15_jwe_3-4
UDK: 331.5:305-055.2(669)"2007/2011"
371.212.1-055.2(669)
COBISS.SR-ID 219394060
ORIGINAL SCIENTIFIC PAPER
Does Female Participation in Teaching
Affects Enrolment of Female Students in
Secondary Schools in Nigeria?
Adekoya Adenuga Fabian1
Michael Otedola College of Primary Education, Department of Economics, Nigeria
A B S T R A C T
This study examined the notion that the female participation in teaching
would affect the enrollment of female student in secondary in Nigeria. To do this,
the feminism theory was explored to supoort the gender equality agenda going on
around the globe. The literature also pinpointed that promoting the engagement of
women in teaching profession would assist the economy. Owning to this, the study
made used of panel data from 2007 to 2011 and data were analysed using the
static panel data regression. The result shows that female participation in teaching
has positively affected the enrollment of female students in secondary schools in
Nigeria at 5% level of significance. In addition, the enrollment of female students
at this level of education was not motivated by the presence of male participation
in teaching. Thus, policy makers were advised to make appropriate plan to
accommodate more women in the teaching profession in order to increase female
students enrollment in secondary schools and consequently reduce the gender
inequality.
KEY WORDs: enrolment of female students, female participation in teaching and
gender equality
1
Lecturer, P.M.B. 1028 Noforija-Epe, Lagos State, Nigeria. Email:
adenugaadekoya@gmail.com
98 Journal of Women’s Entrepreneurship and Education (2015, No. 3-4, 97-106)
Introduction
The promotion of gender equality on how women could be empowered
through education have received much attention in the liteature especially
after the CEDAW Beijing Declaration in 1995 (McCracken, Unterhalter,
Márquez & Chełstowska, 2015). That is, women education was noted as a
necessity to guarantee women’s employment for instance, in education
sector which could better served as economic surety for them in the future
(Kelleher et al 2011). Not only that, it is possible to increase their supportive
role both at home and in the society by avoiding a discrimination in learning
environment for men and women (National Bureau of Statistics, 2014).
Also, one means of lowering discrimination against women is to increase
their enrolment for education and make them to participate in employment
like the teaching profession. Again, both the need to enroll more women for
schooling and participated in the teaching profession have received more
clamor (Kelleher et al 2011). This is because development central around
women yield an exceptional gains in the society. More so, Schultz (2001)
asserted that government need to invest more on girls’ education as
evidence around the world have proven that the social returns to female
schooling were more higher that the returns to males.
In Nigeria, the clamoring of gender equality has received much
supports as the share of women in teaching and the female students’
enrollment at the secondary school level in 2006 and 2010 have increased
from 37.07% to 56.13% and 37.07% to 56.13% respectively based on the
National Bureau of Statistics (2012). More so that the year-on-year rate of
change in girls’ enrolment in secondary school rose from 8.0 percent in
2011 to 11.5 percent in 2012 and 17.0 percent in 2013 (National Bureau of
Statistics, 2014). In addition, the participation of women in teaching and
enrollment of girls’ education has been variably improved in Nigeria
(Nwagwu, 1994). But, the female enrollment in the final examination
between 2007 and 2011 in West African Examination Council shows that
the female enrollment dropped from 45.38% to 45.16% based on the
National Bureau of Statistics (2012). Thus, one may intented to ask whether
the enrolment of female in secondary schools might have increased over the
years based on increased of women participation in teaching at secondary
level in Nigeria? Perharps, if one is not gendered sensitive could it be that
the possibility of male participation has assisted in inreasing the female
enrollment in secondary schools? However, available studies like Handa
(2002) showed how women in teaching profession has affected enrollment
Adekoya, A.F., Female Participation in Teaching, JWE (2015, No. 3-4, 97-106) 99
at primary school in Mozambique; George and Thinguri (2013)
demonstrated that female teachers would affect the perfomance of female
student in Kenya. Suryadarma, Suryahadi and Sumarto (2006) focused on
what causes low enrollment of girls in secondary schools in Indonesia as
Igberadja (2014) studied what causes low enrollment in Delta state, Nigeria.
Besides, the objective of this study is to see how women participation in
teaching has affected the enrolment of female students in the literature
particularly in Nigeria as it has remained uncaptured empirically based on
available studies. Moreover, the importance of the study would help the
policy makers in Nigeria to confront the challenges that may arise in terms
of low student-teacher ratio as the students’ enrollment is increasing in spite
of the increased in female teachers at secondary level of education. Hence,
this would also help in actualizing the objective of universal basic education
and promotion of gender parity in the country.
Literature Review
Gender equality and more women participation in the economy has
been fronted through the feminism theory. The feminism theory believes
that more attention and rights should be given to women in the society
especially on issues affecting their well-being. This was based on the fact
that women were not given due recognition in the society and couple with
the high prevalent poverty and domestic violence mitigating them which
had made a wider inequalities to exist between women and men. The
feminism theory further acclaimed that ways to remove the inequality
between women and men are to make women to have equal right to
education and made their voices to be more heard through participation in
public offices which include teaching profession. In this regard, women
would be more empowered and overcome their problem of low status they
were made to suffer in the society (Alabi & Alabi, 2013 and Mosedale,
2014). Thus, the notion is that when female participation is increase, the
enrollment of female students in secondary school would increase and by
this, gender inequality would be reduced in society.
Meanwhile, the participation of women in the teaching has received a
significant tone in the literature due to their better performance on the job
especially on the relation to girls’ enrollment in schools. For instance,
Handa (2002) reveals that gender composition of trained teachers helps to
encourage pupils’ enrollment as the study examined how school quality
100 Journal of Women’s Entrepreneurship and Education (2015, No. 3-4, 97-106)
through trained teachers could be used to improved enrollment of primary
pupils in Mozambique. The study found that a positive significant relation
exist between them. That is, enrollment may be increased by 1% point when
trained teachers is increased in number by 10. But, the work went further to
have sex disaggregation of the trained teachers, the result indicated that the
share of female trained teachers has significant impacted on the girls’
enrollment. That is, 1% increase female trained teachers would increase the
enrollment of girls’ in primary schools by 0.473%. More so, the latter result
shows that parent in Mozambique were not willing to allow their children
being taught by male teachers simply that male teachers habitually made
them in fetching water and firewood (Handa,2002). Mwangi, George and
Thinguri (2013) conducted a study on what determined low girls’
enrollment in physics in secondary schools in Kenya on the account that low
women involvement in sciences were noted to have affected the
requirements for admission. The work concluded that during practical
sessions, female students rarely enjoyed the support of their physics
teachers. But, acclaimed that physics teachers should be more innovative
and effective when delivering their subject matter so as to attract and sustain
the interest of many girls. Suryadarma, Suryahadi and Sumarto (2006)
focused on poor enrollment in secodary schools but have advanced other
causes like building of more schools, consumption expenditure and religious
background as factors that may increased or decreased enrollment in
secodary schools in Indonesia. Similarly, Igberadja (2014) studied what
causes low enrollemnt in techinical schools in Delta state, Nigeria baesd on
teachers perception. The study used a primary data to elicit responses
from19 principals and 280 teachers with the aid of z-test to analysed the
data. More so, the result shows that school factors is among factors
responsible for low enrollment in technical schools in Delta state, Nigeria.
Besides, one of the issue emphasised in the literature about the enrollment is
its inconclusive nature of whether it is purely determined by the supply side
of education or it demand side of education.
The Data and Method
Nature and source of data. This study made used of annual data that
comprised time series and cross-section from 2007 to 2011. The choice of
this period were based on access to data and particulary, it affords the study
to see how the female particpation in teaching has affected the enrollment of
Adekoya, A.F., Female Participation in Teaching, JWE (2015, No. 3-4, 97-106) 101
female school students in secondary schools across and within the country.
Data were sourced from the Annual Abstract of the National Bureau of
Statistics, 2012.
Enrolment of female students (EFFS). The enrolment of female
students signifies the number of female students enrolled and sat for final
seconday examination conducted by the West African Examination Council
from May/June, 2007 to May/June, 2011. This variable was employed
beacuse it showed those student that enrolled and continued their
studentship in respect of one barrier or the other.
Female participation in teaching (FPIT). The female participation in
teaching involves the number of women teachers that registered with the
Teachers’ Registration Council and were involves in teaching of secondary
school students in Nigeria. The use of this variable to capture female
participation in teaching is based on available data and its previous used in
the work of Handa (2002). Besides, Handa (2002) focused on the trained
female teachers at the primary schools level in Mozambique and found it
significant with female enrollment.
Male participation in teaching (MPIT). To capture male participation
in teaching, the number of men teachers that registered with the Teachers’
Registration Council and engaged in teaching at secondary school in Nigeria
was used. The variable to introduce to serve as the control variable and see
if male participation in teaching especially at secondary school would have
any influence in promoting girls’ enrollment at that level of deducation.
This variable had been employed in the study of Handa (2002) and found
not significant with female enrollment.
Methodology. The analysis in this study was done by using STATA
12.0 in estimating the static panel data based on the available data as pointed
out earlier. At initial stage, the Pooled OLS model was tested and the result
shows that variable of interest (FPIT) was significant at 5% and more so, the
Pool OLS model was significant at 1%. But, because there may be
individual and time variant in the different states in the country if such exist
otherwise spurious regression may occurred, the study proceeded to
estimate the Random Effect model. In estimating the Random Effect model,
it was noted that the model was also, significant at 1%. Notwithstanding, the
study used Breush-Pagan LM test to decide the choice between Pool OLS
and Random Effect models which was in favour of Random Effect. That is,
the individual and time variant in the different states in the country exist
which connotes that unobserved specific effects exist. Then, a need arise to
102 Journal of Women’s Entrepreneurship and Education (2015, No. 3-4, 97-106)
see whether or not the presence of unobserved specific effects is distributed
independently on the independent variables. In this wise, Fixed Effect
model was tested and the model was weakly signifiant at 10% which means
the presence of unobserved specific effects is not distributed independently
on the independent variables. Having done this, following Mohm Isa (2014),
a Hausman test was conducted which shows that there is consistency of
effect across the states in the country that is, the result favoured Fixed Effect
model. The Random Effect and Fixed Effect model for the study are hereby
specified as follows in equation 1 and 2 respectively.
In addition, diagnostic tests were carried out to show that the result of
the Fixed Effect model was more robust. The test of variance inflation factor
shows there is no multicollinearity among the independent variables. More
so, the diagnostic reveals that there is no serial correlation but
heteroskedasticity exist (see Table 1). In view of this, a robust test of
heteroskedasticity was done which enabled the model to be significant at
10% and both female participation in teaching and female participation in
teaching were significant at 5% and 10% respectively. Then, Panel
Corrected Standard Error was employed and the result was interpreted.
Empirical specification of the model. In carring out the empirical test
for the study, the reduced form equation as specified by Handa (2002) was
used and it thus specify as below in equation 1. In addition, all the variables
were logged in linear form following Wu and Wu (2012). More so,
parameters were specified in terms of to explain the proportion of
independent variables that would cause changes in the dependent variable.
is the constant parameter and is the time invariant part of the disturbance
term as are the individual and time invariant in the disturbance term.
Adekoya, A.F., Female Participation in Teaching, JWE (2015, No. 3-4, 97-106) 103
Results and Conclusion
The notion that when women were allowed to participate in teaching in
secondary schools, female students enrollment at this level of education
tends to increased for the actualisation of gender equality in the society was
tested. The result of the empirical test shows that Female Participation in
Teaching is positive related to the Enrollment of Female Students in
secondary schools is significant at 5% in the Panel Corrected Standard Error
(see Table 1 below). This result is robusted having corrected for the problem
of heteroskedasticity found in the result of the fixed effect model. That is, an
increase of 1% in Female Participation in Teaching would cause increase of
0.346% in the Enrollment of Female Students in secondary schools. Similar
result was noted in Handa (2002) on the studied of primary school
enrollment in Mozambique. More so, the result proffessed the effort of the
Federal Government of Nigeria in addressing the problem of low teachers in
secondary school in 2006. This effort in making teachers to be more
available has promoted gender equity due to increased in girls’ enrollment,
retention and community participation (Nigeria MDG Report, 2013).
Meanwhile, the result for the Male Participation in Teaching is positive and
not significant with the Enrollment of Female Students in secondary
schools. Although a 1% increase in Male Participation in Teaching would
cause an increase of 0.155% in the Enrollment of Female Students in
secondary schools. Likewise, the result of the Male Participation in
Teaching is related to Handa (2002).
From the above, Female Participation in Teaching in Nigeria has made
the female enrollment in secondary schools to increase statitically by
0.346%. This lend credence to the assertion of the gender agenda that more
women should be empowered through employment like teaching. That is,
employment of women in teaching would assist in reducing the gender
parity through the means of girls’ educationg in the country. Therefore,
policy makers are enjoined to make appropriate plan to accommodate more
women in the teaching profession so as to encourage more girls’ education
in the country in order to reduce the gender inequalities that exist between
men and women in Nigeria. However, that does not stop the outright of
male employment into the teaching profession at secondary schools in order
not create gender inequality. In addition, reduction of male teachers in
secondary schools in Nigeria should be cautiously done since more time
would be required to have a enough women that can fill those position as
gender equality is also being promoted in all other work-sectors.
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Adekoya, A.F., Female Participation in Teaching, JWE (2015, No. 3-4, 97-106) 105
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[4] Igberadja, S. (2014). “Assessment of Teachers’ and Principals’ Opinion on
Causes of Low Enrollment of Students in Technical Colleges: A Delta State
Study.” Journal of Educational Policy and Entrepreneurial Research, 1(2):
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feminist standpoint. Journal of International Development, 26, 1115–1125.
[8] Mwangi, B. N., George, G. E. And Thinguri, R.W. 2013. Determinants of
Girls Low Enrollment in Physics in Secondary Schools: Case of Kajiado
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[10] Schultz, T. P. 2001. Why Governments Should Invest More To Educate
Girls.Yale University.
[11] Suryadarma, D., Suryahadi, A. and Sumarto, S. 2006. Causes of Low
Secondary School Enrollment in Indonesia. The SMERU Research Institute,
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106 Journal of Women’s Entrepreneurship and Education (2015, No. 3-4, 97-106)
Da li učešće žena u nastavi utiče na upis učenica u
srednje škole u Nigeriji?
A P S T R A K T
Ova studija ispituje da li učešće žena u nastavi može da utiče na upis učenica u
srednje škole u Nigeriji. U tu svrhu je uzeto u obzir ispitivanje feminističke teorije
kao podrške postizanja ravnopravnosti polova ,koja se primenjuje širom sveta.
Analiza literature je takođe pokazala da bi podsticanje angažovanja žena u
nastavničkim profesijama pomoglo privredi. Pored toga, istraživanje je uzelo u
obzir podatke o učešću žena u nastavi od 2007. do 2011. godine. Obrađeni su
podaci uz pomoć regresione metode. Rezultati istraživanja su pokazali da učešće
žena u nastavi se pozitivno odrazilo na upis učenica u srednje škole u Nigeriji za
5%. Shodno tome, predlaže se da nosioci politike zapošljavanja donesu plan koji bi
podstakao prijem većeg broja žena u nastavničke profesije kako bi se povećao upis
učenica u srednje škole i time smanjila nejednakost polova.
KLJUČNE REĆI: Upis studenata, sudelovanje žena u nastavi, ravnopravnosti
polova
Article history: Received: 11 September, 2015
Accepted: 10 November, 2015