13_jwe_3-4 final
UDC: 005.32-055.2:005.57 ; 659.23-055.2:159.9 JEL: L26; B54
ID: 203434764
SCIENTIFIC REVIEW
The Importance of Fieldwork Research to
Reveal Women Entrepreneurs Competence
in Communication
Sudarmanti Rini1, Van Bauwel Sofie2, Longman Chia3
Ghent University, Belgium
A B S T R A C T
This study reviews the main bases of interpersonal communication
competence that determine women entrepreneurs’ success: knowledge, motivation,
and communication skills. The rising phenomenon of women becoming
entrepreneurs could encourage the processes of socioeconomic development;
however, many women face barriers when trying to become successful
entrepreneurs. The literature suggests interpersonal communication is especially
relevant in the construction of women’s business networks, and that various
communication acts showcase women entrepreneurs’ knowledge, in terms of
understanding social contexts, and motivation. Despite the literature’s existing
breadth, further studies are stll needed to complete this topic because the research
subjects do not always easily express their subjective consciousness. Accordingly,
fieldwork research, which provides qualitative data, is an alternative way to gather
findings.
KEY WORDS: small business, communication, entrepreneur, fieldwork, women
1 Communication Science Dept. of Ghent University, Korte Meer 7-9-11, B-9000 Ghent,
Belgium, Rini.Sudarmanti@UGent.be or rini.sudarmanti@paramadina.ac.id
2 Coordinator Faculty of Political and Social Sciences, Dept. of Communication Science,
Ghent University, Korte Meer 7-9-11, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
3 Senior Lecturer in Gender Studies, Dept. of Languages and Cultures, Center of
Intercultural Communication and Interaction (CICI), Ghent University, Rozier 44, B-9000
Ghent, Belgium
Sudarmanti, R., et al., The Importance of Fieldwork, JWE (2013, No. 3-4, 74-87) 75
Introduction
Worldwide, entrepreneurs play an increasingly important role in
economic development and Asian societies are no exception (Lingle, 2000).
US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton refererred to this at the Women and
Economy Forum of 2011 in San Francisco.Vega and Bolinger (2012)
reported her speech in The Asia Foundation’s news that small businesses in
East Asia are increasing and growing at a fast rate.
In other countries, the number of small and medium-sized enterprises
is similarly on the rise. For example, they have become the dominant
economic agent and generate more than 70% of new employment
opportunities in Iran (Hosamane and Alroaia, 2009). Similar developments
can be ascertained for African countries like Kenya (Mwobobia, 2012) and
Nigeria. Those countries view entrepreneurship as a way to improve the
GDP growth rate (Ekpe, Mat, Razak, 2010).
The 13th Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) annual survey
reported that about 388 million entrepreneurs were actively running new
businesses in 2011. Within this number, it is also estimated that 163 million
of these will be women – as early stage entrepreneurs (Kelley, Singer, and
Herrington, 2012). However, women’s participation in entrepreneurship for
most of the sample countries is lower than that of men. Only 8 from 54
sample countries are showing equivalent rates among male and female
early-stage entrepreneurship. Those countries are Panama, Venezuela,
Jamaica, Guatemala, Brazil, Thailand, Switzerland, and Singapore (Kelley,
Singer, and Herrington, 2012, p.16). Overall, the number of women
entrepreneurs in almost every sample countries is increasing, although the
growth rate is slow.
From a gender perspective, the rising phenomenon of women
becoming entrepreneurs does not only encourage economical development
but also empower women (Gill and Ganesh, 2007). In fact, some studies
showed that the image of the entrepreneur is still male-oriented (Ahl, 2006;
Mirchandani, 1999). People tend to believe that male entrepreneurs are more
competent businessperson than female entrepreneurs. Fielden and Dawe
(2004) also indicated that social circumstances could construct barriers
against women entrepreneurs’ progress. Within the male-dominated context,
women continue to face many difficulties building their businesses (Sinha,
2005).
76 Journal of Women's Entrepreneurship and Education (2013, No. 3-4, 74-87)
According to Teoh and Chong (2008), crucial barriers that hamper
women entrepreneurs to gain success were lack of access to credit, lack of
management experience in terms of building formal business and social
networks, and difficulties in balancing family responsibilities with business.
Furthermore, researchers found that women entrepreneurs encountered
obstacles in building patterns of networking, business performance, and
finances (Fairlie & Robb, 2009; Coleman, 2007; Watson & Robinson, 2003;
Bird, Sapp, & Lee, 2001; Cliff, 1998). There are also many unexplored
dimensions of women entrepreneurship (beyond those listed here. To
understand the nature of women’s entrepreneurship in order to improve their
conditions and chances of success, researchers need to expand their focus
beyond mere economic perspectives and probe the subject using empirical
research designs. In particular, we argue that the analysis of the
communication skills women entrepreneurs use to lead or manage their
businesses can help reveal new insights.
Only a few scholars have pointed out the role of communication
competence in women’s success in small business. In Werhane, Posig,
Gundry, Ofstein, and Powell’s (2007) study, women entrepreneurs
emphasized communication acts as an important key for building successful
relationships with employees and others. Likewise, Buttner (2001) found
that women entrepreneurs used relational approaches when building
networks, even with their own employees.
As McCreskey states, “the ability to communicate effectively is
essential for success in many walks of life” (as cited in Hargie, 2006, p. 2).
For example, in a research involving 50 senior managers in multinational
corporations, Becerra and Gupta (2003) found that frequency of
communication determined trustworthiness. Hunt, Tourish, and Hargie
(2000) also concluded that interpersonal communication plays an important
role in the training managers’ daily activities.
Interpersonal communication competence is especially relevant in
situations involving gender differences, for example in the workplace.
Indeed, interpersonal communication in the workplace can ensure the
harmony of mutual understanding (Sandwith, 1994). For instance, Kunkel
and Burleson found that male and female employees show different
emotions and behaviors in different working conditions (as cited in
MacGeorge, Gillihan, Samter, & Clark, 2003). Likewise, women may
require different methods, such as mentoring relationships, to support their
professional development (Kalbfleisch & Keyton, 1995).
Sudarmanti, R., et al., The Importance of Fieldwork, JWE (2013, No. 3-4, 74-87) 77
In The Handbook of Communication Skills, Hargie, citing Wilson and
Sabees, defines competence as “knowledge, motivation, and skill” (as cited
in Hargie, 2006, p. 14). Similarly, competence is the ability to choose
adequate strategies with awareness of the implications. In Hargie’s
definition, knowledge is related to the cognitive ability to understand a
situation and context, and is necessary for one to be perceivably competent;
motivation is one’s desire to behave a certain way; and skill is the essential
technical requirement needed to perform.
Focusing on the three qualities Hargie associated with competence,
the research question guiding this literature review is the following: how is
women entrepreneurs’ interpersonal communication competence portrayed
through the lens of knowledge, motivation, and communication skills? This
study investigates the communication competencies of women
entrepreneurs in relation with their success.
The analysis reviews numerous studies on women and
entrepreneurship, mainly those conducted in United States, yet also in Israel,
India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Canada, Australia and other countries in the
South Pacific, Latin America, and Europe. Those were selected based on
availability and convenience. This analysis helps us identifying and
highlighting research areas to study further using suitable conceptual
frameworks.
Knowledge Skills
The crucial aspect of business performance is the entrepreneur’s
knowledge, although other aspects are equally important, such as good
management skills, financial access, personal qualities, and satisfactory
government support (Yusuf, 1995). This knowledge includes awareness of
gender roles, as being an entrepreneur involves playing a gender role (Moult
& Anderson, 2005).
Many studies found that gender differences affect education and
business survival (Coleman, 2007; Watson & Robinson, 2003; Boden &
Nucci, 2000; Lerner, Brush, & Hisrich, 1997). The education backgrounds
of female entrepreneurs are generally weaker than male entrepreneurs.
Limited education can affect women’s ability to manage and grow their
businesses. Beyond education, Ekpe, Mat and Razak (2011) also stressed on
the importance of experience, attitude toward risk-taking, and business
environment factors (such as credit loans) for women entrepreneurs. For
78 Journal of Women's Entrepreneurship and Education (2013, No. 3-4, 74-87)
instance, women entrepreneurs are often hesitant about applying for credit
loans because of their lack of knowledge in managing business finances.
The research findings above provide a brief picture of women
entrepreneurs’ knowledge with respect to their businesses. Data is mostly
gathered by distributing questionnaires and processing statistical data from
government surveys. From the quantitative data, it shows that women
entrepreneurs continuously must improve their managerial knowledge.
Besides that, it appears that women entrepreneurs have difficulties to adjust
with external conditions, such as market conditions and government
policies. Lack of knowledge also drives women entrepreneurs to fill areas
that did not require specific or specialized knowledge. As a result, their
businesses do not seem to perform as well as those of men.
Motivation
Motivation is a prerequisite to become an entrepreneur. McClelland
explains that the need of achievement, affiliation, and power generates
entrepreneurship (cited by Daft, 2005, p. 302-304). In a U.S.-based research,
Gill and Ganesh (2007) found four starting points for women’s
entrepreneurship: (1) stimulation for self-fulfillment by combining
responsibilities as both a housewife and entrepreneur, (2) self-determination
to pursue a valuable life, (3) self-satisfaction from fighting for survival
when facing challenges, and (4) support from friends and communities.
Additionally, women also started businesses to escape daily office routines,
accommodate creativity, and pursue a passion (Reaves, 2008).
Furthermore, socioeconomic and demographic differences could
influence women entrepreneurs’ motivation (Kalyani & Chandralekha,
2002). For instance, Orhan and Scott (2001) found that male domination
and push factors, – such as family income, difficulty finding a suitable job,
and the need for flexible time for domestic responsibilities – could motivate
women to be an entrepreneur. Similarly, in a study of 150 women
entrepreneurs in Sikkim, India, Joshi (2009) found that most of them
became entrepreneurs because of family business, unemployment, or
economic compulsion. With respect to the influence of family, Matthews
and Moser (1996) also found that family background could be a determinant
of women’s interests in owning a business.
Some studies disclosed that female entreprenuers chose specific
businesses based on their motivation. Bardasi, Sabarwal, and Terrell (2011)
Sudarmanti, R., et al., The Importance of Fieldwork, JWE (2013, No. 3-4, 74-87) 79
explored the possibility of gender-based gaps in financial access to bank
financing in Eastern Europe and Central Asia, Latin America, and Sub-
Saharan Africa. They concluded that there was no evidence of gender
discrimination and that female entrepreneurs were significantly different
from their male counterparts in their pursuit of financial loans. Similarly, in
his study, Cliff (1998) found that female entrepreneurs in North America
did not see the urgency of expanding their businesses; instead, they
carefully considered limiting resources, the time, and energy necessary to
balance the business with personal life and domestic responsibilities.
Many studies explored the motivation of women entrepreneurs
applying quantitative and qualitative research methods. Some of them
gathered data by distributing questionnaires and processing statistical data
from government surveys. These motivation studies indicated that women
entrepreneurs have their own desires to pursue a business, and most women
still prioritize domestic responsibilities.
Communication Skills
There are gender differences in entrepreneurs’ communication styles
and methods of building relationships. These differences determine the
construction of men’s and women’s business networks. Women’s
businesses were typically smaller than those of men and more active locally
than nationally (Andre, 1992); thus, women’s networks typically involved
people which they have known before for a long time. Similarly, Renzulli,
Aldrich, and Moody (2000) found that women tend to respect their kinship
when building business networks. Such close-knit social networks tended to
have positive effects on both self-efficacy and risk-taking in entrepreneurial
activity (Wang, 2010).
Women entrepreneurs tended to see communication as essential for
managing relationships with employees, governments, or social networks
(Buttner, 2001; Werhane et al., 2007). Accordingly, women entrepreneurs
may construct their own communication styles to build relationships with
employees or others. For instance, women leaders seek to construct a
communication style that reflects an ethic of care (Fine & Simmons, 2009;
Reaves, 2008; Sudarmanti, 2008). With respect to gender differences in
communication styles, Tannen identifies that, “women uses the language of
relationship, whereas men use the language of status and hierarchy” (as
cited in Pearson & Cooks, 1995, p. 317). However, Edley (2000) also found
80 Journal of Women's Entrepreneurship and Education (2013, No. 3-4, 74-87)
that women could use hierarchy in their culture of control. Edley argued that
cultural practices in women owned business are showing elements of power
and resistance. Within this particular context, women create supportive,
flexible, and loyal environments within their workplace but simultaneously
suppress and strategically subordinate the employees’ for the owner’s
achievement.
Many of the studies addressed in this section apply qualitative
research methods rather than quantitative methods to analyze women
entrepreneurs’ communication skills. Researchers gather qualitative data
from in-depth interviews, focus group discussions, and fieldwork, so they
could study the communication skills of women entrepreneurs.
Discussion and Conclusion
Research design is an essential element to conduct and explore a
phenomenon study (Silverman, 2000; Cresswell, 1998; Walsh, 1998). Based
on this literature review, we argue that entrepreneurship researchers need to
reconsider the suitability of their research designs, especially those who are
interested in women’s entrepreneurial activities.
The literature suggests women entrepreneurs have less experience,
managerial knowledge, and skills than male entrepreneurs do. For example,
many women entrepreneurs in Ekpe, Mat, and Razak’s (2010) established
themselves in fields that did not require particular or specific skills.
However, women can still obtain business knowledge through educational
pathways, courses, or training, and discover logical frameworks that
facilitate alternative strategic decisions for the growth and success of their
businesses. Furthermore, Mangunsong (2009) found that education did not
significantly determine the effectiveness of Bali, Java, Minang, and Batak
women entrepreneurs’ leadership in Indonesia. Instead, their business
performance depended on family supportiveness.
Also, limited managerial skills do not equate to negative business
intentions. Having different motivation starting points, women represented
multiple realities when managing their businesses (Leitch & Hill, 2006).
Different experiences shaped their varied approaches to or strategic choices
in managing their businesses (Hunter & Boyd, 2004). This is most apparent
in the size of a women entrepreneur’s business, which will grow only
insofar as she is comfortable managing it. Similarly, women entrepreneurs
in Cliff (1998) emphasized the importance of quality over quantity and were
Sudarmanti, R., et al., The Importance of Fieldwork, JWE (2013, No. 3-4, 74-87) 81
more reluctant to take on the financial loans and administrative requirements
associated with business growth. Women entrepreneurs in these studies
developed their businesses according to their own motives.
With respect to leadership, Flauto (1999) emphasized that a good
leader needs good communication competence; consequently, women
entrepreneurs should have good communication competence to effectively
lead and manage their businesses. However, unlike males, female leaders
were unlikely to use power as a persuasive strategy with their subordinates
(Harper & Hirokawa, 1998). Instead, women entrepreneurs are more likely
to change their strategies to accommodate the given situation. Women
entrepreneurs also employ various communication styles and patterns. Their
communication acts reflected their subjective knowledge and motivation
(Wang, 2010; Fine & Simmons, 2009; Reaves, 2008; Sudarmanti, 2008;
Werhane, Posig, Gundry, Ofstein, and Powell, 2007; Buttner, 2001; Edley,
2000).
The concept of female entrepreneurship invariably concerns gender
roles, which reflect women’s social and cultural expectations. We argues
that quantitative methods, which assume homogeneity and representative
samples, cannot adequately assess this kind of phenomenon. For instance,
surveys could not explore an individual’s perspective of women
entrepreneurs (Moult & Anderson, 2005). Accordingly, feminist researchers
have encouraged social researchers to use qualitative methods instead of
quantitative methods, on the basis that men and women are not homogenous
(Brunskell, 1998). Moreover, feminist standpoint theory argues that
women’s common experiences are different among different groups of
women, as women have multiple identities based on race, class, gender, and
sexuality (Littlejohn, 2002). Women’s different experiences can create
various interpretations and social construction standpoints. One such
qualitative research design is fieldwork research. Qualitative research
designs allow researchers to derive data from holistic natural conditions.
Although several studies related to small business and entrepreneurship
have applied qualitative methods (Perren & Ram, 2004), few use fieldwork
research to gather data. A synonym for fieldwork research is ethnography
(Fortier, 1998). Fieldwork research does not use a variable measurement
research design; rather, fieldwork research attempts to explore how and why
something occurs. Fieldwork study requires researchers to stay longer and
get involved with the subject’s context so that the researcher can carry out
82 Journal of Women's Entrepreneurship and Education (2013, No. 3-4, 74-87)
in-depth interviews and participant observations without making informants
feel uncomfortable.
In addition, according to our own experiences while conducting
fieldwork research on women entrepreneurs, we would like to suggest the
following three points. First, researchers should consider the boundaries
when gaining access and the informants’ willingness to be the subject of the
research and articulate their thoughts. It is easier to become familiar with a
woman when you know her expectations and desires. This requires time.
Second, researchers should be aware that informants cannot always
easily express their subjective consciousness: their deeper thoughts and
feelings. In many societies, the informants are more sensitive and feel
uncomfortable saying something contrary to their community’s
expectations. Their social culture has already shaped them. For example,
patriarchal culture often silences women’s voices. Listening to women does
not mean simply making documentations and reporting spoken words: it
also means catching the non-verbal layers of meaning. Sometimes the
informants do not realize what they are feeling. This fieldwork research can
provide valuable insights. This technique will assist to portray the area of
knowledge and motivation which are hidden in the area of female
subjectivity that could not easily be found empirically as reflected on the
communication acts that appear in everyday life.
Third, researchers should also close the gap by showing empathy,
knowing daily routines, and using the same language. Once a subject feels
exploited, cheated, or betrayed, she will terminate the relationship. Failure
to build a rapport will also affect the authenticity of the research’s findings.
Research skills are thus necessary to access women’s worldviews.
This study identifies some research areas and research designs that
researchers need to explore further regarding women entrepreneurs’
interpersonal communication, especially in terms of leading and building
relationships in business networks. The literature shows that communication
acts can reflect women entrepreneurs’ motivations and knowledge of social
contexts; however, there are still various aspects of interpersonal
communication that require further study, such as gestures, language,
distance/space, or other symbols which are used in the process of building
relationship.
Finally, this literature review suggests researchers should approach the
topic of women entrepreneurs through the lens of knowledge, motivation,
and communication skills: the main bases of interpersonal communication
Sudarmanti, R., et al., The Importance of Fieldwork, JWE (2013, No. 3-4, 74-87) 83
competence that determine women entrepreneurs’ success. One cannot
discuss these factors separately while adequately portraying the
entrepreneurial process. For future research, we encourage researchers to
explore mediating factors that bridging women entrepreneurs’ internal
processes with external factors, such as organizational climate, economics,
and environmental contexts. Its insights could bring us to the closer
portrayal of women entrepreneurs’ perception and their social construction.
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Važnost istraživanja na terenu u funkciji otkrivanja
veština u komunikaciji žena preduzetnika
A P S T R A K T
Ovaj rad se osvrće na osnove veštine međuljudske komunikacije koje
određuju uspeh žena preduzetnika - znanje, motivacija i komunikacijske
sposobnosti. Fenomen, koji je trenutno u ekspanziji, žene koje postaju
preduzetnice, bi mogao podstaći proces društveno-ekonomskog razvoja; ali mnoge
žene se susreću sa barijerama u svojim pokušajima da postanu uspešni
predizetnici. Literatura nam govori da su međuljudske komunikacije izuzetno važne
u građenju poslovnih mreža žena, a da razni oblici komunikacije pokazuju znanje
žena preduzetnica, kada govorimo o razumevanju društvenih konteksta, i
motivaciju. Uprkos postojećoj širini literature, istraživaći imaju još mnogo toga da
doprinesu ovoj temi jer subjekti istraživanja ne mogu uvek lako da izraze svoju
subjektivnu svest. Shodno tome, terensko istraživanje, koje nam daje kvalitativne
podatke,bi moglo biti alternativni način prikupljanja rezultata.
KLJUČNE REČI: malo preduzeće, komunikacija, preduzetnik, terenski rad, žene
Article history: Received: 26 July, 2013
Accepted: 18 October, 2013