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DARNIOJI ARCHITEKTŪRA IR STATYBA
2013. No. 1(2) 

JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE ARCHITECTURE AND CIVIL ENGINEERING
ISSN 2029–9990

Space Syntax Analysis of Kaunas: Some Methodological Aspects

Kęstutis Zaleckis*, Irina Matijošaitienė

Kaunas University of Technology, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Studentu st. 48, LT-51367 Kaunas, Lithuania

* Corresponding author: kestutis.zaleckis@ktu.lt

http://dx.doi.org/10.5755/j01.sace.1.2.2791

Space syntax analysis is a well known method. Despite the fact of its wide usage some improvements could be offered. 
While preparing axial map of Kaunas it was noted that one single axial map cannot be used for evaluation of global and 
local integration if the correct results are expected. The possibility to use different maps for evaluation of global and local 
integration in Kaunas is discussed in the article. Additional arguments for usage of the concept of continuity lines are 
presented. The offer to not limit the axial map of the city to formal administrative border of the municipality is explained.  

Keywords: space syntax, axial maps, pedestrian routes, continuity lines, Kaunas, Lithuania.

1. Introduction

City is a complex organism and as such it requires 
complex methods of investigation. Complex investigation 
should consider all levels of urban reality and its social, 
economic, cultural dimensions. Space syntax represents one 
of the complex methods for urban investigation (Hillier B., 
2007) because it focusses not on the spatial characteristics 
itself but on the social uses of the space. In this way the 
method integrates spatial, social, economic, cultural 
dimensions. During the preparatory stage of investigation 
of Kaunas spatial structure and its influence on security of 
inhabitants the following important aspects were noted:

 ▪ Many contemporary cities function as complexes 
of autonomous subsystems from the point of view of 
transportation because of the separation of pedestrian and 
car traffic;

 ▪ Big number of single streets cannot be represented 
by one single axis because of the curved lines; 

 ▪ Formal Borders of the city do not represent a real 
urban system.

 ▪ The following problems or discrepancy between 
the formal methodology of space syntax and real situation 
appear here: 

 ▪ A single axial map for a city is created traditionally. 
Two important features are analyzed on the base of the 
map: global integration and local integration. It could be 
concluded that the first one is more focused on the public 
and private car transport. The second one, because of 
traditionally used distances or number of steps, is more 
focused on pedestrian connections. Global integration 
measures accessibility of all axes from all other axes of the 
system. Axes of public and private car transport are the most 

actual here. Pedestrian routes as used within the limited 
distances are not so important for the global integration. If  
the map is based on the register of the formal streets then 
many pedestrian axes are not considered too. When the local 
integration is measured on the base of distance or the number 
of conditional steps, some axes of transportation could be 
excluded as not accessible for the pedestrians, e.g.  transport 
tunnels in the city, transit highways, etc. Significance of 
the above mentioned aspects and existence of at least two 
autonomous networks of transportation in the city could 
be illustrated by the presented results of investigation: 
17 percent of travels in Kaunas are made by walking, 60 
percent by public transport, and 23 percent by private cars 
(VĮ Transporto et al. 2007). It is logical to conclude that 
different types of travelling are used when going to different 
destinations, e.g. walking to local center of neighborhood, 
taking a bus or private car to the city center, taking a private 
car to suburban shopping mall, etc. Of course the bigger part 
of the axes for the global and local integration maps are the 
same, but quite significant number of mono-functional axes 
should be taken into consideration. The fact of existence 
of separated traffic networks could be illustrated by the 
notice of the existence of streets and roads as two different 
types of transit spaces in the modern city. The street could 
be described as a space that integrates pedestrians, traffic, 
various cultural and social activities. Creation of the streets 
as spaces suitable for street culture is one of the main aims 
of New Urbanism. Road as a transit space intended for 
cars appeared as the result of Modern urbanism and mono-
functional zoning of a city. In wider context the fact of 
partially separated networks of transportation demonstrates 



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the fact of fragmentation of the contemporary cityscape at 
the all levels of its existence: appearance of white spots in 
the image of the city (Zaleckis 2002), loss of compositional 
integrity and a-local functional connections, caused by web 
technologies in the matterscape, increased amount of logical 
asymmetry in the cityscape (Zaleckis 2011), asymmetry, etc. 
In general it means that contemporary city functions as few 
quite autonomous sub-systems that are connected not in all 
points. In such a case creation of one axial map of the city is 
not correct. Significant influence of pedestrian connections 
on the essential qualities of urban structure was proved by 
investigations in Kaunas downtown area (Zaleckis et al, 
2012).

 ▪ Formal administrative borders of the city do 
not reflect the real urban integration as it was mentioned 
above. In Kaunas case the number of bridges and highways 
outside the city borders (e.g. Vilnius-Klaipeda road, Via 
Baltica, southern bypass) in fact are functioning as a part 
of the inner urban network of the city. Appearance of the 
features of the peripheral city confirms that fact. At the 
same time the big suburban settlements as Garliava and 
Sargenai are functionally and compositionally integrated 
into the cityscape of Kaunas but formally they must be 
excluded from the axial map because they are outside of the 
administrative borders of municipality. 

 ▪ In space syntax analysis the curved streets are 
shown as a number of direct axes. The above mentioned fact 
is true even for such obviously integral and the most straight 
long street of Kaunas as Savanoriai prospect. In many cases 
the cut of the street into separate axes do not correspond to 
reality as a big part of curved streets function as single units 
in the mentalscape or matterscape of Kaunas.

Proposals: 
 ▪ The two different axial maps should be created for 

the analysis of global and local integration of the city. Map 
of the local integration should include spaces of the public 
and semi-public transit pedestrian spaces. At the same 
time axes that are not accessible for pedestrians and public 
transport should be excluded from this map. 

 ▪ Axial map should not be limited to the formal 
administrative borders of the city; closely integrated 
suburban parts and roads should be included in the map;

 ▪ The aggregation of the segments of curved streets 
of the city should be respected in the axial maps. In fact it 
could be done by introduction of continuity lines. According 
to Figueiredo “…the notion of continuity is already 
embedded in the axial system“ (Figueiredo et al. 2004) and 
the continuity lines represent the chosen movement roads 
with the higher percent of probability. 

The aim of the article is to prove or reject the above 
mentioned proposals. Kaunas as one of the objects of 
investigation within the project is chosen as a laboratory for 
this task.

2. Methods

Space syntax method is used as the basic method in 
presented research. Two different axial maps of Kaunas are 
created. Various characteristics of the maps are compared 
between themselves and validated for the correspondence 

to the observed facts of urban life of Kaunas. The final 
conclusion on the acceptance or rejection of the above 
mentioned proposals is made on the base of the research 
results. Mindwalk software was used for syntax analysis.

3. Results

The first question could be formulated as following: 
will the quantitative changes between the axial map without 
pedestrian routes and with pedestrian routes be significant 
enough to consider it? To receive the answer two axial maps 
of Kaunas were created. Axial map 1 with only formal 
streets included (Fig. 1). Axial map 2: the pedestrian routes 
were included and axes not accessible for pedestrians and 
public transport were excluded (Fig. 2). Area of the both 
maps covered suburban territories that are functionally and 
compositionally integrated into the city. Pedestrian axes 
embraced the following: 

 ▪ Spaces of the courtyards of the modernistic districts 
in Silainiai, Kalnieciai, Eiguliai, Dainava; 

 ▪ Pedestrian axes in the parks and city forests;
 ▪ Pedestrian bridges.

Fig. 1. Axial map of Kaunas with only formal streets included

Pedestrian axes in the courtyards of Old town and New 
town were not considered because of the ongoing process of 
restitution and tendency to close the private spaces for the 
pedestrian transit in these parts of the city. Axes excluded 
from the map 2: 

 ▪ Via Baltica;
 ▪ Highway Vilnius-Klaipeda;
 ▪ Parts of the southern bypass.

There were identified 9607 axes in the first map  
(Fig. 1) and 10298 axes in the second map (Fig. 2.) The total 
number of axes in Kaunas has increased by 7 percent. If 
subtracted axes from the map 2 are taken into consideration 
then pedestrian axes can make up to 10 percent of all axes 
in the city. Having in mind a part of pedestrian journeys 
in Kaunas (17 percent) it is a significant change at the city 
level. Its significance for local integration is even higher 
because of the concentration of axes in few areas.



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Fig.  2. Axial map of Kaunas with pedestrian axes included. 
Concentration areas of the pedestrian axes could be identified by 
the darker zones

Is the quantitative change reflected in quantitative 
qualities of axial map? Do these changes correspond to the 
observed processes in Kaunas?

Depth values of the both maps were compared in the 
beginning of quantitative analysis. Visually there were no 
significant changes at the city level but maximal depth of 
all system was increased from 67 to 70 when pedestrian 
axes were added. Having in mind relatively small number 
of added axes the change is quite big. In concentration areas 
the depth of the territory was increased by 5-7 points. The 
changes of the depth values reflect an observed specialized, 
disaggregated use of the public spaces of modernistic 
districts.

Local integration values were analyzed in the second 
step. Radius was measured by 3 conditional steps or changes 
of the direction of the paths. Significant changes were noted 
in the modernistic districts in the streets with a higher 
concentration of commercial and public buildings, e.g.: local 
integration value of Baltu prospect increased from 2.7556 to 
3.21, Baltijos street – from 2.4173 to 3.17. At the same time 
control values of Baltu prospect decreased from 4.575 to 
3.8528, Baltijos street – from 4.111 to 2.924. The similar 
changes could be seen in the all main streets of modernistic 
districts. Segment of Partizanu street and Siaures prospect 
(local integration 3.3005 without pedestrian axes and 
3.9628 with pedestrian axes) appeared as clearly expressed 
local centers. The last change represent quite well in reality 
observed attractiveness of Siaures prospect for various 
commercial activities even if it is located at the border of 
the city. Interesting fact if analyzing the changes of control 
values: for Siaures prospect it increased from 6.6742 to 
14.4861 with pedestrian axes added. If comparing situation 
with above analyzed streets in Silainiai (Baltu and Baltijos 
streets) the differences could be explained by configuration 
of pedestrian routes: courtyards in Silainiai are more closed 
and have limited connections to the streets surrounding 
blocks; in Kalnieciai, because of the original spatial design, 

they are more oriented towards Siaurės prospect and other 
streets. Ukmerges street is a minor street in Kalnieciai 
where a few cafes, local community and recreation center 
with a pool and new shop are located. Its integration values 
increase from 1.4136 to 2.3473. In general, the identified 
changes quite well represent the real bigger attractiveness 
of the above mentioned streets as local linear centers or 
main streets of the neighborhoods and real use of the 
courtyards for pedestrian transit. As it could be seen in the 
Fig. 3, significant part of the new pedestrian axes is included 
into 5 percent of all axes with the highest local integration 
values. It demonstrates significance of the mentioned 
pedestrian routes for the local neighborhoods and could be 
proved by the intensive use of these routes while walking to 
neighborhood centers, shops, etc. It even was intended in the 
original design of the modernistic district, e.g. in Kalnieciai 
the shopping centers as Vitebskas (now IKI) or Kalnieciai 
were reachable by walking and practically without usage 
of transport roads. The same applies for the public spaces 
as Cecenijos square. The maximal local integration value 
in the city increased from 4.5512 to 4.5746 with pedestrian 
axes added. The lowest mark remains the same 0.333. The 
change of the local integration values of the main streets of 
the modernistic districts is exceeding the common change 
of the background. At the same time two important axes 
of Kaunas – Savanoriai and Veiveriu prospects remain the 
dominant axes of local and global integration in both maps. 
It coincides with in reality observed multi-functionality 
of these axes as the central places of the highest rank. If 
the theory of central places by Christaller is applied to 
the containment of the city then the above mentioned 
phenomenon could be explained in its terms: central places 
of the higher rank perform all functions of the central place 
of the lower rank and additional functions (Leslie 1984). 
Note not directly related to the topic of this article: may 
be the coincidence of high values of the global and local 
integration can help to identify the central places of the 
highest rank in the city? Of course such a statement requires 
a separate investigation.

Fig.  3. Local integration map with pedestrian axes (5 percent of 
the axes with the highest values are shown in black)



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Fig.  4. Local integration map without pedestrian axes (5 percent 
of the axes with the highest values are shown in black)

In both cases (with and without pedestrian axes) the 
fast choice map remains the same. It corresponds to the local 
significance of the pedestrian axes and their little influence 
on city traffic. 

There are around 1500 streets in Kaunas (VĮ Transporto 
et. al. 2007 ) and 9607 axes in the map. As it was mentioned 
above, even practically direct streets as Savanoriu prospect, 
according to the rules for axial map making, should be 
broken into few axes. The human perception plays a very 
important role when choosing a road for transformation and 
the big part of the curved streets are percepted and used as 
integral axes (Figueiredo et al. 2004). Because of this, the 
concept of continuity lines was introduced into the axial 
map. According to L. Figueiredo and the Mindwalk options 
the angle smaller than 35 degrees is not percept by us as a 
change of direction. Axes in Kaunas map were merged into 
continuity lines according to the above mentioned criterion. 
As a result the number of axes in the map was reduced twice: 
from 9607 to 4812. Examples of aggregated continuity

 

Fig.  5. Proposed continuity lines (shown in black)

lines: Savanoriai prospect, Vilnius street, Laisves avenue 
together with Gertrudos street, Siaurės prospect, highways 
around Kaunas, Karaliaus Mindaugo prospect, etc. It looks 
that the result reflects human perception of Kaunas more 
correctly, but the question till remains open: could be some 
additional arguments found for the usage of continuity lines 
in Kaunas map?

Global integration with and without continuity lines 
was calculated. The obvious differences could be noted 
between the Fig 6 and Fig. 7: 

 ▪ There clear zones of integration could be seen in 
the map without continuity lines; single streets 
are highlighted in the map with continuity lines. 
In the first map some minor streets of the local 
significance are competing with the main streets 
of the city, e.g.: the value of global integration of 
Ausros street differs from Savanoriai prospect only 
by 0.033 points (0.4743-0.4413=0.033). It means 
that streets are practically of the same significance 
for the city. The difference is more realistic in the 
map with continuity lines: 1.7391-1.2994=0.4397.

 ▪ Integration values of the highways around Kaunas 
are much higher in the map with continuity 
lines: for Via Baltica it increased from 0.3803 to 
1.9629, for the south roundabout from 0.4156 to 
1.907, etc. These changes reflect few in reality 
observed processes. The first one: active usage 
of roundabouts not only by transit but by inner 
transport of the city too. The second one: higher 
integration values correlate with appearance of 
suburban shopping malls and other big commercial 
objects and new housing developments in Giraite, 
Sargenai, Kleboniskis, Ramuciai as elements of 
peripheral city.

 ▪ Global integration values in the map with continuity 
lines are falling down in the area around Vyduno 
avenue, New Town, Old Town significantly. It 
represents these relatively quiet (in the terms of 
traffic) urban pockets of the city more correctly.

 ▪ Without the continuity lines the most controlling 
axes in Kaunas are Veiveriai and Savanoriai 
prospects. In the map with continuity lines the 
roundabouts become important players here too. 
Control values of the above mentioned roundabouts 
are much higher in the second case. It corresponds 
well to the role of these axes as distribution lines 
of the city. 

 ▪ Depth analysis of the global map reflects the 
significance of integrating roundabouts for 
creation of the shallow zones around the city. As 
it was mentioned above the present centers of the 
peripheral city confirm usage of these axes for 
global purposes of the city. 

 ▪ Local integration values in the map with continuity 
lines are more correct: the real local axial centers 
or main streets as Zemaiciu street, Taikos prospect, 
Kalantos street, Raudondvario street and others 
have the significantly higher values of integration 
if compared to the surrounding contexts.



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Fig.  6. Global  integration map without continuity lines (5 percent 
of the axes with the highest values are shown in black, black dots 
mark two level crossings)

Fig.  7. Global integration map with continuity lines (5 percent of 
the axes with the highest values are shown in black, black dots 
mark two level crossings)

 ▪ When calculating the aggregation degree of the 
city with proposed continuity lines the results 
are following: the aggregation degree without 
pedestrian axes is equal 0.6832; the aggregation 
degree with pedestrian axes is equal 0.6292. 
In both cases it is quite high and according to 
the urban network toponomy by Figueiredo 
(Figueiredo et al. 2007) marks grid type of the city. 
The increased depth of some areas demonstrates 
movement towards less aggregated tree type of the 
urban network in the city. The tree type structure 
is peculiar for the deep spaces of semi-public 
courtyards of the modernistic districts. Important 
note: the lower aggregation degree is calculated for 
the map with the bigger number of axes. It would 

be logical to predict the opposite situation because 
in the bigger number of axes the bigger number of 
continuity lines could be expected. In this case the 
lower aggregation degree reflects the quality of the 
spaces of modernistic districts in the city.

4. Discussion

The received results were validated by the 
correspondence to the various urban processes in Kaunas. 
Can we say that it will be true in all other cases? If speaking 
about two axial maps with and without pedestrian axes it 
can give the similar results in the city with quite significant 
amount of pedestrian axes that do not correspond to axes 
of transportation. E.g. big territories planned in modernistic 
manner give a strong argument for creation of two separate 
maps. New Urbanism (APA 2006) tends to integrate 
pedestrian and car transport. The case of usage of two maps 
would be obsolete. The same would be true for the analysis 
of the medieval or 19th century urbanism. In general we 
can conclude that offer to make two axial maps is the most 
actual for the cities that were touched significantly by 
Soviet modernistic urbanism. Despite the limited actuality 
various forms of walkable urbanism can call for the 
suggested improvement of space syntax analysis. The need 
to create special axial map with pedestrian axes could be 
very important for the analysis of relations between spatial 
structure and crimes too, as different parkways, courtyards 
and other deeper spaces can attract potential criminals.

The idea of continuity lines is offered by L. Figueiredo. 
Despite the strong supporting arguments it is not very often 
used in space syntax analysis. The analysis of Kaunas gives 
a strong support for the usage of this idea. Interesting note: 
combination of axial analysis with and without continuity 
lines may can help to identify the limits of integral corridors 
of New Urbanism. Such idea appeared when comparing two 
maps: single dominant axes are highlighted when continuity 
lines are modeled in the axial map; without the continuity 
lines the same integrating axes (e.g. Savanoriai or Veiveriai 
prospects) are shown as parts of the clear zones of high 
global integration.

5. Conclusions

For Kaunas and probably other contemporary cities 
with big enough percentage of pedestrian axes, it would 
be more correct to create two axial maps: one for global 
integration and one for local integration.

The map of the local integration should include axes of 
the public and semi-public pedestrian transit spaces. At the 
same time axes that are not accessible for pedestrians and 
public transport should be excluded from this map.

The map of the global integration should include all 
streets and roads used by the car transport.

The axial map should not be limited to the formal 
administrative borders of the city. It should include suburban 
areas that are functionally and compositionally closely 
related to the city. The role of the roundabouts around 
Kaunas proved this statement.

The integration of curved streets of the city should be 
respected in the axial maps. In fact it could be done by more 
active usage of continuity lines.



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Suggested improvements in Kaunas case helped to do 
the following: to identify the main axes of global and local 
integration more precisely; to evaluate the depth of the map 
more correctly; to reflect the real street network in more 
accurate ways, etc. It was validated by the observed real 
processes of urban life.

Acknowledgment

The research represented in this article was financed 
by Research Council of Lithuania. Agreement No SIN–
08/2012.

Projektą, kurio metu atliktas straipsnyje pristatomas 
tyrimas, finansavo Lietuvos mokslo taryba. Sutarties  
Nr. SIN–08/2012.

References

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Figueiredo L., Amorim L. 2004. Continuity lines: aggregating axial 
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Figueiredo L., Amorim L. 2007. Decoding the Urban Grid or Why 
Cities are Neither Trees nor Perfect Grids. .Proceedings of 
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Hillier B. 2007. Space is the machine: a Configurational Theory of 
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Leslie J. K. 1984. Central Place Theory (Scientific Geography 
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suvokiamo ir įsivaizduojamo miesto vaizdo nustatymo 
klausimai. Urbanistika ir architektūra = Town planning and 
Architecture, 26 (2), 96–106.

Zaleckis K. 2011. Globalizacijos atspindžiai miesto kūne: keletas 
įžvalgų. Logos : religijos, filosofijos, komparatyvistikos ir 
meno žurnalas, 66, 142–152.

Zaleckis, K., Matijošaitienė I. 2012. Hidden urban revolution 
in Kaunas downtown area: 1935-1988-2011. Eight 
International Space Syntax Symposium, January 3-6, 2012, 
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Received 2012 11 07 

Accepted after revision 2013 01 09

Kęstutis ZALECKIS – professor at Kaunas University of Technology, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, 
Department of Architecture and Land Management.
Main research areas: Urban genotype and phenotype, military architecture, urban history.
Address: Kaunas University of Technology, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Studentu g. 48, LT-51367, 

Kaunas, Lithuania.
Tel.:  +370 616 28902
E-mail:  kestutis.zaleckis@ktu.lt

Irina MATIJOŠAITIENĖ – lecturer at Kaunas University of Technology, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, 
Department of Architecture and Land Management.
Main research areas: road and urban landscape, space syntax, Kansei engineering, hedonomics, ergonomics, statistics.
Address:  Kaunas University of Technology, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Studentu g. 48, LT-51367, 

Kaunas, Lithuania.
Tel.: +370 606 88819
E-mail:  irina.matijosaitiene@ktu.lt