Jtam-A4.dvi JOURNAL OF THEORETICAL AND APPLIED MECHANICS 54, 3, pp. 963-973, Warsaw 2016 DOI: 10.15632/jtam-pl.54.3.963 SUGGESTION OF AN EQUATION OF MOTION TO CALCULATE THE DAMPING RATIO DURING EARTHQUAKE BASED ON A CYCLIC PROCEDURE H. Naderpour Semnan University, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Semnan, Iran e-mail: naderpour@semnan.ac.ir R.C. Barros University of Porto(FEUP), Faculty of Engineering, Porto, Portugal S.M. Khatami Semnan University, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Semnan, Iran Large horizontal relative displacements are naturally caused by seismic excitation, which is able to provide collisions between two adjacent buildings due to insufficient separation distance and severe damages due to impacts, especially in tall buildings. In this paper, the impact is numerically simulated and two needed parameters are calculated, including the impact force and energy absorption. In order to calculate the mentioned parameters, mathematical study is carriedout tomodel anunreal link element,which is logicallyassumed to be a spring and dashpot to determine the lateral displacement and damping ratio of the impact. For the determination of the dynamic response of the impact, a new equation of motion is theoretically suggested to the evaluate impact force and energy dissipation. In order to confirm the rendered equation, a series of parametric studies are performed and the accuracy of the formulas is confirmed. Keywords: pounding, impact, dissipated rnergy, coefficient of restitution 1. Introduction During earthquake, buildings commonly collide with each other due to different dynamic cha- racteristics of adjacent buildings, insufficient gap between them and vibrate out of phase. This phenomenon is called “building pounding”.Thepounding is experimentally shownby an instan- ce of rapid strong pulsation, which causes severe damage and is repeated by decreasing stiffness of the building after each collision. Consequently, as it is obviously seen, there are many tall buildings constructedwith a small gap size. The effectiveness of poundingmust be considered to avoid collisions or decline impact forces when adjacent buildings are designed and built. Impor- tance of the mentioned subject has been understood by some researchers, who tried to report their studies aboutpounding.Anagnostopolos (1995, 1996, 2004)was among thefirst researchers who explained possible dangers due to building pounding. He presented an equation of motion to calculate the impact damping ratio. Kasai and Maison (1997) presented a formulation and simulated multiple-degree-of-freedom equations of motion for floor-to-floor pounding between two 15-storey and 8-storey buildings. The influence of building separation, relative mass, and contact location properties were assessed by them. Jankowski (2008) carried out the most stu- dies about pounding in two different terms, which were experimental and numerical analyses. Jankowski (2009, 2010, 2012) suggested efficient methods to calculate the impact ratio by ju- stifying different equations and also substantially implemented different experimental tests to predict impact velocity by focusing on dropping balls onto a rigid surface. Muthukumar and 964 H. Naderpour et al. DesRoches (2006) introduced an equation of motion to generate an impact and determine the damping coefficient. Ye et al. (2009) and Yu and Gonzalez (2008) theoretically explained two equations of motions in order to determine the impact damping ratio by focusing on stiffness of the spring and also impact velocity. They coordinated a stereo-mechanical model with energy loss during the impact. Komodromos et al. (2007) expressed an equation of motion to create an impact between two bodies, which could estimate the impact damping ratio. The base isolation systems have recently been described by Komodromos and Polycarpou (2011, 2012) and the pounding was numerically investigated. Barros and Khatami (2012a) parametrically evaluated different damping equations to show the optimum formula to calculate the impact force. They also examined a newmodel of impact to coordinate the results amongnumerical and experimen- tal studies (Barros and Khatami, 2013). Furthermore, the effectiveness of concrete shear wall was considered to reduce collision between adjacent buildings by Barros and Khatami (2012b). Naderpour et al. (2013) investigated results of all represented formulas and compared them in terms of dissipated energy. They also suggested an approximate trend to select the coefficient of restitution, which became equal with the impact velocity (Barros et al., 2013). Subsequently, a newequation ofmotion has been suggested to simulate the impact andfiguredamping terms out of collision (Naderpour et al., 2014). Nevertheless, it seems that there is lack of calculating the impact force and energy dissipation, which could be satisfied by selecting different coefficients of restitutions and various situations. It leads to introdution different equations with different results, and it can not be accepted. So, there is a need to use an equation which could be a re- sponse to all questions about the pounding. In this paper, a newmathematical program, called CRVK, submitted by Naderpour et al. (2014) at the FEUP, is specifically developed to model the impact between two bodies. Subsequently, an equation of motion is numerically suggested and the accuracy of the formula is confirmed by comparison between the dissipated energy and the energy loss. 2. Past equations to calculate the impact damping ratio The contact element is an unreal element to model the impact between two bodies, which commonly includes a spring anddashpot and is called “Hertz contact element”. It is widely used to calculate the impact force and energy absorption.The impact is parametricallymodeledwhen the relative displacement exceeds the separation distance and the contact element is activated to simulate collision between two bodies and to calculate the impact force. For this challenge, an equation of motion is numerically considered to simulate the impact, which becomes Fimp(t)= ksδ n(t)+ cdδ̇(t) (2.1) where ks is stiffness of the spring, cd denotes the damping ratio of the dashpot, δ and δ̇ describe the lateral displacement andvelocity, respectively. Thepower ofn is recommended to be1 or 1.5, which depends significantly on the model. In this equation, the damping ratio has been related by different equations which are in- dividually investigated. In order to introduce the equations, the coefficient of restitution (CR) is used, which is defined as the ratio of relative velocities before and after the impact, and is written as 0 0 and δ̇(t)> 0 ksδ n(t) for δ(t)> 0 and δ̇(t)< 0 0 for δ(t)< 0 (3.1) where n=1.5. Suggestion of an equation of motion to calculate the damping ratio... 967 In order to determine the impact force and energy dissipation, the impact between two bodies is simulated and the hysteresis loop is depicted. It is assumed that the dissipated energy is approximately expressedby the enclosed area of the hysteresis curve due to the impact.On the other hand, the kinetic energy loss due to the impact was demonstrated by Goldsmith (1960), which was seen as E = 1 2 mimj mi+mj (1−CR2)δ̇2imp (3.2) It is obviously confirmed that the dissipated energy during the impact has to be equal to the kinetic energy calculated by equation (3.2). Undoubtedly, if both energies becomes equal to each other, it shows the accuracy of the impact damping ratio. As it has been described in the previous part of this paper,many researchers proposed diffe- rent equations ofmotion to simulate collision between two bodies and calculate the impact force during earthquake records. As it was shown, all the equations describe the damping coefficient based on some parameters such as CR. It is obviously seen that each equation gives specific results by selecting CR and the results are modified by using another CR. Consequently, it cannot be accepted and the results can not be also confirmed. In order to provide a new equation in terms of the damping ratio, an unknown parameter is considered to be cimp, which depends on some parameters as cimp ∼= {ks,m,CR,δ̇imp,δ, δ̇, δ̈} (3.3) To meet this challenge, an unreal link element is considered to be at the level of bodies, which includes a spring and a dashpot to calculate lateral displacement and energy absorption, respec- tively. The damping coefficient is defined by the following expression cimp = ζimpksδ n(t) (3.4) where ks is stiffness of the spring and δ(t) denotes lateral displacement (n= 1.5). The impact damping ratio is given by different terms, and becomes ζimp =wCR 1−CR δ̈(t)δ̇(t)δ(t) CRimp (3.5) In order to solve equation (3.5), the terms need to be presented based on the mentioned para- meters, seen in cimp. So it is estimated to be CRimp(i) = ρ(i)CR η (3.6) In equation (3.5), wCR depends on the impact velocity, which is determined as below wCR(i) =α(i)δ̇ β imp (3.7) In order to start the simulation of the impact and solve the program to get the impact damping ratio, a value of mass is given and CRVKprogram calculates lateral displacement, velocity and acceleration of the spring streched between two bodies. Stiffness of the spring is determined and aCR is also selected. Theprogram solves the equations and calculates energy dissipation, which is equal to the area of the hysteresis loop of each impact and compares it with the kinetic energy calculated by equation (3.2). Both energies should be equal if all factors has been correctly selected. This process is numerically repeated for all considered coefficients of restitution for solving the equations, and the results are frequently compared to confirm equation (3.5). 968 H. Naderpour et al. Firstly, let us know the value of equal masses that is calculated by equation (3.8). Having used themass, stiffness of the spring is estimated by the given figure m= mimj mi+mj (3.8) Fig. 2. Stiffness of the spring based on equal masses Now, the coefficient of restitution (CR) is randomly selected (0 < CR < 1). In particular, for CR = 0 and 1, we have full energy for a perfectly plastic impact and no energy to show an elastic impact, respectively. After selecting CR and having impact velocity, the coefficient of wCR is calculated based on the selected CR. Fig. 3. (a) CoefficientwCR based on impact velocity, (b) coefficientCRimp based on the coefficient of restitution Now, after selecting CR and getting wCR, by making use of Fig. 3,CRimp is determined. Based on the energy equilibrium before and after an impact and the energy loss mentioned in equation (3.2) and using all parameters and allCRs, a cyclic process is provided to calculate the kinetic energy loss and available energy. By comparing these energies with each other, one gets an approximate damping term. In order to show a better image from thementioned cyclic process of calculation of the impact damping ratio, a chart is rendered to determine the impact damping ratio based on all used parameters. The chart is divided into two different parts. In the first step, it is assumed that the damping coefficient depends on the acceleration, velocity, lateral displacement and also the coefficient of restitution. For this challenge, a value of CR is selected and CRimp is estimated. The hyste- resis loop is depicted and also energy absorption Ah is calculated. Kinetic energy and energy absorption are compared with each other, if both become equal, thenCRimp has been correctly selected and the system selects a newCR andCRimp automatically. Finally, the impact damping ratio is also described as ζimp =0.0159δ̇ 2 imp 1−CR δ̈(t)δ̇(t)δ(t) CR0.2805 (3.9) Suggestion of an equation of motion to calculate the damping ratio... 969 Fig. 4. The iterative procedure to determine the damping coefficient For example, two SDOF systems are consideredwhich are separated by a 0.2mmgap from each other. The assumed lateral displacement by the impact velocity equal to 10m/s is defined, and equalmass of 100kg andCR=0.4 are taken into account, respectively. Sowe have:m=100kg, k=6000kN/ √ mm, δ̇imp =10m/s,CR=0.4,CRimp =1.1903, wCR =2.5269. Fig. 5. Impact force versus time and lateral displacement As it has been shown, themaximumimpact force is approximately 12000kN, and the dissipa- ted energy, which has already been assumed to be the area of the hysteresis loop is 4189kN·mm. On the other hand, the kinetic energy is calculated to be 4200kN·mm based on the Goldsmith rule (Eq. (3.5)). It is obviously achieved that both energies are close to each other and the 970 H. Naderpour et al. calculated CR is 0.3527, which shows an error about 0.007%, which is negligible. Based on this process, allCRs are selected and compared as depicted in Fig. 6. Fig. 6. Accuracy of the proposed damping ratio by numerical analysis In order to investigate the accuracy of equation (3.9), an experimental test has been carried out to compare the results of experiment and numerical analysis. Katija et al. (2006) carried out an impact test between two steel frames, each frame of 300kg with a 40 · 40cm beam separated by a 10cm gap. The collision test was implemented using a horizontal hydraulic high-speed loading machine. This machine had a loading capacity of 1000kN and amaximum loading speed of 3.0m/s. The collision test was carried out in a line on a guide rail with length of 3000mm.Two static and hysteresis tests were calibrated by using CRVK programwhen the impact velocity was 0.68m/s for the second evaluation. Both tests are considered and numerically examined to investigate the impact between two the bodies. Equation (3.9) is used and the proposed impact model is also defined to calibrate and compare the results of experimental and numerical analyses. Fig. 7. Accuracy of the proposed damping ratio by calibrating the numerical and experimental analyses The accuracy of the mentioned equation is confirmed as the trend of both tests is similar, and themaximum impact forces are 29.85 and 28.32kN, which shows an error about 5%, which is negligible. 4. Numerical study Aparametric study is considered in order to describe the proposed impact dampingmodel. The impact between two bodies is numerically simulated tomeasure the impact force and dissipated energy during seismic excitation. For this challenge, CRVKprogram is basically used and deve- loped to perform dynamic analyses under Parkfield (1966), San Fernando (1971), Kobe (1995) and El Centro (1940) earthquake records. These records have different content of excitation Suggestion of an equation of motion to calculate the damping ratio... 971 frequencies, different random magnitude of accelerations in time and different earthquake du- rations. Besides, their place of occurrence and geological conditions are distinct. All mentioned records are directly normalized to investigate the effect of earthquake properties when bodies collide with each other. Effect of gap size In order to investigate the effect of separation distance, the gap size is varied from 0 to 20cm.The link element between the bodies is automatically activatedwhen the gap size exceeds from the considered separation distance between them. Figure 8 depicts the effect of separation distance on the response in terms of the impact force during the four earthquake records. In particular, the curves follow an irregular decrease in the gap size 0 to 20cm and the impact forces are suddenly reduced in San Fernando and Parkfield records and are slightly declining in the two other records. Therefore, an increase in the separation distance shows an effective decline in the impact force due to collision between the two bodies. Fig. 8. Impact forces with the increasing (a) gap size, (b) impact velocity and (c) coefficient of restitution Effect of coefficient of restitution As the coefficient of restitution has a great effect on calculation of the impact damping ratio, different values ofCR are considered to compare the impact forces during earthquakes. Figure 8 shows that the peak impact forces slowly decrease when the coefficient of restitution increases. A similar trend of impact force responses based on the coefficient of restitution is observed as the effect of CR is numerically seen to be linear in the proposed impact damping model. For instance, San Fernando record shows an impact force about 21 · 109kN and 6.7 · 109kN for CR=0.1 and 0.9, respectively. Effect of impact velocity As it is shown in equations (3.5) and (3.6), the impact damping ratio directly depends on the impact velocity. Figure 8 shows a calm increase with growth of the impact velocity, which seems to be predictable. In order to get the responses of impacts and compare the results of maximum impact forces, different values of the impact velocity are considered from the interval 0 to 20m/s, and the impact is simulated by different velocities. For example, the impact forces are 7.2 ·1010, 3.13 ·1010, 0.41 ·1010 and 0.019 ·1010kN for 15m/s of the impact velocity in the Parkfield, San Fernando, El Centro and Kobe, respectively. 972 H. Naderpour et al. 5. Conclusion When two buildings are built close to each other, it is very important to consider pounding phenomena between themdue to earthquake. Researchers have introduced an unreal element to calculate the impact force and the dissipated energy during seismic excitation by making use of the spring and the dashpot. Different equations of motion are presented to determine the damping ratio and an estimated value of the impact between the two colliding bodies. Here, a new equation based on all effectiveness parameters has been suggested, and the accuracy of the formula has been numerically evaluated. The effect of stiffness of the spring, impact velocity, coefficient of restitution and also separation distance have been investigated in detail. Aparametric analysis has been carried out to show the results of the impact force anddissipated energy which have been then compared with the kinetic energy to confirm the created formula. Refrences 1. Anagnostopoulos S.A., 1995, Earthquake induced pounding: state of the art, Proceedings of 10th European Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Balkema, Rotterdam, 897-905 2. Anagnostopoulos S.A., 1996, Building pounding re-examined: how serious a problem is it? Eleventh World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Pergamon, Elsevier Science Ltd. 3. Anagnostopoulos S.A., 2004, Equivalent viscous damping for modeling inelastic impacts in earthquake pounding problems,Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics, 33, 8, 897-902 4. Barros R.C, Khatami S.M., 2012a, Building pounding forces for different link elementmodels, CST2011, 4-7 September, Dubrovnic, Croatia 5. Barros R.C, Khatami S.M., 2012b, Seismic response effect of shear walls in reducing pounding risk of reinforced concrete building pounding subjected to near fault-ground motion, 15th World Conference Earthquake Engineering, 15WCEE, Lisbon, Portugal 6. Barros R.C., Khatami S.M., 2013, Damping ratios for pounding of adjacent building and their consequence on the evaluation of impact forces by numerical and experimental models, Mecânica Experimental, 22, 119-131 7. Barros R.C., Naderpour H., Khatami S.M., Mortezaei A.R., 2013, Influence of seismic pounding on rc buildings with and without base isolation system subject to near-fault ground motions, Journal of Rehabilitation in Civil Engineering, 1, 39-52 8. Goldsmith W., 1960, Impact: The Theory and Physical Behavior of Colliding Solids, 1st ed., EdwardArnold: London U.K. 9. Jankowski R., 2008,Earthquake-inducedpounding between equal height buildings with substan- tially different dynamic properties,Engineering Structures, 30, 10, 2818-2829 10. Jankowski R., 2009, Non-linear FEM analysis of earthquake-induced pounding between thema- in building and the stairway tower of the Olive View Hospital, Engineering Structures, 31, 8, 1851-1864 11. Jankowski R., 2010, Experimental study on earthquake-induced pounding between structural elements made of different building materials, Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics, 39, 3, 343-354 12. Jankowski R., 2012, Non-linear FEM analysis of pounding-involved response of buildings under non-uniform earthquake excitation,Engineering Structures, 37, 0, 99-105 13. KajitaY.,KitaharaT.,Nishimoto,N., 2006,Estimationofmaximum impact force onnatural rubber during collision, First European Conference on Earthquake Engineering and Seismologhy, 1st Ecees, Geneva, Switzland Suggestion of an equation of motion to calculate the damping ratio... 973 14. Kasai K., MaisonB.F., 1997, Building pounding damage during the 1989LomaPrieta earthqu- ake,Engineering Structures, 19, 3, 195-207 15. KomodromosP., PolycarpouP., 2011,Numerical investigation of potentialmitigationmeasu- res for poundings of seismically isolated buildings,Earthquake and Structures, 2, 1, 1-24 16. KomodromosP.,PolycarpouP., 2012,Anonlinear impactmodel for simulating theuse of rub- ber shock absorbers formitigating the effect of structural pounding during earthquake,Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics 42, 81-100 17. KomodromosP.,PolycarpouP.C.,PapaloizouL.,PhocasM.C., 2007,Response of seismi- cally isolated buildings considering poundings, Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics, 36, 12, 1605-1622 18. Muthukumar S., DesRoches R., 2006, A Hertz contact model with non-linear damping for pounding simulation,Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics, 35, 7, 811-828 19. Naderpour H., Barros R.C, Khatami S.M., 2013, A new equation of motion to calculate the impact force and the energy dissipation,Proceedings of the Fourteenth International Conference on Civil, Structural and Environmental Engineering Computing, B.H.V. Topping, P. Iványi (Edit.), Civil-CompPress, Stirlingshire, UK, Paper 92, Doi:10.4203/ccp.102.92 20. Naderpour H., Barros R.C., Khatami S.M., 2014, A new model for calculating the impact force and the energy dissipation based on cr-factor and impact velocity, Scientia Iranica, 1, 48-63 21. Ye K., Li L., Zhu H., 2009, A note on the Hertz contact model with nonlinear damping for pounding simulation,Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics, 38, 9, 1135-1142 22. Yu Q.K., Gonzalez D., 2008, Lessons learned from the October 15, 2006 Hawaii earthquake and the August 15, 2007 Peru earthquake, 14th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering: Innovation Practice Safety, International Association for Earthquake Engineering Manuscript received October 28, 2015; accepted for print January 6, 2016