70 JPAIR Multidisciplinary Research Vol. 25 · June 2016 Print ISSN 2012-3981 • Online ISSN 2244-0445 doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.7719/jpair.v25i1.390 Journal Impact: H Index = 2 from Publish or Perish JPAIR Multidisciplinary Research is produced by PAIR, an ISO 9001:2008 QMS certified by AJA Registrars, Inc. ABSTRACTS According to the World Health Organization (WHO), almost 98% of low and middle-income countries’ air fail to meet the United Nations (UN) body’s standards. Data from the Department of Environment and Natural Resources’ Environmental Management Bureau (DENR-EMB) revealed the Total Suspended Particles (TSP) in Metro Manila during the first quarter of 2015 reached 130 micrograms per normal cubic meter (ug/Ncm). The maximum safe level is 90 ug/Ncm. Since 80% of pollution load is contributed by vehicles, the study determined the amount of carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrocarbons (HC) during the smoke emission testing of motorcycles in Metro Dumaguete, Negros Oriental, Philippines. Random sampling and simple average formula were utilized in the study. Using the smoke test results from January to February 2015, it was found out that the average amount of CO is 1.45 µg/cm which is very low compared to DENR standard exposure value of 35 ug/cm for one hour and 10 µg/cm for 8-hour exposure. Also, the average amount of HC is 600.26 ppm which is low compared to DENR’s maximum set value of 4500ppm to 6500 ppm. Current findings indicate that the amount of CO of motorcycle emissions is insignificant while HC is low as compared to the standard value. Keywords — Environment, smoke emission, descriptive design, Philippines Carbon Monoxide and Hydrocarbon Contains of Motorcycles: Metro Dumaguete, Philippines NARCISA T. MORALLO http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5468-9179 narcisamorallo@gmail.com Negros Oriental State University Dumaguete City, Philippines 71 International Peer Reviewed Journal INTRODUCTION Air pollution can personally and economically very damaging. People breathing poor quality of air are at risk of lung cancer and other diseases according to the WHO (2014). In the second quarter of 2016, 80% of world’s urban dwellers breathe poor quality of air. According to Maria Neira, the head of WHO’s department of public health and environment, air pollution in the urban area is rising at an alarming rate. Carlos Dora, WHO’s public health and environmental department, pointed to transportation as the first key factor that determines the quality of air in the urban area. WHO focuses on four air pollutants, namely, particulate matter (PM), particles with an aerodynamic diameter lesser than 10 μm (PM10) and lesser than 2.5 μm (PM2.5), nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and ozone. Data recorded from regions of the world in different years in the period 2008-2012, highest annual mean concentration of PM10 of 540 µg/m 3 was taken in Eastern Mediterranean Region from Reshawar Station, Pakistan. The lowest recorded level of 8μg/m3 was recorded in Western Pacific Region in Illawana, Australia. While South–East Asia Region recorded 153 μg/m3, the highest in PM2.5 was taken at Delhi station in India. The lowest was recorded at Powell River Station in Canada (WHO, 2014). Urban air pollution resulted from combustion of fossil fuels that are continually used in transportation sector, power generation, industry, and other economic activities. United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development last July 2014 aims to decrease the number of deaths and illnesses from pollutions and contamination by 2030.In 2012, 3.7 million died in the world due to ambient air pollution (WHO, 2015). In “Lao Environmental Outlook 2012”, data taken from Vientiane Capital in September 2002-to February 2003, indicated that total suspended particulate matter (TSP) has an average of 165 μg/m3 while WHO 24-hour guidelines for TSP in 1987 was at 120 μg/m3, particulate matter (PM10) has an average of 68 μg/m3 while 2005 WHO 24-hour mean of 50 μg/m3. Sulfur dioxide (SO2) has an average of 108 μg/m3 compared to WHO 24-hour mean of 20 μg/m3. This shows that SO2 is a more serious problem in Lao. Economic growth in the country will result in an increase pollutant levels. In the study of Velasco and Roth in 2012 entitled, “Review of Singapore’s air quality and greenhouse gas emissions: Current situation and opportunities”, as a wealthy nation, Singapore has a very high per-capita carbon footprint. Through 72 JPAIR Multidisciplinary Research innovative practices integrated in its air quality management, emission of greenhouse gases decreases. The country’s contribution to global CO2 emissions is only .11% as reported by United Nations in 2011. “Opportunities to Reduce Vehicle Emissions in Jakarta” published by International Council of Air Pollution in 2014, suggested policy options in Jakarta, Indonesia to abate air pollution. It was suggested to secure fuel with sulfur content <50 parts per million because advanced vehicle emission control technologies such as diesel particulate filters require ultra-low fuel sulfur content to function optimally. The increase of the motorcycle population in many cities in developing countries resulted to an increase in air pollution (Hustim & Fujimoto, 2012). Motor vehicles emit 14% of fossil-fuel-base CO2, 50% to 60% of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons and about 30% of nitrogen oxides emissions (Hwang & Tseng, 2007). The 2014 Environmental Performance Index (EPI), showed the Philippines scoring 44.02 out of 100, ranks 114th out of 178 countries. There was an improvement from 43.98 in 2013 score. The 2014 EPI report reveals that Switzerland was on top of the list scoring 87.67 out of 100 and Somalia was at 178th (Business World Research, 2014). In first quarter of 2015, the National Capital Region’s air pollutant concentration reached 130 micrograms per normal cubic meter (µg/cm). This is in terms of total suspended particles (TSP) which increased from 106 µg/cm in the last quarter of 2014. The maximum safe level is 90 ug/Ncm. Republic Act No. 8749, otherwise known as the Philippine Clean Air Act, aims to achieve and maintain healthy air for all Filipinos. To decrease air pollution from motor vehicles, emission tests are required prior to renewal of registration. The Department of Transportation and Communication’s (DOTC’s) Land Transportation Office (LTO) established Private Emission Testing Centers (PETCs) to provide testing services to public transport vehicles, including private-owned vehicles. “A car emits around 600 parts per million (ppm) of CO and HC, while a motorcycle can emit as much as 5,000 ppm. It is, thus, not difficult to understand the environmental impact of the emissions from the millions of registered and unregistered motorcycles, tricycles and scooters you see on the road everyday”(Department of Environment and Natural Resources Secretary Ramon Paje). Registered motorcycles and tricycles in the Philippines for 2013 is 4.25 million which 8.9% from Region VII where Dumaguete City belongs (Land Transportation Office, 2016). This shows a 3.25% increase in 2012. 73 International Peer Reviewed Journal OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY The study determined the amount of CO and HC of motorcycles during the smoke emission testing from January to February 2015 in Negros Oriental, Philippines. METHODOLOGY The study used the descriptive method of research. The research site is Metro Dumaguete, which is composed of Valencia, Sibulan, Bacong and Dumaguete City. Figure 1. Loca on Map of the Research Environment 74 JPAIR Multidisciplinary Research Random sampling was used in the study. HC and CO concentrations were measured from 767 motorcycles during the smoke emission testing from January to February 2016. These results released by the different private emission testing centers (PETCs) in Metro Dumaguete. The Test Equipment used in testing were carbon monoxide analyzer which is a non-dispersive infrared (NDIR) CO exhaust gas analyzer and hydrocarbon analyzer also a NDIR HC exhaust gas analyzer, HC as hexane (C6H14). The study used simple average formula. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons are emission gases produced by vehicle exhaust fumes that can have negative effects on human health and the environment. Motorcycles can produce several hundred times more hydrocarbon pollution than cars. Hydrocarbons cause cancer, breathing and heart ailments, and contribute to smog. The study shows that the average amount of CO and HC are insignificant as compared to the standard value set by the DENR. The decrease of CO and HC emission is a result of the government’s continued effort to address air pollution, euro4 fuel compliance, consultations with the motorcycle industry and other stakeholders to give them sufficient time to plan and design vehicles to ensure conformity to standards set by the European Economic Commission. Table 1. CO AND HC motorcycle emissions CO (µg/cm) HC (ppm as hexane) Motorcycle emissions (January to February 2016) 1.45 600.26 75 International Peer Reviewed Journal Table 2. Emission standards for in-use vehicles motorcycle/tricycle and moped Vehicle Registration Date CO (%)by volume) HC (ppm as hexane) White smoke (% opacity) Registered for the first on or after time prior to July 1, 2017 2.5 1000 20 Registered for the first time on or after January 1, 2012 3.5 4500 30 Registered for the first time before January 1, 2012 4.5 6000 30 Source: DENR Administrative Order No. 2015-04, March 24, 2015 Department of Environment and Natural Resources Table 3. National ambient air quality guideline values Pollutants Short Term Long Term µg/ Ncm ppm Averaging Time µg/ Ncm ppm Averaging Time Suspended Particulate Matter- TSP PM10 230 150 24 hours 24 hours 90 60 1 year 1 year Sulfur Dioxide 180 .07 24 hours 80 .03 1 year Nitrogen Dioxide 150 .08 24 hours Photochemical Oxidants as Ozone 140 60 .07 .03 1 hour 8 hours Carbon Monoxide 3 5 m g / Ncm 10 mg/ Ncm 30 9 1 hour 8 hours Lead 1.5 3 months 1.0 1 year Source: (Department of Environment and Natural Resources) DENR The 4-stroke motorcycles in the Philippines contributed to low CO and HC emission levels. Two-stroke motorcycles require a mixture of gasoline and oil and are not equipped with enough systems to immediately burn the mixture for 76 JPAIR Multidisciplinary Research complete combustion, thus, resulting to more smoke emissions. The study of Vergel and Tiglao (2013) showed that the switch to 4-stroke tricycles contributed to significant reductions in HC and PM emissions, however, overall emissions reduction was less than 10%. New motorcycles have less CO and HC emissions. In this competitive market, motorcycles are affordable to all walks of life through trade-in, installment basis and “sabut-sabut lang” scheme. The study of Arafah, Ramli, Aly, and Selintung (2013) revealed that CO and HC emission levels increase in following the motorcycle age increasing. Table 4. Motorcycle acquisition Cash (%) Installment (%) Trade in (%) Mode of acquisition 10 80 10 Quality engine maintenance can reduce emission. Nugroho, Junyi and Fujiwara (2009) found out that maintenance quality and running kilometer per year play significant role in determining the probability of emission test. Table 4. Motorcycles/tricycles maintenance schedule Type of Maintenance Monthly (%) Quarterly (%) Every six months Yearly (%) More than a year (%) Tuned-up 20 80 Change oil 75 25 Table 5. Schedule change of unit Every 5 years (%) Less than 10 years (%) More than ten years (%) Change of unit 10 70 20 In Malaysia, using hydrogen as a supplement fuel for gasoline engine is a better alternative in controlling air pollution which has become an increasingly critical aspect of the local and international motoring industry (Razali, Sopian, Mat & Ibrahim, 2015). In the Philippines, as part of government efforts to clean the air of the country, DENR Administrative Order (DAO) No. 2015-04 provides the new 77 International Peer Reviewed Journal vehicle emission standards to be complied with by new and in-use vehicles starting July 1, 2015. The order also enjoins the Department of Energy to ensure the availability of Euro 4 fuels by this date. Table 5. EURO 4 gasoline compliance and awareness Complied (%) Not Complied (%) Awareness (%) Not Aware (%) Dumaguete City, Gasoline stations 100 Motorist 10 90 Euro 4 has sulfur content of only 50 parts per million (ppm) for both diesel and gasoline, compared with 500 ppm for Euro 2. Benzene in Euro 4 gasoline is only 1% by volume compared to 5% in Euro 2. Low sulfur fuels will lead to reduced emissions of particulate matter. This particulate matter can penetrate deeply into sensitive parts of the lungs and can worsen existing respiratory and heart diseases. HC and CO concentrations were only measured to motorcycles during emission testing conducted by PETCs prior to renewal of registration for the month of January to February 2016 only. The area of coverage is Metro Dumaguete which is composed of Valencia, Sibulan, Bacong and Dumaguete City. In 2012, data from the LTO showed that there were more or less 378,250 registered motorcycles in Region VII which Metro Dumaguete belongs. Region VII in 2014 is composed of 4 provinces, namely, Bohol, Cebu, Siquijor and Negros Oriental. In 2015, the region was redefined, when Region VII lost the province of Negros Oriental to the newly formed Negros Island Region. CONCLUSION The average amount of CO and HC are very safe value as compared to the standard value set by the DENR. The amount of CO and HC emission is a result of the government’s continued effort to address air pollution. Implementation of more stringent emission standards for in‐use motor vehicles (DAO 2015‐04) and the voluntary phase‐out of 2‐stroke motorcycles by the motorcycle manufacturers in mid-2006 contributed to abatement of air pollution. 78 JPAIR Multidisciplinary Research TRANSLATIONAL RESEARCH The study may be translated into use in the community by sending the information to the Land Transportation Office to continue on their intensified public awareness campaign on air pollution. LITERATURE CITED Arafah, M., Ramli, M. I., Aly, S. H., & Selintung, M. (2013). The Motorcycle Emission Characteristics in Developing Countries: Logit and Regression Analysis of I/M Data in Makassar City, Indonesia. Journal of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies, 10(0), 1218-1226. Business World Research. (2014).Philippines ups score in global environmental scorecard. Retrieved on May 9, 2016 from http://goo.gl/WDWbCN Department of Environment and Natural Resources. (2015). Implementation of Vehicle Emission Limits for Euro 4/IV, and in-use vehicle emission standards. Retrieved on May 9, 2016 from http://www.denr.gov.ph/section-policies/ viewrec.php?id=4830&main=1 Department of Environment and Natural Resources-Environmental Management Bureau. (June 2015). Metro Manila’s air quality even worse this year – data. Retrieved on May 9, 2016 http://goo.gl/GRx4Q5 Hustim, M., & Fujimoto, K. (2012). Road Traffic Noise under Heterogeneous Traffic Condition in Makassar City, Indonesia. Hwang, K. P., & Tseng, P. S. (2007). CO2 Emission: Status, Reduction Policy and Management Strategy of Taiwan Transportation Sector. InProceedings of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies (Vol. 2007, No. 0, pp. 161- 161). Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies. Lao Environmental Outlook 2012. (2012) Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (MONRE), Lao PDR. 79 International Peer Reviewed Journal Nugroho, S. B., Fujiwara, A., & Junyi, Z. (2009). Analysis of Inspection and Maintenance Program for in-use motorcycle emissions in Indonesia. InProceedings of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies (Vol. 2009, No. 0, pp. 195-195). Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies. Razali, H. H., Sopian, K., Mat, S., & Ibrahim, S. (2015). Modification of motorcycle with hydrogen mixture and effect on emission. ARPN Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences, 10(17), 7719-7722. Velasco, E., & Roth, M. (2012). Review of Singapore’s air quality and greenhouse gas emissions: Current situation and opportunities. Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association, 62(6), 625-641. Vergel, K. B., & Tiglao, N. C. C. (2013). Estimation of Emissions and Fuel Consumption of Sustainable Transport Measures in Metro Manila. Philippine Engineering Journal, 34(1). WHO. (2014). Burden of disease from the joint effects of Household and Ambient Air Pollution for 2012. Geneva: World Health Organization. WHO. (2015, May 21). Global Health Observatory Data Reposi