13_jwe_3-4 final UDC: 37.014.1-055.2(676.2) ; 305-055.2(676.2) JEL: I2 ID: 203435276 SCIENTIFIC REVIEW Educational Gender Party: Challenges of the Kenyan Girl Ombati Mokua1 Department of Sociology and Psychology Moi University, Kenya A B S T R A C T This paper based on a critical analysis of official reports and related literature, focuses on girls’ education in Kenya within the context of a larger development paradigm that centres on the importance of their education for both economic and social development. It asserts that a country that does not invest enough in educating and empowering girls is undermining its socio-economic resilience, productivity and competitive potential. Investing in girls’ education is investing in development. Girls’ education has significant multiplier effects; in particular, as resources shrink, investing in girls should be recognized as a high-return investment. Despite the strides that Kenya has made in expanding the educational opportunities since independence in 1963, the access of girls to educational opportunities continues to be limited due to various socio-economic and political barriers. The paper contends that, until all vestiges of these inequities are eliminated, gender equality in education and in the larger development paradigm remains but a pipe dream. Measures to level the educational playing field remain critical for girls, families, communities and the nation as a whole, which cannot afford to be dispossessed off the full potential of over half of its population women KEY WORDS: girls, education, development, gender inequality 1 E-mail: keombe@gmail.com 110 Journal of Women's Entrepreneurship and Education (2013, No. 3-4, 109-125) Introduction This paper examines the educational gender inequalities in Kenya, its probable causes, consequences and the benefits accrued from equalising educational opportunities. The study makes recommendations on what can be done to reverse the marginalization of girls in education and the implications of these to the socio-economic development of the nation. Education is a fundamental human right and a fulfilling experience that helps girls and boys reach their full potential in the society. Education also serves as the means to bring about the desired change in society, to develop a generation of virtuous individuals and to contribute to the development of the society. It equips individuals with the knowledge and skills they need to realize their potential and to protect themselves from harm of ignorance, disease and poverty. It is important that the society ensures that all children have access to a rights-based, quality education that is rooted in gender equality, in order to bring about the ripple effects of opportunities that translate into huge benefits for society (Subaru & Raney, 1993; Eshiwani, 1993; Shanti & Chaya, 1995; Floro & Wolf, 1990). Yet millions of children in Sub-Saharan Africa are still out of school, a majority of them being girls. Despite national statistics that show narrowing disparities, girls in Kenya still receive less education than boys, particularly in Northern, North- eastern, and Coast regions, and in the slums of major urban settlements especially Nairobi. Education at all levels is still a gendered terrain and gender disparities are widest at the secondary and tertiary levels. At an overall enrolment rate of 49 percent, girls’ primary school participation is nearing that of their male counterparts at 51 percent. But North-eastern region still lags far behind compared to other provinces in the country by recording the lowest figures for girls’ enrolment in school. In 2006, only 20.8 percent of children in the North-eastern province (24.3 percent of boys and 16.5 percent of girls) were enrolled in school, compared with a national average of 86.5 percent for both boys and girls (Ministry of Education, 2007; Republic of Kenya, 2008). Government of Kenya and Ministry of Education statistics continue to indicate that the rate of women transition from primary to secondary education is much lower in fragile and marginalised regions like North- eastern. In 2006, the secondary gross enrolment rate (number of enrolled children as a percentage of the number of children in the official school-age group) was 6.3 percent in North-eastern, (8.6 percent of boys and 3.6 Ombari, M., Challenged of the Kenyan Girl, JWE (2013, No. 3-4, 109-125) 111 percent of girls), compared with a national average of 32.2 percent (34.6 percent of boys and 29.9 percent of girls). At university level, women’s representation remains low despite the fact that they are admitted at a lower entry point, based on grades attained and difficulty of courses taken at the secondary level. This university admission quota system is meant to improve women’s access to university education (Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women 2006). Women accounted for only 40 percent of the total university student population in 2007. The effects of this low representation in education are reflected in the labour market, where women represent only 30 percent of all wage employees in the modern sector (Republic of Kenya, 2008). Women’s low rates of attendance at the university level reflect the cumulative effect of factors hindering their progression in education from the time they enter school at the pre-primary level. Addressing gender disparities will not only benefit women but also men, children, and the society in general. This will also enhance women’s empowerment and contribution to the society. Justification for Girls’ Education There are several compelling benefits associated with girls’ education. Zahidi, (2009 argues that countries that have a large gender imbalance in their education system have ended up growing slower than those countries that have gender balance, basically because countries with a gender imbalance do not draw on the best talents of women, and therefore, neglecting one half of their population. Apart from talent waste, educated women tend to have children who are better educated, children who are healthier, and they also tend to have fewer children, all of which are important factors for attaining other Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), and economic growth (Republic of Kenya, 2008; Tembon & Fort, eds., 2008). Accordingly, the returns of educating girls include the reduction of child and maternal mortality, improvement of child nutrition and health, lower fertility rates, enhancement of women’s domestic roles and their political participation, increase in productivity and economic growth, and protection of girls from HIV/AIDS abuse and exploitation. It may thus be argued that until equal numbers of girls and boys are in school, it will be impossible to eradicate the vicious cycle of poverty and hunger, combat disease, ignorance and ensure environmental sustainability. 112 Journal of Women's Entrepreneurship and Education (2013, No. 3-4, 109-125) Around the world, a woman dies every minute from pregnancy-related causes. Globally, there are more than 500,000 maternal deaths per year, the majority of which are in Africa where in many places the maternal mortality rate (MMR) is as high as 1,000 deaths per 100,000 live births. And these death threats are only increasing: one in every 16 African women face the lifetime risk of dying from pregnancy and delivery-related complications. Those at more risk are from marginalized communities and those living in poverty (Banda, 2009). It has been established that educated women tend to have better knowledge about health care practices, are less likely to become pregnant at a very young age, tend to have fewer, better-spaced pregnancies, and seek pre- and post-natal care (Cochran, 1997; King & AnnHill, 1993). Education for women helps to prevent maternal deaths. By redefining the maternal role as more time intensive, education acts as an important deterrent to high fertility rates. When women have an education, their children tend to be healthier. In Kenya, as in many developing countries, a baby born to a woman who has attended primary school is twice as likely to be healthier as one born to a mother without any education (Leistikow 2003). King (1990) contends that educated women are more likely to have fewer children, to be informed about appropriate child- rearing practices and to ensure that their children start school on time and are ready to learn. Higher standards-of-living goals and higher educational aspirations for children usually lead to the decision by educated women to have a small manageable family so that adequate resources can be allocated to each child. Education is the single most important determinant of both age at marriage and age at first birth in developing countries, since women in the region tend to give birth soon after marriage. General observations reveal that a majority of girls in Kenya with no education or who do not complete primary school are likely to be mothers or pregnant before age 20, as compared to those who complete secondary or higher education. Women who have had some schooling are more likely to get married later, survive childbirth, have fewer and healthier children, and make sure their own children complete school. They also understand hygiene and nutrition better and are more likely to prevent disease by visiting health care facilities. Girls' education means a comprehensive change for the society. Even bigger changes become possible as girls' education becomes the cultural norm. Women cannot defend themselves against physical and sexual abuse until they have the authority to speak against it without fear. Education gives Ombari, M., Challenged of the Kenyan Girl, JWE (2013, No. 3-4, 109-125) 113 women authority. Educated women are less likely to undergo harmful cultural practices such as female genital mutilation (FGM) and four times as likely to protect their daughters from them (UNFPA, 2004; Jensen and Thornton, 2003). Children-especially daughters-of educated mothers are more likely to be enrolled in school and to have higher levels of educational attainment. An additional year of formal education completed by a mother translates into her children remaining in school for additional years too. A mother with a few years of formal education is considerably more likely to send her children to school. Educated women tend to have a sense of efficacy for helping their children succeed in school and support their daughter’s children education because they believe that through their involvement they can exert positive influence on their children’s educational outcomes (Oyaro, 2010). More and more women are moving into the job market as many of them are accessing and attaining post-primary education. But women's participation in the labour force is still low: Only 30 percent of women in Kenya are in the labour force (Mulama, 2010). Those women working outside the agricultural sector are mostly post-secondary educated professionals. Education enables women to acquire the skills needed for job entry, improves chances of vertical mobility, and enhances overall labour market productivity. The longer a girl is able to stay in school, the greater her chances to pursue worthwhile employment, higher education, and a life without the hazards of extreme poverty. Educated women are essential to ending gender bias, starting by reducing the poverty that makes discrimination even worse in Kenya as is the case in most developing countries. Education opens up opportunities for better-paying jobs for women. Women are key agricultural producers in Kenya, contributing 75-80% of all labour in food production and 50% in cash crop production (Rebouché, 2003). Agriculture is a major component of rural livelihoods of most Kenyans who grow crops like coffee, tea and cotton and raise livestock such as cattle, sheep, donkeys and camels. A majority of pupils in Kenya primary schools return to rural areas to farm, in search for a livelihood, after graduating, instead of going on to secondary school or university (Turana, 2010). While both young boys and girls benefit from education, it is especially important for young girls because they are largely responsible for raising much of the agriculture work. Women produce more than half of the 114 Journal of Women's Entrepreneurship and Education (2013, No. 3-4, 109-125) food grown in the world and roughly 1.6 billion of them depend on agriculture for their livelihoods. In Kenya, as is the case in most of the developing countries, women are often not able to benefit from general agriculture funding because of the institutional and cultural barriers they face including lack of access to land, lack of access to credit, and lack of access to education. Worldwide, women receive only about 5 percent of agriculture extension services and own about 2 percent of the land (Theobald, 2010). There is no doubt that education will benefit women to tend the farm better through increased physical capital and purchased inputs, and better raising of livestock and farming of crops. The Global Campaign for Education observes that basic education defends women against HIV/AIDS infection women or girls bear a disproportionate share of contracting HIV/AIDS and comprise the majority of new infections in Kenya as is the case all over the world (Ombati, 2012). Studies have established that girls with primary school level of education are more likely to be able to protect themselves from HIV/AIDS and other diseases (UNICEF, 2010). Education is thus a social vaccine that helps to reduce the spread of HIV/AIDS by contributing to female economic independence, delayed marriage, family planning, and work outside the home, as well as conveying greater information about the disease and how to prevent it. Unschooled women are likely to have little or no social and political say and are unable to support themselves. Their rights and access to land, credit and education are limited not only due to discrimination, but because of more subtle barriers such as their work load, mobility and low bargaining position in the household and community (Maendeleo Ya Wanawake Organization, 1999; Government of Kenya and United Nations Children Fund, 1992). As women get the opportunity to go to school and obtain higher-level jobs, they gain status in their communities. Status translates into the power to influence their families and communities. Barriers to Achieving Educational Gender Parity While much progress has been made in Kenya since independence in 1963 to address the gender imbalances in education and development, girls remain woefully outnumbered in schools, especially at the higher levels. Many girls are not enrolled, or drop out of schools for various reasons including negative cultural values, attitudes and practices that foster teenage Ombari, M., Challenged of the Kenyan Girl, JWE (2013, No. 3-4, 109-125) 115 pregnancy, early marriage, sexual harassment, excessive domestic chores and the disregard of the importance of girls’ education. Lack of gender responsiveness among the teachers, in the curriculum, teaching methodology, teaching and learning materials, school management systems and the overall school environment affects girl’s education. There are also factors such as financial difficulties, adverse cultural practices, family responsibilities, early marriages and pregnancy, lack of gender appropriate facilities in schools (such as latrines and sanitary towels), low self-esteem, gender-based violence and harassment, HIV/AIDS, orphan-hood, and conflicts affecting the education of girls . Experts have pointed out that for the government to end the cycle of gender imbalance in education, conditions must be set to improve the environment in which the girl child studies. Girls must remain in school until they complete the school cycle. Poverty is a big factor militating against the schooling of both boys and girls. Children coming from poverty-stricken homes have little chance of starting, let alone completing school, because of the costs involved such as school fees, activity fees, school uniforms and related school expenses. Though, it is stated that primary education is free and secondary schools do not charge tuition fee, this is far from the truth of the matter on the ground. Parents do pay a lot of money levied by school management committees. This money is not audited and normally the total amount for the year is not specified. Kenya is a low-income food-deficit country. The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) 2007 human development report ranked Kenya under the “medium human development index,” placing it 148th out of 177 countries. More specifically, 1 in every 2 Kenyans lives below the poverty line (UNDP, 2007). The number of those living in abject poverty is rising every day and they constitute those with no access to education, health-care, water and proper nutrition and sanitation. Wamahiu and Wangoi (1995) opine that when a choice has to be made between education and food, the latter is given priority. The number of cases of children dropping out of school increases due to the fact that parents faced with the burden of satisfying other basic needs cannot afford the cost of educational demands together-with. The net result is an increase of the number of street children in virtually every urban centre in the country. Countries that have boosted enrolment and attendance rates have done so because of bold leadership. Some countries abolished primary school tuition and now classrooms are brimming with children eager to learn. Up 116 Journal of Women's Entrepreneurship and Education (2013, No. 3-4, 109-125) until 2003 there was a fee to attend Kenyan schools that many families could not afford. In a country where the average income is less than $400 a year, spending the meagrely available money on education is a challenge for many parents. Families simply cannot afford to send their children to school, leaving millions of prospective students out of the classroom. The high cost of education from 1990 to 1998 shows that the percentage of Kenyan children in primary school actually dropped and the country's combined primary and secondary enrolment rate rested at only 34 percent. The elimination of school fees, an obstacle to education for impoverished families in many African countries, put Kenya “on track” to meet the Millennium Development Goals (MDG) of enrolment and gender parity objectives, at least in primary education. Some 1.2 million children flooded Kenyan primary schools in 2004 and it was estimated that the country’s total primary school enrolment neared 7.4 million, compared to less than 6 million in the Millennium year of 2000. Though the quality of education is questionable in overcrowded classes and the dropout rates are high, and critics question the morality of an education without adequate teachers, books, supplies and space, it can be argued that that this is an ambitious and necessary first step. Many children in Kenya, especially girls from poor households are engaged in exploitative child labour in violation of the Convention on the Rights of the Child and international labour standards (International Labour Office, 2002). These children are not only being exploited but also denied educational opportunities. Girls are usually ‘needed at home’ and/or ‘need to earn money.’ These are major reasons why poor girls drop out of school in most poor households in Kenya. Girls are preferred for certain kinds of child labour, particularly those involving domestic work (collecting water and firewood, taking care of siblings, assisting in household chores, and taking take care of the family). The opportunity costs are usually much higher for girls to stay home than for boys (Aikma & Unterhalter 2005, p. 39-40; Jayaweera, 1997; Wanjama & Kimani, 1995; Wamahiu & Wangoi, 1995). While educating a boy is generally seen as a sound investment, sending a girl to school is frequently seen either as bringing no gain at all, or, worse, as an actual waste of resources. Female discrimination must be overcome through levelling the educational playing field, increased awareness on the importance of education for all, and in particular, affording quality education to all children that prepares them for a productive life. Legislation can also help to tackle this problem but, in many Ombari, M., Challenged of the Kenyan Girl, JWE (2013, No. 3-4, 109-125) 117 cases, incentives are needed to persuade households to forego the income benefits they derive from their school-age children. Cultural beliefs are another barrier to girls’ educational access. Some parents attach little value to girls’ education because they believe that educating girls simply enriches her husband’s family, while educating a boy is seen as enriching his own family. In a culture where it is widely understood that a girl will eventually benefit the family that she marries into, educating a girl is sometimes likened to ‘watering someone else’s lawn (Ombati, 2003). Education in some communities is seen as a long-term investment decision: when a boy marries he stays in the family and the family can benefit from his education and expanded opportunities. A girl is a temporary family member as she joins another family upon marriage. Once a girl is married, she is no longer part of her parent’s family. Therefore, educating girls is seen as a poor investment because their earnings will be moved to the other family when they get married. Boys are usually sent to school over girls, as finances are severely limited. A negative attitude towards educated women is prevalent bringing gender stereotypes against their educational attainment or schooling. In some communities, an educated girl beyond a certain level may either miss a suitor to propose for marriage, or a suitable husband because she will have no time to learn to take care of the house and other "womanly" tasks cooking, cleaning, collecting water and firewood, caring for the children, and farming. In some parts of Kenya, education for girls has faced a hard tide with a history of conservative patriarchal customs that have caused tribal cultures, to many times marginalize girls’ education, placing it at the bottom of the list (Ombati, V, et al., 2012). The pastoralist communities of the Pokot, Turkana and Maasai, for example, have little value to education because education goes against tradition and makes the educated (boys and girls) forgo their roles in society. Female enrolment and persistence have shown to adversely affect parents’ perceptions, which include investment costs in heavy non-financial expenses. For instance, time is lost in preparation for motherhood and marriage and the opportunity cost of sending a girl-child to school is high as opposed to gains from marrying her off for dowry. Traditional biases against educating girls often influence parents to give priority to their sons over their daughters for schooling, particularly when poverty make it difficult for parents to send all of their children to school (Abagi, 1993; Ilon, 1992). Some communities especially in the remote marginal areas of North-eastern and Eastern provinces of the 118 Journal of Women's Entrepreneurship and Education (2013, No. 3-4, 109-125) country view girls’ education as alien. Early marriage is also a major factor affecting girls’ retention in school. Marriage age for Samburu girls, for example, is 12 years and in some cases, is 10 years old. Female genital mutilation (FGM) widely practiced by the Maasai and other communities cause girls to withdraw early from school. Girls circumcised at a younger age, and their subsequent ‘adult’ behaviour includes sexual activity and a lack of interest in schooling. In rural areas, parents are unwillingly to send their daughters to school and those in school are removed at puberty, for fear of an unwanted pregnancy, and are made to marry to fetch a good dowry. The journey to school is often not safe. Children who have to travel long distances to school have a greater chance of encountering difficult situations on the trip than those who live close to schools. In urban areas, girls are harassed both physically and verbally when they use public transport, and in rural areas young girls may be accosted while walking on remote paths. Many parents in rural remote areas of the country are discouraged from sending their children, specifically girls, to school when the schools are far from their homes. Distance to school can also cause delayed enrolment if girls have to wait until security structures are established. Often late enrolment is particularly damaging as girls reach adolescence and puberty while still in lower school. Mature girls are likely to be married off, become pregnant resulting in public stigmatization, ridicule, loss of self-esteem, and expulsion from school. Parents are unwilling to send girls to school if they are in danger of being kidnapped, raped, molested and subjected to other forms of abuse (Wanjama & Kimani, 1995; Government of Kenya and United Nations Children Fund, 1992). Schools are often not safe havens for learning, and in most of the world, it is girl children who are more at risk in unsafe schools. There is much gender violence in schools that goes unreported because students fear victimization, punishment or ridicule, and parents are unwilling to let their girls go to school under such circumstances. Girls are subjected to unequal treatment, intimidation, harassment, bullying, and undervaluing by other pupils and teachers. Children who are not secure in a learning environment are not able to take full advantage of the learning opportunities offered, regardless of the richness of the environment. Placing schools closer to homes is also important where the distance to school is long the safety of children during the journey to school is particularly Ombari, M., Challenged of the Kenyan Girl, JWE (2013, No. 3-4, 109-125) 119 influential in affecting parental decisions to send their girls to school (Sharon, 2005). In many schools, teachers segregate boys and girls in the same class and focus more on encouragement of boys than girls. At school, boys often get more teacher attention than girls. Teachers are often heard prophesying to girls that if they do not improve on their academic performance, they can only join local secondary schools instead of reputable national schools. The teachers constantly remind the class that girls do not use common sense and that is why they might not pass in the national examinations. Often, girls in such schools are required to provide maintenance at the school, while the teachers and the boys use their time for academic work or leisure. More commonly girls are assumed to be non-participant observers or amazed onlookers. They are made to sit at the back of the classroom, and are called on infrequently to answer questions; actions which make them develop negative self-images. Their self-confidence is further eroded when teaching materials portray them as lesser beings than men. They are conditioned to set learning and career goals that are lower than their potential. Prevailing stereotypes and images transmitted by books continue to route women to feminine roles of motherhood and home making rather than towards economic productivity and leadership (Obura, 1991; Jones, Kitetu, & Sunderland, 1997). At every level, the Kenyan educational system is failing girls by encouraging them to take an academic and scholarly career route that leads to lower pay, a route that will eventually limit them in providing for their families. Studies have established that girls have higher academic achievements in reading skills, while boys have higher educational outcomes in mathematics and natural sciences. This is particularly true for Kenyan candidates sitting the Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE). Boys are known to perform better than girls in most of the subjects, apart from English, Kiswahili and Christian Religious Education in the subsequent years. At each education level, structural barriers discourage women from entering into the challenging, and much higher-paid, fields of physical, biological and chemical sciences, technology, engineering, and mathematics. It can be argued that with a strong patriarchal environment, girls face powerful obstacles in choosing their own careers and activities, and in such circumstances, gender sensitization courses are seldom a standard part of education in Kenyan schools. At the undergraduate level, women are more often clustered in social science programmes, while men 120 Journal of Women's Entrepreneurship and Education (2013, No. 3-4, 109-125) dominate engineering and the physical sciences (Jones, Kitetu & Sunderland, 1997; Obura, 1992). The report of the Government of Kenya Economic Survey (1997) indicates that boys outperform girls in key subjects such as mathematics and science. Women are normally discouraged from the technologically oriented disciplines of engineering, architecture, natural sciences, mathematics, computer sciences, and skilled trades such as carpentry, masonry, electronics, and mechanics, and are therefore channelled to arts-based subjects that have limited openings in employment other than traditional gender careers, such as teaching and nursing. For example, in the 1998/1999 academic year only 9 percent of the college female student population, which totalled 2,679, was taking engineering courses. Females comprised 21 percent of the total 4,677 applied science students, 24 percent of the 966 in medicine and 24 percent of the 3,363 students pursuing agriculture. Many of the female students were enrolled in teaching education and arts subjects, comprising 37 percent of the total 14,038 in arts-based courses and 34 percent of the 5,478 students pursuing teaching education subjects. One solution to this problem is to create a female friendly environment in schools and communities. Teachers, parents and the community should encourage girls to select applied science-oriented and technological subjects by cultivating self-confidence and assertiveness in girls. Girls should be encouraged to venture into male dominated subjects to acquire skills needed for senior level decision-making positions in both the public and private sectors. Perhaps curriculum modifications, among other changes addressing gender stereotyping might ensure fuller participation and better performance of girls in science and technological subjects. The 1997 Government of Kenya economic survey analysis on student enrolment by course in vocational and technical training reveals a serious replication of an insignificant number of female students compared to their male counterparts enrolled in applied science courses. Out of the 641 students enrolled in mechanical engineering, only 9 percent were women. Less than 30 female students out of 741 were taking electrical, electronic, building and civil engineering courses in 1999, for example. Women only comprised 18 percent of the 339 students pursuing surveying and mapping and less than 40 percent of those pursuing applied sciences, graphic arts, information, and library and computer sciences. However, the trend is reversed in subjects like institutional management and business studies where women constituted 84 and 58 percent respectively. For example, at the Mombasa Polytechnic (which is now a full-fletched charted University), Ombari, M., Challenged of the Kenyan Girl, JWE (2013, No. 3-4, 109-125) 121 women made up 50 percent of the students pursuing business studies, while in the mechanical, automotive, electrical, building and civil engineering courses, less than 5 percent were female. They made up 20.7 percent of those in engineering and less than 40 percent in applied science, computing and information technology courses. The applied scientific subjects that women do not elect to pursue have attractive remunerations in the job market, with the result that women stand to lose since they end up in careers with low remuneration packages. Educating girls is thus the single most effective policy to raise overall economic productivity, lower infant and maternal mortality, improve nutrition and promote health. Research has shown that educated mothers immunize their children 50 percent more often than mothers who are not educated, and their children have a 40 percent higher survival rate. Moreover, mothers who have had some education are more than twice as likely to send their own children to school as are mothers with no education. The heroic educational efforts to reach school-age children, especially girls, have been thwarted by the HIV/AIDS pandemic. The epidemic is seriously threatening the education sector to the extent that Kenya, as is the case of some other sub-Saharan African countries is beginning to experience a reversal of the hard-won educational gains; affecting supply, demand, and quality of education. The HIV/AIDS pandemic is presenting enormous challenges in education, and girls’ are disproportionately affected whether they are infected or not. For example, HIV/AIDS prevalence among Kenyan women between ages 15 and 24 is about 5 percent as compared with 1 percent for their male counterparts (UNAIDS, 2009; Cohen, 2001). While the disease results in horrendous circumstances for all children that it affects, cultural practices and deeply seated beliefs exacerbate the impact on girls than boys. Not only are girls "more readily pulled out of school” when someone in the household is ill, but their rate of HIV/AIDS infection is higher than that of boys of comparable age. They are hard hit and susceptible to exploitation and sexual abuse because they are the ones to be withdrawn from school to function as caregivers to infected parents or family members, perform domestic chores, and head the households when the parents die (Kelley, 2001). The epidemic’s direct toll on Africa’s children is immeasurable. Because of HIV/AIDS, they may have never seen the inside of a classroom. Orphans and other children affected by HIV/AIDS are kept from school to care of sick relatives, or they join the labour market to bring extra income into the household. Girls are 122 Journal of Women's Entrepreneurship and Education (2013, No. 3-4, 109-125) disproportionately affected by HIV/AIDS and represent the fastest growing segment of new infections. Conclusion The study has established that the education of girls is one of the most powerful forces of development. The broad social benefits of girls' education include increased family incomes; later marriages and reduced fertility rates; reduced infant and maternal mortality rates; better nourished and healthier children and families; lower childbirth-related death rates; greater opportunities and life choices for more women (including better chances to protect themselves against HIV/AIDS); and greater participation of women in development, as well as in political and economic decision- making. Girls' education is widely perceived as the best investments that a country can make. The study also affirms that addressing concerns about the education of girls requires a gender sensitive education system that would eliminate all gender biases and discrimination. Considerable effort needs to be directed towards identifying the causes that are obstacles to girls' education, researching alternative solutions, implementing a range of solutions to enable girls to acquire quality education, and contribute to development. As the leading provider of education, the government should acknowledge that compensatory mechanisms may be required to level the playing field for disadvantaged girls, and it should adopt an approach that customs these mechanisms. Similarly, the government can make education equitable through adopting policies and initiatives that support equal provisions across genders. These concerns can also be addressed through advocacy and intervention activities that aim to create conditions for the elimination of gender disparities and promote overall development in the country. References [1] Abagi, O. 1993. “Education for All in Kenya: Improving Access and Retention of Marginal Groups within the School System.” Basic Education Forum, 3: 53- 64. [2] Banda, P.S. 2009. Africa Steps Up the Fight Against Maternal and Child Deaths. Available at: http://thewip.net/contributors/2009/05/africa_steps_up_the_fight_agai.html [3] Cochran, S. 1997. Fertility and Education: What Do We Really Know? Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press Ombari, M., Challenged of the Kenyan Girl, JWE (2013, No. 3-4, 109-125) 123 [4] Cohen, D. 2001. Poverty and HIV/AIDS in Sub-Saharan Africa, Sussex University, press. [5] Eshiwani, S.G. 1993. Education in Kenya since Independence. Nairobi: East African Educational Publishers. [6] Floro, M and Wolf, J. 1990. The Economic and Social Impact of Girls’ Primary Educationin Developing Countries, Washington DC: Creative Associates International. [7] Government of the Republic of Kenya. 2008. Millennium development goals status report for Kenya–2007.Ministry of State for Planning, National Development and Vision 2030. [8] Government of Kenya. 1997. Economic Survey. Nairobi: Central Bureau of Statistics, [9] Government Printer. Government of Kenya and United Nations Children Fund. 1992. Children and Women in Kenya. A Situation Analysis. Nairobi: Reader Printers Ltd. [10] Ilon, L. 1998. “The Effects of International economic Dynamics on Gender Equity.” International Review of Education, 44(4): 335-356. [11] Ilon, L 1992. “Fitting Girls' Schooling into Existing Economic Paradigms: Confronting the Complexities.” International Journal of Education Development, 12(2): 147-159. [12] Turana, J.O. (2010). Free Secondary Education Favours Wealthy Children. 24th June 2010: allafrica.com/stories/201006240087.html [13] Jensen. R. and Thornton, R. 2003. “Early female marriage in the developing world.” Gender and Development 11(2): 9-19. [14] Jones, A. M., Kitetu, C and Sunderland, J. 1997. “Discourse Roles, Language Textbook Dialogue: Who Learns from John and Sally." Gender and Education, . 9(4): 469-490. [15] King, E. 1990. Educating and Girls: Investing in Development. Washington, DC: World Bank. [16] King, E and AnnHill, M. 1993. Women’s Education in Developing Countries: Barriers, Benefits and Policy. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. [17] Leistikow, N. 2003. Teen Girls Flooding Kenya's New No-Cost Schools. WeNews correspondent, Sunday, September 7, 2003 [18] Maendeleo Ya Wanawake Organization. 1999. Reducing Reproductive Health Barriers toPrimary School Completion among Kenyan Girls. The Academy for Educational Development and the Johns Hopkins University Center for Communication Programs. [19] Mulama, J. 2010. “Nomadic Schools for Mobile”. Inter Press Service News Agency. October 29. [20] Obura, A. 1991. Changing Images: Portrayal of Girls and Women in Kenyan Textbooks. Nairobi: Act Press. [21] Ombati, V., et al. 2012. Gender Inequality in Education in sub-Saharan Africa, Journal of Women's Entrepreneurship and Education, 4-5: 140-145. 124 Journal of Women's Entrepreneurship and Education (2013, No. 3-4, 109-125) [22] Ombati, V.F.O. 2012. The Feminization of HIV in Sub-Saharan Africa, Africa Policy Journal of Harvard. [23] Ombati, V.F.O. 2010. Women in Society: The Participation of Women in Educational Leadership in Kenya Municipal Primary Schools. Saarbrucken, Germany. LAP Lambert Acad. Publ. [24] Oyaro, K. 2010. “Teenage Mothers Denied Education”. Inter Press Service News Agency May, 23. [25] Rebouché, R. 2003. “Labor, Land, and Women’s Rights in Africa: Challenges for the New Protocol on the Rights of Women”. Harvard Human Rights Journal 2003. [26] Shanti, C. and Chaya, N. 1995. “Education Girls: The Gender Gaps and Gains.” Population Action International, Washington, DC [27] Subaru, K. and Raney, L. 1993. “Social Gains from Female Education.” World Bank Discussion Papers. Washington DC. [28] Sharon, L. 2005. „For girls in Africa, education is uphill fight.“ New York Times, December, 23. [29] Tembon, M., and Fort, L. eds. 2008. Girls’ education in the 21st century: Gender equality, empowerment, and economic growth. Washington, DC: World Bank. [30] Theobald, M. 2010. Female Farmers Overcome Barriers to Feed Africa. World Watch Institute. Available at: http://www.worldwatch.org/node/6431. [31] UNAIDS 2009. HIV/AIDS epidemic update Sub Saharan Africa 2009: UNAIDS Outcome Framework 2009–2011: nine priority areas. 24th November 2009 [32] UNFPA. 2004. Child Marriage Advocacy Programme: Fact Sheet on Child Marriage and Early Union. [33] UNICEF 2010. Progress for Children: Achieving the MDGs with Equity (No. 9. September 2010) [34] Wamahiu, S and Wangoi, N. 1995. “Schoolgirl Drop -out and Adolescent Pregnancy: Counting Cost.” Basic Education Forum, 6: 1-22. [35] Wanjama, L.N and Kimani, E.L. 1995. „Justification in Making Gender a Critical Variable in Education.” Basic Education Forum, 6: 23-45. [36] Zahidi, S. 2009. Why investing in girls education makes sound economic sense. Tuesday, June 23, 2009 Udeo poslova u obrazovanju kenijskih devojaka A P S T R A K T Ovaj rad se temelji na kritičkoj analizi službenih izveštaja i literature, fokusirajući se na obrazovanje devojaka u Keniji i važnost njihove edukacije za privredni i društveni razvoj. Autor tvrdi da zemlja koja ne ulaže dovoljno u Ombari, M., Challenged of the Kenyan Girl, JWE (2013, No. 3-4, 109-125) 125 edukaciju i osnaživanje devojaka, podriva svoj društveno - ekonomski oporavak, produktivnost i konkurentnost. Ulaganjem u obrazovanje devojaka istovremeno se ulaže u razvoj. Stoga, obrazovanje devojaka ima značajne multiplikativne efekte, tako da se ulaganja u obrazovanje devojaka moraju priznati kao investicije, koje se brzo vraćaju. Uprkos tome, Kenija ide sporim koracima u pogledu širenja obrazovnih mogućnosti. Naime,od sticanja nezavisnosti 1963, pristup devojaka obrazovnim institucijama je i dalje ograničen zbog različitih društveno - ekonomskih i političkih prepreka. U radu se tvrdi da uprkos eliminisanja nejednakosti medju polovima, ravnopravnost polova u obrazovanju ostaje u sferi lepih želja. Mere na nivou obrazovanja treba da odigraju ključnu ulogu za devojke, porodice, zajednicu i narod u celini, kako bi se iskoristili puni potencijali devojaka i žena koje čine više od polovine stanovnika u ovoj zemlji. KLJUČNE REČI: devojke, obrazovanje, razvoj, neravnopravnost polova Article history: Received: 15 April, 2013 Accepted: 18 Novemebr, 2013