130 JPJO 7 (2) (2022) 130-139 Jurnal Pendidikan Jasmani dan Olahraga Available online at: ejournal.upi.edu/index.php/penjas/article/view/48817 DOI: https://doi.org/10.17509/jpjo.v7i2.48817 Physical Activity Levels and Social Cognitive Processes among Adolescents Atikah Rahayu, Sumaryanti, Novita Intan Arovah* Department of Sports Science, Faculty of Sports Science, Yogyakarta State University, Indonesia Article Info Article History : Received July 2022 Revised August 2022 Accepted August 2022 Available online September 2022 Keywords : adolescents, outcome expectation, physical activity, self-efficacy, self-regulation Abstract This study aimed to study the correlation between physical activity level and social- cognitive process based on gender among adolescents. This study carried out a cross- sectional survey involving 94 adolescents in the Special Region of Yogyakarta, Indo- nesia (54.3% male, average 14±3 years). Physical activity level was assessed using the Physical Activity Questionnaire-Adolescent Questionnaire (PAQ-A). Social cognitive processes (including self-efficacy, outcome expectation, and self-regulation) were as- sessed using the Self-Efficacy for Exercise, the Multidimensional Outcome Expecta- tions for Exercise, and the Self-Regulation Scales. Mann-Whitney test was used to compare physical activity levels and social-cognitive processes between males and females. Spearman correlation test was used to assess the association between physical activity level and social-cognitive process based on gender. The results of the study indicated no differences in the physical activity levels between male and female ado- lescents. Self-efficacy and outcome expectation did not correlate with physical activity level. In contrast, self-regulation was correlated with physical activity in male (r=0.279, p=0.048) and female (r=0.444, p=0.003) adolescents. The results indicate that self-regulation is the most important social-cognitive process determining physical activity level. For this reason, improving self-regulation skills is vital to promote phys- ical activity levels among adolescents.  Correspondence Address : Jl. Colombo Yogyakarta No.1, Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta 55281 E-mail : novita@uny.ac.id https://ejournal.upi.edu/index.php/penjas/index 131 INTRODUCTION Decreased physical activity levels often occur dur- ing adolescence, leading to energy imbalances and rap- id weight gain (Alberga AS et al., 2012). This condition is concerning, considering that physical inactivity in- creases the risk of noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) (Flodgren GM et al., 2020; WHO, 2019). Moreover, regular physical activity has been confirmed to prevent and manage NCDs (WHO, 2020; Longo M et al., 2019; Geidl W et al., 2020; Murri MB et al., 2020; Pereira MA et al., 2020). Therefore, the global goals in Sustain- able Development Goals (SDGs) also contain an Action Plan on Physical Activity 2018–2030 for reducing the prevalence of physical inactivity in adults and adoles- cents by 15% in 2030 (WHO, 2020). Nevertheless, physical inactivity is still increasing among children and adolescents in the World, as report- ed in studies in Italia (Censi L et al., 2022), Canada (Guthold R et al., 2020), China (Qiu C and Hou M, 2020), United State (Cornelius C, Fedewa A and To- land M, 2020), and Ukraina (Andrieieva O et al., 2019). In addition, World Health Organization (WHO) in 2018 and 2020 showed an increasing trend in the proportion of adolescents with physical activity levels below the recommended levels, which was 70% in 2018 to 81% in 2020 (WHO, 2020; WHO, 2019). The results of basic health research (RISKESDAS) in Indonesia also showed that adolescents who did not achieve 150 minutes of physical activity per week increased from 26.1% in 2013 to 33.5% in 2018. The RISKESDAS also indicated that in the Special Region of Yogyakarta, from 2013 to 2018, there was an increase in physical inactivity of 38.9%. There is also a need to study the correlates of physical activity levels among adolescents to under- stand aspects that many influence physical activity lev- els. Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) is one of the recom- mended theories to be applied, including efforts to in- crease physical activity in adolescents SCT focuses on the reciprocal relationship between humans and their environment. The SCT concepts include self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and self-regulation. Self-efficacy in this context refers to adolescents’ confidence in maintaining physical activity despite barriers. Outcome expectations in this context are defined as the benefits expected by adolescents when conducting the physical activity. Lastly, self-regulation refers to the capability of adolescents to maintain physical activity (e.g., by planning, scheduling, and goal setting) (Keeler HJ and Kaiser MM, 2010; Bagherniya M et al., 2018; (Naami Nazari et al., 2020). To date, information regarding physical activity levels and social cognitive processes such as self- efficacy, outcome expectations, and self-regulation in Indonesia, including in Yogyakarta, is still limited. The assessment of physical activity among adolescents in RISKESDAS was based on the physical activity stand- ard for adults (i.e., 150 minutes of physical activity per week), in contrast to the WHO recommendation of physical activity in children and adolescents (60 minutes of physical activity daily) (WHO, 2020). The RISKESDAS survey also has not used a specific instru- ment for assessing adolescent physical activity, such as the Physical Activity Questionnaire-Adolescent Ques- tionnaire (PAQ-A) (Kowalsk KC, 2004). The levels of physical activity difference in boys and girls have also not been adequately explored in the RISKESDAS. Moreover, the current physical distancing policy due to the COVID-19 pandemic may also have influenced ad- olescents’ physical activity levels (Arovah NI & Hee- sch KC, 2022). Therefore, an appropriate instrument is required to assess physical activity levels among ado- lescents in the pandemic era. Also, social cognitive pre- dictors have been assessed in older adults (Zar’in & Arovah, 2021) and younger adults in Indonesia (Arovah NI, 2022). However, social cognitive predictors among Indonesian school children have not yet been explored. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the level of physical activity with social cognitive processes (self- efficacy, outcome expectations, and self-regulation) among adolescents and compare boys and girls in Yog- yakarta, Indonesia. The results of this study are ex- pected to be used as the basis for developing an inter- vention to increase social-cognitive-based physical ac- tivity in adolescents. METHODS The study design was a cross-sectional study that assessed physical activity levels between boys and girls and their potential correlations (self-efficacy, outcome Copyright © 2022, authors, e-ISSN : 2580-071X , p-ISSN : 2085-6180 Atikah Rahayu et al. / Jurnal Pendidikan Jasmani dan Olahraga 7 (2) (2022) 132 expectations, and self-regulation). Participants and Ethical Consideration The data was collected from April to June 2022 in junior high school students in Yogyakarta aged 13 to 16 years old recruited using purposive sampling with in- clusion criteria for junior high school students, and ex- clusion criteria were the non-completion of the instru- ment. The total population of junior high school stu- dents in Yogyakarta Province was 156 thousand stu- dents. Applying a confidence level of 95% and a confi- dence interval of 10%, a total sample of 94 was re- quired (MacCallum RC, Browne MW and Sugawara HM, 1996). Participants were given written consent and parental consent. The Human Ethics Committee ap- proved the Gadjah Mada University research protocol (Agreement No. KE /FK/1052/EC/2021). Instrument and Procedure The Participants completed a paper-based survey consisting of the Indonesian version of the Activity Questionnaire (PAQ-A) (Rahayu, Sumaryanti and Arovah, 2022), and the Self-Efficacy for Exercise, the Multidimensional Outcome Expectations for Exercise, and the Physical Activity Self-Regulation Scale which were also in Indonesian. The social demographic survey included age, type of schooling (private or public), learning method (online or offline) and parental educa- tion. Based on the stage of adolescence, we categorized the junior high school students intocategorisedly ado- lescence) and 15-16 years (middle adolescence) (O’Loughlin J et al., 2017). Parental education was as- sessed as it is found to be associated with adolescent physical activity (Olivares PR et al., 2015). Body weight and height were also assessed using calibrated instruments following evaluated practice. Physical Activity Questionnaire-Adolescent/PAQ-A Physical activity for adolescents was assessed us- ing the PAQ-A instrument. It includes nine questions about physical activity in the past week. The first ques- tion includes sixteen physical activities that adolescents usually conduct. The second to the seventh questions asked about their physical activity during free time, physical education, lunch, after school, evenings, and weekends. Item eight asks about the frequency of phys- ical activity every day in the last week, while the ninth question compares the physical activity levels to the previous week. For the first eight items, ratings ranged from 1-5, with the higher number indicating a higher level of physical activity. The ratings for item #1 and item #8 are the average responses. The final score of PAQ-A is the average of items #1 to #8. A total score of ‘1’ indi- cates low physical activity levels, while ‘5’ indicates high physical activity. Kowalski et al. (1997) have stated the validity of the PAQ-A by showing a substantial correlation of PAQ-A with different measures of the physical form, including physical activity scores (r =0.73), motion sen- sor caltrac (r=0,33), 7-day physical activity rating (r=0,59). Previous studies also have confirmed the va- lidity and reliability of the PAQ-A instrument in other countries such as Canada (Kowalsk KC, 2004), Eng- land (Aggio D et al., 2016), Poland (Wyszyńska J et al., 2019), Malaysia ( Koh D, Zainudin NH and Zawi MK, 2020), Turkey (Polat EA, Guzel NA and Kafa N, 2021), Ethiopia (Andarge E, Trevethan R and Fikadu T, 2021) and Indonesia C22). Self-Efficacy for Exercise Self-Efficacy was assessed using the Self-Efficacy for Exercise Scale. This instrument consists of nine statements. The statements describe barriers they may encounter with ten response options ranging from 1-10, in which the higher number represents the higher confi- dence in overcoming the barriers. The score was the average response from these nine statements. The validity and reliability of the instrument have been demonstrated in several countries such as Hong Kong (Liang Y et al., 2014), Australia (Hamilton K, Warner LM and Schwarzer R, 2017), China (Ren Z et al., 2020), Greece (Efthymiou V et al., 2022) and Indo- nesia (Arovah NI and Heesch KC, 2022). Multidimensional Outcome Expectations for Exercise The outcome expectation was assessed using the Multidimensional Outcome Expectations for Exercise. This instrument consists of fifteen statements illustrat- Copyright © 2022, authors, e-ISSN : 2580-071X , p-ISSN : 2085-6180 Atikah Rahayu et al. / Jurnal Pendidikan Jasmani dan Olahraga 7 (2) (2022) 133 ing the benefits (physical, social and self-evaluation) they may expect from the exercise. There were five re- sponse options ranging from 1 strongly disagree to 5 strongly agree. The score was the average of the re- sponses from the 15 items. The instrument has been validated in America (Wójcicki TR, White SM and McAuley E, 2009), Iran (Abasi MH, Eslami AA and Rakhshani F, 2015), Iran (Ardestani MS et al., 2016), and Malaysia (Majeed NA, Jabbar MA and Jun XC, 2017) and Indonesia (Arovah NI and KC Heesch, 2022) Physical Activity Self-Regulation Scale Self-regulation was assessed using the Physical Activity Self-Regulation Scale. This instrument consists of twelve statements that include self-monitoring, goal setting, mobilizing social support, time management, and planning (Watanabe et al., 2017. There were five response options ranging from 1 “never’ to 5 ‘often’. The score then was averaged from these 12 responses. The instrument has been validated in studies in New York (Umstattd MRet al., 2009), Spain (Campos- Uscanga et al., 2016), Japan (Watanabe et al., 2017 and Indonesia (Arovah NI and Heesch KC, 2022). Data Analysis Mann Whitneys were used to compare socio- demography, anthropometry, physical activity levels and social cognitive processes between boys and girls. Spearman correlation was used to assess the relation- ship between physical activity and social cognitive pro- cesses, in total and stratified by sex (MacCallum RC, Browne MW and Sugawara HM, 1996). Data were ana- lyzed using SPSS® version 21.0 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA) with a significance level of 0.05. RESULT Table 1 shows no differences in sociodemographic characteristics. However, as expected, boys were signif- icantly taller and heavier than girls. Table 2 further compares physical activity levels in boys and girls. No significant difference in overall physical activity levels was found between boys and girls. Boys, however, were more active during their spare time (p=0.015) and school recess than girls (p=0.018). Table 3 further illustrates the comparison between self-efficacy, outcome expectation and self-regulation between boys and girls. For self-efficacy, no difference was found between boys and girls except for the first item, "the weather was not pleasant", in which girls scored higher (p=0.002). For outcome expectations, boys have a higher score in three items (“Exercise will make it easier for me to get along with other people”, “Sports will give me the opportunity to be with other people (friends) and “Exercise will increase other peo- ple's acceptance of me”). However, no difference was found in the overall outcome expectation and self- regulation score. Finally, Table 4 shows physical activi- ty only correlates with self-regulation in boys (r=0.279, p=0.048) and girls (r=0.444, p=0.003). Copyright © 2022, authors, e-ISSN : 2580-071X , p-ISSN : 2085-6180 Age (years) 14.11 ± 3 14.22 ± 3 13.98 ± 3 13-14 (young teens) ± ± ± <0.001 ± ± ± <0.001 School type Father's Education Level Table 1. Sociodemographic and anthropometric comparisons Atikah Rahayu et al. / Jurnal Pendidikan Jasmani dan Olahraga 7 (2) (2022) 134 Copyright © 2022, authors, e-ISSN : 2580-071X , p-ISSN : 2085-6180 Table 2. Comparison of activity levels between boys and girls ± ± 1.36±0.24 0.015* a. I did not take Physical Education lessons = b. Never = score 2.00 c. Sometimes = score 3.00 d. Often = score 4.00 e. Always = score 5.00 0.018* c. Run/play a little = score 3.00 (0%) a. None = score 1.00 (0%) a. None = score 1.00 a. None = score 1.00 b. 1 time = score 2.00 c. 2-3 times = score 3.00 d. 4-5 times = score 4.00 e. 6 = score 5.00 (0%) a. I rarely/almost never exercise = score 1.00 b. I exercise 1-2x/week = score 2.00 c. I exercise 3-4x/week = score 3.00 5-6x/week = score 4.00 e. I exercise 7x/week = score 5.00 0 (0%) PAQ-A total score 2.23 0.48 2.24 0.53 2.21 0.42 Atikah Rahayu et al. / Jurnal Pendidikan Jasmani dan Olahraga 7 (2) (2022) 135 Copyright © 2022, authors, e-ISSN : 2580-071X , p-ISSN : 2085-6180 Table 3. Comparison of self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and self-regulation of physical activity Physical Activity Self-Efficacy Items Self-Efficacy 0.002* Self-Efficacy total score 3.30 1.57 3.29 1.62 3.30 1.53 0.013* 0.009* 0.043* 3.76 0.79 3.87 0.81 3.62 0.76 2.75 =0.72 2.69 0.70 2.81 0.75 Atikah Rahayu et al. / Jurnal Pendidikan Jasmani dan Olahraga 7 (2) (2022) 136 DISCUSSION The results of this study indicated that the physical activity levels between boys and girls in Yogyakarta were similar. The findings, however, disagree with sev- eral findings from other settings that indicated boys are usually more physically active than girls. As reported by Allafi A et al. (2013), in Kuwaiti, boys spent 3.8 hours per week, and girls spent 2.9 hours per week on average in moderate-intensity physical activity (Allafi A et al., 2014). Similarly, Qiu & Hou (2020) reports that in China, boys spent 1 hour longer per week than girls in being physically active (Qiu C and Hou M, 2020). They report that girls spend more time in seden- tary activities such as reading and studying (Qiu C and Hou M, 2020). The absence of this difference may be due to the difference in the instrument used in these studies. This current study used PAQ-A, which did not specify an exact time (hour and minute), but the level of physical activity ranges from 1 to 5, with a higher score indicat- ing a higher physical activity level. The difference may also be due to the fact that the research was conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic and that some schools were implementing blended and online learning that may limit both boys’ and girls’ opportunities to be physically active, thus, may blunt the possible differ- ences. The limited opportunities to be physically active during the COVID-19 pandemic have also been sug- gested by studies in Canada (Andrieieva O et al., 2019), Ukraine and Hungary (Berki T and Pikó BF, 2021). Similarly, decreased physical activity levels were also reported among adolescents in Indonesia during the pandemic (Arovah NI and Heesch KC, 2022). Howev- er, with the gradual opening of schooling in Indonesia and many parts of the world, a follow-up study is re- quired to confirm the findings of this current study. The results of the study show that there were no differences in overall self-efficacy, outcome expecta- tion and self-regulation between boys and girls. Girls, however, reported higher self-efficacy scores in an item related to weather. To some extent, the results of this study are in line with the research in the United States, indicating that girls reported higher self-efficacy and fewer barriers to physical activity (Dishman RK et al., 2005). In this study, there were also no differences be- tween male and female adolescents for the overall out- come expectations except for the items related to social standing. It appears that boys perceived the social bene- fits of being physically active more than girls. This is in line with a study by Moore et al. (2020) in Canada, sug- gesting a higher outcome expectation in boys than girls (Moore et al., 2020). (Roshita A et al., 2021) indicate that boys are motivated to be physically active to in- crease interaction with other people (Roshita A et al., 2021). This current study also did not find a difference in self-regulation in physical activity between boys and girls. The results of this research align with a study by Copyright © 2022, authors, e-ISSN : 2580-071X , p-ISSN : 2085-6180 Table 4. Correlation between physical activity, self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and self-regulation in boys and girls by (n=94) Self-efficacy Self-efficacy 0.373* 0.382* Self-efficacy 0.316* 0.279* 0.504* Self-efficacy 0.444* Atikah Rahayu et al. / Jurnal Pendidikan Jasmani dan Olahraga 7 (2) (2022) 137 Gellert P et al. (2012) in Germany that indicated the same levels of self-regulation between boys and girls (Gellert P et al., 2012). This study indicated that physical activity was positively correlated with self-regulation but not with outcome expectations and self-efficacy. To some ex- tent, it is in line with the research by Watanabe et al. (2017) in Japan and research by Ross SET et al. (2013) and Gaylis et al. (2020) in the United States (Watanabe et al., 2017; Ross SET et al., 2013; Gaylis JB, Levy SS and Hong MY, 2020). In addition, Gaylis et al. (2020) reported that adolescents with good self-regulation re- port greater physical activity (Gaylis JB, Levy SS and Hong MY, 2020). However, the findings of this current study may need to be confirmed. According to Lee & Yoo (2018) and Harbowo et al. (2018), lack of physical activity in adolescents needs to be addressed immediately (Lee EY and Yoon KH, 2018); (Harbuwono DS et al., 2018). efforts that can be made to increase physical activity have not reached the recommendations and improve their behaviour, includ- ing by promoting health education in schools (Gråstén, 2016). To increase its effectiveness, health education programs in schools need to be developed based on be- havioural change theories, including SCT, particularly by increasing self-regulation skills such as goal setting, planning and scheduling and self-monitoring (Keeler HJ and Kaiser MM, 2010; Kassie AM et al., 2020). The main strength of our study is that we have used a validated instrument for assessing the outcome of interests (i.e., physical activity level and social cog- nitive processes). However, several limitations need to be acknowledged. First, we conducted the survey dur- ing the COVID-19 pandemic, in which some schools still employed online or blended learning modes. There- fore, students or adolescents may not have adequate opportunities to become physically active. Secondly, this study was conducted in modest sample size, con- strained by limited resources. Further research, there- fore, is required to confirm this finding, particularly with the adolescents and school transition into full of- fline learning mode. CONCLUSION Based There is no difference in the overall level of physical activity, self-efficacy, outcome expectation and self-regulation between boys and girls. Further- more, there is no relationship between the level of phys- ical activity with self-efficacy and outcome experience. On the other hand, adolescents with higher self- regulation tend to have higher physical activity levels. Therefore, improving social regulation skills such as self-monitoring, goal setting, mobilizing social support and time management and planning is essential to pro- mote physical activity levels among adolescents (girls and boys). The results of this study can be used as a basis for developing the level of physical activity in adolescents. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The The authors thank the DRPM Dikti (Directorate of Research and Community Service) of the Directorate General of Higher Education for spon- soring this research in the PDD (Doctoral Dissertation Research) scheme. CONFLICT OF INTEREST The authors declared no conflict of interest. REFERENCES Allafi, A., Al-Haifi, A. R., Al-Fayez, M. A., Al-Athari, B. I., Al-Ajmi, F. A., Al-Hazzaa, H. M., Musaiger, A. 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