www.jsser.org 

Journal of Social Studies Education Research 

Sosyal Bilgiler Eğitimi Araştırmaları Dergisi 

 

2021:12 (2), 330-376 

  

Making Peace with the Past: Peace Education in Post-Conflict Aceh Societies through the 

Application of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy 

 

Mufti Riyani1, Wasino2, Suyahmo3, Nugroho Trisnu Brata4, Fitri Amalia Shintasiwi5 

Abstract 

This paper has two objectives, namely, to map the problems of history learning to promote peace 

in post-conflict societies and offer applicable solutions. The research questions are 1) How do 

schools in post-conflict areas experience pedagogical conflict, especially when confronting 

“difficult history” events that arise in classroom discussions? 2) How does the impacts caused? and 

3) What solutions can be offered? This research paper is a qualitative research design with a 

phenomenological approach. The primary informants in this post-conflict generational research are 

teachers and students in East Aceh. Involved 55 participants from schools scattered in locations 

with predefined characteristics. The gender ratio was 69.6% females and 30.4% males. The 

youngest volunteer was 12 and the oldest was 52 of age. The main techniques used in the data 

collection was observation, which aims to observe the learning process in the classroom and various 

other potentials outside the classroom that contribute to conflict. Interviews were carried out to 

deepen the results of observations as data comparisons. The documentation study was conducted 

to analyze curriculum documents and the used teaching materials. The results of the research show 

that schools in post-conflict areas, especially in the research setting of “difficult history” learning, 

experience pedagogical conflict by placing teachers, students, and schools in a latent conflict 

structure. The behavior of teachers and students in a learning atmosphere is the culmination of 

contradictions in the knowledge and epistemology that students have before they enter the 

classroom. The most visible impact is the emergence of cognitive biases and unconscious history 

due to the tug of war between the psychological and social modalities of the post-conflict 

generation. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy application is in accordance with the peace education 

postulate started by deconstructing the image of the enemy and ended with conflict management 

skills.  
 

Keywords: Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, Difficult Knowledge, Peace Education, Post-

Conflict Societies, Social Studies Education 

 
Introduction 

Peace education is defined as a collection of educational, planning, pedagogical, and practical 

policies that can provide students with competencies to acquire skills and values for generating 

comprehensive peace (Bajaj, 2008). Schools in Aceh's post-conflict areas play a role in supporting 

peacebuilding efforts (Gill & Niens, 2014a). This task is feasible with or without a specially 

                                                 
1Doctoral Candidate, Universitas Negeri Semarang, Indonesia, m.riyani@students.unnes.ac.id 
2Prof.Dr.,M.Hum., Universitas Negeri Semarang, Indonesia, wasino@mail.unnes.ac.id 
3 Prof.,Dr., M.Si., Universitas Negeri Semarang, Indonesia, suyahmo@mail.unnes.ac.id 
4Dr., Universitas Negeri Semarang, Indonesia, trisnu_ntb2015@mail.unnes.ac.id 
5 M.A., Universitas Negeri Semarang, Indonesia, shintasiwi@mail.unnes.ac.id 

mailto:m.riyani@students.unnes.ac.id
mailto:wasino@mail.unnes.ac.id
mailto:suyahmo@mail.unnes.ac.id
mailto:trisnu_ntb2015@mail.unnes.ac.id
mailto:shintasiwi@mail.unnes.ac.id


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designed educational curriculum (Dorji, 2021; Khurshid, 2018; Maebuta, 2019). Some 

communities seek at pedagogical dialogue and humanist application (Gill & Niens, 2014b), and 

inculcation of moral values (Sariyatun et al., 2019), or in other terms, the internalization of faith 

and moral (Suadi et al., 2018). These efforts are essentially the attempts to transmit or transform 

various values into social energy in peacebuilding. 

This ideal task is supported by experts like Johnson & Johnson (2020), who agreed that one of the 

duties of teachers in post-conflict areas is to deliver knowledge, skills, and awareness of the 

presence of peace. Cui et al., (2018) strengthens it by identifying teachers as the primary agents of 

social change.  

However, this task is not as easy as said. It is especially felt by the history or social studies teachers 

at junior and senior high school levels. Teaching or learning from and or about social and historical 

trauma is considered a major challenge, which is then termed in the key concept of "difficult 

knowledge". The idea of 'difficult knowledge' has been formulated by Deborah P. 

Britzman(Britzman, 1998;2000; 2013; Britzman & Pitt, 2004). More specific discussions in the 

education of history have been studied by Farley (2009) and Matthews (2010). 

In peace education practice, it is rarely considered that school residents have been shaped by 

conflicts with personal and collective legacies from the painful past (Weldon, 2010). In fact, even 

though the conflict has ended, the people inside are still brought up with complaints of enmity, 

fear, anxiety, and inevitable side effects. This occurs because empirically, every individual in post-

conflict society remains to live in the shadow of a collective memory of past trauma (Good et al., 

2006; Grayman et al., 2009; Hinan, 2010; Bar-Tal et al., 2014; Briggs, 2016). Thus, the burden of 

history and social psychological conditions are a thick wall that needs to be dealt with. 

Research carried out by Zembylas (2014) shows a conclusion that curriculum adjustment 

functioning to erase historical memories in post-conflict societies that haves a positive impact on 

peacebuilding efforts. One form of curriculum adjustment in post-conflict areas is the development 

of national identity (Shah, 2012;Wasino, 2013). It is similar to the arguments gathered in this 

preliminary study of this research. Senior tertiary education level teachers in the Aceh Timur (East 

Aceh) region agreed that talking about conflict is a way to let wounds stay and not heal. In their 

views, today's life only needs to be filled with new pages and the task of overseeing the 

implementation of the Helsinki accord.  



  Riyani et al. 

 

However, this argument is in contrast with the opinion of younger teachers who see the situation 

differently: This is based on two main explanations: 1) the post-conflict Acehnese generation needs 

theirs memories as a more prominent psychological and pedagogical need; and 2) There are 

opportunities in the national curriculum to develop local history and thus open up learning spaces 

for historical material that is difficult or sensitive.  

Furthermore, in implementing peace education, the teachers encountered obstacles in the form of 

framed students’ opinion and difficulties in penetrating the narrative and subjective perceptions 

they have as the result of post-conflict social psychology. These obstacles are also known as 

pedagogic conflicts. 

Based on the conditions above, psychosocial intervention is needed in history education classes to 

deal with “difficult knowledge” (recollection of emotional challenging historical events) so that 

the goals of peace education can be achieved. Psychosocial interventions in education in post-

conflict societies have been carried out by Ager et al., 2011; Brounéus, 2010; Jordans et al., 2010; 

Kohrt et al., 2010;;Tol et al.,;2013) but has not yet constructed it in an integrated manner in the 

form of peace education. Peace education can be carried out by conducting behavioral 

interventions in the community, especially adolescents who are victims of conflict, as proven by 

Betancourt et al., (2012), Berger et al., (2012) and, Pearlman (2013).  

To formulate a more precise solution, this research is preceded by an effort to understand the main 

phenomenon. First, conflict in the 'difficult history' teaching classroom will be analyzed using 

Galtung's Conflict Triangle (Galtung, 1973; Miall, 2000) as a grand theory. Then it is supported 

by Lewin's Field Theory to explain the work of environmental determinants outside of the school 

environment that contributes to pedagogic conflicts in the classroom. Lewin views that each 

individual is in a specific psychological force field (Duch, 2017). The Lewin's Field Theory argues 

that behavior is derived from the totality of coexistence and interdependence on the forces that 

befall a person or group and create a living space where behavior occurs (Burnes & Cooke, 2013). 

Lastly, as a form of practical contribution that distinguishes this research from similar research, 

we propose a psychosocial intervention in the form of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy. This is an 

applied theory derived from Lewin's theory, which is also known in the educational psychology 

theory as a cognitivism theory cluster. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) is developed by 

Aaron Beck to change behavior by changing thinking systems. 

 



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Research Questions 

The research questions that will be answered are: 

1) How do schools in post-conflict areas experience pedagogical conflict, especially when 

confronting “difficult history” themes that arise in the classroom? 

2) How do the impacts the post conflict affect confronting “difficult history” themes in the 

classroom? 

3) How do CBT be a solution to the impact the post conflict affect confronting “difficult 

history” themes in the classroom? 

 

Concept and Theoretical Framework 

Peace Education is a term developed from the definition of peacebuilding. As mentioned earlier, 

it is defined an educational, planning, pedagogical, and practical policies tool that can provide 

students with skills and values for creating comprehensive peace (Bajaj, 2008). The theory of peace 

education is developed by many experts. One of them is Danesh (2006), with an integrative peace 

education theory based on the concept of peace and psychological, social, political, ethical, and 

spiritual conditions. He argues that all human circumstances, including peace, are shaped by our 

view of reality, human nature, the purpose of life, and in human relationships. Harris (2004) states 

that peace education has five main postulates, namely (1) it explains the roots of violence; (2) it 

teaches alternatives to violence; (3) it adjusts to cover different forms of violence; (4) peace is a 

process that varies according to context; and (5) conflict is omnipresent. Furthermore, it is 

explained that peace education covers five general areas, namely human rights, environmental, 

global, conflict resolution, and peace educations. These five areas are developed from peace 

education rooted in the religious traditions of, love, compassion, charity and, tolerance to modern 

theory based on reducing the threat of interpersonal and environmental violence. 

Previously, several peace education approaches have been developed by, Danesh (2006), Sukendar 

(2011), Eslami-Somea & Movassagh (2014), Maebuta (2019), and Sariyatun et al., (2019). 

However, this research does not make the psychosocial aspects an essential element in dealing 

with the research subjects. Research on peace education in Aceh has been carried out by Suadi et 

al., (2018) using the perspective of religion which according the researchers, it is only possible to 

be one aspect of the defense mechanism without understanding more about the psychological 

situation of the research subject. This research also follows up on the research conducted by 



  Riyani et al. 

 

Blumberg et al., (2017). They suggested that peace education is needed to break away from 

structured authoritarianism in the form of the collective memory of conflict, which can function 

as a system that perpetuates conflict. Davies (2005) also suggests that peace education should 

focus more on psychological therapy in post-conflict societies. 

The implementation of peace education in learning will face various situations. One of them is the 

emergence of “difficult knowledge” that is connected to a post-conflict psychosocial impact. 

Difficult knowledge is formulated by Garrett (2011) as a theoretical construction that shows a 

situation when a person faces representations of social and historical trauma, especially in learning 

situations. It is a situation where emotional and pedagogical complications arise. Garrett pointed 

out that the existence of unconsciousness experienced by people due to uncertainty of knowledge, 

traumatic learning methods. Or where personal history gives more influences to current 

perceptions it can be said to be as a form of protection against psychological discomfort and pain. 

Difficult history is also mapped by Gross & Terra (2018) as events that contain the national 

historical center data that contradicts local history or accepted values. It is also connected to current 

problems. It involves the violence of the majority group or state, and creates a disequilibrium that 

requires adjustments towards personal and collective understanding of history. Rose (2016) 

defines difficult knowledge as history that is too difficult to bear. It determines how history is 

formed based on risk and reasons. Responding to this situation, she assumes that historians should 

be responsible for responding with ethical representations of difficult history. Difficult knowledge, 

as mentioned by Britzman (2000) and Britzman & Pitt (2004), is a pedagogical process in dealing 

with content that includes war, genocide, large-scale death, forced destruction, starvation, 

confinement, enforced disappearances, and dislocation. Through a study of museums, Segall 

(2014) mentions the difficulties attached to contents that are often faced with personal and 

collective investment, identity, and history that work to encourage or even limit the tendency of 

students to learn. This way of learning establishes the knowing and not knowing and the 

remembering and not remembering mechanisms. The same conclusion is mentioned by 

Trofanenko (2011) through his study on museum pedagogy to observe intergenerational 

interactions in specific conversations related to the learning of difficult historical events. However, 

apart from being connected with difficult history, difficult knowledge is also related to other 

emotional experiences, such as racist ideas and other bad experiences (Shim, 2014;Purnomo et al., 



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2019). Therefore, difficult knowledge can be concluded as knowledge related to human emotional 

experience, whether consciously or not, both individually and collectively.  

Pedagogic conflicts in the classroom that occur in the form of the purpose of the situation and the 

background of teachers, students, and the themes of difficult history can be explained through the 

Conflict Triangle Theory (Galtung, 1973). Galtung states that conflict can be seen as a triangle, 

with contradictions (C), Attitude (A), and Behavior (B) at their peaks (see figure 1). Contradiction 

refers to the basis of the conflict situation as well as the incompatibility of goals. Attitudes, in this 

case, can be positive or negative. However, in violent conflict, parties tend to develop negative 

stereotypes. This is driven by various negative emotions. The attitude itself consists of emotive, 

cognitive, and conative attitudes. While, behavior manifests in various activities in interaction, 

including gestures (Ramsbotham et al., 2011) 

 

 

 

  

 

 

Figure 1. Galtung’s Conflict Triangle (Miall, 2000, p. 21) 

To analyze the impact of pedagogic conflicts in the classroom related to difficult history teaching, 

the Lewin's FieldTheory will provide an overview of how individuals psychologically respond to 

various pressures originating from their environment. In this context, the Kurt Lewin's Field 

Theory (Duch, 2017) can be used as a theory to explain the relationship between individual 

cognitive mental processes and the psychological environment leading to certain behaviors, 

including learning activities. Lewin's Field Theory argues that behavior is derived from the totality 

of coexistence and interdependence on the forces that befall a person or group and create a living 

space where behavior occurs(Burnes & Cooke, 2013). 

Lewin argues that each individual is in a psychological force field. The psychological force field 

in which the individual reacts is known as "Life Space". His famous equation is B=ƒ(P, E), 

expressing B (behavior) is the function (ƒ) of P (person) and E (environment) (Duch, 2016). 

Therefore, this research is expected to add references regarding the use of the Field Theory in 

social sciences and learning, which is still limited. Several previous noted research has applied this 

Contradiction 

Attitude Behaviour 



  Riyani et al. 

 

theory in learning themes by, Harahap & Surya(2017), Hanim(2018), and Bhayangkara et al 

(2020). On other themes, one of which can be illustrated through research Suharso et al., (2017). 

However, it is rare to use a theory to understand the problems in classes of post-conflict areas. 

Lewin's theory functions as a middle theory which is in line with its use in conflict resolution 

research with the Psychodynamic Theory, Gaming Theory, Human RelationsTheory, and so forth 

(Ajala, 2009). 

In accordance with the research objectives, namely the formation of a learning approach in Peace 

Education based on the social-psychological condition of the post-conflict Aceh community, this 

research requires a theory that could be an intervention to the problems faced by the research 

subjects. Furthermore, according to the research focus, the recovery of psychosocial conditions in 

the post-conflict generation requires psychotherapy treatment to be applied integrally in forming 

the peace education model. Thus, researchers chose Cognitive Behavioral Therapy as the axiology 

side of this research. 

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) a general term for cognitive therapy is a psychosocial 

intervention in the form of psychotherapy. The purpose of this therapy is to train the thinking or 

the cognitive function and how to act. The focus is to change cognitive distortions that are 

disruptive, behavior, and emotional regulation. This therapy is considered suitable in the formation 

of a peace education model because it uses a combination of cognitive and learning paradigms. In 

addition, the available techniques allow teachers or social workers to apply the CBT methods in 

various situations. Its use in education is also demonstrated by the important role of 

psychoeducation throughout the series of CBT. This method also allows various modes of 

technology, including smartphone applications, video and audio recording, internet videos and 

images, and even virtual reality (Volungis, 2018) close to the learning setting. 

The CBT and the Lewin's theory haves the same assumption that a person's mindset and beliefs 

can influence the person`s behavior. Thus, cognitive modification or changes in cognition can 

produce changes in behavior (Nevid, 2007), including personality development (Aini, 2019). The 

CBT has also been successfully applied to rectify the emotional situation of children victims of 

conflict (Mirza & Sulistiyaningsih, 2013) and social anxiety (Asrori, 2015). 



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Figure 2. The Relationship of Concept and Theory 

Source: processed by the researchers 

 

Method 

Research Design 

This research used a qualitative naturalistic research design. Bogdan & Biklen (1997) suggest five 

characteristics of qualitative research as 1). It utilizes natural settings as direct data sources with 

the researchers as the main instruments, 2). It is descriptive, 3). It pays attention to the process 

rather than the result or product, 4). It tends to be inductive, 5). Meaning is an important concern 

in it. Nasution (1992) adds these characteristics by prioritizing direct data (firsthand), triangulation, 

contextual details, and an emic perspective that is value bond. Therefore, the approach chosen 

according to the research question is the phenomenological approach, while the type of research 

was a case study. The qualitative naturalistic design was used according to the research question 

in this paper. The use of qualitative research will allow the authors to identify the subject as well 

as feel what the subject experiences in everyday life. It is possible because the authors are involved 

in the context, the situation, and the setting of the natural phenomenon studied. The research was 

carried out in Aceh Timur (East Aceh) District. This was based on several considerations, 

especially the intensity of past conflicts, which were relatively high and experienced a shift in 

security disturbances in the post-conflict era (Siregar, 2012). The phenomenological framework is 

focused on exploring the experience and meaning of learning in schools in Aceh post-conflict with 

the characteristics of the research area that will be described in detail. The phenomenological 

approach relates to the understanding of everyday life in classroom learning regarding 'difficult 

knowledge' and the intersubjective world of the participants, both in terms of students, teachers, 

Difficult Knowledge 
and Pedagogical 

Conflict

Impact of Pedagogic 
Conflict

Peace Education

Cognitive 

Behavioral 

Therapy Aaron 

Beck 

Galtung 

Conflict 

Triangle 
Lewin's Medan 

Theory 

 



  Riyani et al. 

 

and schools. The phenomenological approach seeks to explain the meaning of the phenomena. 

Creswell (2007) mentions that the phenomenological approach delays the judgments on natural 

attitudes until a certain basis is found. This approach is carried out in a natural situation, so there 

is no limit in interpreting the phenomena studied. This approach was chosen based on the fact that 

research is latent data. It means that the facts and data appearing on the surface related to classroom 

learning including the daily behavior patterns of students and teachers in learning interactions of 

'difficult knowledge' is only a phenomenon of what is hidden behind the actor' studied. The 

phenomenological approach becomes a way of looking at the subject, process, way of analysis, 

and conclusion drawing. In order to achieve that goal, this research also uses a combination of 

phenomenological theoretical and empirical studies. 

 

Figure 2. Research Locus 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure. 3 Research’s Locus 

Source : Czaika & Kis-katos (2009) 

 

Meanwhile, the nature of case study research is in line with the characteristics of naturalistic 

research designs which are emic and inductive. It means that the phenomena that occurred at the 

research locus are not necessarily the same as the conflicts that happened in other regions in Aceh 

in the past. Moreover, the meaning obtained cannot be generalized. Since it is a case study research, 

the research locus is narrowed down based on specific characteristics. The characteristics were 

built on the theory of concentric circles, which were also developed in various researches such as 

cultural research (Widayatsari, 2002), history (Noerwidi, 2013; P. Suharso et al., 2017), politics, 

 



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and studies in conflict areas (Brata, 2014; 2018; Murjani, 2015; Tamang & Shrestha, 2021). The 

concentric circles in this research were drawn from conflict centers and affected areas with 

moderate and low conflict intensity. The characteristics are illustrated as follows: 

 
 

Figure 4. Locus Characteristics 

Source: processed by the researchers 

 

The conflict center in this research was chosen to be located in the KeudeuGeurobak area, Banda 

Alam District, Aceh Timur (East Aceh), and the immediate surrounding areas. The second conflict 

area was the Idi Cut area with its darkArakundo event, also known as the Idi Cut tragedy. This 

area was in the Darul Aman District. The final location in the research was Idi Rayeuk. Several 

incidents occurred, the 14-hour coup by GAM, the Aceh Timur event, and many armed contacts 

between GAM and the government. Nonetheless, the situation is relatively safer because one of 

the headquarters of The Indonesian National Armed Forces (TNI) was in the center of Idi City. 

The research was carried out for one year, starting from September 2019. 

 

Participants 

Researchers successfully managed to collect 55 participants from teachers and students with a 

gender ratio of 69.6% females and 30.4% males. The youngest volunteer was 12 and the oldest 

was 52 of age. Individuals who were chosen as informants in this research were teachers and 

students who were selected purposively. It means that the informants are people who live or work 

in schools in areas with unique characteristics.  

The participants were teachers and students who studied in three areas according to the past 

conflict intensity category and post-conflict impacts as described above. The schools are in Keudeu 

Geurobak (Banda Alam), Idi Cut (Darul Aman), and Idi Rayeuk regions. In the first region, the 



  Riyani et al. 

 

students and teachers have monocultural characteristics, homogeneous ethnic, social, and 

economic backgrounds. In addition, they are ethnic Aceh and Muslim. They have parents who 

work as farmers and traders. Geographically, they live in inland area. In this region, there are two 

high schools and six junior high schools/equivalent. Meanwhile, in the outer regions, the 

characteristic is more open, starting from having a more heterogeneous ethnic background and 

more varied socio-economic background. Although the area is small, the Idi Rayeuk region has a 

Buddhist community and a monastery as their place of worship. The people work as traders, 

fishermen, government workers, private entrepreneurs, and laborers. There are three junior high 

schools, one vocational high school, and seven junior high schools/equivalent. Meanwhile, in 

Darul Aman District, there are five junior high schools/equivalent, one senior high school, and one 

vocational high school. The participants were selected randomly and based on their willingness to 

provide further data such as participant curriculum vitae. It is in accordance with Husserl's opinion 

that phenomenological research uses a purposive sampling technique where everyone who has 

experience about the phenomenon being studied has the right to become a participant. However, 

on the other hand, ethical considerations where participation is voluntary and permission to record 

interviews are needed as well as the confidentiality of participant identity must be maintained 

(Carpenter, 2011). 

The researchers carried out observations in several classes at junior and senior high schools by 

tracking the distribution of the History Education study program alumni of one of the campuses in 

the Aceh Timur (East Aceh) region who work in the research location. The initial subject is the 

opening path to the following participants.Teachers and students play the role as the main 

informants. The Head of the Education Office is the key informant while community leaders, 

education practitioners, and the general community serve as supporting informants. 

Data and Data Sources 

In essence, according to Denzin & Lincoln (2008), the focus of phenomenological research is in 

the form of a textural description, namely what is experienced by the research subjects about a 

phenomenon. In this research, the phenomenon in question is difficult knowledge learning in the 

post-conflict Aceh region, especially in Aceh Timur (East Aceh). The second focus is the structural 

description, namely how the subjects run into and interpret their experiences. In this case, those 

are in the form of opinions, judgments, feelings, hopes, and other subjective responses from 

participants regarding their experiences.  



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The data used in this research were in the form of human documents or informant testimony, events 

or behavior of research subjects, and contemporary or archival recorded data as well as relevant 

previous research. The main data used were in the form of behavior in the interaction of difficult 

history learning or difficult knowledge and things that might be the contributing factors. Teacher 

and student interactions, social attitudes, and other events were recorded and stored as field notes. 

It is also based on Galtung's theory(1973). The data will include various contradictions in learning, 

behavior, and attitude that form the conflict phenomena in the classroom. The contradictions can 

be in the form of the parties involved, their relationship, and differences in objectives, or an 

inherent conflict of interest. While the attitude in it can be in the form of perceptions, 

misperceptions, or stereotypes of the conflicting parties. These data are obtained by recording the 

emotional status or emotive attitudes of students and teachers in the present and their relevance to 

the memory of the conflict period as well as their cognitive and conative attitudes. The sources of 

these data are the students and teachers who serve as the main actors in learning. While behavior 

is in the form of cooperation, gesture, friendship, or hostility both in the school environment and 

outside the school.  

The next data can be in the form of the environment of students and teachers. The data contain 

environmental pressures originating from history, norms, values, structures, or social dynamics 

around teachers and students perceived by students or teachers. The process serves as the field of 

attraction between psychological situations and the environment that generates broader behavior 

inside and outside the classroom as explained by Lewin's theory (Duch, 2017).  Therefore, 

participants ‘curriculum vitae is vital to explain the phenomenon, making the meaning behind it 

can be known.  

Secondary data regarding the points above were obtained from various archives, curriculum 

documents, relevant previous research, and information derived from supporting informants such 

as school principals, community leaders, and education practitioners at the research locus.   

 

Data Collection Technique 

Observation 

The main technique used in this research was observation. The objective of the observation is to 

target the textural description. This technique is used to directly observe learning events and 

situations outside the classroom affecting it. Learning activities between students and teachers in 



  Riyani et al. 

 

the classroom related to 'difficult knowledge' were observed directly. Researchers also feel what 

happened in the classroom and the community as a form of participatory observation. Likewise, 

interactions between students and students, teachers, and peers outside the classroom were 

observed in several schools randomly by checking the learning schedule according to difficult 

historical themes. Activities outside the classroom were observed as phenomena that support the 

situation in the classroom. The observation was also carried out in the community as the social and 

cultural environment of students and teachers. The observation was conducted by observing how 

social and cultural constructions are formed both within the family, group, or community 

institutions. Researchers recorded the results in the form of video and field notes. 

In-depth interviews  

In-depth interviews were carried out with the participants, teachers, and junior high and high 

school students voluntarily at the research locus. Interview questions were designed to be semi-

open to make them more flexible and follow the circumstances, needs, interests, and concerns of 

the informants. Interviews were conducted to explore phenomena that appeared in difficult 

knowledge learning. The focus of the interview was aimed at revealing the structural description, 

namely how the subjects run into and interpret their experiences. Interviews Were carried out to 

understand the social and psychological environments felt by the research subjects and the 

dialogue that occurred between them. Certain individuals were interviewed to obtain data or 

information regarding themselves, such as their principles, knowledge, curriculum vitae, views, 

perceptions, judgments, feelings, expectations, social pressures, norms, culture, history, and other 

subjective responses derived from other participants regarding their experiences. In-depth 

interviews enable participants to uncover hidden transcripts because they have emotional bonds 

with the main subjects in this research.  

There is no time limit for each session of the interview. However, on average, each participant 

needed 15 minutes to 1 or 2 hours for one session. Interviews were conducted repeatedly on several 

participants who served as key informants for triangulation and member check purposes. The 

results of the interviews were recorded using a tape recorder. In addition, field notes were used to 

create key concepts or new findings. Furthermore, the results were transcribed in writing, coded 

based on the themes and concepts used, tabulated and re-cross-checked by participants, and peer-

reviewed. 

 



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Field notes 

Field notes are written records of what was heard, seen, felt, smelled, touched, or anything that 

was captured by the five senses in the field related to the phenomena and structures that make up 

the phenomenon of pedagogical conflict related to learning complex. This record is also known as 

data reflection. Field notes consist of descriptive and reflective notes that help researchers to find 

answers. Field notes are developed from notes in the form of scribbles containing keywords, 

phrases, concepts, main contents of conversations or observations, pictures, sociograms, sketches, 

diagrams, and so on.  

Archive and Documentation Study 

The documents used were student and teacher handbooks for Social Studies subject for junior high 

school/equivalent and History subject for general, Islamic, and vocational senior high schools. The 

2013 curriculum document containing Core Competencies and Basic Competencies, student case 

book, teacher, and student notes, as well as other documents including curriculum vitae of 

participants, and family photos of participants were used in this research for documentation study. 

Archives were used to understand more about conflict situations that may form collective 

memories or social and cultural constructions in participants and become comparison data to test 

the validity of the data. The archives were obtained through an observation carried out at the library 

and Archive Office of the Aceh Timur (East Aceh) region with the main material in the form of 

local news from the 2000s until the peace building period.   

Trustworthiness of Data 

In qualitative research, data validity and reliability are known as credibility, auditability, and 

fittingness (Guba & Lincoln, 1982; Morse et al., 2002; Wood & Haber, 2017). Qualitative research 

measures how clear the description of the phenomena being studied is by using the triangulation 

strategy. This research utilizes several types of existing triangulation, such as 1). Source 

Triangulation, an attempt to compare or recheck the degree of trustworthiness of information 

obtained through different sources. In this research, the testimony of one informant was compared 

with other testimonies or the behavior observed in the observation. 2). TheoryTriangulation: an 

attempt to test the validity of the data through the theory used in the theoretical framework. 3). 

Concept and Structure Triangulation; an attempt to check the data according to the concepts in 

prepositions of Galtung's Conflict theory, Kurt Lewin's Field Theory, and Aaron Beck's CBT. 



  Riyani et al. 

 

Researchers use various data sources to strengthen evidence including logical data. Observational 

data get a degree of trust through the testimony of informants. Informants must acknowledge the 

experiences experienced by researchers as their own. Deviant cases or phenomena are used to 

refine the theory or hypothesis until all cases matches. Moreover, subject reviews or member 

checks as the dialogue with participants are carried out to obtain participants' views on the data 

credibility, interpretations, and findings. 

The treatment towards the data began with the process of transcribing the results of the interview 

verbatim. Interview transcripts were identified and checked to measure its accuracy by cross-

checking the data derived from other sources such as observations and information from other 

participants. The interview process was conducted more than once to complete and validate the 

data. Validity and reliability were also carried out by reading the transcript repeatedly to be able 

to integrate with the data, followed by extracting specific statements, formulating the meaning of 

specific statements, themes and clusters of themes, and the descriptions of phenomena, as well as 

validating complete descriptions by giving descriptions to the participants. 

According to Guba & Lincoln (1981), fittingness measures how well the hypothesis or proposition 

works based on the context generated. In this case, the researcher ensures the overall 

representativeness of the data by determining the specificity of the informants and their responses. 

This is conducted by ensuring the completeness and accuracy of documents, both from 

observations, interviews, and other data sources. Furthermore, the steps that need to be done are 

tabulating the data and conducting a skeptical peer review starting from checking the instrument 

until the data are considered reliable. 

Audibility is the ability ofother investigators to follow decisions or audit trails, including all 

decisions made by researchers in each data analysis (Guba & Lincoln, 1981). This is carried out 

by examining the recordings on the recording device used, field notes, the characteristics of the 

informants, and the social, physical, and interpersonal context in which the data are collected by 

researchers and others. 

Data validity is carried out through bracketing which helps researchers understand the phenomena 

as they are. It takes place throughout the research process. It is done by isolating assumptions, 

beliefs, and knowledge regarding the phenomena. Moreover, examining the phenomena including 

the process of exploration, analysis, and description of the phenomena is needed to obtain a 

comprehensive picture of the phenomena. The step that needs to be conducted is intuiting, namely 



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identifying the essence and basic elements and the pattern of essence relationships that form the 

essence of the structure of the phenomena. Furthermore, the process of analyzing data derived 

from participants will be transformed into a structure and concept. The last step is to describe the 

phenomena that are being studied. 

Data Analysis Technique 

Researchers apply the epoch characteristic or bracketing, namely delaying or reducing the 

judgment to raise knowledge above every possible doubt. Phenomenological data reduction is the 

step of sorting out experiences to obtain the phenomena naturally. This process also involves 

transcendental awareness, which means to see or observe what the researcher experiences in 

consciousness,  Perry (2013) calls it transcendental consciousness. 

According to Colaizzi (1978), the analytical procedure is used to operationalize phenomenology. 

Thus, the analysis in this research starts by reading the transcript repeatedly in order to integrate 

with the data, extracting specific statements, formulating the meaning of specific statements, 

formulating themes and clusters of themes, formulating specific statements. description of the 

phenomena and validating the complete description by giving a description to the participants. In 

detail, the analytical procedure mentioned by Colaizzi, Stevick, and Keen (Creswell, 2007) is 

divided into six steps. The first step is to fully describe the phenomena experienced by the subjects 

by transcribing the results of the interview beforehand. The second step is called the 

horizontalization step of the transcript. At this step, epoch or bracketing applies. The third step is 

the Cluster of Meaning step. It means toclassify the data according to themes and concepts or units 

of meaning, then to conduct a textural description and a structural description. The fifth step is to 

describe the essence to construct the meaning and essence of the experience of the participants or 

research subjects. The sixth step is to report the results of the research. A literature study is used 

to determine the relationship and position of research results towards existing research result. 

 

Findings and Discussion 

1. In-Class Difficult History Themes and Pedagogical Conflict 

In one field observation, researchers found interesting discussions between teachers and students 

in grade IX. The theme discussed is the fourth main material in the 2013 Curriculum for grade IX 

at the junior high school level. If traced based on the 2018 revised edition of the 2013 Curriculum 

Teachers' Handbook, the material is included in the fifth and sixth meetings. The learning objective 



  Riyani et al. 

 

is that students can identify and explain political, economic, social, and cultural developments in 

Indonesia during the era of independence, the Parliamentary Democracy, the Guided Democracy, 

the New Order, the and Reformation (Setiawan et al., 2018). The discussion was developed with 

a focus on the sub-material of security disturbance of the Parliamentary Democracy era. 

A narrative written in the student book states that “the Darul Islam Rebellion / Indonesian Islamic 

Army in Aceh was led by Daud Beureueh, a former Governor of Aceh. The rebellion was a result 

of being downgraded from a special region to a mere residency area in the province of North 

Sumatra....”(Setiawan et al., 2016). The narrative considering this event a "rebellion" or security 

disturbance which often triggers emotional sensitivity involvement in the discussion of historical 

event in the classroom. The teacher and several students have a collective memory regarding those 

events in question. Additionally, through the discussion of this incident, the discussion can draw 

to the gloomy time in Aceh when it plunged into a period of conflict and violence. It can lead to 

more profound social conflict because it is often linked to a background of religious demands (Nur 

& Susanto, 2020). 

A similar condition also occurred in grade XII starting from semester I, especially for Basic 

Competencies 3.1 and 4.1, which discusses the topic of national disintegration. According to the 

history class teacher's handbook, grade XII was programmed to participate in the 2nd to the 4th 

student meetings. It debates the conflicts and upheavals in the to ideology, the conflicts of interest, 

and the Governance System (Abdurakhman et al., 2015). The DI / TII incident was again 

unbalanced by a similar narrative. However, the conflict between Aceh and the Central 

Government was not included in the student book review (Setiawan et al., 2018). This situation 

often caused young teachers who are critical and have a clear memory of the conflict period to 

dilemmatic. 

The dilemmatic situation in question is choosing to transmit knowledge and values understood 

based on their collective memory. However, this attempt is considered to potentially hinder the 

growth of the peacebuilding process. Another one is transforming values and attitudes from a 

students' perspective of the situations. 

In facing this situation, some mishmash occurred due to the following circumstances: 

a. Teachers who tend to have an open attitude and mind will accommodate various students’ 

knowledge and emotions in the classroom. They will discuss them and release new knowledge 

to provide alternative cognitive options. Additionally, teachers may also play a role in creating 



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a neutral thinking system. This is to develop the students' decisions and assessments so past 

conflicts that are balanced and direct to the students' thinking processes of more meaningful 

goals in the future. 

b. Teachers with a closed attitude and thoughts of the conflict, tend to control the class with 

knowledge based on personal experience and collective experience. The knowledge of 

students and teachers stops at their respective cognitive processes. Moreover, there are no 

demands in the curriculum related to the events. 

The pedagogical conflict that occurs in the classroom between the teachers and students has shaped 

attitudes and behavior in post-conflict community relations more broadly. However, the class 

reflects the big field situation. In the Galtung's Triangle Theory, there are three types of attitudes, 

namely 1). emotive attitude (feeling), 2). cognitive (belief), and 3). conative (will). Emotive 

attitudes are more varied and dominated by a set of negative emotions as a residue of past violent 

conflicts. The emotional status of students and teachers can be observed as follows: 

a. Dimension of emotive attitudes; emotive attitudes can be positive or negative.  

However, the emotional status of students and teachers at the research locus shows the following: 

 

 
 

 happiness 

 sad 

 disappointed 

 anxious 

 afraid 

 other 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 disturbed 

 Not disturbed 

 

Figure 5. Emotional and cognitive status of students and teachers at the research locus 

Source: processed by the researchers 

 

Teachers and students in the research locus stated that they felt the dominance of an emotional 

status. It contains fear, anxiety, sadness, and disappointment. These emotions are closely related 

to the knowledge base and memories of the past conflict period. Those who bear the most of these 

emotions are teachers aged 25-35 years and students aged 16-18 years, while 70.5% are of the 

female gender. More than half of respondents mentioned that they were disturbed by their 

memories. Their memories can be touch on events such as family loss, arson, violence, alienation 

by friends, false accusations, family members who suffer memory loss as result of the conflict. 



  Riyani et al. 

 

Various other memories debilitation shows loss of experienced harmful emotions. Those kinds of 

community memories are part of the nuclear family, neighborhood, school environment, and by 

information or reading material from books, social media, and printed media. However, they rarely 

obtained this information or recollection from their relatives. Uniquely, although relatives and 

friends are rarely considered a source of information, these distant memories will instead be 

transmitted or retold in this research environment.  

Emotive attitudes can be positive. However, in the end, in post-conflict Acehnese society that is 

influenced by historical violence that spread to ethnic sentiments, leaves its mark in the form of 

developed stereotyping that demean other parties. The impact seen in everyday activities and 

breeds a lack of social skills to connect with other individuals. This occurs in intergroup and 

intragroup processes with different regional backgrounds and ethnicity even though they actually 

live-in close proximity. 

b. Cognitive Attitude (belief) 

Cognitive attitude in the form of beliefs often appears in a biased form. Cognitive bias occurs 

because individuals make mistakes when their thinking is rushed to make decisions based on what 

they have without considering other data or facts. This belief comes from various sources that 

include knowledge of past conflicts, violence, suffering family members and relatives, being 

exiled, and so on. The environment as a source of belief and choice to continue with the awareness 

the is illustrated below: 

 

 

 

Sources of knowledge leading to conative 

attitudes 

 Core family 

 relatives 

 Neighborhood 

 School environment 

 Close friends 

 Literature 

 others 
 

These channels pass down knowledge that 

forms conative attitudes to the next 

generation 

 Core family 

 relatives 

 Neighborhood 

 Friends 

 Close friends 

 Family Friends 

 School enviroment 

 God 

Figure6. Sources of knowledge and transmission channels of teachers and students 

Sources: processed by the researchers 

 

 



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c. Dimensions of a Conative attitude. 

It is in the form of a tendency to will or behave in relation to the object of attitude. In this case, an 

individual in a certain situation, especially when dealing with a stimulus, will respond based on 

their feelings (emotion) and beliefs (cognitive) to a stimulus. In this situation, if students or 

teachers are in opposite emotional and cognitive attitudes, pedagogical conflict cannot be avoided. 

On the other hand, the absence of a special curriculum for peace education makes schools unable 

to make changes in attitudes. The only hope is the character education program that is set (Haryanti 

et al., 2016) set to be the national agenda but does not pay attention to special needs such as those 

of schools in post-conflict areas in Aceh. Therefore, pedagogical conflict does not only occur 

between students and teachers regarding their knowledge and emotions but also the learning 

objectives in the subject area, in this case, History education or Social Studies. 

Based on the findings above, it can be understood that the pedagogical conflict that occurs is a 

collection of peaks of differences in interests or contradiction, attitudes, and behaviors of teachers, 

students, including schools as the curriculum bearers. The form of pedagogical conflict that arises 

is in the form of a knowledge conflict. This is often seen as a formation of social practice so that 

it raises special knowledge about violence, the conflict itself, and how the conflict is handled. 

Thus, pedagogical conflict is also related to epistemological conflict, namely how knowledge can 

be acquired (Fisher, 2000). The emergence of this emotive and cognitive attitude is a signal that 

the potential for conflict is at a latent level. In the subconscious of the holder and can be a hidden 

dimension (Hasanzadeh & Chaeechi, 2014). As a result, it does not only exist in the classroom but 

can expand if the pedagogical conflict in the classroom experiences sharper conflict dynamics. 

One thing that should be paid attention to is when one party is controlled or oppressed 

(Ramsbotham et al., 2011). However, this conflict rarely extends beyond the classroom or outside 

the school. If any, it is a latent conflict. This happens if the students or teachers invite the other 

party to be in the same level of attitude and emotion. Potential latent conflict needs to be addressed. 

For such conditions, it requires efforts to foster empathy in conflict resolution as mentioned 

(Hasanzadeh & Chaeechi, 2014) and activate approaches at the interpersonal level as a missing 

level in the Galtung's Theory (Drago, 2015).The classroom condition in difficult history learning 

and the dynamics must be viewed as 'common vulnerability' (Keet et al., 2009). This approach is 

in accordance with the demand for in-classroom learning, which ideally can build interpersonal 

learning (Mainhard et al., 2018). The special relationship between students and teachers places the 



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importance of a teacher's role in managing students' emotions. The main role of the teacher is how 

to explore empathy in history learning. This will be discussed in the next section. 

2. Impact of Pedagogical Conflict in Classroom 

Pedagogic conflicts in the classroom related to the theme of difficult history have an impact on the 

emergence of the subconscious history of everyone. The subconscious history often covers an 

autobiography that contains memories, judgments, past relationships, social expectations, culture, 

and other things that are sometimes biased.  It has a further impact on the social dynamics of post-

conflict society more broadly. 

Teachers in post-conflict areas can choose local historical materials and subjects to cover up 

incidents of conflict. However, children affected by conflicts have inherited the emotional life 

faced by their father, sibling, or loved ones. A teacher of DayahTerpadu, Boarding School 

discovered one student of grade XII who was often sad and unable to focus on his learning. Losing 

loved ones, even longing for a male figure in the village had become a false hope for him even 

after the conflict has passed. "He lost his uncle whom he loved so much, in a shooting incident 

that occurred in front of his eyes." An event that happened when he was very young. One child 

victim in the conflict who is now a part of Aceh AneukSyuhada Network gave testimony about his 

past trauma. “Even two of my dearest friends, a bird, and a monkey, were taken from the house by 

soldiers. This happened after my father never came back home again”. 

The Aceh conflict spread to grassroots level involved the community itself and has caused frictions 

that have not completely disappeared. It affects the person's behavior to connect with others. 

Students' attitudes and social skills are shown in research findings. it shows they do not have many 

friendships or contact with other students who come from different backgrounds. The graph below 

shows that 84.8% of the informants stated that they do not have friends from different backgrounds 

and experienced obstacles in building those networks: 

 

 

 have no friends’ different backgrounds 

 have different friends background 
 

Figure 7. Percentage of student and teacher interpersonal bonds with other individuals or 

groups 

Sources: processed by the researchers 



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Based on the data above, it can be dedicated that pedagogical conflict that occur in the classroom 

that are related to sensitive difficult historical issues has stimulated an upsurge of unconscious 

history. Unconscious history owned by an individual is a belief influenced by their family and 

environment. The family begins to take on position by developing a doctrine which choices are 

right or wrong. This doctrine stems from the assumptions backed up with limited evidence. In 

children and adolescents, the conscious mind has not functioned optimally. Children operate using 

the unconscious mind, so that information coming from the outside (parents and the surrounding 

environment) will be absorbed by the unconscious mind. Basically, what is inherited is a long-

term emotional sentiment of an enemy that is understood by each individual, family, or group. 

This condition will be strengthened by the existence of a new event related to conflict which is 

often shown with a framing by mass media or social media. It formulates a belief through 

justification towards an event or experience. Basically, events are neutral, it is thought that gives 

meaning to an event. The meaning can be a positive or negative emotion. In this situation, 

emotional regulation is formed, in which an individual will control their emotions either 

consciously or not influenced by the expressions in accordance with the surrounding environment. 

Personal historic recorded memory does not fully include a moment of consciousness. There is an 

unconscious mind inside it is such a thing termed as a 'ghost'. Frie (2012) examines Freeman (2012) 

notion of unconscious narratives to discuss unconscious culture and history in human experience. 

The human experience in the form of unconsciousness is not only personal property but is also 

owned collectively (Hauke, 2006). Historical studies of the unconscious are not only influenced 

by Jung and Freud's understanding of the unconscious. Stewart (2003) uses the Heidegger and 

Binswanger formulations. He states that unconscious history also contains an apperception of 

temporality. It exemplifies the dream of treasure as an unconscious product of historical 

consciousness, a significant phenomenon in Greece. Treasure is a divine display to the future to 

discover the past that will enrich the present. It is the combination of the motivation of 

historicization and temporalization. 

In older literature, Whyte (1974) in his writing regarding the unconscious in history, focuses on 

the change as the core of the birth of history. He states that change is not free from ideas, insights, 

intuitions, or vague cues, and various forms of mental processes that are sometimes transferred 

unconsciously. It is derived especially from parents to children even through communication 



  Riyani et al. 

 

without words such as facial expressions, small behavioral traits, transfer of social attitudes, 

morals, or steps towards a new intellectual order (Utomo & Wasino, 2020). 

In The Interpretation of Dreams, Freud shows the relationship between history and psychoanalysis. 

This relationship includes not only the human soul but also human civilization. In the process, he 

states that access to historical materials is blocked by a mechanism known as sensors (Frieden, 

2012). The production of history in society undergoes a process called repression, which is a 

psychic process of choosing what is preferred or considered troublesome in historical material. 

The term ‘unconscious’ is simply described as a thing that refers to a part of the mind (or a process 

operating in the mind) that is permanently or temporarily inaccessible to consciousness. Tallis 

(2002) in Hidden Minds: A history of the Unconscious, mentions that there are 2 contrasting ideas 

related to the unconscious mind. Firstly, it is when the unconscious mind has the ability to analyze 

information, make judgments, and decide on sanctions. The second idea is associated with an 

automatic process that does not experience a neurological equivalent. He also emphasizes Freud's 

explanation stating that all the processes determining who we are and what we do occur below the 

threshold of consciousness. Tallis opposes Freud as the founder of the basic idea of the 

unconscious, but it cannot be denied that this idea is central to the Freudian theory which is best 

understood as historical anthropology. Thus, unconscious history includes both the resource aspect 

in historical writing and the historical product of human experience which can reappear when 

confronting difficult knowledge. It is an emotional experience in the classroom which is often not 

realized (Shim, 2014).  

The deletion of the conflict in Aceh's history can emphasize thoughts and become supporting data 

stating that the mistakes of the government and the existence of other ethnicities representing the 

central government are absolute. The closure of historical facts is accepted as a denial of negative 

emotions and sharpens cognitive bias. The existence of cognitive bias and naive realism is a socio-

psychological barrier to achieving peace (Nasie et al., 2014). This is because each party complies 

with a narrative of the group. Awareness of the existence of bias can lead to opportunities to open 

to the narratives of other parties who are seen as enemies and tackle the obstacles in peacebuilding 

efforts. 

Cognitive bias occurs when emotions are not passed on in the thought process. The mind will try 

to test the truth of meaning and look for supporting data on the meaning that was previously 

decided. When the mind manages to find supporting data, the meaning is accepted as truth. 



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Therefore, another perspective is needed in the writing of contemporary history confronting the 

unconscious history of post-conflict societies. History teachers in post-conflict schools can take 

on the role of historians or work with historians. Their presence can be the bridge to connect the 

subjective and intersubjective in the unconscious history full of emotions, destroying logical and 

systematic intellectual work (Roper, 2014) but at the same time fulfilling the psychological needs 

of history by placing positive and negative emotions in balance. This is important in the period of 

reconciliation and peacebuilding (Halperin, 2014). 

The importance of history for today's psychological needs is mentioned by Loughran (2012) He 

feels indebted to historians for telling the past in a very unique way, where personal and political 

relationships in writing history can change the present and future conditions. The history of 

emotions has become one of the focuses of historians' studies in recent years (Holmes, 2017), 

especially oral historians. Oral historians find witnesses by remembering not only the past events 

but also the meanings and feelings which are also important parts of those events (Thomson, 2019). 

Writing about violent conflict is both a text and a practice that can be described as 'vulnerability'. 

The vulnerable observer must always correct the intellectual and emotional relationship between 

the observer and the observed. It is also important to make this theme of vulnerability, not just a 

decoration. However, it should be noted how historians can control their own unconsciousness, 

past traces of unconscious emotions left between artifacts, testimonies, and psychological needs 

that are needed in the present (Parent, 2010). Thus, meaning and feeling circling the conflicts in 

Aceh in the past need spaces in historical narrative. However, the utilization of the unconscious 

history of post-conflict societies requires appropriate methods to filter out possible cognitive 

biases. 

Past trauma caused by the Aceh conflict, psychologically, lead to the appearance of prolonged 

nightmares (Grayman et al., 2009), various kinds of symptoms of stress, and depression or 

traumatic stress disorder (Good et al., 2006; Grayman et al., 2009; Grayman, 2012; Hatta, 2016). 

This situation has an impact on cases of violence in Aceh post-conflict (DelVecchio, 2010) and 

the socio-economic situation which exacerbates the situation. 

These things show how the legacy of the suffering and emotional life that the elders experienced 

has become the collective memory of the post-conflict generation. The same finding was shown 

by Hall, R. in his dissertation entitled The Emotional Lives and Legacies of Fathers and Sons in 

England, 1945-1974 (Hall, 2019). This is considered a dangerous memory (McClelland, 2019). 



  Riyani et al. 

 

Furthermore, the social process among students with different domicile and ethnic backgrounds is 

often influenced by feelings of suspicion and anxiety that are passed down by their relatives. 

Political conflicts that occur vertically have an impact on social life horizontally (Schulze, 2006; 

Czaika & Kis-katos, 2009). Ethnic sentiment is one of the worst impacts during the post-conflict 

period (Ansori, 2012) and social anxiety is one of the general characteristics experienced by post-

conflict Acehnese society (Ravenhill, 1993; Barter, 2014; Asnawi et al., 2015; Melvin, 2017). Past 

memories influence how the construction of interactions with others, relationships with various 

properties, identities, and ownership are (Peristianis, 2020). 

These situations are in line with Thomson's (2019) opinion which states that life stories can shape 

historical experiences and emotional cultures or vice versa how emotional meanings and feelings 

are shaped by historical circumstances and negotiated in social life. Moreover, he also explained 

how post-conflict history in the form of dream memories, disappointments in post-war life, the 

effects of post-traumatic stress, regret, and other feelings are in the unconscious. Post-conflict 

societies are in the midst of reminiscing about the high hope of a new life and the suffering caused 

by loss and separation (McCort, 2017; Wale, 2020). They feel the sensation of new sights, sounds, 

and smells as well as a new life that is close to them but also pretty foreign at the same time. This 

emotion then affects the way of thinking, acting, and producing knowledge. Material reality and 

subjective experiences from traumatic knowledge formulate the cognitive status of society 

(Zembylas, 2014) 

In this case, the explanation of Lewin's theory regarding the Field Theory can be applied to explain 

how the determinants of the environment or the arena in which the individual is located will greatly 

influence individual behavior as a tug of war between psychological situations and social pressures 

(Burnes & Cooke, 2013;Duch, 2017; Endrejat et al., 2017).  

The proposition of Lewin's theory is usually simplified by the equation of B=ƒ (P.E), where B 

(behavior) or individual/group behavior is the overall interaction (ƒ) generated by the mental 

structure of an individual/group (P) with its environment (E). In the case of difficult pedagogical 

conflict teaching, the conflict that arises in the classroom is behaviors (B) accumulated from all 

individual psychological potentials (P) which are influenced by individual modalities such as 

property, identity, ownership, and other resources. The individual psychological potential forms 

emotive, cognitive, and conative attitudes with various considerations from outside the 

psychological environment, namely various pressures coming from the group or society where one 



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lives. Social pressures and cultural expectations held by each student are influenced by ethnic 

origins and positions that shape themselves or their families in times of conflict. Psychologically, 

the tug of war between those two shapes long-term sentiments and emotions about the enemy. This 

is in accordance with Lewin's assumption which states that psychological facts are more dominant 

than sociological facts. Lewin's Field Theory is a theory developed from a cognitive perspective. 

It is based on the view that we cannot understand a person's behavior without learning their mental 

processes. Humans do not respond to their environment automatically. Their behaviors depend on 

how they think and perceive their environment. Thus, to obtain reliable information, one's mental 

process is the main thing that can explain one's social behavior (Hasan Mustafa, 2011). For this 

reason, Kurt Lewin's Field Theory utilizes a psychological approach rather than a sociological 

approach. 

The most intimate result of this emotional process is the formation of autobiography by students. 

This autobiography is also shaped by past cultural narratives (various labels of popular, collective, 

social or public memory). Individual emotions are also influenced by cultural relationships and 

expectations. The emotional process approach in the formation of unconscious history is illustrated 

in the following scheme: 

 
Figure 8. Emotional Process Approach in the Formation of Unconscious History: 

Source: processed by the researchers 

 



  Riyani et al. 

 

The main impact of the emergence of unconscious history is the presence of cognitive bias which 

indirectly affects the social skills of post-conflict societies. Cognitive bias, as illustrated in the 

chart above, is influenced by emotional blockages that are not well regulated. 

The assessment and rules are generated in the cognition process or when the child's brain is 

encouraged and then hidden in the unconscious memory through repeated reinforcement before a 

person becomes an adult and analyzing it with a more mature conscious brain (Kamble, 2021). 

The danger occurs if when they reach adulthood, they are not facilitated to use their consciousness. 

Thus, unconscious history in post-conflict societies is formed through a process determined by 

memory, myth (Asnawi et al., 2015), sense of place (Epstein & Peck, 2017;Roper, 2014), 

ownership, and identity in past and present (Staub, 2003) and reactive emotions both personal and 

group. In the case of Aceh, myths related to the belief that conflict cycles repeat themselves, giving 

rise to anxiety and alertness. The sense of place, which is related to the arenas and constellations 

of past conflicts, can be found quite clear. Past and present social identities are often inseparable. 

The explanation of a similar phenomenon has been conveyed by Gill & Niens (2014b). They state 

that even though the violent conflict ended, some people in this society continued to be brought in 

with grievances, hostility, fear, and the brutal effects of group stereotypes. This occurs due to the 

fact that people remain in the shadow of collective memories of traumas from their pasts full of 

violence which amplify community divisions. Unconscious thoughts shape perceptions and 

attitudes. Although they cannot be seen, they control the overall social behavior of post-conflict 

Acehnese society. The unconscious history in this case can be called mental reflect action where 

the brain makes quick reference, instant decisions from reasoning whenever a stimulus appears. 

The unconscious history that was formed after the conflict in Aceh did not place the enemy 

objectively, but there was polarization based on the mental reflexes possessed by each individual. 

Psychological tug-of-war with various pressures originating from environmental determinants 

creates a magnetic field that can cause a person situated in a negative thinking pattern. This is a 

situation where a person feels depression with negative thought patterns in 3 domains: self, world, 

and future. 

However, covering the 'difficult history' event is not a practical choice. Classroom XII teacher 

expressed: “The history of conflict still needs to be discussed in the classroom. If it is not carried 

out, it will be fatal. Our children will be clueless about Free Aceh Movement. Nevertheless, 

children need to get a neutral point of view in understanding the conflicts that have taken” place”. 



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Therefore, history and the teaching of the Aceh history are expected to be a space for releasing 

emotions as well as a space for therapy. This is in accordance with the function of history as a 

means of preventing death and loss (Roper, 2014). As Michel De Certeau has mentioned, where 

the history of the conflict is clearly written it can be represented through the metaphor of "the 

grave is a place where the dead are respected". This is an effort to respect the dead with 

representation and, put the past into discourse. At the same time, place them according to their 

time, as well as free the society from the burden of death. History has a social-psychological 

function. This includes preserving, recording, or cataloging objects from the past. "In fact, the 

basic premise of history operates to transform unclear and unforgettable experiences into coherent 

symbolic forms, serving the basic psychological needs of meaning, place, and time” (Roper, 

2014:180). This function is relevant to the moral and social functions that history has borne in the 

curriculum (Kitson et al., 2011). 

3. Alternative Solutions to Deal with Pedagogical Conflict on Difficult History Themes 

Pedagogic conflicts that occur in difficult history learning can be handled through a learning 

approach that functions as psychoeducational therapy. Past historical wounds and traumas borne 

by the post-conflict generation will be healed. In addition, they also will gain new values by 

improving their biased cognitive processes. This can be carried out by applying Cognitive 

Behavioral Therapy (CBT). However, other things still need to be prepared before starting the 

learning that applies CBT.  

History, as a psychological need in the form of interest, mentally generates the past in the form of 

memories, stories, information, and another knowledge from the past. Thus, themes of difficult 

history are impossible to avoid. This is corroborated by the statements of the informants where 

85.1% of the subjects found stated their interests. 

 

 Knowledge of past conflicts is important to 

remember and know the next generation 

 Knowledge of past conflicts is not necessary to 

remember and know the next generation 
 

Figure 9. The interest of the research subjects towards memory and knowledge from the 

past 

Source: processed from the research results 



  Riyani et al. 

 

The objective of this research is to propose alternative solutions based on the problems above. 

Before formulating the solutions, the researchers need to consider various things by paying 

attention to the list of the main problems proposed by the teachers who are the main informants in 

this research. Based on the results of the interviews with teachers need to be re-tabulated and re-

discussed to sharpen the conclusions through Focus Group Discussion. The following list is a 

priority that needs to be developed in formulating alternative solutions. 

Table 1.  

FGD-Based Pedagogical Conflict Impact Management Focus Mapping 

Aspect Input from the teacher 

Input: Difficult History Themes Teacher and student readiness as well as additional 

supplements that are seriously developed are needed. 

Process; Learning Atmosphere Accommodating and becoming a medium for psychological 

therapy (Psycho-Educational) while at the same time 

overcoming cognitive biases that have the potential to hinder 

peace efforts. 

Output New knowledge, values, attitudes, and skills are acquired by 

writing or reviewing old knowledge, values, and attitudes 

Source: processed from the research results 

Based on the findings above, the focus can be directed to the input aspect of the management and 

learning process. In shaping teacher and student readiness, the researchers proposed alternative 

solutions which include the agenda of increasing the number of emotional histories writing 

projects. In this case, the psychological needs towards history are expected to be fulfilled by 

research subjects by involving the empathy of external parties. Therefore, the readiness to face the 

themes of difficult history can be realized.  

Fulfilling the psychological need for history is not only undertaken by opening the history of the 

conflict period directly as the reality of the human need for its historicity. The exchange of 

emotions between researchers and their subjects in the historical production of post-conflict 

societies is necessary (Mahoney, 2018). To achieve this goal, Freud's psychoanalytic approach can 

be used by historians. The initial effort can be started by collecting the unconscious mind which is 

defined as a collection of feelings, thoughts, urges, and memories that are outside of consciousness. 

The history of emotions is the relationship of historians with the past by utilizing and locating 

unconscious resonances from personal sources such as letters, wills, and other artifacts from the 

subject of the writings. Freud points out several things such as instinct, thoughts about the trauma, 

and danger. The method of free association can be used by historians in gathering oral testimonies 

in the production of emotional histories of post-conflict societies. The success of psychoanalytic 



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methods in history can follow steps that are also used in social science research as summarized by 

Stamenova & Hinshelwood (2019) with various methods of observation, interviews, and analysis 

methods that can be carried out. 

The history of the emotions of post-conflict societies can explore intimate experiences that do not 

only talk about sadness but also love and affection (Loughran, 2021). To bury the wound properly 

and overcome the unconscious history can be achieved by paying attention to several aspects: First, 

critical empathy. According to Kohut (2020), empathy and historical understanding of the human 

past is often in contrast to strong evidence and strict logic. Empathy has qualities that are difficult 

to reconcile with scientific disciplines that are rationalistic, empirical, and objective. However, 

Field (2017) found the limitation that empathy for historians is to involve oneself by imagining 

past scenes through the perspective of the person speaking. Empathy, in history, remains limited 

by critical analysis, self-reflexivity, and the condition of being aware of intersubjectivity changes 

in history production. Critical empathy is used to precisely understand the dissonance of how 

subjects perceive themselves with the views of the researcher. Empathy is a way of gaining 

knowledge by involving imagination, insight, sensitivity, emotional intelligence, and even 

emotional resonance. It does not mean that it contradicts the logic and reason needed in generating 

history. Empathy is needed to understand the human motivation for past events and how people in 

the past experienced themselves or the world they lived in. Barbara Taylor says, “our interpretation 

of past subjectivity refers to our imaginative, conscious or unconscious identification with the 

people we study. Empathic experience is not an option, but without empathy, history writing is 

“impossible” (Roper, 2014, p. 171). The use of empathy in history studies has its foundation based 

on the disciplines of philosophy, psychology, sociology, and psychoanalysis. History writing skills 

can be taught to teachers and gradually taught to students through a scientific approach applied in 

the national curriculum (Mudiono, 2017). Gradually, there will be an exchange of emotions in the 

history production process of post-conflict societies. This does not rule out the emergence of 

history writings containing experiences of love amid difficulties during the conflict. 

Second, bridging personal memories, communal warnings, and public narratives. Memory as 

knowledge of the past that is manifested and carried out in interactions between individuals and 

groups or self and society need to be balanced (Briggs, 2016). This needs to be carried out because 

popular memory is a tense interaction between the psychological processes and the social discourse 

that often occurs after mass violence. In this context, the micro perspective often has to lose to the 



  Riyani et al. 

 

macro perspective. While there are different and separate memory constructions (both are Aceh 

based with different constructions, or in other areas different ethnicities that also experienced 

conflict situations). Cognitive bias and conscious naive realism can help the deconstruction process 

of conflict narratives generated in unconscious history. This can be carried out by opening the 

narrative from another perspective of post-conflict societies. All parties can recognize that each 

one has its own wounds such as being in an uncomfortable position, crushed by circumstances or, 

having no choice. 

Third, reinterpretation. It means shifting history, from violent conflict to today’s history. History, 

however, is a contemporary interpretation of the past. Past events need to be reinterpreted by the 

post-conflict generation. Students and teachers need to understand history as an event, a story, and 

a science. Historical awareness by understanding how historians work can help reduce cognitive 

bias through scientific works by changing from unconscious history to consciousness (Neuman, 

2015). 

Fourth, increasing the number of oral history projects to deliver emotions and understand mental 

illness in society  (Holmes, 2017). It is also important to build an emotional exchange between 

historians and participants in the research (Mahoney, 2018). However, it is necessary to be aware 

of the intersubjectivity in the form of transference and countertransference that occurs between the 

historian and the subject of the study (Holmes, 2017). 

Fifth, handling the blind spots of national history in the local curriculum. This can be done by 

bringing up oral history products in post-conflict societies in the discourse of the national history. 

This possibility was demonstrated by (Loughran, 2018) who stated that the history of 

'autobiography' as a first-person context can be used to identify knowledge for marginalized 

people. 

Thus, burying wounds properly can be achieved by writing the history of post-conflict societies 

through emotional and empathetic approaches. It can contribute to the efforts in understanding the 

psychosocial conditions in order to build peace as mentioned by DelVecchio (2010), Grayman, 

(2012), (M.-J. D. Good et al., 2007), de Zeeuw (2001), Somasundaram & Sivayokan (2013) and 

Kaplan & Nussio (2018).The results of history of Post-conflict society can be a Eco literation 

learning resource to shape students understanding concerning representation, relation, and identity 

(Wasino et al., 2020). 



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In terms of the learning process, it is necessary to develop a form of psychotherapy using a 

psychoeducational approach integrated into the learning model. The focus served is an emotional 

release that formulates emotion regulation and handles cognitive biases. Apart from providing 

space on emotional history through an oral history projects as a therapy in post-conflict societies. 

Cognitive bias can be handled through psychosocial therapy, which is integral to the learning 

process in the classroom. CBT is a psychosocial intervention in the form of psychotherapy. It aims 

to train thinking or the cognitive function and how to act. The focus is on changing cognitive 

distortions that both irritate and change behavior as well as the emotional regulation. The existing 

techniques allow teachers or social workers to apply CBT methods in a variety of situations. Its 

use in education is also demonstrated by the important role of psychoeducation throughout the 

CBT series. This method also allows various modes of technology including smartphone 

applications, video and audio recording, internet video, and images, or even virtual reality 

(Volungis, 2018) that are close to the learning setting. CBT works by reducing the symptoms and 

pressures associated with psychopathological disorders that can be done through the teaching of 

new information-processing skills and coping mechanisms. CBT is a combination of the 

Brainology approach and the positive psychology approach. Brainology is brain-based learning 

whereas positive psychology is concerned with exploring positive emotions. The emotions in 

question are happiness, kindness, love, optimism, humor, and so forth. Positive psychology does 

not intend to replace or eliminate suffering, weakness, or disturbance but rather to provide insights 

to or enrich and scientifically understand human experience (Volungis, 2018). In this context, the 

social environment outside the individual is an area that is difficult to change. Individuals can re-

interpret events or social environments that are outside of themselves and affect their thinking 

patterns. CBT shows the reciprocal condition of how thoughts, emotions, and behavior interact 

with the environment (Volungis, 2018). CBT is initially adopted from the development and 

criticism of Freud's theory as applied to models of psychological counseling and therapy. This 

therapy works on the principle that psychological problems are caused by wrong learning and can 

be solved by teaching people to change or modify their behavior to achieve positive results. CBT 

was developed in the 1960s by Aaron Beck to add a cognitive component that allows a person to 

have a more balanced and optimistic vision. This method is continuously being developed and 

evaluated by the Beck Institute which is based in Pennsylvania (Wilding, 2012;Volungis, 2018). 



  Riyani et al. 

 

By focusing on modifying negative thoughts automatically and utilizing problem-solving skills, 

Beck (1950-1960) develops a conceptualization of negative thinking patterns where one is 

depressed by negative thought patterns in 3 domains: self, world, and future (Volungis, 2018). 

This therapy is developed by the work of experimental behaviorists such as Pavlov (classical 

conditioning) and Skinner (operant conditioning) (1950-1970) and Watson's stimulus-response 

association (1970). Their theories contribute to behavioral interventions such as desensitization, 

reciprocal inhibition, and relaxation training. Meichenbaum's (1977) concept of internal dialogue 

and self-instructional training as well as Ellis & Harper’s (1975) concept of rational and irrational 

thinking also play an important role in the development of CBT. Bandura's (1976) social cognitive 

theory with the term reciprocal determinism explains how behavior affects and is influenced by 

thoughts, emotions, and the social environment. The content of Bandura's theory is used to place 

social skills that recognize the importance of learning by observing other people (Volungis, 2018). 

Thus, the main strategy is to change irrational thoughts and beliefs with healthier and more positive 

rational thoughts and beliefs. Then, they are faced directly with uncomfortable situations and 

finally proved with social skills (Asrori, 2015).  

CBT works by reversing cognition. It can be achieved through field observation and verification. 

Direct interaction between inter-ethnic and intra-ethnic groups will improve perceptions and bring 

common sense. Opening narratives and perceptions and exchanging the unconscious history of 

each party can help the validity process of pseudo position. In the context of historical awareness, 

the subject will be able to distinguish between history and memory. Understanding how historians 

work is important to distinguish history and historical gossip so that negative attitudes and 

perceptions can be eliminated (Asnawi et al., 2020). 

Cognitive differences that are transformed into beliefs require important decisions whether to be 

opened or frozen. Based on that condition, CBT can be useful for providing alternative rival 

hypotheses. While difficult history involving emotions can be managed through emotion 

regulation. This approach may be applied in the class as psychoeducation (Fresco et al., 2013). 

This approach is applied by encouraging both positive and negative sides of the emotional process 

in order to achieve conflict resolution. The support to meet a compromising state can be achieved 

by reducing hatred and fear while encouraging anger effectively to promote long-term risk-taking. 

Emotion regulation thus works as a reassessment system (McRae, 2016) including historical facts 

and narratives which are processed as emotional information and knowledge. Through CBT, the 



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response to historical facts as an empirical phenomenon will be processed through the cognitive 

stage and continued at the response stage. The response stage aims to feel, assess, and reconsider 

various object phenomena including historical objects in the history of post-conflict societies. CBT 

theory rests on the process of the Stimulus-Cognitive-Response (SCR) sequence. If analyzed 

logically, these stages are illustrated in the form of the following activities: 

 

Table 2.  

SCR Cycles and Outputs on Cognitive Behavioral Therapy 
Stimulus It is a situation where an individual captures objects outside of himself, namely 

empirical or sensory phenomena carried out through rational or thoughtful sense 

which is then comprehended and understood. As a result, the content of the 

substance in the form of quality values contained in the object phenomenon can 

be understood. 

Cognitive It is related to how humans think, feel, and act. The external stimulus causes 

humans to have the potential to absorb rational and irrational thoughts. 

Response In the form of feeling, it includes emotions or conscience that work to feel, judge, 

consider object phenomena. 

 In the form of action, it can be both positive and negative both in phenomenon 

and noumenon (physical and mental) 

 In the form of behavior:  

1. If physical behavior is positive (+) and mental behavior is positive 

(+),then the behavior that appears will also be positive. It shows the 

most ideal condition or consistently positive so that it can be called 

objective and honest. 

2. If physical behavior is positive (+) but mental behavior is negative(-), 

then, the behavior resulted will be negative. This is due to the 

incompatibility of behavior with mental attitudes so that behavior that 

appears can be called dishonest (hypocritical or cowardly) actions. 

3. If physical behavior is negative (-)but mental behavior is positive (+), 

then the resulting behavior will be positive.This is possible if dishonest 

or inconsistent physical behavior can still be defeated by a positive 

mental attitude. 

4. If physical behavior is negative (-) and mental behavior is also 

negative(-),then the resulting behavior is also negative. Even though the 

behavior shown does not contain good quality values, it is an honest 

behavior 

Source: processed by the researchers 

 

The effectiveness of CBT has been validated by research subjects but has not been specifically 

tested in the research locus. Nevertheless, the evidence of other research relating to social anxiety 

and emotional therapy has a positive impact on students (Komang et al., 2018). CBT has the same 

assumptions as Lewin's theory where a person's mindset and beliefs can influence behavior (Nevid, 

2007) including developing personality (Aini, 2019). CBT has also been successfully applied to 

improve emotional situations in children affected by conflict (Mirza & Sulistiyaningsih, 2013) and 



  Riyani et al. 

 

social anxiety (Asrori, 2015). Therefore, through social studies learning at the junior high school 

level or history learning at the high school level, the CBT approach can be used to correct cognitive 

bias. CBT has the same impact as self-control as a medium for the formation of self-adjustment 

and positive morality (Hidayah, 2021). This targets especially the unconscious history, which has 

the potential to hinder long-term peace while fulfilling the function of history as a psychological 

need. Its advantage in learning social studies or history in high school has the potential to 

strengthen the school's mission of integrity as formulated by Wasino et al., (2019) and in research 

carried out by Karyono et al., (2019). Positive values can be developed into new forms of 

knowledge, such as knowledge of tolerance and intolerance that provide an impact on conflict and 

disintegration Utomo & Wasino (2020) and strengthen peace education. The historical aspect is 

the basic for the dissemination of peace ideas in society (Suharso et al., 2020).  

Conclusion 

Post-conflict Acehnese society has experienced psychosocial problems that have an impact on the 

next generation. Various phenomena experienced by the community in the form of anxiety, fear, 

mutual suspicion, perceptions of long-term enemies, fear, and various emotions that hinder 

peacebuilding are also reflected in the classroom. Therefore, this condition requires systematic 

handling in the form of peace education. 

In-class situations reflecting the psychosocial conditions of post-conflict Acehnese society often 

appear in Social Studies learning at junior high school and History learning at senior high school 

level. Those situations arise especially when studying the themes of difficult history. The narrative 

“pemberontak” (rebel) in the Darul Islam or Indonesian Islamic Army incident opens the 

discussion of past conflicts to the bitterness of life during the implementation of the Military 

Operations Area. In this situation, teachers, students, and schools are in a pedagogical conflict 

where various interests to maintain collective memory, personal perceptions, and moral demands 

to transmit the values of peace clash with each other. In three concentric areas with high, medium, 

and low conflict intensity categories, no significant differences were found. Based on Galtung's 

theory, this phenomenon becomes a sign of potential latent conflict. Phenomenally, it contains 

negative values for peacebuilding efforts because the main impact that arises is in the form of the 

lack of social skills of school residents. This phenomenon can be understood through Lewin's 

Medan theory where the peaks of contradictions, attitudes, and behaviors that arise are influenced 

by the individual cognitive biases of students and teachers as a result of their interaction with the 



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post-conflict community environment. However, the quality of this negative value can be turned 

into a positive value by changing or reconstructing the emotive, cognitive, and conative attitudes 

through learning that applies CBT steps.  

The implementation of CBT can cover five postulates of peace education. The first postulate refers 

to students in peace classes that they are expected to learn about the 'other' to deconstruct the 

enemy's image. The second postulate presents a different strategy to deal with the conflict in the 

first postulate. The third postulate explains the dynamic nature of peace education when shifting 

its emphasis according to the problem that occurred. The fourth postulate embeds the theory and 

practice of peace education in certain cultural norms. The fifth postulate states that peace education 

cannot eliminate conflict but can provide valuable skills for managing conflict. Post-conflict 

societies in peacebuilding efforts experience a transitional period in which they need healing and 

adjustment. The results can be used to correct cognitive bias in post-conflict societies. We 

recommend the application of CBT in the realm of practice with an expansion to various subjects 

in schools in post-conflict areas by involving policymakers more seriously. 

 

 

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