Swanepoel.qxd Community involvement in the development of an environmental edu- cation programme: the Tswaing meteorite crater conservation area as a case study C.H. SWANEPOEL, C.P. LOUBSER and E.M.J.C. SCHALLER Swanepoel, C.H., C.P. Loubser and E.M.J.C. Schaller. 2004. Community involvement in the development of an environmental education programme: the Tswaing meteorite crater conservation area as a case study. Koedoe 47(1): 115–123. Pretoria. ISSN 0075- 6458. A key requirement for the relevance of applied research in education is its actual impact on society. A case study was undertaken to determine how research insights could be implemented by involving a local community in the design and implementation of envi- ronmental education programmes in their environment. The Tswaing Meteorite Crater conservation area project was undertaken with the active participation of teachers, learners and education officers from the communities living around Tswaing, as well as subject specialists. Issues which should be considered in the development of similar programmes were also highlighted. Key words: environmental education, community development, community involve- ment, rural development, environmental management, environmental ownership, preservation and utilisation, social sustainability. C.H. Swanepoel, Institute for Educational Research, University of South Africa, P.O. Box 392, Unisa, 0003, South Africa; C.P. Loubser, Department of Further Teacher Edu- cation, University of South Africa; E.M.J.C. Schaller, Research fellow, Institute for Edu- cational Research, University of South Africa. ISSN 0075-6458 115 Koedoe 47/2 (2004) Introduction An issue which has often emerged and will probably always surface when research, especially in the human and social sciences, is the subject of discussion, is the way that research results are utilised for the benefit of human existence. This also applies to research regarding environmental education. An enormous expansion of knowledge con- cerning environmental education has occurred (Mosidi 1999). Moreover, environ- mental education literature tends to be loaded with noble statements such as ‘A concern for the state of the environment and a looming environmental crisis [has] resulted in educa- tors starting to teach with the environment as a focus’ (Mosidi 1999) and ‘it can be accept- ed that education had to move beyond teach- ing in and about the environment’ (Viljoen 1993) to ‘include education for the environ- ment’ (Fien 1993; Huckle 1991). In other words, knowledge, skills and attitudes must be simultaneously addressed in order to increase the community’s awareness of the environment, to initiate actions to protect the environment in its totality and to achieve sus- tainable development within communities (Stevenson 1993; Republic of South Africa 1998). However, it is doubtful whether these ideals are actually realised in the daily life of citizens. Sustainability Education in Euro- pean Primary Schools (SEEPS 1998) has, for example, pointed out that environmental education has failed in many cases and that the environmental crisis has worsened. If the success of the implementation of envi- ronmental education is being questioned, then environmental educators should ask themselves what has been done with the knowledge and expertise gained in the past through international and local investiga- tions. A further question deals with how this Swanepoel.qxd 2004/10/05 11:30 Page 115 knowledge and expertise can be imparted successfully to communities of various age groups, contexts and cultures. In this regard, Smyth (1995) mentioned that environmental education calls for increased participation by communities in the management and devel- opment of the environment. In South Africa, society and the government are putting increasing pressure on environmental educa- tors to transform this information into viable programmes within their respective commu- nities or places of work (Republic of South Africa 1995; Neluvhalani & Mphaphuli 2000). Therefore, as stated in the White Paper for Education and Training, there is an urgent need for all groups to become involved in the design, planning and imple- mentation of environmental education pro- grammes and projects (Republic of South Africa 1998). With reference to the aforementioned expo- sition, the following research question was formulated: How can environmental education knowl- edge be implemented by involving a local community in the planning and design of its own environmental education programmes and what are the important issues in this regard? Method The aim of the research was to address the research problem by conducting a case study in a particular local community. This was done by identifying a community (the cluster of communities living around the Tswaing Meteorite Crater in Soshanguve) and a specific environmental opportunity which could be utilised in the development of environmen- tal education programmes; providing the community with an opportunity to become involved in develop- ing outcomes-specific programmes for learners; and helping the community to discover the totality of their environment. Identifying a community There is no clear-cut definition for the term commu- nity. Many definitions are structured in an ecologi- cal sense and refer to animal communities, plant communities, etc. Defining the notion of ‘human’ communities is different and the specific definition depends on the context of a community. Khan (1994) gives an example in which a community was defined as the poor black people in an area in the United States of America and indicated that this group could also be a subgroup of other communities: town, Koedoe 47/2 (2004) 116 ISSN 0075-6458 Fig.1. Tswaing Meteorite Crater's location in South Africa. country, state, black people, poor people and so forth. People tend to live differently in similar environments and differently at different times in the same environment (Bird 1989). It is, therefore, important for the researcher, facilitator and/or the community worker to define the target communi- ty. Once this has been done, such a person should be prepared to work with all the members/role players in the community (Khan 1994). For the purpose of this research, the communities living around the Tswaing Meteorite Crater con- servation area in Soshanguve were identified as the target community and are referred to as the Tswaing community. This community comprises areas of Winterveld, Soshanguve and Hamman- skraal. Although these areas belong to the same larger geographic area and are characterised by poor living conditions, the inhabitants are diverse in the sense that they speak several different South African languages (English, Afrikaans, isiZulu, isiXhosa, SeSotho, SeTswana, etc.), each with its own cultural identity. The name Soshanguve, for example, originated from the language groups Swanepoel.qxd 2004/10/05 11:30 Page 116 Sotho, Shangaan, Nguni and Venda. In this area, the environment and the use of natural resources and agriculture play an important role and influences the way of life. Many communities depend only on the environment for their existence. The houses are built from materials derived from the environment, food is obtained from the environment and the inhabitants work as farmers in the immediate environment. This relationship with the environment has been the topic of many projects. Furthermore, it has been estab- lished that poverty remains an alarming factor in other developing countries where this kind of rela- tionship is dominant (Loubser 1998). Therefore, the Tswaing Meteorite Crater conservation area was identified with the aim of establishing how the envi- ronment could be utilised to the benefit of the sur- rounding communities. The research reported in this particular article focussed on adults and schools within communities in the larger Tswaing Meteorite Crater environment. Identifying an environmental opportunity The second phase in the research process was to identify an environmental opportunity which could be utilised in the development of environmental edu- cation programmes. The Tswaing Meteorite Crater conservation area was identified as suitable for this purpose. The Crater is a young, well-preserved impact crater within a largely uniform geological setting. It is of considerable international interest as a focus of future scientific research, as the sediment in the crater has a 160 000 year record of climatic and environmental change (Partridge 1993). It is a unique environmental phenomenon since the well- preserved Crater is the only example of a lake occu- pying a meteorite impact crater in Southern Africa. Zooplankton and fish are prevented from colonising the lake because of nocturnal deoxygenation. The few species of invertebrates found in the lake (nema- tode worms and brine flies) are confined to the sur- face. Several species of waders and water-fowl are found around the edges of the lake. A single species of salt-tolerant sedge grows in and along the low- salinity feeder stream from the artesian spring. Tswaing is situated in an ecological region known as the sourish-mixed bushveld. For many years this ecological system had a bad reputation for its poor agricultural potential, mainly due to the great varia- tion in the palatability of grass types and the occur- rence of toxic plants. The result was that areas with more palatable grasses and less toxic plants were inevitably overgrazed. Overgrazing and the elimina- tion of the tastier grass types increased the occur- rence of more sour and less palatable grasses (http://www.nfi.org.za/Tswaing). The surroundings around Tswaing were probably periodically inhabited by early Stone Age people 500 000 years ago. At Tswaing stone artefacts from the Late Stone Age, brought there by the ancestors of the San (Bushman) people who lived from 30 000 to 2 000 years ago, have been found. The first farmers using iron implements, ancestors of the present indigenous people, migrated to South Africa about 1 750 years ago. The migration by Iron Age commu- nities to the South African highveld (where Tswaing is located) took place in more recent times, about 800 to 900 years ago. Shards from decorated clay vessels, found on the crater floor, indicate that the latter were early Sotho- or Tswana-speaking commu- nities, known as the Moloko. Similar pot fragments have been found in the Waterberg mountain range, about 60 km north of Tswaing. Soon after the depar- ture of the Matebele in the early 1830s, the Tswaing area was claimed by another group of settlers, the Voortrekkers. They were white Afrikaner farmers, who had emigrated from the Eastern Cape region to the present-day Kwazulu-Natal and the interior. The Voortrekkers regarded the land abandoned by the Matabele, whom they eventually defeated in 1837, as land available for permanent colonial settlement. In the 1850s these farmers divided the region north of the Magaliesberg into huge farms. The Crater became the centre of one such farm, aptly named Zoutpan (Dutch for salt pan). During the 1890s, when Zoutpan was surveyed properly for the first time, its northeastern quarter became a separate farm, named Uitspan (outspan, or resting-place). During the 19th century, Tswaing was one of the main sources of natural salt for the region north of Pretoria, which was established in 1855 as the capi- tal of the Transvaal Boer Republic. Because of its economic importance, Zoutpan became state proper- ty in 1876 (http://www.nfi.org.za/Tswaing). More lately the Crater has been developed as an enviro-museum, the first of its kind in South Africa (Moolman & De Jongh 1995). A trail was also pre- viously developed in the Crater with the aim of affording tourists the opportunity to explore it. The environmental education potential of Tswaing Mete- orite Crater lies in its potential as a popular environ- mental education community resource centre provid- ing opportunities for recreation and environmental education. It could also generate revenue for the local community through tourism (De Jong 1995). To do justice, however, to the ideal of ‘for the peo- ple, by the people’, community participation and empowerment are key elements in the development and management of the Tswaing Meteorite Crater opportunity (De Jong 1995). ISSN 0075-6458 117 Koedoe 47/2 (2004) Swanepoel.qxd 2004/10/05 11:30 Page 117 Identifying an environmental education pro- gramme The Tswaing Meteorite Crater trail provides an opportunity to involve diverse communities living around the Crater in the development of relevant environmental education programmes. It was pro- posed that contextualised and relevant environmen- tal education could be presented to suit the educa- tional, social, economical, cultural, physical and political environments of the community in which it would operate. This could be done by the develop- ment of an environmental education programme, based on the Crater trail, which could be used by teachers, environmental education officers and tour guides. The development of the aforementioned programme would provide the community with an opportunity to become involved in developing outcomes-specific programmes for learners. This entails incorporating personal experience, participatory and discovery activities to enable the community to experience the Tswaing Meteorite Crater environment in its multi- plicity, not only as a natural resource to be utilised, but also to be nurtured and developed responsibly and sustainably. An attempt would also be made to provide opportunities for learners and the communi- ty to broaden their sense of understanding and appre- ciation of the broader environment in which a unique natural resource, like Tswaing Meteorite Crater, exists. Results Situation analysis When one considers getting a local commu- nity involved in a joint venture, it is impor- tant to ascertain how the community chooses to define participation, because this will determine which level of participation will satisfy the environmental education goals of the programme. It is necessary, therefore, to learn more about the community concerned beforehand. According to Swanepoel (1989), existing obstacles concerning community development, such as illiteracy, customs and traditions, dependency and apathy could be encountered. Swanepoel (1989) further states that the very reason for community development acts as an obstacle to success- ful projects. The poverty of the people and their lack of self-sufficiency and self- reliance make it very difficult to involve them in development efforts. The following aspects were considered as general guidelines during the situation analy- sis: - The first decision of a person who wants to work in a community is to decide how and when to enter the community. The first entrance into a community may be the last opportunity to gain its trust. Ini- tial mistakes might influence the researcher, facilitator or community worker permanently. - Most community workers do not have a specific choice of community because they work for an organisation. They should, therefore, work extensively at establishing their own acceptability in the community and the image of their organisation. - If the community worker has a choice of community, the strategy of approaching the community should be carefully planned beforehand. - It is useful if the community worker has some existing link with the community. It is also extremely helpful to stay in the community itself. - It is valuable for community workers to choose their own initial contacts, but sometimes the organisation they work for prescribes these contacts. - Community development can be a learn- ing process only if people really partici- pate (Swanepoel 1989). - The community must be made aware of the exact purpose of the project: Which needs should be addressed and who should address them? Community contact at Tswaing had already been established through community forums and meetings. These structures were operat- ing functionally and positively and the envi- ronmental education project could make use of them rather than attempting to establish new links and associations with the commu- nities. Using these structures, the communi- ty was made aware of the purpose of the pro- ject, ascertaining their role in the project and Koedoe 47/2 (2004) 118 ISSN 0075-6458 Swanepoel.qxd 2004/10/05 11:30 Page 118 the needs it would attempt to address. Direct participants of the community included forum members, tour guides, teachers and learners, Tswaing Museum staff and con- struction workers from the local community. The broader "community" was indirectly involved through the utilisation of Tswaing facilities and programmes. After having made contact with the commu- nity, the next most important step was to assess the community structures. It was nec- essary to obtain both abstract and physical information. Abstract information included aspects such as the attitudes, beliefs, reli- gion, habits and culture of the community. Physical structures included the population size, housing facilities, job opportunities, school facilities, transport, etc. Swanepoel (1989) also regards the determining of fami- ly ties in the community as a very important step, because the family is a basic social structure (abstract structure) in communities. The researchers had to be aware of some of the subtleties of the abstract structures such as political positions to enable them to be fexible. It was useful to be familiar with physical structures to determine which role the researcher could play in the improvement of the community’s physical needs. Implementation of initial environmental education project The environmental education project at Tswaing Meteorite Crater was carried out in two main phases and was part of a larger pro- ject conducted by the former National Cul- tural History Museum. The initial project (co-ordinated by an independent researcher) comprised two elements, namely a teacher’s guide and tourist guides. The teacher’s guide was compiled to give the teacher ade- quate information about Tswaing Meteorite Crater which had been obtained from previ- ous research reports and articles. It included instructions on how to use the guide, details of the trail and possible activities that could be carried out along a specific section. These included preliminary- and follow-up activities. It also contained safety hints, materials needed for the activities, tech- niques that could be used on the trail, exam- ples of worksheets and lists of fauna and flora found in the vicinity of the Crater. Teachers could select activities from the teacher’s guide and design their own pro- grammes for their learners. In conjunction with the compilation of the teacher’s guide, a programme was structured and tour guides from the local communities were trained to assist the teacher in facilitating the school groups during the programme. This created jobs for the local communities, which is one of the main purposes of a community pro- ject. To ensure that both abstract and physical information had been included in the manu- al, the development of the teacher’s guide and the training of the tour guides were done in close consultation with the parents, teach- ers and learners from the communities, as well as subject specialists. These consulta- tions were done through regular forum meet- ings and training sessions at Tswaing. Local inputs shaped both the training phase of the tour guides and the development of the teacher’s guide. Three trial groups of learn- ers (grades 1 to 6; 7 to 9; and 10 to 12) tra- versed the trail assisted by the tour guides. It became clear from this exercise that identifi- able results of group dynamics come into play and cultural and language differences become significant influencing factors. Dif- ferent environmental features had different meanings to different groups. The different language groups used different names for the same object and had a variety of folk stories to tell about certain objects. These were incorporated into the project. This exercise helped to enrich the project by lending an indigenous flavour and helped to incorporate abstract information. To cope with groups that could represent up to nine different lan- guage groups, individuals in a group were used as interpreters. It became evident from the pilot group that adaptations had to be made regarding walking distance, time spent on activities and making activities suitable for the different grades. After having made all the necessary changes to the project, it was launched in 1996. ISSN 0075-6458 119 Koedoe 47/2 (2004) Swanepoel.qxd 2004/10/05 11:30 Page 119 A major local community issue soon emerged, namely that 300 learners of differ- ent age groups from surrounding schools arrived at Tswaing Meteorite Crater conser- vation area unprepared for the programmes they were about to experience. These groups had no set outcomes or selected activities. Thus, it was very difficult for the limited number of Tswaing staff who only had basic environmental education skills, to accommo- date these groups effectively. This had to be taken into consideration during the next phase of the research. Implementation of second phase of environ- mental education project At the end of 1996 a more structured approach to the project was adopted. The project manager approached an environmen- tal education specialist from the University of South Africa middle 1997 to set up a team of environmental educationists who could help with extending the environmental edu- cation programmes at Tswaing Meteorite Crater conservation area. This was subse- quently done and representatives from the University of South Africa, Vista University, the South African College for Teacher Edu- cation and staff of the former National Cul- tural History Museum met to start the process. It was emphasised that: - all the communities living around the Crater should be consulted and included in the development of the extended pro- grammes; - all programmes should adhere to the new outcomes-based education system; - the crater should form the focal point of the programmes; - the entire education system should be covered (all the phases and learning areas); and - the programmes would operate along the trail. A chairperson for the educational committee was elected at a subsequent meeting and commissioned to proceed with the develop- ment of programmes. The educational com- mittee was extended to include other role players such as the Gauteng Department of Nature Conservation, teachers from commu- nities around Tswaing, as well as communi- ty members. The committee explored the trail at Tswaing Meteorite Crater twice. Sixteen special features concerning the trail were identified and grouped together into 10 stations. This was further defined into six possible programmes that could be conduct- ed along sections of the longer trail. Small teams, including teachers from local schools and community members, worked on the development of these programmes, keeping in mind the different phases and learning areas of the new outcomes-based curricu- lum, adaptability and exchangeability. More- over, guides had to be trained to facilitate the programmes. A pilot run of the 57 activities in the six pro- grammes was carried out over four days. On day one the activities were piloted for the foundation phase (grades 1 to 3), day two for the intermediate phase (grades 4 to 6), day three for the senior phase (grades 7 to 9) and day four for grades 10 to 12 which form part of the further education phase of the Nation- al Qualifications Framework. The learners who were used had been invited from schools in the local area, together with their teachers, to ensure that the target community assisted in shaping the programme and establishing a true learning process. The teachers were included to ensure an element of certainty in the groups and to facilitate communication. This piloting exercise was experienced posi- tively by the learners, as well as the teachers. However, it took a while for both groups to become comfortable with the programme presenters, because they were unfamiliar with the people, methods and approaches utilised. However, the pilot groups settled down after a while. The programme devel- opers also learned a great deal and further principles emerged which had to be kept in mind when developing an environmental education programme for a specific commu- nity and environment. It became clear that: Koedoe 47/2 (2004) 120 ISSN 0075-6458 Swanepoel.qxd 2004/10/05 11:30 Page 120 - the teachers and learners were not famil- iar with the concept environmental edu- cation; - the background knowledge of the teach- ers and learners were not what the envi- ronmental education programme devel- opers had assumed it to be; - language and terminology differences existed; - time was a crucial factor; - the mastering of specific skills required repetition; - the environment was perceived mainly as physical; and - cross-curricular activities were foreign to them. These points merely serve to reinforce the necessity of doing research and consulting with the community in question prior to developing programmes. Projects need to be contextualised socially, politically, cultural- ly, educationally and economically within the environment in which the project is to be conducted. This result was no different from the first phase of the project, but the project developers still redesigned their activities to try and accommodate the above-mentioned aspects. These revised activities have been incorporated into a publication which is cur- rently used by the environmental education officer at Tswaing to facilitate different school groups regarding environmental edu- cation. Issues emerging from the case study The Tswaing environmental education pro- ject was a case study of an attempt to put environmental education research into prac- tice by involving local communities in developing environmental education pro- grammes in their environment. It was found that in the development of similar pro- grammes a number of issues have to be con- sidered, namely, the target audience (com- munity) of the programme, the training of tour guides, educational officers and teach- ers, the development of specific stations and the writing of the teacher’s guide. Regarding the target audience, it is essen- tial to: - keep in mind the way in which the target audience interprets the local and broader environment because of indigenous abstract information which is not known to the developer; - use the local community in as many aspects of the programme development as possible in order to ensure that the people participate in the development of the direction and context of the pro- gramme; - use the local community to help con- struct the buildings and structures neces- sary for the project, thus contributing to the well-being of the community; to tell stories recorded on tape and to act as tour guides, and so be involved and be part of the action; - keep in mind the indigenous background knowledge of the community; - keep in mind the local community’s understanding of environmental educa- tion; - develop pre-visit activities for the pro- gramme users to familiarise them with the purpose of the programme and to obtain information from them which could influence the progress of the pro- gramme; - develop follow-up activities for pro- gramme users to help the developer to assess the success of the activity; and - keep in mind language and terminology differences and to incorporate these into the programme. The abovementioned principles correspond with the supporting objectives of Goal 5 of the White Paper on Environmental Manage- ment (Republic of South Africa 1998). The facet of training is important for pre- venting possible misunderstandings between the developer and the community. Possible strategies are to: - train project developers about the cus- toms, traditions, fears and literacy levels of the local community in which they are about to work; ISSN 0075-6458 121 Koedoe 47/2 (2004) Swanepoel.qxd 2004/10/05 11:30 Page 121 - train local tour guides/educational offi- cers to help facilitate programmes; - train local teachers how to use pro- grammes; - train staff to understand environmental education and its underlying principles; - provide training in outcomes-based edu- cation for teachers and tour guides/edu- cational officers; - provide extensive background informa- tion rather than limited information; and - use community leaders to assist with training in order to localise and contextu- alise the programme. If stations or special features are a facet of a project, the following points should be con- sidered: - Use members from the local community to do construction work and to build tool- boxes and equipment needed at the sta- tions. This assists the community in par- ticipating actively in the project and pro- vides them with a welcome income. - Use the stations which are relevant to the teachers’ requests/outcomes. - Keep safety aspects in mind. - Incorporate local information, for exam- ple use local persons to tell stories, incorporating local customs and tradi- tions. - Give stations locally-accepted and under- stood names rather than number features, as this creates an indigenous and familiar environment. - Use only one feature rather than too many. - Provide facilities such as water, recycling and toilet points to meet the physical needs of the community. If a teacher’s guide forms part of a project, the following aspects should be considered: - use people from the local community to assist with compiling activities and thus eliminate possible biased interpretations; - incorporate local interpretation(s) and terminology into the activities; - allow for freedom of interpretation and flexibility when programmes are used by different groups/communities. Conclusion According to Makumbe (1996), Robinson & Shallcross (1998) and Pausewang et al. (1990), there is a definite need for develop- ment in communities in developing coun- tries. Knowledge gained from work in these communities could inform more developed countries on issues such as who should par- ticipate in programme development, and to which extent. The Tswaing Meteorite Crater case study shed light on this particular state- ment because of the participation of a diverse group of role players from the local area (teachers, learners, community leaders and other individuals) and the surrounding environment (universities and the former National Culture History Museum). During the Tswaing environmental educa- tion project, research insights were put into practice with success to a large extent. It would, however, need to be assessed whether the local communities have benefited through the environmental education pro- grammes in the long term and whether these benefits can actually sustain the Tswaing environment, thus satisfying conservation, educational and developmental objectives. Through the Tswaing research project and its unique physical environment and mixture of diverse communities, certain principles were identified from the two development phases for community-based environmental educa- tion programmes which could accomplish the abovementioned. It is envisaged that these principles can be applied to similar programmes in other communities. To understand the society or community one is working with, one needs to understand the space or environment in which the commu- nity operates (Bird 1989). However, it is important to realise that these principles are flexible and should be adapted to the specif- ic environment and communities where they are being implemented, to make environ- mental education programmes sufficient and beneficial to the community. Koedoe 47/2 (2004) 122 ISSN 0075-6458 Swanepoel.qxd 2004/10/05 11:30 Page 122 Acknowledgements The former National Cultural History Museum is acknowledged for making this project possible. The settlements in and around Tswaing Meteorite Crater are thanked for their participation in the project and their contribution to this article. References BIRD, J. 1989. The Changing Worlds of Geography: A critical guide to concepts and methods. Oxford: Claredon Press. DE JONG, R.C. 1995. The Tswaing Crater Museum. Pretoria: National Cultural Historical Museum. FIEN, J. 1993. Education for sustainable living: An international perspective on environmental edu- cation. Southern African Journal for Environ- mental Education 7:20. http://www.nfi.org.za/Tswaing. http://www.nfi.org.za/Tswaing/map.htm. HUCKLE, J. 1991. Education for sustainability: Assessing pathways to the future. Australian Journal of Environmental Education 7:43–62. KHAN, S. 1994. How people get power. Washington: NASW Press. LOUBSER, C.P. 1998. Empowering rural communities through environmental education and research: Draft report. Pretoria: University of South Africa. MAKUMBE, J.M. 1996. Participatory development. The case of Zimbabwe. Harare: University of Zimbabwe Publications. MOOLMAN, H.J. & R.C. DE JONGH. 1995. Final report of the research project on: The contribution of SITE Museums to the conservation and the interpretation of the environment with special reference to the Tswaing Crater Museum. Inter- nal report. National Cultural History Museum. Pretoria. MOSIDI, S.M. 1999. Environmental education in cur- riculum 2005: A case study in the Northern Cape. Johannesburg: Rand Afrikaans University. NELVHALANI, E. & S. MPHAPHULI. 2000. Environ- mental Educators Networking for Professional Development: A case study of the Northern Province, Far North Region. Case study 4. Edu- cating for Social Change. Case studies of chang- ing practices in South African Tertiary Institu- tions, Australian Institutional Links Programme. PARTRIDGE, T. 1993. Environmental data relative to the establishment of a museum at the Pretoria Salt Pan. Pretoria: National Cultural Historical Museum library. (Ta17.) PAUSEWANG, S., F. CHERU, S. BRUNE & E. CHOLE. 1990. Ethiopia. Rural Development Options. London: Zed Books Ltd. REPUBLIC OF SOUTH AFRICA. 1995. White Paper for Education and Training. Pretoria: Department of Education, Government Printer. REPUBLIC OF SOUTH AFRICA. 1998. White Paper on Environmental Management. Pretoria: Depart- ment of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Government Printer. 395(18894). ROBINSON, J. & T. SHALLCROSS. 1998. The socio- ecological crisis and education for sustainable living: Is an essentialist’s standpoint possible? Pp. 23-28. In: LAUBSCHER, C.P. Proceedings of the International Best of Both Worlds Confer- ence at Dikhololo, Brits, September 1998. Preto- ria: University of South Africa. SUSTAINABILITY EDUCATION IN EUROPEAN PRIMARY SCHOOLS. 1998. Creating a better environment in our school. Edinburgh: Moray House Insti- tute. SMYTHE, J.C. 1995. Environment and education: a view of a changing scene. Environmental Edu- cation Research 1(1):3–20. STEVENSON, R.B. 1993. Becoming compatible: cur- riculum and environmental thought. Journal of Environmental Education 24(2):4–9. SWANEPOEL, H. 1989. Community development. Putting plans into action. Cape Town: Juta . VILJOEN, H.J. 1993. Environmental education and open spaces. Parke en Rekreasiebestuur 51(4): 22–24. ISSN 0075-6458 123 Koedoe 47/2 (2004) Swanepoel.qxd 2004/10/05 11:30 Page 123