firm performance. Defining Positive Power Positive power theories were also considered for this study. However, power is heavily represented in the litera- ture as a structural phenomenon and as a basis to fulfill needs in a self-interested manner (Pfeffer, 1994). For example, the person who controls the resources has the “power” (Kanter, 1977). Power can be defined as structural power, or a force that shapes values and beliefs in another person. A seminal study by French et al. (1959) presented structural power in the following five terms: a) referent power is based on in- fluence and trust, b) legitimate power is authority based on position, c) expert power is influence based on knowledge, d) coercive power is the ability to punish or harm, e) reward power is the ability to reward positive outcomes. Alternate- ly, Elias (2008) and Zhao et al., (2016) reframes French’s et al. 1959 structural power into categories of hard or soft power, and positional or personal. Soft power is defined as persuasive power. French’s et al. 1959 referent and expert power are described as soft power. Hard power is defined as coercive power. French and Ravens legitimate and coer- cive are considered hard power. Positional power is defined as the authority of one’s position. Legitimate, reward, and coercive are positional power. Personal power is defined as action towards one’s goals. Referent and expert are consid- ered personal power. Reviewing power in the literature as structural power has revealed minimal positive associations with leadership. These categories of structural power do not represent power as a positive relationship or the trans- action exchange, but rather as a force that is not balanced, one person in control of another’s actions. Power dependence is a concept from Emerson (1962) which states that power is a characteristic of the relation- ship. In this study, the manager has positive power because of the relationship. In a small firm, the relationship is close, informal, trusting, and dyadic. Therefore, it is crucial to understanding the positivity of the leader through authentic leadership and positivity of the manager through power de- pendence. Each concept needs to be positive and relation- ship focused. In a way that is analogous to the positive fric- tion when tires interact with road (Follett et al., 1942), there is positive power when an established positive relationship exists between a leader and a manager. Relational power is the outcome of power dependence. Relational power rep- resents the second part of the theoretical frame and positivi- ty of power from the manager in the relationship. Relational Power Review Emerson (1962, 1976) emerged with the seminal view on power as a relationship through a concept of power de- pendence. Power dependence focuses on the exchange of feelings or the relationship not on a person’s traits or skills. In addition, Emerson (1962) establishes relational power as a construct. In this study, the positive concept of power is defined as relational power. Relational power is used to define the manager’s position in the relationship and connection with the organization and employees. Relational power is based on the power of relationships and the exchange between leaders and subordinates (Zhao et al., 2016). Yukl’s and Falbe’s (1991) described the concept of relational power as relying on the power of relationships between the leader and the employee (any type of employee) that can be dis- seminated through communication and interaction. Yukl and Falbe also stated that relational power can promote goal attainment. Chong et al. (2013) confirmed Yukl and Fable’s (1991) and Emerson’s (1962) studies by demonstrating re- lational power as a construct. Lastly, “unless the two parties are willing to make the effort to develop a good relation- ship, it will never become power” (Chong et al., 2013, p. 68). “Relational power by itself is neutral. When it is used for a good purpose it is more likely to generate positive re- sults…” (Chong et al., 2013, p. 68). The theoretical frame of authentic leadership and re- lational power is positive and represents the relationship of the research question. Figure 1 illustrates the conceptual authentic leadership and relational power model with proposed positive “leadership and power” relationship. Adapted from Gardner et al. (2005) and Chang et al. (2013). 89 T. Strom, DBA Journal of Small Business Strategy / Vol. 30, No. 3 (2020) / 86-101 Method The objective of this study was to conduct an objec- tive literature search, analysis, and review of studies in the areas of leadership and power, and employee performance. Since the studies’ data sets are heterogeneous, the research- er used the Systematic Literature Review (SLR), a qualita- tive method (Gough, 2007). The research question was an unspecific, open-ended question, a configurative approach that aligns with a search of literature. The SLR provides a summary of current existing literature related to the re- search question regarding finding positive factors of leader- ship and power that enhance employee performance. The SLR is used to consolidate the most relevant infor- mation to make decisions and is now being adopted more frequently in the social sciences. An SLR in management provides a comprehensive review on a specific area and critically appraises the literature (Gough et al., 2017). It also follows the scientific approach, which includes: (a) de- fining a context, interventions, mechanisms, and outcomes (CIMO) question (Briner et al., 2009); (b) locating relevant work; (c) documenting the search criteria; (d) reviewing each study for applicability to the CIMO question; (e) syn- thesizing or summarizing the evidence; and (f) providing recommendations or solutions. Completing a synthesis of primary studies using an SLR process minimizes bias and produces more reliable findings that help practitioners make better-informed deci- sions (Kowalczyk & Truluck, 2013). This approach is rig- orous and transparent. Rigor is the quality of the process used to support the research question. “Rigorous research is usually defined as research that meets the standards of ‘scientific’ research” (Myers, 2013, p. 12). Transparency is how the process is presented to the intended audience. Data transparency provides evidence to support the research questions, analytic transparency provides access to infor- mation from the data analysis, and production transparency provides access to information in regards to the methods (Miguel et al., 2014). The SLR process is a transparent ap- proach that is open for critique and provides for a consistent appraisal of suitability and technical qualities for each study within the review (Myers, 2013). The SLR has seven steps as summarized throughout this methods section. The SLR allows the researcher to find and evaluate evidence applica- ble to the practitioner, and then present the information in a useable format from which practitioners can make decisions based on quality information (Barends & Rousseau, 2018). The approach of this SLR required searches relevant to studies that represented “power and leadership” as one concept and with performance as an outcome. Next dis- cussed are search method, inclusion and exclusion criteria, the literature sample, and data analysis. Search Methods Studies for this review were identified through data- base searches. The databases searched were ABI/Inform Complete, Emerald Insight, JSTOR, and ProQuest from the author’s university’s library system. The content provider was Business Source Complete. The searches were com- pleted in a systematic manner in the order of the databases as listed. All resulting studies were restricted to English Figure 1. Initial Framework with Theoretical Lens 90 T. Strom, DBA Journal of Small Business Strategy / Vol. 30, No. 3 (2020) / 86-101 peer-reviewed journals. Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria Three search strings related to the research question were used in the database searches. The Boolean search included the following search terms and strings: positive (“leader*” AND “power”) OR “leader* AND power”, lead- er* AND power AND “small firm”, “leader* AND power” AND SME performance OR employee performance OR engagement. The initial search produced 1,570 articles. A second screening was required to meet the following inclusion re- quirements: (a) the article was written in English, (b) publi- cation date between 2003–2018, (c) it contained leadership and power as a theme, (d) and it investigated leadership or power in relation to firm performance. Articles were ex- cluded that did not meet the four requirements. Removal of duplicates from the original data set resulted in the exclu- sion of 1197 studies. Abstract evaluation of the remaining 373 articles were conducted to determine the final sample of scholarly peer-review journals. The remaining 373 arti- cles were assessed for applicability to the research question, which led to the exclusion of another 358. Thus, the final number of articles included in the final quality assessment review was 15. Extracting Data Data Analysis The remaining 15 articles went through a quality assessment. The Weight of Evidence (WOE) frame- work was the method used to determine the quality of the retrieved articles (Gough, 2007). The WOE con- sists of four parameters: WOE (A) reviews the quali- ty of the method of the study; WOE (B) reviews the method’s relevance to the author’s proposed research question; WOE (C) reviews the relevance of the ev- idence to the research question; and WOE (D) is an overall rating of the evidence. Each parameter was given a rating as follows: low equal to one, medium equal to two, and high equal to three. The first three parameters WOE (A, B, C) were assigned a low, medi- um, or high rating and the fourth parameter WOE (D) was an average of the three. The journal articles for this study required an overall rating of medium or high to be included. See Appendix A for detailed quality rating of the journal articles. The final quality review process resulted in elimination of one article because rigor was poor and study design was unclear, so 14 remained for synthesis. Data Analysis Coding The research question included “leadership and pow- er” and employee performance. A thematic synthesis was chosen for these 14 articles because of the research question (Agee, 2009). Thematic synthesis is the process of bringing together findings from various types of research (Gough et al., 2017), in this case a qualitative literature review, quali- tative conceptual studies, quantitative papers using second- ary survey information, mixed-methods designs, quantita- tive experiments, and quantitative surveys. Using the data analytics package, Quirkos, first- and second-cycle coding was completed. The first cycle of coding consisted of free line-by-line coding of the results and discussion sections into themes (Thomas & Harden, 2008). The first cycle of coding generated 134 codes, 20 subcodes, and 3 descrip- tive themes. The second cycle of coding was completed to reduce the number of codes and eliminate repetition. The second cycle generated 127 codes, 18 subcodes, and 4 ana- lytic themes (see Appendix B summary table). The changes in the canvas were not in the number of codes, but in reduc- ing and reorganizing the parent and grandparent codes to generate analytic themes. Analytic themes synthesize the patterns to provide meaningful informed interpretations of the literature as a body of knowledge. Results of Coding After the inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied and duplicates removed, the sample size included 14 arti- cles that were selected based on the transparency and rigor of the study (Wharton, 2015). Of the 14 articles, 10 were quantitative and 4 were qualitative. Each included and ex- cluded study was recorded in a PRISMA flow diagram (see Appendix C). During first-cycle coding, descriptive themes across the 14 studies included positive leadership characteristics, positive power characteristics, and potential ideas to en- hance employee performance. During second-cycle cod- ing, analytic themes established the basis for the research question, employee engagement, positive characteristics of leadership and power together as a concept, and long-term outcomes from the positive leadership and power relation- ship summarizing the strength of the relationship postulated in the research question. The next sections present the results of the descriptive themes and analytic themes or synthesis of the themes as integrated knowledge. 91 T. Strom, DBA Journal of Small Business Strategy / Vol. 30, No. 3 (2020) / 86-101 Results Descriptive Themes How was Positive “Leadership and Power” Represented? Leadership. The research question pertained to a positive “leadership-and-power” relationship. Some 64% of the studies represented positive leadership-and-power. Pos- itive leadership at the individual level was represented in studies by Ahn et al. (2018), He et al. (2014), and Sharma and Tarp (2018). These scholars discussed the common characteristics of a positive leader: “core self-evaluation, locus of control, self-efficacy, and emotional stability” (Ahn et al., 2018, p. 457). The studies asserted that these traits are synonymous with the leader being ethical and moral. The authors also discussed the concept of proce- dural justice. Procedural justice is defined as the amount of perceived fairness, as fairness is an essential trait in an ethical leader. The final leadership article by Hoogervorst et al. (2012) added self-sacrifice as a characteristic to a positive leader’s profile, which creates a more positive environment. In addition, this article supports the need for more research on the antecedents of leadership, rather than the negative outcomes of leader behavior. He et al. 2014 also suggested that supervisors are an integral partner with employees and management. Power. Positive power was not prominent in the studies, but was represented in threads in five articles. The first article discussed power as status in learning organizations (Bunderson & Reagans, 2011). The authors indicated higher status levels of power lowers employee participa- tion and that employees are more likely to follow direc- tions without providing feedback. In a second article, Foulk et al. (2018) discussed power as control over scarce resources, or as psychological power within an organi- zation. This type of power creates a negative perception for the employee. High levels of psychological power decrease learning outcomes. However, the third article by Hildreth and Anderson (2016) revealed that power within the organization can lead to higher task completion and greater creativity if the person holding power is not a high-status person (e.g., is not the president of the organi- zation). Therefore, a positive power balance can be more easily achieved at lower levels of management. Positive power emerged slightly in the fourth study by Zigarmi et al. (2015), who showed soft power has a sig- nificant positive effect. Soft power is similar to relational power; soft power uses a less authoritarian style to shape the perceptions of the organization’s fairness. The last study included relational power as “empowering, participative, and democratic” (Zhao et al., 2016, p. 519). The purpose of Zhoa et al.’s 2016 study was to establish relational power as a third type of power for an organization. The researchers conducted a factor analysis and found that relational power has a significant relationship with organizational commit- ment. Both of these studies parallel authentic leadership because the studies show positive psychological capacity or positive power empowers employees, and in turn, increas- es employee performance and organizational commitment. Therefore, these studies provide support not only for posi- tive power but also for the use of the authentic leadership framework. These nine studies begin to establish that a positive leader, a positive manager, and positivity as a concept as- sists in development of empowerment within the organi- zation. In addition, these studies define the type of moral profile and characteristics required for a leader or manager to enhance employee performance. As a result, good out- comes can be expected with balance and positivity devel- oped within the organization, and the remaining five studies review these outcomes. How was Employee Performance Represented? In this section, the proposed research question out- comes of positive factors of leadership and power affect- ing employee performance are reviewed across five studies. About 36 % of articles represented employee performance. The studies presented outcomes related to the concepts of accountability, work engagement, and team performance. Rus et al. (2012) stated that if power is left unmoni- tored, resources will be diverted for improper purposes. In addition, the leader will display self-serving behaviors un- less accountability is a factor. The results in this study show a significant relationship between accountability and sense of power. Therefore, if the leader is accountable, there is a likelihood of positive followers, and in turn, engagement and organizational commitment. Two studies reviewed work engagement. Blomme et al. (2015) reviewed how leadership affects work engage- ment. Work engagement is defined as being involved in the work and dedicated. Engaged employees are able to direct their own career and work environment. Work engagement is a positive motivational concept. To increase work en- gagement, positive outcomes from personal optimism and self-efficacy on the employees’ part need to be recognized. Blomme et al. 2015 also noted managers have a critical role in work engagement because of the tasks that the manager directs. In addition, Ahmad and Gao (2018) showed a link between work engagement and ethical leadership, and a re- 92 T. Strom, DBA Journal of Small Business Strategy / Vol. 30, No. 3 (2020) / 86-101 lationship between work engagement, ethical leadership, and empowerment. These authors asserted that leadership that empowers employees creates work engagement. The next two studies support options to increase team and firm performance. First, Tost et al. (2013) confirmed earlier studies stating that formal power decreases task completion. In addition, they contributed a model that hy- pothesizes team communication and openness will increase team performance. This is the first study that considered communication as a factor for improvement. Second, West- head and Howorth (2006) was the only study that provided context for the small firm. The study contributes to firm performance because the researchers hypothesized that pri- vate firms with more non-family shareholders will increase firm performance, and the hypothesis was supported. The results indicate that management who were non-family members contributed to the increase in performance. The management team is an influencing factor in regard to per- formance in small firms. These two studies also connect the moral compass of the leader directly with the manag- er and employee, and therefore the increase of employee performance. The descriptive themes result in the emerging framework. Shown in Figure 2 emergent framework demonstrating increased employee performance through the lens of the positive relationship “leadership and power,” short-term engagement of empowerment and long-term engagement of organizational identification, organizational commitment, and firm performance. From the emergent framework, analytic themes are developed. The analytic themes are discussed in the next section. Figure 2. Emergent Framework Results of Synthesis The Link Between Positive “Leadership and Power” and Employee Performance Fourteen studies explored positive “leadership and power” as a single concept with an effect on employee per- formance. There is support of positivity that emerges by re- viewing the combination of leadership and power together as one concept. The outcomes from this study in summary are short-term engagement is represented through empow- erment; and long-term engagement is represented through organizational identification, organizational commitment, and firm performance. The postulated research question was supported: “What are the positive factors of leadership and power that affect employee performance in small firms? Four themes support the claim—employee engagement, positive leadership and power dynamics, empowerment with increased organizational identification and organiza- tional commitment, and positive leadership and power as a simultaneous positive relationship enhances firm perfor- mance. Employee Engagement Increases with Positive Perceptions. Two studies explored employee engagement as an output. Employee engagement is based not only on the characteristics of vigor and moral integrity but per- ceptions as well (Blomme et al., 2015). Positive percep- tions reduce cynicism and increase trust (Chiaburu et al., 2013; He et al., 2014). The absence of procedural justice leads employees to develop negative attitudes toward the organization and decrease organizational identification (Chiaburu et al., 2013; Clay-Warner et al., 2005). Nega- tive perceptions affect turnover and produce strain with- 93 T. Strom, DBA Journal of Small Business Strategy / Vol. 30, No. 3 (2020) / 86-101 in the organization (Chiaburu et al., 2013). Therefore, positive perceptions of individuals are key to employee performance (Andersson, 1996). These studies confirm that the variables trust and attitudes of leaders and man- agers are needed to develop long-term engagement in the organization. Positive Leadership Characteristics and Power Dynam- ics Affect Organizational Commitment. Seven studies found certain characteristics are essential to develop engagement (employee performance) and use power-with (authentic leadership) and power dependence (relation- al power) to achieve a moral balance. A positive leader in the leadership and power context is a leader who has the following characteristics: emotional stability (Ahn et al., 2018; Sharma & Tarp, 2018 ), open communication, agreeableness (Bunderson & Reagans, 2011), self-sacrifice (Hoogervorst et al., 2012), and accountability (Rus et al., 2012). To enhance the positive relationship, employees (any employee) must have certain characteristics as well, including self-efficacy, self-esteem, positive perceptions of fairness or procedural justice, and positive organizational commitment (Ahn et al., 2018). Employee performance is related to the integration of these leader and employee characteristics (Zigarmi et al., 2015). Also, for a leader to have positivity, a decrease in struc- tural and hard or formal power and good communication or feedback is required. The rigidity of formal power decreas- es trust and organizational commitment (Foulk et al., 2018). The leader must communicate well (Tost et al., 2013) and provide the perception of a less-rigid organizational power structure for employee performance to increase, or commu- nication and feedback may need to be developed through the use of lower-tier power status managers because of per- ceived high power status of high-level individuals within the organization (Bunderson & Regans, 2011; Hildreth & Anderson, 2016; Rus et al., 2012). Empowerment, Organizational Identification, and Organizational Commitment Increase with Positive Leader and Positive Manager. Five studies attempted to identify what facets provide empowerment to the employ- ee and increase employee engagement. A positive leader incorporates a positive manager with relational power to create authentic followers (Westhead & Howorth, 2006). Using leadership and power as a relationship increases the probability of employee engagement and ethical follow- ers (Zhao et al., 2016). As the leader creates trust and a personal link to the employee through a relationship, the employee will be more motivated to perform for the leader. As the relationship strengthens, organizational identifica- tion increases. If organizational identification increases, the probability of organizational commitment will increase (Blomme et al., 2015). Organizational commitment is a tertiary outcome. If the relationship is fair, ethical, and trustworthy, empowerment will occur as an invisible rela- tionship (Ahmad & Gao, 2018; He et al., 2014). Empow- erment is a short-term outcome of employee performance, while organizational identification and organizational commitment are long-term outcomes. Positive Leadership, Positive Power Based on the Dy- adic Relationship. Leadership and power are overreaching or excessive in the literature (Fleming & Spicer, 2014), but by combining the concepts together to create focus in this SLR, a different outcome emerges that a positive relation- ship can exist as an important development to increase employee performance. In this thematic synthesis positive leadership and power with employee performance exist together (Salovaara & Bathurst, 2018; Zigarmi et al., 2015) and leadership and power empowers an individual through the use of relationships with employees (Gardner et al., 2011; Zhao et al., 2016). Salovaara & Bathurst (2018, p. 182) state new concepts in leadership should be based on “relationships – rather than authority, superiority, or domi- nance…”, and Zhao et al. (2016) states power should come from personal relationships with others. Positive relation- ships are significant to the functions of an organization (Andersson & Tell, 2009). The four themes show an interaction of traits and or- ganizational factors that have the potential to increase em- ployee engagement and long-term firm performance. The themes also confirm that positive leadership-power moral relationship balance is still a bit complex to define and en- act within an organization (see Figure 3 for the strength of support for the research question). Weight of Evidence (WOE) depicts the strength of the research question “What are the positive factors of com- bining leadership and power on employee performance in a small firm?” based on the evidence of 14 articles. The evidence from the SLR is moderate; there are five articles in the moderate by strong categories that support the proposed relationship. Implications for Practice First, although this synthesis is not all encompassing, it helps us understand in practice that perception of positivity between the leader and manager is a great influence and can be a great tool (Westhead & Howorth, 2006). It also helps us understand our positions within the organization greatly affect that perception. Creating positive perceptions either 94 T. Strom, DBA Journal of Small Business Strategy / Vol. 30, No. 3 (2020) / 86-101 through a display of characteristics or actions can increase employee engagement (Payne et al., 2005). Second, if the leader is successful and establishes a genuine relationship, the manager and employee will be empowered and have more organizational identification and organizational commitment. Organizational identification is when the employee and organization have the same goals and values, power-with. Employees perception of fairness through the leader-to-manger-to-employee relationship can be motivational. Employee motivation can be key to in- creasing employee engagement (He et al., 2014). There- fore, leaders must be sincere, engaged, and provide for open communication for a relationship to develop. Once a re- lationship is established positivity and empowerment can affect performance. Third, leaders with power must not only be trained to increase individualized motivation, but also be aware of different sources of power that may cause issues in the or- ganization. Leaders need to be trained on which types of power can cause problems internally and adjust their pre- sentation of perceptions to employees; for example, be pos- itive and less rigid versus stern and negative. Leaders of organizations must realize hard power directly affects em- ployee perceptions, and that perceptions are integral to how the employee behaves (Tost et al., 2013). Positive ethical leaders create ethical followers (Avolio et al. 1999; Avolio & Gardner, 2005). Leadership should be ethical with high moral integration, and give followers control and internal motivation to create power-balance within the organization. In summary, leadership and power in a non-dominant context can increase task persistence and creativity. Lead- ers can have purposeful control by creating valued relation- ships and positive perceptions for managers and employees, which can affect employee performance. Implications for Research In examining the literature, it is clear that there is a need for further research. First, additional interdisciplinary research with leadership and power theory is needed to re- duce silos (Alvesson & Sandberg, 2014). Second, in order to examine the true effects of leadership and power in con- junction with employee engagement, additional research is needed that includes more employee engagement measures over time and how middle management affects performance outcomes. In addition, to further generalize this research examining dyadic relationships in other contexts is neces- sary, and interchanging relationship positivity with the con- cept of guanxi, (a Chinese concept meaning a strong rela- tionship with trust), to increase cultural depth. There is a need for better-designed research with greater sample sizes and additional theory integration. In addition, leadership and power were searched as one concept for the proposed relationship. A separate examina- tion could provide another lens for employee engagement as this study did not review barriers with these concepts as stand-alone concepts. Limitations Although this SLR was completed in a methodical manner, limitations exist in that it is not an exhaustive search of the literature. The research was limited by the fact it was not subjected to replication. In addition, the search was limited to scholarly peer-reviewed sources, in English, and in the available university library system. Gray litera- Figure 3. Weight of Evidence (WOE) 95 T. Strom, DBA Journal of Small Business Strategy / Vol. 30, No. 3 (2020) / 86-101 ture was not included. Other languages and gray literature may provide additional support for this study. Also, the SLR methodology originated in the medical field; therefore, quality appraisal tools are limited for studies in manage- ment, which are cross-sectional. Synthesis of qualitative and quantitative data may improve with better quality tools. The search criteria that included “small firm” generat- ed negligible results. In order to increase the reliability and transparency of this SLR, small firm was eliminated from the search criteria to obtain more search results. However, not restricting the search to small firms allowed for more generalizable search results that can be applied to large or small firms. Future Studies This study adds insight to the potential of combining leadership and power as a positive concept. This concept will support future potential quantitative or qualitative stud- ies. Since there are many established measuring tools for each area, new surveys can be developed to gain a better understanding of the relationship. For example, one might recommend using Walumba et al.’s (2008) authentic lead- ership ALQ measures with Chong et al.’s (2013) or Yukl and Falbe’s (1991) relational power measures. Finally, this study can assist in the continued development of interdisci- plinary research. Conclusion The overall contributions of this study include provid- ing another moral relationship lens to review the concept of authentic leadership by adding positive power as an input; providing support to use positive power as another means to increase employee engagement; depicting and defining a concept that supports and defines the practitioner-proposed positive relationship between the leader, manager, and the employee; and adding to the literature base for positivity with authentic leadership and relational power. Completing an SLR study of the relationship between positive leadership and power provides evidence that ad- justing motivators for organizational identification and or- ganizational commitment can increase employee retention in the long term (Mayer et al., 1995). Leadership and power can be positive and create a dynamic that is beneficial with- in the organization. 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Employees’ perceived use of leader power and im- plications for affect and work intentions. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 26(4), 359-384. doi:10.1002/hrdq.21216 99 T. Strom, DBA Journal of Small Business Strategy / Vol. 30, No. 3 (2020) / 86-101 Appendix A Summary of Studies and Weight of Evidence Rating Article (Author, Year) Study Type Sample Size Theory and Keywords Findings WOE A WOE B WOE C WOE D Ahmad and Gao (2018) Quantitative Survey 250 banking employees in Pakistan Ethical leadership theory. Work engagement, psycho- logical empowerment, power distance orientation keywords. Empowerment positively mediates ethical lea- dership & work engagement. Therefore, ethical leadership is important in the work environment. Medium High High High 2.66667 Ahn et al. (2018) Quantitative Survey 290 subordinate-supervi- sor employees in South Korea Self-verification & social exchanges theory. Core self- -evaluation, ethical leadership, exchange ideology, job perfor- mance keywords. Displays a positive relationship between a lea- der’s self-evaluation & ethical leadership. Also ethical leadership is positively related to task performance mediated by exchange ideology. High High High High 3.00000 Blomme et al. (2015) Qualitative Conceptual N/A 8 propositions Work engagement, leadership, organizational culture, work-re- lated resources, & organizatio- nal performance keywords. Provides a view on leadership & which factors are likely to increase employee engagement. Also provides a model for future research. Medium Medium High Medium 2.33333 Bunder- son and Reagans (2011) Qualitative Literature Review N/A Power, status, & learning orga- nization theory. Organizational &group learning, power & sta- tus, social hierarchy keywords. Upper management has greater influence on sti- mulating learning if their behavior is presented in a more socialized fashion. High High Medium High 2.66667 Foulk et al. (2018) Quantitative Experimental 116 professional & managerial employees enrolled in MBA cour- sework in USA Social distance theory. Psychological power, abusive leadership, perceived incivility, & leader well-being keywords. Leaders that are more amicable are less affected by psychological power. High level of psychological power decreases structural power. High High Low Medium 2.33333 He et al. (2014) Quantitative Survey 222 employees financial ser- vices in United Kingdom Procedural justice theory. Moral identity, organizational identification, employee enga- gement & group engagement model. Employee engagement is a predictor of job performance. Employee engagement occurs when strong personal energy exists. Increased engagement in turn increases organizational commitment. High High High High 3.00000 Hildreth and Anderson (2016) Mixed-Method Survey Experiment 174 participants west coast university Power theory. Group, status, conflict, & creativity. Randomly assigned power was better for work performance than individuals with known high-power status. High High Medium High 2.66667 Hooger- vorst et al. (2012) Quantitative Experiment 411 organizational super- visors study one, 402 undergraduate business students study two Social exchange theory. Lea- dership, self-sacrifice, power, inclusion, goals. Leaders should promote belongingness to increase followers & acceptance of tasks. High power leaders should also promote a sense of self-sacrifice to increase goal achievement. High High Medium High 2.66667 Rus et al. (2012) Quantitative Experiment 82 Dutch business students study one, 87 Dutch undergraduate student study two, 66 managerial persons United Kingdom Power theory. Leadership, accountability, self-serving behavior. Leaders in high power positions must be accoun- table to their actions to decrease self-serving behaviors within the organization. Accoun- tability is the moderator to balance the power relationship between leader & employees. Medium Medium Medium Medium 2.00000 Sharma and Tarp (2018) Quantitative Survey Secondary Data 2600 non-state manufac- turing enterprises Entrepreneurship, SMEs, firm performance, personality, risk attitudes, Vietnam keywords. Personality traits affect performance outcomes, risk, locus of control & innovativeness are important to firm performance. Medium Medium Medium Medium 2.00000 Tost et al. (2013) Quantitative Simulation 106 undergraduate & MBA students study one, 144 students USA study two, 152 students USA study three Power theory. Power hie- rarchies, formal power, team communication, authority keywords. Formal power decreases firm performance. Increased open communication can moderate this relationship. Power hierarchies affect team performance. High High Medium High 2.66667 Westhead and Howorth (2006) Mixed Methods Conceptual & Survey 905 independent private companies Agency theory. The management team is related to firm per- formance. Private firms with family members as the management team does not enhance performance. Medium Medium Medium Medium 2.00000 Zhao et al. (2016) Mixed Methods Lite- rature Review & Structured Questionnaire 240 MBA & EMBA students Personal power theory. Leader power, relational power, mea- surement scale development, direct relational power, indirect relational power keywords. Relational power is positive & independent from position & personal power. Relational power increases with open communication. Relational power is likely to increase organizational perfor- mance & goals attainment. High High High High 3.00000 Zigarmi et al. (2015) Quantitative Survey Secondary Data 651 members of a pro- fessional association Social cognitive theory. Employee affect, appraisal model, power, work intentions keywords. Expert power, referent power & reward power have a positive effect on the organization overall based on the survey. Hard power shapes em- ployees perceptions. Employee perceptions may be linked to organizational support. High High High High 3.00000 100 T. Strom, DBA Journal of Small Business Strategy / Vol. 30, No. 3 (2020) / 86-101 Appendix B Quirkos Coding and Themes Codes Outcome Theme Work engagement Procedural justice Moral integrity Organizational identification Social exchange Increased employee empower- ment. Employee empowerment increases with positivity of the leader and ma- nager. Self-efficacy Locus of control Perception Increased employee engage- ment. Employee engagement increases with positive perceptions of the leader and manager relationship. Fairness Emotional stability Communications Relational power Power balance Positive leadership characteris- tics. Positive leadership characteristics and power dynamics affect organizational commitment. Expert power Informational power Relational power Personal power Power distance Soft power Positive power characteristics. Positive leadership characteristics and power dynamics affect organizational commitment. Group performance Procedural justice Increases organizational com- mitment. Firm performance through empower- ment, organizational identification, and organizational commitment increases with a positive leader and positive manager. Middle management em- powerment Power hierarchies Influences firm performance. Firm performance through empower- ment, organizational identification, and organizational commitment increases with a positive leader and positive manager. 101 T. Strom, DBA Journal of Small Business Strategy / Vol. 30, No. 3 (2020) / 86-101 Appendix C PRISMA Flow Diagram PRISMA diagram. Reprinted from PRISMA Flow Diagram published by www.Prismastatement. org, 2009. Retrieved from http://prismastatement.org/prismastatement/flowdiagram.aspx, Prisma Statement (2009). http://prismastatement.org/prismastatement/flowdiagram.aspx