www.jsser.org Journal of Social Studies Education Research Sosyal Bilgiler Eğitimi Araştırmaları Dergisi 2021:12 (2), 54-77 Renewed Purposes for Social Studies Teacher Preparation: An Analysis of Teacher Self- Efficacy and Initial Teacher Education Leona Calkins1, Paul J. Yoder2 & Peter Wiens3 Abstract Using data from TALIS 2018, this study analyzed the relationship of U.S. social studies teachers’ initial teacher education (ITE) and their self-efficacy, with an emphasis on the newly added construct of multicultural teacher self-efficacy. Results indicated that content and pedagogy training is present in the vast majority of ITE programs that U.S. social studies teachers have attended; however, over one quarter of participants reported no training in teaching in a multilingual or multicultural setting during their ITE. Social studies teachers were more self-efficacious about instruction and classroom management than they were about student engagement and teaching in multicultural classrooms. All components of self-efficacy were significantly correlated with each other; however, student engagement, instruction, and classroom management are more highly correlated than self-efficacy in multicultural classrooms. Regression analyses revealed an association between ITE and self-efficacy; all four components of self-efficacy were significantly associated with the predictor variables. Recommendations for practice and future research are discussed. Keywords: multicultural, regression, social studies education, self-efficacy, TALIS Introduction Crocco and Livingston (2017) call for “more focused and programmatic research on social studies teacher education” akin to research common in science and math with the goal of shaping policy and better preparing social studies teachers (p. 361). With the notable exception of the Survey of the Status of Social Studies (Passe & Fitchett; 2013; Hong & Hamot, 2020), the majority of research in social studies teacher education falls within the realm of small scale studies, often conducted in methods courses, with limited generalizability (Adler; 2008; Barton & Avery; 2016). One issue that attributes to the limited availability of broad-scale research is the continued dispute over the meaning of social studies—with conflicting views of the purposes of social studies 1 Doctoral Student. University of Nevada, Las Vegas, calkil1@unlv.nevada.edu 2Assist. Prof. Dr. Eastern Mennonite University, paul.yoder@emu.edu 3Assist. Prof. Dr. University of Nevada, Las Vegas, peter.wiens@unlv.edu mailto:calkil1@unlv.nevada.edu mailto:paul.yoder@emu.edu mailto:peter.wiens@unlv.edu Journal of Social Studies Education Research 2021: 12 (2), 54-77 55 perpetuating disagreement over what skills social studies teachers need (Adler, 2008; Powell, 2018). In addition, requirements in social studies teacher education programs vary greatly throughout the United States (Bittman et al., 2017). For instance, of 173 public colleges and universities that offer an undergraduate social studies teacher education program leading to state certification, 22.5% do not require any credits in a social studies methods course; 46.8% require three credit hours; the most credit hours required by a program is 25 (Bittman et al., 2017). Because of this, there has been a call for teacher education programs to situate their research into a broader context with emphasis placed on practices that lead to student achievement (Adler, 2008; Crocco & Livingston, 2017; Fitchett & Heafner, 2017; Passe & Fitchett, 2013; Sleeter, 2014). One of the key teacher-level factors that contributes to student achievement is teacher self-efficacy (Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2001). In addition to facilitating student achievement, teachers with higher levels of self-efficacy attempt different instructional strategies (Holzberger et al., 2013), are more organized in both their classroom and instruction resulting in more effective lessons (Fast et al., 2010), and positively affect their students’ self-esteem, motivation, self-direction and attitudes about school (Taimalu & Oim, 2005). In regard to social studies teacher self-efficacy, a great deal of the available research primarily focuses on small scale studies usually conducted within a given course. For instance, Fitchett, Starker, and Salyers (2012) reported increased self-efficacy of preservice social studies teachers in their abilities to teach multicultural content after completing a methods course following a culturally responsive model. Voet & De Weaver (2017) reported similar findings during an inquiry-based learning (IBL) training that preservice history teachers attended during their student teaching; preservice teachers felt more efficacious to use IBL with their students after attending the training. In response to the need for empirical research that bridges the preservice and in-service phases of social studies teachers’ careers, this study uses responses of social studies teachers from the Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS) 2018 to analyze relationships between social studies teachers’ preparation and their self-efficacy. TALIS is a large-scale ongoing survey, beginning in 2008, given to teachers and administrators in lower secondary schools (Ainley & Carstens, 2018). Using the TALIS 2018 framework to situate the study, initial teacher education (ITE) includes, most notably, indicators “in subject content areas and pedagogy, as well as practical experience in schools, along with indicators of professional development and its impact Calkins et al. on teachers” (Ainley & Carstens, 2018, p. 41). In addition, TALIS 2018 addresses four areas of teacher self-efficacy: classroom management, student engagement, instruction, and multicultural classrooms. Based on the importance of teacher self-efficacy and the affordances of the TALIS data set, this study seeks to answer the following research question: To what extent, if any, do various elements of U.S. social studies teachers’ initial teacher education (ITE) relate to their self- efficacy of classroom management, instruction, student engagement, and multicultural classrooms? Theoretical Framework Self-efficacy is a central concept to Bandura’s (1986) social cognitive theory and is viewed as the foundation for human agency. Self-efficacy is the belief that one can produce desired effects through one’s own actions, thus having the power to create change (Bandura, 2006; Bandura, 1999). People with high self-efficacy not only remain resilient when faced with hardship, but also set high goals for themselves, devote more effort, and have a strong commitment to their goals (Bandura, 2012). On the other hand, those with low self-efficacy tend to give up and often limit their options because they doubt success (Bandura, 1999). In addition, those with high self-efficacy attribute failures to correctable situations (e.g., lack of effort, inappropriate strategies), whereas those with low self-efficacy attribute failures to lack of ability, which can be demoralizing (Bandura, 1999). Self-efficacy is shaped by four sources of information: vicarious experiences, verbal and social influences, physiological and emotional states, and mastery experiences (Bandura, 1977). Vicarious experiences pertain to those capabilities that do not have an absolute measure of adequacy and therefore need to be appraised based on how others perform (Bandura, 1977). Teachers can experience this through colleague observation. If a teacher considers using a new strategy, they can observe a fellow teacher who uses the strategy frequently; once the teacher has attempted the new strategy then they can judge their effectiveness compared to that of their colleague. Verbal and social influences come in the form of encouragement by others of importance in a person’s life (Bandura, 1977). This can come in the form of observations and then feedback teachers receive from administrators or other teachers. Positive feedback can lead to a heightened sense of self-efficacy, whereas negative feedback can lower self-efficacy; however, unrealistic praise can lead to harsher failures and then diminishment of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997). Journal of Social Studies Education Research 2021: 12 (2), 54-77 57 Physiological and emotional states pertain to people’s somatic states especially emotional responses to situations (Bandura, 1997). People tend to judge their capabilities based upon their physical reactions; emotions like fear, stress, or even excitement can alter a teacher’s performance or their perceptions of their capabilities, though these perceptions may be a misinterpretation (Dassa & Nichols, 2019). Lastly, “enactive mastery experiences are the most influential source of efficacy information because they provide the most authentic evidence” of possible mastery (Bandura, 1997, p. 80). Successes foster efficacy and failures hinder it; however, some failure is necessary in order to build resilience and understanding that successes take effort. Once people believe success is possible through their deliberate actions then they can face adversity with resilience and continue to exert greater effort after setbacks. As teachers find success in the classroom, their competency and self-efficacy grows. Studies pertaining to teacher self-efficacy support this concept as veteran teachers tend to have higher self-efficacy than novice teachers (Bullock et al., 2015; Goddard et al., 2000; Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2007). These sources of information appear as separate entities, though any influence can operate through one or more of these sources (Bandura, 1997). The concept of self-efficacy has found its way into numerous fields including that of education. Like all social realities, teaching is strewn with difficulties, “full of impediments, adversities, setbacks, frustrations, and inequities” thus teachers with high self-efficacy will be better equipped to face these challenges and continue to exert effort even when not finding success initially (Bandura, 1994, para. 33). Literature Review Social Studies Teacher Education The National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS) has published standards which outline the knowledge, dispositions, and skills necessary for preservice social studies teachers to learn in order to best prepare their own students for civic life. The National Standards for the Preparation of Social Studies Teachers (Cuenca et al., 2018) assist in the review and accreditation of social studies teacher education programs. The standards employ the inquiry arc described in the College, Career, and Civic Life (C3) Framework (NCSS, 2013) as “both a guide for and endpoint of social studies teacher education” (Cuenca, 2017, pp. 371). In doing so, NCSS developed five core competencies for social studies teacher education programs: Content Knowledge, Application of Calkins et al. Content Through Planning, Design and Implementation of Instruction and Assessment, Social Studies Learners and Learning, and Professional Responsibility and Informed Action (Cuenca, 2017; Cuenca et al., 2018). Although the standards are most essential for U.S. teacher education programs seeking national recognition from NCSS and the Council for the Accreditation of Educator Preparation (CAEP), these standards provide a guide for all social studies teacher education programs (Cuenca, 2017; Cuenca et al., 2018). However, a gap in literature exists regarding how and to what extent these standards are implemented in social studies teacher education programs (Cuenca, 2017). The majority of the research on social studies teacher education falls within the realm of small scale studies, often done in methods courses, providing limited generalizability and lacking a comprehensive view of the state of social studies teacher education programs (Adler, 2008; Barton & Avery, 2016). For instance, studies conducted by Brooks and Jares (2016) and Crocco and Marino (2017) were both conducted in preservice social studied education method courses and both studies included fewer than 30 participants. Other small scale studies have focused on how current programs have worked to improve their social studies teacher education programs. Journell and Tolbert (2016) described the collaboration between the departments of teacher education and history at the University of North Carolina at Greensboro, to develop four distinct history courses solely for preservice social studies teachers aimed at improving their pedagogical content knowledge. Weiss and Pellegrino (2016) shared the theme of collaboration as a way to improve teacher education; their study reported on the collaboration between a social studies teacher educator and a special education teacher educator in an attempt to better prepare their preservice teachers to meet the needs of a diverse population. Small scale, qualitative studies prove extremely beneficial to research in the social studies; however, large-scale studies can better influence policy and also provide a complementary perspective to that of small-scale studies (Fitchett & Heafner, 2017). Because of this Crocco and Livingston (2017, p. 361) call for “more focused and programmatic research on social studies teacher education” akin to research common in science and math with the goal of shaping policy and better preparing social studies teachers. A recent study by Bittman et al. (2017) sought to gain a better understanding of the requirements in social studies teacher education programs that lead to state licensure throughout the United States. Using the U.S. Department of Education’s database, the study identified all publicly financed colleges and universities that offered teacher licensure in social studies education at either Journal of Social Studies Education Research 2021: 12 (2), 54-77 59 the undergraduate or graduate level (N=419). The requirements for both undergraduate and graduate programs in social studies teacher education programs vary greatly throughout the United States highlighting the myriad conditions schools must take into consideration with developing their teacher education programs (Bittman et al., 2017). For instance, of 173 public colleges and universities that offer an undergraduate social studies teacher education program leading to state certification, 22.5% do not require any credits in a social studies methods course and 46.8% require three credit hours. The most credit hours required by a program is 25 (Bittman et al., 2017). At the graduate level, of the 89 public colleges and universities offering a degree leading to state licensure in social studies, 52 schools required no additional classes in the social studies; 22 schools required six or more additional credits hours in social studies content. In addition, internship credit hours varied greatly at the graduate level, ranging from 0 to 27 credit hours with most schools requiring between 3 and 12 (Bittman et al., 2017). Because of this, there has been a call for teacher education programs to situate their research into a broader context with emphasis placed on practices that lead to student achievement (Adler, 2008; Crocco & Livingston, 2017; Cuenca, 2017; Passe & Fitchett, 2013; Sleeter, 2014). Teacher Self-Efficacy Research on teacher self-efficacy reveals that those with high self-efficacy remain resilient in times of difficulty and are motivated to find better solutions when faced with possible failure. Teachers with low self-efficacy, on the other hand, tend to give up or settle for mediocre results when faced with difficulties (Bandura, 1999; Bandura, 2012; Dicke et al., 2014; Hong, 2012; Keogh et al., 2012; Yost, 2006). Thus, teacher self-efficacy has important implications for education since it “represents the teacher's belief in his/her own ability to organize and execute necessary actions required to successfully carry out a specific educational task in a particular context” (Oliveira Fernandez et al., 2016, p.793-794). Teacher self-efficacy is one of the teacher-level factors that contributes to student achievement (Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2001). In addition to facilitating student achievement, teachers with higher levels of self-efficacy attempt different instructional strategies (Holzberger et al., 2013), are more organized in both their classroom and instruction resulting in more effective lessons (Fast et al., 2010), and positively affect their students’ self-esteem, motivation, self-direction and attitudes about school (Taimalu & Oim, 2005). When students perceive a classroom environment as caring Calkins et al. and mastery-oriented, students have higher levels of self-efficacy, which encourages them toward higher performance (Fast et al., 2010). Teaching experience can be an important contributing factor to a teacher’s sense of efficacy. In their study of novice and experienced teachers Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (2007) found that experienced teachers had a higher sense of self-efficacy than novice teachers. Novice teachers struggle with self-efficacy due to the fact that they have not had the opportunity to face challenging situations in order to grow their self-efficacy (Bullock et al., 2015). Self-efficacy can change over time and can be increased with experience (Goddard et al., 2000). However, there are reported instances in which teacher effectiveness has decreased later in teachers’ careers; causes for this included both additional workloads and paperwork along with increased stress from their personal life (Day & Gu, 2007). For example, in a study of veteran teachers, Day and Gu (2007) found that six out of 44 participants experienced decreased motivation and effectiveness after teaching between 16-23 years; this number increased to 24 out of 52 among those participants who taught for 24-30 years. Teacher self-efficacy is viewed as a multidimensional construct. Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (2001) proposed a three factor framework of teacher self-efficacy: self-efficacy for classroom management, self-efficacy for instructional strategies, and self-efficacy for student engagement. Teacher self-efficacy for classroom management relates to a teachers’ beliefs in their ability to control disruptive behavior, create routines to keep activities running smoothly, and make clear expectations for student behavior. Teacher self-efficacy for instructional strategies relates to teachers’ beliefs in their ability to gauge student comprehension of material just taught, adjust lessons to meet individual needs of students, and use a variety of assessment strategies. Teacher self-efficacy for student engagement refers to teachers’ beliefs in their ability to motivate students, help students believe they can do well in school, and foster student creativity (Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2001). Self-efficacy in Multicultural Classrooms More recently, self-efficacy in multicultural classrooms has emerged as a fourth dimension of teacher self-efficacy. Student populations around the world continue to diversify. As of 2014, White students have accounted for less than 50 percent of all students enrolled in U.S. public schools and that number is projected to continue to decline until 2028 (Kena et al., 2014). Self- efficacy in multicultural classrooms hinges on the concept of culturally relevant teaching, which Journal of Social Studies Education Research 2021: 12 (2), 54-77 61 is “using the cultural knowledge, prior experiences, frames of reference, and performance styles of ethnically diverse students to make learning encounters more relevant to and effective for them” (Gay, 2010, p. 31). In order to assess teachers’ sense of multicultural self-efficacy, Siwatu (2007) developed the Culturally Responsive Teacher Self-Efficacy scale (CRTSE). Using the CRTSE, preservice teachers reported high levels of self-efficacy in helping their students feel like a valued member of the classroom and establishing trusted student-teacher relationships; however, preservice teachers reported lower self-efficacy in their ability to communicate with English language learners (ELLs; Siwatu, 2007). Considering growing diversity within schools higher self- efficacy in working with linguistically diverse populations could lead to greater achievement for the country’s growing population of ELLs (Ladson-Billings, 2006). Considering the positive correlations between high teacher self-efficacy and student achievement, greater self-efficacy in multicultural classrooms can positively impact student learning of historically underserved students. For instance, Fitchett, Starker, and Salyers (2012) reported increased self-efficacy of preservice social studies teachers in their abilities to teach multicultural content after completing a methods course following a culturally responsive epistemology. The implications of this study suggest that when incorporating culturally relevant teaching strategies into a social studies methods course teachers can become more aware of culturally relevant pedagogy, feel more efficacious working with culturally diverse students, and, therefore, find ways to engage their students in diverse content. Because of the important implications of culturally relevant teaching, and the diversified student population throughout the world including the United States, TALIS 2018 (Ainley & Carstens, 2018) added self-efficacy in multicultural classrooms to their recent teacher questionnaire. Social Studies Teacher Self-Efficacy In regard to social studies teacher self-efficacy, the literature is quite sparse with the available research primarily focuses on preservice teachers in methods courses. Of the three studies analyzed, all were conducted with preservice social studies teachers and each focused on different dimensions of self-efficacy. For instance, Yilmaz (2009) analyzed the self-efficacy perceptions of teaching history among preservice social studies teachers during their senior year. Overall, preservice teachers had a generally high sense of self-efficacy in regards to teaching history (Yilmaz, 2009). Dundar (2015) examined the relationship between elementary preservice teachers learning approaches in a social studies method course and their self-efficacy; findings revealed Calkins et al. that a deep learning approach to the social studies methods course had a positive correlation to both personal teaching efficacy beliefs and teaching outcome expectancy. Lastly, Voet and De Wever (2017) conducted a study analyzing the self-efficacy of using inquiry-based learning (IBL) in history after preservice teachers attended a workshop. Voet and De Wever (2017) reported that preservice teachers felt more efficacious to use IBL with their students after attending the training. Although studies of preservice teachers provide insights into self-efficacy among social studies educators, research raises the possibility of overconfidence, as opposed to self-efficacy, in some preservice teachers. According to Dassa and Nichols (2019), a disconnect exists between preservice teachers’ perceptions of their abilities and how their university supervisors and mentor teachers view their abilities. Preservice teachers may have overconfidence, especially if having a positive student teaching experience, that can cause them to feel as if they have high teaching abilities and may even cause them to assume they will face little difficulty in the future. With this in mind, it is imperative to also analyze in-service social studies teacher self-efficacy; this study aims to help close this literature gap. Social Studies Instruction in Multicultural and Multilingual Classrooms Given the TALIS focus on students from immigrant families (Ainley & Carstens, 2018), the final literature review section focuses on the importance of culturally and linguistically responsive social studies teaching in multicultural and multilingual classrooms. In the context of TALIS it is important to recognize that multicultural education coincides with multilingual education given the international context of the survey and the assumption that multicultural education is primarily needed to serve immigrant students in many otherwise homogenous societies. Furthermore, considering multicultural education is extremely broad we sought to anchor our analysis in our own teaching and research perspectives. In summarizing key understandings from recent research, Yoder and Jaffee (2019) highlighted the importance of learning about students’ experiences and perspectives, explicitly connecting social studies instruction to student experiences, clearly articulating classroom procedures and social studies skills, and scaffolding social studies instruction for culturally and linguistically diverse student populations. Based on empirical research among culturally and linguistically diverse student populations in a variety of settings, Jaffee (Jaffee, 2016a, 2016b, 2018; Ramirez & Jaffee, 2016) has similarly placed an emphasis on examining the cultural contexts from which content knowledge is derived and actively engaging the cultural assets of students from all backgrounds. Journal of Social Studies Education Research 2021: 12 (2), 54-77 63 Research clearly shows that the majority of social studies teachers need the knowledge, skills, and dispositions to be successful in multicultural classrooms. For example, half of the respondents in the landmark Survey on the Status of Social Studies reported teaching culturally and linguistically diverse students (Jimenez-Silva et al., 2013). Yet social studies teachers consistently report that they feel unprepared to meet the needs of this group of students (Yoder & van Hover, 2018; Jimenez-Silva et al., 2013; O'Brien, 2011) and lack the appropriate materials to effectively scaffold instruction (Cho & Reich, 2008; Hilburn, 2014; Jimenez-Silva et al., 2013). At the same time, analysis of the language found in history textbooks and other academic sources reveals that dense noun phrases, abstract ideas, and passive verbs present challenges to culturally and linguistically diverse students (Miller, 2018; Salinas et al., 2017; Zhang, 2017). In short, even as notions of culturally and linguistically responsive social studies instruction have begun to take hold in recent years, the continued need for research on teacher preparation and practice remains (Yoder et al., 2016). Emerging studies among students and social studies teachers alike continue to highlight the challenges and affordances of social studies curriculum in the context of current events (Yoder et al., 2016; Díaz & Deroo, 2020; Dozono, 2020; Yoder, 2020). The present study seeks to add to this body of knowledge through introducing notions of self-efficacy in multicultural classrooms in ways that enrich and update the existing literature since self-efficacy has shown, time and again, that it is an important teacher-level factor impacting student achievement. Method This study reports on the statistical analysis (Hinkle et al., 2003; Lomax, 2007) of a large scale survey (Stapleton, 2010) of teacher responses to questions regarding their ITE and instructional methods. Further explanation of the methods will follow in this section. Data Source and Sampling TALIS 2018 is administered by national educational agencies in partnership with the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and includes responses from 48 countries and economies. The 2018 version of the TALIS comprises 11 different themes regarding features and practices related to the professional and pedagogical aspects of teaching in the various participating countries (Ainley & Carstens, 2018). Teachers are provided questions related to intial training, their current work environment, professional development experiences, self-efficacy, and Calkins et al. instructional practices. Influenced by the growing diversity of schools worldwide, the theme of equity and diversity was added to TALIS 2018. As such, questions pertaining to teachers’ self- efficacy in multicultural classrooms were introduced for the first time in the TALIS 2018 questionnaire (Ainley & Carstens, 2018). TALIS data are publicly available and were downloaded from the TALIS website (https://www.oecd.org/education/talis/). TALIS was developed by the OECD (2019) and the targeted populations of TALIS 2018 were lower secondary teachers (Grades 7-9). TALIS defines a teacher “as a person whose professional activity involves the transmission of knowledge, attitudes and skills to students enrolled in an education programme” (Ainley & Carstens, 2018, p.73). In the United States TALIS is administered by the National Center for Education Statistics and the full sample of 2,560 teachers who participated in the survey (Schwabe & Karla, 2019) are a representative sample of all US teachers. Participants The present study focused only on teachers who indicated that they teach social studies in the United States, which includes a total of 240 teachers, or approximately 10% of the entire number of U.S. participants surveyed for TALIS. TALIS is designed to construct a representative sample of teachers in each country it surveys; however, this study focused only on social studies teachers and therefore cannot claim representation. The data does include a range of social studies teachers from across the country. Social studies teachers in this study had an average of just over 14 years of total teaching experience (M = 14.12, SD = 8.64) and 9.5 years of teaching experience at their current school (M = 9.55, SD = 7.73). TALIS provides limited information about the participants, so it is only possible to know that 48.1% self-identified as male and 51.9% identified as female. Instrument Teacher Self-Efficacy The TALIS 2018 teacher questionnaire included 13 questions related to self-efficacy in teaching abilities in general in which teachers responded to the question “In your teaching, to what extent can you do the following?” TALIS bases its self-efficacy measure on the well-established measure created by Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (2001) that conceptualizes self-efficacy as comprised as a three-construct measure with four questions each including instructional practices (α = .814), student engagement (α = .808), and classroom management (α = .868). In addition to assessing Journal of Social Studies Education Research 2021: 12 (2), 54-77 65 these constructs, all of which appeared in the previous TALIS teacher questionnaires, TALIS 2018 added the construct of teaching in diverse classrooms (Ainley & Carstens, 2018) which is composed of five questions (α = .861) to address the growing cultural diversity of many countries. The question asked teachers, “In teaching a culturally diverse class, to what extent can you do the following?” Responses to self-efficacy questions were on a four-point Likert scale including “not at all”, “to some extent”, “quite a bit”, and “a lot”. Analysis in the present study focuses on self-efficacy in multicultural classrooms because it is a new construct in the TALIS 2018 questionnaire. Initial Teacher Education (ITE) TALIS asks teachers to indicate what elements were present in their ITE by asking them to respond to a dichotomous scale and mark either yes or no for each element. Items include content and pedagogy elements as well as teaching diverse learners, classroom management, and information and computer technology (ICT). Table 1 includes responses to these ten elements. Data Analysis We began our analysis by examining the presence of different elements in ITE of social studies teachers. This was done by calculating descriptive statistics for each of the 10 elements. We next calculated the descriptive statistics of the self-efficacy components. After examining the descriptive statistics we then calculated four separate regression analyses. In each of the regressions, we used one of the four components of self-efficacy (engagement, instruction, management, and multicultural) as the dependent variable. In addition to the ten elements of ITE, we selected years of teaching experience, gender, and variables indicative of teaching in multicultural classroom contexts (i.e., teaching ELLs, students from socio-economically disadvantaged homes, refugees) as predictor variables due to their conceptual relevance (Ainley & Carstens, 2018; Fitchett et al., Siwatu, 2007). All analysis was conducted using SPSS version 24. Findings As shown in Table 1, results indicated that multiple elements of content and pedagogy training are present in the vast majority of ITE programs that U.S. social studies teachers have attended. Between 90.4% and 95.4% of participants indicated training in these four areas prior to teaching. Most participants indicated training in teaching in a mixed ability setting (81.2%), monitoring students’ development and learning (82.1%), teaching cross-curricular skills (84.2%), and student Calkins et al. behavior and classroom management (84.6%), though these rates are lower than that of content and general pedagogy. The least frequent elements were use of ICT (68.8%) and teaching in a multilingual or multicultural setting (73.3%). Over a quarter of participants reported receiving no preservice training in teaching in a multicultural setting. Table 1 Percentage of Participants Reporting Presence of Elements in ITE Elements in formal education… Yes No No Answer Content of some or all subject(s) I teach 92.9 5.9 1.3 Pedagogy of some or all subject(s) I teach 90.8 7.9 1.3 General pedagogy 95.4 3.3 1.3 Classroom practice in some or all subject(s) I teach 90.4 8.3 1.3 Teaching in a mixed ability setting 81.2 17.5 1.3 Teaching in a multicultural or multilingual setting 73.3 25.4 1.3 Teaching cross-curricular skills 84.2 14.6 1.3 Use of ICT for teaching 68.8 30.0 1.3 Student behaviour and classroom management 84.6 14.2 1.3 Monitoring students’ development and learning 82.1 16.7 1.3 In Table 2, the means, standard deviations, and correlations of the four components of self-efficacy are displayed. Social studies teachers were more self-efficacious about instruction (M = 12.78, SD= 2.18) and classroom management (M = 12.73, SD= 2.31) than they were about student engagement (M = 11.94, SD= 2.27) and teaching in multicultural classrooms (M = 11.45, SD= 2.32). Self-efficacy of teaching in multicultural classrooms has both the lowest mean and the highest standard deviation. All components of self-efficacy were significantly correlated with each other; however, student engagement, instruction, and classroom management are more highly correlated than self-efficacy in multicultural classrooms. Table 2 Self-Efficacy Means and Correlations Mean(SD) Engagement Instruction Management Multicultural Student Engagement 11.94 (2.27) 1 Instruction 12.78 (2.18) .502*** 1 Classroom Management 12.73 (2.31) .480*** .478*** 1 Multicultural Classrooms 11.45 (2.32) .326*** .297*** .256*** 1 *** p < .001 Journal of Social Studies Education Research 2021: 12 (2), 54-77 Table 3 Regression Analysis: Training and Self-Efficacy Classroom Management Instruction Student Engagement Multicultural Classrooms Predictors Stnd. ß Std. Error Stnd. ß Std. Error Stnd. ß Std. Error Stnd. ß Std. Error Teaching Experience .326*** .016 .210*** .016 .223*** .016 -.116+ .018 Gender (female) .114+ .282 .058 .271 -.031 .286 .119+ .310 ELLs .143* .135 .160* .130 .121+ .137 .116 .148 Refugees .085 .333 .108 .320 .081 .338 .140* .352 Low-SES -.033 .126 -.152* .121 -.120+ .127 -.007 .145 Content of some or all subject(s) I teach -.013 .627 -.158* .602 -.179** .635 -.082 .680 Pedagogy of some or all subject(s) I teach -.052 .662 -.030 .636 -.099 .671 -.115 .696 General pedagogy .015 .958 .033 .921 .063 .972 .257** .997 Classroom practice in some or all subject(s) I teach .002 .594 -.030 .571 -.069 .603 .047 .656 Teaching in a mixed ability setting .102 .451 -.008 .433 .099 .457 .177* .499 Teaching in a multicultural or multilingual setting .009 .367 -.030 .353 .032 .372 -.042 .411 Teaching cross-curricular skills .057 .461 .258*** .443 .135+ .467 .163* .514 Use of ICT (Information and Communication Technology) for teaching .130+ .349 .072 .335 .074 .353 .020 .405 Student behaviour and classroom management .087 .507 .023 .488 .081 .514 .077 .581 Monitoring students development and learning .032 .486 .029 .467 .086 .493 -.201* .581 Final R .490*** .448*** .430*** .440*** Final Adjusted R2 .188 .146 .129 .193 Standard Error 2.089 2.008 2.118 2.148 +=p<.10 *=p<.05 **=p<.01 ***=p<.001 Calkins et al. Regression analyses revealed an association between ITE and self-efficacy. As illustrated in Table 3, all four components of self-efficacy were significantly associated with the predictor variables. However, no clear patterns emerged as to which elements might be the most important to self- efficacy. Teaching cross-curricular skills did appear to be associated with self-efficacy in three components. Interestingly, the inclusion of content of some or all subjects was negatively associated with self-efficacy. Self-efficacy in multicultural classrooms was the most impacted by ITE. In this area, general pedagogy, teaching in a mixed ability classroom, and teaching cross-curricular skills were all positively associated. In addition, teachers who have experience with refugee students have a higher sense of self-efficacy in multicultural classrooms. However, identifying as female and ITE training in monitoring students’ development and learning were negatively associated with self- efficacy in this area. Furthermore, teaching experience was negatively associated with self-efficacy in multicultural classrooms, though positively associated with classroom management, instruction, and student engagement. Implications This study analyzed the relationship between various elements of U.S. social studies teachers’ initial teacher education (ITE) and their self-efficacy of classroom management, instruction, student engagement, and multicultural classrooms. The data presented in this study indicate that coursework in content area subjects as part of ITE had a significant negative relationship to teacher self-efficacy suggesting that content courses, alone, are not enough to make a social studies teacher feel prepared to teach. On the other hand, general pedagogy and teaching cross curricular skills had the greatest relationships to teacher self-efficacy. Given that social studies education programs emphasize content knowledge, with the average program requiring 45 credit hours and the vast majority requiring 30 to 60 credits (Bittman et al., 2017), the data in this study suggests that programs should consider incorporating more elements of general pedagogy and teaching cross- curricular skills. Further research of social studies ITE should be conducted to determine to what extent general pedagogy and teaching cross-curricular skills are included and, in cases where they are not, how best to ensure social studies preservice teachers receive preparation and opportunities for implementation of best practices. Journal of Social Studies Education Research 2021: 12 (2), 54-77 69 With the limited research on social studies teachers’ self-efficacy and that available focusing on preservice teachers, the current study acts as a catalyst beginning the much needed dialogue of self-efficacy among social studies teachers. Considering the importance of teacher self-efficacy is well-established within literature—facilitation of student achievement (Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2001), teacher resiliency (i.e., Dicke et al., 2014; Hong, 2012), use of varying instructional strategies (Holzberger et al., 2013), among others—the analysis of this construct among social studies teachers can help guide professional development and social studies teacher education programs. As a starting point for the conversation regarding social studies teachers’ self-efficacy, the results of the present study show that all four dimensions of teacher self-efficacy are important and significant in relation to social studies education. The results suggest that increased levels of self-efficacy in each domain can help foster greater student success in social studies classrooms (Fast et al., 2010; Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2001). Data analysis revealed that teachers reported the lowest levels of self-efficacy in multicultural and multilingual classrooms, which corroborates the findings of previous studies indicating that social studies teachers do not feel prepared to meet the needs of culturally and linguistically diverse student populations (Yoder & van Hover, 2018; Jimenez-Silva et al., 2013; O’Brien, 2011). Additionally, though teaching experience had a positive relationship to all other areas of self- efficacy, teachers with more experience reported lower self-efficacy in multicultural classrooms. This indicates that self-efficacy in multicultural classrooms decreased with teaching experience, contradicting the findings of Bullock et al. (2015), Goddard et al. (2000), and Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (2007); however, the results align with the findings of Day and Gu (2007) that teachers’ sense of self-efficacy follows a curvilinear pattern. Considering the growing diversity in K-12 public schools, and the finding that over a quarter of participants reported no exposure to multicultural settings in their ITE, social studies teacher education programs must evaluate the extent to which they are preparing future teachers to meet the needs of all students in these diverse classrooms (Yoder et al., 2016; 2019). In addition, school leaders and policymakers must prioritize professional development that promotes culturally and linguistically responsive social studies instruction among veteran in-service teachers. For example, pre-service and in-service social studies teachers alike will benefit from support in highlighting disciplinary skills and inquiry (Yoder & van Hover, 2018; NCSS, 2013) and making connections with students’ personal experiences (Yoder & Jaffee, 2019; Gay, 2010). Research has shown that Calkins et al. by making this link explicit students can develop a better understanding of the content (Yoder & Jaffee, 2019; Jaffee, 2016a, 2016b, 2018; Ramirez & Jaffee, 2016). Additional research should be conducted determining to what extent this occurs in social studies teacher education programs and steps that all programs can take to increase the self-efficacy of preservice social studies teachers in multicultural and multilingual classrooms (Fitchett et al., 2012; Siwatu; 2007). In addition, the results of the present study reinforce the need for additional quantitative research in the field of social studies (Crocco & Livingston, 2017; Hong & Hamot, 2020), including empirical studies on the self-efficacy of social studies teachers in relationship to instructional practices and student achievement (Dassa & Nichols, 2019; Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2001; Voet & De Wever, 2017). Limitations This study had several limitations. First, the TALIS data set provides self-reported teacher data, which precludes the direct evaluation of teacher performance or student learning outcomes (Ainley & Carstens, 2018). Second, the TALIS 2018 questionnaire placed teacher self-efficacy in multicultural classrooms within the theme of equity and diversity, which was separate from the theme of teacher self-efficacy. This study, however, combined the questions related to self-efficacy of multicultural classrooms with those of the three-construct framework created by Tschannen- Moran and Hoy (2001). Third, teachers were asked to think back and remember their ITE and elements within their programs. Depending on the length of time it had been since a teacher had finished their ITE, this question could have caused possible respondent fatigue raising the possibility of measurement error. Further research analyzing requirements of social studies education programs that builds upon the work of Bittman et al. (2017) should be conducted to help clarify the elements of ITE programs mandate. Conclusion By using responses from TALIS 2018, this study employs secondary analysis in order to “provide macro‐level, scalable analyses that can have implications for policymaking, while also informing teaching and teacher education at the micro‐level” (Fitchett & Heafner, 2017, p. 70). 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