210_JoSD_template Original Article Slovenian national minorities and emigrants in selected primary school curricula and textbooks Eva Konečnik Kotnik*, Marija Javornik Krečič*, Andjelija Ivkov Džigurski**, Ljubica Ivanović Bibić** and Lucija Jagodič*** * Faculty of Arts, University of Maribor, Koroška cesta 160, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia ** Faculty of Science, University of Novi Sad, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 3, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia *** Zavarovalnica Triglav, d.d.,Slovenija Email: eva.konecnik@um.si Abstract The article analyses the curriculum of the primary school subjects Geography, History and Civic and Homeland Education and Ethics, along with some textbooks for these subjects. The purpose of the paper is to determine whether these subjects include material on Slovenian national minorities and emigrants and objectives closely related to such material, which content and objectives are included and to what extent. Pupils in Slovenian pri- mary school address real issues concerning Slovenian national minorities and emigrants, while the message and quantitative representation differ, depending on the basic definition and purpose of the subject. In addition to curricula and textbooks, the behaviour and attitude of pupils to Slovenians abroad is influenced primarily by teachers and their knowledge of their own subject and other subjects, their understanding of the processes of knowledge construction and knowledge of the school vertical and the horizontal. Keywords: national minorities, emigrants, syllabus, primary school. Introduction and theoretical-conceptual framework Slovenians have long been living in the neighbouring countries of Italy, Austria and Hun- gary as autochthonous inhabitants, i.e. national minorities. As inhabitants with different status, Slovenians also live in the territory of former Yugoslavia, to which they began to migrate in large numbers from the 1880s onwards. Moreover, Slovenian emigrants live in other European countries and overseas. From the end of the 1870s until the beginning of World War I alone, between 250,000 and 300,000 people emigrated from the Slovenian ethnic territory—most of them to the United States of America. The emigration of Slove- nians continued after World War I, when migratory flows were also directed to Argentina, Brazil and Canada. After World War II, almost half of the Slovenian political refugees mi- Journal of Subject Didactics, 2017 Vol. 2, No. 2, 81-96, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.1239747 grated to Argentina and other South American countries, while others went to the USA, Canada, Australia and some Western European countries. At the beginning of the 1950s, migration for economic reasons commenced again, reaching a peak in the second half of the same decade. A new type of migrant emerged: migrants who retained the citizen- ship of their native country, and were regarded as temporary migrants by the host country. In the Slovenian terminology, the term zdomec [migrant worker] began to be used for them. In recent decades, such migrations have included an increasing number of highly educated people and experts. Today, Slovenian emigrants and their descendants con- stitute more than one-fifth of the Slovenian nation (Klemenčič 2012: 1-3, see also Lukšič Hacin 2016, Josipović 2016, etc.), From all the aforementioned, it could be concluded that Slovenia is a migrant country. If pupils are acquainted with and understand the origins of their compatriots’ migrations, as well as the lives of migrants (and minorities), this can be helpful not only for “creating an inclusive atmosphere in school and preventing conflicts between peers due to ethnic, cultural, linguistic or religious reasons” (Žitnik Serafin 2016: 16), but also for creating an inclusive culture that extends beyond school boundaries. “Creating an inclusive social environment and open intercultural relationships is a prerequisite for an inwardly safe and stable society” (ibid.). According to Ribičič (2014: 189), “it is difficult for members of the national majority to understand the situation of ethnic minority communities and their members. It is much easier for them to understand the situation of ‘their’ national com- munities and their members who live abroad as minorities” (quoted in Žitnik Serafin 2016, 16). The fact that understanding oneself is a good starting point for understanding others holds true, especially for those in the process of being educated. Owing to a lack of so- cially participatory experience, it is even more important for pupils to go through a mean- ingful and experience-based learning process about tolerant cohabitation, which begins with the understanding of oneself and “one’s own.” These facts suggest that it is very important for school materials to cover issues of migration and minorities, as well as issues of intercultural education, given the multi- faceted educational potential they hold. Unsurprisingly, in recent years, studies of school materials have become widespread among researchers of issues related to migration (Vrečer 2012, 2016, Šabec 2015, 2016, Žitnik Serafin 2016 and others). These studies predominantly focused on the analysis of textbook materials but also partly on the cur- ricula of select subjects (e.g., Geography, History) from the perspective of the intercultural material being presented; attention was drawn to some professional mistakes, in partic- ular to the perpetuation of stereotypes—whether intentionally or unintentionally—and also to some missed opportunities. The present study was conducted with the aim of striving for a peaceful coexistence between Slovenians and the other nations with whom the Slovenian nation is in contact, as well as with the aim of studying the role that education and school policy play in all of this. The study provides a partial answer to the question of how schooling affects the be- haviour and attitude towards Slovenians living abroad, and in connection with that also how it affects Slovenians’ national identity, their attitude towards other migrants, especially those immigrating to Slovenia. Purpose of the study School is one of the fundamental factors in consolidating the nation’s cultural awareness and identity, which brings the issue of school curricula documentation to the forefront, since these form the legal basis for carrying out school lessons. The present research 82 allowed us to gain insight into the state of affairs in this field and provided the basis for improvement in and rationalization of the field. The purpose of the paper is to present the results of an analytical comparison of three primary school curricula, i.e. Geography, History, Civic and Homeland Education and Ethics, along with some of the textbooks for these subjects. We endeavoured to establish whether these subjects included material on Slovenian national minorities and emigrants, or objectives that are closely connected with these subjects. Furthermore, we aimed to establish which materials and objectives are included and their extent. We took into con- sideration the key areas of educational objectives: i.e. the field of cognitive knowledge / behaviour, the field of skills and competence development, as well as the field of value development. We believe that this “knowledge in the broadest sense” is in many ways complex and, as such, has much educational potential, as well as potential for personality and social development. Methodology for the empirical part The descriptive method was used for the purposes of this paper. By means of review protocols for curricula and textbooks, we analysed and compared the curricula and certain textbooks for three compulsory primary school subjects: Geography, History, and Civic and Homeland Education and Ethics. The selection of subjects was based on the as- sumption that these subjects, would, by definition, be the ones most closely connected with all the dimensions of the concepts of ‘national minority’, and ‘emigrants’ (compared to other compulsory subjects in primary school). The comparison relied on the general structure of curricula in the Republic of Slovenia, which—in addition to the basic definition of a particular subject and certain other chapters—list the general objectives of the sub- ject, the competencies developed by pupils in the framework of the subject, as well as the content and operational objectives of the subject. We focused on the aforementioned structural parts of curricula. We described the content of the selected textbooks, including any illustrative-graphic materials and their extent. Results and Discussion In this chapter, we will present the results of the comparative analysis of the curricula and selected textbooks for the subjects of Geography, History, and Civic and Homeland Education and Ethics in Slovenian primary school. Analysis of the curriculum and textbooks for primary school Geography In the curriculum for primary school Geography, the material connected with Slovenian national minorities and emigrants relates—directly or indirectly—to the following general objectives, skills and values. In the subject Geography, pupils develop knowledge and understanding of the follow- ing (general objectives): - locations and spaces (local, regional and global aspects), in order to be able to put local, national and international events in a geographical framework and understand basic spatial relationships; - main socio-economic systems on Earth (agriculture, settlement, economy, energy, population, etc.), in order to gain a sense of space; - diversity of people and societies on Earth, in order to appreciate the cultural wealth 83 of humankind; - major geographical phenomena and processes in their home region (in their home- town, municipality, i.e. on the local level), country (regional level) and the world (global level) from the point of view of temporal changes, in order to realize that everything is constantly changing (procedural aspect). (Učni načrt Geografija 2011: 6) In Geography classes, pupils develop the following skills: - using verbal, quantitative and symbolic data, such as texts, images, graphs, tables, diagrams and maps (cartographic, numerical and functional literacy); - collecting and using sources of information with field methods and work techniques (drawing panoramic images, thematic maps, mapping, surveying, measuring, etc.); - collecting and interpreting secondary sources of information and using statistical data; - using communication, thinking, practical and social skills in exploring geographical issues at the local, regional, national and global levels; - carrying out basic geographical studies of and research about their home region and Slovenia, including the ability to participate successfully in decision-making related to their development; - evaluating contradictions in the environment (local, regional and global) of the mod- ern world, and at the same time being trained to recognize the necessity of sustainable development and the responsibility for preserving the physical and biological life condi- tions for future generations (ibid.). In Geography classes, pupils develop values that contribute to the following: - development of positive feelings towards their homeland, a sense of belonging to their nation and state, and appreciation of its natural and cultural heritage; - interest in social needs, solving common, sustainable, spatial issues at the local, na- tional, regional and global levels; - evaluation of the diversity and beauty of the natural environment, on the one hand, and the differences in living conditions and social needs, on the other; - connecting different aspects of education, such as cognitive, emotional, ethical, aes- thetic, motoric; - understanding the importance of relationships and values when making decisions about spatial interventions; - being prepared for the responsible use of geographical knowledge and skills in per- sonal, professional and public life; - respect for the right to equality of all people, including preservation of the quality of the natural and social environment for future generations; - solving local, regional and global issues according to the principles of sustainable development and the principles of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (ibid.: 7). In the primary school Geography curriculum, areas of general capability and competence are defined separately, as well. For the present study, civic capability is the most inter- esting among the seven types of capability (ibid.: 21): Pupils: - understand the concepts of national and cultural belonging and the impact of Euro- pean and global culture on different nations; 84 - recognize the sense of belonging to the local community, the state, the EU, Europe and the world; - become aware of the main advantages of being part of the EU; - respect the values and privacy of others, respond appropriately to negative social phenomena and understand the importance of respecting the varying values of nations and ethnic groups; - know the possibilities for decision-making and co-decision-making in the develop- ment of their local region and beyond; - show solidarity (e.g., by empathy) and solve problems together; - know about human rights; - critically assess information they receive from mass media; - explain how each citizen can influence the planning and development of his or her living environment; - develop positive emotions toward their homeland, a sense of belonging to their na- tion and state, as well as an appreciation for its natural and cultural heritage; - develop the capacity to put themselves in the position of other people. In the curricula, operational objectives and content should be subordinate to the definition of general objectives, skills, values and competences. In practice, the operational objec- tives and content are the part of the curriculum of which teachers make the most use— which means that in reality these two items dictate the classes. A detailed overview of the primary school Geography curriculum shows that, according to the operational objectives and content, the potential to address issues of national mi- norities and emigration exists as early as in the sixth grade. The operational objectives of the grade directed towards this are as follows (ibid.: 8): Pupils - learn about the natural and cultural heritage of Slovenia and the importance of ex- periencing the natural environment; - are being trained in the use of communication and thinking, along with practical and social skills for exploring geographical issues at the local, regional and global levels; - develop positive emotions toward their homeland, a sense of belonging to their na- tion and state, as well as an appreciation for its natural and cultural heritage. In the corresponding textbooks for the sixth grade, there are no materials on national minorities and emigrants, which in reality means that the practical application of the op- erational objectives from the curriculum does not take this direction. In reality, the appli- cation of material connected to national minorities and emigrants depends on teachers. This content relates mainly to a school excursion, in the framework of which it could be addressed, if, for instance, there were an excursion to a region characterized by emigra- tion issues. In sixth grade, pupils are supposed to (ibid.: 10) do the following: - visit at least one natural-geographical regional unit of Slovenia (an interdisciplinary excursion); - learn about the values and the uniqueness of the Slovenian landscape, develop an appreciation of and respect for the Slovenian natural and cultural heritage, as well as a secure attachment to the Slovenian state. In seventh-grade Geography classes, pupils are supposed to follow the operational objectives below, which can be connected, either directly or indirectly, to the concepts of national minorities and emigration (ibid.). 85 Pupils should do the following: - develop views and values such as respect for other nations and cultures and inter- national cooperation; - recognize the need to preserve the natural and cultural heritage; - understand the geographical dimensions and the consequences of the interconnect- edness of today’s world; - deepen and build on acquired knowledge by undertaking an interdisciplinary excur- sion to a selected natural-geographical unit of Slovenia; - be trained in the use of communication, thinking, practical and social skills for ex- ploring geographical issues at the local, regional and global levels. 86 Table 1. A brief overview of the curricular content for primary school Geography that relates, directly or indirectly, to the issues of Slovenian national minorities and emigrants (Učni načrt Geografija 2011). � � ����������� ���� ��� ��������������������������������������� � ���� ��� �������� ���� ����� ����� ����������� ��� �� !� "�� #�� ����� ������$� %�&����� ���������� ��� � ����� ������� ������� �������� ���!� '����� � ��������!� (��)�� ������������ * ���� ��� ��� �� � �� � ���+�� �� �,������ ���� ���� -��������� �� � �����.��������� ������-���&�������������-!� "������� �������/�� �� ����� !� '��� � � � ��� ����# !� (��0 ��� ����� �� 1 ���� ��� ���2���� ���� ������ �������#��&��� !� "�������� ��������,� �� ��� ������������� ������ ����� ���#��&��� !� '��#��&��� 3��&���4��� -����������� ��� ��������!� (������5� ����� ���������!�����5� ����� ���� ���!�����5 � ����� �������!� 6�����5 ������ ��� �������������!� ������5 ��� ���7������!� ���8���#��&��� ������� ���� �� �� � �� ���� ��� �&�� ��� � ���� ����� � ������#��&��� 3����&������� !� *��������-�� From a substantive and directly operational standpoint, in the chapter “Population and Settlement of Europe and Asia,” seventh grade pupils are supposed to (ibid.: 11) describe the linguistic and religious diversity of Europe and Asia on a thematic map and draw con- clusions about the consequences. In the chapter “Southern Europe – Diverse Religious and Ethnic Composition of the Population,” pupils are supposed to use a map to describe the diverse national and religious composition of the population of the southern part of Europe, and to consider the causes behind the uneven distribution of the population. In the chapter “Central Europe,” pupils are supposed to use statistical data to compare the size and population of countries, and to describe the national and religious composition of the population. In the chapter “Western Europe” (ibid.: 12), pupils are supposed to analyse the influence of natural factors on settlement, and to name the main represen- tatives of the population and their past and present economic orientation. The above top- ics all enable teachers to address issues of national minorities and emigration. The textbooks for the seventh-grade show that in reality, these issues are addressed only to a limited extent. For instance, in the chapter “Population of Europe” in the textbook Geografija 7 [Geography 7] (Bahar, Košak 1999: 32), the terms “nation” and “national minority” are explained. In the same chapter, pupils are given the task of explaining where Slovenians live outside of Slovenia’s borders as a minority and which national minorities exist in Slovenia. Half a page is devoted to this topic. In the chapter “Population of Central Europe” from the same textbook, pupils again encounter the concept of national minority (ibid.: 62). Pupils are given the task of explaining where state borders do not coincide with ethnic borders. A photograph of the bilingual town sign for the village of Dobrovnik in the Prekmurje region is also shown. In eighth-grade Geography classes, pupils are supposed to follow the operational ob- jectives below, which can be connected, either directly or indirectly, to the issues of na- tional minorities and emigration (Učni načrt Geografija 2011: 13): Pupils do the following: - learn about the burning issues in the modern world by studying examples from sev- eral continents; - evaluate the importance of America and the United States of America in the world; - develop views and values such as respect for other nations and cultures, along with international cooperation; - become aware of the need to preserve the natural and cultural heritage; - understand the geographical dimensions and the consequences of the interconnect- edness of today’s world. In the chapter “Australia and Oceania – Population and Way of Life as a Consequence of a Highly Developed Economy” (ibid.: 15), pupils have to describe the settlement char- acteristics of the continent. In the chapter “Population of North America,” pupils are sup- posed to describe the composition of the population of North America and draw conclusions about the advantages and disadvantages of multiethnic communities. Fur- thermore, they are supposed to learn about the assimilation, integration and segregation of different cultures. In the chapter “Canada and the United States of America,” they are supposed to identify and understand the prevailing social, political and economic processes in North America and to determine their effects on the region. Furthermore, by means of analysing data, they are supposed to evaluate the impact of technological development and of the post-industrial era on the region. 87 The chapter “Population of Australia” in the textbook Geografija 8 [Geography 8] (Bahar, Račič, Resnik Planinc 2000: 34) states that after World War II, many Slovenians moved to Australia. A single sentence is devoted to the topic of Slovenian emigrants. In the same textbook, Slovenian emigrants are also mentioned in the chapter “Population of Canada” (ibid.: 51), where one passage is devoted to them. In the textbook Geografija za 8. razred 9-letne osnovne šole [Geography for the 8th Grade of the 9-year Primary School] (Novak, Otič, Vovk Korže 2001: 80), a one-sentence description of the migration of Slovenians to Australia can be found in the chapter “Australia and Oceania – The Con- tinent of Indigenous Peoples and Immigrants.” In ninth-grade Geography classes, pupils are supposed to follow the operational ob- jectives below, which can be connected, either directly or indirectly, to the issues of na- tional minorities and emigration (Učni načrt Geografija 2011: 13) Pupils do the following: - learn about the geographical characteristics of Slovenia; - develop a spatial conception of Slovenia, Europe and the world; - use examples to evaluate and relate to the natural and cultural heritage of their homeland; - connect the natural geographical situation with the potential for economic develop- ment, and make comparisons with neighbouring countries; - indicate solutions for crucial individual issues of demographic development while learning about population characteristics; - develop positive emotions toward their homeland, a sense of belonging to their na- tion and state, as well as an appreciation for its natural and cultural heritage and respect for national rights; - deepen and build on (in a cross-curricular manner) acquired knowledge by under- taking an interdisciplinary excursion to a selected natural-geographical unit of Slovenia. From a substantively operational standpoint, in the chapter “The Geographical Posi- tion of Slovenia” (ibid.: 13), pupils are supposed to make use of a corresponding map to describe the geographical position of Slovenia, evaluate the importance of its position at the juncture of Europe’s natural units and language groups, as well as in view of EU ex- pansion in the spheres of economy and transport. In the chapter “European Union – Con- necting European Countries and Slovenia,” pupils are supposed to evaluate the importance of Slovenia’s integration into the EU in the economic and political sphere, and to become aware of the importance of knowledge, which makes it possible to find employment within the EU. In the chapter “Slovenian Visibility in Europe and the World,” pupils are supposed to list important achievements of Slovenians on a European and global scale. In the chapter “Peri-Pannonian regions; Peri-Pannonian plains; Peri-Pan- nonian hills” (ibid.: 17), pupils are supposed use an example to explain the interdepend- ence of people’s lives from topography, climate, soil and water. The same is true for other Slovenian regions. In the chapter “The Slovenian Geographical Area as a Restrictive and Stimulating Factor in Slovenia’s Development” (ibid.: 18), pupils are supposed to under- stand the most important natural and social geographical phenomena and processes, and understand how these affect the population and the economy, list and explain the factors that influence the varied population density of Slovenia, explain the factors that influence population growth, compare Slovenia’s population growth to that in the EU, as well as use statistical data for their home town or a large settlement in the vicinity as an 88 example to describe the ethnic composition of Slovenia’s population. In the chapter “Economy,” pupils are supposed to explain the causes and consequences of the migra- tion of the population within Slovenia and the EU. In the chapter “Slovenia is a Small and Very Diverse Central-European Country” from the textbook Živim v Sloveniji [Living in Slovenia] (Senegačnik, Drobnjak, Otič 2003: 9), there is a subchapter “State Borders are not also Ethnic Borders.” Here, the following concepts are referred to and described: ethnic border, nationally mixed area and Sloven- ian minorities in neighbouring countries. A cartographic depiction of the nationally mixed areas in Slovenia and its vicinity is included. Three-quarters of a page in the textbook are devoted to this topic. In the same textbook, the subchapter “Migrations are the Result of Changes in Historical and Economic Development” of the chapter “The Population of Slovenia is Changing” (ibid.: 43), explains the concepts of migration, emigrants and mi- grant workers. A full page in the textbook is devoted to the topic. In the textbook Ge- ografija za osmi razred 8-letne osnovne šole in deveti razred 9-letne osnovne šole [Geography for the 8thGrade of the 8-year Primary School and the 9th Grade of the 9- year Primary School] (Račič, Večerič 2006: 9), the chapter “Slovenia is a Central-Euro- pean State” explains the concept of national or ethnic territory, and a full page is devoted to explaining the concept of state border; exercises are also included. For instance, using the map of Slovenia, pupils have to explain the difference between state and ethnic bor- ders. In the textbook, a cartographic depiction of the state and ethnic borders of Slovenia is included on the same page. In the chapter “I Am One of the Inhabitants of Slovenia” (ibid.: 10), the concepts of migration, migrant workers, emigrants, nation and national mi- nority are explained. A graphic display of immigration to and emigration from Slovenia for the years 1961 to 1998 is also included. Half a page is devoted to this topic. In the textbook Raziskujem Slovenijo 9 [Exploring Slovenia 9] (Verdeu 2011: 26), the chapter “Population throughout Time” describes the migration movements of Slovenia’s popula- tion. A graphic display of immigrants to and emigrants from Slovenia from 1921 to 2010 is included. Half the page is devoted to this topic. The chapter “Slovenians around the World” (ibid.: 34) explains the concepts of minorities in neighbouring countries, migrant workers, emigrants and nationally mixed areas. Pictorial and cartographic materials are also included. Two pages are devoted to these topics. Analysis of the curriculum and textbooks for primary school History In the primary school History curriculum, the material related to Slovenian national mi- norities and emigrants relates, either directly or indirectly, to the following general objec- tives, skills and values. General objectives (Učni načrt Zgodovina 2011: 5)—pupils are able to do the follow- ing: - acquire, deepen and disseminate knowledge about the everyday life, work and men- tality of people in particular historical periods and about the reasons why all of those may change; - develop awareness of national identity and national belonging, while acquiring, deep- ening and disseminating knowledge about Slovenian history; - emphasize the importance of the positive cultural influences of neighbouring nations on the Slovenian nation; - assess the importance of preserving and protecting cultural heritage, using examples from local history, and develop a responsible attitude towards the environment; - develop the ability to understand and respect different cultures, religions, races and 89 communities; - develop receptiveness to values important for living in a modern democratic society: tolerance in mutual relations and contacts, respect for differences and diversity, mutual cooperation, respect for human rights and democratic citizenship. From the analysis of the primary school History curriculum, we can conclude that ac- cording to the operational objectives and content, some opportunities for indirectly ad- dressing the issues of national minorities and emigration exist as early as in the sixth grade. The operational objectives of the class directed towards this are as follows: - the elective topic “Way of life” (ibid.: 9): pupils reach conclusions about the impor- tance of having rules for coexistence in a community; 90 Table 2. A brief overview of the curricular content of primary school History that relates, directly or indirectly, to the issues of Slovenian national minorities and emigrants (Učni načrt Zgodovina 2011). � ����������� � ��� ��� �������� ����� � ��������� �� ���� ���������������� �������������� ��������������������������� ������� ���������� ���� ��� ����� �� ��� � � ��������� ��� ���� � �� ��� ��������� ����� ������ � ������� ��� ��� ����� ��� ���� ���������� ��� ������ ��� ���� ������� ��������������� ������������ ������������������ ������� � ������� ������ ����� �������������������� ���� ������������������ ��� ����������� ������������������� ��������������� ������ �������� ���������������� ��������������������� ���� � ��� ��� ���!�"� ������� � �# �����$����%���������� ���������� ���������� ������� � ���� ��������������������� ���� ������������� ���� ��� ����� �������� ���� � ����������������������������# ���� ���&�� ���� � ��� ��� ���!�"� ������� � �'������������������(�� �� �������������&�� ��� ����� �� ���� ( ��� ��� ��� � ����� ��� ���� ������ ��� ���� ��������� �����"������������������������� ����� ��� �� ����������������)��� ����*� ��������� ���!�"� ������� � �+������ �� ,�� ����&�� ������������������� � �� � ���� ���� ���������������� ���� � ��� ��� ��� !�"� ���� ��� � � &�� � ���� ��������� �� ��� ��� ���� �-��� ������� � ��� �������������������������� ������������������������ +����� ��� � �������� �������"�������� ���!�"� ������� � �.�� �� ���� �������-������������������ �� ���� ��� ����� �� ���.�� �� ������� ������������� ������ ��� ����������%� .�� �� ��� /������� �� ��� � ��������� ��� �������� ��� �� �����-���������� � ��� �������� �����������"����������������0��� ���� ������������ �������������������� ����������� ���� �������������������������� 1������������ ����� ������ ������� ���� ������ ���� ���������� ��� � ���� ��� ���� ������������� �������� ���� ��� ��� ��������� ��� ����������� - the elective topic “Cultural heritage”: using examples from local history, pupils de- scribe the importance of preserving and protecting cultural heritage, and using examples from everyday life, pupils show the importance of respecting different cultures, as well as the importance of promoting tolerance towards different cultures and of intercultural cooperation. The sixth-grade History textbooks show that the projected operational objectives are in reality not applied to the issues of national minorities and emigration. In seventh grade, in the framework of the required topic “Middle Ages – the creation of a new cultural and political Image of Europe, the migration of peoples” (ibid.: 14), pupils, inter alia, explain the new political map of Europe after the migration of peoples; this material could be made more current by referring to later and more recent migrations. It is up to the teacher to decide whether to make the contents more current, since the textbooks do not directly offer this possibility (Razpotnik, Snoji 2011; Simonič Mervic 2006; Otič, Potočnik 2007). In eighth grade, in the framework of the required topic “The borders of the known world expand” (Učni načrt Zgodovina 2011: 15), pupils explain what kind of political, so- cial, economic and cultural consequences the great geographical discoveries held for the Old and New Worlds. Here it is possible to make references to the issues of later mi- gration. In the framework of the required topic “Industrialization” (ibid.: 20), pupils, inter alia, show on the map in which directions Europeans migrated. Textbooks, for instance Raziskujem preteklost 8 [Exploring the Past 8] (Mirjanić, Razpotnik, Snoj 2010), encour- age opportunities for application. The chapter “Why Europeans Set Out for the Distant World” (ibid.: 24), describes traders, travellers and the reasons for going off to foreign countries. Four pages are devoted to this topic. In the chapter “How Industrial Develop- ment Affected the Slovenian Territory” (ibid.: 167), one-third of a page describes Slovenian emigration abroad, and a photograph of Slovenians in Pennsylvania (USA) is included. A picture of the Slovenian newspaper Amerikanski Slovenec is also included, and the accompanying text states that the following Slovenian societies are still active in the USA: Slovenian National Benefit Society, Slovenian Catholic Mission, the Slovenian Women’s Union of America and the American Slovenian Catholic Union. Also included is a photo- graph of the Aleksandrinke, the Slovenian women who once worked in Egypt as wet nurses. The textbook Koraki v času, Novi vek, Zgodovina za 8. razred devetletke [Steps in Time, Modern Era: History for the 8th Grade of the 9-year Primary School] (Cvirn, Hriberšek Balkovec, Studen 2001: 160) provides a description of Slovenian emigration at the turn of the 20th century. Emigration is described in two sentences, stating that dur- ing that time Slovenians emigrated to America and to Western European countries and that there were 180,000 of them in the United States. In ninth grade, in the framework of the required topic “Political characteristics of the 20th century” (Učni načrt zgodovina 2011: 22), pupils analyse the peace treaties made after World War I and anticipate their consequences, thus also learning about the prob- lems of national minorities. In the framework of the required topic “Slovenians in the 20th and 21st centuries” (ibid.: 23), pupils explain why Slovenians decided to establish their own country – Slovenia. In this context, the teacher can also explain the issue of minori- ties and the rights that they have in foreign countries. It is also important for pupils to be aware of the minorities within Slovenia and to develop tolerance for and understanding of them. In the framework of the elective topic “Changes in everyday life in the 20th cen- tury” (ibid.: 25), pupils explain the consequences of people’s migrations and the types of contact between people with different cultural customs. Pupils draw conclusions about 91 the importance of migration for intercultural contact and provide examples of contrasts. The chapter “During World War I, Slovenians Decide to Establish a New State” in the textbook Koraki v času, 20. stoletje: zgodovina za 8. razred osemletke in 9. razred de- vetletke [Steps in Time, Modern Era: History for the 8th Grade of the 9-year Primary School] (Dolenc, Gabrič, Rode 2003: 18) describes how Slovenians strove for a new state in which they would play a major role. This topic is important in terms of under- standing the development of national belonging. The chapter “Slovenian Borders and Slovenians Outside the Homeland“ (ibid.: 144) devotes three pages to describing the for- mation of the current state border after World War II; furthermore, emigrants are de- scribed. The entire process of establishing the western and northern borders, as well as the border with Hungary is explained. Pupils get acquainted with why and how minorities came into being, as well as with their rights and the causes behind emigration. Also in- cluded are photographs of Slovenian cultural events abroad and cartographic depictions of the northern and western borders in the year 1945. The chapter “Where Will the Bound- aries of the New State Be?” in the textbook Naše stoletje: zgodovina za 9. razred osnovne šole [Our Century: History for the 9th Grade of Primary School] (Kern, Nećak, Repe 2005: 70), describes the struggle to establish borders. In the chapter “National Minorities and Emigration” (ibid.: 223), emigrants and minorities are described on three pages. Photo- graphs of bilingual town signs and a photograph of the Slovenian grammar school in Kla- genfurt are also included. The term “assimilation” is explained. Also described are the Hungarian and Italian national minorities in Slovenia. Analysis of the primary school curriculum for the subject Civic and Homeland Education and Ethics The general objectives of Civic and Homeland Education and Ethics (Učni načrt Državl- janska in domovinska vzgoja ter etika 2011: 6) emphasise, inter alia, the development of political literacy among pupils, the topic that relates most directly to the subject of national minorities and emigrants. The following aims contribute to pupils’ political literacy: getting acquainted with the structure and functioning of the community, society, state, interna- tional networks and global communities; getting acquainted with human rights and the rights of children; getting acquainted with the basic principles of democratic decision- making and democratic institutions in the local environment, in Slovenia, in the European Union and in global communities; discussions about the coexistence of different people and social groups; being in touch with current social, political, economic and environ- mental issues; being informed about international situations and events, as well as about Slovenia’s role in them in the political, economic and military spheres; reflecting on the conditions in which people live in various parts of the world and on the their future prospects. The operational objectives and content in the seventh and eighth grades highlight the following material, which can be related, either directly or indirectly, to the issues of na- tional minorities and emigration: Through the topics described above, pupils are supposed to achieve objectives such as the following: understanding the concepts of nation, state and homeland; learning about the multiple reasons for uniting / the historical origins of communities; developing 92 the ability to study differences within the community and between communities; under- standing the origins of images about others and those different from us; recognizing the importance of tolerance and mutual respect for a culture of coexistence; gaining insight into the structure and functioning of the community; acquiring basic knowledge about the establishment and characteristics of the state of Slovenia; realizing that citizens are the holders of political power; developing the ability to distinguish between national and civic identity; developing a positive attitude towards the civic community; learning about the political and other rights of citizens (ibid.: 15-19). As can be seen from the listed objectives and content of the subject Civic and Home- land Education and Ethics, the subject is strongly linked to the issues in its title. However, it should be borne in mind that the subject relies on the teacher’s orientation towards cross-curricular connections, in particular with History, Geography, Slovenian language 93 Table 3. A brief overview of the curricular content for Civic and Homeland Education and Ethics in primary school that relates—directly or indirectly—to the issues of Slovenian national minorities and emigrants. (ibid.). ������ �� ������ � ����������� ������ ���� � � � �� �������� ��������� ��� ����� ��������� �������� � !� ���"�����# �$�%#����� #������ ��������� %���&��"# ��� ����% ��''�%����#( �"��"%� �' ���)�#����� � *� �"% �����"�� ��+�%�# ����% ���,�%# �' ��� ����"���� ��� ����% ����"�����# �# #�������# ��'�"����� ,� #��%����$�# ��� $%�-"����#� .� /��� ,���# ��� ����"���� ��&����%0 1� ������ 2 �3 � �4��� �3 1� 5�6�7�� �3 �������� �� �� 5�$",��� �' �������� �# � ����"���� �' ����8��#� !� �� $�������� ����"���� �' ����8��#� *� �������� ,����&��&� ����8��#��$ ��� $��%����#�� .� �� ��#���"����� 9� ������ #����� :� �"%�$��� ������ ;� �������� �# � ���,�% �' ��� �"%�$��� ������ �������� �� 3������ �� 1���� 5�<1 �� �� � ����8��=# %�&�� �� ���� ��� �� #���� '�% ��������� �� > � and some elective subjects (ibid.: 20). That is to say, it is based on already acquired knowledge and on skills acquired in the framework of other subjects; consequently, the objective is not only acquiring knowledge, but also training pupils for civic engagement in accordance with ethical principles (ibid.). Conclusions This paper analysed the curricula of the primary school subjects of Geography, History, and Civic and Homeland Education and Ethics, along with some of the textbooks for these subjects. We sought to establish whether these subjects included material on Slovenian national minorities and emigrants or objectives that are closely connected with these topics. Furthermore, we endeavoured to establish which materials and objectives were included and to what extent. We took into account the crucial groups of educational objectives, i.e. the field of cognitive knowledge/behaviour, the field of skill and compe- tence development and the field of value development. A comparative analysis of selected curricula and textbooks confirmed the assumption that in Slovenian primary school, pupils do encounter material dealing with Slovenian na- tional minorities and emigrants in the framework of the subjects of Geography, History and Civic and Homeland Education and Ethics. The extent to which these topics are cov- ered and the message conveyed differ from subject to subject, depending on each sub- ject’s basic definition and purpose. The basic framework of the subject Geography is the geographical area. In accor- dance with the curriculum for Geography, pupils get acquainted with the issue of national minorities and emigrants while studying the specific geographical areas for which these themes are typical (e.g. the USA, Canada, Australia, the Peri-Pannonian regions, etc.). For the most part, brief information about relevant topics (e.g., information about the ex- istence of Slovenian emigrants in Australia) is given within the framework of various ge- ographical areas or regions of the world. In the ninth grade, the geographical area of Slovenia is addressed throughout the year, with content arranged thematically. In this grade, objectives connected to Slovenian national minorities and emigrants are included in the most direct way. The materials are based on the following concepts: ethnic border, state border, nationally mixed area, national/ethnic territory, Slovenian minorities in neigh- bouring countries, migrations, migratory movement, emigrants and migrant workers. Pupils deal with these while learning about their country’s socio-geographical character- istics, population and economy. Some of these concepts, e.g., national minority, nation and bilingualism, have already been discussed in the seventh grade, when pupils learn about the geographical area of Europe. In the general description of the subject Geog- raphy, the development of civic competencies is highlighted, among other objectives. Within the framework of this subject, pupils develop these competencies indirectly and directly. Thus, they develop certain skills, abilities and values, for example, positive emo- tions toward their homeland, and a sense of belonging to their nation and state, as well as an appreciation for its natural and cultural heritage. Similar competencies are devel- oped indirectly through geographical topics and information, as well as directly through varied forms and methods of teaching Geography, also depending on the orientation re- garding content and objectives. In accordance with the general objectives of the subjects and the objectives of each grade, topics related to national minorities and emigrants can be applied in other grades, not only in the seventh and ninth. However, in reality, such application is dependent on the teacher’s network of associations and on their assess- 94 ment of the importance of current issues, as well as on prompts in the didactic materials, such as textbooks. The more teachers are aware of the educational potential of dis- cussing current affairs, the more frequently and more diversely these are included in the teaching process. In Geography classes, one should not underestimate the practical ex- perience of the geographical space that pupils acquire through excursions and fieldwork. Both forms of work have great experiential value and motivational impetus, including when it comes to getting acquainted with current issues (e.g., experiencing bilingual areas and signs, etc.). The fundamental orientation of the subject History is connected with a particular past time frame, from which the subject draws an understanding of the present. Discussion of material about national minorities and emigrants is thus largely either included in the time period during which minorities were formed and emigration occurred, or discussed in the framework of certain issues related to both. Considering that complex “knowledge” about minorities and emigrants (and in general) develops at the level of information, skills, abil- ities and values, we can conclude (as is true for Geography) that the application of this material is possible in different grades, but this depends on teachers’ knowledge, their attitude towards the subject, their values and the materials they use. The curriculum and textbooks for History in eighth grade (at the level of cognitive behaviour) partly address the topic in question directly. The discussion of the emigration of Slovenians to the rest of the world as a consequence of industrialization is quite detailed. The issue of national minorities is addressed in the ninth grade when discussing the 20th and 21st centuries (peace treaties, formation of borders, emergence of countries, national minorities and emigrants). Some textbooks for the ninth grade address the issues of national minorities and emigration together. The fundamental orientation of the subject Civic and Homeland Education and Ethics is to train pupils for civic engagement in accordance with ethical principles. For this, cer- tain information is required, and particularly the direct and indirect development of values and ethical principles. The following are some of the concepts giving direction to the sub- ject and are related to the topic of national minorities and emigrants: identity, community, citizenship, national belonging, human rights and citizens’ rights, etc. As is clear from the definition of the subject, its direction is largely built on the content (information) that pupils have received in the framework of other subjects, e.g., Geography and History. Assuming a complex understanding of the issue of national minorities and emigration, it may be problematic that the subject Civic and Homeland Education and Ethics is taught in the seventh and eighth grades, since pupils receive most of the information about na- tional minorities and emigration only in the ninth grade in Geography and History. There- fore, the correlation between subjects should be reversed (from the general understanding of citizenship and ethics in the broadest sense in seventh grade, to con- crete information and knowledge about the real situation in ninth grade). On the other hand, the agendas of the subjects Geography and History seem to be well harmonized when it comes to acquiring knowledge about national minorities and emigration. Thus, in ninth grade, pupils learn about both the spatial and temporal dimensions of the issue at hand. In principle, the exact timing for addressing certain topics depends on the curricula (which also form the basis for confirming textbooks), while in reality, the agenda behind which topics are addressed in a particular grade also depends on the teacher’s yearly lesson plan and practical circumstances. Consequently, it is not possible to accurately determine how much knowledge pupils acquire in the framework of a specific subject over a certain period of time, to later use it in the framework of another subject. It is also 95 not possible to determine to what extent they can simultaneously address certain issues, for instance those of national minorities and emigrants. We can therefore conclude that the effectiveness of pupils getting familiar with, understanding, being aware of, evaluating and integrating knowledge of current issues is highly dependent on teachers, on their knowledge and evaluation of the subject that they teach and of other subjects, on their understanding the processes of knowledge building and on knowledge of the vertical and horizontal in school, but also on their ability to communicate with other teachers and har- monize the learning process with other teachers at school. References Bahar, Igor, Račič, Jože, Resnik Planinc, Tatjana (2000). 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