201 JPJO 5 (2) (2020) 201-208 Jurnal Pendidikan Jasmani dan Olahraga Available online at: https://ejournal.upi.edu/index.php/penjas/article/view/27695 DOI: https://doi.org/10.17509/jpjo.v5i2.27695 Intimidation By Trainers: Reinforcing Martial Athletes to Practice Mustika Fitri 1* , Moch Insan Gumelar 2 1 Prodi Ilmu Keolahragaan, Fakultas Pendidikan Olahraga dan Kesehatan, Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, Indonesia 2 Sekolah Pascasarjana, Fakultas Pendidikan Olahraga dan Kesehatan, Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, Indonesia Article Info Article History : Received July 2020 Revised July 2020 Accepted August 2020 Available online September 2020 Keywords : emotional abuse, intimidation, sport psy- chology Abstract Rough and harsh trainings often occur in sports training, one of which is in the martial arts sport where athletes often receive more intimidations from the trainer than in other sports. Therefore, the aim of this study was to explore the form of intimidations occur in the trainer-athlete relationship as an attempt to increase the training motivation. The method used in this research was a grounded theory approach. Observations and inter- views were conducted to collect data. The result of this study found that intimidation needs to be done by trainers. However, trainers must be able to choose when to intimi- date the athletes and have to understand the athletes’ acceptance whether it has a posi- tive or a negative impact.  Correspondence Address : Jln. Dr. Setiabudhi 229, Bandung, Indonesia E-mail : mustikafitri@upi.edu http://ejournal.upi.edu/index.php/penjas/index 202 Mustika Fitri & Moch Insan Gumelar/ Jurnal Pendidikan Jasmani dan Olahraga 5 (2) (2020) INTRODUCTION Children tend to experience emotional abuse in family and other social contexts (Nearchou, 2018; Mishna et al., 2019). The American Professional Socie- ty on Abuse of Children (1995) agreed that parental behavior such as rejecting, isolating, destroying, terror- izing, lack of affection, lack of protection, and lack of love is psychological abuse in the child's parent rela- tionship (A. E. Stirling & Kerr, 2013). Several studies from various countries examined emotional abuse by teachers in the school environment (Nearchou, 2018). Nearly 53% and 33% of primary school students indi- cated that they have been victims of neglect and emo- tional abuse by their teachers (Theoklitou et al., 2012). 18% of participants reported emotional abuse by teach- ers, who insulted, mocked or pointed at them using em- barrassing labels such as losers, stupid or idiots (G. A. Kerr & Stirling, 2012). Emotional abuse by teachers can be detrimental to children, similar to emotional abuse that occurs in families or from other caregivers (Twemlow & Fonagy, 2005; Finkelhor et al., 2014; Maguire, 2015). Some emotional abuse leaves its mark in several forms, such as lack of confidence, difficulty forming friendships, aggression, drug and alcohol abuse, harm- ful conduct likes suddenly burning things up or acting cruelly to animals, or suicidal tendencies (Manon An- dini et al., 2019) Emotional abuse in adolescents has increased levels of depression, anxiety, and suicidal thoughts (Arseneault et al., 2010; Hong et al., 2015; Khan et al., 2015). In parent-child relationships emo- tional abuse can harm a child's well-being because of its debilitating and lifelong negative developmental effects (Jellen et al., 2001; Artz et al., 2014). All of these psy- chological effects have also been reported as a conse- quence of emotional abuse in parent-child relationships (Iwaniec et al., 2006; Stirling & Kerr, 2013). Likewise, emotional abuse has negative effects on the well-being of athletes, including depression, eating behavior, anxi- ety, and fear of the environment (Battaglia et al., 2017; Kerr et al., 2020). Emotional abuse in an athlete-coach relationship occurs when athletes show a lack of confi- dence in their own abilities (Gervis & Dunn, 2004). Emotional abuse in a coach-athlete relationship has been reported as a common act in a sporting envi- ronment (G. A. Kerr & Stirling, 2008; Mountjoy et al., 2016); and the athletes are reluctant to report such abu- sive experiences (A. E. Stirling & Kerr, 2009). Kirby & Wintrup (2002) report that the emotionally abusive coaching happens to 22% to 25% of competitive ath- letes. Rough coaching is a problem for sports practi- tioners, but many are still powerless to make changes (A. Stirling & Kerr, 2010). Emotionally abusive behav- ior, such as criticism and bullying, tends to be generally accepted in sports culture (A. E. Stirling & Kerr, 2008; Kavanagh et al., 2016). Emotionally dangerous coaching gives the evi- dence that this kind of acts is often accepted for the de- velopment of elite athletes. The trainers and athletes alike interpret such behavior as an important element of athlete development (A. E. Stirling & Kerr, 2013; A. E. Stirling & Kerr, 2014). Trainers explain that they use emotional violence practice partly for instrumental pur- poses, they believe the strategy is effective in motivat- ing athletes to improve their training and performance (A. E. Stirling & Kerr, 2013; Bartholomew et al., 2009). Athletes also reveal that the training strategy help to increase their motivation and direct their coach's interest in seeing them improve (G. Kerr et al., 2014; Smith et al., 2005). Parents of younger athletes are giv- en socialization in advance about the sports culture aimed to accept emotionally abusive training behavior as a practice expected for their children’ development (G. A. Kerr & Stirling, 2012). Crow & Macintosh (2009) defines any potentially embarrassing, degrading, abusive, or dangerous activity to a junior ranked athlete by a more senior teammate is required in order to be accepted as part of a team. This can be defined as a form of intimidation in sports, espe- cially in sports teams consisted of athletes of different ages. Therefore, in team sports there is a huge potential for intimidation from seniors to juniors. In this case, it can happen between the coach and the athletes who are far younger. Referring to the brief explanation above, the pur- pose of this study is to explore the forms of intimidation that occur in the trainer-athlete relationship in increas- ing motivation to train, to find out whether the coach's intimidation is beneficial for the motivation to practice. Copyright © 2020, authors, e-ISSN : 2580-071X , p-ISSN : 2085-6180 203 The psychological impact of emotional abuse on ath- letes The emotions or feelings of athletes need special attention in sports, because athletes' emotions, in addi- tion to influencing psychological aspects (sense and will), also affect the increase or decrease in perfor- mance (Dannis, 2013). Considering several concepts of psychological and physical organic units, the emotional disturbance of the athlete will affect the overall mental state. So that emotional instability will lead to psycho- logical instability, which will affect the role of psycho- logical functions. Eventually, this will affect the ath- lete's performance. Emotional abuse is viewed to have a significant negative effect on athlete's well-being and is associated with a large number of long-term sequelae, including depression, maladaptive eating behavior, anxiety, and social withdrawal (A. E. Stirling & Kerr, 2008; A. E. Stirling & Kerr, 2014). This abusive behavior makes athletes feel stupid, worthless, depressed, insecure, and rejected, highlighting the significant impact of emotion- al abuse on the trainer-athlete relationship (Gervis & Dunn, 2004). In addition, sadness, depression, poor self -esteem, shame, loneliness, and helplessness are com- mon emotions experienced by adolescent victims of emotional abuse (Hutson, 2018). Coach Extrinsic Motivation Consistency on performance is the result of emo- tional consistency. Players who are emotionally unsta- ble during the game will find that their performance is also unstable. The more the players' emotional states rise and fall during the play, the less likely it is that their performance level could be stabilized to the peak. There is a significant relationship between athletes' per- formance and their emotional state on the field. Some emotional states clearly support high levels of con- sistency, while other emotional states have the opposite effect (Groppel & Dinubile, 2009). There are several basic psychological aspects to reach an achievement, namely intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation is voluntarily engaging in sports for pleasure or personal satisfaction, whereas extrinsic motivation, namely the reason for being in- volved in sports for its inherent participational rewards. There are also types of extrinsic motivation that are self -determined, such as individuals involved in a sport because it is their identity, and they also feel important and valued by participating (Hein & Jõesaar, 2015). The peak or maximum performance is directly re- lated to certain emotional states. This emotional state is known as the ideal performance state; the emotional states that lead to the emergence of different physiolog- ical states. Changes in the state of feelings affect the biochemical state of a person which affects critical per- formance variables such as blood pressure, heart rate, muscle tension, body temperature, and others. Changes in the player biochemically refers to the changes in the state of feeling and mental state (mood). These changes can support or, in reverse, damage their ability to reach peak performance (Groppel & Dinubile, 2009). Coach Negative Intimidation to Athletes The emotional coach behavior occurs in three ways. The first is emotionally abusive physical behav- ior, such as acts of aggression in the form of hitting and throwing objects in front of their athletes. Second, ver- bal behavior such as yelling at an athlete or group of athletes, belittling, calling names, and making derogato- ry comments. Third, refusal of attention and support as being ignored by the coach during training (A. E. Stir- ling & Kerr, 2008). Receiving the coach behavior is a psychological threat to some elite young athletes; and screaming, be- littling, threatening, and humiliating are forms of emo- tional abuse experienced in sports, and more violent behavior occurs when athletes reach elite level (Gervis & Dunn, 2004). Emotional abuse of elite child athletes in gymnastics could be in the forms of belittling, humil- iating, shouting, scapegoating, rejecting, isolating, threatening, and ignoring. One athlete described an in- cident of abuse they experienced: “on the first day we had to do a sprint test. I was sick so I didn't make time for it, and the coach yelled at me in front of the whole team I just met that day ”(Male swimmer, 24 years) (A. E. Stirling & Kerr, 2014). The more aggressive the sport, the more aggressive the language and vocabulary the trainer will use. They can yell some profanity words at you and be more aggressive in your face because that's how the game is played too. (Male hockey player, 25) (A. E. Stirling & Kerr, 2014). Copyright © 2020, authors, e-ISSN : 2580-071X , p-ISSN : 2085-6180 Mustika Fitri & Moch Insan Gumelar/ Jurnal Pendidikan Jasmani dan Olahraga 5 (2) (2020) 204 Coach Positive Intimidation to Athletes The factors that affect the motivation of athletes come from the coach, ultimately in training or competi- tion, by giving positive instruction and feedback, prais- ing and giving them choices, or by intimidating, criti- cizing, and controlling them (Amorose & Anderson- Butcher, 2007). This is also in line with some opinions of athletes who feel their coach’s emotional abuse prac- tices are well-intentioned. An athlete revealed that, “My coach would yell at me, but I knew he cared about me. I know that he didn't yell at me just to make me feel like nothing. There are ulterior motives and that makes me the best gymnast I can be”(Female gymnast, 24) (A. E. Stirling & Kerr, 2014). Likewise, some athletes say that their coaches are not always condescending. Although their comments and criticisms were sometimes quite hurtful, the athletes also receive a lot of praise from their coaches, thereby increasing the athlete's belief that the coach's hurtful comments were well-intentioned. As the following athlete put it: "It becomes a kind of trust because this person (the coach) is a source of conde- scension (comment) and praise" (Male hockey player, 23) (A. E. Stirling & Kerr, 2014). And intimidation is also one way to achieve success, as in line with; both athletes and coaches can undertake a rough training as a necessary means of achieving success (A. E. Stirling & Kerr, 2009). METHODS Participants and Research Procedure This research was conducted in Bandung with pur- posive sampling technique, which was aimed at martial arts athletes. This was based on preliminary observa- tions made by researchers that athletes in the martial arts sport were more likely to receive intimidation from their coaches than in the other sports. The sample in this study were martial arts athletes who had won first place in national competitions. There were 4 martial arts athletes willing to be the sample, 3 of which were pencak silat athletes and 1 was judo athlete. Instrument The instruments used were interview and observa- tion. The researchers made a number of questions based on the findings of initial observations, research prob- lems and research sub-problems. Observation allowed the researchers to detect what the subject feels and lives in, thus allowing the researchers to become a source of data. Thus, the presence of researchers directly on the field could provide ample opportunity to collect data that was used as the basis for obtaining accurate data. The interview planning was carried out by compiling an interview guide which contained open-ended questions. The questions were about various aspects related to the research process. Interview sessions were conducted by interviewers who mastered and understood the topic being researched. This aimed to be able to dig deeper information from the respondents interviewed. Data analysis This research used a grounded theory approach. This research approach assumed that knowledge was based on experience, individual interpretation and, un- like other forms of inquiry, did not test hypotheses but rather allowed theory to emerge from athlete's experi- ence (A. E. Stirling & Kerr, 2014). RESULT The results obtained in this study were positive intimidation which had an impact on increasing athlete motivation and negative intimidation which decreased the training motivation of the athletes. 1. Positive intimidation affected on increasing the training motivation of the athletes Positive forms of intimidation that have impact on increasing the training motivation of the athletes includ- ed hitting the palms of the hands with a belt or a broom- stick, slapping, kicking, throwing objects (shoes), push- ing, and pinching. However, though it looked rough, it was very effective in increasing the athlete's focus. Ac- cording to athletes who had been interviewed, slapping was the most impressive form of intimidation that in- creased motivation because it had an impact when com- peting to reduce nervousness and tension. In addition, there was also the feeling of greater fear of the coach than the opponent so whatever happened the athlete would try to win the game. There were those who thought that, at first, they would probably feel hurt be- cause of the intimidation, but in fact they were Copyright © 2020, authors, e-ISSN : 2580-071X , p-ISSN : 2085-6180 Mustika Fitri & Moch Insan Gumelar/ Jurnal Pendidikan Jasmani dan Olahraga 5 (2) (2020) 205 increasingly motivated to become stronger and to prove themselves to the coach. 2. Negative intimidation affected on decreasing the training motivation of the athletes The negative forms of intimidation that had an impact on reducing the training motivation of athletes was verbal intimidation. There was one athlete who admitted to getting negative intimidation reducing his motivation where, according to the athlete, the intimi- dation by the coach on him caused a sense of trauma, because the athlete had received the same treatment by his parents since he was a child. When the trauma had not healed yet, the athlete got the similar treatment from the coach. He was always afraid of going to training and always brought out negative thoughts that made his training motivation decreased. DISCUSSION The purpose of this study is to investigate whether the intimidation from a coach can have a positive im- pact on the motivation to train the athletes. Basically, the coach intends to improve the performance of his athlete; However, it tends to overdo when the athlete finds it hard to perform what the coach is willing to. In the training process, the intimidation from a coach has often been carried out as it remains an important part of Copyright © 2020, authors, e-ISSN : 2580-071X , p-ISSN : 2085-6180 No Question Respondent Answer 1 2 3 4 1. Have you experienced any kind of intimidation that had a positive or negative impact? (Amorose & Anderson-Butcher, 2007; A. E. Stirling & Kerr, 2008) Once experienced positive intimidation Once experienced positive intimidation Once experienced negative intimidation Once experienced intimidation 2. What forms of intimidation have positive and negative impacts? (A. E. Stirling & Kerr, 2014; Gervis & Dunn, 2004) Being slapped, kicked, threw objects (shoes), pushed, pinched. It was all happened because I made a mistake, because I didn't do the right training program, because I lacked enthusiasm, because I didn't want to push myself harder, because I didn't live up to my coach's expectations. Being hit on the palms with belt (sometimes the handle of a broomstick) because I frequently let go of my handgrip when I slammed my opponent The form of intimidation that my coach had done to me was physical verbal abuse. Bing beaten by wood, and mostly with words or sarcasm 3. What forms of positive intimidation are most impressive in increasing training motivation? (A. E. Stirling & Kerr, 2014) Slap. Actually it disrupted me mentally, thus I didn't have a normal life like my school friends. I had to practice and practice every day, there was no day without training. I also rarely socialized and did group work because I had to practice. Because if I left a program I would get scolded and confounded the program my coach had made. However, it has shaped my mentality to become a winner. Hit using a belt to the palm of the hand. A little rough but in my opinion, who had experienced this kind of intimidation. it was quite effective for strengthening my memory and focus. Thus, when I hit the opponent, I didn't let go of their judogi grip. Verbal intimidation. I felt traumatized from the intimidation that the coach gave me. It was also because my parents treated me in the same way when I was younger. I experienced violence from my parents since childhood, and when the trauma was not healed, I got the similar treatment from my coach. I always got scared when I was going to practice because I thought 'who will get it (the intimidation from coach) today?'. so negative thoughts arose. Harsh words or sarcasm. It pumped up the motivation and enthusiasm beyond pain and fatigue. Table 1. The Questionnair e of Coach Intimidation to Athletes to Achieve Tr aining Motivation Mustika Fitri & Moch Insan Gumelar/ Jurnal Pendidikan Jasmani dan Olahraga 5 (2) (2020) 206 the coaching process (A. E. Stirling & Kerr, 2014). Re- spondent 1 said "I understand it as it probably is one of his strategies to train his athletes." Although the athletes were being irritated by the treatment of their coach, they struggled with the belief that the intimidation is essential in the coaching process. The appropriate in- timidation will certainly make the athlete be more moti- vated. However, the most important thing to be consid- ered is the character of the athletes and their situation and condition as well as the appropriate intimidation given by the coach. In addition, the form of intimida- tion will greatly affect athletes who have different char- acters. 1. Positive Intimidation has an impact on increas- ing the training motivation of the athletes. Based on the findings from the interview, positive intimidation performed by the coaches to increase the motivation to athletes are such as slapping, kicking, throwing objects (sandals, shoes), pushing, pinching and even hitting the palms of the hands with a belt, sometimes using a broomstick. From these results, it can be stated that there is the intimidation that has a positive impact on the athletes. These forms of intimi- dation are a few examples of what the coach actually had performed, which the researchers discovered this time. According to the coaches, the method of intimida- tion has several different ways. It happens as the coach- es have their own ways of intimidating their athletes which aim to motivate their athletes (Kowalski, 2017). In short, according to the views of the coach, the intimi- dation is performed by adjusting the character of the athlete. In line with that statement, Mageau & Vallerand (2003) revealed that various strategies carried out by coaches are the efforts to motivate their athletes which will be based on the athlete's quality of experience and athlete's performance. Respondent 2 said "All the coaches' treatment towards me is just to motivate me to improve my experience and quality". Where the coach's orientation towards training is determined by the con- text, behavior and motivation of their athletes affecting the training. 2. Negative Intimidation reduces the training moti- vation of the athlete Apart from the differences in the character of each athlete, there are several other things that make an in- timidation can have a negative impact on the athletes. One of those things is the proper situation and condi- tions to intimidate by a coach. When the conditions suits, the athlete will be more motivated; on the other hand, when the situations and conditions are unappro- priated, performing the athlete a method of intimidation will actually be a boomerang for the athlete. Thus, it can make the athlete be more depressed and impact on the decrease in motivation to train the athlete. It hap- pens as the athlete is unready to receive the intimidation from a coach, even though it aims to motivate him. Therefore, the decision from of a coach in providing appropriate intimidation should be accurate; as a result, the motivation of the athletes will not be impacted (Swigonski et al., 2014; Kelly & Waddington, 2006). Based on the findings, the researchers found that the proper conditions for a coach to intimidate the ath- lete is when the athlete is indeed making mistakes in the training, during the evaluation, and at the time break before the match. This condition is the most appropriate time to provide an intimidation to the athletes. Based on that situation, Amorose & Anderson- Butcher (2007) stated that the coaches are able to influ- ence the motivation of the athletes in training or games by providing positive instructions and feedback, prais- ing and giving them choices, or by intimidating, criti- cizing, and controlling them. CONCLUSION Intimidation needs to be administered by the coach. Coach have to be able to choose when to intimi- date, and the coach must understand whether the ac- ceptance of athletes (towards the intimidation) has posi- tive or negative impact on them. Intimidation by coach does seem harsh both physically and mentally, and it is commonly considered to cause negative impact. How- ever, intimidation does not always indicate something rude and impactful in negative ways. It is as revealed in this research that intimidation by a coach in the forms previously mentioned has a positive impact which Copyright © 2020, authors, e-ISSN : 2580-071X , p-ISSN : 2085-6180 Mustika Fitri & Moch Insan Gumelar/ Jurnal Pendidikan Jasmani dan Olahraga 5 (2) (2020) 207 makes the athletes more motivated in training and com- petition. Therefore, this kind of intimidation is depend- ent on the accuracy of a coach in using methods appro- priate to the athletes to trigger their motivation although by using intimidation. Based on the consideration, basically every athlete does have different characters even though they are in the same kind of sports. Therefore, the method of intim- idation used by a coach should be convenient with the character of the athlete. 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