Journal of Urban Mathematics Education

July 2012, Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 21–30

©JUME. http://education.gsu.edu/JUME

CHRISTOPHER C. JETT is an assistant professor in the Department of Mathematics in the

College of Science and Mathematics at the University of West Georgia, 1601 Maple St., Carroll-

ton, GA 30118; email: cjett@westga.edu. His research interests are centered on employing a criti-

cal race theoretical perspective to mathematics education research, particularly, at the undergradu-

ate mathematics level. His research has been published in the Journal of Negro Education, Jour-

nal of Black Studies, and Journal of African American Studies.

Critical Race Theory Interwoven with

Mathematics Education Research

Christopher C. Jett

University of West Georgia

eflecting on the theme for the 2011 Benjamin Banneker Association Confer-

ence at Georgia State University The Brilliance of Black Children in Mathe-

matics, I posit that it is important to emphasize the coupling of “Black” and bril-

liance. Those concerned with the mathematics education of all children, I believe,

must bring issues of race to the fore and investigate the racialized experiences of

Black (and all) students in mathematics in such a way that celebrates the bril-

liance that Black children possess rather than their perceived “at-risk” status. As it

stands, critical race theory (CRT) is a theoretical framework that has been used to

bring forward issues of race in education research in general and mathematics ed-

ucation research in particular. In this paper, I focus my discussion exclusively on

CRT as a theoretical framework. In so doing, I describe the foundational tenets of

CRT while simultaneously addressing the theoretical and methodological appro-

priateness of CRT. Next, I discuss how CRT has informed mathematics education

research with examples from my work and that of another mathematics education

researcher, and suggest that other researchers and practitioners employ CRT in

their efforts. Finally, I conclude by challenging us all to (continue to) spread criti-

cal race messages of hope and brilliance to Black children concerning their math-

ematics achievements.

Critical Race Theory

Historically, race has been used as an unjust construct in the United States

and throughout the world.
1
As West (2001) states, “It goes without saying that a

profound hatred of African people (as seen in slavery, lynching, segregation, and

second-class citizenship) sits at the center of American civilization” (p. 106).

Since the enslavement of the peoples of Africa, Black Americans have experi-

1
The Executive Board of the American Anthropological Association endorsed a statement on race

that seeks to deconstruct race as a social construct that inequitably categorizes different racial

groups (American Anthropological Association, 1998). The Executive Board argued that racial

inequities exist not because of biological (scientific) reasoning but due to historical and modern-

ized institutionalized “racial” practices.

Jett Crtical Race Theory and Mathematics

Bullock, E. C., Alexander, N. N, & Gholson, M. L. (Eds.). (2012). Proceedings of the 2010

Philadelphia and 2011 Atlanta Benjamin Banneker Association Conferences – Beyond the

Numbers [Special issue]. Journal of Urban Mathematics Education, 5(2).

enced this hierarchical race system that places Europeans at the top and people of

color at the bottom (DuBois, 1903/2003). African Americans are still grappling

with issues of race and racism (Cleveland, 2004). Nonetheless, it has been sug-

gested by some people that race has been minimized with the election of President

Obama as the United States has entered a post-racial era. Racism, however, still

exists in various forms. There are some who suffer from dysconscious racism

where they accept White normative ideologies or possess a distorted ideological

paradigm concerning race or racism (King, 1991). Hilliard (2001) argued that race

is a political construct and that race in education is designed “to teach African in-

feriority and European superiority” (p. 25). Taken together, these arguments

demonstrate that racism is an institutionalized force that has been used both his-

torically and currently to dismiss and oppress people of African descent as well as

other people of color. While race has been used overtly and covertly to marginal-

ize people of color, CRT has emerged to critically analyze the ideological power

structure embedded within racial hierarchies.

CRT has its genesis in Critical Legal Studies (CLS) (Delgado & Stefancic,

2001). CRT developed in the mid-1970s from the work of legal scholars such as

Alan Freeman, Richard Delgado, and Derrick Bell (Delgado & Stefancic, 2001)

as a response to the lack of diversity among the faculty at Harvard University and

the marginalization of students of color from the law school’s curriculum (Carba-

do, 2002). Derrick Bell, an African American law professor, is considered the fa-

ther of CRT (Delgado & Stefancic, 2001). This movement also consisted of other

activists and scholars interested in investigating and transforming the injustices

that were brought about because of issues of race, racism, and power in our socie-

ty (Delgado & Stefancic, 2001).

Although CRT began in legal studies, it has expanded to other disciplines,

including (mathematics) education. Solórzano and Yosso (2002) argue that CRT

in education

advances a strategy to foreground and account for the role of race and racism in edu-

cation and works toward the elimination of racism as part of a larger goal of opposing

or eliminating other forms of subordination based on gender, class, sexual orientation,

language, and natural origin. (p. 25)

Additionally, CRT includes African American epistemology, which Gordon

(1990) defines as “the study or theory of the knowledge generated out of the Afri-

can-American existential condition, that is, of the knowledge and cultural artifacts

produced by African-Americans based on African-American cultural, social, eco-

nomic, historical, and political experience” (p. 90).

Historically, CRT builds off of four foundational principles. Some scholars

have added different tenets to these four principles while others have modified

them to reflect their own cultural inclinations (see Brayboy, 2005; DeCuir &

Jett Crtical Race Theory and Mathematics

Bullock, E. C., Alexander, N. N, & Gholson, M. L. (Eds.). (2012). Proceedings of the 2010

Philadelphia and 2011 Atlanta Benjamin Banneker Association Conferences – Beyond the

Numbers [Special issue]. Journal of Urban Mathematics Education, 5(2).

Dixson, 2004; Solórzano & Yosso, 2002). Nonetheless, the four principles are

consistently noted within most versions of CRT in education research and provide

the philosophical underpinnings.

First, critical race theorists argue, “racism is normal, not aberrant, in Ameri-

can society” (Delgado & Stefancic, 2000, p. xvi). Because the United States has

historical structures, institutional structures, and schooling practices that perpetuate

racism, critical race theorists assert that racism seems “normal” to people in the

United States.

Second, CRT does not follow traditions of positivist scholarship because it al-

lows researchers to employ storytelling as an epistemological resource to “analyze

the myths, presuppositions, and received wisdoms that make up the common cul-

ture about race and that invariably render blacks and other minorities one-down”

(Delgado & Stefancic, 2000, p. xvii). Through writing and storytelling, critical race

theorists seek to speak against rules and processes that continue to give power to

European Americans and allow racism to thrive in American society with the hope

of contributing to social justice by breaking down (some of) these racist barriers.

Third, CRT asserts a critique on liberalism (Ladson-Billings, 1999). I em-

brace Delgado and Stefancic’s (2001) definition of liberalism: a “political philoso-

phy that holds that the purpose of government is to maximize liberty…the view that

law should enforce formal equality in treatment” (p. 150). Critical race theorists

critique this philosophy by arguing that the dominant culture does not fully under-

stand how liberty and equality function. Under the notion of liberalism, critical race

theorists have also critiqued “colorblindness, the neutrality of the law, and incre-

mental change” (DeCuir & Dixson, 2004, p. 29) as phenomena that simultaneously

minimize and/or disregard race and do not espouse liberalism in its truest sense.

Fourth, CRT argues that Whites, particularly White women, have been the

major beneficiaries of affirmative action and civil rights legislation (Ladson-

Billings, 1999). This alignment reifies that Whites will accept and/or encourage

policies that advance people of color only when these policies can also help Whites

advance themselves (Delgado & Stefancic, 2001; Ladson-Billings, 1999). Critical

race theorists critique the motives behind White support of legislation and question

whether the policies were designed to benefit people of color in the first place (Del-

gado & Stefancic, 2001). Collectively, these four tenets provide the groundwork for

how CRT can be applied theoretically or methodologically to education research in

general and mathematics education research in particular.

Theoretical and Methodological Appropriateness of CRT

CRT has been underutilized as a theoretical and methodological framework to

investigate the mathematical experiences of African American students. Further,

issues of race and racism have been underexplored in education research. Ladson-

Jett Crtical Race Theory and Mathematics

Bullock, E. C., Alexander, N. N, & Gholson, M. L. (Eds.). (2012). Proceedings of the 2010

Philadelphia and 2011 Atlanta Benjamin Banneker Association Conferences – Beyond the

Numbers [Special issue]. Journal of Urban Mathematics Education, 5(2).

Billings and Tate (1995) argue that while race issues seem to be prevalent in socie-

ty, race has been untheorized, especially in education research. Solórzano and Yos-

so (2002) further argue, “substantive discussions of racism are missing from critical

discourse in education” (p. 37). As Hilliard (2001) questions, what can be done

about the way that we deal with race in education, particularly in education re-

search? These scholars do not suggest that scholars have not explored race or even

considered race when examining social inequality; instead, they argue that this the-

orizing has not been systematically employed when analyzing educational inequali-

ty. In an attempt to address the shortage of research in mathematics education ap-

proached from a critical race perspective, they propose that researchers employ

CRT to investigate race and racism in education. All of these issues emphasize the

importance of including the construct of race in educational research and integrat-

ing CRT as a framework to examine educational settings.

Theoretically and methodologically, CRT can be viewed “as a way to link

theory and understanding about race from critical perspectives to actual practice

and actions going on in education for activist social justice and change” (Parker &

Lynn, 2002, p. 18). CRT allows researchers to critically analyze historical and

current racial concerns through a critical race lens (Parker, 1998). Solórzano

(1998) claims, CRT “in education challenges the dominant discourse on race and

racism as they relate to education by examining how educational theory, policy,

and practice are used to subordinate certain racial and ethnic groups” (p. 122). By

not fully taking into account race and culture when investigating the issues stu-

dents of color face in schools, educational research has not adequately examined

the educational complexities students of color confront theoretically (Parker &

Lynn, 2002; Solórzano, 1998; Valenzuela, 1999). Ladson-Billings (2000) posed

the following question: “Where is ‘race’ in the discourse of critical qualitative re-

searchers?” (p. 272). Parker (1998) answers with his own methodological ques-

tion for critical thought and reflection:

Rather than ask what can this theory do for qualitative studies in education, an alter-

native inquiry I would propose is what can qualitative research in education do to il-

luminate and address the salient features of CRT with respect to race and racism in

educational institutions and the larger society? (p. 46)

Drawing upon Parker’s argument, we need to employ CRT in qualitative educa-

tional research to ascertain these racialized discourses. One of the main ways to

accomplish this goal, along with one of the methodological tenets of CRT, is the

use of “voice” (Dixson & Rousseau, 2005). With voice, there is “the assertion and

acknowledgement of the importance of the personal and community experiences

of people of colour as sources of knowledge” (p. 10). Borrowing from this tradi-

tion, critical race theorists believe in and use personal narratives and personal sto-

Jett Crtical Race Theory and Mathematics

Bullock, E. C., Alexander, N. N, & Gholson, M. L. (Eds.). (2012). Proceedings of the 2010

Philadelphia and 2011 Atlanta Benjamin Banneker Association Conferences – Beyond the

Numbers [Special issue]. Journal of Urban Mathematics Education, 5(2).

ries as forms of knowledge to document inequity, injustice, and/or discrimination

(Dixson & Rousseau, 2005).

When using the term voice, it is important not to essentialize
2
or assume that

one person’s voice speaks for the entire group or culture (Dixson & Rousseau,

2005). Delgado (1989) asserts that many who tell stories are those “whose voice

and perspective—whose consciousness—has been suppressed, devalued, and ab-

normalized” (p. 2412). Allowing their voices to be heard through the usage of de-

vices such as personal stories, narratives, counterstories, and autoethnographies,

critical race theorists seek to offer a counter-perspective to the disparaging narra-

tives about marginalized groups that circulate throughout the discourse. Addition-

ally, Delgado (1989) contends, “Members of the majority race should also listen

to stories, of all sorts, in order to enrich their own reality” (p. 2439). My argument

is that listening to the success stories of African American male students in math-

ematics can continue the legacy of mathematical brilliance among African Ameri-

can students.

Implications of CRT in Mathematics Education Research

Bell (1992) charged scholars to employ a critical race theoretical perspec-

tive in their scholarship. He wrote: “With what some of us are calling critical race

theory, we are attempting to sing a new scholarly song—even if to some listeners

our style is strange, our lyrics unseemly” (p. 144). Employing CRT as a theoreti-

cal framework also allows education researchers to explore the culture of K–16

institutions, explore the nature of racist acts, behaviors, and/or utterances to stu-

dents of color, and examine the disciplinary acts (if any) of students who engage

in these racial undertakings (DeCuir & Dixson, 2004). I, along with other scholars

(see, e.g., Berry, 2008; Carter, 2008; Duncan 2002; Harper, 2012; Martin, 2009a;

Stinson, 2008; Terry, 2011), am seeking to sing a new scholarly song in mathe-

matics education research regarding African American male students.

Martin (2009b) brought race to the forefront of his analysis. Seeking to

change the way that race is used as a means to categorize students in mathematics

education research, he proposed that race be understood as a “sociopolitical, his-

torically contingent construct” (p. 298). Further, his analysis included

(re)conceptualizing the mathematics education goals of marginalized groups such

as African Americans, Latinas/os, and Native Americans to adequately reflect

race. By doing so, Martin called for a deconstruction of the racial hierarchy of

mathematical ability that places Asian and White students at the top and African

2
Leistyna, Woodrum, & Sherblom (1996) defined essentialism as a fundamental nature or

biological determinism to human rights through attitudes about identity, experience, knowledge,

and cognitive development. Within this view, categories such as race and gender become gross

generalizations, and single-course explanations about individual character.

Jett Crtical Race Theory and Mathematics

Bullock, E. C., Alexander, N. N, & Gholson, M. L. (Eds.). (2012). Proceedings of the 2010

Philadelphia and 2011 Atlanta Benjamin Banneker Association Conferences – Beyond the

Numbers [Special issue]. Journal of Urban Mathematics Education, 5(2).

American, Latina/o, and Native American students at the bottom. Martin’s analy-

sis is an example of employing a critical race theoretical lens in mathematics edu-

cation research, and his work is seminal because it provides the backdrop from

which recent CRT mathematics education scholarship is grounded.

I utilized CRT to investigate the mathematical experiences of four success-

ful African American male graduate students in mathematics or mathematics edu-

cation who obtained undergraduate degrees in mathematics (Jett, 2009). I con-

ducted three semi-structured interviews and honed in on their racial experiences

in mathematics as African American male students. I shared their stories in narra-

tive form. Participants were given a copy of the article Beyond Love: A Critical

Race Ethnography of the Schooling of Adolescent Black Males (Duncan, 2002) to

read and reflect on before the final interview. It is interesting to note that the arti-

cle was not used to steer the participants down critical race lane, but rather to

highlight the “voices” of Black male students themselves embedded within the

manuscript. In other words, I shared the article because I wanted the participants

to feel comfortable sharing their stories with me as a researcher and to simultane-

ously expose them to CRT. I sought to examine their experiences with the disci-

pline of mathematics as African American male students. More specifically, I ex-

plored the culture of the participants’ undergraduate institutions as well as how

they negotiated race and racism as African American men in a society entrenched

with racism.

Conclusion

CRT is a theoretically and methodologically sound framework that allows

us, as researchers, to bring race to the forefront of our differing analyses in vari-

ous interdisciplinary, educational research studies. If the goal of educational insti-

tutions is to recruit and retain students of color in multiple disciplines, then these

students must be recognized as “holders and creators of knowledge” (Bernal,

2002, p. 106) even though their knowledge might not reflect the beliefs held by

the dominant population. CRT maintains that the histories, experiences, cultures,

and languages of students of color are acknowledged and respected (Bernal). In

the context of mathematics, this charge would constitute capitalizing and building

on the rich history of Africana mathematics.

While CRT should be employed to investigate the educational experiences

of African American students, new and different theoretical frameworks should

be used in tandem with CRT to better address the needs of students of color. (For

information concerning other theoretical constructs, see, e.g., Stinson & Bullock,

2012.) These frameworks must allow researchers to investigate educational phe-

nomena through a critical race lens, examine and act upon racial change in order

to eradicate (as much as possible) racial inequalities and injustices, and provide

Jett Crtical Race Theory and Mathematics

Bullock, E. C., Alexander, N. N, & Gholson, M. L. (Eds.). (2012). Proceedings of the 2010

Philadelphia and 2011 Atlanta Benjamin Banneker Association Conferences – Beyond the

Numbers [Special issue]. Journal of Urban Mathematics Education, 5(2).

access to equitable schooling practices, especially in (undergraduate) mathematics

(Parker & Stovall, 2004). Such scholarship that draws upon frameworks such as

CRT in education is long overdue (Gordon, 1990). In addition, such work can be

done by scholars from all racial and ethnic backgrounds (see, e.g., Brayboy, 2004,

2005; Fernández, 2002; Villalpando, 2003). Scholars are invited to the “critical

race table” to problematize, challenge, deconstruct, and work to eradicate issues

of race and racism.

Furthermore, theoretical frameworks like CRT are also needed to contribute

to knowledge production. Ladson-Billings (2000) asks, “But how can the full

range of scholarship be explored if whole groups of people are systematically ex-

cluded from participating in the process of knowledge production?” (p. 271). Sim-

ilarly, how can the full spectrum of mathematics be studied if African and African

American contributions are excluded from mathematics curricula, standards, and

the like? How can we sustain mathematical communities if African American

male students are still viewed as mathematically incompetent from the onset (i.e.,

Pre–K/K) of their schooling experiences to the outset (16–graduate/professional

school)? Additionally, how can we remain silent and not act while racist mathe-

matical practices continue to hinder African American (male) students from enter-

ing the mathematics pipeline? Something has to be done to critically analyze such

spaces and work to foster positive racial mathematical environments for African

American male students; CRT is a viable mechanism to critically analyze envi-

ronments where Black male students are not promoted as the mathematically tal-

ented beings that they are.

As forestated, I make use of CRT in my work because it does not contribute

to the marginalization of African American male students but rather provides a

space for them to contribute to knowledge production, even in mathematics en-

claves (Parker & Stovall, 2004). Educational researchers should be more willing

to listen to scholars and students of color and seek to better understand the mean-

ing(s) behind their racialized stories. This ideological paradigm reinforces what I

did with the four participants in my study. I listened to their stories of how being

African American and male played out in their educational experiences, especial-

ly with regards to college mathematics.

In sum, brilliance goes hand and hand with the longstanding mathematical

Africana/African American tradition. Brilliance! Brilliance! Brilliance! These

words should be the main chorus of the scholarly song that we sing to and about

Black children concerning their academic success in general and their mathemati-

cal success in particular (Bell, 1992). This message is one that I “shout out” to my

two nephews, cousins, church members, students in school settings, community

children, and all with whom I connect. My hope is that Black children both near

and far will hear these messages, internalize them, and turn them into self-

fulfilling prophecies. Such positive affirmations with critical race messages are

Jett Crtical Race Theory and Mathematics

Bullock, E. C., Alexander, N. N, & Gholson, M. L. (Eds.). (2012). Proceedings of the 2010

Philadelphia and 2011 Atlanta Benjamin Banneker Association Conferences – Beyond the

Numbers [Special issue]. Journal of Urban Mathematics Education, 5(2).

needed for the sustainment of our mathematical communities as well as the pro-

duction of more critical race educational research in the African tradition. What

critical race messages are you sending to Black children concerning their mathe-

matics experiences?

At the Symposium

During the symposium, I shared with conference attendees this overview of

CRT and how I have used it in my own work. In the breakout session, conference

participants narratives and stories were shared that aligned with the ideas ex-

pressed during my presentation. The testimonies were rich and powerful, and they

could have been used as research data to substantiate why race should be brought

to the forefront in mathematics education scholarship. Additionally, critical race

theoretical ideas were further extrapolated and expounded upon to challenge, cri-

tique, and continue the work in this domain.

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