1744-Ishakova FINAL Iskhakova, M. and Kosheleva, S. (2023). Global vs local careers taxonomy for graduate employability: Through the lens of students’ typology and destination. Journal of Teaching and Learning for Graduate Employability, 14(1), 187-204. 187 The Journal of Teaching and Learning for Graduate Employability ISSN: 1838-3815 (online) Journal Homepage: https://ojs.deakin.edu.au/index.php/jtlge/ Global vs local careers taxonomy for graduate employability: Through the lens of students’ typology and destination Marina Iskhakova 1 and Sofia Kosheleva2 Corresponding author: Marina Iskhakova (Marina.Iskhakova@anu.edu.au) 1 College of Business and Economics, Research School of Economics, Australian National University 2 Graduate School of Management, St. Petersburg State University Abstract Career studies literature suggests that careers become more boundaryless and more global. Students, the agents of the choice of career, are not a homogeneous cohort anymore. We add to the discussion the students’ typology proposition for the career choice to further develop the graduate employability discourse. We make the first attempt to develop a student global vs local career taxonomy to contribute into understanding of graduate employability and career decision making. Our contribution offers a two-dimensional taxonomy, with one dimension being a type of student and another dimension being a career destination. The conceptual taxonomy is empirically tested with data from more than 400 business and economics students. We show that a global career choice would prevail above a local career choice for each of the student types. Our findings contribute into deeper understanding of career decision making and broadens our comprehension of the variety of global vs local careers for graduate employability. The study develops the future research agenda for career development researchers and multinational corporations’ (MNC) practitioners and practical agenda for teaching and learning in universities. Keywords graduate employability; career intentions; intention to work abroad; global vs local career; career type; international students Introduction Recent discourse in the career studies literature suggests that careers have become more boundaryless and more global (Baruch and Reis, 2016). Students, the agents of the choice of career, are not a homogeneous cohort anymore. Deep understanding and realistic reflection of the current student body for career development purposes is a critically needed step in providing relevant career preparation and support for students, but also a valuable tool to support students with the best possible career fit which allows for a successful career and realisation of personal and professional potential. The body of research with the main focus on student career development and graduate employability constantly grows (Ayoobzadeh et al., 2021; Belle et al., 2022; Hou at al., 2018; Schweisfurth and Gu, 2009; Kinash et al., 2017; Latukha et al., 2022; Nilsson and Ripmeester, 2016; Pham, 2022; Singaravelu, et. al., 2005; Sung et al., 2013). This growing body of research with focus on student career choice discusses mainly vocational and subject matter dimensions. For example, Auyeung and Sands (1997) focus on accounting students career decisions; Santric-Milicevic et al. Iskhakova, M. and Kosheleva, S. (2023). Global vs local careers taxonomy for graduate employability: Through the lens of students’ typology and destination. Journal of Teaching and Learning for Graduate Employability, 14(1), 187-204. 188 (2015) focus on determinants of international careers of nursing graduates. Wang and Bu (2004) explore the attitudes towards international careers among male and female Canadian business students in the after 9/11 in the US. At the same time only a few graduate employability studies raised the decision-making question regarding the destination. Demel et al. (2019) explore the variety of factors influencing job preferences of business and economics students in three European countries. Musumba et al. (2011) study factors influencing career location preferences of international graduate students in the United States and shows that career opportunities and social climate are the most critical factors for all. Hof (2019) studies young Europeans who moved to two global cities – Tokyo and Singapore and shows that decisions to build careers in Asia are linked to professional aspirations and to the idea of accumulating social and cultural capital. Veitch’s et al. (2006) findings show that medical graduates tend to undertake careers in non-metropolitan settings. So, while we noticed that growing number of student career development papers talk about the factors affecting the choice of the destination (Hof, 2019; Musumba et a., 2011; Santric-Milicevic et al., 2015), still the wholistic and comprehensive career typology based on a student type and destination doesn’t exist. In expatriate literature, an extensive body of research does focus on career mobility, global mobility, and development of global, regional, ethnocentric, host-country career (Baruch and Altman, 2002; Briscoe and Finkelstein, 2009; Doherty et al., 2013). The majority of those studies have organisations or MNCs as their focus, and those papers emphasise career decisions and relocations made at the organisational level for organisational purposes (Tharenou et al., 2015; Fey, 2020; McPhail et al., 2012). Thus, our study assists current students (potential future expatriates) in their own career development and career planning strategies. Our contribution offers a two-dimensional taxonomy, with one dimension being a type of student and another dimension being a career destination. Based on given dimensions we propose a global vs local career taxonomy with eight possible career types for graduate employability. The suggested taxonomy contributes valuably to the discussion of global career opportunities and students’ career trajectories. Our conceptual taxonomy is empirically tested with quantitative survey data from more than 400 students from two countries. Qualitative data from students' journaling comments contribute to our deeper understanding of career decision making for global vs local careers and graduate employability. We reiterate the timeliness and importance of the current study in business and economics students domain, as particularly business and economics students they are likely to become the next generation of managers (Wang and Bu, 2004). Many MNC deliberately highlight the global features of their companies’ operations and the international opportunities they provide to employees for the purpose of attracting young graduates with initial international career aspirations for international careers avenues (Scullion, 1994). Another important consideration we are trying to address by our study is the notion of illusory and too positive, favourable, and optimistic imagery of the future global career by students. The topic of international careers was substantially explored from the corporate expatriates' perspective, where a number of studies proved that international jobs are seen as more interesting and challenging, providing better financial rewards, and allowing for more autonomy, responsibility and career advancement (Adler, 1984; Black and Gregersen, 1990). But only a few studies to date address the perceptions and expectations of global vs local careers outcomes for students. For example, Wang and Bu (2004) state that current Canadian undergraduate business students would perceive international careers as enhancing career success and status, even though domestic careers might bring more recognition in their organisations. An additional final issue we address with our paper is the problematic concern of the 'brain drain' phenomenon, impacted by career decisions of domestic and international students to leave their home countries for pursuing international careers. Brain drain can be defined as the migration of skilled human capital, including students who attend universities in developed countries but don’t Iskhakova, M. and Kosheleva, S. (2023). Global vs local careers taxonomy for graduate employability: Through the lens of students’ typology and destination. Journal of Teaching and Learning for Graduate Employability, 14(1), 187-204. 189 return home (Rao, 1979). International graduates constitute highly educated individuals; therefore, their decisions on where to start their professional careers have socio-economic impacts on both the country of study and their home country (Musumba et al, 2011). Finally, the paper discusses practical implications, as well a number of limitations of the current study. We conclude with the key sound messages of a future agenda for career development researchers and industry practitioners and make a valuable contribution for teaching and learning practices in universities. Students’ typology for career choice Expatriate management literature and practice don’t treat all employees in unified ways: different types of employees, such as home-country nationals, host-country nationals and third-country nationals are specified for research and practice purposes (Jain, et al., 1998; Kang and Shen, 201). In an education domain, the dual classification still prevails: classification on domestic (local) vs international students (Ayoobzadeh et al., 2021; Bozionelos et al., 2015; Hou et al., 2018; Iskhakova and Kosheleva 2020; Pham, 2022; Schweisfurth and Gu, 2009). This traditional divide is chosen mainly based on the convenience of citizenship criteria for such practical and operational issues as financial purposes (e.g. course fees), and administrative purposes of data processing and admissions (different admission documents, deadlines and processes). The prevailing majority of student career development and graduate employability studies utilise this dual classification. Thus, Hou at al. (2018) examined the relationships between career and cultural characteristics among international and domestic students at a large university in the US. Schweisfurth and Gu (2009) show that international students do experience many more transitional and adaptive challenges that domestic students do not experience, such as culture, learning, education, and language shocks. Peng and Hu (2020) study the career development intentions of international students from the countries of the Belt and Road initiatives - those countries engaged in major global infrastructure projects initiated by China. Ayoobzadeh et al. (2021) studied domestic and international students in Canada and argued that challenging experiences can potentially make international students stronger and change their perceptions of what they want to achieve in their future careers based on their heightened levels of maturity and self-confidence. At the same time, when it comes to the students’ career development decision making, more inclusive classifications started to appear in the literature, such Singaravelu, et. al. (2005) who studied the variation of degree of certainty of career decisions between Asian international, non-Asian international, and domestic students. Luzzo (1993) studied the perceived career barriers by variety of ethnic groups, namely African, Americans, Hispanics, Caucasian, Filipinos and Asian Americans. Sung et al. (2013) studied career development behaviour of various ethnic groups in the US and international students, whereas Gim (1992) focused on how environmental factors, such as family, culture, and community, were found to influence the career development behaviour of several key ethnic minorities in the United States. While cultural and ethnic aspects of these studies are important and deserve future attention, one of the main tasks and contributions of our study is to bring into consideration the students typology in the context of international education and to extend it from a binary (domestic/international) to more inclusive one, that more carefully reflects the changing societal and cultural situation. With the rapid globalisation of international education, the traditional binary classification no longer fits with the much richer reality of the international education context. In our study, we suggest the conceptual contribution of considering more relevant student classifications that includes three student types: local students, dual-home students, and international students. These are described in Table 1. Iskhakova, M. and Kosheleva, S. (2023). Global vs local careers taxonomy for graduate employability: Through the lens of students’ typology and destination. Journal of Teaching and Learning for Graduate Employability, 14(1), 187-204. 190 Table 1: Students’ Typology for Career Choice Type Description Example Local students Regular domestic students who identify themselves primarily with this domestic local culture of the University An Australian student at the University of Sydney (20 years old) who was born in Australia and spent most of their life in Australia Dual-home students Students who administratively could be either domestic or international, but they are students who have culturally and geographically more than one home countries (which are country of origin and at least one new acquired home country). They normally came to the current country of study since significant period in life, which is longer that period of study itself and those students typically identify themselves with at least two distinct cultures – with the original home culture and with the new home culture An Indian student (20 years old) at the University of Sydney who moved to Australia when she was 12, so she spent her first 12 years in India and the most recent 8 years in Australia, and equally identifies herself as Indian and Australian International students (or overseas students) Students who are currently in the country of study on a temporary visa, including a temporary protection visa. We understand regular international students, who came to the country of study primarily for the purposes of study, with no early cultural identification with this country of study An Indian student (20 years old) in University of Sydney, who spent all his life in India and has moved to Sydney for the purposes of study several months before the study period commences. He has a full identification of himself as an Indian student The US immigration authorities define an international student as anyone who is not a U.S. citizen, permanent resident, refugee, or asylee, and who came to the country for an educational purpose. They are also often referred in the literature as Internationally mobile students are individuals who have physically crossed an international border between two countries with the objective to participate in educational activities in the country of destination, where the country of destination of a given student is different from their country of origin (Migration Data Portal, 2023). International students can also identify with several overseas cultures, but for purposes of our study we simplify the case and assume that international students identify with one overseas culture, and the culture of the country of study is a novel and unfamiliar one. This brings us to the formulation of the first research question: RQ1: How many types of students can be distinguished in an international education context, and what is their career destination? This richer and more realistic classification is important, because it sheds the light on the actual situation in the global student’s domain. While even this newly suggested typology doesn’t distinguish the full variety of multicultural upbringing options, at least the suggested classification caters for the dominating majority of cases. With more detailed and specified classification, scholars and practitioners will be much better equipped in teaching, learning and supporting career aspirations of this cohort of students. Thus, our study contributes to the students’ typology development for the purposes of career choice and graduate employability. Now when the world turned to be truly global Iskhakova, M. and Kosheleva, S. (2023). Global vs local careers taxonomy for graduate employability: Through the lens of students’ typology and destination. Journal of Teaching and Learning for Graduate Employability, 14(1), 187-204. 191 and the universities are among the most global international multicultural institutions, it is critically important to understand these student cohorts more deeply, and to be able to study and to provide the most relevant career development avenues for each of the cohorts of students. Career destination Contemporary careers present unpredictable challenges for individuals, organisations, and societies. Among the major developments in the practice of careers are the increased dynamism of the global labour market system, and the ever-growing globalisation of careers (Baruch and Reis, 2016). Global careers are those that span two or more countries and may take a number of forms (Baruch et al., 2013; McPhail et al., 2012). Certainly, global careers involve boundary crossing - at least geographical and cultural boundaries (Baruch and Reis, 2016). Debates on a career type and its classification has been a long-term theme in the career development field, with the dominating focus and dominant classifications addressed to expatriate managers (e.g. Baruch et al., 2013; Fey, 2020; McPhail et all., 2012). For the purposes of global career types, expatriate managers have traditionally been classified from the organisation’s perspective: previous classifications have used the manager’s country of origin (home-country, host-country, or third-country) or the home office region (the United States, Europe, Japan) as the standards for comparison (e.g. Jain et al., 1998; Kang and Shen, 2018). Others have used the manager’s international assignment’s length of time, or frequency of traveling as a classification criterion (Banai and Wes, 2004). Another dominating theme in career studies has been the globalisation of the business realm (Bartlett and Ghoshal, 1999) and, as a result, the globalisation of careers (Dickmann and Baruch, 2011). Global careers may come in various types and forms, with several dimensions helping to draw distinctions across different types of global careers (e.g., Baruch et al., 2013). Sullivan and Arthur (2006) explored the physical versus psychological boundaries and looked at the impact of crossing different types of boundaries on expatriates. However, the focus on geographical and career mobility across borders is not analysed (Baruch and Reis, 2016). Previous research on international work tends to focus on the reasons why individuals are choosing international components for their careers, and which types of individuals are more likely to make this career choice. Our study goes beyond an individual level analysis and focuses on a career type choice for graduate employability. Shaffer et al. (2012) proposed to use the following taxonomy to conceptualise different forms of global work: short-term assignees, 'flexpatriates', and international business travellers. They used several classifying characteristics such as purpose, location, duration, the nature of relocation, the nature of repatriation and compensation type. Cappellen and Janssens (2005) proposed global career paths as the intersection of three domains: an individual, an organisational, and a global environment domain. Those classifications are very useful, but they focused strictly on expatriates and therefore are not fully relevant for the students for the purpose of the career planning. Shaffer et al. (2012) accept their limitations and encourage researchers to develop a broader and more theoretical view of global work experiences that goes beyond the current focus on expatriation. It moves us to the adaptation of terminology of global vs local career, the terminology that is intuitively understood by the students. We based our study on a very wide definition of a local career as a career that develops mainly in a home country, and a global career as a career that crosses borders and demands the employee live and work physically beyond the borders of a home country. Two critical differences between those polar options are the condition of crossing the home country border and crossing the culture (Table 2). The border crossing dimension is important as includes the physical relocation and assumes needed adjustment to a new legal, economic, financial and political system, that requires additional efforts, time, resources and associated with a risk of failure. The culture crossing dimension is important as it assumes actual cultural change and needed adjustment to a new culture, language, local traditions, Iskhakova, M. and Kosheleva, S. (2023). Global vs local careers taxonomy for graduate employability: Through the lens of students’ typology and destination. Journal of Teaching and Learning for Graduate Employability, 14(1), 187-204. 192 customs, etiquette, manners, and behavioural patterns, and is also associated with a risk of a failure in a different culture. So we are suggesting to distinguish the following three types of destinations for the purpose of global vs local careers: (1) local destination; (2) new home destination (a new country of study and life for the student); (3) global destination (third country) (Table 2). Table 2: global vs local Career Destinations Characteristics Local destination New home destination Global destination Border crossing No border crossing Border crossed but time spent to adjust Border crossing Culture crossing No culture crossing Culture crossed but time spent to adjust Culture crossing Based on the Destination dimensions introduced above, we define more precisely each of the destination opportunities for graduate employability: 1. Local destination: implies that career develops locally without crossing cultural and geographical national borders. This type of career implies that not much cultural preparation is needed and a career success will be defined by internal factors of the domestic environment. 2. New home destination: implies that many obstacles and challenges of current new home career destination could be hidden. Assumptions could be made that as cultural and geographical borders were crossed already, graduates could be classified as domestic candidates, means much less support could be provided to them to assist them with a career development at a new home destination. As this cohort of students already crossed cultural and geographical borders, another threat for this cohort is that they could perceive their experience as global already. It means they can prefer to don’t advance further to truly global careers. As a consequence, they could miss potentially a path which could take them to execute their full professional and personal potential. 3. Global destination: implies that career develops with the crossings of cultural and geographical borders and needs a serious sufficient preparation; global destination type means a third country destination, which is not a destination of birth, or life or study of a student. We combine together the typology of students with the typology of destinations discussed above and move to the discussion of proposed taxonomy. Global vs Local careers taxonomy Based on the analysis of students’ typology and career destinations we suggest the following global vs local careers taxonomy for graduate employability (Table 3). We distinguish between eight career type options based on a student type and destination. Thus we summarise, that out of eight career options shown in Table 3 – options 1, 2 and 3 are classified as a local career; option 4 is classified as a new home career and options 5,6,7 and 8 are classified as a global career. A clear identification of eight career options based on destination and a type of student allows students, academics, education practitioners and consultants to provide the best possible support for the students to prepare them for their career and to facilitate the best match. This is important because students will be aware of all potential options and will be encouraged and supported to explore the full potential of truly global careers. It leads us to the formulation of our second research question: Iskhakova, M. and Kosheleva, S. (2023). Global vs local careers taxonomy for graduate employability: Through the lens of students’ typology and destination. Journal of Teaching and Learning for Graduate Employability, 14(1), 187-204. 193 RQ2: How many types of global vs local career options could be distinguished in international students context? Which of those career types will prevail among students? Table 3: Global vs Local Careers Taxonomy: Type of Students vs Destination # Global vs Local careers taxonomy for graduate employability Career Type 1 Local career for local student Local career 2 Local career for dual-home student 3 Local career for international student 4 New home career for dual-home student New home career 5 Global career for local student Global career 6 Global career for dual-home student 7 Global career (study country) for international student 8 Global career (non-study country) for international student Method Sample Occupational choice and the related decision of where to live are among the most important career decisions and business students show a high receptivity to international careers (Wang and Bu, 2004). Students represent the next generation of managers (Tharenou, 2003). Focus on students reveals vocational preferences at a time individual face an important career-decision (Remhof et al., 2013). Participants consisted of 404 students close to graduation (44% males, 56% females) enrolled in Business and Economics degree during February 2020 – November 2021 at one of the G8 universities in Australia (equivalent of an Ivy-leagues in the US) and at one of the top-3 leading Business Schools in Russia. Graduates from these universities are typically the prime targets of MNCs. The third- and fourth-year undergraduate students and year one- and two- graduate students were chosen as respondents because they were at a stage where employment options and future careers are seriously evaluated. Participation in the research project was voluntary. Students’ age ranged from 18 to 36 years (M = 21.7; SD = 3.46), participants came from 18 countries with the majority being Russian (44%) and Australian (40%), followed by students from China (11%) and Kazakhstan (3%). Table 4 provides additional details about the participants through a profile summary of the entire sample. Data Collection Survey Quantitative data collection consisted of an online survey stage. The online survey instrument was developed using Survey Monkey, and was piloted with a small sample of university students (n = 20). This allowed researchers to ensure that the questions and language of the survey were appropriate and clear to the target respondents. The original questionnaire was developed on the basis of existing items in English. To avoid response and selection biases, we translated the questionnaires into Russian for the Russian students by using the back-translation method (Brislin, 1986). The questionnaire covered demographics, previous international experience, questions on intention to work abroad and concluded with the list of factors influencing decision to work abroad. Estimated time for filling survey was around 15 min, and all responses were anonymised. The participation rate reached 56.1%, which is in line with similar high-engagement career-oriented and graduate employability studies, including Iskhakova, M. and Kosheleva, S. (2023). Global vs local careers taxonomy for graduate employability: Through the lens of students’ typology and destination. Journal of Teaching and Learning for Graduate Employability, 14(1), 187-204. 194 Wang and Bu (2004), Baluku et al., (2018). Ethics approval N11476_2019/235 for the project was granted by Australian National University. Journaling Students’ journal comments were collected and analysed as the qualitative part of the research study in the format of journal entries and reflections on graduate employability and career choice preferences. Journaling, as a form of reflective writing, has been suggested by numerous scholars as a tool to facilitate training and learning (Moon, 2006). As such, journaling has become a method of contemplative inquiry (Haynes, 2015). Moon (2006) suggests that journal writing can improve learning in several ways: it slows down the pace of learning, increases the student’s sense of ownership, acknowledges the role of emotion in learning, provides a different kind of learning experience, and enhances learning through the writing process. Students were invited to maintain weekly - fortnightly reflective journals through the semester of study and were encouraged to reflect on topics related to international employability, international careers, career paths, and career preferences. Reflective journals submissions did not have a specified format to allow students discretion and flexibility to write about what they felt was the interesting, important, or memorable to them. As such, some students arranged their reflections by themes, challenges, insights, stereotypes, or professional goals. In total 60 students gave permission to analyse their online journals entries. All the learning journals were between 1,000 and 2,000 words and were analysed by primary researcher with the use of thematic analysis. Key themes were coded and are presented in the results section of this paper. We used Gibbs’ (2002) analysis framework to employ a three-stage coding process: 1) open coding to identify relevant themes; 2) axial coding to refine the categories, and 3) selective coding that links the categories together to enable a narrative to be told. Measurements While our methodology consisted of quantitative (survey) and qualitative (journaling) parts, formal measurements were used only at the quantitative stage. We studied a number of international experiences variables, such as: age of the first overseas trip; number of countries visited; months travelled overseas; percentage of friends from other culture; percentage of friends with different mother tongue and other variables broadly utilised in international business, international education and expatriation management literature (Ott and Iskhakova, 2019; Iskhakova et al., 2022). A dependent variable Intention to work abroad is measured with question adapted from Vandor (2009): 'With a probability of ____%, I will live and work in another country than Australia/Russia in the course of my life after having finished my studies.' Also, students would specify the preferred location if they indicated the preference for a global career. Domestic, dual-home and international students' responses in a range 0-49% were interpreted as primarily local career intentions. Domestic, dual- homes and international students’ responses in a range 50-100% were interpreted as primarily global career intentions. Dual-home and international students who indicated a preference for a global career would indicate the preferred country, which allowed us to classify those students to a new- home/global career type or truly global career type. Results and Discussion Descriptive statistics Next, we move to the results presentation. We start with the presentation of some selected descriptive statistics (Table 4). Data shows that the sample is characterised by the high level of pre- study of international experience, with the average age of the first overseas trip being 8 years old with an average 11.5 countries visited, and 78.5% of students reported having friends overseas, with at least 59.5% of students reported an experience of living or studying overseas. Iskhakova, M. and Kosheleva, S. (2023). Global vs local careers taxonomy for graduate employability: Through the lens of students’ typology and destination. Journal of Teaching and Learning for Graduate Employability, 14(1), 187-204. 195 Table 4: Selected International Experience Characteristics (n=404) International Experience characteristics (1) Students Sample, (*Mean) International Experience characteristics (92) Students Sample, (*Mean) Number of Respondents 404 Have you lived overseas? (Yes) 59.5% Age 21.53* Months lived overseas 15* Age of the first overseas trip 8* % of students born in the same country as parents 78.5% Age of the most memorable overseas memory 11* % of students with relatives overseas 65% Number of languages spoken 1.85* % of students with friends overseas 78.5% Number of countries visited 11.5* % of friends from other culture 25.5% Months travelled overseas 8.5* % of friends with different mother tongue 20.5% Students' taxonomy We now move to the testing of our first research question: How many types of students for a career choice purpose could be practically distinguished in international education context? Table 5 shows that empirically we can distinguish three types of students – local students, dual-home students and international students. Table 5. Students Taxonomy Tested on Empirical Data (numbers show the % of all students) # Global vs Local careers taxonomy for graduate employability % of all students from a sample Career Type (% of a sample) 1 Local career for local student 16.8% Local career (28.0%) 2 Local career for dual-home student 2.7% 3 Local career for international student 8.4% 4 New home career for dual-home student 1.8% New home career (1.8%) 5 Global career for local student 42.3% Global career (70.2%) 6 Global career for dual-home student 7.5% 7 Global career (study country) for international student 6.2% 8 Global career (non-study country) for international student 14.1% Iskhakova, M. and Kosheleva, S. (2023). Global vs local careers taxonomy for graduate employability: Through the lens of students’ typology and destination. Journal of Teaching and Learning for Graduate Employability, 14(1), 187-204. 196 Local career, new home career and global career We now move to test our second research question: How many types of global vs local career options could be distinguished in international students context? Which of those career types will prevail among students? Table 5 shows that dominating cohort of graduates in a sample is local students intending for a Global career (42.3%), then local students pursuing local careers (16.8%) and then international students taking on global career (14.1%). Figure 1 reflects the split of preferences between career types separately for each cohort (local students, dual-home students and international students), so we have 100% count by the cohort. Here we show very insightful results: Figure 1 reveals that a truly global career choice (in non-study country) will prevail over new-home career (in study country) and local career for each student cohort – international (49.1%), dual-home (61.7%) and local (71.5%). Of the dual-home students, 16.3% prefer to stay in a country of study – and to have new home career. For international students, this figure is 21.5%. It could mean that those students could receive lower support for building a truly global career and will not be able to exploit and execute their true potential through the challenge of global careers. Only 49.1% of international students (compared to 71.5% of local students) reported on intentions of taking on a global career journey. It suggests that additional support at career departments of universities should address international students' needs to support them in building truly global careers. The gap could exist due to lower academic performance, harder academic challenges during international study, lower self-esteem, lower opportunities for business connections, lower ambitions and confidence in successful global career and should be addressed by scholars and practitioners. Figure 1. Students Taxonomy Empirically Tested for Each Students Cohort (for International students, Dual-home Students and Local students) 28.5 22.4 29.3 0 16.3 21.5 71.5 61.7 49.1 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Local Students Dual-Homes Students International Students Global New Home - Global Local Iskhakova, M. and Kosheleva, S. (2023). Global vs local careers taxonomy for graduate employability: Through the lens of students’ typology and destination. Journal of Teaching and Learning for Graduate Employability, 14(1), 187-204. 197 We would like to illustrate and enrich our quantitative data with our qualitative findings from the students’ journal comments. While students provided individual intentions and reflected on own individual intended career pathway without knowing the right answer or preferable or expected career path, those students journals comments shed an insightful light on the process of their thinking and diverse arguments and factors students are taking into consideration. See the students comments from the journals below, they are insightful and enriching. Results are presented by three types of careers – local careers, dual-Home careers and global careers. And inside of each career type we undertook a thematic analysis of pull and push factors for the choice of global vs local career. The most significant pull and push factors are discussed for each career type. Under pull factors we understand factors which tie an individual to his/her/their home country; under push factors we understand factors which motivate and drive an individual to explore career options beyond a home country. Local careers and pull-push factors Our results (Table 5) show that a local career was preferable choice for only 28% of all types of students. But as we can learn from the following quotes, those students not depending on their cohort are very confident in their career intention and clearly aware of the benefits they would gain from a local career. So we will reflect on 3 types of local careers and their perceived benefits. Among the key pull factors for local career were named – family concerns, comfort considerations, patriotism considerations, importance of contributing to the economy of the country of origin, uncertainty of global career, lack of preparation for global career, and perceived cultural, economic and political challenges of integration in the global environment. Local career for local student One local student taking on a local career mentions the importance of family connections, challenges of adaptation to a new cultural environment, and the nostalgia and cultural loyalty to the country of origin: I would like to stay and work in my home country and don’t go very far away from my parents. I also think that I will not be able to fully adopt the mentality of another country, no matter how good and comfortable it is for life, and I will always miss my home country character and lifestyle. For some reason, everyone thinks that 'the grass is greener' abroad, but I believe that abroad there are national, cultural and political problems with which I am not ready to live. (Student L) Local career for dual-home student A dual-home student taking on a local career mentions the notion of patriotism and the critical and primary importance of contribution to the development of their country of origin. We would like to highlight that dual-home students cohort career choice is the most challenging as they are facing three possible choices, when local students and international students have to choose between only two choices. Even if I consider myself as a world citizen and closely connected to both countries Kazakhstan and Russia, after graduation I want to develop my career in Kazakhstan. However, I always consider myself as a patriot person who loves her country of origin indeed. After being back to Kazakhstan, I would like to continue my career in education sphere and contribute to the development of my country of origin. (Student K) Iskhakova, M. and Kosheleva, S. (2023). Global vs local careers taxonomy for graduate employability: Through the lens of students’ typology and destination. Journal of Teaching and Learning for Graduate Employability, 14(1), 187-204. 198 Local career for international student An international student taking on a local career mentions the notion of comfort, stability, and family connections: Nevertheless, I would prefer to go back home after graduation and to develop a career in my home country (Luxembourg) as it provides a more stable economic environment for business and a good social structure beneficial for founding a family (of course this also depends on my future partner). (Student J) We have provided a summary of all pull and push factors in Table 6 below. Table 6. Pull and Push Factors for the Career Preferences Dual-home careers and pull-push factors The smallest cohort so far fell under the classification new home career for dual-home student (1.8%), Partly due to an absence of precisely developed measurements employed by universities to distinguish this cohort, we forecast that this cohort will increase its numbers all over the globe, so further attention to it is critically needed. The following example of a dual-home student taking on a new home career mentions the notion of having an interesting job, the importance of personal and professional development, and career challenges and benefits. # Global vs local careers taxonomy for graduate employability Pull factors for local careers Push factors for global careers 1 Local career for local student Family concerns, comfort, patriotism, contributing to own country, uncertainty of a global career, challenges of adjustments 2 Local career for dual-home student 3 Local career for international student 4 New home career for dual- home student Interesting job, Importance of personal and professional development, career challenges and benefits. 5 Global career for local student Interesting and challenging job, career opportunities, cultural diversity, career advancement, financial reward, status, development of expertise, global dimension, personal and professional development 6 Global career for dual-home student 7 Global career (study country) for international student 8 Global career (non-study country) for international student Iskhakova, M. and Kosheleva, S. (2023). Global vs local careers taxonomy for graduate employability: Through the lens of students’ typology and destination. Journal of Teaching and Learning for Graduate Employability, 14(1), 187-204. 199 New home career for dual-home student I do have an intention of working in a country of current study. One could say I am working abroad right now since I am a born and raised Canadian who happens to speak and understand Russia due to my heritage and lives and studies in Russia now. I can tell that I am "abroad" since my habits and philosophies do not coincide with what is standard in Russia. (Student D) Global careers and pull-push factors Global career choice (Table 5) tends to be the most popular not dependent on a cohort type. Of the total sample, 70.2% preferred a global career choice. What is very interesting about this choice comparing to the local career choice, is that it is based more on expectations and predictions, rather than on experience, facts and knowledge. But as we know that intentions are the best predictor of behaviour, we appreciate those intentional results being high. Intentions reflect the degree to which an individual, who considers a specific goal state, plans to perform or not to perform a particular behaviour in the future. Extensive evidence in various management fields suggests that intention is the single best predictor of actual behaviour (Ajzen, 1991). So we will reflect on the four types of global careers and their perceived benefits. Among the key push factors for global career were: interesting and challenging jobs, career opportunities, cultural diversity, career advancement, financial reward, status, development of expertise, and global dimension (see Table 6). Global career for local student One local student taking on global career mentions the importance of global dimension, the importance of cultural immersion and development of cultural and global expertise, higher status, and faster career advancement. I’ve been thinking about working abroad since I was a pupil at school. When I only started reflecting upon my future career track, I had already realised that it should be somehow connected with interaction with other countries. That is why I took my bachelors in international relations. Today I fully consider working abroad as a viable option for me and I express an extreme desire to build my entire career outside of my home country. (Student M) Global career for dual-home student A dual-home student taking on global career mentions better career opportunities, truly global career opportunities, higher financial reward, cultural diversity and global mind development, and a greater range of career options and opportunities. Yes, I have intention to work abroad. I want to develop my career in the third country – not in my two home countries - because - better career opportunities and prospects: depending on your skill set, there may be a greater range of career opportunities open to you outside your home market. (Student O) Global career (study country) for international student An example of an international student taking on global career (in country of study) mentions better career opportunities, higher financial reward, greater range of career opportunities, and comfort and cultural familiarity of country of study. I am an international student. My home country is Turkey. I don't think about starting a career in Turkey at the beginning of my career. There are a lot of reasons for this. Many of them are also due to employers. I do not think that employers in Turkey give value to their employees. By employers, employees work too much with low salaries, and the life of the workers becomes just their job. I am thinking to develop a career in a country of my study. (Student B) Iskhakova, M. and Kosheleva, S. (2023). Global vs local careers taxonomy for graduate employability: Through the lens of students’ typology and destination. Journal of Teaching and Learning for Graduate Employability, 14(1), 187-204. 200 Global career (non-study country) for international student The following international student taking on a global career (in a non-study country) mentions better career opportunities, higher financial reward, greater range of career opportunities, stronger professional and personal development, and a more exciting, interesting life. I understood from an early age that living in my home country would not satisfy my appetite to understand the world in which we are living and, more importantly, the realities experienced across the globe. I truly believe that working globally brings a unique value: it challenges someone in every aspect of their life and values. This is the best ingredient to what can makes us richer, as a person - cultural diversity, the real wealth to our world! (Student S) The students' comments above are insightful, transparent and enriching. They shed a critical light on a variety of motives, drivers and factors behind the global vs local career decision making and serve as excellent base for shaping a future research agenda for graduate employability. We conclude that the proposed students’ typology for a career choice purpose and graduate employability show the relevance with evidence from empirical data. We show that all eight types of suggested global vs local career choices are supported by empirical data above and we show that global career choice would prevail above local career choice among all types of the students. Practical implications Our study makes several practical contributions to the internationalisation of business education as well as to the graduate employability domain and into teaching and learning practices in universities. First, we provide practitioners who work in academia, government or industry with the first attempt of developing a taxonomy of global vs local careers, which can serve as an excellent tool for deeper understanding of students’ previous international experience, its influence on students motivations, drives and international career intentions. Outcomes of the study could be included into career development programs, universities mandatory and elective curricula, graduate employability modules, and workshops at the universities so students can make more informed decisions about types of careers that exist and about possible variety of career choices. This allows them to make the best choice that matches the individual characteristics the most. We suggest the first attempt of global vs local careers taxonomy where we distinguish between eight career type options, based on a student type and a destination choice. A clear identification of eight career types based on destination and type of student allows students, academics, education practitioners, graduates employment policy makers and consultants to provide the best possible support for the students to prepare them for their career and to facilitate the best person-career match for them. We show that all eight types of suggested global vs local career choices are supported by empirical data and we show that global career choice would prevail above local career choice for each of the student’s types. Second, our study shows that actual students’ intentions of global careers are higher than factual percentages of local and international students who embark on international careers (between 10- 30%, Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2023). It could be due to significant lack of preparation of students for truly global careers, or due to illusory, or rose-coloured glasses. A much more positive, seamless image of a global career could be projected, supported by an extensive list of attractive characteristics of international jobs which create a favourable and successful image of a global career (Wang and Bu, 2004). We argue that the importance of realistic expectations, along with a proper preparation for a global career should be the paramount characteristic of graduate employability preparation and should be properly emphasised. We suggest that every educator should incorporate the elements of global employability in each course and subject delivery, for example, an accounting lecturer providing examples on local accounting and global accounting careers. Iskhakova, M. and Kosheleva, S. (2023). Global vs local careers taxonomy for graduate employability: Through the lens of students’ typology and destination. Journal of Teaching and Learning for Graduate Employability, 14(1), 187-204. 201 Third, with a significant percentage of students intending to build international careers (between 49.1% of international students, 61.7% of dual-home students and 71.5% of local students reporting an intention to build truly global career), we show the importance of thinking about brain drain issues for local economies (Musumba et al, 2011; Rao, 1979) and provide stronger incentives for all types of students to contribute as graduates into local economies. Fourth, our recommendations would be appropriate in settings with a significant international student population, for example USA, Canada, Australia, and the UK. Internationally mobile students ranged from 5 - 25% of domestic student population, and in total accounted for more than 6 million internationally mobile students in 2020 (Guillerme, 2022). Policy makers in the field of graduate employment and international student mobility should consider carefully and balance the pull-push factors of local and global career intentions to be able to create appropriate incentives for international students with newly acquired expertise to contribute to the current countries of study. Research Limitations In spite of a number of valuable theoretical and practical contributions, our study has a number of limitations. First, we drew from a limited sample of students (only 404 observations) from only two universities of two countries. Additional research is needed not only to confirm these findings with student cohorts from different countries, but also to test our hypotheses on different fields of study (beyond Business and Economics, which traditionally tend to lean towards international careers, due to well-developed paths for expatriates in MNCs (Scullion, 1994). Second, we accept that the fact that majority of participants being local students (Australians and Russians) may introduce cultural bias, due to cultural stereotypes and mind frames. We encourage scholars to expand our study on various cultural audiences. Third, our study has a cross-sectional nature and a longitudinal method is highly recommended to get more pronounced results. An attempt to follow a realisation of students' careers in 5-year and 10-year periods will provide with insightful relationships between global career intention and global career building. Fourth, despite our data collection featuring quantitative and qualitative data, the use of self-reported data presents another limitation that may result in some possible bias in conclusions related to local and global graduate employability. 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