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Supplement to Koedoe. 
1977: 230-242. 

MARINE CONSERVATION IN THE REPUBLIC OF 
SOUTH AFRICA WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO 
MARINE PARKS AND RESERVES 

G A ROBINSON 

Park Warden: Tsitsikama Forest and Coastal National Parks 
P a Storms River 
6308 

Introduction 

Conservation in the Republic of South Africa (RSA) is dominated by big 
game and terrestrial reserves. Protecting these, have been in existence 
for many years. Recently Man has turned his attention more and more 
to the sea and due to adverse effects of pollution, over-exploitation and 
habitat destruction the marine environment is threatened. However, 
conservationists have learnt lessons about both terrestrial and marine 
ecosystem-destruction and are now demanding with increasing persis-
tence the establishment of marine parks and reserves. It is therefore not 
surprising that the IUCN's marine conservation programme, is to be 
given special emphasis during the two-year period, 1977 and 1978. With 
the establishment of a ministerial committee to investigate marine parks 
and reserves South Africa has not lagged behind. The committee's 
objectives are to promote marine conservation by the probable estab-
lishment of a system of marine parks and reserves. 

The RSA has an exceptionally long and beautiful coastline 
(2 961 km). Its west coast is lapped by the cold Benguela Current which 
originates in the Antarctic and supports one of the most productive 
fisheries in the world. On the east coast the shores are bathed by a 
current which arises in the Indian ocean, the warm Agulhas Current, 
and gives a tropical flavour to the marine life along this coast. The 
intermediate region or "South Coast" lies between these two spheres of 
influences and has representatives of both warm water and cold water 
communities living side by side (Fig. 1). A wide spectrum of marine 
fauna and flora is therefore, encountered along the shores of South 
Africa. 

Marine Conservation in the past 

"Conservation" means the wise use of resources. In a sense, Man has 
conserved (used) the biological resources of the sea since prehistoric 

230 



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Fig. 1. EXISTING MARINE PARKS AND RESERVES IN SOUTH AFRICA 

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times. The normandic aborigines of the "South Coast", the Strandlop-
ers, lived predominantly off the coast for thousands of years (Goodwin 
1946). At first he collected mainly shellfish, as seen from the numerous 
Strandloper middens found along the coast, but he later built enclosures 
in the tidal zone in which he trapped fish. The enclosure is a stone wall 
built to such a height that the high tides will cover the enclosed area 
allowing fish to swim into it. As the tide recede, the fish were trapped 
and caught by hand. These aborigines probably conserved the marine 
resource more intelligently than our modern "civilized" society is 
apparently doing - he lived in harmony with his environment. 

The value of the marine resources has in more recent times been 
recognised and the need for conservation fully appreciated. Biological 
and environmental research has been conducted by the Government in 
order to rationally exploit the fishery resources for many years. The 
regulatory agency in the earlier days was known as the Fisheries and 
Marine Biological Survey and was directed by Dr J F Gilchrist. Later 
this conservation agency became the Division of Sea Fisheries and has 
recently become the Sea Fisheries Branch. This Branch is responsible for 
regulating and conserving the exploitation of all marine biological 
resources with maximum sustainable yield as objective. The South 
African fishing industry is dominated by the pelagic west-coast fishery 
and the trawl fishery, but has also a valuable rock lobster fishery. It is, 
therefore, understandable that most of the research effort has been 
directed towards the species supporting these fisheries. Regulatory 
measures have been imposed on by the Branch to conserve the 
resources. These include the mesh-size of nets, gear to be used or not 
used, size limits, bag limits , closed seasons, quotas and sanctuaries. 
These sanctuaries were proclaimed to protect species such as rock 
lobsters , oysters and sea-horses. The Sea Fisheries Branch employs a 
large staff of inspectors at a considerable expense to enforce thes e 
regulations. This entails the inspection of catches, the hounding of rock 
lobster poachers and patrolling (both sea and land) of the sanctuaries. 

Marine Conservation at present 

In the past marine conservation went through two phases . The first, 
when man lived in harmony with the sea, he used the marine resources 
and they were conserved. But there was very little " intelligent" exploita-
tion done. The second phase of marine conservation was the rational 
exploitation on a maximum sustainable yield basis. Here man used his 
intelligence to devise in some cases sophisticated, mathematical models 
whereby regulating his harvest. 

Marine conservation implies the wise use of the marine resources and 
by this it does not only imply use in terms of human consumption. Wise 
use must also incorporate aesthetic and recreation values. The estab-

232 



lishment of marine parks and reserves is then the third phase of marine 
conserva tion. 

Participants at the First World Conference on National Parks in 
Seattle Washington, in 1962, after discussing underwater preservation, 
passed Resolution No. 15 that stated: 

"Whereas it is recognized that the oceans and their teeming life are 
subject to the same dangers of human interference and destruction 
as the land, that the sea and land are ecologically independent and 
indivisible, that population pressures will cause man to turn 
increasingly to the sea, and especially to the underwater scene, for 
recreation and spiritual refreshment, and that the preservation of 
unspoiled marine habitat is urgently needed for ethical and esthetic 
reasons, for the protection of rare species, for the replenishment of 
stocks and valuable food species, and for the provision of undis-
turbed area for scientific research. 

The First World Conference on National Parks invites the 
governments of all those countries having marine frontiers, and 
other appropriate agencies, to examine as a matter of urgency the 
possibility of creating marine parks or reserves to defend underwa-
ter areas of special significance from all forms of human interference 
and further recommends the extension of existing national parks 
and equivalent reserves with shorelines, into the water to the ten 
fathom depth or the territorial limit or some other appropriate 
off-shore boundary." 

This recommendation gave considerable momentum to the third phase 
of marine conservation and the establishment of several parks and 
reserves in various parts of the world resulted. During more recen t years 
meetings such as the Second World Conference on National Parks in 
1972, the International Conference on Marine Parks and Reserves in 
Tokyo 1975 and the 12th General Assembly of the IUCN, held in Zaire 
1975, have greatly emphasized the need for marine conservation and 
manne reserves. 

Three out of 12 general resolutions passed at Kinshasa, Zaire in 
September 1975 by the general assembly related to marine conservation 
read as follows: 

Resolution number 2 

Calls on governments to establish marine parks and reserves of sufficient 
area to protect the vulnerable features of vulnerable marine habitats; 
and 
Recommends to governments with terrestrial parks or reserves adjoining 
coastal areas of value for nature conservation that they extend the 
boundaries of those parks to include a marine component. 

233 



Resolution number 3 

Recommends that areas as large as possible of sea-grass, coral reefs and 
mangroves be set aside as reserves for research and the protection oflife. 
Urges the coastal states with such habitats within their jurisdiction to 
evolve a policy to maintain their continued health and stability, and urges 
the research and monitoring programmes in such areas be strengthened 
or initiated to establish guidelines for their management. 

Resolution number 4 

Requests governments to take urgent steps to protect and manage key 
areas, large enough to form viable ecological limits, containing man-
groves, salt marshes and related wet-lands together with adjacent 
estuarine waters as reserves for the preservation of these ecosystems and 
the species for which they provide habitat. 

From the above it is transparently clear that internationally there is a 
growing concern regarding the state of the marine environment. There is 
a restless feeling amongst conservationists - time is running out. 

Threats to Marine Resources 

Why the haste to establish marine parks and reserves? The reason is that 
many marine species and habitats are today threatened . This is due to 
man's irrational approach to the conservation of these natural resources. 
We are all, by and large, fond of the coast but the sea or ocean appeals to 
but a few of us. Of these few, fewer still appreciate it as an environment. 
The ocean is valued asa resource to be exploited and misused. But let us 
look at the causes that threaten our marine environment. Foremost in 
most marine situations is pollution. From the earliest times, man has 
used the sea as a dum.ping place for his refuse. It was generally accepted 
to be a "bottomless pit". When our waste was still mostly organic 
matter, this dumping was of little consequence but now, with inorganic 
chemicals, pesticides, and radio-active wastes, they are not easily 
disposed of. There are some that become extremely concentrated in 
filter-feeding animals such as bivalves. Oysters are known to store 
contaminants in their tissues at concentrations 70 000 times greater than 
in their surrounding water. Although these animals may themselves be 
in a healthy condition they can be lethal to animals feeding on them. 

When one speaks of pollution, sewage and oil spillage is usually 
thought of. Pollution is not always unsightly, sticky or smelly. Nuclear 
power stations for instance pump heated effluent into the sea which can 
and do disrupt the marine environment. 

Secondly, over-exploitation of these resources by fishermen can cause 
serious problems. I t is hardly necessary to repeat the tragic history of the 
exploitation of the whales (Chapman 197 I) to illustrate the illogical 

234 



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way in which man has over-killed one species after another (Fig. 2). 
Fortunately species are only exploited until it becomes uneconomical to 
harvest them, they are then left alone. U nfortuna tely they have to then 
fend for themselves in what probably is an unstable environment. 

Thirdly, development of coastal towns, roads, industries and resorts 
have devastating abilities of not only shrinking the available natural 
coastal environment, but also to change the surrounding areas. 

Lastly, there is the relentless destruction caused by uncontrolled 
tourist activities. These include spear-fishing, shell-collecting, bait-
collecting and collection of living specimens. These activities which 
together, even if they do not exterminate or endanger entire species, may 
yet cause serious ecological disruptions. Marine turtles are endangered 
through over-harvest of adults and unlimited collection of eggs and the 
loss or reduction of suitable nesting areas by the activities of man 
(Hughes 1976). 

Purposes of Marine Parks and Reserves 

An area managed along sound ecological principles is highly significant 
for man's ultimate understanding of the dynamics of a particular 
ecosystem. Therefore, an area protected solely for the reason of preserv-
ing it in its pristine condition, is relevant to the study of the natural 
processes, and to the protection of endangered species and habitats from 
man's parturbations. R eserves have, however, four main purposes, 
depending on th eir use (Pollard 1976): 

(i) the conservational purpose of marine reserves would imply a 
sanctuary for the preservation of a commercially exploited species 
or the protection of a habitat; 

(ii) the scientific purpose of marine reserves would be to protect an area 
in its pristine condition as a reference area or to monitor a 
disturbed area or manipulate it in order to gain an understanding 
of the ecosystem; 

(iii) the educational purpose of a marine reserve would be the interpreta-
tion of the ecology of the area to both students and the general 
public to instill a general appreciation for the marine conservation; 

(iv) the recreational purpose of marine reserves, if managed along sound 
ecological lines, would not include the entire spectrum of man's 
enjoyment possibilities . It would only include his more passive 
recreational activities such as snorkelling, underwater photo-
graphy, animal watching (birds, whales, dolphins, fish and inver-
trebrates), or aesthetic values. 

Existing Marine Parks and Reserves 

The RSA can only boast with three marine reserves in the sense that 
they are protected for aesthetic, educational and recreational purposes 

236 



(Fig. 1) . Only one of these is spacious enough to have been proclaimed a 
marine national park. 

The Tsitsikama Coastal National Park is a 67 km stretch of shoreline, 
mainly rocky, but has a few sandy beaches and numerous riverlets 
running into the sea. Proclaimed in 1964, this unspoiled rugged coast is 
administered by the National Parks Board of Trustees (Robinson 1969). 
It is situated along the south coast and therefore has a wide spectrum of 
marine life covering warm tropical and subtropical Indo-Pacific and 
cold Atlantic and sub-Antarctic species. The park extends 0,8 km out 
into the sea and everything is protected including flotsam and jetsam, 
dead trees, pebbles and rocks . Controlled angling is, however, allowed at 
specific well demarcated places. The objectives for this park are: 

(i) the conservation of a south coast marine environment in its pristine 
state; 

(ii) research on an ecosystem orientated basis; and 
(iii) marine ecology interpretation and education. 

The park is zoned and only half of the coastline is accessible to the 
public for recreational purposes in the form of hiking, birdwatching, 
botanising and snorkelling. 

The H F Verwoerd Reserve is a small sanctuary close to Cape Town. 
Although only two kilometres in length, it represents the west coast limit 
of the south coast , supporting a fine example of a kelp-bed community 
with huge macrophytes, rock lobsters and perlemoen. The sanctuary is 
administered by a local authority in co-operation with the Sea Fisheries 
Branch (Heydorn and Hughes 1969). All marine life, both flora and 
fauna is protected with the exception that controlled angling is allowed. 

The Sardinia Bay Marine R eserve, situated on the eastern limit of the south 
coast near Port Elizabeth. The sanctuary protects only the marine fauna 
and does not allow fishing of any kind along its fiv e kilometre shoreline 
(Grindley 1974). It is important in that it supplements the Tsitsikama 
National Park in having good representation of the more tropical and 
sub-tropical south coast species. 

The point to stress here is that only the south coast is represented in 
the above three reserves. 

Apart from the above "true" reserves the Sea Fisheries Branch has 
created an entire system of sanctuaries and protected areas in order to 
manage the commercially important species. There are exceptions to 
this as in the case of the Knysna Sea-horse Hippocampus capensis. This 
system is rather involved and Table 1 is hopefully sufficient to indicate 
what this protection entails. 

237 



TABLE 1 
Existing Marine Reserves and Protected Areas 

I. National Marine Parks 
Tsitsikama Coastal 

National Park 

2. Nature Marine Reserves 
i Sardinia Bay Reserve 

ii H.F. Verwoerd Reserve 

(Bet ty ' s Bay) 

iii Buffalo Bay and 

Ro b berg Reserves 

iv Knysna lagoon 

3. Guano Islands 
(Government permits re-

quired for admission.) 

4. Commercial Fish Reserves 

i SI. Helena Bay, 

Saldanha Bay, Table 

Bay and Luderlitz Bay 

ii Pal grave Point to 

Kunene River (S.W.A.) 

iii Algoa Bay 

(Hougham Park) 

Protected organisms 

All Marine life (Flora and 

fauna) controlled angling 

is permi tted in a few 

specified areas. 

All marine fish (" fish" 

includes all marine fauna) 

Marine life excluding 

angling fish 

Bait organisms 

Seahorses, pipefish and 

seaweeds 

All marine life and sea-

birds, although seals & 

guano are exploi ted. 

Rock Lobsters 

Pelagic fish 

Oysters 

5. Areas Closed for specific Fishing Gear 
i All commercial gear Perle moen (a belone) 

ii All ncts All fish 

iii All nets 

iv All nets 

v Ncts except purse 

seInes 

vi Purse Seine nets 

vii Trawl nets 

(Bottom/Mid water) 

viii Gill nets 

(Set/Drift/Staked) 

Sharks 

Yellowtail 

All fish 

Mull e t and pelagic fish 

West Coast rock lobsters 

All fish 

Number of 

Areas 

2 

40 

(including 

islands off 

S.W.A. Coast) 

4 

1 

5 

2 
3 

9 

Combined 

Coastline 

nautical 

miles 

36 

5 

2 

12 

6 

40 

47 

220 

0,2 

20 
36 

200 
130 

II 

115 

163 

645 

6. Remarks About sixty species or specific groups of organisms are protected partially or entirely. 
Completely protected organisms include seafans, dolphins, and six different whale 

species. 

(Information mainly from De Villiers, pers. comm.) 

238 



Proposed Marine Parks and Reserves 

Marine National Parks 

As previously stated the RSA has three distinct coasts, only one of which 
is represented by the Tsitsikama Coastal National Park. It is therefore 
desirable that a spacious stretch of coastline be set aside to represent 
each of the other two coasts. 

A Namaqualand Marine National Park, if proclaimed, would represent the 
cold Benguela current system of the west coast. It should be situated 
between the Orange River Mouth in the north and the Olifants River in 
the south. Hopefully the entire coastline could be proclaimed as such. 
Where private property is adjacent to this coast, the terrestrial boundary 
will obviously be the high water mark. The coast is dominated by dune 
and sandveld but representatives of rocky shore and kelp-bed areas 
should also be included . 

A Tongaland Marine National Park has been proposed as a marine reserve 
by many biologists (Heydorn and Hughes 1969, Grindley 1975) and 
every effort should be made to establish it as such. It is probably the 
most beautiful coast along South Africa. Besides preserving the east-
coast in its pristine condition, the nesting area of turtles could be 
protected (Hughes 1976). 

A de Hoop Marine National Park would represent a unique example of the 
Cape Shores (including its weathered sandstone shores, fish species as 
well as relevant Cape macchia. As such a likewise addition would imply 
an excellent contribution to the spectrum of National Parks). 

In addition to these, five islands should also be given national status. 

A Dassen Island National Park which would represent an excellent example 
of a west-coast island system with both a rich avi-fauna as well as a rich 
inter- and subtidal fauna. 

A Dyer Island National Park would represent a south-coast island envi-
ronment with a unique variety of birds visiting the island. 

A Seal Island National Park, a small rocky out-crop with a healthy Cape 
fur-seal Arctocephalus pusillus population situated in Mossel Bay. 

A Bird Island National Park (Algoa Bay) A 25 ha island in Algoa Bay 
supporting a population of some 50 000 gannets Sula capensis. 

The Marion National Park (Antarctic). If proclaimed it would protect an 
unique environment. Ecosystem research would be fundamental to its 
management. 

239 



N 

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Fig. 3. PROPOSED MARINE PARKS AND RESERVES IN SOUTH AFRICA 

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910 

1 Namaqualand Marine National Park 
2 Olifants Ri ver Estuary 
3 Verlorenvlei Estuary 
4 Langebaan Lagoon and Saldanha Bay tslands 
5 Dassen Island National Park 
6 Bokbaai Coast 
7 Robben Island 
8 Cape Point Coast 
9 Dyer Island National Park 

10 Quoin Point Coast 
11 De Hoop Marine National Park 
12 Seal Island National Park 
13 Goukamma Coast 
14 Knysna Western Head 
15 Noetsie Coast 
16 St Croix Island 
17 Bird Island National Park 
18 Trafalgar - Impanjati Coast 
19 Umdoni Park 
20 Peace Cottage 
21 Jex Estate 
22 Umlalazi - Inyoni Coast 
23 Leven Point Coast 
24 Tongaland Marine National Park 

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Provincial Marine Parks and Reserves 

The following list are proposed marine reserves and if established will 
afford endangered marine species and habitats better protection. (This 
list endorses the list by Grindley 1975). 

(a) West Coast (See Fig. 3) 
Olifants River Estuary, 
Verlorenvlei Estuary, 
Langebaan Lagoon and Saldanha Bay Islands, 
Bokbaai coast, 
Robben Island and 
Cape Point coast 

(b) South Coast 
Quoin point coast, 
Goukamma coast, 
Knysna Western Head, 
Noetsie coast (Eastern Knysna Head to Robberg) and 
St. Croix Island 

(c) East Coast 
(The Ciskei and Transkei coasts have been omitted) 
Trafalgar-Impanjate coast, 
Umdoni Park, 
Peace cottage, 
Jex estate, 
Umlalazi-Inyone coast and 
Leven Point coast. 

Conclusion 

If the RSA is to protect its marine environment from the adverse effects 
of pollution, over-exploitation and habitat destruction, drastic action is 
needed. The establishment of marine parks and reserves can no longer 
wait. It is urgent that they be proclaimed immediately. 

South Africa has been a leader in terrestrial nature conservation since 
the establishment of the Kruger National Park. Let us prove that we are 
not only sympathetic towards marine nature conservation but also 
develop a rational and practical system for the protection of the marine 
environment for future generations. 

241 



REFERENCES 

CHAPMAN, D G 1971. Estimation of Population Parameters of Antarctic Baleen 
Whales. Quantitative Science Paper No . 22. University of Washington. Mineograph. 

GOODWIN, A] H 1946. Prehistoric Fishing Methods in South Africa . Antiquity 20: 
134-141. 

GRINDLEY, ] R 1974. The establishment of the Sardinia Bay Marine Reserve. E. Cape 
Naturalist 54: 2-4 

GRINDLEY, ] R 1975. The Need for the establishment of marine reserves in South 
Africa. Proceedings if the Council for the Habitat Symposium on Coastal Conservation. 
Durban. April. 

HEYDORN, A E F, and G R HUGHES. 1969. Urgent Need for more Marine Reserves. 
Afr. Wildl. 23 (3):270-278 

HUGHES, G R 1976. Sea Turtles in South East Africa . Proceedings if a symposium on 
Endangered Wildlife in Southern Africa . University of Pretoria (81-87). Mineograph. 

POLLARD, D A 1976. International Conference on Marine Parks and Reserves, Tokyo, 
May 1975. Australian Marine Science Bulletin 52: 7-11. 

ROBINSON, G A 1969. The Tsitsikama Coastal National Park, South Africa. Bioi. Cons. 
2 (I): 72-73. 

242 


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