Article Title (Size 12; Bold; Times New Roman) www.jsser.org Journal of Social Studies Education Research SosyalBilgilerEğitimiAraştırmalarıDergisi 2019:10 (4), 427-445 427 Teaching Politeness for Primary School Students in Indonesia: Mediating Role of Self Efficacy and Self Esteem of Learners Alif Mudiono1 Abstract Emotional intelligence has been an emerging concept which refers to the capability and skill of a person to control one’s emotions and to have good interpersonal relationships with other people. This aspect is very closely related to education and educational environment. Teachers are the pillars of any educational institute and emotional intelligence of the students really depends upon their attitude and teaching behavior. The teaching behavior must be polite and full of learning and knowledge so that the self-efficacy and self-esteem of the students may flourish and enhance. The main motive on which the whole study is based is the impact of teaching politeness on the level of emotional intelligence of the learners in Indonesia along with two mediating factors i.e. self- efficacy and self-efficiency. The data for analysis in the current scenario was effectively collected from 301 students of different educational institutes of Indonesia. Confirmatory factor analyses as well as structural equation modeling approaches have been used by the author in order to study the impacts of different variables in detail. The results have accepted the significant impact of teaching politeness on emotional intelligence. In addition, the mediating role of self-efficacy and self-esteem has also been accepted as significant between the above mentioned two variables. Keywords: Teaching Politeness, Efficacy, Self Esteem, Indonesia Introduction For every nation, it is important to educate the young ones through the provision of cordial and learning environment at colleges and schools as well as providing them non-formal and formal learning spaces. In today’s environment, many of the technological innovations gadgets are considered in the teaching and learning environment (Srivastava, De Boer, & Pijl, 2015). Many different psychological actions and measures have also been undertaken for making learning experience long-lasting and very effective. Many of the government institutions had undertaken this type of measures for improving the learning experience. For the effective learning and classroom management, schools need to consider the significance of the emotions of the students. Classroom management is everything that is provided for the effectiveness of student’s learning in classrooms. Teacher’s disruptive behaviors and their harshness have a confrontational stance by 1Dr. Universitas Negeri Malang, Indonesia, alif,mudiono.fip@um.ac.id Journal of Social Studies Education Research 2019: 10(4), 427-445 escalating tension; lowering self-esteem and making them feel combative. Positive relationship between students and teachers empower the self-esteem of the students (Demirdag, 2015; Ferris, 2019; Shehzadi & Krishnasamy, 2018). Politeness means that teachers should consider the use of proper sentences and words in suitable contexts that is determined from rules held in the society. Words that do not support the society’s polite culture must need to be avoided. Some words are appreciable in one culture while in some cultures they are considered inappropriate. Teachers’ communication, politeness, attitude have a significant impact on the student’s behavior. High level of self-esteem is promoted with effective strategies that encourage responsible behaviors. Due to the growth of the technological advancements, it is demonstrated that communities using the computer-mediated things have gained very prominence and success as well. They have considered the significance of politeness among the e-mail community and how positive behavior can be made in the computer-mediating environment (Saidi & Khosravi, 2015). Usage of narrative and linguistic strategies at classrooms, shapes the oral and personal narratives and it is considered that many of the adults using verb-ending patterns which are considered as the signs of politeness markers. Many cross-cultural studies revealed some of the discrepancies that exist between the listener and the speaker (Shum & Lee, 2013). In the proposed politeness taxonomy, different factors are included such as play downs, down toners, hedges, hesitators, and committers. Figure 1: Impact of Emotional Intelligence In Indonesia, drastic fall has been observed in the emotional intelligence of the learners. This fall in EI affects academic performance as well the personal and professional life of the students. This problem is not faced only in Indonesia but also in other parts of the world such as Thailand and Malaysia. It is essential for the teachers in the Indonesian institutions to bring some important changes in education system to improve the educational quality. Teachers need to highlight some Mudiono important barriers which create hindrance in the formation of quality education (Pan & Kadar, 2011). It is the role of the teacher to raise standards of the education that guarantees the growth, prosperity, and the achievement of individual in society (Terkourafi, 2011). Punishment must be prohibited in the schools and teachers need to deal softly and avoid developing fears for the punishments. Politeness intimacy, close relationships, nearness and social distance must be managed between the listener and speaker. Speaker should provide friendship sense and comfort with the listener. Although previous studies have been conducted in this context but this study has not been conducted in Indonesia. Moreover, the mediating role of self-efficacy and self-esteem in the relationship between teaching politeness and EI of learners has not been analyzed. In the students of Indonesia, a research gap has been identified as there is lack of emotional intelligence in the students. Students are not competitive enough to compete in different sectors of the country. It is attributed to different number of factors but one of the most important factors identified is the attitudes of the teachers towards students. Teachers’ politeness is very important aspect for the student’s effective learning. The role of self-esteem and self-efficacy is very important in increasing the emotional intelligence of the learners. This study gap has been identified in the context of Indonesia where there is lack of emotional intelligence among the learners. Empirical evidences were lacking to find the relationship between teaching politeness and the emotional intelligence of the learners. For the purpose of exploring this, a research path has been identified to explore the association among the two concepts. Research objectives of this study are as follows: 1. To analyze the significant impact of teaching politeness on EI of learners 2. To analyze the mediating role of self-efficacy in the relationship between teaching politeness and EI of learners 3. To analyze the mediating role of self-esteem in the relationship between teaching politeness and EI of learners The significance and scope of this research allow the Indonesian schools to develop some useful strategies and regulation for bringing more teaching politeness as politeness increases the self- efficacy and self-esteem of the students. Both concepts therefore help in enhancing the EI of the learners. Formulation of useful measures is quite helpful for the country as students with high academic performance lead the country’s future with more positive thoughts and feelings. The author has discussed the problem and the scope of this research in the above paragraphs. Following Journal of Social Studies Education Research 2019: 10(4), 427-445 paragraphs are based on the literature review of different variables and the work of different variables related to this topic. The next section is based on the methodology that is considered for this research study. After the methodology, all the data gathered has been analyzed for the results. In the end of the report, conclusion is derived and some recommendations are also given for the purpose of improving EI among teachers. Literature Review Social Agency Theory With respect to the social agency theory, teachers must consider the impact of politeness on achievement of students as students who learn from the polite teachers are able to demonstrate greater scores on tests. Students learn many different things from their strict teachers but strictness is not helpful in achieving good grades (Wiseman, Cuevas‐Rodríguez & Gomez‐Mejia, 2012). On the other hand, it has also been observed that politeness on weak students results in poorer performance of these students. Intelligent students are able to get more knowledge and scores from the lectures of polite teachers instead of strict teachers. High level of cooperation and encouragement is needed from polite teachers if high academic performance is supposed to be achieved. Social agency theory helps in understanding of the relationships among the two parties and agent is needed to act in the best interest which is demanded by the principal (Cowgill, 2014). Sources of conflicts arise among the two different parties involved and incompatible desires also cause inefficiencies. Teaching Politeness and Emotional Intelligence of the learners Politeness refers to the display of good manners and politeness theories explain various factors, principles, and scales of politeness which contribute towards politeness. Politeness is considered as the social aspect and is a belief. Importance of politeness in teaching cannot be ignored as it is significant in developing communication between the listener and speaker. The method of developing interaction varies among people as they had to face the threats of with positive or negative response in return. Positive face gives the impression of help whereas negative impression displays effort (Uzair-ul-Hassan & Farooq, 2017). Developing politeness in the communication, etiquettes, and courtesy is the custom and procedure of the society. In every field, developing and using politeness is a useful strategy for avoiding certain conflicts that might result and it helps in Mudiono the formation of good relationships too. In the learning practice and classroom teaching, the use of politeness is important and relevant (Lupton & Hempel-Jorgensen, 2012). In the learning and teaching process, teachers use different utterances for the communication with students and this is the politeness strategy. All teachers must use this strategy as it is appropriate for developing communication between the teacher and student. Use of this strategy is depicted from the politeness behavior that teacher displays in front of the students. Emotional intelligence is an important element of research and also the predictor of the well-being, health, and also the academic outcomes of the learners. EI refers to the cognitive ability of the learners to consider, perceive, understand, use, and also manage their emotions (Pool & Qualter, 2012). The characteristic of people having high level of confidence on emotional abilities is termed as emotional self-efficacy. Adaptation of various emotional functioning helps in making the accurate prediction on work-related outcomes. Emotional self-efficacy is the belief that one has on its own emotional-functioning capabilities. Both ESE and EI are important predictors for the academic success & increase the employability chances as well. Examining and investigating attitudes are essential for the EI for designing appropriate interventions with academic performance (Fernandez, Salamonson & Griffiths, 2012). H1: There is a significant relationship between Teaching politeness and emotional intelligence of learners. Mediating role of Self-efficacy Self-efficacy refers to the belief that one has on his or her anilities for the successful accomplishment of tasks. Strong and motivated sense of self-efficacy allows the students to perform even harder tasks (Honicke & Broadbent, 2016). Moreover, these students also increase and sustain their efforts to become successful. They approach all the difficult and threatening conditions with high level of confidence. Any doubt about their ability will build difficulties on their way for achieving the task accomplishments (Carroll et al., 2009). Thus, they could either avoid doing task, lack of the encouragement and passivity as well. Developing self-efficacy in the classrooms is a great aspect for the students to learn as one can see how students fight with the motivation (Ansong, Eisensmith, Okumu, & Chowa, 2019). It is the adrenaline for the motivation. Students having high level of confidence are stress-free, which shows high level of propensity for being motivated. Students in classrooms must practice self-observation, self-reaction time, and self-judgment. The role of self-efficacy is very important for students as it helps in attaining their Journal of Social Studies Education Research 2019: 10(4), 427-445 goals, sets new tasks and challenges, and develops progress. Self-efficacy explains how the differences between the academic results and educational aspirations are related. Academic self- efficacy is developed from the evaluation & interpretation of different tasks performance that is represented as the “self-judgment” (Schunk & Usher, 2011). The level of efficacy is high when students believe that they perform a specific task but diminishes when they feel they are making insufficient efforts. This study tends to explore the relational nature between the academic performance and academic self-efficacy of the students (Britner, 2012). Self-efficacy in classrooms can be increased by a number of different activities such as providing mastery experiences, emotional experiences, and modeling experiences. Emotional intelligence can be built among the learners through a number of different ways. It includes the identification and stopping of emotions. Teachers and parents must develop some communication with children to know about their feelings and examining their emotions (Bakalar, 2017; Kim, Jung-Eun Yoo, Lee & Kim, 2012). Listening to the child’s feeling is also very useful as it determines what students actually feel about a certain condition. Taking out time for talking with the students also helps in improving some negative situations. Teaching problem-solving is another effective method for obtaining the reflection of the student’s emotions and identifying reasons for the particular action (Mohzan, Hassan & Halil, 2013). Emotional intelligence is also improving if the speaker leads the conversation with the example. H2: There is a significant mediating impact of Self-efficacy in the relationship between Teaching politeness and emotional intelligence of learners. Mediating role of Self-Esteem Self-esteem refers to the understanding regarding what a person thinks of himself. It is the judgment of worthiness that a person holds for himself either through his sense of competency or from the concepts of others (Cvencek, Fryberg, Covarrubias & Meltzoff, 2018). An individual having positive expectations regarding self considers having the self-esteem. There is a high correlation between the self-esteem and academic performance. Self-esteem leads to more academic performance (Mbuva, 2017). Development of self-concept of the students leads to increased academic performance. There are different factors affecting self-esteem such as the negative responses such as joking, violence, penalty, and criticism. Moreover, failure and economic status moreover affects someone’s self-worth. Student’s feelings are also affected by the religion, sex, culture, and race (Jansen, Scherer & Schroeders, 2015). Mudiono When negative emotions are developed early among the students, it results in development of more thinking habits. Students having low self-esteem feel dissatisfied and unimportant. Self-esteem of the students is built successfully when there is proactive interest of the educators in making improvements. It is the process that is developed from the beginning and continues for ages. For increasing the student’s confidence and self-esteem, different actions are undertaken by the parents of the children (Zahra, Mu'in & Nasrullah, 2019). It is one of that area in which parents have a greater role to play. The self-esteem of the students is affected by the use of negative words that damages their image (Moksnes & Espnes, 2012). Self-esteem is considered as the critical element in the prevention of certain discipline problems. As students having higher self-esteem score more on their academics than those having less self-esteem (Godfrey, Santos & Burson, 2019). Moreover, if teachers are aware of the student’s needs, and give respect and value to students, this enhances the self-esteem and motivation of the students. Satisfaction with life is found to have a strong association with the self-esteem and is considered as the examined predictor on certain demographics characteristics, personality, and social connection (Kong & You, 2013). Personality which scores high on EI tends to have greater sense for their worth. Politeness also induces healthy relationship among the listener and speaker. As one cannot ignore the significance of such cooperation and feelings (Dunn, 2011). There are four different situations for the politeness and calls for politeness. In competitive situation, the impact of politeness is considered as the negative. In convivial situation, the impact of politeness is considered as positive (Shokouhi & Rezaei, 2015). Politeness means that teachers should consider the use of proper sentences and words in suitable contexts that is determined from rules held in the society. There is strong connection between the self-esteem and emotional intelligence of the learners. Higher self-esteem among the students will lead to more positive emotional intelligence and thus the academic growth of the students. EI value higher among the students means that students have better management skills (Hen & Goroshit, 2014). In this way they are able to develop enhanced self-motivation and improved communication skills which are considered essential to become more confident. Students lacking in emotional intelligence tend to develop less connection with the school and its activities and thus negative performance is resulted. Improving emotional intelligence through teaching politeness is very helpful for the students (Kong, Zhao & You, 2012). It results in better stress management, building of empathy, boosting of self-motivation, enhanced Journal of Social Studies Education Research 2019: 10(4), 427-445 self-awareness, effectiveness in developing communication and relationships, and finally increasing the decision-making power. H3: There is a significant mediating impact of Self-esteem in the relationship between Teaching politeness and emotional intelligence of learners. Research Framework Methods Population and Sampling Objective of this research study is to observe the impact of teaching politeness on emotional intelligence of learners, in mediating role of self-efficacy of learners and self-esteem of learner. Researcher selects Indonesia as the population of study because in Indonesia education is compulsory, Indonesia provides free charges education in public one to nine grade. Country is struggling to provide high education level to low the illiteracy rate but nowadays Indonesia has lower literacy level than other Southeast Asian countries that’s why researcher provide some specific parameters for enhancing the emotional intelligence of learners. As the large number of primary schools have been working in Indonesia that’s why researcher accompanied mixed method sampling which enables the researcher to strengthen the research design on the account of social and behavioral sciences. Moreover, it has been observed that mixed method sampling has key importance in social sciences research. Further, researcher takes into account purposive Teaching Politeness Self-efficacy of learners Self-esteem of learners Emotional intelligence of learners Mudiono sampling technique in order to selects only those sample respondents such as individual students, which have the knowledge about concerned variables and have the interest in the study. In this study, sample size is 340 that’s why questionnaires have been distributed among 340 respondents but out of them only 316 responded. Afterward, researcher attained only 301 valid responses because rest of responses gets rejected due to the incompleteness and invalidity. Data Collection Procedure Data collection procedure in this research study is structured questionnaire because researcher desired to collect the objective, quantitative data, which can easily be analyzed through statistical analysis techniques. Researcher has to performed the pilot study or pretest the questionnaire before final administration because if the wording, language and items not understandable by respondents then accurate, upright and authentic outcomes can never be attained. Due to these reasons, researcher has to verify the understandability of items and minimized the errors and mistakes in the survey questions. Further, researcher self-visits the respondents such as students of schools in order to narrates them about filling process and solved their queries during questionnaire administration. Measures Many other researchers had already conducted the research studies on the impact of proposed variables but in totally different context or perspective, researcher adapts the measurement items from their studies because they have already been attested in context of reliability and validity. Researcher adapts the 8 survey items for teaching politeness variable, from literature of (Carrell & Konneker, 1981) and for emotional intelligence of learners (dependent variable) measurement, researcher adapts the 5 survey items from research work of (Mayer & Cobb, 2000). Further, self- efficacy of learner construct has been measured through 10 measurement items, which have been taken from (Walker, 2003) and for self-esteem of learner construct,10 survey items have been adapted from (Scott, Murray, Mertens & Dustin, 1996). All these measurement items have been measured on the bases of 5-point Likert scale, in which 1 stands as strongly disagree and 5 stands as strongly agree. Journal of Social Studies Education Research 2019: 10(4), 427-445 Data Analysis Techniques In this section, researcher entails that he or she takes into consideration SPSS and AMOS for analyzing the data of this specific study. Researcher applied different tests for analyzing data such as regression test, descriptive statistics tests, reliability tests, correlation test, all these tests have been run under SPSS. In the reliability test, researcher examined two criteria such as composite construct reliability and Cronbach’s alpha, for ensuring internal consistency and items reliability both of them must have values greater than cutoff value 0.70. Further, researcher performed confirmatory factor analysis under AMOS, for assessing convergent validity such as items loading λ, its values have to exceed 0.70 and average variance extracted, its values have to be greater than 0.50 limit value. CFA also assessed the discriminant validity through criterion such as square root of AVE has to be greater than other compared constructs and assessed model fitness. Structure equation modeling run under AMOS, for performing hypothesis testing by evaluating structure path model. Results and Discussion For the purpose of this study a total of 301 participants from Indonesia were selected out of which the female ratio was dominant, 58.8%, while the rest 41.2% were males. Education-wise, most of the sample was highly educated, i.e. 48.5% had post-graduate degrees and 40.5% had master’s degrees. The prominent age group in the sample was 31-40 with 61.1% respondents lying in this group. The demographic details, as mentioned, helped enhance the validity of results since the majority of the sample was mature in both age and education aspects. Table 1. Descriptive Statistics N Minimum Maximum Mean SD Skewness Statistic Statistic Statistic Statistic Statistic Statistic SE SeflEfficacyL 301 1.00 4.90 3.5824 1.07315 -.866 .140 SeflEsteemL 301 1.00 5.00 3.4013 1.17238 -.690 .140 TeachPolit 301 1.00 5.00 3.4568 1.11883 -.572 .140 EmoIntelL 301 1.00 5.00 3.5482 1.14786 -.586 .140 Valid N (listwise) 301 The descriptive statistics for this study have been summarized in table no.1. Minimum and maximum statistic values depict the absence of any outlier in the data and the mean statistics show Mudiono that most respondents either gave neutral responses or agreed to the questionnaire statements, the skewness lies between the threshold range of -1 and +1, showing that the data against all the variables is normally distributed. Table 2. KMO and Bartlett's Test Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. .955 Bartlett's Test of Sphericity Approx. Chi-Square 12489.962 Df 528 Sig. .000 Table no. 2 is depicting the results of KMO and Bartlett’s Test. The result of KMO testing show the value of .955. The purpose of this test is to confirm that sample size of data is accurate and value should lie between threshold range of 0.8 and 1, thus for this study the sample is adequate. Results for the rooted component matrix, which is a part of CFA, have been given in table no.3. All the components carry factor loading greater than 0.7 and no issue of cross loading is seen. This table validates the accuracy of data. Table 3. Rotated Component Matrix Component 1 2 3 4 EF1 .701 EF2 .764 EF3 .842 EF4 .852 EF5 .830 EF6 .816 EF7 .817 EF8 .827 EF9 .848 EF10 .826 ES1 .800 ES2 .841 ES3 .839 ES4 .849 ES5 .837 ES6 .837 ES7 .853 ES8 .839 Journal of Social Studies Education Research 2019: 10(4), 427-445 ES9 .854 ES10 .873 TP1 .843 TP2 .865 TP3 .868 TP4 .880 TP5 .881 TP6 .881 TP7 .864 TP8 .829 EI1 .846 EI2 .860 EI3 .853 EI4 .837 EI5 .851 Table 4. Convergent and Discriminant Validity CR AVE MSV MaxR(H) ES TP EF EI ES 0.922 0.776 0.270 0.973 0.881 TP 0.919 0.799 0.256 0.986 0.427 0.894 EF 0.947 0.746 0.296 0.990 0.497 0.506 0.864 EI 0.963 0.837 0.296 0.992 0.520 0.357 0.544 0.915 The results for convergent and discriminant validity tests are summarized in table no.4. The first two variables (CR and AVE) are indicators of convergent validity and the diagonal part of the table is for showing discriminant validity. All the values for CR and AVE are above thresholds of 0.7 and 0.5 respectively, showing convergent validity. As for discriminant validity, each value in bold in the diagonal section is incrementing, showing that they are more associated among themselves then on other factor. Table 5. Confirmatory Factors Analysis Indicators Threshold range Current values CMIN/DF Less or equal 3 2.629 GFI Equal or greater .80 .805 CFI Equal or greater .90 .937 IFI Equal or greater .90 .937 RMSEA Less or equal .08 .074 The model fitness results have been shown in table no.5. The results show that all values are within the threshold ranges. Showing that the model is good fit for our hypotheses. Mudiono Figure 2: CFA Table 6. Structural Equation Modeling Total effect TeachPolit SeflEsteemL SeflEfficacyL SeflEsteemL .417*** .000 .000 SeflEfficacyL .491*** .000 .000 EmoIntelL .442*** .179*** .376*** Direct effect TeachPolit SeflEsteemL SeflEfficacyL SeflEsteemL .417*** .000 .000 SeflEfficacyL .491*** .000 .000 EmoIntelL .183** .179*** .376*** Indirect effect TeachPolit SeflEsteemL SeflEfficacyL SeflEsteemL .000 .000 .000 SeflEfficacyL .000 .000 .000 EmoIntelL .259*** .000 .000 For the purpose of hypothesis testing, SEM was run on AMOS. The results have proved that there is a significant impact of teaching politeness on the emotional intelligence of the learner. Increasing one unit of teaching politeness increasing the emotional intelligence by 18.3%. The indirect effect of teaching politeness on emotional intelligence is highly significant with a ratio of Journal of Social Studies Education Research 2019: 10(4), 427-445 25.9% which exists due to the mediators If one unit of teaching politeness is increased, it causes for 49.1% and 41.7% increase in self-efficacy and self-esteem respectively. Moreover, by increasing one unit of self-efficacy, emotional intelligence is increased by 37.6 percent and by increasing one unit of self-esteem, emotional intelligence is increased by 17.9 percent. Thus, self- esteem and self-efficacy have significant mediating role in the relationship between teaching politeness and emotional intelligence. Figure 3: SEM In order to find the impact of the politeness of teachers in the classroom on the emotional intelligence of the students, some hypotheses were formulated by the author of this research in the previous section of this research paper. The first hypothesis regarding the impact of teaching politeness on emotional intelligence of students was accepted by the results discussed in the previous section and they have proven that the direct relationship between the two variables is significant in nature. Similar results have been discussed in few previous studies as well (Adams, 2014; Hagenauer, Hascher, & Volet, 2015; Zhang & Sapp, 2013). The second hypothesis discussed the mediating role of self-efficacy between teaching politeness and emotional intelligence. Results shown prove this hypothesis to be accepted as well, showing positive significant mediating role of self-efficacy. Similar tests have been shown in a number of studies (Hagenauer et al., 2015; Parvaresh, Bidaki & Farahani, 2014; Santamaría-García, 2017). The third hypothesis contested a mediating role of self-esteem between teaching politeness and emotional intelligence. The above given results accepted this hypothesis as well, proving similar to previous studies (Sudarsana, Mudiono 2016), that this role is significant and positive. In summary all of the proposed hypotheses by the author of this paper have been shown to have positive and significant results and all have been accepted by the tests that were conducted. Conclusion The politeness of teachers in the classroom environment has an important role in building of the students’ character. The emotional intelligence of students affects the long term behavior development of the students and politeness of teachers at primary level helps in ensuring that the positive characteristics are enforced in the students. The current study was conducted to discuss the impact of these variables in detail, by using the self-esteem and self-efficacy of students as mediating factors. Data was collected from primary school teachers in Indonesia and a total of 301 participants were selected to obtain this data. The data was analyzed and studied in depth by application of various tests such as unit root tests and estimation techniques based upon the type of collected data. From the results, it was found that politeness of teachers has significant and positive effect on the emotional intelligence of teachers. Based on these results, several theoretical, practical and policy making implications have been identified by the author. Implications The emotional intelligence of students plays a key role in their learning abilities at school level and their life time character building. This study discusses effects of the politeness of teachers on the self-efficacy and self-esteem of the students and therefore has major literary and policy making implications. The literature can help peers understand the theoretical benefits of politeness in classroom scenarios. The teachers can use this study to modify their behavior in ways that increases the perception of their politeness in their students and helps them develop high self-esteem and efficacy in learning. The school level policy makers and the governments of countries having similar school structures can use this study as a guideline for designing teacher training policies and laws for controlling teacher behaviors in the classroom. Limitations and Future Research Recommendations The academic culture of Indonesia cannot be taken as an international or even a regional level standard. Thus, the small sample size imposes a limitation which can be overcome by taking larger Journal of Social Studies Education Research 2019: 10(4), 427-445 samples, like the sample of ASEAN region for the analysis of similar factors in future studies. In addition, longitudinal studies should also be conducted, as this was a cross-sectional study. 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