1233Chenneville FINAL Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, Vol. 12, No. 4, December 2012, pp. 58 -75. Civic engagement in the field of Psychology Tiffany Chenneville1, Susan Toler2, and Vicki T. Gaskin-Butler3 Abstract: The purpose of this article is to describe the importance of, and recommendations for how best to promote, civic engagement among undergraduate psychology majors. In this article, we will describe how the goals of civic engagement are consistent with the specific curricular goals of undergraduate psychology programs. We also will (a) review the empirical support for civic engagement in the field of psychology and describe the implications of this method for teaching students about diversity; (b) discuss some of the challenges associated with incorporating civic engagement in psychology courses as well as provide strategies for overcoming these challenges; (c) discuss some of the unique ethical issues related to civic engagement in the field of psychology; and (d) provide recommendations, using specific examples, for how to incorporate service-learning activities as a means of encouraging civic engagement in psychology courses. Keywords: civic engagement, psychology, service-learning I. Introduction. Working for the common good is a fundamental concept in the field of psychology and, in fact, in this article, we argue that the curricular goals of undergraduate psychology programs are consistent with the goals of civic engagement. Promoting civic engagement in the field of psychology is supported by the literature, yet challenges exist when attempting to incorporate civic engagement as a central component of psychology courses. The concepts of service-learning and civic engagement are not new to the field of psychology. William James, considered by many to be the “father” of psychology in America, argued a century ago that youth should be encouraged to participate in community service as a means of mobilizing people by giving them a sense of common purpose. James argued that our society addressed the need for solidarity and a sense of common purpose by mobilizing military action rather than social action (James, 1910). John Dewey, president of the American Psychological Association in 1899, was the founder of progressive education, pedagogy that became the foundation for what we know today as service-learning or civic engagement (Rocheleau, 2004). Dewey proposed that students need to struggle with social problems through the application of concepts and principles learned in the classroom. This emphasized the pedagogical method of using community service to enhance students’ understanding of facts and theories. Both Dewey and James emphasized the importance of theoretical relevance. That is, viable theories must be capable of addressing every day social and ethical problems. Progressive education must encourage students to actively participate in the democratic process and tackle difficult issues related to social justice. 1 Assistant Professor of Psychology, University of South Florida St. Petersburg, chennevi@stpt.usf.edu 2 smtoler@usfsp.edu 3 vgaskinb@mail.usf.edu Chenneville, T., Toler, S., and Gaskin-Butler, V. T. Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, Vol. 12, No. 4, December 2012. josotl.indiana.edu 59 As the progressive education movement evolved, dialogues returned to the responsibility of educators to produce citizens who had both the knowledge and the sense of civic responsibility to engage in community activism and social problem solving. This model emphasized nurturing a set of values and social ideals that produced citizens who participated in the democratic process and were civically engaged. The educational goal went beyond facilitating the acquisition of facts and theories to nurturing a set of values and social ideals that produced citizens who actively participated in the democratic process and were civically engaged. Civic engagement, then, emphasized the educational goal of instilling democratic and social values. In contrast the service-learning model emphasized understanding facts and knowledge from the classroom through community service. Near the end of Dewey’s life, the pedagogical foundations of service-learning were criticized for lack of academic rigor and breadth. There was a growing sense that progressive education became technical education, preparing students for jobs rather than careers (Rocheleau, 2004). Additional criticisms of this movement focused on indoctrination of values that promoted a brand of liberal citizenship and community activism. It was argued that traditional education focused on imparting facts, knowledge and theories in a value neutral setting (Fish, 2003). Educational trends in the mid to late twentieth century shifted to a focus on careers and self-interest concurrent with a sense of social and political alienation (Bellah, Madsen, Sullivan, Swindler, & Tipton, 1985). Rocheleau (2004) has suggested that this social alienation and the call for relevance in the college classroom set the stage for a resurgence of service-learning and civic engagement near the end of the twentieth century. Social crises such as the terrorist acts of September 2001, the economic meltdown of 2008 and the ethical and moral bankruptcy of our political and business leaders have given educators cause to reconsider their responsibilities to educate ethical and responsible citizens as well as scholars. It is no coincidence that President Obama’s call for a new type of civically engaged American citizen emerged from his own experience as a community organizer in the south side of Chicago and as a lecturer at the University of Chicago. The University of Chicago was the birthplace of John Dewey’s philosophy of pragmatism and progressive education and home to the first psychology laboratory. A. Service-learning versus Civic Engagement. “Service-learning” and “civic engagement” often are used interchangeably and, while they are related, there are important distinctions between the two terms. The American Psychological Association (n.d.) defines civic engagement as “individual and collective actions designed to identify and address issues of public concern”. Bringle and Hatcher (1996) describe service- learning as “a credit-bearing educational experience in which students participate in an organized service activity that meets identified community needs and reflects on the service activity in such a way as to gain further understanding of course content, broader appreciation of the discipline, and an enhanced sense of civic responsibility” (p. 222). While interrelated, these terms clearly signify different constructs. In this article, we conceptualize service-learning as a means by which citizen scholars are created. Service-learning typically refers to a pedagogical approach that allows for students to better understand course material by providing a means by which to apply what they are learning in real life settings. In and of itself, in the absence of clearly specified goals, service-learning can be self-serving for the student. While community members may benefit in the short-term from Chenneville, T., Toler, S., and Gaskin-Butler, V. T. Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, Vol. 12, No. 4, December 2012. josotl.indiana.edu 60 the students’ participation in community settings, service-learning that is designed as a student- centered approach may lack the components necessary to achieve significant changes within the student, the university, or the community. Civic engagement extends beyond mere service- learning. Civic engagement reflects a reciprocal relationship between the student, the university, and the community. Therefore, intention is important when designing service-learning activities. In this article, we discuss service-learning as a means by which to promote civic engagement, which should be the ultimate goal of all service-learning activities. B. Learning Outcomes in Psychology. The American Psychological Association supports the idea that, as educators, we have a responsibility to inculcate our students with certain values. Indeed, an overarching goal of a liberal arts education is to assist students in “recognizing, understanding, and respecting the complexity of sociocultural and international diversity” (American Psychological Association [APA], 2007, p. 210). Suggested student learning outcomes include sensitivity to individuals from diverse backgrounds and abilities, heightened consciousness of prejudicial attitudes and discriminatory behaviors, and an understanding of how “power, privilege and oppression may affect prejudice, discrimination, and inequity” (APA, 2007, p. 20). What better classroom is there for understanding these social forces than in a homeless shelter, an inner city elementary school, or a battered women’s shelter? Service-learning opportunities provide exactly these types of pseudo classrooms in which students not only extend their learning of concepts taught at the university, but also give back to the community in some meaningful way. The American Psychological Association identifies even more specific learning outcomes to educate psychology majors in the value of “empirical evidence and tolerance for ambiguity” as well as the importance of “assessing and justifying their engagement with respect to civic, social, and global responsibilities” (APA, 2007, p. 17). Allowing students to engage in community service while at the same time giving our theories and facts the pragmatic test of realism offer powerful and sometimes challenging learning opportunities. In the sections to follow, we will discuss some of these learning opportunities in the field of psychology as well as some of the important considerations to be made when thinking about implementing civic engagement activities. II. Civic Engagement in Psychology. In this section, we will discuss the empirical support for civic engagement via service-learning in psychology courses and the implications of this method for teaching students about diversity. A. Empirical Support. While the benefits of service-learning have been well documented (e.g., Prentice, 2007), there is a dearth of information about best practices for designing and implementing service-learning activities in higher education courses. And, most of what is available falls outside the field of psychology. However, there is some research that specifically addresses the benefits of, and recommendations for, implementing service-learning and civic engagement into the undergraduate psychology curriculum (e.g., Kretchmar, 2001; Fenzel, 2001; Grimes, 1998; and McDonald, Caso, & Dee, 2005). Chenneville, T., Toler, S., and Gaskin-Butler, V. T. Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, Vol. 12, No. 4, December 2012. josotl.indiana.edu 61 Kretchmar (2001) reported that, when given a choice between participating in a service- learning activity and completing a research project, over 88% of students enrolled in an introductory psychology course opted for service-learning. In this course, students were given the opportunity to secure their own placements from a list of possible community agencies (e.g., Habitat for Humanity, Juvenile Detention Center). Of those who participated in service-learning, the large majority (80%) reported positive results related to learning and service commitment. Similarly, Fenzel (2001) reported favorable course evaluations from the large majority (between 89 and 100%) of undergraduate students enrolled in one of three courses with a significant service-learning component (i.e., Introductory Psychology, Child Psychology, Substance Abuse and its Effects). The service-learning activities varied by course. For example, students enrolled in Introductory and Child Psychology courses participated in tutoring programs at various sites while students enrolled in the Substance Abuse course were required to teach a 6- hour unit on drug use prevention to middle school students. Most students (77%) indicated an increase in personal and social responsibility and many (59 to 88%) reported an increased interest in community service as a result of their service-learning experience. Grimes (1998) also reported the positive results of incorporating service-learning into an Applied Psychology course. In this case, the service-learning component involved mentoring at- risk, African American middle school students. Of the 14 students enrolled in the course, over 80% described the course as one of the best courses they had ever taken and believed the course should become part of the required curriculum. Over 70% reported that the course increased their understanding of psychological concepts and their interest in public service. And, in fact, over 90% indicated an interest in continuing their work as a mentor. Citing not only the benefits for students, but also for instructors and the community, McDonald, Caso, and Dee (2005) describe the value of teaching and learning operant principles in animal shelters. As part of a service-learning requirement, students enrolled in a Psychology of Learning course volunteered as dog trainers in an animal shelter. In addition to enhanced self- esteem and an increased interest in social causes among students, both instructors and community members benefited from this requirement. B. Teaching Diversity. The importance of incorporating a focus on multicultural issues into psychology courses cannot be overstated. Indeed, many undergraduate psychology curricula include specific courses designed to address issues related to diversity (e.g., Multicultural Psychology, Psychology of Women); and in addition, or at the very least, imbed issues of diversity by incorporating multicultural issues within all courses, regardless of the subject matter (e.g., discussing how theories of aging may differ across cultures in a Developmental Psychology course). The intersection between civic engagement and teaching diversity can be viewed from two different perspectives. First, promoting civic engagement among students via service-learning activities may serve as a vehicle for teaching students about diversity by exposing them to other cultures and sub-cultures within the community, regardless of the intended content of the course. For example, students may be exposed to the conditions of inner city schools while completing the service-learning component of a Behavior Modification course. Second, civic engagement can be incorporated into courses specifically designed to teach issues related to diversity (e.g., Psychology of Women, Multicultural Psychology). Chenneville, T., Toler, S., and Gaskin-Butler, V. T. Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, Vol. 12, No. 4, December 2012. josotl.indiana.edu 62 Mio, Barker, and Tumambing (2009) define multicultural psychology as “the systematic study of behavior, cognition, and affect in settings where people of different backgrounds interact” (p. 3). Therefore, the pedagogical task of psychology courses containing multicultural content is to enable students to cross boundaries of race, gender, ability, class, and other differences, in order to better prepare them to make meaningful connections with others in our increasingly diverse society. Multicultural psychology aids students in understanding the impact of culture on the development of worldviews, communication patterns, acculturation, and identity development. In addition, students in multicultural psychology classes are acquainted with issues related to stereotyping, prejudice, discrimination, and racism. Cultural factors related to health and mental health also are concerns of multicultural psychology. The ultimate goal of multicultural coursework is to move students toward the development of multicultural competence (Mio et al., 2009). The American Psychological Association states that civic engagement includes a range of civic acts and “[a]n engaged citizen should have the ability, agency, and opportunity to move comfortably among these various types of civic acts” (APA Education Directorate, 2009, p. 1). Therefore, civic engagement is particularly important in multicultural classes. First, it affords students the opportunity to “address issues of public concern” (APA Education Directorate, 2009, p. 1). Second, civic engagement activities enable students to expand their knowledge of and appreciation for the experiences of those from diverse communities (Goodman & West- Olatunji, 2008; Barrow, 2008). Beyond incorporating civic engagement into multicultural psychology courses, multicultural content can be incorporated into all psychology courses through service-learning activities designed to enhance communication, collaboration, and critical thinking across race, ethnicity, and culture (Grier-Reed, Detzner, Poch, & Staats, 2010). Hurtado (2007) argues for linking diversity, education, and civic engagement as a means by which we can “advance students’ awareness of the origins of complex social problems and employ new forms of pedagogy involving dialogue, discussion, experiential learning, reflection, social critique, and commitment to change” (p. 186). In essence, incorporating civic engagement activities in psychology courses promotes the development of multicultural competence. Laird, Engberg, and Hurtado (2005) noted that colleges and universities’ creation of programs that foster students’ “engagement with social diversity” (p. 448) prepare students to deal with a diverse society. Furthermore, teaching courses that discuss multicultural content also increases the likelihood that students will work and live in diverse communities after graduating from college (Laird, Engberg, & Hurtado, 2002). III. Challenges. Despite the fact that research has demonstrated the value of civic engagement for undergraduate psychology majors (Fenzel, 2001; Grimes, 1998; Kretchmar, 2001; McDonald, Caso, & Fugit, 2005), barriers exist that can deter faculty from incorporating service-learning as a means of promoting civic engagement into their courses. These barriers, or challenges, can be categorized into three groups: administrative challenges, faculty challenges, and student challenges. While these challenges are discussed as distinct categories in the sections to follow, it is important to recognize that a significant amount of overlap exists between these areas. For example, Chenneville, T., Toler, S., and Gaskin-Butler, V. T. Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, Vol. 12, No. 4, December 2012. josotl.indiana.edu 63 administrative challenges cannot be separated entirely from faculty challenges as there clearly is a reciprocal relationship between administrative demands and faculty commitments. A. Administrative Challenges. It goes without saying that administrative support is imperative if efforts to promote civic engagement are to be successful. Without a stated commitment, higher education institutions are likely to get sidetracked with competing initiatives. However, even at universities that include civic engagement as part of their mission statement, funding is likely to be an issue. Especially in difficult economic times where budget cuts result in universities that are understaffed, the support necessary to sustain initiatives often is lacking. In addition to funding issues, a lack of enthusiasm for civic engagement may underlie resistance at the administrative level. Further, institutions without a process for centralized decision-making and those that lack a strong sense of shared governance are likely to find it difficult to implement service-learning into the curriculum, much less promote civic engagement university wide (Ward, 1996). Similarly, lack of presidential support and poor faculty participation are likely to be barriers to institutionalizing service-learning initiatives that promote civic engagement. B. Faculty Challenges. Faculty interested in incorporating service-learning components into their courses or otherwise promoting civic engagement face many challenges, all of which ultimately relate to time constraints. Developing a curriculum that promotes civic engagement is time consuming. Many university faculty juggle multiple roles and responsibilities (e.g., teacher, researcher, mentor, and/or faculty governance) making it difficult to devote the time and energy necessary to successfully launch a civic engagement initiative, much less sustain one, which requires ongoing supervision and documentation. Bulot and Johnson (2006) estimate that courses that contain service-learning require an extra two to ten hours per week (4.5 hours on average) compared to courses without a service-learning component. Even at institutions where administrative support is adequate, which may reduce the demands placed on faculty with regard to managing civic engagement initiatives, faculty must prioritize competing demands on their time. This is especially true of faculty interested in tenure or promotion where the value of promoting civic engagement is not clearly articulated. A lack of faculty development related to service-learning and civic engagement also may present a challenge. Even faculty who are intrigued by the concept of civic engagement may not believe they possess the knowledge or skills to successfully implement civic engagement activities. Lacking self-efficacy with regard to civic engagement, faculty likely will avoid pursuing opportunities to incorporate service-learning in their courses. Indeed, some faculty may not even realize they already promote civic engagement in their courses. In addition to adequately defining service-learning and civic engagement, faculty development efforts should emphasize the need for creating a balance between the needs of the course, the program, and the department with the needs of the students and the community agencies involved (Osborne & Renick, 2006). Forging community partnerships is likely to be one of the greatest challenges faced by faculty members interested in civic engagement. Identifying and contracting with community agencies can be both time consuming and confusing. Legalities must be addressed, which can Chenneville, T., Toler, S., and Gaskin-Butler, V. T. Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, Vol. 12, No. 4, December 2012. josotl.indiana.edu 64 serve as a significant barrier. The faculty-community agency partnership must be crafted carefully to ensure that student involvement extends beyond mere volunteerism (Bolut and Johnson, 2006). Without clear expectations, both parties may be less than satisfied with the experience. In a study of faculty implementing service-learning in undergraduate and graduate gerontology-related courses, Bulot and Johnson (2006) described the need to overcome stereotyped thinking among students as a significant barrier. Specifically, the issue becomes how faculty can confront discriminatory attitudes among students without losing focus on other important course-related content. Bulot and Johnson (2006) also describe the challenge of balancing flexibility and rigidity, noting the importance of clear expectations but also acknowledging the need to take into consideration various student variables when designing service-learning activities. C. Student Challenges. Various student variables may be perceived as challenges to the successful implementation and maintenance of service-learning and civic engagement initiatives. For example, the age, maturity level, and life experience of individual students may affect the extent to which certain service- learning activities are useful. Bulot and Johnson (2006) suggest that nontraditional students (24 years or older) may pose unique challenges given the likelihood of competing responsibilities such as family obligations and work demands. On many campuses, especially in urban settings, even traditional students (under the age of 24) are working full- or part-time to put themselves through college. Thus, instructors must be creative when incorporating service-learning into their courses. In fact, Long, Larsen, Hussey, and Travis (2001) stress the importance of allowing students choices when designing service-learning activities to avoid some of the difficulty associated with students’ outside commitments, which Bulot and Johnson (2006) refer to as the social situation. Another challenge among students may be confusion about what is expected of them, which speaks again to the need for clearly articulated goals and expected outcomes as well as functional relationships between faculty/universities and participating community agencies. Finally, students may simply lack interest in service-learning, which represents a challenge. D. Distance Learning. Despite controversy about its effectiveness, distance learning is a current trend that must be acknowledged. While a discussion about the implications of distance learning on civic engagement are beyond the scope of this article, we would be remiss if we did not mention the inherent difficulties associated with incorporating service-learning into online courses. Kenworthy-U’Ren (2008) provides an excellent summary of the key implications associated with incorporating service-learning into online courses: (1) reflection activities must be adapted to an online environment; (2) service-learning projects will have to be re-structured and maybe even re-operationalized, taking into account logistical issues; (3) there may be a shift among key stakeholders (e.g., faculty, students, community partners) with some more comfortable than others with the inevitable changes that will be required; (4) service e-learning may require more or different resources from community partners, thus limiting the involvement of agencies incapable of meeting the technological needs of the course; (5) partnership opportunities may be strengthened by Internet access given that students can locate potential placements; and (6) Chenneville, T., Toler, S., and Gaskin-Butler, V. T. Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, Vol. 12, No. 4, December 2012. josotl.indiana.edu 65 students may benefit from the convenience of electronic journaling. Readers interested in learning more about opportunities to combine distance learning with civic engagement initiatives are referred to the section on distance learning in Appendix A. E. Overcoming Challenges. Clearly, incorporating service-learning activities into the undergraduate curriculum and, thus, promoting civic engagement among college students can be challenging for all of the reasons described above. However, many of these barriers can be overcome. Creating a university climate that promotes citizen scholars will require action on the part of all stakeholders to include not only administrators, faculty, and students, but also community collaborators. Both top down (i.e., administrative) and bottom up (i.e., students, faculty) initiatives are needed for civic engagement to be integrated successfully into higher education settings. Civic engagement must be incorporated into the university’s mission before we can expect individual departments to embrace the idea of imbedding service-learning into the curriculum. This will require thoughtful discussions and collaboration between administrators, faculty, students, and community agencies. Having a clear mission will set the stage for pursuing specific initiatives to create an environment where civic engagement is valued and practiced. Creating such an environment may require the reorganization of university goals and priorities. Because of the time demands associated with implementing service-learning activities, planning is needed to ensure that necessary resources are available and that stakeholders are not unduly burdened. Organizational restructuring notwithstanding, there are some strategies that may ease the burden for individual faculty attempting to implement service-learning activities into their courses. For example, teaching assistants (TA) can help individual instructors manage activities related to service-learning/civic engagement. Even when funds are not available to pay TAs, many students are willing to volunteer as a TA for the experience it provides. IV. Ethical Issues. While morality and ethics are important across disciplines, professional ethics become a particular issue when incorporating service-learning/civic engagement activities into psychology courses. Because service-learning activities in psychology courses are likely to expose students to vulnerable populations, ethical issues must be addressed. Although a standard part of the curriculum in many graduate psychology programs, ethics is not a standard part of the curriculum in most undergraduate psychology programs. While ethics may be embedded into courses across the undergraduate curriculum, a course dedicated to ethics is not among the most frequently listed courses in undergraduate psychology curriculum (Perlman & McCann, 1999). In this section, we will discuss some of the major ethical issues of concern when designing and implementing service-learning activities into psychology courses. While the topic areas correspond to some of the ethical standards described in the Ethical Principles and Codes of Conduct of the American Psychological Association (APA) (2002), it is important to understand that the APA does not accredit undergraduate psychology programs. Clearly, undergraduate students majoring in psychology, even those who are student members of the APA, are not held to the same principles and standards expected of doctoral level psychologists. However, the principles and standards outlined in the APA Ethical Principles and Code of Conduct (2002) Chenneville, T., Toler, S., and Gaskin-Butler, V. T. Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, Vol. 12, No. 4, December 2012. josotl.indiana.edu 66 provide a framework for thinking about ethical issues that may arise when incorporating service- learning in undergraduate psychology courses. A. Competence. Competence is difficult to define given that it is variable across time, task, and situation. However, if simplified, professional competence generally refers to one’s skills and abilities that affect performance and can be compared to a measurable standard. Within the field of psychology, it is clearly understood that discipline-specific competencies vary across education and training level as well as specialty area. The expected competence of an undergraduate psychology major differs dramatically from the expected competence of a licensed psychologist or even psychology graduate student, with the standards much higher for the latter. However, as Rosenthal, McKnight, and Price (2001) demonstrate, confusion persists about the standard level of training for psychologists, even among undergraduate psychology students. Therefore, it is the responsibility of faculty to educate both students and community partners about the appropriate role of undergraduate psychology students. For example, undergraduate students should never be sent out into the community to provide psychological services given that they lack the necessary training and experience. These limitations need to be clearly delineated to avoid potential confusion about what the student can and cannot do in a given placement. Failure to do so could result in significant harm to the general public. B. Privacy and Confidentiality. Confidentiality is important and privacy rights must be considered when designing service- learning activities. For example, consider a child psychology course that places students in a local elementary school to volunteer (e.g., read to children) and requires students to keep track of their observations in a journal to be submitted to the instructor. Students should be required to ensure the confidentiality not only of the children they observe and with whom they work, but also the teachers and other school personnel. While information shared between students and the individuals they serve through community placement is not considered privileged, respect for privacy should guide decisions about what to disclose and to whom. C. Informed Consent and Assent. Respect for individual autonomy also is an important issue when developing courses designed to promote civic engagement via service-learning activities. In the case of university-community partnerships, the obvious and primary concern is for the recipient of services provided through various community agencies (e.g., students in an elementary school, battered women in a domestic violence shelter). Questions can arise with regard to informed consent or, in the case of children, informed assent. For example, should informed consent be obtained from parents whose children will be receiving classroom tutoring from a local university student? Further, is assent from the children themselves necessary? Assuming consensus can be reached about what situations warrant consent, which is a lofty goal in and of itself, then one must consider what information should be disclosed as part of the consent process. Also relevant to this discussion is respect for the individual autonomy of students. Specifically, what information should be provided to students enrolling for a course with a Chenneville, T., Toler, S., and Gaskin-Butler, V. T. Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, Vol. 12, No. 4, December 2012. josotl.indiana.edu 67 significant service-learning component or, further, to students majoring in psychology in a program whose mission dictates that civic engagement be fostered? Handelsman and Rosen (1987) describe the limitations associated with implying student consent based on course registration. That is, given variations in teaching philosophies and styles that, to a large degree, dictate assignments and grading, not to mention content, it may be unfair to imply consent based on course registration. Handelsman and Rosen (1987) remind educators that students’ decisions should be informed and, thus, adequate information should be provided prior to course registration. This is extremely important in the case of service-learning. Service-learning activities often require a substantial amount of time outside of the classroom, which may be difficult or even impossible for some students. It, therefore, may be prudent to somehow notify students in advance about the requirements of the course so that an informed decision can be made. D. Supervision. Site supervision is critical for service-learning placement. Ensuring that appropriate site supervision occurs will require that sites, themselves, be monitored as well as students’ progress at those sites. To this end, it is important to establish formal connections with site supervisors, when possible, to ensure that they understand the nature of the students’ assignment and the importance of their evaluations in determining students’ grades. E. Research. Research can be an integral part of service-learning initiatives designed to promote civic engagement. In fact, Nigro and Wortham (2006) encourage including action research as a part of service-learning activities. Student research designed and conducted in collaboration with community partners can be extremely valuable, especially from the perspective of promoting civic engagement. However, the potential gains of research must be balanced against the risks and, even when the gains clearly outweigh the risks, precautions must be taken to ensure that risks that do exist are minimized. All of the ethical issues previously described apply to research activities. Student researchers must be competent in the areas of research design and methodology and may require supervision to carry out research projects. Appropriate actions must be taken to ensure the privacy rights and confidentiality of research participants. Of particular concern when thinking about conducting research in community agencies via service- learning placements is informed consent and assent. This issue becomes less problematic with “formal” research given that permission must be obtained from appropriate Institutional Review Boards (IRB) (e.g., university IRB and hospital IRB in the case of a service-learning placement in a hospital). More problematic is “informal” research. For example, consider the Behavior Modification course described in an earlier section. As described, students are placed in a local elementary school where they are required to apply learning principles when tutoring children and are required to track the children’s progress as part of a course assignment. Essentially, the primary course assignment involves a single subject design. Assuming only the instructor has access to the data collected, should informed consent/assent be obtained from children and their parents? What if others (e.g., classmates) have access to the data collection? Or, what if a student wants to publish his/her findings? These are important questions that should be considered proactively. Chenneville, T., Toler, S., and Gaskin-Butler, V. T. Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, Vol. 12, No. 4, December 2012. josotl.indiana.edu 68 F. Recommendations for Addressing Ethical Issues. As demonstrated, many ethical issues arise within the context of promoting civic engagement among undergraduate psychology majors. And, although a discussion of liability is beyond the scope of this article, it is important to recognize that overlap exists between ethical standards and legal standards. Policies and procedures should be established for responding to ethical issues as they arise. However, it is impossible to foresee what issues might arise in a given class or setting or for a particular student; and therefore, reactive approaches are limited. Faculty, administration, and community partners are encouraged to be proactive in their approach to instilling the importance of professional ethics. One option is to incorporate a professional ethics course, specific to the field of psychology, into the undergraduate psychology curriculum and, further, to designate this course as a prerequisite to courses with a service-learning component. This option has significant limitations, though. Among these limitations is the well documented fact that knowledge does not always translate into behavior. This means that even students who perform well in an ethics course may not demonstrate appropriate behavior outside the classroom. In his work on spirituality and psychotherapy, Plante (2007, 2009) recommends a model of ethics that focuses on five central values: (1) respect, (2) responsibility, (3) integrity, (4) competence, and (5) concern. It seems this model fits well for all aspects of fostering civic engagement among undergraduate psychology majors from administrative policy to faculty course development to the establishment of community partnerships to the promotion of professional behavior among students. V. Psychology Course Examples. Service-learning, with the goal of promoting civic engagement among undergraduate students, can be incorporated into psychology courses. In this section, we will provide some examples of how civic engagement has been incorporated into psychology courses at a relatively small southeastern university with approximately 3,800 undergraduate students and 400 graduate students. The student to faculty ratio at this institution is 19:1. In the courses described, student enrollment averages anywhere between 30-50 students per semester. Following the class examples is a discussion of how some of the ethical issues described above were addressed. A. Child Psychology. Child Psychology is an upper level course offered by psychology departments, either as part of the major or as a general education course available to all undergraduates. The course content generally includes an overview of cognitive, physical, emotional and psychological growth and development from birth through adolescence. Typically, enrolled students have very little experience with children. Most do not have children of their own. Many do not have younger siblings, and the majority of students have limited exposure to children through employment or leisure activities. Civic engagement has been incorporated into this course by requiring students to volunteer a minimum of two hours a week over the course of a semester in an elementary school or daycare setting. Students are provided the opportunity to become classroom volunteers and observers of children across a wide range of developmental stages. Throughout the semester, students are required to maintain a journal in which they reflect on specific developmental theories. This journaling exercise requires students to reconcile their personal observations and Chenneville, T., Toler, S., and Gaskin-Butler, V. T. Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, Vol. 12, No. 4, December 2012. josotl.indiana.edu 69 interactions with children with the theories introduced in the classroom. For example, journal topics focus on observations of the temperamental differences in children and reflections on the “goodness of fit” with their teacher to observations and reflections on Vygotsky’s view of children’s use of private speech. Due dates for journal entries are scheduled to coincide with lectures on specific topics. Students are asked to discuss their experiences in the community, which often results in very lively and sometimes emotionally charged discussions. B. Psychology of Women. Psychology of Women is an upper level general education course often offered as an elective to undergraduate psychology majors. The course content includes providing a “challenging and thought provoking” (Hyde, 2007, p. ix) stimulus for students to engage research related to the psychology of women. This course also enables students to understand women’s experiences resulting from biological and social/cultural factors. In addition, this course allows students to understand the psychology of women from a multicultural perspective. Civic engagement has been incorporated into this course by requiring students to volunteer a minimum of ten hours over the course of the semester in a local community agency that provides services for women and/or girls. It is noteworthy that many sites do not provide services exclusively to this population; rather, many sites also provide services to men/boys (e.g., elementary school and middle schools, homeless shelters, women’s shelters, and women’s residences). Students’ volunteer activities range in depth and breadth; some students merely observe the target population (i.e., the clients who receive services from a particular agency). However, others complete tasks that ultimately benefit the target population or, in some cases, provide direct service to the target population. Students are required to have a site supervisor who verifies the completion of their volunteer hours and who evaluates their performance. During their volunteer experience, students are required to complete a journal in which they reflect on their experience. Journal entries are completed after each site visit. At the conclusion of the volunteer experience, students are required to complete a research paper and conduct a presentation designed to integrate their experiences with recent psychological research on the psychology of women. Students whose volunteer activities do not directly relate to the psychology of women are instructed to choose a research topic that relates to the agency’s role in providing services for women or girls. The ultimate goal of the assignment is to strengthen students’ knowledge of research in a particular area of interest and to critically engage the research in light of their civic engagement experience. Students are assessed on how well they are able to integrate their knowledge of course material with their civic engagement activity. Although students often report that completion of the volunteer experience, journal, and research paper are challenging, the majority of students recommend continuing to include civic engagement in future courses. Students typically are challenged when their civic engagement experiences do not confirm stereotypes related to race, class, and gender. Students often enter their settings with preconceived notions about the women or children served by particular agencies. However, by the end of their experience, most are able to understand that many of the circumstances in which women find themselves transcend race, class, and gender. As a result, students are more knowledgeable and more culturally competent at the conclusion of their civic engagement activities. Chenneville, T., Toler, S., and Gaskin-Butler, V. T. Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, Vol. 12, No. 4, December 2012. josotl.indiana.edu 70 C. Behavior Modification. Behavior Modification is an upper level course offered by psychology departments with prerequisites such as Statistics and/or Research Design and Methodology. This course provides an in depth introduction to behavioral analysis. It is designed to help students learn how to target and measure behavior, develop a behavioral intervention program, and implement a research design using the basic principles of behavior modification. Students are responsible for completing a semester long behavior modification project as they volunteer in an underprivileged public school. Each student is required to become certified as a “Mentor” in the public school system because of the intensive involvement with elementary, middle or high school students. Students enrolled in the course also are required to obtain parental consent for their work with one or more children. Behavior Modification students identify a target behavior that will enhance a child’s functioning in the school setting. They conduct a functional assessment of the behavior to understand environmental factors (antecedents and consequences) impacting the target behavior. A behavioral intervention is designed and implemented in the classroom, baseline and intervention data is collected and discussions focus on lessons learned over the course of developing and implementing the intervention. The final week of the semester culminates in written papers and oral presentations to fellow classmates regarding their behavioral interventions in the school setting. Students require a great deal of oversight and encouragement as they attempt to apply behavioral principles to “real life” circumstances. Faculty who attempt this level of service-learning need to be prepared to meet with student fear and resistance to what initially appears to be a daunting task. The leap from discussion of principles in the classroom to application in the schools requires a level of problem solving that most undergraduate students have not been required to face. As the students settle into their projects, active class discussion returns to understanding basic concepts, such as “reinforcement”, or “discriminative stimuli” that only an applied assignment can demand. As the semester nears an end, and projects are due, students generally experience the ultimate joy of accomplishing a truly challenging project. The best part of the semester is listening to students’ oral presentations, as they describe the successes of their own students, as well as challenges faced while working in the classroom setting. D. Our Approach to Dealing with Ethical Issues. Due to the ethical concerns associated with incorporating service-learning into undergraduate psychology courses, faculty within our department agreed to implement a requirement that students complete a course in professional ethics in psychology prior to enrolling in a course involving a service-learning component. The ethics course originally was designed for this purpose and specifically addresses issues related to competence, privacy and confidentiality, informed consent/assent, and research involving human participants. This approach, however, is not without problems. As is a problem with any prerequisite requirement, there is the issue of course availability and sequencing. The ethics course is taught only once a year, which can be problematic. We have dealt with this issue in a number of ways. In some cases, we have allowed students to enroll in the ethics course as a co-requisite (simultaneous with the service-learning course) as opposed to a pre-requisite. In other cases, the faculty member teaching the service- learning course has incorporated ethics into the course curriculum/syllabus. For example, one semester, the faculty member who teaches the ethics course guest lectured in one of the service- learning courses. While this approach addresses the need to expose students to professional Chenneville, T., Toler, S., and Gaskin-Butler, V. T. Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, Vol. 12, No. 4, December 2012. josotl.indiana.edu 71 ethics, we know that knowledge of ethical standards and principles does not always translate into ethical behavior. In addition to formal instruction on ethics, faculty members incorporating service- learning into their courses do a number of things in an attempt to be proactive with regard to ethical behavior. First, the importance of working within one’s competence is stressed to students. For example, when volunteering at a community agency, students are instructed to behave strictly within the roles defined as part of the service-learning requirement and not to act like they know more than they do. Second, we routinely address issues related to privacy and confidentiality by instructing students not to disclose identifying information about community members in class or in their coursework. For example, if there is a journal or other written course requirement, students are told to use first names only, initials, or pseudonyms to protect the identity of community members. Third, issues of consent/assent are dealt with individually depending on the setting and the requirement. For example, in the Child Psychology course described above where students are required to volunteer in an elementary school setting, the school shares responsibility for consent/assent. That said, students are instructed to disclose their role to all concerned and to respect individual autonomy, addressing issues related to both competence and consent/assent. Finally, students required to conduct research as part of a service-learning requirement must obtain approval through the university’s institutional review board (IRB) and, where necessary, external IRBs (e.g., K-12 school system IRB, hospital IRB). In closing, readers should recognize that the examples described in this section provide but a few of the possibilities that exist for incorporating service-learning into undergraduate psychology courses and, thus, promoting civic engagement among undergraduate psychology majors. For more examples, readers are referred to Bringle and Duffy (2006) who provide additional illustrations of how to integrate service-learning into psychology courses. VI. Conclusion. In this article, we have attempted to demonstrate the utility of promoting civic engagement among undergraduate psychology majors via the inclusion of service-learning activities into relevant courses. As emphasized in this article, significant barriers exist, which include lack of administrative support, time constraints among faculty, and student resistance or complete lack of interest among students to engage in service-learning. However, with thoughtful planning, dedication and a commitment to the ideals of civic engagement, these challenges can be overcome. And, while unique ethical issues must be considered when incorporating service- learning activities into psychology courses, professional and ethical behavior among students, faculty, and community collaborators can be encouraged if stakeholders are willing to be proactive. Readers interested in learning more about this topic are encouraged to pursue the additional resources contained in Appendix A. Chenneville, T., Toler, S., and Gaskin-Butler, V. T. Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, Vol. 12, No. 4, December 2012. josotl.indiana.edu 72 Appendix A. Civic Engagement and Service Learning Resources Civic Engagement and Service Learning Journals: *Journal for Civic Commitment *Journal for Civic Engagement *Michigan Journal of Community Service-Learning Civic Engagement and Service Learning Websites: *International Partnership for Service Learning: http://www.ipsl.org/ *National Service-Learning Clearinghouse: http://www.servicelearning.org/ Distance Learning and Civic Engagement/Service-Learning Resources: *Bennett, G., & Green, F.P. (2001). Promoting service learning via online instruction. College Student Journal, 35(4), 491-497. *Dailey-Hebert, A., Donnelli-Sallee, E., & DiPadvoa-Stocks, L. (2008). Service- elearning: Educating for citizenship. Information Age Publishing: Charlotte, NC. Diversity and Civic Engagement/Service-Learning Resources: *Everett, K.D. (1998). Understanding social inequality through service learning. Teaching Sociology, 26(4), 299-309. *Marullo, S. (1998). Brining home diversity: A service-learning approach to teaching race and ethnic relations. Teaching Sociology, 26(4), 259-275. Other Resources: *101 Ideas for Combining Service & Learning (separated by subject area). Available at: http://www.ahead.org/uploads/2008/handouts/block8/8.2%20-%20Handout%202%20- %20101%20ideas%20for%20SL%20by%20subject%20area.pdf *Howard, J. (2001). Service-learning course design workbook. University of Michigan: Ann Arbor. *Service-learning in psychology: A resource sheet. Available at: http://www.denison.edu/campuslife/servicelearning/psychology%20resource%20sheet%202009. pdf Chenneville, T., Toler, S., and Gaskin-Butler, V. T. Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, Vol. 12, No. 4, December 2012. josotl.indiana.edu 73 References American Psychological Association. (n.d.). Civic engagement. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/education/undergrad/civic-engagement.aspx. American Psychological Association Education Directorate (2009). Civic engagement and service-learning. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Retrieved August 10, 2009, from http://www.apa.org/ed/slce/civicengagement.html American Psychological Association. (2007). APA guidelines for the Undergraduate psychology major. Washington, DC: APA board of educational affairs task force on psychology major competencies. Retrieved from www.apa.org/ed/resources.html American Psychological Association (2002). Ethical principles and code of conduct. Retrieved April 30, 2009 from http://www.apa.org/ethics/code2002.html. Barrow, F.H. (2008). Who is in charge of this: Service-learning as a context for youth empowerment through policy participation in after-school program. The Journal for Civic Commitment, 11. Retrieved February 18, 2009, from http://www.mc.maricopa.edu/other/engagement/Journal/Issue11/Barrow.s html. Bella, R.N., Madsen, R., Sullivan, W., Swidler, A, & Tipton, S.M. (1985). Habits of the Heart: Individualism and Commitment in American Life. Berkeley: University of California Press. Bringle, R.G., & Duffy, D.K. (2006). With Service in Mind: Concepts and Models for Service- Learning in Psychology. Sterling, VA: Stylus Publishing. Bringle, R.G., & Hatcher, J.A. (1996). Implementing service learning in higher education. The Journal of Higher Education, 67(2), 221-239. Bulot, J.J., & Johnson, C.J. (2006). Rewards and costs of faculty involvement in intergenerational service-learning. Educational Gerontology, 32, 633-645. Fenzel, L.M. (2001, April). Enhancing the benefits of service-learning in undergraduate psychology courses. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Seattle, WA. Fish, S. (2003, May 16). Aim Low. Chronicles of Higher Education, p. C5. Goodman, R.D., & West-Olatunji, C. A. (2009). Engaging students in outreach as an extension of advocacy to achieve praxis. The Journal for Civic Commitment, 12. Retrieved February 18, 2009, from http://www.mc.maricopa.edu/other/engagement/Journal/Issue12/Goodman.html. Grier-Reed, T., Detzner, D., Poch, R.K., & Staats, S. (2010). Toward multicultural community engagement. Academic Exchange Quarterly, 14(3). Retrieved from http://rapidintellect.com/AEQweb/cho4671.htm Chenneville, T., Toler, S., and Gaskin-Butler, V. T. Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, Vol. 12, No. 4, December 2012. josotl.indiana.edu 74 Grimes, T.R. (1998, August). Creating opportunities for service-learning through the applied psychology course. Paper presented at the Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, San Francisco, CA. Handelsman, M.M., & Rosen, J.A.A. (1987). Informed consent of students: How much information is enough? Teaching of Psychology, 14 (2), 107-109. Hurtado, S. (2007). Linking diversity with the educational and civic missions of higher education. The Review of Higher Education, 30(2), 185-196. Hyde, J.S. (2007). Half the human experience: The psychology of women (7th ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin. James, W. (1910, August). The moral equivalent of war. McClure’s Magazine, pp. 463-468. Kenworthy-U’Ren, A. (2008). Creating paths forward for service elearning. In A. Dailey-Hebert, E. Donnelli-Sallee, & L.N. DiPadvoa-Stocks (Eds), Service-eLearning: Educating for Citizenship, (pp. 9-22). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Kretchmar, M.D. (2001). Service-learning in a general psychology class: Description, preliminary evaluation, and recommendations. Teaching of Psychology, 28(1), 5-10. Laird, T. F. N., Engberg, M. E., Hurtado, S. (2005). Modeling accentuation effects: Enrolling in a diversity course and the importance of social action engagement. The Journal of Higher Education, 76(4), 448-476. Laird, T. F. N., Engberg, M. E., & Hurtado, S. (2002). Modeling the effects of a diversity course on students’ preparation for a diverse democracy. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting for the Study of Higher Education. Sacramento, CA. Long, A.B., Larsen, P., Hussey, L., & Travis, S.S. (2001). Organizing, managing, and evaluating service-learning projects. Educational Gerontology, 27, 3-21. McDonald, T.W., Caso, R., & Fugit, D. (2005). Teaching and learning operant principles in animal shelters: Perspectives from faculty, students, and shelter staff. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 33(4), 310-321. Mio, J.S., Barker, L.A., & Tumambing, J. (2009). Multicultural Psychology: Understanding our Diverse Communities (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. Nigro, G., & Wortham, S. (2006). Service-learning through action-research partnerships. In R.G. Bringle & D.K. Duffy (Eds), With Service in Mind: Concepts and Models for Service-Learning in Psychology, (pp. 161-170). Sterling, VA: Stylus Publishing. Osborne, R.E., & Renick, O. (2006). Service-learning. In W. Buskist & S.F. Davis (Eds), Handbook of the Teaching of Psychology, (pp. 137-141). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. Chenneville, T., Toler, S., and Gaskin-Butler, V. T. Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, Vol. 12, No. 4, December 2012. josotl.indiana.edu 75 Plante, T.G. (2009). Five ethical values to guide professional behavior. In T.G. Plante, Spiritual practices and psychotherapy: Thirteen tools for enhancing psychological health, (pp. 103-114). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Prentice, M. (2007). Service-learning and civic engagement. Academic Questions, 20 (2), 135- 145. Rocheleau, J. (2004). Theoretical Roots of Service-Learning: Progressive Education and the Development of Citizenship. In B.W. Speck and S.L. Hoppe (Eds.), Service-learning: History, Theory, and Issues (pp. 3-21). Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers. Rosenthal, G.T., McKnight, R.R., & Price, A.W. (2001). Who, what, how, and where the typical psychologist is…the Profession of Psychology scale. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 28 (4), 220-224. Ward, K. (1996). Service-learning and student volunteerism: Reflections on institutional commitment. Michigan Journal of Community Service-learning, 3, 55-65.