www.jsser.org
Journal of Social Studies Education Research
Sosyal Bilgiler Eğitimi Araştırmaları Dergisi
2019:10 (2), 188-203
188
Democratic Pedagogy in South Africa: A Rethinking Viewpoint for knowledge
Construction
Bunmi Isaiah Omodan1
Abstract
This study critically examines teaching-learning as a means of actualising the tenet of the infusion
of democracy and human rights in the subject Life Orientation in the classroom in all levels of
education (Primary, Secondary and Tertiary) in South Africa. The study focuses on three
established approaches namely teaching and learning as collaborative knowledge construction,
teaching and learning as a critical reasoning process, and teaching and learning as a disruptive
caring pedagogy in a bid to exterminate the old or traditional ways of teaching and learning, which
were perceived as anti-democratic education. Experiential and dialogical teaching methods as one
of the effective ways in which the infusion of democracy and human rights could be implemented
in the Life Orientation curriculum are also examined in a bid to fulfil the objectives of Life
Orientation, transform schooling and the school system, and develop the society through education.
This study further recommends the use of teaching-learning, which is known as a disruptive caring
pedagogy, as the most inclusive approach. Likewise the use of both experiential Problem Based
Learning and dialogical teaching methods are recommended.
Key words: Teaching-learning, Democracy, Human rights, Life orientation, Experiential
learning, Dialogical learning.
Introduction
Drawing from a nostalgia reminiscent of radical version of people’s education, popularised against
the template of apartheid in South Africa, is an indication that the South African education system
has been under oppression and domination from both colonial and apartheid systems. This seems
to have negatively influenced the teaching and learning process in classrooms. At the very least it
affected learners who were exposed to Bantu education (Reddy, 2004). In 1953, during the time
of Bantu Education there were drastic differences between the black and white schools, as
generally white schools received more financial resources than black schools (Villette, 2016).
Even though there are claims that South Africa has transcended this type of oppression and
domination, it seems that the education system in South Africa and its policies still wallowing in
1 Lecturer, School of Education Studies, University of the Free State, South Africa, OmodanBI@ufs.ac.za
mailto:OmodanBI@ufs.ac.za
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the lingering aftermath left behind by apartheid, though various concerted efforts were made to
rectify the situation (Odhav, 2009).
Nevertheless, the government and various notable education agencies have attempted to
liberate the South African education system through various transformation agendas in an attempt
to provide South African learners with education that fits their contextual needs. This is evidenced
in a number of documents showing a high commitment to sustainable education for all in the
republic of South Africa. These documents include but not limited to: the National Conference
Report: Saamtrek: Values, Education and Democracy In the 21st Century (held on February 2001);
the Manifesto on Values, Education and Democracy (held in August 2001 presented by the
Department of Education (DOE) on Strategies and how to infusing the culture of human right in
classroom); and the Research Report on Values, Education and Democracy (held in April 2002).
This document emphasises certain issues concerning the philosophy of human rights within the
context of curriculum (Botha & Du Preez, 2018).
A paradigm shift is taking place. Traditionally teaching methods focused on the teacher as
the only source of information in the classroom. It embraces the idea of a teacher-centered method
involving face-to-face interaction, mainly from the teacher to the student, in classroom, focusing
exclusively on students knowing the content of their textbooks and notes (Dimitrios, Labros,
Nikolaos, Maria & Athanasios, 2013; Wei Li, 2016). The movement is towards a system that
requires and recommends critical thinking as well as the enhancement of higher order
competencies and skills. Life Orientation as a subjects in the South African curriculum was
introduced to address issues such as these and to make learners aware of these controversies, based
on the outcome of research conducted by researchers from South Africa, the United States, the
United Kingdom and Europe. This research focuses on the importance and the necessity of Life
Orientation programmes for learner preparedness to be able to cope with the inevitable complexity
and dynamism of life (Prinsloo, 2007).
The South African Department of Education (2003) defines the Life Orientation (LO) as
the study of the self in relation to others in the society which is concerned with the intellectual,
spiritual, social, personal, emotional, motor and physical development and growth of learners, and
to be able to respond positively to societal demands, issues and contingencies associated with life.
The aim of the subject is predominately to develop self-efficacy and self-esteem, and to encourage
the development of balanced and confident learners to be able to contribute positively to the
Journal of Social Studies Education Research 2019: 10 (2), 188-203
nation’s economy, improved quality of life for all and a just and democratic society (Wasserman,
2014; Prinsloo, 2007). Therefore, the explorative aim of this paper is to critically expatiate and
examine teaching-learning for democracy and human rights in Life Orientation. The focus is on
various teaching and learning approaches coupled with experiential and dialogical teaching
methods as an effective way in which this could be implemented at all levels of education. This
exploration is discussed under the headings teaching-learning experience, and methodologies for
democratic pedagogy.
TEACHING-LEARNING EXPERIENCE
Teaching and learning has been understood in various ways over a long period of time as
an important aspect of curriculum that must be considered when aiming at infusing a culture of
human rights and democracy in a diverse education setting. Initially, it was explained as a process
of transmitting information to a learner with an empty mind. This was conceptualised by Piaget
(1977) as a tabula rasa. This idea was corroborated by (Goddard, 2012), who referred to John
Locke who stated that children were born blank (tabula rasa), and that what they became solely
depended on their learning and environmental experiences. This type of teaching and learning is
definitely teacher-centered, where teacher is seen as a purveyor of information at the fount of all
knowledge (Andrews, 2017; Sequeira, 2017). This picture of teaching and learning depicts that
students sit in the four walls of the classroom and listen passively to their teachers talking and
disseminating holistic knowledge to them, either with or without the use of teaching aids, materials
and consultation to general knowledge construction
In this approach, teachers are regarded as all-knowing the learners/students are just empty
slates which are waiting to be spoon-fed by their teachers. In recent times this traditional method
has generated a lot criticism from scholars, teachers and other educational stakeholders due to its
undemocratic nature and because it does not allow learners to think critically and outside the box
and to develop their own problem solving skills. As a result of this criticism, the idea of teaching
and learning as a collaborative knowledge construction, teaching and learning as a critical
reasoning process and teaching-learning known as a disruptive caring pedagogy were introduced
and conceptualised (Du Preez & Botha, 2018). These approaches are undoubtedly supportive of
education for human rights and democracy, because it allows both teachers and learners to
construct and share knowledge around real-life scenarios and to solve complex issues in classroom.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780702033971000045#!
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Teaching and Learning as a Collaborative Knowledge Construction
This concept becomes very important and necessarily relevant to the teaching and learning
process, especially in the 21st century Vygotsky’s constructivism buttresses this approach by
stressing the importance of discussion and interaction between learners and teachers, and their
environment (Vygotsky, 1986). This in turn is a panacea for learners’ level of achievement as well
as their academic performance, because potential could be grasped in a process that encourages
interaction with each other and support from the human environment (Rimor & Rosen, 2010). This
why Hmelo-Silver (2012) suggests that to create an enabling environment that supports
collaborative knowledge construction, opportunities for must be provided constructive discourse.
That is, knowledge to find solutions to problems if generated through collaboration, the exchange
of ideas through discourse and the sharing of relative thought from an individual point of view.
To further show the importance of the collaborative teaching and learning process as a
knowledge construction parameter, Rimor and Rosen (2010) further express that collaborative
parameters and the social context of a meaningful teaching and learning process are based on group
discussions and prior knowledge, which in turn allow the development of thinking abilities among
learners. A number of researchers in the field of social construction concluded that individual
interpersonal views serve as personal-cognitive functions, with the further group sharing of
knowledge (Akpan, 2018; Arvaja, 2005; Amineh & Asl, 2015; Suhendi & Purwarno, 2018). This
is absolutely in accord with Rimor & Rosen (2010) who concluded that knowledge is constructed
when people interact with one another, which means that knowledge and reality are grounded on
social interaction and agreement. No wonder Solomon (2002) in his work also toes the same line,
namely that intelligence is not a matter of (individual) ownership, but maturity that emanated out
of intrapersonal negotiation. It is described as being supportive of education in and for human
rights and democracy simply because it focuses on how teachers and learners become partners in
in the process of sharing knowledge, which practically enables learners to construct knowledge in
real-life scenarios. Knowledge and the act of teaching and learning is therefore a social relation
and an acknowledgement of the context in which this social relationship develops (Nel, 2014).
This approach therefore gives learners an opportunity to explore education on their own without
Journal of Social Studies Education Research 2019: 10 (2), 188-203
having to rely on what teachers present to them. In my opinion, this allows critical thinking,
reasoning as well as the development of independent logical reasoning.
Teaching and Learning as a Critical Reasoning Process
In an attempt to address and enhance the effectiveness of the teaching and learning in the
classroom, the idea of teaching as a critical reasoning process becomes necessary. This type of
teaching-learning, according to Qureshi (2004), situates education in human rights and democracy
due to its emphasis on addressing complex social matters in relation to the context in which they
occur. According to Carbogim, Oliveira, Mendonça, Marques, Friedrich & Püschel (2017) these
engender knowledge, skills, attitudes, capacity for criticism and reflection, clear communication,
knowledge application to professional practice, understanding people’s diversity, ability to work
in teams, and a moral and humanistic consciousness, which in unison are essential to the current
pedagogical system. I therefore argue that teaching and learning as a critical reasoning tool builds
the spirit of analysis and evaluation in learners. These include individual personality traits and the
development of intellectual traits. It also enables learners to think on their own, with recognition
of other people’s thinking, and logically draw a justifiable conclusion to issues.
So in using this approach, learners are presented with real-life matters that concern them
as well as the societies in which they live. They are made aware of life and social issues, and get
the opportunity to reflect on those issues, consider and provide tentative solutions based on their
independent thinking. Gutek’s argument (2009) corroborates this by justifying that the main focus
of teaching and learning as a critical reasoning approach is to develop learners to be competent,
critical and wide thinking citizens. Meanwhile, it is not only a matter of thinking critically in
accordance with the rules of logic and probability, but it is elevated to the idea of the application
of theory or a frame of thinking to real-life matters (Karakoç, 2016). In addition, this has to do
with the analysis and the evaluation of complex social issues such as teenage pregnancy, crime
and other issues.
According to Waghid (2003), this encourages teachers to address the issues that will help
in the transformation and development of society though education. This fulfills the objectives of
Life Orientation by addressing learners holistically. Learners are exposed to various disciplines
that affect them and that are significant for lifelong learning. These include Psychology,
Sociology, religious studies, human movement, political science, labour and industrial studies,
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civic education and social studies, among others. This activates learners’ knowledge and
awareness, and has a significant impact on their health, physical fitness, thinking patterns,
personalities and their relationships with their families, schools and society. This impact may even
be felt in their personal economy and the nation’s economy. It can therefore be argued that this
approach provides guidance for leaners to make informed decisions about their lives holistically
and become responsible citizens in a democratic society. It also addresses the issues of human
rights and democracy, where learning becomes applicable to real-life situations, encounters and
experiences. It further teaches leaners to be accountable for their ideas. In other words, it gives
them a chance to make informed choices and select actions that may be substantiated in a
reasonable manner.
Teaching and Learning as a Disruptive Caring Pedagogy
The term “disruptive” was initially conceptualised in related with technologies and later
rephrased to “disruptive innovation” (Christensen & Raynor, 2003). This was probably done in
order to encapsulate the term in a broader context to embrace both technology and its application,
because innovation becomes disruptive when it replaces old practices, the old way of doing things.
In relation to teaching and learning, the relationship between new technology and ways of learning
and teaching makes pedagogy disruptive (Hedberg, 2010; Kagema, 2018). The criticism meted out
to the above-mentioned approaches (teaching and learning as collaborative knowledge
construction and teaching and learning as a critical reasoning process) led to the production of
teaching-learning known as disruptive caring pedagogy. This approach diverted from the earlier
discussed approaches in its assertion that reasoning alone is not enough, since it does not give
learners the opportunity to interact with one another and show empathy towards each other, and it
does not always encourage dissonance.
Teachers must make room for dissonance in the teaching-learning context as it allows
learners to learn from each other’s experiences and acknowledge one another’s differences. This
means that the process of teaching and learning should structure the content in such a manner that
learners have room for disagreements which, according to Freire (2008), allow them to learn,
accept and internalise tolerance. This does not only enhance the aspect of tolerance but it also gives
learners an opportunity to learn from the varied experiences of others. In my own perspective, the
idea of education as a disruptive caring pedagogy can be explained as a teaching-learning process
Journal of Social Studies Education Research 2019: 10 (2), 188-203
that allows learning beyond learning. I further argue, based on these premises, that learners move
from their comfort zones and learn to acknowledge other people’s thoughts and ideas which may,
in one way or the other, teach them some of the important lessons in life.
In addition, when one takes a closer look at this teaching and learning method, it can be
argued that it promotes diversity as it promotes the acceptance and acknowledgment of differences
among people. It undoubtedly teaches diplomacy through the use of arguments and disagreements
as a way of building and enhancing each other’s basic knowledge. In a classroom that consists of
learners from different cultural and racial backgrounds, the teacher is expected to create an
environment conducive to both sides to enhance empathic listening. Meanwhile, to be able to
create an environment for teaching and learning based on the principle of difference and respect
for others, requires a culture of human rights and democracy. It is therefore of great importance
that teachers promote critical thinking, Socratic dialogue and autobiographical learning forms of
learning, as these are of great significance in this type of learning (Slattery, 2006).
This form of teaching-learning gives both teachers and learners a chance to deal with
human rights and democracy in every sphere of learning, and make it more important to learners.
This basically means that when learners are exposed to a pedagogical environment that imposes
the recognition of humanity with regards to the past, they get to unmask their pain, fears and
anxiety so as to address issues of racism and are able to move forward and enjoy the benefits of
living in a democratic society. The approach of teaching-learning as a disruptive caring pedagogy
by nature is democratic and creates learners who are accountable for their actions and ideas while
upholding the human rights of others in their societies. With this said, teachers should create an
atmosphere that promotes learners’ worth, dignity and human rights. In doing so, learners are able
to develop skills, attitudes and values that improve relationships, groups and society, and are also
able to demonstrate respect for human rights and democracy. This form of expression of
disagreement provides prospects for learners to gather the courage to disagree and develop skills
on how to argue constructively. This approach allows learners to express their views on topics that
are presented to them in the classroom. Their opinions on teenage pregnancy, for example, may
vary depending on their cultural backgrounds which may in turn lead to disagreements. These
disagreements are not to create conflict but will help learners to learn to acknowledge the views of
others.
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In the case of all of these features of teaching and learning, it is important for teachers to
recognise various approaches to teaching which will cater for learners from different cultures,
world views, languages and religions, which make schools diverse places for teaching and
learning. This is specifically crucial in the case of teachers of Life Orientation, as they are the
ones who deal with these issues in a detailed manner. They should be aware of the teaching
methods they use, and contemplate whether it provides learners with opportunities to think
critically and independently. The approaches used by Life Orientation teachers should be
structured in a manner that facilitates teaching and learning for human rights and democracy. The
content for Life Orientation includes sections that directly address the issues of democracy, human
rights, and other real-life and social issues that affect the learners’ being. It is also important for
teachers to promote diversity and to be sensitive to the diverse needs of their learners in order to
create a space for effective pedagogical dialogue. This will empower teachers as effective
mediators and decision-makers who show respect and acknowledgement for diverse cultures,
languages and needs.
Methodologies for Democratic Pedagogy
In order to achieve the above proposition of teaching-learning as a collaborative knowledge
construction, as a critical reasoning process and as a disruptive caring pedagogy in classroom,
appropriate methods need to be adopted. One of the most important aspects to be considered in the
teaching and learning processes of Life Orientation teachers when teaching for democracy is to
make use of relevant strategies, methodologies and resources. It therefore becomes essential to
note that the type of methodology or teaching style adopted by a teacher will go a long way to
develop learners’ respect for human rights and their democratic functioning. Teachers should
endeavor to use methods that will promote democratic instruction and respect for human rights in
classroom. These methodologies include, amongst others, experiential and dialogical learning
(Botha & Du Preez, 2014).
Experiential Learning Methodology
Experiential learning, which is generally regarded as learning through experience, has
gained more support from educational scholars in recent times, especially from those who focus
on classroom transformation. Carl Rogers, John Dewey and David Kolb are regarded as the
Journal of Social Studies Education Research 2019: 10 (2), 188-203
trailblazers in the development of this teaching-learning method focusing on “learning through
experience” or “learning by doing.” (Schwartz, 2012). The concept of experiential pedagogy as
propounded by Dewey dwelled more on problem-solving and critical thinking skills than on
memorisation and rote learning (Yoon, 2000; Kolb, 2000). This is probably drawn from an
argument of Piaget (1977) that intelligence does not necessarily exist inherently at birth, but could
also be as a result of the interaction between the individual and his/her immediate environment.
This is why Alkan (2016) concluded that concrete experiences are turned into abstract concepts
within this process, and these concepts are used in attaining new experiences, and which is
eventually considered as an effective teaching-learning method.
Experiential learning denotes a shift from a teacher-centred teaching-learning system,
where knowledge is solely transmitted to students, to an inclusive approach that requires learners
to cooperate with one another and learn through direct experiences of real-life happenings. This
means that learners become active participants though shaping, directing and controlling the pace
at which the content is delivered. Adams (2006) describes it as a way of educating through personal
experience where knowledge, skills and experience are learnt outside of the normal classroom
setting. This may include studies abroad, field research, internships, field trips and service-
learning projects. This kind of teaching method is described by Gutek (2009) as the best
methodology based on the premise that experiencing something is much better that theorising
about it. This is why learners have to be exposed to the practical and experiential terms of learning.
A good practice of this would be to give learners projects and assignments which would require
them to be fully engaged in certain experiences and encounters. This may include research about
health issues that would compel them to go to healthcare institutions to better experience and
observe the situation instead of merry-go-rounding theoretical information from textbooks.
An emphasis is placed on Problem Based Learning (PBL) to further buttress the usefulness
of experiential learning in teaching-learning for democracy and human rights. Freire (2008) argues
that Problem Based Learning (PBL) is one of the key sub-methodologies of experiential learning.
According to Phungsuk, Viriyavejakul and Ratanaolarn (2017) experiential learning is an active
way for students to learn basic problem-solving skills and acquire knowledge through interaction
with others in or outside the classroom. This approach, as one of the various approaches of
experiential learning, compliment the assumptions of experiential learning because it also places
emphasis on inquiry and discovery, which usually encourages learners to participate in the
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academic domain (Botha & Du Preez, 2018). This method can reinforce students’ ability to gain
knowledge from various situations (Ismail, Harun, Zakaria & Salleh, 2018). Therefore, PBL is an
instructional system that is learner-centered which empowers learners to conduct research,
integrate theory and practice, and apply knowledge and skills to developing a viable solution to a
defined problem. In addition, the implementation of this in the classroom will not only reduce
teacher-centredness, but will also give learners a chance for solo learning.
In constructing learning within a particular context, be it social, political, economic or
other, problem-based learning makes the curriculum relevant and specifies and narrows down
learning to the core information, which prevents work overload. Motivation is also witnessed
within the learners as their learning stems from and can be applied to real-life issues. Problem
Based Learning also ensures the transfer of lifelong valuable skills such as communication,
teamwork, leadership, problem-solving etc. It further ensures that learners control and facilitate
their own learning. This can have long-term benefits such as inquisitiveness, planning and effective
time management. I therefore argue in line with the conclusion of Hmelo-Silver (2004) and Ding
& Zhang (2018) that PBL is a constructional technique through which learners construct new
learning around existing knowledge as they attempt to solve the problem at hand.
Dialogical learning Methodology
Dialogical learning can also be used as a way of promoting teaching-learning for human
rights and democracy in a classroom context. The concept “dialogical” emanates from the word
dialogue, which promotes the teaching and learning that focuses on deep engagement of learners
with and about the content at hand. This according to Renshaw (2004) is traceable to Socrates and
a contemporary exemplification of sociocultural theories derived from a variety of influences in
psychology, linguistics, anthropology, and above all education, which includes the use of debates
and dialogue to infringe the culture of communication among learners (Callander, 2013:2).
Dialogical teaching and learning is embedded with four principles that enable interaction in
classroom as opposed to the transmissive teaching-learning process most common in classrooms
today. According to Gillies (2016) these principles are: (a) collective transmission, where the
teacher and students work together to achieve a learning task; (b) student-teacher reciprocity,
where teachers and students attend to each other by sharing ideas for better alternatives; (c)
supportive spirit between and among students, including teachers, where students assist each
Journal of Social Studies Education Research 2019: 10 (2), 188-203
other’s learning with the teacher’s guidance; and (d) the fact that every discursive activity must be
purposeful, where teachers are expected to ensure that discussions are designed to achieve specific
educational goals.
From the above, dialogical learning is closely linked to the communicative approach which
asserts that conversation and communication is the best way of administering learning content to
learners. This is simply because communication is a natural occurrence in our everyday lives, so
as a result it is easy to implement it in the teaching and learning environment. It is said to be the
best way to trigger learners’ prior knowledge based on their everyday experiences (Lehesvuori,
2013). In addition, teachers should ensure that the issues they discuss in the classroom are those
that are related to and applicable to learners’ real-life experiences.
This gives learners a chance to infuse different teaching–learning spaces with a culture of
human rights. It is also significant to fully engage learners in all types of conversations taking
place in the classroom, asking them about their personal views and criticism of a specific issue.
This allows fairness as well as a balance between the content, the teacher and the learners, and
thereafter promotes a learner-centered approach. Adams (2006) insists that this makes learning
meaningful and allows collaborative knowledge construction and critical reasoning. It also breaks
the convention of a teacher as an all-knowing entity, transferring subject information to a tabula
rasa. It offers learners the opportunity to democratically participate in the construction of
knowledge.
Conclusion and Recommendations
In conclusion, the success of the Life Orientation curriculum depends largely on teachers’
readiness to implement the intention of the curriculum, especially the infusion of human rights and
the development of democracy. So how teachers present themselves and the content of their
instruction goes a long way in ensuring the accommodation of teaching-learning for democracy in
the classroom. Teachers should therefore be encouraged to use creative means of delivering the
content. It is also crucial for the overall curriculum to consider the issue if human rights and
democracy by acknowledging some teaching-learning methods that will enhance the infusion of
human rights and democracy, which could engage learners in interactive and reflective
opportunities conductive to presenting human rights and democratic practices. It is however not
only Life Orientation teachers who should address these significant issues, but all teachers.
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Teachers should try to integrate this aspect of democracy where learners are given a chance to
reflect, think critically, reason logically and interpret independently. It is therefore important for
Life Orientation teachers and teachers in general to consider the idea of democracy and human
rights in their teaching strategies and methodologies. Hence, experiential and dialogical teaching
and learning could be helpful to instill classroom cultural practices, participation and engagement
of students with real-life issues and other critical matters.
Based on the above explorative premises ranging from the pedagogical background, to the
importance and features of teaching-learning in the form of approaches and methodologies to
implement democracy and human rights in classroom, it is therefore recommend that:
Teachers in all levels of education should endeavor to practice teaching-learning as
disruptive caring pedagogy as one of the modern teaching-learning approaches that has the
potential to meet the expectations of learners for better societal preparedness. This
approach is will be appropriate because it is based on the premise that reasoning alone is
not enough. It will ensure that learners interact with one another and show empathy
towards each other without any negative dissonance. Teachers will however have to create
an environment for learners to safely disagree with one another to enable learners to learn
from the experiences of others and acknowledge one another’s differences.
Teachers at all levels of education should internalise the principles of experiential learning
to be able to equip learners with problem solving and critical thinking skills. This method
is necessary because it is an all-inclusive method that requires the cooperation of learners
through direct experiences of real-life happenings. This will enable learners become active
participants in the learning content as a result of what they have experienced. Therefore,
learners are expected to be exposed to practical experience in terms of learning, which
would require them to be fully engaged in necessary experiences and encounters for the
sake of knowledge.
Teachers are also encouraged to make use of Problem Based Learning as appropriate, as
this is one of the active ways for learners to acquire basic problem-solving skills. This
method according Ismail, Harun, Zakaria and Salleh (2018) can reinforce students’ ability
to acquire values, and to gain knowledge from various situations. The implementation of
this will in turn empower learners to conduct research, integrate theory and practice, and
apply knowledge and skills to issues with little or no supervision from their teachers.
Journal of Social Studies Education Research 2019: 10 (2), 188-203
Finally, teachers should encourage dialogical teaching-learning processes since
communication and conversation have been linked empirically to the effective delivery of
learning content to learners in class. When teachers initiate relevant conversations about
real life, it gives learners a chance to infuse learning spaces with a culture of human rights.
This will also give learners a sense of belonging, and they will be willing to fully engage
in the classroom.
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