12_jwe_3-4 UDC: 005.(85) JEL: B54; L26 ORIGINAL SCIENTIFIC PAPER Why Women Enter into Entrepreneurship? An Emerging Conceptual Framework Based on the Peruvian Case Avolio Beatrice∗, CENTRUM Católica, Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú A B S T R A C T The study identifies the various reasons why women become entrepreneurs, considering their life cycle and the factors that have encouraged them, using the qualitative paradigm based on case studies of twenty-four women entrepreneurs in Peru. The research identified six profiles according to the different routes by which women choose entrepreneurship: Young Women with Employment Options, Growing Women with External Constraints, Consolidated Women with a Trunked Career, Natural Young Women, Growing Women, and Consolidated Professional Women. The findings proposed that women entrepreneurs are not a homogeneous group, considering a sole dimension to understand why women become entrepreneurs is an inadequate simplification. KEW WORDS: women, entrepreneurs, motivation, entrepreneurship, women entrepreneurs Introduction For many years results from Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) have shown a large propensity of women in Latin America to engage in entrepreneurial activities (Minniti, Arenius & Langowitz, 2005). ∗ Calle 9 s/n, Los Alamos, Santiago de Surco, Lima, Perú, tel. / fax: (511) 3133400, email: bavolio@pucp.edu.pe Journal of Women's Entrepreneurship and Education (2012, No. 3-4, 43-63) 44 Even though men in these countries often take part in entrepreneurial activities, the share of women (nascent) entrepreneurs is considerably higher than for instance in Europe and North-America (Allen, et al., 2008). Yet, there has been limited research on women entrepreneurial activity, despite the fact that the cultural differences between Latin America and developed countries makes Latin American women entrepreneurs’ experiences unique and worth studying. This study explores the relation of factors that have stimulated women to become entrepreneurs with demographic, educational, working and family backgrounds, using the case of women entrepreneurs in Peru and proposes a conceptual framework that explains integrally why women become entrepreneurs. Peru is particularly interesting as a context for research on entrepreneurship as it had the highest Female Total Entrepreneurial Activity rate in the world (Minniti, Arenius & Langowitz, 2005) in 2005: 40.3% for the whole country and 39.1% for women, and a ratio of female TAE / male TAE of 0.94, the highest ratio of all countries included in the study, which means that “for each female entrepreneur there is practically one male entrepreneur” (p. 58). This study represents an important contribution to entrepreneurial activity knowledge in subjects and areas that current literature has not yet addressed thoroughly. Studying the factors that stimulate women is important to promote entrepreneurial activity, because the success of a small enterprise depends of the initiatives of a person to create a viable business (Mitchell, 2004). Increasing the knowledge on women’s entrepreneurial activity, in Latin America in particular, will help to understand the phenomenon and facilitate the implementation of support programs that help promote the creation of enterprises by women and develop a favourable environment for entrepreneurial activity. It is important to increase the knowledge about women’s entrepreneurial activity not only because the number of women-owned enterprises is growing in the world, but because there is current evidence that shows that women and men’s motives and profiles may be different (Mitchell, 2004). Previous Research In the last decades, entrepreneurship has been a growing field for research in the world, especially in developed countries (Weeks & Seiler, Avalio. B., Why Women Enter into Entrepreneurship, JWE (2012, No. 3-4, 43-63) 45 2001). However, most of the knowledge on entrepreneurial activity is based on studies about men entrepreneurs (Brush & Bird, 2002; Hisrich & Brush, 1984; Hisrich & Brush, 1986). Several authors consider that it is inadequate to use the results of men entrepreneurs studies for the cases of women entrepreneurs because, even if men and women entrepreneurial attitudes are influenced by various of the same variables, these factors do not influence both genders in the same way or with the same intensity, and women show organizational processes and styles different from those of men (Brush & Bird, 2002; Carter & Cannon, 1992; Minniti, Arenius & Langowitz, 2005; Mitchell, 2004; Weeks & Seiler, 2001; Zapalska, 1997). Besides, most of the knowledge on entrepreneurial activity in general, and especially on women, mainly comes from developed countries, while in Latin America little is known about women and their enterprises. Also, most of the studies found on the literature that have explored women entrepreneur’s possible motivations suggest a wide range of reasons but such reasons have not yet been integrated into a conceptual framework that integrally explains why women become entrepreneurs. Women entrepreneurs’ motives to start their enterprises are usually explained through the push and pull factors1 (Buttner & Moore, 1997) and the family environment (Orhan & Scott, 2001). However, the push/pull model does not clearly distinguish external circumstances or situations from personal motives, and assumes the push factors have a negative connotation. Literature presents a wide range of possible motivations for women to become entrepreneurs According to Neider (1987) and Hisrich and Brush (1986) women entrepreneurs and men entrepreneurs differ in their motivations to start a business: men are motivated by the desire to control their own destinies, while women are motivated by the need of independence and achievement. They also have different difficulties in the processes involved when starting an enterprise, the problems they face and their administrative and entrepreneurial skills. Minniti et al. (2005) demonstrated that the decision to start a new enterprise is more complex for women than for men, and women tend to be more sensible than men 1 The push factors are related to needs that prevent individuals from taking a different alternative to self-employment, such as insufficient family income, dissatisfaction in paid jobs, difficulty to find work and need for a flexible schedule. The pull factors refer to self-fulfillment, independence with regards of a hierarchical structure or the wish for status (Orhan & Scott, 2001). Journal of Women's Entrepreneurship and Education (2012, No. 3-4, 43-63) 46 regarding non-monetary incentives. In Asia and Latin America, Kantis et al. (2002) and Lee (1996) found that the need of achievement, of personal development and the desire to be their own boss were the main factors to become an entrepreneur. In the United States, the factors found are related to the need of achievement, independence, a greater job satisfaction, economic need, a greater possibility to combine their responsibilities at home with those from work, job frustration, being unemployed, boredom or widowhood, the opportunity, status, power, job security, the opportunity to take challenges, self-determination and the desire to balance family and job responsibilities (Brush, 1992; Buttner & Moore, 1997; Goffee & Scase, 1985; Hisrich & Brush, 1986; Schwartz, 1976). In Canada, identified factors include: achieving an old dream, the desire to use their own talents, achieving acknowledgement from others, the logic continuity of job experience, the need to control their own lives, using their own talents, the economic need, having something of their own, having something they can control and through which they can express themselves, creation of jobs for the family and to a better quality of life because work is too demanding and restrictive for the work of a mother (Lee-Gosselin & Grisé, 1990). In South Africa, the identified factors include the need for independence, the need for material incentives and for achievement, the need to keep learning and for obtaining more money to survive (Mitchell, 2004). Echeverri- Carroll and Brandazza (2002) consider that women tend to be pushed to becoming entrepreneurs by the negatives aspects of corporative working environment, such as glass ceiling limitation, discrimination and inflexible hours. Research shows that the large relative potential to have higher income as self-employed and the demand of flexible hours push women to create their own enterprises. The possibility of creating their own working schedule lets them find a better balance for their professional and family responsibilities. According to Cooper (1981), the decision to start an enterprise seems to be influenced by three main factors: (a) the entrepreneur’s background, including the different aspects that have an impact in their motivations and perceptions as in their knowledge and skills; (b) the nature of the organization they have previously worked in, those characteristics influence location, nature and the directions of new enterprises; and (c) the situation factors that generate a climate more or less favourable for the foundation of a new enterprise. Entrepreneur background includes psychological characteristics, such as the need for achievement and the Avalio. B., Why Women Enter into Entrepreneurship, JWE (2012, No. 3-4, 43-63) 47 conviction that they can control their own destinies; several family aspects, like father or a close relative who has his/her own enterprise; the type of education received and the professional experience. Orhan and Scott (2001) analyzed 25 women entrepreneurs in France and created a consolidated model of entrepreneurial motivation, in which they identified seven motives for women to become entrepreneur. Goffee and Scase (1985) obtained qualitative information of 54 women from the United Kingdom to develop a typology of women entrepreneurs based on two dimensions: the degree in which women were capable of accepting traditional gender roles and the degree in which they had the ideal of being entrepreneurs. Carter and Cannon (1992) criticized Goffee and Scase (1985) typology because they considered that these categorization factors were not appropriate to analyze the behaviour of women entrepreneurs, and also, that women entrepreneurial experience changes with the stages of their life cycle. Carter and Cannon (1992) studied 60 women owner of their own enterprises in London and identified five ideal types of women entrepreneurs: wandering, aspiring, winners, returning ones, and (e) traditionalists. Method A qualitative approach of multiple case studies under a holistic design was used to explore the motives and profile of women entrepreneurs in Peru (Yin, 2003). The cases were rigorously chosen to reflect the diversity of situations experienced by the women entrepreneurs, considering the following dimensions: age, civil status, educational level, the enterprise economic sector, the way the ownership was obtained, length of operation, and size of the enterprise. The data was collected mainly through in-depth interviews, in several sessions, in several places (mainly in their enterprises, but also in their homes or in public places), of approximately 90 minutes each. The information was coded, categorized and analysed using analytic induction (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). The information was processed in the Atlas.ti version 5.2. The interview guide was based on ideas from studies made in Turkey (Hisrich & Ayse Öztürk, 1999), Hungary (Hisrich & Fulop, 1994), Poland (Zapalska, 1987), Singapore (Lee, 1996), the United States (Buttner & Moore, 1997; Hisrich & Brush, 1986, 1991; Hisrich & O’Brien, 1981, 1982; Inman, 2000; Neider, 1987), Canada (Lee-Gosselin & Grisé, 1990) and China (Hisrich & Fan, 1991). Journal of Women's Entrepreneurship and Education (2012, No. 3-4, 43-63) 48 Population and Sample Selection In this study, the population of entrepreneurs includes those women (who) own 50% or more of a formal enterprise (regardless of the way they obtained the ownership), are actively involved in their operation as managers or administrators and generate employment for themselves and other people. To operationalize the definition of entrepreneur in this study, and based on previous studies (Bennett & Dann, 2000; Inman, 2000; Lee- Gosselin & Grisé, 1990; Voeten, 2002a), the term was divided in eight criteria: (a) to have an enterprise operating formally at the time of the study, to consider only formal businesses; (b) to have 50% or more of the ownership of the business (shares, voting participation or entrepreneurial activity as an individual), regardless of the way the ownership was obtained; (c) to have more than two employees, in order to separate the study from self-employment; (d) to have at least two years of formal operation, in order to separate short-term opportunities with a long-term commitment with the business; (e) to have an important administrative role in the enterprise at the time of the study; (f) to work full time in the enterprise; (g) to receive most of their income from their enterprise; and (h) to be linked with the enterprise for a minimum of two years. Specific questions were prepared for each of these criteria and only those women who met the criteria where chosen to participate in the study. The study was conducted in Metropolitan Lima, as this area concentrates 29.7% of the total population of Peru and 30.2% of Peruvian female population (INEI, 2006). The sample was built using purposeful sampling (Maxwell, 1996) with a combination of snowball and maximum variation the techniques. To answer the research questions adequately, 24 cases were selected, which made it possible to obtain enough information to carry out a transversal analysis of the cases and respond to the research questions. The number of cases was selected based on the theoretical saturation. Table 1 show the profile of informants. Avalio. B., Why Women Enter into Entrepreneurship, JWE (2012, No. 3-4, 43-63) 49 Table 1: Profile of Informants Age Educational level Children Current marital status Business Sectors How did you come to own the enterprise? Years the enterprise operates Number of employees 45 Complete High school 3 Partner Restaurant Foundation 6 3 30 Complete Technical Education 1 Married Hairdresser salon Foundation 4 8 47 Complete University Education 2 Married Jewellery production and sale Foundation 6 4 57 Incomplete Primary School 3 Married Consumer products Foundation 15 8 42 Complete Technical Education 3 Partner Hairdresser salon Foundation 2 5 52 Incomplete High school 5 Married Dressmaking Foundation 2 10 51 Incomplete Technical Education 3 Married Bakery Foundation 15 5 50 Incomplete University 2 Married Sale of plants Foundation 9 5 44 Complete University Education 4 Married Building Foundation 14 45 58 Complete Primary School 4 Married Sale of fabrics and derivates Foundation 10 7 20 Incomplete Technical Education 0 Single Textile design and print Heritage 6 11 37 Complete Technical 3 Married Education Foundation 4 10 40 Complete University Education 0 Single Early childhood education Foundation 14 15 40 Complete Technical Education 2 Married Hairdresser salon Purchase 5 18 71 Complete Technical Education 2 Widow Pizza parlour Foundation 29 20 40 Complete Technical Education 2 Married Sale of Machine replacements Foundation 12 14 42 Complete University Education 0 Divorced Dentist clinic Foundation 16 25 33 Complete Technical Education 1 Single Event assistance and production of metallic parts Foundation 11 9 Journal of Women's Entrepreneurship and Education (2012, No. 3-4, 43-63) 50 54 Complete Technical Education 2 Married Travels and tourism agency Foundation 23 200 47 Complete High school 3 Single Production and sale of artisan products Foundation 11 30 42 Complete University Education 2 Divorced Commercialization of vehicles Inheritance 56 180 43 Complete High school 3 Married Commercialization of shoes Foundation 17 20 45 Complete University Education 3 Married Commercialization of hardware articles Purchase from a relative 7 4 47 Master’s degree 3 Married Recreation Foundation 12 120 Analysis The cases were analysed from different perspectives. This first part of the analysis concluded that women can be differentiated according to the life cycle stage in which they become entrepreneurs. After that, factors and circumstances that stimulated women to become entrepreneurs were identified. Then, the previous steps were combined, in order to understand to what extent backgrounds of women entrepreneurs affect the factors that stimulate them to become entrepreneurs and in which phase of their life cycle they make this decision. This analysis identified how demographic, work, educational and family backgrounds of women entrepreneurs vary according to the circumstances in which women start their businesses and with their motivations to become entrepreneurs. As a result, a conceptual framework to explain why women choose entrepreneurship was proposed. Finally, a typology of women entrepreneurs was developed, according to the life cycle phase in which they chose entrepreneurship and circumstances and motives that stimulated them to decide for the entrepreneurial activity. Validity and Reliability The following strategies were used to ensure construct validity: (a) triangulation of the information, (b) key informants revised the draft reports of the cases studied; (c) a chain of evidence was kept in the analysis; (d) the researcher’s bias was clearly specified (Creswell, 2003, p. 196); (e) quasi-statistics were carried out to analyze the information related with each particular conclusion (Maxwell, 1996, p. 95); (f) two pilot cases Avalio. B., Why Women Enter into Entrepreneurship, JWE (2012, No. 3-4, 43-63) 51 were carried out (Feng, 2005, p. 42). To ensure internal validity, the study used the pattern matching strategy; patterns emerging from the comparison of cases provided the bases to establish the conclusions of the research. To ensure reliability, the study used the following strategies: the use of a protocol case, the use of a data base of each case, the of an external researcher to verify the contents and logic of the information analysis and to compare the conclusions with the ones the researcher considered as emerging from the information. Case Analysis Results: Factors to Become Entrepreneurs Women are influenced by a series of factors when deciding to become entrepreneurs. These factors were identified in the study from the discourse of the informants and have been compared with previous literature. The factors were grouped into two categories: circumstances and motives, to differentiate those factors of extrinsic origin (circumstances) from those of intrinsic origin (motives). In the present study circumstances refer to the situations or events that, when they happen in a certain context, impulse women to become entrepreneurs. These circumstances can be objective happenings (called events, such as the death of the father who runs a family enterprise or the loss of a dependent job) or situations that influenced entrepreneurship according to the woman’s perception (called situations, such as dissatisfaction with the family income or the lack of perspectives of professional growth). The economic circumstances were related to economic needs or dissatisfaction with family income. Working circumstances were related to the difficulty to find employment due to lack of opportunities because of no skills, old age, no education; lack of professional growth perspectives; job frustration for economic reasons; or considering that entrepreneurship is the logical continuation of professional growth. Family circumstances were given when entrepreneurship represented the means to comply with their family role; a voluntary family succession, opportunities or needs. Motives are defined as "the construct that represents a force in the brain, a force which organizes perception, intellection and action in such a way as to transform an unsatisfying situation and increases satisfaction” (Murray, 1938, p. 124). In other words, from the individual perception, in the presence of a gap between the current situation and the desired one, the individual is moved by an internal force that pushes him or her to establish Journal of Women's Entrepreneurship and Education (2012, No. 3-4, 43-63) 52 a conduct that will help to reach the desired state. The origin of circumstances influencing entrepreneurship were extrinsic to the woman and were related to external situations that influenced them in a positive or negative way; while motives that influenced entrepreneurship were intrinsic to the woman. The motives tended to persist in time, while circumstances were modified according to the women’s experiences. A sole circumstance or a single motive or circumstance influencing a woman’s decision to choose the entrepreneurial activity was rarely found. Entrepreneurship results from a combination of several circumstances or motives, that is, the factors cannot be considered as mutually excluding and a same person can be influenced by many circumstances and many motives at the same time. Table 2 shows the conceptualization of circumstances and motives identified in the cases. Results show the diverse patterns existing in terms of factors that stimulated women to become entrepreneurs. Each case can be categorized into several circumstances and motives, which is why the number of total cases is higher than the number of informant women. Table 2: Identified Circumstances and Motives in Women Entrepreneurs Circumstances and Motives Definition Number of cases Economic: Basic economic need When the woman is the only or principal responsible for the family economy and has no other alternative than to become an entrepreneur to sustain the family. Having the principal or sole economic responsibility in the household makes the woman turn to the entrepreneurial activity to obtain income. 8 Economic: Dissatisfaction with the family income When the woman chooses to become an entrepreneur because the family income is not enough to generate savings, develop economically, give better opportunities to their children, have funds for entertainment and give better quality of life to the woman and her family, even if such income can cover the basic household expenses. 5 Work: Difficulty to find a job due to lack of opportunities in the labour market When the woman chooses entrepreneurship because of a lack of opportunities in the work market. This lack of opportunities is not related to the skills, age or education of the woman, but to external aspects such as the economic or political situation. 2 Work: difficulty to find a job because of lack of skills When the woman tries to find a job does not succeed as she lacks skills with regards to the demand on the labour market. Work: Difficulty to find job due to old age When the woman tries to find a job but does not manage to because of her age and there is no demand for people her age. Work: Difficulty to find a job due to insufficient education When the woman tries to find a job but does not manage to for lack of adequate training. Avalio. B., Why Women Enter into Entrepreneurship, JWE (2012, No. 3-4, 43-63) 53 Work: Lack of perspectives of professional growth When the woman has little chance of being promoted in a dependent job, and this generates a personal frustration. 4 Work: Frustration for economic reasons When the woman considers she is being inadequately paid in a dependent job and this generates a personal frustration. 3 Work: Dissatisfied with a male culture When the woman is dissatisfied with the existence of a male culture in her work environment, so she is not offered the same conditions as men. -- Work: Logical continuation of professional growth Refers to women who have a dependent work experience and consider entrepreneurship as the logic next step in their professional growth. 1 Family: Role of the woman in the family When the entrepreneurial activity is closely linked to the role of mother and woman in the family; the enterprise is seen as a way of fulfilling the role of mother, through the generation of work positions for the children and the husband/partner, an independent source of income, and more security for the members of the family. 5 Family: voluntary family succession The woman enters the entrepreneurial environment following a family succession line: the father/mother/tutor gives her the possibility of working and directing the family enterprise and maintaining the continuity of the enterprise in time. Family succession is voluntary when the woman entrepreneur has the initiative because she wants to work in the family enterprise. 1 Family: family succession by opportunity When the family succession happens because the relative invites the woman to be a part of the enterprise; entrepreneurship arises as a work opportunity in the family enterprise. -- Family: forced family succession When the family succession happens because some family circumstance forces the woman to join the family enterprise. Entrepreneurship happens as a result of the obligation to play a role inside the family. 1 Family: need for a flexible schedule Refers to the woman’s requirement of a work schedule that allows her to combine her responsibilities at work with those of the household and child care. none Personal: presence of an entrepreneur role model When the woman has an entrepreneurship reference role model, who provides knowledge, motivation, support or courage. 22 Personal: Relatives who motivate and support entrepreneurship When the woman entrepreneur has people close to her personal life (parents / tutors / relatives / friends / acquaintances / partner / husband) that motivate her towards entrepreneurship. 22 Personal: personal dissatisfaction When the woman chooses entrepreneurship to “have something important to do”, when her economic needs are covered and the enterprise is a source of personal satisfaction rather than income. 2 Personal: Specific opportunity When the woman chooses entrepreneurship for some specific opportunity, as for example, the opportunity to acquire the enterprise she works in. 3 Motive of autonomy Related with the desire to be independent and act according to her own will, without being subject to pressure or coercion exerted by an authority or by others in general (Murray, 1938). Some expressions are: Wish to be her own boss Economic autonomy with regard to partner or family Need to control their own lives To have something they can control and allows to express themselves Autonomous decision-making 7 4 6 7 7 Motive of achievement Related to carrying out a task that has a certain degree of difficulty, and that needs to be developed swiftly and independently, besides surpassing obstacles and reaching a level of excellence (Murray, 1938, p. 164). Some expressions are: Journal of Women's Entrepreneurship and Education (2012, No. 3-4, 43-63) 54 Driven to reaching a dream Work and personal effort capacity Passionate about what they do Active search for success Permanent wish for improvement Capable of undertaking challenges Do things better than the rest High motivation to learn Achieve economic success 5 20 10 23 7 16 8 8 5 Motive of affiliation Implies the need to establish cooperation and reciprocity links, as well as the wish to gain the affections of a significant person (Murray, 1938). 7 Motive of power The need to control others’ feelings and behaviour; the wish to exert influence over others using suggestion, seduction, persuasion or commands; it consists in persuading others to act according to one’s wishes or needs (Murray, 1938, p. 152). 3 The results of the study were not consistent with many of the motives found in the literature explaining the factors that influence entrepreneurship. Previous literature does not make a clear difference between circumstances and personal motives that influence women to choose entrepreneurship. Emerging Conceptual Framework: Why do Women Become Entrepreneurs? The conceptual framework presented identifies the different profiles of women entrepreneurs and explains the diverse factors that stimulated women to choose the entrepreneurial activity (Figure 1). The conceptual framework considers two dimensions: (a) the phase of personal and work cycles when women chooses entrepreneurship; and (b) the factors that stimulated them to become entrepreneurs, classified in circumstances and motives; both dimensions are not mutually excluding, that is, a same person can be simultaneously influenced by several circumstances and motives. The conceptual framework proposed reinforces the results that women cannot be considered as a homogeneous group with unique characteristics and that the profile of women entrepreneurs must be expressed through a typology that represents their different experiences. Avalio. B., Why Women Enter into Entrepreneurship, JWE (2012, No. 3-4, 43-63) 55 Figure 1: The Conceptual Framework The Life Cycle of Women Entrepreneurs The results of the study showed that women entrepreneurs can be grouped by common experiences in the life cycle stage when they choose entrepreneurship, considering: (a) the stage of life when they chose entrepreneurship (husband/partner children); and (b) the stage of professional/work experience measured in the number of years of work experience previous to entrepreneurship (the age when they chose entrepreneurship was not a determining factor for the life cycle categorization, since it depends on the life experiences of each person). The life cycles identified are: Phase I: Young Women This phase is defined by the lack of dependents and relatively scarce or non-relevant work experience. This group includes women who decided to become entrepreneurs in the first phase of their life cycle, when they had no children, may or may not have a husband/partner and had little work Journal of Women's Entrepreneurship and Education (2012, No. 3-4, 43-63) 56 experience. Entrepreneurship for these women may be the product of a natural option (such as voluntary family succession or entrepreneurial spirit) or due to the absence of other work alternatives. Five informant women chose entrepreneurship in phase I of their lives. Phase II: Growing Women This phase is defined by the existence of dependents and intermediate work experience. This group considered women who chose entrepreneurship in the middle phase of their life cycle: They usually had economically and emotionally dependent small children, though they may not have them; some were married or had life partners, others were separated, or divorced or may had or not a partner and they had regular work experience. These women chose entrepreneurship after abandoning their dependent jobs or other independent activities. Thirteen informant women chose entrepreneurship in phase II of their life. Phase III: Consolidated Women Women in this phase had advanced work experience, with or without dependents. This group included women who had dependent young children or economically dependent children, even though some may not have children. In any case, they had over 20 years of work experience and decided to become entrepreneurs in the last stage of their work cycle, as the goal of their work development or the logical continuation of their professional development. These women chose entrepreneurship as a result of lack of work opportunities, or because they were eager to develop their own independent entrepreneurial activity; in any case, they had accumulated good work experiences as dependent employees and then left their paid jobs to establish an enterprise as the goal of their professional path. Six informant women chose entrepreneurship in phase III of their lives. Women Entrepreneurs Typologies The analysis identified six profiles of women entrepreneurs that express the different paths through which women reach entrepreneurship, developed using the information presented in Table 3. Avalio. B., Why Women Enter into Entrepreneurship, JWE (2012, No. 3-4, 43-63) 57 Table 3: Matrix of Results from Analyzed Cases C as e P h as e of t h e li fe c yc le f am il y an d w or k B as ic e co n om ic n ee d D is sa ti sf ac ti on w it h f am il y in co m e F ru st ra ti on w it h w or k f or e co n om ic re as on s D if fi cu lt y to f in d a j ob L ac k o f p er sp ec ti ve f or p ro fe ss io n al gr ow th L og ic c on ti n u at io n o f th e p ro fe ss io n al g ro w th F or ce d f am il y su cc es si on V ol u n ta ry f am il y su cc es si on R ol e of t h e w om an C P : R el at iv es m ot iv at es a n d s u p p or t en tr ep re n eu rs h ip E n tr ep re n eu r ro le m od el P er so n al D is sa ti sf ac ti on S p ec if ic o p p or tu n it y M ot iv e of a ch ie ve m en t M ot iv e of a u to n om y M ot iv e of a ff il ia ti on M ot iv e of p ow er A Pha se I X X X X X B Pha se I X X X X C Pha se I X X X X D Pha se I X X X X X X E Pha se I X X X X X F Pha se II X X X X X G Pha se II X X X X X X H Pha se II X X X I Pha se II X X X X X X X J Pha se II X X X X X X K Pha se II X X X X L Pha se II X X X X X X X M Pha se II X X X X X N Pha se II X X X X X X O Pha se II X X X X X P Pha se II X X X X X X X Q Pha se II X X X X R Pha se II X X X X X S Pha se X X X X X X X T Pha se X X X X X U Pha se X X X X X X V Pha se II X X X X X X W Pha se X X X X X X Pha se X X X X X X X Tot al 8 5 3 2 4 1 1 1 5 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 3 1 8 7 3 Young Women with Employment Options It includes those women who chose the entrepreneurial activity because they had no other choice. These are women who are in the first phase of their personal and work life cycle; they have no children or Journal of Women's Entrepreneurship and Education (2012, No. 3-4, 43-63) 58 dependents, and have little work experience. Their educational level is usually basic, which limits their work options. These women choose entrepreneurship without a previous preparation, which is why they developed their own experience within the enterprise itself and are less prepared for entrepreneurial activity than women with other identified profiles. Growing Women with External Constraints This group comprises those women who chose the entrepreneurial activity because of some kind of external limitation. They became entrepreneurs in the second phase of their work and personal life cycle, after having some work experience. Usually, they have economically dependent small or older children, and may o may not have a husband/partner. The educational level of this group of women is varied, but they usually have technical or higher education. These were women who had worked dependently and had acquired some work experience. They choose entrepreneurship either to cover their basic needs or because their dependent job salary is insufficient. Consolidated Women with a Trunked Career These women chose the entrepreneurial activity when they faced happenings that gave them no other work alternative, and whose dependent activity was cut short. They chose entrepreneurship in the third phase of their personal and work life cycle, after accumulating considerable work experience. They may or not have children, and if they do, these are already young adults. Entrepreneurship is chosen as an answer to their frustration due to economic reasons. They may not have become entrepreneurs if they were satisfied with their dependent jobs. For them, entrepreneurship offers the option to cover their basic economic needs. Although these women had no preparation before entrepreneurship, they became entrepreneurs with a vast work experience. Natural Young Women Entrepreneurs This group is formed by those women who chose the entrepreneurial activity as a naturally desirable work alternative. These women can be considered as natives of entrepreneurship. They were entrepreneurs from Avalio. B., Why Women Enter into Entrepreneurship, JWE (2012, No. 3-4, 43-63) 59 the first phase of their personal and work life cycle, had no children or dependents and had little to none work experience. Their educational level may be basic or superior, but what is relevant is their natural preference towards the entrepreneurial activity. These women choose entrepreneurship as the natural way of practising their work activity. Growing Women Under Way This group is formed by those women who choose the entrepreneurial activity as a personal development option after accumulating work experience as dependent workers. These women migrated from dependent activities to entrepreneurship as an alternative of professional development. They choose entrepreneurship in the second phase of their personal and work life cycle. They usually have economically and emotionally dependent small or older children, and may or may not have a partner. They became entrepreneurs because of situations such as a voluntary family succession, lack of perspectives of professional growth in dependent jobs; for considering entrepreneurship as the logical continuation of their professional development; or because they were dissatisfied with the family income that, even though was enough to cover their basic needs, did not allow them to satisfy their expectations of better life standards. These women did not experience happenings external to them that did not allow them to choose other work alternative, but the situations they perceived depended on their own perspective. The educational level of these women can be diverse, but all of them start their entrepreneurial activities after learning and gaining experience from their work experience. Consolidated Professional Women This group is formed by those women who choose the entrepreneurial activity as the culmination of their work development, and after having gathered important work experience as dependent workers. They choose entrepreneurship in the third phase of their personal and work life cycle. They may or may not have children, and if they do, they are young adults. They had always worked for others and wanted to work for themselves. They chose entrepreneurship because of situations such as Journal of Women's Entrepreneurship and Education (2012, No. 3-4, 43-63) 60 dissatisfaction with their current income or with their work as dependent workers; their decision was also related to the possibility of fulfilling their role within the family and generating work opportunities for their children and relatives. These women did not experiment happenings external to them that prevented them from choosing another work alternative. The educational profile of these women is varied, but they all became entrepreneurs after acquiring knowledge through many years of work experience, which is why they face entrepreneurship more prepared than the women entrepreneurs from the other profiles, in work and personal terms. Discussion The findings of the study can be summarized in four facts: (a) women in Peru seem to be stimulated by factors that “pull” them to become entrepreneurs, rather than circumstances that “push” them to choose the entrepreneurial activity; (b) circumstances affecting entrepreneurship seem to show differences according to their demographic, educational and family background; (c) very important circumstances in the women’s life to become entrepreneurs were the existence of people who motivated and supported entrepreneurship and the presence of an entrepreneur role model; (d) women entrepreneurs cannot be considered a homogeneous group with unique characteristics and that their profile must be expressed through a typology that represents their different experiences. Establishing a unique profile of women entrepreneurs considering a sole dimension seems to be an inadequate simplification of their backgrounds. The study proposes a conceptual framework that explains the profile of women entrepreneurs, since they start their enterprises at different moments of their life and this affects the type of business and their particular approach to the enterprise ownership) from their work stage and personal life cycle phase in which they opt for entrepreneurship and the factors that stimulated them to become entrepreneurs. The study has identified six profiles of women entrepreneurs that express different routes by which women achieve entrepreneurship, called: Young Women with Employment Options, Growing Women with External Constraints, Consolidated Women with a Trunked Career, Natural Young Women, Growing Women under Way, and Consolidated Professional Women. Avalio. 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Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. [36] Zapalska, A. (1997). A profile of woman entrepreneurs and enterprises in Poland. Journal of Small Business Management, 35(4), 76-82. Zašto žene ulaze u preduzetništvo? Idejni okvir na osnovu studije slučaja u Peru A P S T R A K T Studija identifikuje različite razloge zašto se žene opredeljuju za bavljenje preduzetničkim poslovima, imajući u vidu njihov životni ciklus i faktore koji su ih podstakli. Studija slučaja je uključila dvadeset i četiri žene preduzetnice na teritoriji Perua. Istraživanja su utvrdila šest različitih profila žena, koje se opredeljuju da postanu preduzetnice: To su mlade žene koje se na ovaj način zapošljavaju, žene koje imaju ograničenja kod napredovalja, žene koje imaju već karijeru, i dr. Rezultati istraživanja takođe ukazuju da žene preduzetnice nisu homogena grupa, tako da nije jednostavno naći opšte mesto za sve žene koje postaju preduzetnice. KLJUČNE REČI: žene, preduzetnici, motivacija, preduzetništvo, žene preduzetnice Article history: Received: 17 February, 2012 Revised: 30 June, 2012 Accepted: 5 September, 2012